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diff --git a/22107.txt b/22107.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6744d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/22107.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5565 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Wood-Carving + Design and Workmanship + +Author: George Jack + +Editor: W. R. Lethaby + +Release Date: July 19, 2007 [EBook #22107] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD-CARVING *** + + + + +Produced by Ross Wilburn, Suzanne Shell and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. +LETHABY + +WOOD-CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF +TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS. + +Edited by W. R. LETHABY. + + +The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic +arts. It will consist of authoritative statements by experts in every +field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the whole +sphere of the so-called "dependent arts." + + + BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, + Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120 + Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype + reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net; postage, 12 cents + additional. + + SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in + Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page + Illustrations. 12mo. $1.40 net; postage, 12 cents additional. + + WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings + by the Author and other Illustrations. + + +_In Preparation_: + +CABINET-MAKING AND DESIGNING. By C. SPOONER. + +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. + +[Illustration: A SUGGESTION FROM NATURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY. +See page 197.] + +WOOD-CARVING +DESIGN AND +WORKMANSHIP +BY GEORGE JACK +WITH +DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR +AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS + + + +NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1903 + +COPYRIGHT, 1903, +BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + +_All rights reserved_ + +_Published October, 1903_ + +EDITOR'S PREFACE + + +In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic +Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims. + +In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of +workshop practise, from the points of view of experts who have +critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside +vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set +up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially +associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design +itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During the last century +most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were +little considered, and there was a tendency to look on "design" as a +mere matter of _appearance_. Such "ornamentation" as there was was +usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by +an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in +production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by Ruskin +and Morris, it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design +from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an +inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection +of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert +workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and +indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine +workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when +separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from +design--inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, +divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into +affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language +addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of +the tool. + +In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship +before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would +gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the +competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent can +fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic +craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would +pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and +design would reach a measure of success. + +In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to +deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary +routine of hack labor as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art. +It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be +brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of +us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be +given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. + + * * * * * + +This third volume of our series treats of one branch of the great art of +sculpture, one which in the past has been in close association with +architecture. It is, well, therefore, that besides dealing thoroughly, +as it does, with the craftsmanship of wood-carving, it should also be +concerned with the theory of design, and with the subject-matter which +the artist should select to carve. + +Such considerations should be helpful to all who are interested in the +ornamental arts. Indeed, the present book contains some of the best +suggestions as to architectural ornamentation under modern circumstances +known to me. Architects can not forever go on plastering buildings over +with trade copies of ancient artistic thinking, and they and the public +must some day realize that it is not mere shapes, but only _thoughts_, +which will make reasonable the enormous labor spent on the decoration of +buildings. Mere structure will always justify itself, and architects who +can not obtain living ornamentation will do well to fall back on +structure well fitted for its purpose, and as finely finished as may be +without carvings and other adornments. It would be better still if +architects would make the demand for a more intellectual code of +ornament than we have been accustomed to for so long. + +On the side of the carver, either in wood or in stone, we want men who +will give us their own thought in their own work--as artists, that +is--and will not be content to be mere hacks supplying imitations of all +styles to order. + +On the teaching of wood-carving I should like to say a word, as I have +watched the course of instruction in many schools. It is desirable that +classes should be provided with casts and photographs of good examples, +such as Mr. Jack speaks of, varying from rough choppings up to minute +and exquisite work, but all having the breath of life about them. There +should also be a good supply of illustrations and photographs of birds +and beasts and flowers, and above all, some branches and buds of real +leafage. Then I would set the student of design in wood-carving to make +_variations_ of such examples according to his own skill and liking. If +he and the teacher could be got to clear their minds of ideas of +"style," and to take some example simply because they liked it, and to +adapt it just because it amused them, the mystery of design would be +nearly solved. Most design will always be the making of one thing like +another, with a difference. Later, motives from Nature should be brought +in, but always with some guidance as to treatment, from an example known +to be fine. I would say, for instance, "Do a panel like this, only let +it be oak foliage instead of vine, and get a thrush or a parrot out of +the bird book." + +In regard to the application of carving, I have been oppressed by the +accumulation in carving classes of little carved squares and oblongs, +having no relation to anything that, in an ordinary way, is carved. To +carve the humblest real thing, were it but a real toy for a child, would +be better than the production of these panels, or of the artificial +trivialities which our minds instinctively associate with bazaars. + + +W. R. LETHABY. + +_September, 1903._ + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + + +TO THE READER, + +Be you 'prentice or student, or what is still better, both in one, I +introduce the following pages to you with this explanation: that all +theoretical opinions set forth therein are the outcome of many years of +patient sifting and balancing of delicate questions, and these have with +myself long since passed out of the category of mere "opinions" into +that of settled convictions. With regard to the practical matter of +"technique," it lies very much with yourself to determine the degree of +perfection to which you may attain. This depends greatly upon the amount +of application which you may be willing or able to devote to its +practise. + +Remember--the laws which govern all good art must be known before they +can be obeyed; they are subtle, but unalterable. The conditions most +favorable to your craft must first be understood before these laws can +be recognized. There yet remains at your own disposal that devotion of +energy which is the first essential step, both in the direction of +obtaining clearer views and in conquering technical difficulties. + +I have to thank the following gentlemen for their assistance in +providing photographs for some of the illustrations: Messrs. Bedford +Lemere & Co.--H. Sandland--Charles C. Winmill--W. Weir--J. R. Holliday +and F. K. Rives. + +G. J. + +_September, 1903._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + +Editor's Preface 7 + +Author's Preface 15 + + +CHAPTER I + +PREAMBLE + +Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of Work--Necessity +for Some Equality between Theory and Practise--The Student's +Opportunity lies on the Side of Design 25 + + +CHAPTER II + +TOOLS + +Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for +Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition +by Degrees 31 + + +CHAPTER III + +SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH + +Different Stones in Use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet +Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips 42 + + +CHAPTER IV + +WOODS USED FOR CARVING + +Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages +of Pine and English Oak 48 + + +CHAPTER V + +SHARPENING THE TOOLS + +The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad +Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing +Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools 52 + + +CHAPTER VI + +"CHIP" CARVING + +Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic +Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Patience +and Precision--Technical Methods 63 + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD + +Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in Grounding--Description +of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of Tools, Danger of +Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting 69 + + +CHAPTER VIII + +IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS + +Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative +Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a +Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional" 82 + + +CHAPTER IX + +ROUNDED FORMS + +Necessity for every Carver Making his own Designs--Method +of Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground 88 + + +CHAPTER X + +THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND + +Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern +and Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval +Choice of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern 96 + + +CHAPTER XI + +CONTOURS OF SURFACE + +Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing +About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds 103 + + +CHAPTER XII + +ORIGINALITY + +Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An +Unwholesome Kind of "Originality" 108 + + +CHAPTER XIII + +PIERCED PATTERNS + +Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling +and Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns 110 + + +CHAPTER XIV + +HARDWOOD CARVING + +Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on +Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner +Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form, +and Simple in Character--Methods of Carving Grapes 115 + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE SKETCH-BOOK + +Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be approached +with Caution.--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of +Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies 137 + + +CHAPTER XVI + +MUSEUMS + +False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment +as Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records +of Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time 149 + + +CHAPTER XVII + +STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE + +Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise +Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character 153 + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CARVING ON FURNITURE + +Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of +Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is +Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures 161 + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING + +Misproportion Not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The +Sham Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to +the Carver 180 + + +CHAPTER XX + +STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS + +The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality better than Dull +"Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for Town-Bred +Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline Drawing and +Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies, Sections, and +Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use and Abuse 191 + + +CHAPTER XXI + +FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF + +Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused +Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses 205 + + +CHAPTER XXII + +UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK + +Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and Abuse--"Built-up" +Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work 214 + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE + +The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial +Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible +in a Limited Way 219 + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +ARCHITECTURAL CARVING + +The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of +Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance +of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the Carver--Carpenters' +Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too Far 223 + + +CHAPTER XXV + +SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE + +Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture +Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling 234 + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT + +The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy +Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing +Variety of Choice 240 + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN +BUILDER AND CARVER + +The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence: Sculpture +an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the so-called +"Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival of the +Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time; their +Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent +upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer" +and "Executant" 249 + + +NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 265 + +THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 271 + +INDEX 305 + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + Page +A Suggestion from Nature and Photography Frontispiece +FIG. 1. 37 +FIG. 2. 37 +FIG. 3. 39 +FIG. 4. 43 +FIG. 5. 46 +FIG. 6. 46 +FIG. 7. 47 +FIG. 8. A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD + B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD 52 +FIG. 9. C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE + D. BADLY FORMED EDGE. 54 +FIG. 10. 58 +FIG. 11. 61 +FIG. 12. 68 +FIG. 13. 74 +FIG. 14. 74 +FIG. 15. 78 +FIG. 16. 88 +FIG. 17. 91 +FIG. 18. 94 +FIG. 19. 94 +FIG. 20. 96 +FIG. 21. 100 +FIG. 22. 103 +FIG. 23. 105 +FIG. 24. 111 +FIG. 25. 113 +FIG. 26. 113 +FIG. 27. 116 +FIG. 28. 119 +FIG. 29. 120 +FIG. 30. 120 +FIG. 31. 120 +FIG. 32. 123 +FIG. 33. 123 +FIG. 34. CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33 126 +FIG. 35. 127 +FIG. 36. 127 +FIG. 37. 131 +FIG. 38. 131 +FIG. 39. _a._ 131 +FIG. 39. _b._ 131 +FIG. 40. 133 +FIG. 41. 133 +FIG. 42. 135 +FIG. 43. 135 +FIG. 44. 137 +FIG. 45. 137 +FIG. 46. 139 +FIG. 47. 145 +FIG. 48. 145 +FIG. 49. 145 +FIG. 50. 145 +FIG. 51. 145 +FIG. 52. 145 +FIG. 53. 151 +FIG. 54. 166 +FIG. 55. 166 +FIG. 56. 168 +FIG. 57. 170 +FIG. 58. 174 +FIG. 59. 174 +FIG. 60. 176 +FIG. 61. 179 +FIG. 62. 179 +FIG. 63. 183 +FIG. 64. 187 +FIG. 65. 187 +FIG. 66. 190 +FIG. 67. 190 +FIG. 68. 199 +FIG. 69. 199 +FIG. 70. 202 +FIG. 71. 208 +FIG. 72. 209 +FIG. 73. 209 +FIG. 74. 213 +FIG. 75. 229 +FIG. 76. 229 +FIG. 77. 229 + +THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 271 +I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral. + +II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury Cathedral. + +III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk. + +IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk. + +V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold. + +VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold. + +VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By Phillip Webb. + +VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy." +(only carved portion shown.) + +IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy." +(only carved portion shown.) + +X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox." +(only carved portions shown.) + +XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester Cathedral. + +XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester Cathedral. + +XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk. + +XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb. +One executed, one in drawing. + +XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak. + +XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church, Somersetshire. + + + + +PREAMBLE + + + Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of + Work--Necessity for some Equality between + Theory and Practise--The Student's Opportunity + lies on the Side of Design. + + +The study of some form of handicraft has of late years become an +important element in the training of an art student. It is with the +object of assisting such with practical directions, as well as +suggesting to more practised carvers considerations of design and +treatment, that the present volume has been written. The art of +wood-carving, however, lends itself to literary demonstration only in a +very limited way, more especially in the condensed form of a text-book, +which must be looked upon merely as a temporary guide, of use only until +such time as practise and study shall have strengthened the judgment of +the student, and enabled him to assimilate the many and involved +principles which underlie the development of his craft. + +If the beginner has mastered to some extent the initial difficulties of +the draftsman, and has a fair general knowledge of the laws of design, +but no acquaintance with their application to the art of wood-carving, +then the two factors which will most immediately affect his progress +(apart from natural aptitude) are his opportunities for practise, and +his knowledge of past and present conditions of work. No one can become +a good carver without considerable practise--constant, if the best +results are to be looked for. Just as truly, without some knowledge of +past and existing conditions of practise, none may hope to escape the +danger of becoming, on the one hand, dull imitators of the superficial +qualities of old work; or on the other, followers of the first +will-o'-the-wisp novelty which presents itself to their fancy. + +If use of the tools and knowledge of materials were the only subjects of +which a carver need become master, there would be no way equal to the +old-fashioned one of apprenticeship to some good craftsman. Daily +practise with the tools insures a manual dexterity with which no amateur +need hope to compete. Many traditional expedients are handed down in +this way that can be acquired in no other. There is, however, another +side of the question to be considered, of quite as much importance as +the practical one of handicraft skill. The art of wood-carving has also +to fulfil its intellectual function, as an interpreter of the dreams and +fancies of imagination. In this respect there is little encouragement to +be looked for in the dull routine of a modern workshop. + +There are, therefore, two widely separated standpoints from which the +art may be viewed. It may be looked at from the position of a regular +craftsman, who regards it primarily as his means of livelihood; or it +may be dealt with as a subject of intellectual interest, based upon its +relation to the laws of art in general. As, in the first instance, the +use of the tools can not be learned without _some_ accompanying +knowledge of the laws of art, however slight that acquaintance may be, +the method of apprenticeship has the advantage of being the more +practical of the two; but it must be accepted with all the conditions +imposed upon it by the pressure of commercial interest and its usages: +conditions, which, it may easily be imagined, are far more favorable to +the performance of dull task-work, than to the adventurous spirit of +curiosity which should prompt the enterprise of an energetic student. + +On the other hand, although an independent study of the art offers a +wider range of interest, the student is, for that very reason, exposed +to the risk of involving himself in a labyrinth of confusing and +ineffectual theories. The fact is, that neither method can at the +present time be exclusively depended upon as a means of development; +neither can be pronounced complete in itself nor independent of the +other. The only sure safeguard against the vagueness of theory is +constant practise with the tools; while, to the craftsman in the full +enjoyment of every means for exercising and increasing his technical +skill, a general study and intelligent conception of the wide +possibilities of his art is just as essential, if it were only as an +antidote to the influence of an otherwise mechanical employment. The +more closely these contradictory views are made to approximate, the +more certain will become the carver's aims, and the clearer will be his +understanding of the difficulties which surround his path, enabling him +to choose that which is practicable and intrinsically valuable, both as +regards the theory and practise of his art. + +If the student, through lack of opportunities for practise, is debarred +from all chance of acquiring that expertness which accompanies great +technical skill, he may at least find encouragement in the fact that he +can never exhaust the interest afforded by his art in its infinite +suggestion to the imagination and fancy; and also that by the exercise +of diligence, and a determination to succeed, he may reasonably hope to +gain such a degree of proficiency with the tools as will enable him to +execute with his hands every idea which has a definite existence in his +mind. Generally speaking, it will be found that his manual powers are +always a little in advance of his perceptions. + +Thus the student may gradually work out for himself a natural and +reliable manner of expressing his thoughts, and in a way, too, that is +likely to compensate for his technical shortcomings, by exciting a more +lively interest in the resources of the art itself. The measure of his +success will be determined partly by his innate capacity for the work, +and partly by the amount of time which he is enabled to give to its +practise. The resources of his art offer an infinite scope for the +exercise of his powers of design, and as this is the side which lies +nearest to his opportunities it should be the one which receives his +most earnest attention, not merely as experiments on paper, but as +exercises carried out to the best of his ability with the tools. Such +technical difficulties as he may encounter in the process will gradually +disappear with practise. There is also encouragement in the thought that +wood-carving is an art which makes no immediate calls upon that +mysterious combination of extraordinary gifts labeled "genius," but is +rather one which demands tribute from the bright and happy inspirations +of a normally healthy mind. There is, in this direction, quite a life's +work for any enthusiast who aims at finding the bearings of his own +small but precious gift, and in making it intelligible to others; while, +at the same time, keeping himself free from the many confusions and +affectations which surround him in the endeavor. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +TOOLS + + + Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for + Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition + by Degrees. + + +We will suppose that the student is anxious to make a practical +commencement to his studies. The first consideration will be to procure +a set of tools, and we propose in this place to describe those which +will answer the purposes of a beginner, as well as to look generally at +others in common use among craftsmen. + +The tools used by carvers consist for the most part of chisels and +gouges of different shapes and sizes. The number of tools required by +professional carvers for one piece of work varies in proportion to the +elaborateness of the carving to be done. They may use from half a dozen +on simple work up to twenty or thirty for the more intricate carvings, +this number being a selection out of a larger stock reaching perhaps as +many as a hundred or more. Many of these tools vary only in size and +sweep of cutting edge. Thus, chisels and gouges are to be had ranging +from 1/16th of an inch to 1 inch wide, with curves or "sweeps" in each +size graduated between a semicircle to a curve almost flat. Few carvers, +however, possess such a complete stock of tools as would be represented +by one of each size and shape manufactured; such a thing is not +required: an average number of, say seventy tools, will always give a +sufficient variety of size and sweep for general purposes; few pieces of +work will require the use of more than half of these in its execution. + +The beginner, however, need not possess more than from twelve to +twenty-four, and may even make a start with fewer. It is a good plan to +learn the uses of a few tools before acquiring a complete set, as by +this means, when difficulties are felt in the execution of work, a tool +of known description is sought for and purchased with a foreknowledge of +its advantages. This is the surest way to gain a distinct knowledge of +the varieties of each kind of tool, and their application to the +different purposes of design. + +The following list of tools (see Figs. 1 and 2) will be found sufficient +for all the occasions of study: beginning by the purchase of the first +section, Nos. 1 to 17, and adding others one by one until a set is made +up of twenty-four tools. The tools should be selected as near the sizes +and shapes shown in the illustration as possible. The curved and +straight strokes represent the shape of the actual cuts made by pressing +the tools down perpendicularly into a piece of wood. This, in the case +of gouges, is generally called the "sweep." + +Nos. 1, 2, 3 are gouges, of sweeps varying from one almost flat (No. 1) +to a distinct hollow in No. 3. These tools are made in two forms, +straight-sided and "spade"-shaped; an illustration of the spade form is +given on the second page of tools. In purchasing his set of tools the +student should order Nos. 1, 2, 3, 10, 11 in this form. They will be +found to have many advantages, as they conceal less of the wood behind +them and get well into corners inaccessible to straight-sided tools. +They are lighter and more easily sharpened, and are very necessary in +finishing the surface of work, and in shaping out foliage, more +especially such as is undercut. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Nos. 5, 6, 7 are straight gouges graduated in size and sweep. No. 8 is +called a Veiner, because it is often used for making the grooves which +represent veins in leaves. It is a narrow but deep gouge, and is used +for any narrow grooves which may be required, and for outlining the +drawing at starting. + +No. 9 is called a V tool or "parting" tool, on account of its shape. It +is used for making grooves with straight sides and sharp inner angles at +the bottom. It can be used for various purposes, such as undercutting, +clearing out sharply defined angles, outlining the drawing, etc., etc. +It should be got with a square cutting edge, not beveled off as some are +made. Nos. 10, 11, 12 are flat chisels, or, as they are sometimes +called, "firmers." (Nos. 10 and 11 should be in spade shape.) No. 13 is +also a flat chisel, but it is beveled off to a point, and is called a +"corner-chisel"; it is used for getting into difficult corners, and is a +most useful tool when used as a knife for delicate edges or curves. + +Nos. 14 and 16 are what are known as "bent chisels"; they are used +principally for leveling the ground (or background), and are therefore +also called "grounders." These tools are made with various curves or +bends in their length, but for our present uses one with a bend like +that shown to tool No. 23, Fig. 2, and at _a_ in Fig. 3, will be best; +more bend, as at _b_, would only make the tool unfit for leveling +purposes on a flat ground. + +No. 15 is a similar tool, but called a "corner grounder," as it is +beveled off like a corner-chisel. + +No. 17 is an additional gouge of very slow sweep and small size. This is +a very handy little tool, and serves a variety of purposes when you come +to finishing the surface. + +These seventeen tools will make up a very useful set for the beginner, +and should serve him for a long time, or at least until he really begins +to feel the want of others; then he may get the remainder shown on Fig. +2. + +Nos. 18, 19, 20 are deep gouges, having somewhat straight sides; they +are used where grooves are set deeply, and when they are required to +change in section from deep and narrow to wide and shallow. This is done +by turning the tool on its side, which brings the flatter sweep into +action, thus changing the shape of the hollow. Nos. 21, 22 are gouges, +but are called "bent gouges"--"front bent" in this case, "back bent" +when the cutting "sweep" is turned upside down. It is advisable when +selecting these tools to get them as shown in the illustration, with a +very easy curve in their bend; they are more generally useful so, as +quick bends are only good for very deep hollows. These tools are used +for making grooves in hollow places where an ordinary gouge will not +work, owing to its meeting the opposing fiber of the wood. + +No. 23 is a similar tool, but very "easy" both in its "sweep" and +bend--the sweep should be little more than recognizable as a curve. This +tool may be used as a grounder when the wood is slightly hollow, or +liable to tear up under the flat grounder. + +No. 24 is called a "Maccaroni" tool. This is used for clearing out the +ground close against leaves or other projections; as it has two square +sides it can be used right and left. + +In the illustration, Fig 3, _a_ shows the best form of grounding tool; +_b_ is little or no use for this purpose, as it curves up too suddenly +for work on a flat ground. It is a good thing to have the handles of +tools made of different colored woods, as it assists the carver in +picking them out quickly from those lying ready for use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +When in use, the tools should be laid out in front of the carver if +possible, and with their points toward him, in order that he may see the +shape and choose quickly the one he wants. + +The tempering of tools is a very important factor in their efficiency. +It is only of too common occurrence to find many of the tools +manufactured of late years unfit for use on account of their softness of +metal. There is nothing more vexatious to a carver than working with a +tool which turns over its cutting edge, even in soft wood; such tools +should be returned to the agent who sold them. + +With a selection from the above tools, acquired by degrees in the manner +described, almost any kind of work may be done. There is no need +whatever to have a tool for every curve of the design. These can readily +be made by using straight chisels in combination with such gouges as we +possess, or by sweeping the curves along their sides with a chisel used +knife fashion. No really beautiful curves can be made by merely +following the curves of gouges, however various their sweeps, as they +are all segments of circles. + +Tools generally come from the manufacturer ground, but not sharpened. As +the student must in any case learn how to sharpen his tools, it will be +just as well to get them in that way rather than ready for use. As this +process of sharpening tools is a very important one, it must be reserved +for another place. Should tools be seriously blunted or broken they must +be reground. This can be done by the carver, either on a grindstone or a +piece of gritty York stone, care being taken to repeat the original +bevel; or they may be sent to a tool shop where they are in the habit +of grinding carving tools. + +Catalogues of tools may be had from good makers; they will be found to +consist mainly in a large variety of the tools already mentioned. Those +which are very much bent or curved are intended for special application +to elaborate and difficult passages in carving, and need not concern the +student until he comes to find the actual want of such shapes; such, for +instance, as bent parting tools and back bent gouges. + +In addition to the above tools, carvers occasionally use one called a +"Router." This is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicular blade. It +is used for digging or "routing" out the wood in places where it is to +be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be recommended for the use +of beginners, who should learn to make sufficiently even backgrounds +without the aid of mechanical contrivances. Carvers also use the +"Rifler," which is a bent file. This is useful for very fine work in +hard wood, and also for roughly approximating to rounded forms before +finishing with the tools. + +A few joiner's tools are very useful to the carver, and should form +part of his equipment. A wide chisel, say about 1-1/4 in. wide, a small +iron "bull-nose" plane, and a keyhole saw, will all be helpful, and save +a lot of unnecessary labor with the carving tools. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH + + + Different Stones in use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet + Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips. + + +The stones which are most generally used for the purpose of sharpening +carving tools are "Turkey" and "Washita." There are many others, some +equally good, but "Washita" is easily procured and very serviceable. It +is to be had in various grades, and it may be just as well to have one +coarse and one fine, but in any case we must have a fine-grained stone +to put a keen edge on the tools. A "Turkey" stone is a fine-grained and +slow-cutting one, and may take the place of the finer "Washita." The +"India" oilstone is a composition of emery with some kind of stone dust, +and is a useful stone for quickly rubbing down superfluous steel before +putting an edge to the tool. It is better to get these stones without +cases, as they can then be used on both sides, one for flat tools and +one for gouges, which wear the face of a stone into grooves. A case may +be made by hollowing out a block of wood so as to take the stone +loosely; and if at one end a small notch is made in this block, a +screwdriver may be inserted under the stone when it is necessary to turn +it. Two brads or pins should be inserted in holes, having their points +just appearing below the bottom of the block. These prevent it slipping +about when in use. These stones should be lubricated with a mixture of +olive oil and paraffin in equal parts. Bicycle lubricating oil is very +good for this purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +For sharpening the insides of tools, "slips" are made with rounded edges +of different sizes. One slip of "Washita" stone and one of "Arkansas" +will be enough for the present, as they will fit moderately well most of +the gouges in the beginner's set of tools; the "Arkansas" being used for +the smaller tools. The "Arkansas" slip should be what is called +"knife-edged." This is required for sharpening such tools as the veiner +and V tool; it is a very fine marble-like stone, and exceedingly +brittle; care must be taken in handling it, as a fall would in all +probability be fatal. + + +THE BENCH AND MALLET + +_The Mallet._--The carver's mallet is used for driving his tools where +force is required. The most suitable form is the round one, made of +beech; one 4 ins. diameter will be heavy enough. + +_The Bench._--Every carver should provide himself with a bench. He may +make one for himself according to the size and construction shown in the +illustration, Fig. 5. The top should be made of two 11 x 2 in. boards, +and, as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed at, the joints should +have some care. Those in illustration are shown to be formed by +checking one piece of wood over the other, with shoulders to resist +lateral strain. Proper tenons would be better, but more difficult to +make. It must have a projecting edge at the front and ends, to receive +the clamps. The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw" attached to +the back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its edges or +ends. The feet should be secured to the floor by means of iron brackets, +as considerable force is applied in carving hard wood, which may move +the bench bodily, unless it is secured, or is very heavy. Professional +carvers use a bench which is composed of beech planks, three or four +inches in thickness, and of length according to shop-room. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +Should it not be possible to make or procure a bench, then a substitute +must be used. Fig. 6 gives a suggestion for making such a temporary +bench. The top is composed of one piece of board, 11 ins. wide and 1-1/2 +in. thick. It should be about 2 ft. 6 ins. long and rest on two blocks +fixed about 1-1/2 in. from the ends, which must project, as in Fig. 6. +This may be used on any ordinary table, to which it should be secured by +means of two 3-1/2-in. clamps. The height from the floor should be 3 ft. +2 ins. to top of board. This gives a good height for working, as carvers +invariably stand to their work. The height can be regulated by making +the blocks, _a_, higher or lower to suit the table which is to be used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Cramps._--Cramps for holding the work in position on the bench are of +several kinds. For ordinary thicknesses of wood, two 4-1/2-in. screw +clamps, like the one in Fig. 7, will be sufficient. Wooden blocks may be +also used to hold one end of the work down while the other is held by a +clamp. These blocks are notched out to fit over the thickness of the +board being carved, as in Fig. 7. Carvers use for their heavier work a +"bench-screw," as it is called; that is, a screw which passes through +the bench into the back of the work, which may thus be turned about at +will; also, if the work is very thick, they hold it in position by means +of a bench "holdfast," a kind of combined lever and screw; but neither +of these contrivances is likely to be required by the beginner, whose +work should be kept within manageable dimensions. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +WOODS USED FOR CARVING + + + Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages + of Pine and English Oak. + + +The woods suitable for carving are very various; but we shall confine +our attention to those in common use. Of the softer woods, those which +are most easily procured and most adaptable to modern uses are yellow +pine, Bass wood, Kauri pine, and Lime. These are all good woods for the +carver; but we need not at present look for any better qualities than +we shall find in a good piece of yellow pine, free from knots or shakes. + +The following woods may be considered as having an intermediate place +between soft and hard: Sycamore, Beech, and Holly. They are +light-colored woods, and Very useful for broad shallow work. + +_English Oak._--Of the hard woods in common use, the principal kinds are +Oak, Walnut, and occasionally Mahogany. Of oak, the English variety is +by far the best for the carver, being close in the grain and very hard. +It is beyond all others the carvers' wood, and was invariably used by +them in this country during the robust period of medieval craftsmanship. +It offers to the carver an invigorating resistance to his tools, and its +character determines to a great extent that of the work put upon it. It +takes in finishing a very beautiful surface, when skilfully handled--and +this tempts the carver to make the most of his opportunities by adapting +his execution to its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian and American, +are often used, but they do not offer quite the same tempting +opportunity to the carver. They are, by nature, quicker-growing trees, +and are, consequently, more open in the grain. They have tough, sinewy +fibers, alternating with softer material. They rarely take the same +degree of finish as the English oak, but remain somewhat dull in +texture. Good pieces for carving may be got, but they must be picked out +from a quantity of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for +oak, but it is better fitted for large-scaled work where fineness of +detail is not of so much importance. + +_Italian Walnut._--This is a very fine-grained wood, of even texture. +The Italian variety is the best for carving: it cuts with something of +the firmness of English oak, and is capable of receiving even more +finish of surface in small details. It is admirably suited for fine work +in low relief. In choosing this wood for carving, the hardest and +closest in grain should be picked, as it is by no means all of equal +quality. It should be free from sap, which may be known by a light +streak on the edges of the dark brown wood. + +English walnut has too much "figure" in the grain to be suitable for +carving. American walnut is best fitted for sharply cut shallow carving, +as its fiber is caney. If it is used, the design should be one in which +no fine modeling or detail is required, as this wood allows of little +finish to the surface. + +_Mahogany_, more especially the kind known as Honduras, is very similar +to American walnut in quality of grain: it cuts in a sharp caney manner. +The "Spanish" variety was closer in grain, but is now almost +unprocurable. Work carved in mahogany should, like that in American +walnut, be broad and simple in style, without much rounded detail. + +It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of woods beyond the few +kinds mentioned. Woods such as ebony, sandalwood, cherry, brier, box, +pear-tree, lancewood, and many others, are all good for the carver, but +are better fitted for special purposes and small work. As this book is +concerned more with the _art_ of carving than its application, it will +save confusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft wood, and +good close-grained oak as representing hard wood. It may be noted in +passing that the woods of all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very +liable to the attack of worms and rot. + +No carving, in whatever wood, should be polished. I shall refer to this +when we come to "texture" and "finish." + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SHARPENING THE TOOLS + + + The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad + Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing + Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools. + + +Having given this brief description of the tools and materials used by +carvers, we shall suppose a piece of work is about to be started. The +first thing the carver will require to do is to sharpen his tools. That +is, if we may assume that they have just come from the manufacturer, +ground but not yet brought to an edge. It will be seen that each has a +long bevel ending in a blunt ridge where the cutting edge should be. We +shall take the chisel No. 10 and sharpen that first, as it is the +easiest to do, and so get a little practise before we try the gouges. +The oilstone and oil have already been described. The first thing is to +well oil the stone and lay it on the bench in a position with its end +toward the operator. + +[Illustration: A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD + +B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD + +FIG. 8.] + +Tools which are going to be used in soft wood require rather a longer +bevel and more acute edge than when they are wanted for hard wood. Both +angles are shown in Fig. 8. Lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an +angle of about 15 deg., with the handle in the hollow of the right hand, and +two fingers of the left pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as +possible. Then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone, +taking care not to rock the right hand up and down, but to keep it as +level as possible throughout the stroke, bearing heavily on the blade +with the left hand, to keep it well in contact with the stone. Rocking +produces a rounded edge which is fatal to keenness. C (Fig. 9) gives +approximately, to an enlarged scale, the sections of a good edge, and D +that of an imperfect one. + +[Illustration: C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE D. BADLY FORMED EDGE. FIG. 9.] + +Practise alone will familiarize the muscles of the wrist with the proper +motion, but it is important to acquire this in order to form the correct +habit early. It should be practised very slowly at first, until the +hands get accustomed to the movements. When one side of the tool has +been rubbed bright as far as the cutting edge, turn it over and treat +the other in the same way. Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed +on both sides, in the proportion of about two-thirds outside to +one-third inside. When a keen edge has been formed, which can easily be +tested by gently applying the finger, it should be stropped on a piece +of stout leather. It will be found, if the finger is passed down the +tool and over its edge, that the stoning has turned up a burr. This must +be removed by stropping on both sides alternately. A paste composed of +emery and crocus powders mixed with grease is used to smear the leather +before stropping; this can either be procured at the tool shop, or made +by the carver. When the tool has been sufficiently stropped, and all +burr removed, it is ready for use, but it is as well to try it on a +piece of wood first, and test it for burr, and if necessary strop it +again. + +Before we leave this tool, however, we shall anticipate a little, and +look at it after it has been used for some time and become blunt. Its +cutting edge and the bevel above it are now polished to a high degree, +owing to friction with the wood. We lay it on the stone, taking care to +preserve the original angle (15 deg.). We find on looking at the tool after +a little rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along the edge +in contrast with the gray steel which has been in contact with the +stone. This bright rim is part of the polished surface the whole bevel +had before we began this second sharpening, which proves that the actual +edge has not yet touched the stone. We are tempted to lift the right +hand ever so little, and so get rid of this bright rim (sometimes called +the "candle"); we shall thus get an edge quicker than if we have to rub +away all the steel behind it. We do this, and soon get our edge; the +bright rim has disappeared, but we have done an unwise thing, and have +not saved much time, because we have begun to make a rounded edge, +which, if carried a little farther, will make the tool useless until it +is reground. There is no help for it: time must be spent and trouble +taken in sharpening tools; with method and care there need be very +little grinding, unless tools are actually broken. + +To resume our lesson in tool-sharpening: we can not do much carving with +one chisel, so we shall now take up gouge No. 2 as being the least +difficult. This being a rounded tool, we must turn the stone over and +use the side we have determined to keep for gouges, etc. We commence +rubbing it up and down the stone in the same manner as described for the +chisel, but, in addition, we have now another motion. To bring all the +parts of the edge into contact with the stone the gouge must be rolled +from side to side as it goes up and down. To accomplish this the wrist +should be slowly practised until it gets into step with the up and down +motions; it matters very little whether one turn of the tool is given to +one passage along the stone, or only one turn to many up and down +rubbings. The main thing is evenness of rubbing all along the circular +edge, as if one part gets more than its share the edge becomes wavy, +which is a thing to be avoided as much as possible. When the outside has +been cleanly rubbed up to the edge, the inside is to be rubbed out with +the Washita slip and oil to the extent of about half as much as the +outside. The handle of the tool should be grasped in the left hand, +while its blade rests on a block of wood, or on the oilstone. Hold the +slip between the fingers and thumb, slanting a little over the inner +edge; and work it in a series of short downward strokes, beginning the +stroke at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at the other (see Fig. +10). Strop the outside of the tool, and test for burr, then lay the +leather over the handle of another tool and strop the inside, repeating +the operation until all burr has been removed, when probably the tool +will be ready for use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +The Veiner requires the same kind of treatment, only as this tool is not +part of a circle in its section (having straight sides), only one-half +must be done at a time; and it is as well to give the straight sides one +stroke or so in every half-dozen all to itself to keep it in shape. Care +must be taken with this tool as it is easily rubbed out of shape. The +inside must be finished off with the Arkansas knife-edged slip, one side +at a time, as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section of these +deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must follow as before, but as this +tool is so small that the leather will not enter its hollow, the leather +must be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn along its edge +until it makes a little ridge for itself which fills the hollow and +clears off burr (see Fig. 11); if any such adheres outside, a slight rub +on the Arkansas stone will probably remove it. When the edges of the +tools begin to get dull, it often happens that they only require to be +stropped, which should be frequently done. As the treatment of all +gouges is more or less like what has been described, practise will +enable the student to adapt it to the shape of the tool which requires +his attention. There remains only the V tool, the Spoon tools, and the +Maccaroni, which all require special attention. The point of the V tool +is so acute that it becomes difficult to clear the inside. A knife-edged +slip is used for this purpose, and it is well also to cut a slip of wood +to a thin edge, and after rubbing it with paste and oil, pass it down +frequently over the point between the sides. Unless a very sharp point +is obtained, this tool is practically useless; the least speck of burr +or dullness will stop its progress or tear up the wood. In sharpening +it, the sides should be pressed firmly on the stone, watching it every +now and then to see what effect is being produced. If a gap begins to +appear on one side, as it often does, then rub the other side until it +disappears, taking care to bear more heavily on the point of the tool +than elsewhere. If the sides get out of shape, pass the tool along the +stone, holding it at right angles to the side of the stone, but at the +proper angle of elevation; in this case the tool is held near its end, +between fingers and thumb. Spoon tools must be held to the stone at a +much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the right relation to the +surface, or they may be drawn sidewise along it, taking care that every +part of the edge comes in contact and receives an equal amount of +rubbing. These may be treated half at a time, or all round, according to +the size and depth of the tool. However it is produced, the one thing +essential is a long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not a rounded or +obtuse one. Strop the inside by folding up the leather into a little +roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the tool. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +For the small set of tools described in Chapter II one flat oilstone and +two slips will be found sufficient for a beginning, but as a matter of +fact, it will be advisable, as the number of tools is enlarged, to +obtain slips of curves corresponding to the hollows of all gouges as +nearly as possible. Many professional carvers have sets of these slips +for the insides of tools, varying in curves which exactly fit every +hollow tool they possess, including a triangular one for the inside of +the V tool. The same rule sometimes applies to the sweeps of the +outsides of gouges, for these, corresponding channels are ground out in +flat stones, a process which is both difficult and laborious. If the +insides are dealt with on fitting slips, which may be easily adapted to +the purpose by application to a grindstone, the outsides are not so +difficult to manage, so that grooved stones may be dispensed with. + +Before we leave the subject of sharpening tools it will be well to +impress upon the beginner the extreme importance of keeping his tools in +good order. When a tool is really sharp it whistles as it works; a dull +tool makes dull work, and the carver loses both time and temper. There +can be no doubt that the great technical skill shown in the works of +Grinling Gibbons and his followers could not have been arrived at +without the help of extraordinarily sharp tools. Tools not merely +sharpened and then used until they became dull, but tools that were +always sharp, and never allowed to approach dullness. Sharpening tools +is indeed an art in itself, and like other arts has its votaries, who +successfully conquer its difficulties with apparent ease, while others +are baffled at every point. Impatience is the stumbling-block in such +operations. Those most painstaking people, the Chinese, according to all +accounts, put magic into their sharpening stones; the keenness of their +blades being only equaled by that of their wits in all such matters of +delicate application. To make a good beginning is a great point gained. +To carefully examine every tool, and at the expense of time correct the +faults of management, is the only way to become expert in sharpening +tools. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CHIP CARVING + + + Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic + Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Impatience + and Precision--Technical Methods. + + +One of the simplest forms of wood-carving is that known as "chip" +carving. This kind of work is by no means of modern origin, as its +development may be traced to a source in the barbaric instinct for +decoration common to the ancient inhabitants of New Zealand and other +South Sea Islands. Technically, and with modern tools, it is a form of +the art which demands but little skill, save in the matter of precision +and patient repetition. As practised by its savage masters, the +perfection of these two qualities elevates their work to the dignity of +a real art. It is difficult to conceive the contradictory fact, that +this apparently simple form of art was once the exponent of a struggling +desire for refinement on the part of fierce and warlike men, and that it +should, under the influence of polite society, become the all-too-easy +task of esthetically minded schoolgirls. In the hands of those warrior +artists, and with the tools at their command, mostly fashioned from +sharpened fish-bones and such like rude materials, it was an art which +required the equivalent of many fine artistic qualities, as such are +understood by more cultivated nations. The marvelous dexterity and +determined purpose evinced in the laborious decoration of canoe paddles, +ax-handles, and other weapons, is, under such technical disabilities as +to tools, really very impressive. This being so, there is no inherent +reason why such a rudimentary form of the art as "chip" carving should +not be practised in a way consistent with its true nature and +limitations. As its elemental distinctions are so few, and its methods +so simple, it follows that in recognizing such limitations, we shall +make the most of our design. Instead, then, of trusting to a forced +variety, let us seek for its strong point in an opposite direction, and +by the monotonous repetition of basket-like patterns, win the +not-to-be-despised praise which is due to patience and perseverance. In +this way only can such a restricted form of artistic expression become +in the least degree interesting. The designs usually associated with the +"civilized" practise of this work are, generally speaking, of the kind +known as "geometric," that is to say, composed of circles and straight +lines intersecting each other in complicated pattern. Now the "variety" +obtained in this manner, as contrasted with the dignified monotony of +the savage's method, is the note which marks a weak desire to attain +great results with little effort. The "variety," as such, is wholly +mechanical, the technical difficulties, with modern tools at command, +are felt at a glance to be very trifling; therefore such designs are +quite unsuitable to the kind of work, if human sympathies are to be +excited in a reasonable way. + +An important fact in connection with this kind of design is that most of +these geometric patterns are, apart from their uncomfortable "variety," +based on too large a scale as to detail. All the laborious carving on +paddles and clubs, such as may be seen in our museums, is founded upon +a scale of detail in which the holes vary in size from 1/16 to something +under 1/4 in. their longest way, only in special places, such as +borders, etc., attaining a larger size. Such variety as the artist has +permitted himself being confined to the _occasional_ introduction of a +circular form, but mostly obtained by a subtle change in the proportion +of the holes, or by an alternate emphasis upon perpendicular or +horizontal lines. + +As a test of endurance, and as an experimental effort with carving +tools, I set you this exercise. In Fig. 12 you will find a pattern taken +from one of those South Sea carvings which we have been considering. +Now, take one of the articles so often disfigured with childish and +hasty efforts to cover a surface with so-called "art work," such as the +side of a bellows or the surface of a bread-plate, and on it carve this +pattern, repeating the same-shaped holes until you fill the entire +space. By the time you have completed it you will begin to understand +and appreciate one of the fundamental qualities which must go toward the +making of a carver, namely, patience; and you will have produced a +thing which may give you pleasant surprises, in the unexpected but very +natural admiration it elicits from your friends. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Having drawn the pattern on your wood, ruling the lines to measurement, +and being careful to keep your lines thin and clear as drawn with a +somewhat hard pencil, proceed to cut out the holes with the chisel, No. +11 on our list, 1/4 in. wide. It will serve the purpose much better than +the knife usually sold for this kind of work, and will be giving you +useful practise with a very necessary carving tool. The corner of the +chisel will do most of the work, sloping it to suit the different angles +at the bottom of the holes. Each chip should come out with a clean cut, +but to insure this the downward cuts should be done first, forming the +raised diagonal lines. + +When you have successfully performed this piece of discipline, you may, +if you care to do more of the same kind of work, carry out a design +based upon the principles we have been discussing, but introducing a +very moderate amount of variety by using one or more of the patterns +shown in Fig. 12, all of which are from the same dusky artist's designs +and can not be improved upon. If you wish for more variety than these +narrow limits afford, then try some other kind of carving, with perhaps +leafage as its motive. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD + + + Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in + Grounding--Description of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of + Tools, Danger of Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting. + + +It is curious to imagine what the inside of a young enthusiast's head +must be like when he makes his first conscious step toward artistic +expression. The chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling about in +its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic effects, which to him look like the +most lovely pictures. If he could only learn to put them down! let him +but acquire the technical department of his art, and what easier than to +realize those most marvelous dreams. Later in his progress it begins to +dawn upon him that this same technical department may not be so very +obedient to his wishes; it may have laws of its own, which shall change +his fairy fancies into sober images, not at all unlike something which +has often been done before by others. But let the young soul continue to +see visions, the more the better, provided they be of the right sort. We +shall in the meantime ask him to curb his imagination, and yield his +faculties for the moment to the apparently simple task of realizing a +leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted valley. + +With the student's kind permission we shall, while these lessons +continue, make believe that teacher and pupil are together in a +class-room, or, better still, in a country workshop, with chips flying +in all directions under busy hands. + +I must tell you then, that the first surprise which awaits the beginner, +and one which opens his eyes to a whole series of restraints upon the +freedom of his operations, lies in the discovery that wood has a decided +grain or fiber. He will find that it sometimes behaves in a very +obstinate manner, refusing to cut straight here, chipping off there, and +altogether seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort. By +and by he gets to know his piece of wood; where the grain dips and +where it comes up or wriggles, and with practise he becomes its master. +He finds in this, his first technical difficulty, a kind of blessing in +disguise, because it sets bounds to what would otherwise be an +infinitely vague choice of methods. + +We shall now take a piece of yellow pine, free from knots, and planed +clean all round. The size may be about 12 ins. long by 7 ins. wide. We +shall fix this to the bench by means of two clamps or one clamp and a +screwed block at opposite corners. Now we are ready to begin work, but +up to the present we have not thought of the design we intend executing, +being so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack upon the +silky wood with their sharp edges. + +The illustration, Fig. 13, gives a clue to the sort of design to begin +with; it measures about 11 ins. long by 7 ins. wide, allowing a margin +all round. The wood should be a little longer than the design, as the +ends get spoiled by the clamps. This little design need not, and indeed +should not, be copied. Make one for yourself entirely different, only +bearing in mind the points which are to be observed in arranging it, +and which have for their object the avoidance of difficulties likely to +be too much for a first effort. These points are somewhat to this +effect: the design should be of leaves, laid out flat on a background, +with no complication of perspective. They should have no undulations of +surface. That is to say, the margins of all the features should be as +nearly as possible the original surface of the wood, which may have just +the least possible bit of finish in the manner I shall describe later +on. The articulation of the leaves and flower is represented by simple +gouge cuts. There should be nothing in the design requiring rounded +surfaces. The passage for tools in clearing out the ground between the +features must not be less than 1/4 in.; this will allow the 3/16 in. +corner grounder to pass freely backward and forward. The ground is +supposed to be sunk about three-sixteenths of an inch. + +As you have not got your design made, I shall, for convenience' sake, +explain how Fig. 13 should be begun and finished. First having traced +the full-size design it should be transferred to the wood by means of a +piece of blue carbon paper. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +Then with either the Veiner or V tool outline the whole of the leaves, +etc., about 1/8 in. deep, keeping well on the outside of the drawing. +Ignore all minor detail for the present, blocking out the design in +masses. No outline need be grooved for the margin of the panel at +present, as it should be done with a larger tool. For this purpose take +gouge No. 6 (1/4 in. wide), and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of +the panel, cut a groove about 1/16 in. within the blue line, taking care +not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process; begin a little above +the corner at the bottom, and leave off a little below that at the top. +The miters will be formed later on. + +In this operation, as in all subsequent ones, the grain of the wood will +be more or less in evidence. You will by degrees get to know the piece +of wood you are working upon, and cut in such a way that your tool runs +_with_ the grain and not _against_ it; that is to say, you will cut as +much as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber. This can not +always be done in deep hollows, but then you will have had some practise +before you attempt these. + +Now take chisel No. 11, and with it stab into the grooved outline, +pressing the tool down perpendicularly to what you think feels like the +depth of the ground. The mallet need not be used for this, as the wood +is soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the hand alone, +but remember that the force must be proportioned to the depth desired, +and to the direction of the grain; much less pressure is wanted to drive +a tool into the wood when its edge is parallel with the grain than when +it lies in a cross direction; small tools penetrate more easily than +large ones, as a matter of course, but one must think of these things or +accidents happen. + +When you have been all round the design in this way with such gouges as +may be needed for the slow and quick curves, get the wood out nearly +down to the ground, leaving a little for finishing. Do this with any +tool that fits the spaces best; the larger the better. Cut across the +grain as much as possible, not along it. The flat gouge, No. 1, will be +found useful for this purpose in the larger spaces, and the grounders +for the narrow passages. This leaves the ground in a rough state, which +must be finished later on. + +Now take gouges Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and chisels Nos. 10, 11, 12, and +with them cut down the outline as accurately as possible to the depth of +the ground, and, if you are lucky, just a hair's breadth deeper. In +doing this make the sides slope a little outward toward the bottom. If +the gouges do not entirely adapt themselves to the contours of your +lines, do not trouble, but leave that bit to be done afterward with a +sweep of the tool, either a flat gouge, or the corner-chisel used like a +knife. + +Now we have all the outline cut down to the depth of the background, and +may proceed to clear out the wood hanging about between the design and +the ground all round it. We shall do this with the "grounders," using +the largest one when possible, and only taking to the smallest when +absolutely necessary on account of space. This done, we shall now +proceed to finish the hollow sides of the panel and make the miters. +Again, take No. 6 gouge and drive a clear hollow touching the blue line +at end of panel, and reaching the bottom of the sinking, i.e., the +actual ground as finished, see _a_, Fig. 15. To form the miter at top of +left-hand side of panel, carry the hollow on until the tool reaches the +bottom of the hollow running along the top; as soon as this point is +gained, turn the tool out and pitch it a little up in the way shown at +_c_, Fig. 15, in which the tool is shown at an angle which brings the +edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the miter to be formed. +Beginning as it does at _b_, this quick turn of the handle to the left +takes out the little bit of wood shown by dotted lines at _b_, and +forms one-half of the miter. The cross-grain cut should be done first, +as in this way there is less risk of splintering. Now repeat the process +on the long-grain side of the panel, and one miter is in a good way for +being finished. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +A word now about these sides of sunk panels. They always look better if +they are hollowed with a gouge instead of being cut square down. In the +first case they carry out the impression that the whole thing is cut out +of a solid piece of wood, whereas when they are cut sharply down they +always suggest cabinet-making, as if a piece had been glued on to form a +margin. + +We have now got the work blocked out and the ground fairly level, and we +are ready to do the little carving we have allowed ourselves. Before we +begin this I shall take the opportunity of reminding you that you must +be very careful in handling your tools; it is a matter of the greatest +importance, if the contingency of cut fingers or damaged work is to be +avoided. The left hand in carving has nearly as much to do as the right, +only in a different way. Grasp the chisel or gouge in the left hand +with the fingers somewhat extended, that is, the little finger will come +well on to the blade, and the thumb run up toward the top of the handle; +the wrist meanwhile resting on the work. The right hand is used for +pushing the tool forward, and for turning it this way and that, in fact +does most of the guiding. Both hands may be described as opposing each +other in force, for the pressure on the tool from the right hand should +be resisted by the left, until almost a balance is struck, and just +enough force left to cut the wood gently, without danger of slipping +forward and damaging it or the fingers. The tool is thus in complete +command, and the slightest change of pressure on either hand may alter +its direction or stop it altogether. Never drive a tool forward with one +hand without this counter-resistance, as there is no knowing what may +happen if it slips. Never wave tools about in the hand, and generally +remember that they are dangerous implements, both to the user and the +work. Never put too much force on a tool when in the neighborhood of a +delicate passage, but take time and eat the bit of wood out mouse-like, +in small fragments. + +Now we are ready to finish our panel. Take the grounders, according to +the size required, always using the biggest possible. Keep the tool well +pressed down, and _shave_ away the roughness of the ground, giving the +tool a slight sideway motion as well as a forward one. Work right up to +the leaves, etc., which, if cut deep enough, should allow the chips to +come away freely, leaving a clear line of intersection; if it does not, +then the upright sides must be cut down until the ground is quite clear +of chips. Grounder tools are very prone to dig into the surface and make +work for themselves: sharp tools, practise, and a slight sideway motion +will prevent this. Tool No. 23 is useful in this respect, its corners +being slightly lifted above the level of the ground as it passes along. +Corners that can not be reached with the bent chisels may be finished +off with the corner-chisel. + +Now we come to the surface decorations, for the carving in this design +consists of little more. This is all done with the gouges. Generally +speaking, enter the groove at its widest end and leave it at the +narrowest, lowering the handle of the tool gradually as you go along to +lift the gouge out of the wood, producing the drawing of the forms at +the same time. A gouge cut never looks so well as when done at one +stroke; patching it afterward with amendments always produces a labored +look. If this has to be done, the tool should be passed finally over the +whole groove to remove the superfluous tool marks--a sideway gliding +motion of the edge, combined with its forward motion, often succeeds in +this operation. To form the circular center of the flower, press down +gouge Nos. 5 or 6, gently at first and perpendicular to the wood. When a +cut has been made all round the circle, work the edge of the tool in it, +circus-like, by turning the handle in the fingers round and round until +the edge cuts its way down to the proper depth. (See A, Fig. 15.) + +Carve the sides of the leaves where necessary with flat gouges on the +inside curves, and with chisels and corner-chisels on the outside ones. +These should be used in a sliding or knife-like fashion, and not merely +pushed forward. Finish the surface in the same manner all over between +the gouge grooves and the edges of the leaves, producing a very slight +bevel as in section _a_, Fig. 13, and this panel may be called finished. + +Fig. 14 is another suggestion for a design, upon which I hope you will +base one of your own as an exercise at this stage of your progress. + +Before we begin another, though, I shall take this opportunity of +reading you a short lecture on a most important matter which has a great +deal to do with the preparation of your mind in making a suitable choice +of subject for your future work. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS + + + Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative + Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a + Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional." + + +Broadly stated, the three most formidable difficulties which confront +the beginner when he sets out to make what he is pleased to call his +design for carving in relief, are: Firstly, the choice of a subject; +secondly, how far he may go in the imitation of its details; thirdly, +its arrangement as a whole when he has decided the first two points. + +Just now we shall deal only with the second difficulty, that is, how far +may likeness to nature be carried. We shall do this, because until we +come to some understanding on that point, a right choice of subject +becomes practically impossible, consequently the consideration of its +arrangement would be premature. + +There is, strictly speaking, only one aim worthy of the artist's +attention, be he carver or painter; and that is the representation of +some form of life, or its associations. Luckily, there is a mighty +consensus of opinion in support of this dictum, both by example and +precept, so there is no need to discuss it, or question its authority. +We shall proceed, therefore, to act upon it, and choose for our work +only such material as in some way indicates life, either directly, as in +trees, animals, or figures, or by association, and as explanation +thereof, as in drapery and other accessories--never choosing a subject +like those known to painters as "still life," such as bowls, fiddles, +weapons, etc., unless, as I have said, they are associated with the more +important element. + +You have already discovered by practise that wood has a grain which sets +bounds to the possibilities of technique. You have yet to learn that it +has also an inordinate capacity for swallowing light. Now, as it is by +the aid of light that we see the results of our labor, it follows that +we should do everything in our power to take full advantage of that +helpful agency. It is obvious that work which can not be seen is only so +much labor thrown away. There is approximately a right relative distance +from which to view all manner of carvings, and if from this position the +work is not both distinct and coherent, its result is valueless. + +Then what is the quality which makes all the difference between a +telling piece of carving, and one which looks, at a moderate distance, +like crumpled paper or the cork bark which decorates a suburban +summer-house? The answer is, attention to _strict economy in detail_. +Without economy there can be no arrangement, and without the latter no +general effect. We are practically dealing, not with so much mere wood, +but unconsciously we are directing our efforts to a manipulation of the +light of day--playing with the lamps of the sky--and if we do not +understand this, the result must be undoubtedly failure, with a piece of +wood left on our hands, cut into unintelligible ruts. + +But what, you will say, has all this to do with copying the infinite +variety of nature's detail; surely it can not be wrong to imitate what +is really beautiful in itself? You will find the best answer to this in +the technical difficulties of your task. You have the grain of the wood +to think of, and now you have this other difficulty in managing the +light which is to display your design. The obstinacy of the wood may be +to some extent conquered, and indeed has been almost entirely so, by the +technical resources of Grinling Gibbons, but the treatment demanded by +the laws of light and vision is quite another question, and if our work +is to have its due effect, there is no other solution of the problem +than by finding a way of complying with those laws. + +If I want to represent a rose and make it intelligible at a glance from +such and such a point of view, and I find after taking infinite pains to +reproduce as many as I can of its numerous petals, and as much as +possible of its complicated foliage, that I had not reckoned with the +light which was to illuminate it, and that instead of displaying my work +to advantage, it has blurred all its delicate forms into dusky and +chaotic masses, would I not be foolish if I repeated such an experiment? +Rather, I take the opposite extreme, and produce a rose this time which +has but five petals, and one or two sprays of rudimentary foliage. +Somehow the result is better, and it has only taken me a tenth part of +the time to produce. I now find that I can afford, without offending the +genius of light, or straining my eyesight, to add a few more petals and +one or two extra leaves between those I have so sparingly designed, and +a kind of balance is struck. The same thing happens when I try to +represent a whole tree--I can not even count the leaves upon it, why +then attempt to carve them? Let me make one leaf that will stand for +fifty, and let that leaf be simplified until it is little more than an +abstract of the form I see in such thousandfold variety. The proof that +I am right this time is that when I stand at the proper distance to view +my work, it is all as distinct as I could wish it to be. Not a +leaf-point is quite lost to sight, except where, in vanishing into a +shadow, it adds mystery without creating confusion. + +We have in this discovery a clue to the meaning of the word +"Conventional": it means that a particular method has been "agreed upon" +as the best fitted for its purpose, i.e., as showing the work to most +advantage with a minimum of labor. Not that experience had really +anything to do with the invention of the method. Strange to say, the +earliest efforts in carving were based upon an unquestioning sense that +no other was possible, certainly no attempts were made to change it +until in latter days temptations arose in various directions, the +effects of which have entailed upon ourselves a conscious effort of +choice in comparing the results of the many subsequent experiments. + +Before I continue this subject further, I shall give you another +exercise, with the object of making a closer resemblance to natural +forms, bearing in mind the while all that has been said about a sparing +use of minute detail with reference to its visible effect. We shall in +this design attempt some shaping on the surface of the leaves and a +little rounding too, which may add interest to the work. In my next +lecture to you, I shall have something to say about another important +element in all designs for wood-carving. I mean the shapes taken by the +background between the leaves, like the patches of sky seen behind a +tree. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +ROUNDED FORMS + + + Necessity for Every Carver Making his own Designs--Method of + Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +Fig. 16, our second exercise, like the first one, is only to be taken as +a suggestion for a design to be made by yourself. It is a fundamental +principle that both design and execution should be the work of one and +the same person, and I want you to begin by strictly practising this +rule. It was indeed one of the main conditions of production in the best +times of the past, and there is not a shadow of doubt that it must again +come to be the universal rule if any real progress is to be made in the +art of wood-carving, or in any other art for that matter. Just think +for a moment how false must be the position of both parties, when one +makes a "design" and another carries it out. The "designer" sets his +head to work (we must not count his hands at present, as they only note +down the results in a kind of writing), a "design" is produced and +handed over to the carver to execute. He, the carver, sets his hands and +eyes to work, to carry out the other man's idea, or at least interpret +his notes for the same, his head meanwhile having very little to do, +further than transfer the said notes to his hands. For very good reasons +such an arrangement as this is bound to come to grief. One is, that no +piece of carving can properly be said to be "designed" until it is +finished to the last stroke. A drawing is only a map of its general +outline, with perhaps contours approximately indicated by shading. In +any case, even if a full-size model were supplied by the designer, the +principle involved would suffer just the same degree of violence, for it +is in the actual carving of the wood that the designer should find both +his inspiration and the discipline which keeps it within reasonable +bounds. He must be at full liberty to alter his original intention as +the work develops under his hand. + +Apparently I have been led into giving you another lecture; we must now +get to work on our exercise. + +Draw and trace your outline in the same manner as before, and transfer +it to the wood. You may make it any convenient size, say on a board 18 +ins. long by 9 ins. wide, or what other shape you like, provided you +observe one or two conditions which I am going to point out. It shall +have a fair amount of background between the features, and the design, +whatever it is, shall form a traceable likeness to a pattern of some +description; it shall have a rudimentary resemblance to nature, without +going into much detail; and last, it shall have a few _rounded_ forms in +it, rounded both in outline and on the surface, as, for instance, plums. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +In setting to work to carve this exercise, follow the same procedure as +in the first one, up to the point when the surface decorations began. In +the illustration, there is a suggestion for a variety in the background +which does not occur in the other. In this case the little branches are +supposed to lie along the tops of gentle elevations, and the plums to +lie in the hollows. It produces a section something like this, Fig. 17. +There is a sufficient excuse for this kind of treatment in the fact that +the branches do not require much depth, and the plums will look all the +better for a little more. The depth of the background will thus vary, +say between 3/16 in. at the branches and 3/8 in. at the plums. The +branches are supposed to be perfectly level from end to end, that is, +they lie parallel to the surface of the wood, but of course curve about +in the other direction. The leaves, on the other hand, are supposed to +be somewhat rounded and falling away toward their sides and points in +places. The vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a parting +tool, as well as the serrations at the edge, or the latter may perhaps +be more surely nicked out with a chisel, after the leaves have received +their shapes, the leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher +than the other, and as though their points, in some cases, touched the +background, while in others the base may be the lowest part. The twigs +coming out from the branches to support the plums should be somewhat +like this in section, and should lie along the curve of the background, +and be in themselves rounded, as in Fig. 18, see section _a a_. The +bottom of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border: this will +serve to distinguish it as a starting-point for the little branches +which appear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground. The plums +should be carved by first cutting them down in outline to the +background, as A, Fig. 19. Then the wood should be removed from the edge +all round, to form the rounded surface. To do this, first take the large +gouge, No. 2, and with its hollow side to the wood, cut off the top, +from about its middle to one end, and reversing the process do the same +with the other side. Then it will appear something like B (Fig. 19). +The remainder must be shaped with any tool which will do it best. There +is no royal road to the production of these rounded forms, but probably +gouge No. 1 will do the most of it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +Here it may be observed that the fewer tools used the better, as if many +are used there is always a risk of unpleasant facets at the places where +the various marks join each other. Before you try the plums, or apples, +or other rounded fruit which you may have in your design, it would be as +well to experiment with one on a piece of spare wood in order to decide +upon the most suitable tools. The stems or branches may be done with +flat gouge No. 1, or the flat or corner chisel. A very delicate twist or +spiral tendency in their upward growth will greatly improve their +appearance, a mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or chisel will do +this; anything is better than a mere round and bare surface, which has a +tendency to look doughy. The little circular mark on the end of the plum +(call it a plum, although that fruit has no such thing) is done by +pressing gouge No. 7 into the wood first, with the handle rather near +the surface of the wood, and afterward at a higher inclination, this +taking out a tiny chip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shaped +groove. + +Now I am going to continue the subject of my last lecture, in order to +impress upon you the importance of suiting your subject to the +conditions demanded by the laws of technique and light. Practise with +the tools must go hand in hand with the education of the head if good +results are to be expected; nor must it be left wholly to hand and eye +if you are to avoid the pitfalls which lie in wait for the unwary +mechanic. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND + + + Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern and + Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval Choice + of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.] + +By a comparison of the piece of Byzantine sculpture, Fig. 20, with the +more elaborate treatment of foliage shown in Fig. 21, from late Gothic +capitals, in Southwell Minster, it will be seen how an increasing desire +for imitative resemblance has taken the place of a patterned foundation, +and how, in consequence, the background is no longer discernible as a +contrasting form. The Byzantine design is, of course, little more than a +pattern with sunk holes for a background, and it is in marble; but those +holes are arranged in a distinct and orderly fashion. The other is a +highly realistic treatment of foliage, the likeness to nature being so +fully developed that some of these groups have veins on the _backs_ of +the leaves. The question for the moment is this, which of the two +extremes gives the clearest account of itself at a distance? I think +there can be little doubt that the more formal arrangement bears this +test better than the other, and this, too, in face of the fact that it +has cost much less labor to produce. Remember we are only now +considering the question of _visibility_ in the design. You may like the +undefined and suggestive masses into which the leaves and shadows of the +Southwell one group themselves better than the unbending severity of the +lines in the other, but that is not the point at present. You can not +_see_ the actual work which produces that mystery, and I may point out +to you, that what is here romantic and pleasing on account of its +changeful and informal shadows, is on the verge of becoming mere +bewildering confusion; a tendency which always accompanies attempts to +imitate the accidental or informal grouping of leaves, so common to +their natural state. The further this is carried, the less is it +possible to govern the forms of the background pattern; they become less +discernible as contrasting _forms_, although they may be very +interesting as elements of mystery and suggestive of things not actually +seen. The consequence is a loss of power in producing that +instantaneous impression of harmony which is one of the secrets of +effectiveness in carving. This is greatly owing to the constant change +of plane demanded by an imitative treatment, as well as the want of +formality in its background. The lack of restful monotony in this +respect creates confusion in the lights, making a closer inspection +necessary in order to discern the beauty of the work. Now the human +imagination loves surprises, and never wholly forgives the artist who, +failing to administer a pleasant shock, invites it to come forward and +examine the details of his work in order to see how well they are +executed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +These examples, you will say, are from architectural details which have +nothing to do with wood-carving. On the contrary, the same laws govern +all manner of sculpturesque composition--scale or material making no +difference whatever. A sculptured marble frieze or a carved ivory +snuff-box may be equally censurable as being either so bare that they +verge on baldness and want of interest, or so elaborate that they look +like layers of fungus. + +Do not imagine that I am urging any preference for a Byzantine treatment +in your work; to do so would be as foolish as to ask you to don +medieval costume while at work, or assume the speech and manners of the +tenth century. It would be just as ridiculous on your part to affect a +bias which was not natural to you. I am, however, strongly convinced +that in the choice of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly +masses (more particularly with regard to their appearance in silhouette +against the ground), and also in the matter of an economical use of +detail, we have much to learn from the carvers who preceded the +fourteenth century. They thoroughly understood and appreciated the value +of the light which fell upon their work, and in designing it arranged +every detail with the object of reflecting as much of it as possible. To +this end, their work was always calculated for its best effects to be +seen at a fairly distant point of view; and to make sure that it would +be both visible and coherent, seen from that point, they insisted upon +some easily understood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a +glance. To make a pattern of this kind is not such an easy matter as it +looks. The forms of the background spaces are the complementary parts of +the design, and are just as important as those of the solid portions; +it takes them both to make a good design. + +Now I believe you must have had enough of this subject for the present, +more especially as you have not yet begun to feel the extraordinary +difficulty of making up your mind as to what is and what is not fit for +the carver's uses among the boundless examples of beauty spread out for +our choice by Dame Nature. + +Meantime, I do not want you to run away with the impression that when +you have mastered the principles of economy in detail and an orderly +disposition of background, that you have therefore learned all that is +necessary in order to go on turning out design after design with the +ease of a cook making pancakes according to a recipe. You will find by +experience, I think, that all such principles are good for is to enforce +clearness of utterance, so to speak, and to remind you that it is light +you are dealing with, and upon which you must depend for all effects; +also that the power of vision is limited. Acting upon them is quite +another matter, and one, I am afraid, in which no one can help you +much. You may be counseled as to the best and most practical mode of +expressing your ideas, but those thoughts and inventions must come from +yourself if they are to be worth having. + +In my next lecture I shall have something to say with regard to +originality of design, but now we must take up our tools again and begin +work upon another exercise. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +CONTOURS OF SURFACE + + + Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing + About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +Here are two fragments of a kind of running ornament. Fig. 22 is a part +of the jamb molding of a church in Vicenza. If you observe carefully, +you will find that it has a decidedly classical appearance. The truth is +that it was carved by a Gothic artist late in the fourteenth century, +just after the Renaissance influence began to make itself felt. It is an +adaptation by him of what he remembered having seen in his travels of +the new style, grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand. +It suits our purpose all the better on that account, for the reason that +we are going to re-adapt his design into an exercise, and shall attempt +to make it suitable to our limited ability in handling the tools, to the +change in material from stone to wood, and lastly, to our different +aims and motives in the treatment of architectural ornament. Please do +all this for yourself in another design, and look upon this suggestion +merely in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +In this exercise (Fig. 23) you will repeat all you have already done +with the others, until you come to the shaping of the leaves, in which +an undulating or up and down motion has been attempted. This involves a +kind of double drawing in the curves, one for the flat and one for the +projections; so that they may appear to glide evenly from one point to +the other, sweeping up and down, right and left, without losing their +true contours. Carvers call this process "throwing about," i.e., making +the leaves, etc., appear to rise from the background and again fall +toward it in all directions. The phrase is a very meager one, and but +poorly expresses the necessity for intimate sympathy between each +surface so "thrown about." It is precisely in the observance of this +last quality that effects of richness are produced. You can hardly have +too much monotony of surface, but may easily err by having too much +variety. Therefore, whatever system of light and shade you may adopt, be +careful to repeat its motive in some sort of rhythmic order all over +your work; by no other means can you make it rich and effective at a +distance. + +It is well every now and then to put your work up on a shelf or ledge at +a distance and view it as a whole; you will thus see which parts tell +and which do not, and so gain experience on this point. Work should also +be turned about frequently, sidewise and upside down, in order to find +how the light affects it in different directions. Of course, you must +not think that because your work may happen to look well when seen from +a little way off that it does not matter about the details, whether they +be well or poorly carved. On the contrary, unless you satisfy the eye at +both points of view, your work is a partial failure. The one thing is as +important as the other, only, as the first glance at carved work is +generally taken at some little distance, it is the more immediately +necessary to think of that, before we begin to work for a closer +inspection. First impressions are generally lasting with regard to +carved work, and, as I have said before, beauty of detail seldom quite +atones for failure in the arrangement of masses. + +The rounded forms in this design may give you a little trouble, but +practise, and that alone, will enable you to overcome this. Absolute +smoothness is not desirable. Glass-papered surfaces are extremely ugly, +because they obtrude themselves on account of their extreme smoothness, +having lost all signs of handiwork in the tool marks. We shall have +something to say presently about these tool marks in finishing, as it is +a very important subject which may make all the difference between +success or failure in finishing a piece of work. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +ORIGINALITY + + + Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An + Unwholesome Kind of "Originality." + + +I told you that I should have something to say about originality. Almost +every beginner has some vague impression that his first duty should be +to aim at originality. He hears eulogiums passed upon the individuality +of some one or other, and tries hard to invent new forms of expression +or peculiarities of style, only resulting, in most cases, in new forms +of ugliness, which it seems is the only possibility under such conscious +efforts after novelty. The fact is that it takes many generations of +ardent minds to accomplish what at first each thinks himself capable of +doing alone. True originality has somewhat the quality of good wine, +which becomes more delightful as time mellows its flavor and imparts to +it the aroma which comes of long repose; like the new wine, too, +originality should shyly hide itself in dark places until maturity +warrants its appearance in the light of day. That kind of originality +which is strikingly new does not always stand the test of time, and +should be regarded with cautious skepticism until it has proved itself +to be more than the passing fashion or novelty of a season. There is a +kind of sham art very conspicuous at the present time, which was at +quite a recent date popularly believed to be very original. It seems to +have arisen out of some such impatient craving for novelty, and it has +been encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban _refinement_, which +neither knows nor cares very much what really goes to the making of a +work of art. This new art has filled our shops and exhibitions with an +invertebrate kind of ornament, which certainly has the doubtful merit of +"never having been seen before." It has evidently taken its inspiration +from the trailing and supine forms of floating seaweed, and revels in +the expression of such boneless structure. By way of variety it presents +us with a kind of symbolic tree, remarkable for more than archaic +flatness and rigidity. Now, this kind of "originality" is not only +absolutely valueless, but exceedingly harmful; its only merit is that, +like its ideal seaweed, it has no backbone of its own, and we may hope +that it will soon betake itself to its natural home, the slimy bottom of +the ocean of oblivion. + +Meantime, the only thing we are absolutely sure of in connection with +that much-abused word "originality" is this, that no gift, original or +otherwise, can be developed without steady and continuous practise with +the tools of your craft. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +PIERCED PATTERNS + + + Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling and + Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns. + + +The present exercises may be described as a kind of carved open +fretwork--that is to say, the ground is entirely cut away, leaving the +pattern standing free. This will form an excellent piece of discipline +with regard to the design of background forms, because in such work as +this, those forms assert themselves in a very marked manner; if they are +in any way found to be conspicuously unequal in size or are awkwardly +designed as to shape, the whole effect of the work is spoiled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +For your first effort make a design based upon No. 24, and please to +observe these rules in its construction. The main or leading lines of +the pattern are to run as much as possible without crossing each other. +The holes are to be fairly equal in size, or rather in area, as they +need not be at all like each other in shape. The amount of wood left +standing to be of a width averaging never less than half the length of +the average-sized hole. This is necessary for securing sufficient +strength of material in the cross-grained pieces, which would be liable +to split if made too long and narrow. The pattern should be formal in +character, not necessarily symmetrical, but it should be well balanced. +You may have one part of your design composed of large holes and another +of small ones, provided the change is part of a definite design, as in +Fig. 25. You may even leave the wood in some parts forming a solid +background, or you may treat it as a separate piece of simple carving +on the solid, as in Fig. 26, being careful to execute it in a +consistently simple manner, as in this kind of work much change of +manner in execution is inadvisable, although, at the same time, it is +open to any amount of variety in design of outline and combination of +contrasts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.] + +Take a piece of pine about 3 or 4 ft. long and 7 or 9 ins. wide by 3/4 +in. thick. Trace on your pattern and drill circular holes in the middle +of each space to be cut through. Then take a keyhole saw, and remove the +wood by sawing round the space close to the blue line, taking care not +to cut through it in any place. The saw must be held very truly upright +in order to cut the sides of the spaces at right angles to the face of +the wood. Now carve the pattern on the surface in whatever manner you +have designed--in grooves suggesting the articulation of the leaves, in +short grooves which may pass for additional leaves, or in a dozen ways +which practise may help you to invent. + +The wood should be held tightly down to the bench in all its parts, or, +at least, in those being operated upon, as it may, if unsupported, crack +across some of the narrow parts. The sides of all the holes must be +carved out clean to remove the rough saw marks. This can be done partly +by gouges, or still better, the wood may be held up on its edge and the +holes cut round with a sharp penknife where the grain allows it. Now +turn the work over on its face and carve bevels round each of the holes. +This reduces the apparent thickness of wood, and adds to the effect of +delicacy in the pattern. + +This work may be used for the cresting of some large piece of furniture, +or may be adapted to fill screens or partitions, stair newels, and +balusters, or it may be used as a cornice decoration in the manner +suggested by No. 26, where the pierced work can be backed by a hollow +cornice which it fills and enriches. + +In our next exercise we shall try our hands upon a piece of hardwood for +a change--meantime do one or two of these fret patterns by way of +disciplinary exercise in outline forms. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +HARDWOOD CARVING + + + Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on + Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner + Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple in + Character--Methods of Carving Grapes. + + +We now come to the question, what are we going to do with all the pieces +of carving which we propose to undertake. + +There is no more inexorable law relating to the use of wood-carving than +the one which insists upon some kind of passport for its introduction, +wherever it appears. It must come in good company, and be properly +introduced. The slightest and most distant connection with a recognized +sponsor is often sufficient, but it will not be received alone. We do +not make carvings to hang on a wall and be admired altogether on their +own account. They must decorate some object. A church screen, a font, a +piece of furniture, or even the handle of a knife. It is not always an +easy matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise our +wood-carving talents. Our furniture is all made now in a wholesale +manner which permits of no interference with its construction, while at +the same time, if we wish to put any carving upon it, it is absolutely +essential that both construction and decoration should be considered +together. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.] + +A very modest beginning may be made in adapting ornament to a useful +article, by carving the surface of a bread plate. These are usually made +of some hard wood, such as sycamore. They may be made of oak, but +sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color, which is more likely to +be kept clean. Two suggestions are given in Figs. 27 and 28 for carving +appropriate to this purpose. The essentials are, that there should be a +well-defined _pattern_ simple in construction, and as effective as +possible with little labor; that there should be little or no rounding +of surface, the design consisting of gouge cuts and incisions arranged +to express the pattern. The incisions may form a regular sunk ground, +but it should not be deep, or it will not be easily kept clean. Then, as +in cutting bread the knife comes in contact with the surface, no +delicate work is advisable; a large treatment with broad surfaces, and +some plain spaces left to protect the carved work, is likely to prove +satisfactory in every way. A piece of sycamore should be procured, ready +for carving; this may be got from a wood-turner, but it will be as well +to give him a drawing, on which is shown the section of edge and the +position of all turned lines required for confining the carving. If the +plate is to be of any shape other than circular, then it must be neatly +made by a joiner, unless you can shape it yourself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.] + +Many of you are, I have no doubt, handy joiners, and may with a little +help put together some slight pieces of furniture to serve at least as +an excuse for the introduction of your carving. Here are some +suggestions for corner cupboards, chosen as giving the largest area for +carved surface with the minimum of expense in construction. The material +should be oak--English if possible, or it may be Italian walnut. The +doors of Figs. 40 and 41 are in three narrow boards with shallow beads +at the joints, those of the others are each made of a single board, and +should be 1/2 in. to 5/8 in. thick, the doors may be about 2 ft. 6 ins. +high, each having two ledges about 3 ins. wide, screwed on behind top +and bottom to keep them from twisting. All moldings, beads, etc., are to +be carved by hand, no planes being used. Having traced the lines of your +design upon the board, you may begin, if there are moldings as in Fig. +32, by using a joiner's marking gage to groove out the deepest parts of +the parallel lines in the moldings along the edges, doing the same to +the curved ones with a V tool or Veiner. Then form the moldings with +your chisels or gouges. Keep them very flat in section as in Fig. 29. +The fret patterns on Figs. 32, 35, and 36, where not pierced, should +also be done in low relief, not more than 1/8 in. deep, and the sides of +the bands beveled as in section _a_, Fig 30. The widths of these bands +ought not to be less than 1/2 in., and look better if they are wider. +Very narrow bands have a better appearance, if, instead of being cut +straight down, they are hollowed at sides like _b_ in Fig. 30. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.] + +Fig. 31 is a detail of a kind of gouge work which you must all know very +well. One perpendicular cut of a gouge driven in with the mallet, and +one side cut, should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped holes. +They should not be too deep in proportion to their size. Their +combinations may be varied to a great extent. Two or three common ones +are shown in the illustration. This form of ornament was in all +likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with a turn for art and +a limited stock of carving tools. His humble contribution to the +resources of the carver's art has received its due share of the flattery +which is implied by imitation. In all these patterns it is well to +remember that the flat surface of the board left between the cuts is +really the important thing to consider, as all variety is obtained by +disposing the holes in such a way as to produce the pattern required by +means of their outlines on the plain surface. Thus waved lines are +produced as in Fig. 31, and little niches like mimic architecture as in +Fig. 34, by the addition of the triangular-shaped holes at the top, and +the splayed sills at the bottom. (It is obvious that an arrangement like +the latter should never be turned upside down.) If this attention to the +surface pattern is neglected the holes are apt to become mere confused +and meaningless spots. + +In small pieces of furniture like these, which are made of comparatively +thin wood, the carving need not have much depth, say the ground is sunk +1/4 in. at the deepest. As oak is more tenacious than pine, you will +find greater freedom in working it, although it is so much harder to +cut. You may find it necessary to use the mallet for the greater part of +the blocking out, but it need not be much used in finishing. A series of +short strokes driven by gentle taps of the mallet will often make a +better curve than if the same is attempted without its aid. + +It will be well now to procure the remainder of the set of twenty-four +tools if you have not already got them, as they will be required for the +foliage we are about to attempt. The deep gouges are especially useful: +having two different sweeps on each tool, they adapt themselves to +hollows which change in section as they advance. + +Fig. 32 contains very little foliage, such as there is being disposed in +small diamond-shaped spaces, sunk in the face of the doors, and a small +piece on the bracket below. All this work should be of a very simple +character, definite in form and broad in treatment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31. _Half_] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32. _Half_] + +Fig. 33 is more elaborate, but on much the same lines of design varied +by having a larger space filled with groups of leaves. Fig. 34 gives the +carving to a larger scale; in it the oak-leaves are shown with raised +veins in the center, the others being merely indicated by the gouge +hollows. There is some attempt in this at a more natural mode of +treating the foliage. While such work is being carved, it is well to +look now and then at the natural forms themselves (oak and laurel in +this case) in order to note their characteristic features, and as a +wholesome check on the dangers of mannerism. + +It is a general axiom founded upon the evidence of past work, and a +respect for the laws of construction in the carpenter's department, that +when foliage appears in panels divided by plain spaces, it should never +be made to look as if it grew _from one panel into the other_, with the +suggestion of boughs passing behind the solid parts. This is a +characteristic of Japanese work, and may, perhaps, be admirable when +used in delicate painted decorations on a screen or other light +furniture, but in carvings it disturbs the effect of solidity in the +material, and serves no purpose which can not be attained in a much +better way. + +[Illustration: CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33 FIG. 34.] + +Expedients have been invented to overcome the difficulty of making a +fresh start in each panel, one of which is shown in Fig. 34, where the +beginning of the bough is hidden under a leaf. It is presumable that the +bough _may_ go on behind the uncarved portions of the board to reappear +in another place, but we need not insist upon the fancy, which loses all +its power when attention is called to it, like riddles when the answer +is known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.] + +In Fig. 35, like the last, the treatment is somewhat realistic. This is +shown to a larger scale in Fig. 38. Nevertheless, it has all been +"arranged" to fit its allotted space, and all accidental elements +eliminated; such, for instance, as leaves disappearing in violent +perspective, or even turned sidewise, and all minute details which would +not be likely to show conspicuously if carved in wood. In Fig. 39, (_a_) +is an outline of a group of vine-leaves taken from nature, as it +appeared, and in which state it is quite unfitted for carving, on +account of its complicated perspective and want of definite outline; +Fig. 39 (_b_) is a detail also copied from nature, but which might stand +without alteration provided it formed part of a work delicate enough +to note such close elaboration in so small a space. This, of course, +would entirely depend upon the purpose for which the carving was +intended, and whether it was meant for distant view or close inspection. +As there is arrangement necessary in forming the outline, so there is +just as much required in designing the articulation of the surfaces of +the leaves, which should be so treated that their hollows fall into a +semblance of some kind of pattern. Fig. 36 is a more formal design, or, +to use a very much abused word, more "conventional," in which such +leafage as there is only serves the purpose of ornamental points, +marking the divisions of the general design. The gouge work upon the +leaves should be of the simplest description, but strict attention is +necessary in drawing the grooves, so that their forms may be clear and +emphatic, leaving no doubt as to the pattern intended. Designs of this +kind have no interest whatever except as pieces of patterned work, to +which end every other consideration should be sacrificed. It must not be +cut too deep--say 1/4 in. at the deepest--and the sides of the panels +should be very gently hollowed out with a flattish sweep (see section on +Fig. 37) in order to avoid any appearance of actual construction in +what more or less imitates the stiles and rails of a door. Fig. 37 shows +a portion of the leafage to a larger scale, and also a plan explaining +the construction of all these cupboards. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_a_).] + +Fig. 40 is designed upon the barest suggestion of natural foliage, the +wavy stem being quite flat, and running out flush into the flat margins +at the sides, connecting them together. The leaves in this case should +be carved, leaving the veins standing solid; grooved veins would have a +meager look upon such rudimentary leaves. Of course a more natural +treatment may be given to this kind of design, but in that case it would +require to be carried all over the door, and replace the formally +ornamental center panel. The pierced pattern in cresting should be done +as already described for Fig. 24. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_b_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 41] + +Fig. 41 is a variant on the last design. In this case a little more play +of surface is attempted, making a point of carving the side lobes of +the leaves into little rounded masses which will reflect points of +light. This is shown better on Fig. 42. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.] + +In carving foliage like that of the vine, where small dark holes or eyes +occur, enough wood should be left round them to form deep dark little +pits. They are very valuable as points of shadow. In doing this, cut the +rim all round with a very slight bevel as in section, Fig. 43. Whenever +leaves run out to a fine edge they also should have a small bevel like +this in order to avoid an appearance of weakness which acute edges +always present. As a general rule leave as much wood as possible about +the edges of leaves as you want shadow from them--dipping them only +where you are sure the variety will be effective. In the execution of +bunches of rounded forms like grapes there is no special mechanical +expedient for doing them quickly and easily; each must be cut out +separately, and carved with whatever tools come handiest to their shape +and size. It is a good way to begin by cutting triangular holes between +the grapes with the point of a small chisel (see Fig. 44), after which +the rough shapes left may gradually be formed into ovals. When the work +is very simple in character, and does not require a realistic treatment, +the grapes may be done in a more methodical way, as in Fig. 45. First +cut grooves across both ways with a V tool, dividing the grapes as at _a +a_, then with a gouge turned hollow down round each line of grapes into +rolls as at _b b_. Do this both ways, and afterward finish the form as +best you can. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE SKETCH-BOOK + + + Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be Approached + with Caution--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of + Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies. + + +In holiday time, and as other opportunity arises, be sure to visit some +old building, be it church or mansion. In this way you will make +acquaintance with many a fine specimen of old work which will set your +fancy moving. In the one there may be a carved choir-screen or bench +ends, in the other a fireplace or table. The first sight of such things +in the places and among the surroundings for which they were designed, +is always an eventful moment in the training of a carver, because the +element of surprise acts like a tonic to the mind by arousing its +emulative instincts. It is by seeing such things in their proper home +and associations that the best lessons are learned. One sees in that +way, for instance, _why_ the tool marks left by the old carvers on their +work look more effective than smoothly perfect surfaces, when associated +with the rough timbers of the roof, or the uneven surface of the +plastered wall. One sees, too, the effect of time and friction in the +polished surfaces of bench ends, rubbed and dusted by countless hands +until they have become smooth to the eye and touch, and a mental note is +made to avoid sharp or spiky work in anything that is likely to be +within reach of the fingers. In this way a certain balance is given to +the judgment in proportioning to each piece of work its due share of +labor, and we come away with a fixed determination to pay more attention +in future to breadth of design and economy of actual carving, a problem +which no carver finds easy, but which must be faced if wasted work is +not to be his only reward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.] + +In museums, too, we shall find many useful lessons, although there we +see things huddled together in a distracting fashion which demands great +wariness of selection. The great point to be observed in making our +notes for future reference is, that each sketch should contain some +memorandum of a special quality, the one which attracted us at the time +of making it. One may be made for sake of a general arrangement, another +to remind us of some striking piece of detail or peculiarity of +execution. The drawings need not be elaborate or labored, provided they +make clear the points they were intended to record. Thus Fig. 46 is a +sketch which is meant as a memorandum of a lively representation of +birds, taken from an old Miserere seat. Fig. 47 was done for sake of the +rich effect of an inscription on the plain side of a beam, and also for +the peculiar and interesting section to which the beam had been cut. +Fig. 48, again, for sake of the arrangement of the little panels on a +plain surface, and the sense of fitness and proportion which prompted +the carver to dispose his work in that fashion, by which he has enriched +the whole surface at little cost of labor, and by contrast enhanced the +value of the little strips and diamonds of carved work, otherwise of no +particular interest. Figs. 49 and 50 are two sketches of Icelandic +carved boxes. Fig. 49 was drawn as an example of the rich effect which +that kind of engraved work may have, and of the use which it makes of +closely packed letters in the inscription. The pattern is, of course, a +traditional Norse one, although the carving is comparatively modern. The +points to be noted in the other box were its quaint and simple +construction, the use of the letters as decoration, more especially the +unpremeditated manner in which they have been grouped, the four letters +below making a short line which is eked out by a rude bit of ornament. +The letters are cut right through the wood, and are surrounded with an +engraved line. Fig. 51 was noted on account of the way in which a very +simple pierced ornament is made much of by repetition. The ornament is +on a Portuguese bed, and this is only a detail of a small portion. The +effect greatly depends upon the quantity, but in this case that is a +point which is easily remembered without drawing more of it than is +shown. The fact that this work is associated with richly turned +balusters is, however, noticed in the sketch, as that might easily be +forgotten. Figs. 47 to 51 are from South Kensington Museum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +Then we come to the sketch of a chair (Fig. 52), or combined table and +chair. The richly carved back is pivoted, and forms the table top when +lowered over the arms, upon which it rests. The points to be noted in +this are, the general richness of effect, the contrast of wavy and rigid +lines, and the happy way in which the architectural suggestion of arch +and pillars has been translated into ornament. As this sketch was not +made so much for the chair itself as for its enriched back, no +measurements have been taken; otherwise chairs, as such, depend very +much upon exact dimensions for their proportions. This chair is at +Exning in Suffolk. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.] + +Now we shall suppose that you are going to make many such sketches +both in museums and in country churches or houses. You will find some +too elaborate for drawings in the time at your disposal, in which case +you should obtain a photograph, if possible, making notes of any detail +which you wish particularly to remember--such, for instance, as the +carved chest shown in Plate I. The subject, St. George and the Dragon, +is given with various incidents all in the one picture. This is a +valuable and suggestive piece of work to have before you, as the manner +in which the pictorial element has been managed is strikingly +characteristic of the carver's methods, and well adapted to the +conditions of a technique which has no other legitimate means of dealing +with distant objects. The king and queen, looking out of the palace +windows, are _almost_ on the same scale as the figures in the +foreground; the walls of the houses, roofs, etc., have apparently quite +as much projection as the foreground rocks--distance is inferred rather +than expressed. The very simple construction, too, is worth noting. It +is practically composed of three boards, a wide one for the picture, and +two narrower ones for ends and feet. + +The object in making these sketches should be mainly to collect a +variety of ideas which may brighten the mind when there is occasion to +use its inventive faculties. Suggestive hints are wanted; rarely will it +be possible, or wise, to repeat anything exactly as you see it. These +sketches, if made with care, and from what Constable used to call +"breeding subjects," will give your fancy a very necessary point of +vantage, from which it may hazard flights of its own. + +As much of our knowledge must necessarily be gained from museums, and as +they now form such an important feature of educational machinery, I +think it will be well to devote a word or two of special notice to the +drawbacks which accompany their many advantages. This I propose to do in +the following chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +MUSEUMS + + + False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment as + Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records of + Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time. + + +A new world of commerce and machinery, having slain and forgotten a past +race of artist craftsmen, makes clumsy atonement by sweeping together +the fragments of their work and calling the collection a museum. From +the four corners of the earth these relics have been gathered. Our +hungry minds are bidden to make choice according to fancy, for here is +variety of food! Here are opportunities, never before enjoyed by mortal, +for an intellectual feast!--and of a kind which might be considered +god-like, were it not for the suspicion of some gigantic joke. That out +of all this huge mass of chaotic material we have not as yet been able +to make for ourselves some living form of art, must indeed be to the +gods a continual subject of merriment. + +Museums of art are in no respect the unmixed blessings which they appear +to be. They have, to be sure, all the advantages of handy reference; +but at the same time, on account of the great diversity in the character +of their exhibits, they tend to encourage the spread of a patchy kind of +knowledge, far from being helpful to the arts in the interests of which +they are established. It must be remembered that, in these collections, +all specimens of architecture and architectural carving are invariably +seen in false positions. All have been wrenched from their proper +settings, and placed, more or less at random, in lights and +relationships never contemplated by their designers. To the environment +of a piece of architecture, and the position and surroundings of carved +decorations, are due quite half of their interest as works of art. +Deprive them of these associations, and little is left but fragmentary +specimens of handicraft, more or less unintelligible in their lonely +detachment, misleading to the eye, and dangerous as objects of +imitation, in proportion to the dependence they once had upon those +absent and unknown associations. + +The educational purpose which these collections are intended to serve is +liable to be construed into an unreasoning assumption that every +specimen exhibited is equally worthy of admiration. How often the +plodding student is to be seen carefully drawing and measuring work of +the dullest imaginable quality, with no other apparent reason for his +pathetically wasted industry! + +It would be strange, indeed, if all in this vast record of past activity +was of equal value; if merely to belong to the past was a sure warrant +that such work was the best of its kind. Far from this being the case, +it requires the constant use of a more or less trained and critical +judgment to separate what is good from the indifferent or really bad in +these collections, for all are usually present. There is inequality in +artistic powers, in technical skill, and a distinction of yet greater +importance, which lies in the significance the works bear as records of +the inner life of their creators. Artists, carvers in particular, are +the true scribes and historians of their times. Their works are, as it +were, books--written in words of unconscious but fateful meaning. Some +are filled with the noblest ideals, expressed in beautiful and serious +language, while others contain nothing but sorry jests and stupidities. + +As all the works of the past, whether good or bad, are the achievements +of men differing but little from ourselves, save in the direction of +their energies and in their outward surroundings, there is surely some +clue to the secret of their success or failure, some light to be thrown +by their experience upon our own dubious and questioning spirit. + +What better could we look for in this respect than a little knowledge of +the lives led by the carvers themselves, a mental picture of their +environment, an acquired sense of the influence which this, that, or the +other set of conditions must have imposed upon their work. With a little +aid from history in forming our judgments, their works themselves will +assist us--so faithful is the transcript of their witness--for, with +more certainty than applies to handwriting, a fair guess may be made by +inference from the work itself as to the general status and ideals of +the workman. The striking analogy between its salient characteristics +and the prevailing mood of that ever-changing spirit which seeks +expression in the arts, is nowhere more marked than in the work of the +carver. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE + + + Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise + Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character. + + +It is high time now that we had some talk about the studies from nature +which are to furnish you with subjects for your work. I shall at present +deal only with studies of foliage, as that is what you have been +practising, and I wish you to carry on your work and studies as much as +possible on the same lines. + +Between the few abstract forms, representing a general type of foliage, +so dear to the heart of the medieval carver, and the unstinted variety +of choice displayed in the works of Grinling Gibbons and his time, there +is such a wide difference that surely it points to a corresponding +disparity of aim. Although there is no doubt whatever that such a +striking change of views must have had its origin in some deeper cause +than that which is to be explained by artistic and technical +development, yet I think that for our immediate purpose we shall find a +sufficiently good lesson in comparing the visible results of the two +methods. Broadly speaking, then, the medieval carver cared more for +general effect than for possibilities of technique. He therefore chose +only such natural forms as were amenable to his preconceived +determination to make his work telling at a distance. He had no +botanical leanings, and rejected as unfit every form which would not +bend to his one purpose--that of decoration on a large scale--and which +he aimed at making comprehensive at a glance, rather than calling for +attention to its details. He invented patterns which he knew would +assist in producing this result, and here he further handicapped his +choice by limiting it to such forms as would repeat or vanish at +regulated intervals, reflecting light or producing shadow just where it +was wanted to emphasize his pattern. + +The more modern carver, on the contrary, offered an all-embracing +welcome to every form which presented itself to his notice. He rejected +nothing which could by any possibility be carved. Nothing was too small, +too thin, or too difficult for his wonderful dexterity with the carving +tools. His chief end was elaboration of detail, and it was often +carried to a point which ignored the fact that nearly all of it would +become invisible when in position, or, if seen at all, would only appear +in confused lumps and unintelligible masses. + +Now, for many reasons, I think we had better take the medieval method as +our model up to a point, and make a certain selection of material for +our studies, based upon some relation to general effect, but not +necessarily imitating a medieval austerity of rejection, which would be +the merest affectation on our part. Upon these principles, and taking +somewhat of a middle course, I shall here note a few types of foliage +which I think may be useful to you in the work upon which you are +engaged. + +Leaf forms, with their appropriate flowers or fruit, afford the carver a +very large proportion of his subject material. They serve him as +principal subject, as bordering or background to figures of men or +animals; they occur as mere detached spots, to break the monotony of +spaces or lines; and in a thousand other ways give exercise to his +invention. + +As a general rule, those leaves with serrated, or deeply cleft and +indented edges, lend themselves most readily to decorative treatment. +Large, broad leaves, with unbroken surfaces, and triangular or rounded +outlines, are less manageable. Those most commonly taken as models are: + +_The Vine, with its Grapes._--This was freely used by medieval carvers, +at first for its symbolic significance, but afterward even more on +account of its rare beauty of form. The play of light and shade on its +vigorous foliage, the variety of its drawing in leaf, vine, and tendril, +and the contrast afforded by its bunches of oval fruit, caused it to be +accepted as a favorite subject for imitation in all kinds of carving. It +lends itself kindly to all sorts of relief, either high or low, in +almost any material. It is so recognizable, even in the rudest attempts +at imitation, that its popularity is well deserved. + +The hop-vine shares some of these qualities, though much less strongly +marked in character. + +_The Acanthus._--This leaf was first adapted for the purpose of ornament +by the workmen of classical Greece. The inspiration was one of the few +which they took directly from nature's models. It was also freely used +by medieval carvers, but with an insistence upon the flowing and +rounded character of its surface forms; and again by the Renaissance +artists, with a return to its classical character of fluted and formal +strength of line. The graceful drawing of its elaborately articulated +surface, and the extraordinary accentuation of its outline, provide an +endless source of suggestion. It has been adapted in all manners, +according to the fancy of the carver--sometimes long and drawn out, at +others wide and spreading. Altogether it has been more thoroughly +"generalized" than any other natural form. + +_The Oak, with its Acorns_, appears in early medieval work, but without +much attempt to represent its form with anything like individual +character. In later work it has more justice done to its undoubted +merits as a decorative feature by a clearer recognition of its beauty in +clumps and masses. Fruit, other than the grape and a nondescript kind of +berry, was seldom represented by medieval craftsmen; it formed, however, +a marked feature in Renaissance ornament, where pomegranate, apple, fig, +and melon were in constant requisition. + +_Flowers_ in general were very little used in early times, and then only +in a highly abstract form corresponding to that of the foliage. The rose +and lily were the two most frequently seen, but they seldom had more +individuality about them than was sufficient to make them recognizable. +During the Renaissance flowers were treated with much more regard to +their inherent beauties, and were represented with great skill and power +of imitation, although often carried beyond legitimate limits in this +direction. When dealt with as ornaments, rather than botanical details, +they form a rich source of suggestion to the carver, and offer a ready +means of contrast with masses of foliage. The rose and lily are such +conspicuous flowers that they should, in modern times, be used in a way +consistent with our demands for individual character and likeness. They +should be fairly well defined and easily recognizable. It is quite +possible to treat these flowers in a very realistic way, without +endangering their effect as decorative details: they have both such +distinguished forms in flower and foliage. + +Flowers should be chosen for their _forms_; color should not be allowed +to deceive the eye in this respect, unless the color itself is +suggestive of lines and contours. + +_Foliage_ should always be studied at its prime, never when it is dried +and contorted in its forms. + +Here is a short list of subjects, including those I have mentioned, all +having a sufficiently pronounced character to make them valuable as +stock in trade. Many more might be named, but these are chosen as being +commonly familiar, and as being representative types of various forms. + +_For their Leaves and Fruit._--The grapevine, hop-vine, globe artichoke, +tomato, apple, plum, pear, bramble, and strawberry. + +_For Fruit and Vine-like Growths (leafage too massive and smooth to be +of much value without adaptation)._--The melon, vegetable-marrow, +pumpkins, and cucumber. + +_For Leafage, Flowers, or Seed Vessels._--The acanthus, oak, thistles, +teazle, giant hemlock, cow-parsley, buttercup. + +_Of Garden Flowers._--The rose, lily, larkspur, peony, poppies, +columbine, chrysanthemum, tulip, Christmas rose, Japanese anemone. + +_For Close and Intricate Designs._--Periwinkle, winter aconite, +trefoils of various kinds. + +Many valuable hints on this subject may be gleaned by a study of +Gerrard's Herbal, which is full of well-drawn illustrations, done in a +way which is very suggestive to the designer. + +A careful study of the outline forms of leaves is a schooling in itself, +so much may be learned from it. It teaches the relation between form and +growth in a way which makes it possible to use the greatest freedom of +generalization without violating structural laws. The same causes which +govern the shaping of a tree are present in the leaf, settling its final +outline, so that, however wandering and fantastic it may appear, there +is not the smallest curve or serration which does not bear witness to a +methodical development, and to every accidental circumstance which +helped or hindered its fulfilment. + +You could not do better than make a collection of suitable leaves, press +them flat and trace them very carefully, keeping the tracings together +in a book for reference. Accompanying this you should have in each case +a drawing of the leaf as it appears in its natural state, always being +careful to do this from a point of view which will accommodate itself to +carving the leaf if you should have occasion to use it. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CARVING ON FURNITURE + + + Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of + Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is + Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.] + +You will find in the illustrations, Figs. 53 to 62, certain suggestions +for various pieces of furniture. They are given with the intention of +impressing upon you the fact that very little carving can be done at all +without some practical motive as a backbone to your fancies. To be +always carving inapplicable panels is very dull work, and only good for +a few preliminary exercises. It is much better to consider the matter +well, and resolve upon some "opus," which will spread your efforts over +a considerable period. When you have decided upon the piece of furniture +which is most likely to be useful to you, and which lies within your +powers of design and execution, then make a drawing for it, and have it +made by a joiner (unless you can make it entirely yourself), to be put +together in loose pieces for convenience of carving, and glued up when +that is finished. You should certainly design the piece yourself, as you +should make all your own designs for the carving. The two departments +must be carried on in the closest relation to each other while the work +is in progress, otherwise their association will not be complete when it +is finished. Take, for instance, the head of the bed in the +illustration. Why should it stand up so high, like the gable of a house? +It is for no other reason than to give an opportunity for carving. A +plain board of half the height would have been just as effective as a +protection to the sleeper. Useless as carving may be from this practical +point of view, it must nevertheless be amenable to utilitarian laws. It +must be smooth where it is likely to be handled, as in the case of the +knobs on top of the posts; and even where it is not likely to be +handled, but may be merely touched occasionally, it should still have an +inviting smoothness of surface. As a matter of fact, all carving on a +bed should be of this kind, with no deep nooks or corners to hold dust. +Here, then, are a number of conditions, which, instead of being a +hindrance, are really useful incentives to fresh invention. Just as the +construction of joiner's work entails concessions on the part of the +carver, so the carver may ask the joiner to go a little out of his way +in order to give opportunities for his carving. A little knowledge of +this subject will make a reasonable compromise possible. + +You will find a further advantage in undertaking a fairly large piece of +work. As it is almost certain to be in several parts, each may thus +receive a different treatment, by which means you not only obtain +contrast, but get some idea of the extraordinary power with which one +piece of carving affects another when placed in juxtaposition. Whatever +designs you may decide upon, should you undertake to carve the panels +for a bed, let them be in decidedly low relief. The surface must be +smoothly wrought, doing away with as much of the tool marking as you +can, but this smoothing to be done entirely with the tools, not by any +means with glass paper. Great attention must be paid to the drawing of +the forms, as it is by this that the impression of modeling and +projection will be expressed. A very pleasant treatment of such low +relief when a smooth and even appearance is wanted, is to carve the +ground to the full depth, say 1/8 in., only along the outlines of the +design, and form the remainder into a kind of raised cushion, almost +level in the middle with the original surface of the wood. The whole +design need thus be little more than a kind of deepish engraving, +depending for its effect upon broad lights defined by the engraved +shadows. See Fig. 54 for an example of this treatment applied to +letters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.] + +Now I expect you to make a fresh design. The illustrations in all such +cases are purposely drawn in a somewhat indefinite way, in order that +they may suggest, without making it possible to copy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.] + +Now we come to the mirror frame, Fig. 55. I should suggest that this be +done in some light-colored wood like pear-tree, which has an agreeably +warm tone, or if a hard piece of cedar can be found, it would look well, +but in no case should polish be added except that which comes from the +tool. The construction need not be complicated. Take two 3/4-in. boards, +glue them together to form the width, shape out the frame in the rough. +Put behind this another frame of 3/4-in. thick stuff, and make the +cornice out of wood about 1-1/2 in. thick. The parts to be kept separate +until the carving is finished, and afterward glued or screwed together. +The carving on the body of the frame, that is, in the gable above and +the front of bracket below, should be in very low relief, the lower +part being like the last, a kind of engraving. The fret above may be +sunk about 1/16 in. and the ground slightly cushioned. The carving on +sides and cornice is of a stronger character, and may be cut as deeply +as the wood will allow, while the cornice is actually pierced through in +places, showing the flat board behind. The design for this cornice +should have some repeating object, such as the kind of pineapple-looking +thing in the illustration, and its foliage should be formed with plenty +of well-rounded surfaces, that may suggest some rather fat and juicy +plant. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.] + +In Fig. 56 you have a suggestion for carving a bench or settle, the +proportions of which have been taken from one found at a Yorkshire +village inn. The actual measurements are given in order that these +proportions may be followed. It is a well-known fact, that chairs, or +seats of any kind, can not be successfully designed on paper with any +hope of meeting the essential requirements of comfort, lightness, and +stability. Making seats is a practical art, and the development of the +design is a matter of many years of successive improvements. A good +model should therefore be selected and copied, with such slight +changes as are necessary where carving is to be introduced. The main +lines should not be interfered with on any account, nor should the +thickness of the wood be altered if possible. The carving on this settle +is intended to be in separate panels, about two inches apart. These +panels will look all the better if no two are quite alike; a good way to +give them more variety will be to make every alternate one of some kind +of open pattern, like a fret. These piercings need not extend all over +the design in the panel in every case: some may have only a few shapely +holes mixed up with the lines, others again may be formed into complete +frets with as much open as solid. (See Fig. 57.) + +The carving should be shallow, and not too fine in detail, as it will +get a great deal of rubbing. The material should be, if possible, oak; +but beech may be used with very good effect--in neither case should it +be stained or polished. + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.] + +Fig. 58 is a clock case. Something of this kind would make an excellent +"opus" such as I have alluded to, and give plenty of scope for +invention. As clocks of this kind are generally hung on a wall, the +brackets, from a practical point of view, are of course unnecessary, but +as it is important that they should _look_ as if they were supported and +to satisfy the eye, something in the way of a bracket or brackets is +generally added. A bracket like the one in the illustration, not being a +real support constructively speaking, but only put there to give +assurance that such has not been overlooked or neglected, becomes a kind +of toy, and may be treated as such by adding some little fancy to make +it amusing, and give an excuse for making a feature of it. This will be +a good place to try your hand at some modest attempt at figure work. In +designing your bracket, should you wish to introduce a little figure of +man or beast, I think you will find it more satisfactory if the figure +is separated from the structural part by a slight suggestion of solid +surroundings of its own. Thus the little roof over, and the solid bit of +wood under, the figure in the illustration serve this purpose, lending +an appearance of steadiness which would be wanting in a bracket formed +of a detached figure. At any rate, never make your figures, whether of +man or beast, seem to carry the clock; you may hunch them up into any +shape you like, but no weight should be supposed to rest upon them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.] + +For sake of the carving, oak will be the best wood to employ in making +this clock, or one like it, but Italian walnut will do equally well. The +size should be fairly large, say about three feet over all in height. +This will give a face of about ten inches in diameter, which face will +look best if made of copper gilt, and not much of it, perhaps a mere +ring, with the figures either raised or cut out, leaving nothing but +themselves and two rings surrounding. This should project from the wood, +leaving a space of about one inch. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.] + +If you are inclined to try a heavier piece of work, the bench or +settle-end in Fig. 59 may give you a suggestion. In this there is a bird +introduced in the shape of a cock roosting on the branch of a tree. It +would require to be done in a thick piece of wood, say 3 ins. thick, and +would be best in English oak. The idea will be, to cut away the wood +from the outer lower portion, leaving only about 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 in. +thickness, but at the top retaining the full thickness; in which the +bird must be carved, the outer edges being kept full thickness in order +to give the structural form and enclose the carving. The inside of this +upper part, toward the seat, should also be carved, but with a smooth +and shallow pattern of some kind, as both may be seen together, and in +contrast to each other. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.] + +The introduction of figures leads me to a subject which it will be +better to discuss in the next chapter, i.e., the question as to how far +it is possible or consistent with present conditions to attempt +anything that may bear the character of humor. But in the meantime here +are three more subjects upon which fancy and ingenuity may be expended +with profit. In Fig. 60 you have a heraldic subject. In all such cases +the heraldry should be true, and not of the "bogus" kind. This shield +represents a real coat of arms, and was done from a design by Philip +Webb, being finally covered with gesso, silvered and painted in +transparent colors. + +Figs. 61 and 62 are suggestions for wooden crosses, oak being the best +material to use for such a purpose. The carving should be so arranged as +to form some kind of pattern on the cross. In Fig. 62 the black trefoils +are supposed to be cut right through the thin pieces of wood forming the +center portion, and the carving on that part is very shallow. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING + + + Misproportion not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The Sham + Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to the + Carver. + + +The dullness which comes of "all work and no play" may be said to affect +the carver at times. He tires of carving leaves and ornaments: what more +natural than to seek change and amusement in the invention of droll +figures of men or animals? The enjoyment which we all feel in +contemplating the outcome of this spirit in ancient work, leads us to +the imitation of both subject and manner, hoping thereby that the same +results may be obtained; but somehow the repetition is seldom attended +with much success, while of original fancies of the same sort we are +obliged to confess ourselves almost destitute. Who can behold the +fantastic humors of Gothic carvings without being both amused and +interested? Those grotesque heads with gaping mouths recall the stories +of childhood, peopled with goblins and gnomes. It is all so natural, and +so much in keeping with the architecture which surrounds it, the carving +is so rude and simple, that it seems absurd when some authority on such +matters makes a statement to the effect that all such expression of +humor has become forever impossible to ourselves. + +This important part of the question must be left to your own meditation, +to settle according to your lights; experience will probably lead you +ultimately to the same opinion. Meantime, the point I wish to impress +upon you is this, that until you feel yourself secure, and something of +a master of various branches of your craft, you should not attempt any +subject which aims at being decidedly grotesque. There are very good and +practical reasons for this; one is, that while you are studying your +art, you must do nothing that may tend to obscure what faculties you +have for judging proportion. Now, as all grotesque work is based more or +less on exaggeration, it forms a very dangerous kind of exercise to the +beginner, therefore I should never allow a pupil of mine to so much as +attempt it. Do not think that I wish to discourage every effort which +has not an ultra-serious aim. On the contrary, I am but taking a rather +roundabout way to an admission that the humorous element has, and must +have at all times, a powerful attraction for the wood-carver; and to the +statement of an opinion that it should not be allowed to take a +prominent place in the work of a student; moreover, that it is quite +possible to find in nature a varied and unfailing source of suggestion +in this respect (more, in fact, than we are ever likely to account for), +and which requires no artificial exaggeration to aid its expression. +Some tincture of the faculty is absolutely necessary to the carver who +takes his subjects from birds or beasts, in order that he may perceive +and seize the salient lines and characteristic forms, of which the +key-note is often to be found in a faint touch of humor, and which, like +the scent of a flower, adds charm by appealing to another sense. + +The same argument applies to the treatment of the human figure. Let no +student (and I may include, also, master-carver) think that a grotesque +treatment will raise the smile or excite the interest which is +anticipated. The "grotesque" is a vehicle for grim and often terrible +ideas, lightly veiled by a cloak of humorous exaggeration; a sort of +Viking horse-play--it is, in fact, a language which expresses the mixed +feelings of sportive contempt and real fear in about equal proportions. +When these feelings are not behind the expression, it becomes a language +which is in itself only contemptible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.] + +If, carried away by fancy, you must find vent for its impulses, and +carve images of unearthly beings, at least make them cheerful looking; +one can imagine such demons and goblins as being rather nice fellows +than otherwise. A grim jest that fails is generally a foolish one--at +least its perpetrator neither deserves nor receives sympathy for his +discomfiture. Now, I shall show you one or two examples which may make +this matter a little clearer to you, if you are at all inclined to argue +the position. I think, at any rate, they will prove that the expression +of humor does not always depend upon exaggeration, and may exist in a +work which is, one may say, almost copied from nature. Fig. 63 is an +example to this effect. The little jester just emerging from a flower, +one of the side-pieces to a Miserere seat carving, is undoubtedly a true +portrait, carved without the slightest attempt at exaggeration. The +quiet humor which it evinces required only sympathy to perceive and +skill to portray on the part of its carver. He had nothing to invent in +the common acceptation of the word. The carving of the mendicant, which +comes on the other side, is equally vivid in its truth to nature. It is +so lifelike that we do not notice the humorous enjoyment of the artist +in depicting the whining lips and closed eyes of the professional +beggar. Observe the good manners of it all--the natural refinement of +the artist who leaves his characters to make all the fun, without +intrusion from himself other than to give the aid of his skill in +representation. Now, subjects of this class will, in all probability, +present themselves until the end of the world; but artists like this +Gothic one are not so likely to be common. Great technical skill, a +large fund of vitality, and many other controlling qualities are +necessary to the production of such an artist; but he gives a clue to +the right action, which we may with safety accept, even if we can not +hope to equal his performance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.] + +The center-piece, Fig. 64, tells a little story of Samson. It is +noticeable in these medieval picture subjects, how, when a story has to +be told, the details are treated in a broad and distinct fashion, as if +the story could take care of itself, and only required to be stated +clearly as to facts. The detached ornamental parts, on the contrary, +receive a degree of careful attention not given to the picture, +seemingly with the object of making their loneliness attractive. + +The broad-humor characteristic of the companion picture of medieval +life, in the little domestic scene, Fig. 65, is equally free from forced +exaggeration or intentional misproportion. Scale and anatomy, to be +sure, have had little consideration from the carver, but we readily +forgive the inaccuracies in this respect, on account of his quick wit in +devising means to an end. + +Before we leave this subject, look at Plate II, in which you will see a +curious use of misproportion--intentional, too, in this case--and used +for quite other than humorous purposes. This is a little ornamental +figure from the tomb of Henry IV, in Canterbury Cathedral. You will see +that the body is out of all proportion; too small for the head which +surmounts it, or too big for the feet upon which it stands. Now, what +could have induced the carver to treat a dainty little lady thus? It +certainly was not that he considered it an improvement upon nature, nor +was it a joke on his part. It could only be done for some practical +reason such as this: that the little figure does part duty as a bracket, +hence, more appearance of solidity is required at the top, and less at +the foot, than true proportions would admit. It is all done so +unostentatiously that one might look for hours at the figure without +noticing the license. Not that I should advise you to imitate this +naive way out of a difficulty. The childlike simplicity of its treatment +succeeds where conscious effort would only end in affectation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.] + +In Fig. 66 you will see another little figure doing duty in connection +with a stall division in the Lady Chapel at Winchester Cathedral. Its +smooth roundness of form is very appropriate to the position it +occupies; while its polished surface bears ample testimony that it has +given no offense to the touch of the many hands which have rested upon +it. + +Fig. 67 shows another example of the same sort, but perched on a lower +part of the division. This one is from the cathedral at Berne, each +division of the stalls having a different figure, of which this is a +type. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS + + + The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality Better than Dull + "Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for + Town-Bred Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline + Drawing and Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies, + Sections, and Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use + and Abuse. + + +Nothing enlivens or gives more variety of interest to wood-carving than +the introduction of animal forms. They make agreeable halting-places on +which the eye may rest with pleasure. They are, in general, both +beautiful in their shapes and associated with ideas which appeal +strongly to the imagination, thus affording in masses of abstract +ornament the pleasantest kind of relief by adding to it points of +definite lineament and meaning. + +To carve animals as they ought to be carved, one must have something +more than a passing interest in their forms; there must be included also +an understanding of their natures, and some acquaintance with their +habits. A cattle-drover is likely to know the salient points of a +bullock, a horse-breeder all those connected with a horse, and so on. We +students, however, not having the advantage of such accurate and +personal knowledge, must make shift in the best way we can to discover +and note the points so familiar to trained eyes. To see animals in this +way, and, with knowledge of their forms and habits, treat their +sculptured images according to the laws of our craft, is no light task. +If choice were to be made between a rude manner of carving--but which +familiarity with the subject invested with lively recognition of +character--and a more cultured and elaborate, but lifeless study in +natural history, there should be no hesitation in making choice of the +former method, because animal forms, without some indication of +vitality, are the dullest of all dull ornaments. + +It is quite impossible to describe in words the kind of "action" which +is most appropriate to sculpture, it being much more a question of +treatment, and the guiding spirit of the moment, than a subject which +can be formulated. As a broad and general principle which may be taken +for guidance, you will always find yourself on surer ground in the +attempt to indicate the _capacity_ for energy and the suggestion of +_movement_, than you will if your aim is the extremity of action in any +direction. You may, with some justice, point to the illustration given +in Fig. 65, and which appears to contradict this statement, as being an +example in which violent action is the key-note. You must notice, +however, that the two figures, although struggling, are for the moment +still, or may be supposed so. There is enough suggestion of this +pause to excuse the attitudes and save the composition from +restlessness--even the raised hands may be supposed to remain in the +same position for a second or two. This imaginary pause, however +infinitesimal, is essential to the dignity of the sculptor's art, as +nothing is more irritating to the mind than being forced to recognize +the contradiction between a motionless image and its suggestion of +restless action. It is necessary to observe the same rule in the +expression of actual repose, as some clue must be given, some completed +action be suggested, in order to distinguish dormant energy from +downright inertia. I should like to impress upon you the importance of +making a special study of the characteristic movements of animals. You +will in time become so far familiar with them that certain standards of +comparison and contrast will be established in your mind as aids to +memory. Thus you will be all the better able to carve with significance +the measured and stately action of a horse, if you have in your mind's +eye at the same time a picture of the more cumbrous and slower movements +of a cow; and you will be helped in the same way when you are carving a +dog, by remembering that the movements of a cat afford a striking +contrast, in being stealthy where the other is nervous and quick. + +For the unfortunate town-bred student or artist, who has had few +opportunities to study birds and beasts familiar to the country +schoolboy, there is no other way but to make the best of stuffed birds, +photographs, etc. Much may be done with these aids if a little personal +acquaintance with their habits and associations is added like salt, to +keep the second-hand knowledge sweet and wholesome. + +In the absence of opportunity for study from the life, no pictures of +animals can compare in their usefulness to the carver with those by +Bewick. They are so completely developed in essential details, so full +of character and expressive of life, that even when personal +acquaintance has been made with their various qualities, a glance at one +of his engravings of birds or beasts conveys new meaning, either of +gesture or attitude, to what we have previously learned. Every student +who wishes to make a lively representation in carving of familiar beast +or bird should study Bewick's engravings of "Quadrupeds" and "Birds." + +Drawings made for the purpose of study need not be elaborate: indeed, +such drawings are only embarrassing to work from. The most practical +plan is to make a drawing in which the main masses are given correctly, +and in about the same relative position that they will occupy in the +carving. I give you in Plate VII an example of this in a drawing made by +Philip Webb, who, by the study of a lifetime, has amassed a valuable +store of knowledge concerning animals, and acquired that extraordinary +skill in their delineation and the expression of character which is only +to be attained by close observation and great sympathy with the subject. +The drawing in question was made for myself at the time I was carving a +lion for the cover of a book (given in Plate VIII). It was made, in his +good-natured way, to "help a lame dog over a stile," as I had got into +difficulties with the form. This drawing is all that a carver's first +diagram should be, and gives what is always the first necessity in such +preliminary outlines--that is, the right relationship of the main +masses, and the merest hint of what is to come in the way of detail; all +of which must be studied separately, but which would be entirely +useless if a wrong start had been made. In Fig. 68 I give you tracings +from some notes I made myself while carving the sheep in Plates V and +VI. The object was to gain some definite knowledge of form by noting the +relation of planes, sections of parts, projections, etc., etc. The +section lines and side-notes are the most valuable part of the +memoranda. In the same manner the illustration, Fig. 69, shows diagrams +made from a heron, giving section lines of beak, etc. + +The side-notes about the colors are valuable, as, although not +translatable into carving, they do to some extent influence the manner +of interpreting forms. + +Photographs must not be despised, but they are only of use if read by +the light of previous knowledge. For this reason you can not make too +many notes of sectional structure through heads, necks, and legs, which +will help to explain the mystery common to all photographs. + +The bear shown in the frontispiece is traced from a photographic +illustration which appeared in the Westminster Budget some time ago. By +the merest accident it is suggestive of a subject almost ready for the +carver's hand. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.] + + +Until tourists began to explore the beauties of Switzerland, there were +no better carvers of animals than the serious but genial craftsmen of +that noble country, more especially of such animals as were familiar to +their eyes. This preeminence shows distinct signs of soon becoming a +thing of the past in the endeavors to meet the demands created by +thoughtless visitors. Still, it is possible to obtain a little of the +traditional work, uninfluenced by that fatal impetus originating in +modern commerce. A piece of this kind is shown in Fig. 70, bought by a +friend only a year or two ago in the Grindelwald, and which, although +forming part of the usual stock of such things made for tourist +consumption, was picked out with judicious discrimination from a number +of stupid and trivial objects which displayed neither interest of design +nor other than mechanical skill of carving. This little bear, a few +inches in size, is carved in a way which shows long experience of the +subject, and great familiarity with the animal's ways. The tooling of +the hair is done with the most extraordinary skill, and without the +waste of a single touch. Now, a word or two more on studies from the +life before we leave this subject. I have given you examples of +diagrams made for this purpose, but much may be done without any +drawings, further than a preliminary map of the general masses. In the +case of such an animal as the horse, which can be seen in every street, +I have myself found it useful to follow them in my walks, taking mental +note of such details as I happened to be engaged upon, such as its legs +and joints, its head or neck; another day I would confine my attention +to eyes, ears, mane, etc., always with reference to the work +immediately in hand, as that is the time to get the best results from +life study; because the difficulties have presented themselves, and one +knows exactly what to look for. Five minutes spent thus after the work +has been started (provided the start has been right and involves no +mistake in the general masses) is more valuable than hours of labor in +making preliminary drawings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.] + +The use of experimental models in clay or wax has, of course, its +advantages, but it will be well to know just how far such an aid is +valuable, and at what point its use becomes hurtful to one's work. It is +a common practise in large carving shops for one man to design the +figure or animal subjects in clay, while another carves them in stone or +wood. Now, apart from the difference in material and the unnatural +"division of labor," which we have discussed before, it is beyond +question that a model of this kind has even a more paralyzing effect on +the actual carver than a drawing would have. Of course, the work is more +certain to reach a recognized standard, and the risk of total failure is +reduced to a minimum, but there is literally nothing left for the +carver to invent; who, if he is a man with a turn for that kind of +thing, and of a nervous temperament, must suffer untold irritation in +its execution. The good and bad results of the use of a modeled pattern +attend in a modified degree even where both are done by the same hand, +but for all that it is a useful and convenient way of making experiments +in doubtful passages of the work. The "how far" a model is to be carried +must be regulated by the amount of confidence the carver has in his own +foresight, but in any case it is always well to remember the difference +of treatment required in plaster, clay, and hard wood, which lead to +such different results that often fresh difficulty arises in having to +translate the one manner into the other. For the purpose of roughing out +the general scheme, the clay, if it must be resorted to, should be used +in soft masses, then a drawing in outline made from this; but all +doubtful detailed work should be carved, not modeled, and for this +purpose the clay should be allowed to harden until it is nearly dry. + +The opinions of the well-known wood-carver, Mr. W. Aumonier, on this +subject, will be of value to you; he says with regard to the best +method of going to work: "A fresh piece of wood-carving executed without +a model is distinctly a created work," and that much good work may come +by "chopping boldly at a block without any preconceived design, but +designing as you go on." But he thinks it is best to work from drawings; +"rough, full-size charcoal cartoons, which give the effect wanted by +their light and shade." He also says that he "strongly protests against +the too frequent use of clay or plaster models, because they are often +worse than useless, and not infrequently absolutely immoral in their +tendency, because they absorb time and money, which ought more +legitimately to be spent on the carving itself." + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF + + + Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused + Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses. + + +I have spoken of the necessity for careful balance between the outlines +of subject and background: that both should be agreeable in shape. This +becomes complicated and more difficult to arrange when we admit into our +design anything resembling what painters call foreshortening, and the +awkwardness is felt even in the placing of such a small thing as an +apple-leaf, which may be treated in such a way that the intention of the +drawing is entirely lost in the confusion which arises between the +inferred and the actual projection. + +In designing such subjects it will be good to bear in mind as a guiding +principle that no matter what excuse there may be in the nature of the +inferred position of the leaf or limb, the outline against the +background must be at once agreeable and explanatory. + +Every kind of work in relief develops a species of compromise in the +expression of form, lying somewhere between the representation of an +object on a perfectly flat ground, as in a painting, and the complete +realization of the same form, copied from nature in some solid material, +without any background whatever. In proportion to the amount of actual +projection from the background, of course the necessity diminishes for +that kind of foreshortening which is obtained by delineation. It might +be inferred, therefore, that in very low relief--which is more nearly +akin to the nature of a picture--more liberty may be taken in this +direction. It is not so, however, for where actual depth or projection +exists, as in carving, be it only so much as the depth of a line, it +makes foreshortening well-nigh impossible, except to a very limited +extent. There must be, of course, _some_ appearance of this quality, so +a certain conventional standard has been set up, beyond which one only +ventures at one's own risk. Thus, care is taken that every object +composing the subject lies with its _longest lines_ parallel to the +background. In this way the least possible violence is done to the +imagination in completing the picture. As an example, no single leaf +should be represented in relief as turning or coming forward more than +it would do if plucked from the tree and laid loosely down upon a sheet +of paper. A, Fig. 71, is an outline of an apple-leaf pressed out flat. B +is an attempt to present it in violent foreshortening, showing its back +to the spectator, while its point is supposed to be buried in the +background. C is the same leaf turned the other way, and supposed to be +projecting forward; both are exceedingly awkward and unintelligible as +mere outlines, and if expressed in relief would not be any more +convincing as portraits of the thing intended--rather less so, in fact, +than the diagram, which has no projection to interfere with the drawing. +So we must turn our leaf until it presents its long side more or less to +the spectator, as in D; but even here part of the edge is so thin at _a_ +that it will be better to turn it a little farther, as in E, showing +more of its surface, as at _b_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.] + +Again, if we take as another example two apples, one partly covering the +other, as in _a_, Fig. 72, where one apple is supposed to be behind the +other, and so implies distance. There is no means of expressing this +distance in carving. Lowering the surface of the hindmost apple would +merely throw out the balance of masses without giving a satisfactory +explanation of its position, while to cut a deep groove between the two +would be an equally unsightly expedient. The difficulty should, whenever +it is possible, be avoided by partially separating the two forms, as in +_b_, where the center of the hindmost apple clears the outline of the +other; thus making it possible to get a division without awkwardness. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.] + +A good expedient, where leaf or scroll forms are to be carved, and when +very truthful drawing is necessary to explain their convolutions, is +that adopted by Professor Lethaby at the Royal College of Art. It +consists in cutting the leaf out of a piece of stiffish paper, and with +a knife or pen-handle curling it into the required form. The main lines +will thus be seen in true relation to one another, and all the +distortion avoided which arises from disconnection of parts; not only +that, but it is a useful aid to the invention, as much variety can be +hinted at by a skilful manipulation in curling its lobes. Fig. 73 was +drawn from a paper model of this kind. Of course, it is quite without +the necessary veins or minor articulations, but is useful as a +suggestion of main lines. With regard to subjects containing figures of +men or animals, the same principle governs the placing of the whole body +in the first instance, then of the different members, so that heads, +arms, and legs take up a position as nearly as may be with a piece of +background all to themselves. Thus, no two bodies should be +super-imposed if it can be in any way avoided. (I am speaking now of +moderate and low relief, although even in high relief the best masters +have always respected the principle.) The temptation to imitate effects +of foreshortening for its own sake is not without some excuse, as it is +quite possible to make presentable pictures in this way. A horse, for +instance, may be carved in low relief, presenting either its head or +hindquarters to the spectator, and yet not look absolutely absurd. +Again, a front face may be carved in the same way, notwithstanding the +difficulty presented by the projection of the nose. Neither of these +experiments can ever be said to prove entirely successful. It is not so +much that they are either difficult or impossible, as that a more +suitable method, one more natural to the technique of the carver, is +being neglected, and its many good qualities sacrificed for sake of an +effect which can never be fully realized in sculpture. To so dispose the +various masses, great and small, that they fall easily into groups, each +having some relation to, and share of the background, is a true carver's +artifice. A skilful use of this arrangement makes it quite unnecessary +to encroach upon the domain of another art in the imitation of an +effect which may be successfully rendered with the pencil, but only so +to a very limited extent with the carving tools. + +You have all seen the actors, when called before the curtain at the +close of the play, how they pass before it one by one, and perhaps +joining hands make their bows _in line_, to all appearance, on a very +narrow platform. The curtain is your background, while the footlights +may stand for the surface of your wood. In illustration of this +principle, let me call your attention to the arrangement of the animals +in Plate VI, where economy of space, and a desire to display each detail +to advantage, are the leading motives. I give it as the readiest example +to hand, and because it fairly illustrates the principle in question. +You must excuse the apparent vanity in making choice of one of my own +works to exemplify a canon of art. The sheep at the top is supposed to +be scampering over rocks; the ram below may be any distance from the +sheep that you choose to imagine--the only indication of relative +position is _separation_, by means of a ridge that may pass for a rock. +The head of the ram is somewhat foreshortened, but there was enough +thickness of wood contained in the big mass of the body to allow of +this being done in the smaller mass of the head, without leaving too +much to be supposed. The heads of the sheep in the fold have been as +closely packed as was consistent with showing as much of each as +possible, as it was considered better to give the whole head and no body +than to show only a part of both: most of the bodies, therefore, are +supposed to be hidden behind the wall, only one showing in part. + +It is a general axiom of the craft, that every mass (be it body or leaf) +must be made as complete in itself as the circumstances will allow; but, +if partly hidden, the concealment should be wilful, and without +ambiguity. Thus, a dog's head may be rightly carved as being partly +hidden in a bucket, but ought not to be covered by another head if it is +possible to avoid it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK + + + Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and + Abuse--"Built-up" Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work. + + +By undercutting is meant the cutting away of the solid portions of +projections in such a manner as to make them invisible, thus throwing +the carved surface work into more complete relief by detaching it from +the background. This device has often been carried so far, where the +projection was sufficient, that entire groups of figures and foliage +have been practically detached from the background, like pieces of +separate sculpture carved all round. This desire for completeness of +relief was more or less a departure from the orthodox aims of the +carvers' craft, and led ultimately to what is known as "built-up" +work--that is to say, work in which the projecting parts were composed +of many different pieces of wood, each carved separately, and afterward +glued or pinned together to form the composition. Many of the most +elaborate carvings by Grinling Gibbons are of this kind; they have a +charm of their own, but it is one of quite separate interest, and +belongs to a category entirely removed from the art of carving objects +in a solid piece of wood. Apart from this distinction, the difficulty of +the method requires the most accomplished mechanical skill and a highly +trained eye to either carve or compose such work in a way to command +respect. I shall therefore dismiss this branch of the subject as being +outside of our present limits. + +Undercutting, on the other hand, is an expedient distinctly +characteristic of solid wood-carving, and some experiments ought to be +made by you in designing work in which it can be used. It may be either +partial or complete--complete, of course, only up to a point; that is to +say, the connection with the background must in every case be not only +maintained but visibly demonstrated. Partial undercutting applies to +such portions as the sides of leaves, the receding parts of heads, +wings, etc., where the wood between the object and its background is cut +away on an inward bend, either completing the projecting form, as in +the case of a head, or merely to hide the superfluous wood in the case +of a leaf. All this presupposes a certain amount of elevation in the +relief; indeed, it is only in such cases that the process is necessary +or can be carried out. The use of undercutting of this kind is like +every other technical process, liable to abuse through too much being +made of its effects. Fortunately the time it consumes is a safeguard +against any tendency to run riot in this direction. The point at which +it should in all cases stop, and that relentlessly, is where it begins +to cause a separation between any entire mass of ornament and its +background. If _portions_ are thus relieved almost to complete +detachment, but visibly reconnect themselves in another place, a certain +piquancy is gained which adds charm without destroying character. A +curious use is made of undercutting in the bunch of leaves given in +Plate XI from a Miserere seat in Winchester Cathedral; it may be said to +be completely undercut in so far that the whole bunch is hollowed out +under the surface, leaving from 1/4 to 1/2 in. thickness of wood, in +which the leaves are carved, so that you may put your finger in at one +hole and see it at the bottom of another. The only end all this extra +labor seems to have attained is that of changefulness in the shadows of +the holes between the leaves, in which one sees dark rims with light at +the bottom, a condition which certainly adds a mysterious lightness to +the whole mass. It is a very refined and appropriate use of +undercutting, but would only be possible where time could be spent to +secure a variant of such epicurean delicacy, as all the superfluous wood +must be taken out through the spaces between the leaves, and in this +case they are not overlarge for that purpose. + +Work which has its background entirely cut away, and which is afterward +glued or "planted" on a fresh background to save labor, can not be +called "undercut"; this method has generally a cheap look, as it is used +with the object of saving time and expense. Carving which is treated in +this way, but instead of being "planted" close to the background, is +fixed at a little distance from it (as is the case with the lace-like +designs fitted into the hollow moldings of fifteenth-century +choir-screens), is of quite a different order, although even in this +case it can not be strictly described as undercut: it is more nearly +akin to pierced fretwork. It has, however, all the general effect of +undercut work, and is the only possible way of obtaining this effect in +wood where a large quantity of such ornament is required. The face of +such carving is generally a little convex, while the back is hollowed +out to give an equal thickness of section. The ornaments in Figs. 75, +76, and 77 are of this description, and are calculated to give great +play of light and shade, and be seen well at a considerable distance. + +Undercutting in the strict and more laborious sense must be reserved for +occasions where the labor is repaid by the additional charm. It must be +considered in the light of a _tour de force_, which, on account of its +cost in the matter of time, should only be used under exceptional +circumstances, care being taken to make it clear that it is _an +exception_ to the general rule of solid carving on a solid background. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE + + + The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial + Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible + in a Limited Way. + + +Those vague and shadowy boundaries which separate the domains of the +different arts are being perpetually called in question. By what +landmarks such indefinite frontiers may be distinguished, and how far +they may be extended or transgressed, will always be a matter of +dispute. Excursions of conquest are continually being made, and +conspicuous among these, one which animates the hopes of many sculptors +and modelers. Its aim is the appropriation of those charms which are the +peculiar property of the graphic arts, more especially their power of +expressing the effects of distance by means of linear and aerial +perspective. + +The background of a piece of carving is so obviously solid and +impenetrable that any attempt to imitate an appearance of distance is +sure to defeat its own ends, the loss being greater than the gain. If +there are limits to be observed in the foreshortening of a single leaf, +how much more must they apply to the representation of whole landscapes? +Properly speaking, there is no _distance_ available in the carver's art; +its whole interest lies near the surface, and in the direct rays of the +light which illuminates it. There is even a distinct pleasure to be +derived from the sense that it is all carved out of a block of such and +such thickness, pointing to the reasonable conclusion that this +thickness should never be lost sight of, the carving ever and anon +returning to the surface as a measure of music does to its key-note. +This is exemplified in all the great works of antiquity, among which the +Parthenon frieze may be quoted as evidence. On the other hand, all +pictorial sculpture, such as carved landscapes with figures diminishing +both in scale and projection, necessarily fail to uphold this sense of +solidity, as there must occur large spaces which are hollowed out far +below the surface to give another plane on which to carve the more +distant objects in low relief, in the vain hope of making them appear to +recede. Work in which perspective of this kind is used must be viewed +as nearly as possible from the point of vision produced by its +vanishing-lines; this point is intelligible enough in the case of a +painting, but when it comes to be carved into relief, if it happens to +be seen from any other point of view, it necessarily looks all wrong, +because every part is thrown into false relationship. + +All this, of course, forms no argument against the use of explanatory +landscapes with trees, buildings, etc. It only means that all such +features must be treated in a way entirely different to that adopted by +the painter--that is to say, in detached groups, each having some due +relation to the original surface of the wood, and only very little to +their perspective positions. In Fig. 74 are two diagrams of a landscape +composition. The one is appropriate to a painted picture and the other +to carving; both have pretty nearly the same number of features, except +that in the carving there is no _effect_ of distance attempted, whereas +in the painting everything leads to this one particular distinction. The +road goes _into_ the picture, the bridge is seen end on, the house and +mill are diminished in size, and the horizon is strongly enforced by a +shadow echoed in the sky. The carving looks ridiculous beside the +painting, but it is a severe test, as it is not a subject which should +be carved at all in that condensed way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +ARCHITECTURAL CARVING + + + The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of + Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance + of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the + Carver--Carpenter's Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too + Far. + + +That the study of wood-carving should be confined to the narrow field of +its own performances would be the surest way to bring contempt upon an +art which already offers too many temptations for the easy embodiment of +puerile motives. Such a limited range would exclude all the stimulating +lessons to be derived from the many other kinds of carving and +sculpture; forgetful that they are, after all, but different forms of +the same art, differing only in technique and application. It would take +no note of the stately sculptures of Greece--the fountain-head of all +that is technically and artistically perfect in expression of form--or +of the splendor of imagination displayed in the ivories of Italy. Many +another source of inspiring impetus would be neglected, including the +greatest of all, the influence of architecture, and through it, the +dignified association or the carver's art with all that is noble in the +life of mankind. + +The dry and uninviting aspect which a serious study of architecture +presents to some minds is such that it is too often avoided as both +useless and wearisome. Much of this diffidence is due to a misconception +of the aims which should govern the student of decorative design in +making an acquaintance with its principles. The study should not be +looked upon as pertaining exclusively to the functions of an architect, +nor as having only an accidental connection with particular crafts. It +must be remembered that in the old days mason and carpenter were both +craftsmen and architects, and the sculptor and wood-carver had an equal +share in creating every feature which gives any distinction of style to +the buildings that were the outcome of their united efforts. So, +instead of looking upon the subject as only a study of dates for the +antiquary, and rules of construction for the architect, the carver +should take his own view, and regard architecture for the time being as +what in some sense it really is: a very large kind of carving, which +includes and gives reason for his own particular branch. The importance +of the subject is proved by the experience of centuries; history showing +plainly how the two arts grew in strength and beauty only when closely +associated, and shared each other's fate in proportion to their +estrangement. + +In this place I can say but very little upon such a vast subject; all I +can do is to call your attention to one or two examples of carved work +combined with structural carpentry, in order that you may see for +yourselves what a power of effect lies in that union, and how by +contrast it enhances the value and interest of both. I do this in the +hope that it may possibly lead you to a more complete study of +architecture, for which there is no lack of opportunity in books and +museums, but more especially in what remains of the old buildings +themselves, with which a familiar and personal acquaintance will be +much better than a theoretical or second-hand one. + +No carver with a healthy ambition can long continue to make designs and +produce them in wood without feeling intensely the want of some +architectural occasion for his efforts. Had he only a barge-board to +carve, or the canopy of a porch, it would be such a relief to turn to +its large and general treatment after a course of the panels and +ornaments peculiar to domestic furniture. Look, for instance, at the +carved beams of the aisle roof in Mildenhall Church given in Plate III, +and think what a fund of powerful suggestion lay in the bare timbers +before they were embellished by the carver with lion, dragon, and +knight. Even the carpenter became inspired with a desire to make +something ornamental of his own department, and has shaped and carved +(literally carved) his timbers into graceful moldings. Then, again, in +the roof of Sall Church, Norfolk, shown in Plate IV, you have a noble +piece of carpentry which is as much the work of an artist as the carved +figures and tracery which adorn it--indeed it is all just as truly +carved work as those figures, being chopped out of the solid oak with +larger tools, ax and adze, so that one knows not which to admire most, +carved angels or carved carpentry. + +Plates XI and XII are details of the carvings which fill the spandrels +of arch and gable in the choir stalls and screen at Winchester +Cathedral. There are a great many of these panels similar in character +but differing in design, some having figures, birds, or dragons worked +among the foliage. They are comparatively shallow in relief, and this +appears less than it really is owing to the fact that many parts of the +carving dip down almost to the background, giving definite but not deep +shadows. The main intention seems to have been to allow only enough +shadow to secure the pattern, and then to emphasize this by means of a +multitude of little _illuminated_ masses. The leading lines run through +the pattern as continuously as possible, but the surface of the leafage +is divided up into numbers of little hills and hollows. The sides of +these prominences catch and reflect light more readily than they produce +shadow, so that it is possible to trace the pattern at a considerable +distance by means of the lights alone. Unfortunately for all believers +in the historical evidence of ancient handicrafts, this work was +overhauled some half century ago, and in parts "_restored_." The old +work has been imitated in the new with surprising cleverness, but for +that, no one who has a clear sense of the true function of the carver's +art, or of the historical value of its witness to past modes of life, +will thank those who carried out the "restoration," so confusing is it +to be unable to distinguish at a glance the old from the new, so +depressing to find such laborious efforts wasted in pleasing a childish +desire for uniformity of treatment when it could only be achieved at the +cost of deception, and, I may add, so irritating to find oneself for a +moment deceived into accepting one of the "restored" parts as genuine +old work. To add to the deception, the whole of the old woodwork, as +well as the new, was smeared over with a black stain in order the better +to hide the difference of color in old and new wood, thus forever +destroying its soft and natural color, as well as the texture of its +surface, so dear to the wood-carver. + +The fifteenth century in England was a period of great activity among +wood-carvers, and many beautiful choir-screens were added about this +time to the existing churches, all in the traditional Gothic manner, as +the Renaissance influence was a full century at work in other countries +before its power began seriously to affect the national style. The West +of England (Somerset and Devon in particular) is rich in the remains of +this late Gothic carving, some details of which are shown in the +accompanying illustrations, Figs. 75, 76, 77. + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.] + +As a general rule the supporting carpentry of these screens bears a +strong resemblance to stonework; so imitative is it in treatment, that +it is only by the texture of the wood and its lightness of construction +that the distinction is made evident. Now a certain degree of modified +imitation, where one craft models its forms of design upon those of +another, using a different material, as in the case of woodwork +imitations of arches, tracery, etc., is not only legitimate, but very +pleasing in its results. To attain this end, the carpenter need only be +true to his own ideals--there is no occasion to abandon the methods of +his own craft in order to copy the construction which is peculiar to +another. The resources of carpentry offer an infinite field for the +invention of new and characteristic forms, and these may be made all the +more attractive if they show, to some extent, the influence of an +associated craft, but never fail to become wearisome if essential +character has been sacrificed for the sake of an ingenious imitation. +The structural parts of some of these screens are composed of elaborate +imitations of stone vaulting and tracery, so closely copied as to be +almost deceiving, therefore they can not be taken as good examples of +suggestive opportunity for the wood-carver. + +The carved work, on the other hand, is marked by a strong craft +character, essentially _woody_ both in design and execution. The +illustrations referred to are typical examples of this kind of work, +and, although the execution can not be indicated, they at least give the +disposition of parts, and some idea of the contrast obtained by the use +of alternate bands of ornament differing in scale, or, as in some cases, +the agreeable monotony produced by a repetition of almost similar +designs, varied slightly in execution. + +Another prominent feature of church woodwork, which developed about this +time into magnificent proportions, was the font cover and canopy. Many +of these were, however, more like glorifications of the carpenter's +genius for construction than examples of the carver's art, as they were +composed of a multitude of tiny pinnacles and niches, the carver's work +being confined to a repetition of endless crockets, tracery, and +separate figures or groups. However, in Plate XIII an example is given +of what they could do when working together on a more equal footing; +although much mutilated, enough remains to show how the one craft gains +by being associated with the other in a wholesome spirit of rivalry. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE + + + Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture + Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling. + + +The term "texture" is sometimes applied to the quality of finish which +is characteristic of good carving; it has a somewhat misleading sound, +which seems to suggest that the final treatment of the surface is the +work of a separate operation. However, it is a right enough word, as the +texture which wood-carvers aim at is that of the wood in which they are +carving. One might naturally think that this texture must necessarily +appear when the work was finished, but that is not the case, as it is +only rescued by the most skilful use of the tools, and easily disappears +under the mismanagement of clumsy or unsympathetic hands. + +Texture in carving is in some respects on a parallel with tone in +painting--it depends upon a right relation of many qualities. As in the +painting good tone is the outcome of the combined effects of truth in +color and a right balance of what are called the "values," together with +decision in the handling of the brush, so in carving, texture depends +upon, first, having a clear idea of what is being carved, and making it +clear to others; that if it be round, hollow, or flat, it must be so +indeed; that edges and sharpnesses be really where they were intended to +be, and not lost in woolly confusion. Then again, as with the painter's +brush, the tool must be moved by a hand which adapts itself to every +changing plane, to all manner of curves and contours, with touches +sometimes delicate and deliberate, at others broad and sweeping, or +even, at times, brought down with the weight and force of an ax-blow. + +A good quality of finish may exist in the most divergent kinds of work, +each having its own characteristic texture. Thus a broad treatment on a +large scale will make much of the natural texture of the wood, enforcing +it by crisp edges and subtle little ridges which catch the light and +recall the momentary passage of the sharp tool, while elaborate work in +low relief may have a delicate texture which partly imitates that of the +details of its subject, and partly displays the nature of the wood. In +either case, the texture must be consciously aimed at by the carver as +the last but by no means least quality which is to give vitality to the +work of his hands. A sense of the capabilities of his wood in this +respect is one of the best aids to the carver, as it reacts on his sense +of form and compels him to precision. + +Manual dexterity alone may succeed in making its work clearly +intelligible, but that is all, and it generally leaves a surface in +which there is little indication of any feeling for the material in +which the work is carved, nothing, in fact, that marks it specially as +carving in wood, or distinguishes it from a casting in metal. + +The technical operation which is most immediately answerable for the +making or marring of texture is the disposition and nature of the final +tool marks. These should be so managed that they help the eye to +understand the forms. They should explain rather than confuse the +contours of the surface. Just as in a good chalk drawing the strokes and +cross-hatchings are put in with method, and if well done produce the +effect of something solid, so in carving, the tool marks should +emphasize the drawing without in any way calling attention to +themselves. + +It is quite impossible to explain in words that will not be open to +misconstruction the subtle commingling of qualities which make all the +difference between good and bad texture. We may succeed better by +describing those conditions which are unfavorable to it. Thus work which +is very much cut up into minute detail, and which lacks a proper +contrast of surface, or, for the same reason, work which is too +generally bald and smooth, rarely exhibit a good surface texture. Again, +work which is overlabored, or where delicate details have been attempted +on a coarse-grained wood, or finally, work which, although done with +success in the matter of mechanical dexterity, is deficient in feeling +for its woody possibilities, are all likely to fail in the matter of +texture. + +Punch-marked backgrounds have undoubtedly a legitimate place among the +expedients of the carver for obtaining contrast, but on the whole, as +such, they are of a somewhat meretricious order, and in almost every +case their use is fatal to the charm of fine texture, as this always +depends on an appreciation of the homogeneous connection of carving and +background. If they are used at all they should be made to form patterns +on the background, and not put down promiscuously. Little gouge marks +are still better, as they are not so mechanical. + +I shall conclude this part of my subject with a quotation from the words +of Mr. W. Aumonier, in a lecture delivered at the Royal Institute of +British Architects. + +"_All carving to be treated according to the position it is to occupy._ +Not only the design, but the actual carving itself, should be considered +with a view to the position it is to take and the light it will receive. +Thus, even if quite close to the eye, where, of course, its position +warrants or demands a certain amount of finish, it must be remembered +that real finish rather means perfection of form than smoothness of +surface, so that even there it should still show its cuts and its tool +marks fearlessly, and be deepened in parts to make it tell its proper +tale in the combined scheme of decoration; while if it is going a great +height or distance from the eye it should be left as rough as ever you +can leave it. The only points that have to be regarded are the outlines, +varieties of planes, and depths, and if these be properly considered +everything else will take care of itself, and then the whole work can +not be left too rough. Its very roughness and choppy cuts will give it a +softness and quality when in its place that no amount of smoothing or +high finish can possibly attain to." + +Beware of putting a wrong interpretation upon the word "rough"--refer to +what he says of the points to be regarded, i.e., the "varieties of +planes, and depths." If they are right the "roughness" is not likely to +be of the offensive kind. + +Nothing so effectually destroys the quality of texture as polish applied +to carving. If furniture _must_ be polished it should not be carved. The +only polish that improves carving is that which comes of use. On hard +woods, such as oak or Italian walnut, the pressure of the tools leaves a +pleasant polish, which is all that is necessary; the _most_ that should +be allowed may be given by a little burnishing with the handle of the +tool. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT + + + The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy + Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing + Variety of Choice. + + +The present revival of interest in the arts, especially with regard to +those of a decorative kind, is based on the recently awakened esthetic +desires of a small section of the general public, who owe their activity +in this direction to the influence of men like John Ruskin and William +Morris. The first of these, by his magic insight, discerned the true +source of vitality which lay in the traditions of medieval workmanship, +i.e., their intensely _human_ character and origin. His fiery words +compelled attention, and awakened a new enthusiasm for all that betokens +the direct and inspiring influence of nature. They raised the hope that +this passion might in some way provide a clue to the recovery of a +fitting form of expression. + +William Morris, with no less power as a craftsman, was the first to +give practical embodiment to this newly awakened impulse by a modified +return to the older methods of production. His rare knowledge of +medieval history, and manly sympathy with all that is generous in modern +life, made it impossible for him to become a superficial imitator. His +work is an example of what may be achieved by a union of high artistic +instincts with a clear understanding of the conditions of modern life. + +Cheering as is the present activity in its encouragement of endeavor, +the difficulties of establishing anything like an efficient system of +education for the artist, more especially the sculptor, or carver +artist, is only being gradually realized. The difficulties are not so +much academic as practical. It is less a question of where to study than +one of knowing what direction those studies should take. Before any +genuine development in the art can be looked for, continuity of effort +must be established, and that in a single direction, undisturbed as it +is at present by differences of public taste. + +Opportunities for study are now afforded to an extent never before +dreamed of: in books and schools, and in museums; but division of +opinion mars the authority of the two first, while the last is +confessedly but a kind of catalogue, which may only be read with profit +by the light of considerable experience. + +A certain amount of success has undoubtedly attended the progress of the +new system, but it must always be more or less at a disadvantage; +firstly, by reason of its divided aims; secondly, because the system is +more theoretic than practical, and is often based on the false +assumption that "design" may be learned without attaining a mastery over +technique, and _vice versa_. + +Until students become disillusioned on this latter point, and are at the +same time permitted to follow their natural bent with as little +interference as possible from the exigencies of public taste, uniformity +of aim will be impossible, and consequently the system must remain +artificial. It can never, under any circumstances, entirely replace that +more natural one adopted by our ancestors. How can its methods compare +for a moment with the spontaneous and hearty interest that guided the +tools of those more happily placed craftsmen, whose subjects lay around +them, of daily familiarity; whose artistic language was ready to hand +and without confusion, affording an endless variety of expression to +every new and individual fancy. Many of these craftsmen were, owing to +their invigorating surroundings, gifted with a high poetic feeling for +their art--a quality which gives to their work a transcendent value that +no learning or manual cleverness could supply. They acquired their +technical knowledge in genial connection with equally gifted members of +other crafts, and in consequence expressed themselves with corresponding +and justly proportioned skill in execution. + +Conditions that can not be altered must be endured while they last, but +the first step toward their improvement must be made in gaining a +knowledge of the facts as they are. This will be the surest foundation +upon which to build all individual effort in the future. + +Who that has felt the embarrassing doubts and contradictory impulses, +peculiar to modern study, can have failed to look disconsolately away +from his own surroundings to those far-off times when craft knowledge +was acquired under circumstances calculated to awaken the brightest +instincts of the artist? The imaginary picture calls up the ancient +carver at his bench, cheerfully blocking out images of leaves and +animals in his busy workshop, surrounded with the sights and sounds of +country life. His open door frames a picture of the village street, +alive with scenes of neighborly interest. From the mill-wheel comes a +monotonous music making pleasant cadence to his own woody notes, or the +blacksmith's hammer rings his cheery counterpart in their companionable +duet. + +Short as is the distance between workshop and home, it provides a world +of beauty and incident; suggesting to his inventive mind the subjects +suitable for his work. Birds, beasts, and flowers are as familiar to him +as the tools with which he works, or the scent and touch of the solid +oak he handles daily. There, among the aromatic chips, he spends the +long working hours of a summer day; varied by the occasional visits of a +rather exacting Father from the neighboring monastery; or perhaps some +idle and gossiping acquaintance who looks in to hold a long parley with +his hand upon the latch. Or it may be that the mind turns to another +carver, at work in one of the many large colonies of craftsmen which +sprang up amid the forest of scaffolding surrounding the slow and +mysterious growth of some noble cathedral. Here all is organized +activity--the best men to be found in the country have been banded +together and commissioned to do their best, for what seems, in modern +eyes, a ridiculously small rate of pay. Some are well known and +recommended; others, as traveling artists, are seeking change of +experience and daily bread. Foreigners are here, from France, Italy, and +the East. All have been placed under the direction of competent masters +of their craft; men who have long since served their apprenticeship to +its mysteries, and earned an honorable position in its gilds. + +Here the carver works in an atmosphere of exhilarating emulation. +Stone-carver and wood-carver vie with each other in producing work that +will do credit to their respective brotherhoods. Painter and decorator +are busy giving to the work of their hands what must have appeared to +those concerned an aspect of heavenly beauty; the most precious +materials not being considered too costly for use in its adornment. + +What an interchange of artistic experience!--interchange between those +of similar craft from different countries, and the stimulating or +refining influence of one craft upon another--sculptors, goldsmiths, +wood-carvers, and painters, all uniting in a sympathetic agreement to do +their utmost for the high authorities who brought them together; with a +common feeling of reverence, alike for the religious traditions which +formed the motives of their work and the representatives of that +religion in the persons of their employers. + +What an endless variety of interruptions must have been common! all of a +kind eminently calculated to stimulate the imagination. Municipal +functions, religious festivals with their splendid gatherings and +processions, the exciting events of political contest, often carried to +the point of actual combat, to say nothing of the frequent Saint's day +holidays, enjoyed by the craftsman in jovial social intercourse. All and +every scene clothed in an outward dress of beauty, ranging from the +picturesque roughness of the village inn to the magnificent pageantry of +a nobleman's display, or the majestic surroundings of an archi-episcopal +reception. + +From dreams of the past with its many-sided life and background of +serious beauty, we turn with feelings almost bordering on despair to the +possibilities of the present. Not only has the modern craftsman to +master the technicalities of his business, but he must become student as +well. No universally accepted form of his art offers him a ready-made +language; he is left fatally free to choose style, period, or +nationality, from examples of every conceivable kind of carving, in +museums, photographs, and buildings. As proud but distracted heir to +all, he may cultivate any one of them, from Chinese to the latest style +of exhibition art. For his studies he must travel half a dozen miles +before he can reach fields, trees, and animals in anything like +inspiring conditions. He must find in books and photographs the +botanical lineaments of foliage and flowers, of which he mainly seeks to +know the wild life and free growth. With but one short life allowed him +in which to make his poor effort in a single direction, he must yet +study the history of his craft, compare styles, and endeavor with all +the help he can get to shape some course for himself. Can he be assured +of selecting the right one, or out of the multitude of counselors and +contradictory views, is there not a danger of taking a false step? No +wonder, if in the cloudy obscurity of his doubts, he sometimes feels a +tired desire to abandon the problem as too intricate to be resolved. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN BUILDER AND CARVER + + + The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence: + Sculpture an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the + so-called "Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival + of the Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time; + their Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent + upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer" + and "Executant." + + +The prevailing architectural fashion of a time or country, known as its +style, has generally been determined by the influence of more advanced +nations on those of a ruder constitution; each modifying the imported +style to suit its own climatic and social conditions, and imbuing it +with its own individual temperament. The foreign idea was thus developed +into a distinct and national style, which in its turn bore fruit, and +was passed on as an initiative for other nations and new styles. The +current of this influence, generally speaking, trended from east to west +as though following the course of the sun, upon whose light it depended +for the illumination of its beauties. + +There are so many styles of architecture, and consequently of carving, +both in wood and other materials, that a history of such a subject would +be a life study in itself, and be quite barren of results except those +of a professional kind. It would include the characteristics of carvings +from every country under the sun, from the earliest times known. +Engravings on boars' tusks found in prehistoric caves, carvings on South +Sea Island canoe paddles, Peruvian monstrosities of terror, the refined +barbarity of India and China, the enduring and monumental efforts of +Egyptian art, and a hundred others, down to times and countries more +within reach. In fact, it would only be another name for a history of +mankind from the beginning of the world. + +Nothing could be better for the student's purpose than to begin his +studies of history at that point where the first indication of the +Gothic or medieval period of architecture makes its appearance. For it +was from this great and revolutionary change in the manner of building +that all the subsequent variety of style in carving as well as building +in medieval Europe took its origin. The first rudiments of the great +school of art, which has been broadly classified as having a "Gothic" +origin, began to make their appearance in Byzantium some three or four +centuries after the birth of Christ. This city, said to have been +founded by a colony of Greek emigrants, became the seat of Roman +government in their eastern empire, and is now known as Constantinople: +it contains a noted example of ancient art in the great church of St. +Sophia. From the date of the building of this church in the sixth +century A. D. to the beginning of the fifteenth century in Italy, and +about a hundred years later, more or less, according to distance from +that center, we have roughly the period during which the "medieval" +spirit ruled the arts of Europe. + +The work of this long period is distinguished beyond all others by the +varied beauty and interest of its carvings, a preeminence it owes in +part to the strong bias in this direction which was given by its early +founders, but still more to the unbroken alliance maintained between +builders and carvers throughout the entire period. An inherited talent +for sculpture, handed down, no doubt, from their classical forefathers, +distinctly marks the commencement of the era; but from that time until +the appearance of the "Renaissance" influence, builder and carver are no +longer conceivable as being independent of each other. Sculpture of one +kind or another not only played an important part in the decoration of +its buildings, but became a necessary and integral element in every +architectural conception, be its importance little or great. The masons +designed their structural features with a view to the embellishments to +follow from the hand of the carver; they were in full sympathy with the +artistic intention of the decoration, therefore their own ideas were in +complete conformity with those of the sculptor, while even in some cases +they did this part of the work themselves. The sculptors, restrained by +the severe laws of structural design, never transgressed the due limits +of their craft, or became insistent upon the individuality of their own +work. Hence, throughout all the successive changes of style brought +about by time and difference of country, climate, or material, the art +of carving steadily progressed hand in hand with the art of building. +The changes were so very gradual, and grew so naturally from the +conditions and requirements of social life, that ample time was allowed +for the education of public feeling, which became in this way identified +with the inventive progress of the craftsmen. As a happy result, one aim +and desire governed alike builders, carvers, and people, and one style +at a time, enjoyed and understood by all, was the wholesome regimen by +which the architectural appetite of the period was sustained. Cathedral +and cottage differed only in their relative grades of importance; each +shared in due proportion the advantages of an architectural style common +to all forms of building, and adaptable in the highest degree to every +varying purpose of design, from the simplest piece of walling, with the +barest indication of style, to the most elaborate arrangement of masonry +and carving which could be devised to distinguish a stately and +important structure. + +Time was, however, preparing a revolution which was destined to sweep +away many old beliefs and established institutions, and with them those +familiar motives and habits of thought, which had long formed the +bountiful source of medieval inspiration and invention. The period +between the beginning of the fifteenth century and the Reformation was +like a fiery furnace, in which the materials for a new world were being +prepared; it was no time for the leisurely enjoyment of the pleasures of +art, which presupposes settled convictions and imperceptible +developments. + +About this time many new forms of intellectual activity began to engage +the minds of the more gifted. Speculative philosophy, the opening fields +of science, the imaginative literature of the ancients; these were among +the subjects which, while they enlarged the sphere of individual +thought, destroyed that social ideal which had its roots in a common +belief, and with it, the secret source of all past development in +architecture. With the deep-lying causes and far-reaching effects of the +unrest which disturbed this period, we are not here concerned, beyond +the point where it touches our interest in architecture and sculpture. +That drastic changes were in progress affecting the popular regard for +these arts is undeniable. Educated and illiterate minds became alike +indifferent to the authority of established religion--either they +succumbed to the tyranny of its powerful but corrupt ministers, or stood +out in open rebellion against its disputed dogmas. In either case, that +architecture which had formerly been regarded as the chief symbol of +united faith, shared the neglect of one section or the abhorrence of the +other. That strong sense of beauty, once the common possession of +builders, sculptors, and people, was now between the upper and nether +millstones of fate, being ground into the fine dust which has served for +centuries as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of an endless +succession of moral puddings and pies, known in modern times as "art +criticism." + +To earnest minds in all classes at that time, any enthusiasm for +architectural styles, old or new, must have appeared as futile as an +anxiety about appearances while one's house was burning. + +To the art of this period the title "Renaissance" has been foolishly +applied. When used in association with the arts of architecture and +sculpture, it is essentially a misnomer. For these arts it was merely a +time of revival, not in any sense one of rebirth, as the word implies. +In no way can this period claim to have conferred vitality along with +the resuscitation of outward form. The revival of a classical style in +architectural design, which began in the early years of the fifteenth +century, was the sequel to a similar "revival" in the study of Greek and +Roman literature, then occupying the interests of cultivated scholars. +It was but a step further to desire also the realization of those +architectural splendors which were associated with these studies. Such +dilettante dreams can not be supposed to have deeply interested the +general public, with whose concerns they had but a remote connection; so +under these circumstances, probably the classical style was as suitable +as any other, chosen on such narrow and exclusive grounds. There was +even a certain fitness in it, a capability of much expansion on +theatrical and grandiose lines. Its unbending demeanor toward craft +talent of the humbler kind at once flattered the vanity of the cultured, +and cowed uneducated minds. + +The Duomo at Florence was finished early in that century, and was one of +the first buildings in which the new style was adopted. In this case it +was used mainly in the completion of a building already well advanced on +lines based upon the older traditions. The character of its design, +although not of a strictly imitative kind, was distinctly based on a +classical ideal. Imitations followed, mingling, as in the case of the +Duomo, Gothic and classic elements, often with fine effect. It is quite +possible to believe that, had this intermarriage of the two schools +continued to bear fruit, some vertebrate style might have resulted from +the union, partaking of the nature of both parents; but the hope was of +short duration. Its architects, becoming enamored by the quality of +scientific precision, which is the fundamental principle of classical +design, soon abandoned all pretense of attempting to amalgamate the +native and imported styles. They gave themselves up wholly to the +congenial task of elaborating a scholarly system of imitation; so that, +by the middle of the sixteenth century, no trace whatever remained of +native feeling in the architecture of its important buildings. + +During the progress of this revolution in style, the old medieval habits +of cooperation between master mason and sculptor were slowly being +exchanged for a complete dependence upon a special architect, who was +not necessarily a craftsman himself; but whose designs must be carried +out line for line with the most rigid adherence to measurements. + +For a moment in history, the rival spirits of the two great schools of +architecture stand face to face like opposing ideals. The classical one, +recalled from the region of things past and forgotten, again to play a +part on earth with at least the semblance of life; the Gothic spirit, +under notice to quit and betake itself to that oblivion from which its +rival is reemerging. + +In the heyday of their power, the first had shown a distinctly +autocratic bearing toward its workmen; offering to its sculptors of +genius opportunities for the exercise of highly trained powers, and to +the subordinate workmen only the more or less mechanical task of +repeating a limited number of prescribed forms. The other, a more genial +spirit, had possessed the largest toleration for rude or untrained +workmanship, provided that in its expression the carver had a meaning +which would be generally understood and appreciated. If skill could be +commanded, either of design or technique, it was welcomed; but it gave +no encouragement to work which was either so distinctive as to be +independent of its surroundings, or of a kind which could have no other +than a mechanical interest in its execution. The abrupt contrasts, the +variety and mystery, characteristic of Gothic architecture, had been a +direct and irresistible invitation to the carver, and the freest +playground for his fancy. The formality of the classical design, on the +other hand, necessarily confined such carving as it permitted to +particular lines and spaces, following a recognized rule; and except in +the case of bas-relief figure subjects and detached statues, demanded no +separate interest in the carvings themselves, further than the esthetic +one of relieving such lines and spaces as were otherwise uncomfortably +bare. + +Some modification of this extreme arrogance toward the decorative carver +was only to be expected in the revived style, but the freedom allowed to +the individual carver turned out to be more apparent than real. A new +race of carvers sprang up, imbued with the principles of classical +design; but being no longer in touch with natural and popular interests, +nor stimulated by mutual cooperation with their brother craftsmen, the +mason builders, they adopted the fashionable mode of expression invented +by the new architects and the painters of the time. Elaborate +"arabesque" and other formal designs gave employment to the carvers, in +making an infinite repetition of fiddles, festoons, and ribbons, in the +execution of which they became so proficient, that their work is more +often admired for its exquisite finish than for any intrinsic interest +in the subject or design. + +Judged by its effects upon the art of carving, without the aid of which +a national style of architecture is impossible, the revival of classical +architecture never had a real and enduring life in it. Strictly +speaking, no organic style ever grew out of its ambitious promises; the +nearest approach to such a thing is to be found in those uncouth +minglings of Gothic tradition with fragments of classical detail which +distinguish much of the domestic architecture during the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries. Amusing in their quaint and often rich and +effective combinations, humanly interesting in proportion to the +predominance of the Gothic element, association has grown up around +these homely records of a mixed influence, until they have come to be +regarded with affection, if not with the highest admiration. + +The "revival" brought nothing but harm to the carver himself--that is, +to the carver who found it impossible to reach the elevation of a +sculptor of genius. He sacrificed his own small but precious talent as a +creator of pleasant images for the attainment of a finesse in the +execution of other people's ideas. To the "Renaissance" must be +attributed that fatal separation of the craftsman's function into the +hands of designer and executant which has so completely paralyzed the +living spirit of individual invention. It has taken close upon four +centuries to open the eyes of our craftsmen to this inconsistency, and +"revive" the medieval truth that invention and execution are strictly +but one and the same thing. Let us hope that the present awakening to +the importance of this fact may yet lead to what will be truly worthy of +being called a "Renaissance"; not merely of outward forms, but of that +creative energy which alone justifies the true meaning of the word. + + + +NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES + + +PLATE I.--_Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral._ The front of a chest of +almost similar design, only reversed, is to be seen in South Kensington +Museum, which looks from its resemblance both in design and technique to +be the work of the same carver, or at least to have been done about the +same time. Note the absence of any attempt at elaborate perspective, and +the "decorative" aspect of houses, rocks, trees, etc., also the +distinctive treatment of the Knight and Princess who appear in the +picture several times, representing various incidents of the story. + +PLATE II.--_Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV in Canterbury Cathedral._ +This figure is one of the corner ornaments on the canopy. The whole of +the upper structure is of wood, painted in colors with parts picked out +in gold. + +PLATE III.--_Aisle Roof, Mildenhall Church, Suffolk._ This is one of the +many beautiful carved roofs which abound in Norfolk and Suffolk. The +nave roof is enriched with carvings of angels with wings outspread. + +PLATE IV.--_Nave Roof, Sall Church, Norfolk._ This is another very +beautiful timber roof showing the union of practical carpentry with +carving to perfection. + +PLATE V.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ The other part +is shown in Plate VI, as, owing to the proportion of this panel and the +necessity for keeping the scale of the plates as large as possible, it +has been divided and shown in two portions. It was begun without any +premeditated intention as to use, the sloping end being the shape of the +board as it came into the author's hands, the other end being sloped off +to match it. + +PLATE VI.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ See +description of Plate V. + +PLATE VII.--_Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving._ This plate is, +as explained in the text, from a drawing by Philip Webb, the well-known +architect. It was done by him to explain certain facts about the pose of +a lion when the author was engaged in carving the book covers which are +shown in Plates VIII and IX. + +PLATES VIII and IX.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were +done by the author for one of the "Kelmscott Press" books, Tale of Troy, +at the instance of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. The relief is very slight, and +is rather exaggerated by the light and shade of the photograph. The +carved portion only of these covers is shown, the size of which is +11-1/2 x 5-3/4 ins. + +PLATE X.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were done by the +author for Mr. F. S. Ellis's translation of Reynard the Fox. The size of +the carved part is 8-3/4 x 5-1/4 ins. + +PLATE XI.--_Carvings from Winchester Cathedral._ This plate is from +sketches made by the author at Winchester Cathedral. The upper one is a +spandrel piece from the traceried arcading of the stalls. The lower one +is a part of one of the carved Miserere seats. The spandrel carving is +pierced; that is, has the ground cut right through. The other piece is +elaborately undercut. + +PLATE XII.--_Carving from Choir-Screen, Winchester Cathedral._ This +plate is from a sketch done for the purpose of noting the general effect +of a large mass of carved foliage with particular reference to the +distribution of lighted surfaces in the design. + +PLATE XIII.--_Font Canopy, Trunch Church, Norfolk._ The plate gives the +upper portion only of this beautiful canopy; it is supported upon six +posts richly carved on all sides, of which there are five to each post. +The height of the whole canopy is about fifteen or sixteen feet--it +presumably dates somewhere toward the end of the fourteenth century or +beginning of the fifteenth. + +PLATE XIV.--_Designs for Carving, by_ + +_Philip Webb._ This plate gives two examples of designs for carving by +Philip Webb. The upper one is part of a richly carved cornice which was +done for a chimney-piece; the carving was executed by Mr. Laurence +Turner, from whom the author got his first lesson in wood-carving. The +other example is a design on paper for carving to be done in oak. This +was carried out in the paneling of the dining-room at Clouds House, +Salisbury, and looked exceedingly effective. Much of the articulation on +the surface of the leaves, it will be noticed, is got by sharp facets +produced by the intersection of gouge cuts. + +PLATE XV.--_Leg of a Settle carved in English Oak._ This was begun by +the author as forming part of a large oak seat or "settle," but has +never been completed. The wood out of which it is carved came out of an +old house at Tewkesbury and was full of cracks which were filled up with +slips of oak glued in and carved over. + +PLATE XVI.--_Pew Ends in Carved Oak, Brent Church, Somersetshire._ The +three bench ends shown in this plate are from Brent Church, +Somersetshire. Although rude in execution, they are extremely effective +in design. The bounding form of the molded edges and gracefully shaped +top are worth noticing; the whole evidently the outcome of a nice and +inherited sense of design, without any particular technical knowledge or +experience. The termination of the finials was unfortunately omitted in +the photograph, hence the abrupt line at the top. + + + + +THE COLLOTYPE PLATES + +[Illustration: I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury +Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.] + +[Illustration: IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk.] + +[Illustration: V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.] + +[Illustration: VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.] + +[Illustration: VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By +Phillip Webb.] + +[Illustration: VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy." +(only carved portion shown.)] + +[Illustration: IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy." +(only carved portion shown.)] + +[Illustration: X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox." +(only carved portions shown.)] + +[Illustration: XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester +Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester +Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk.] + +[Illustration: XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb. One +executed, one in drawing.] + +[Illustration: XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.] + +[Illustration: XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church, +Somersetshire.] + + + + +INDEX + + +Acanthus, the, 156 + +Aims and conditions of work, 25 + +American woods, 48 + +Animal carving, 161, 191 + +Animal carving, Swiss, 191 + +Animals, or figures, in carving, 161, 191 + +Apprentice and student, their aims and conditions of work, 25 + +Architectural carving, 223 + +"Arkansas" slips, 44, 58 + +Arms, coats of, 177 + +Aumonier, W., 204, 238 + + +Background, patterned, 96 + +Bas wood, 48 + +Beads and moldings to be carved, 119 + +Beam, carved, in South Kensington Museum, 140, 142 + +Bear, drawing of (frontispiece), 197, 200 + +Beast and bird studies, 191 + +Bed, design and carving for a, 163 + +Beech wood, 49 + +Bench or settle, design and carving for, 168, 174, 269, 302 + +Benches, 44 + +Bench screw, 48 + +Berne Cathedral, carved figure from, 191 + +Bevels, tool, 52 + +Bewick, studies from, 195 + +Bird and beast studies, 191 + +Book-covers in oak, 267, 288, 289, 291 + +Books, aid of, 191 + +Boxwood, 51 + +Brackets, 172 + +Bread plates, 116 + +Brent Church, pew ends in, 269, 304 + +Brier-wood, 51 + +Builder and carver, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249 + +"Built-up" work, 214 + +Byzantine design, 96 + + +"Candle," 56 + +Canopy, Font, 233, 268, 298 + +Canterbury Cathedral, carved figure from, 188, 275 + +Carpenter's imitation of stone construction, 223 + +Carpenter's influence on carver, 223 + +Cartoons, charcoal, 204 + +Carver and builder, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249 + +Carver and joiner, reciprocal aims of, 161 + +Carving and sculpture, 249 + +Carving, architectural, 223 + +Carving, "chip," 63 + +Carving, heraldic, 176 + +Carving, Icelandic, 143 + +Carving, New Zealand, 63 + +Carving, Norse, 143 + +Carving, South Sea, 63 + +Carving, stone, 96, 223 + +Carving, Swiss, 191 + +Cedar wood, 166 + +Chair, sketch of, etc., 145 + +Character, works viewed as records of, 149 + +Charcoal cartoons, 204 + +Cherry wood, 51 + +Chest, carved, from York Cathedral, 147, 265, 273 + +Chestnut wood, 50 + +"Chip" carving, 63 + +Chisels, 31, 34, 35 + +Choir-screens, 227, 229, 267, 295 + +Choir-stalls at Winchester Cathedral, 227, 267, 293 + +Classical style, revival of, 249 + +Clay models, 191 + +Clips, 47 + +Clock, suggestion of design and carving for, 174 + +Clock case, suggestion of design and carving for, 170 + +Coats of arms, 176 + +Cock, suggestion for carving a, 174 + +Collotype plates, 273-304 + +Collotype plates, notes on the, 265 + +Colors noted on diagrams, 197, 199 + +Colors of woods, 48 + +Contours of surface, 103 + +Corner cupboards, 119 + +Cornice, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300 + +Craft schools, past and present, 240 + +Craftsmen, old-time and modern, 240 + +Cramps, 42, 47 + +Cross, design for, 177 + +Cupboards, corner, 119 + +Cutting, clearness of, 52, 69, 235 + + +Design, 71, 88 + +Design, application of, 72 + +Design, Byzantine, 96 + +Design, factors in the arrangement of, 82 + +Design, outline, and suggestion of main masses, 191 + +"Designer" and "Executant," 88, 249 + +Designs, adaptation of old, to modern purposes, 103 + +Designs, humor in, 180 + +Designs, list of fruit, flower, and vegetable subjects, 159 + +Designs, necessity for every carver making his own, 88 + +Designs, transferring, 72 + +Detail, economy in, 84 + +Diagrams, colors noted on, 197, 199 + +Distance and light in design, 82 + +Drilling and sawing, 110 + +Duomo, the, at Florence, 257 + + +Ebony wood, 51 + +Economy in detail, 84 + +Edges of tools, 52 + +Environment as important as handicraft, 149 + +Execution and design, 88, 249 + +Exning, chair at, 145 + + +Figures, or animals, in carving, 161, 191 + +Finish, surface--texture, 234 + +Florence, the Duomo at, 257 + +Flowers as subjects, 158 + +Foliage, 115, 153, 159 + +Font canopy, 233, 268, 298 + +Foreshortening as applied to work in relief, 205 + +Forms, imitation of natural, 82 + +Forms, plant, list of, 153 + +Forms, rounded, 88 + +Free rendering, 96 + +Fruit subjects, 94, 157, 159 + +Furniture, carving on, 161 + + +Gerrard's "Herbal," a source of design, 160 + +Gibbons, Grinling, 62, 85, 153, 215 + +Glass paper, 107, 164 + +Gothic capital in Southwell Minster, 96 + +Gothic carvings, 96, 180, 229, 249 + +Gothic influence, 249 + +Gouges, 31, 34, 35 + +Gouges, sharpening, 56 + +Grain of the wood, 48, 69 + +Grapes, 115, 156, 159 + +Grindelwald, carved bear from, 200 + +Grotesque in carving, 180 + +"Grounders," 34, 37 + +Grounding, 69 + + +Handling tools, 27, 52, 78 + +"Hard" wood, 48, 51 + +Hardwood carving, 115 + +Henry IV, figure from tomb of 188, 265, 275 + +Heraldic carving, 176 + +"Herbal," Gerrard's, a source of design, 160 + +Heron, drawing of a, 197 + +Holdfasts, 48 + +Hollywood, 49 + +Hop-vine, the, 156 + +Humor in designs, 180 + + +Icelandic carving, 143 + +Imitation of natural forms, 82 + +"India" oilstone, 42 + + +Japanese work, a characteristic of, 125 + +Joiner and carver, reciprocal aims of, 161 + +Joiner, the amateur, 115 + +Joiner's tools, 41 + + +Kauri pine wood, 48 + +"Kelmscott Press," carved oak covers for, 267, 288, 289 + + +Lance-wood, 51 + +Landscape in carving, 221 + +Leather for stropping, 55 + +Leaves, expedient for explaining convolutions, 209 + +Leaves, list of, 159 + +Letters, carved, 165 + +Light and distance in design, 82 + +Lime wood, 48 + +Lion, preliminary drawing for carving a, 196, 267, 286 + + +"Maccaroni" tool, 35, 38, 59 + +Mahogany wood, 48 + +Mallets, 44 + +Masses, right relationship of, 196 + +Masses, suggestion of main, 191 + +Masses, superposition of, 205 + +Medieval and modern choice of form compared, 153 + +Memoranda, methodical, 137 + +Memoranda, sketch-book, 137 + +Method, 137 + +Mildenhall Church, aisle roof, 226, 266, 277 + +Mirror frame, suggestion of design and carving for, 166 + +Miserere seats, 139, 142, 185, 186, 187, 216, 293 + +Miters, 77 + +Models, clay, 202 + +Morris, William, 240 + +Moldings, to be carved, 119 + +Museums, 137, 140, 145, 149 + + +Natural forms, imitation of, 82 + +Nature, studies from, 153, 191 + +New Zealand carving, 63 + +Norse patterns, 143 + +Notes on cooperation, 249 + + +Oak, 48, 157 + +Oilstones, 42, 52 + +Old work, 137 + +Originality, 108 + +Outline drawing, 191 + + +Panel, carved, "The Sheepfold," 197, 212, 266, 282, 284 + +Paneling, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300 + +Panels, 72, 125, 170, 197 + +"Parting" tool, 34, 36 + +Paste for stropping, 52 + +Pattern and free rendering compared, 96 + +Pattern, background, 110 + +Pattern, importance of formal, 96 + +Pattern, medieval choice of natural forms governed by a question of, 96 + +Pattern, Portuguese, 145 + +Patterned background, 96 + +Patterns, 121 + +Patterns, Icelandic, 143 + +Patterns, New Zealand, 63 + +Patterns, Norse, 143 + +Patterns, pierced, 110, 145 + +Patterns, South Sea, 63 + +Pear-tree wood, 51 + +Period "Renaissance," revival of the classical style, 249 + +Perspective, 127, 205, 219 + +Pew ends, 269, 304 + +Photographs, aid of, 191 + +Picture subjects and perspective, 219 + +Pierced patterns, 110, 145 + +"Pierced" work, 214 + +Pine wood, 48, 71 + +Pine wood, yellow, 48, 71 + +Plant forms, list of, 153 + +"Planted" work, 214 + +Plums, 91 + +Polish, 138, 164 + +Portuguese pattern, 145 + +Position of tools, 27, 52 + +Practise and theory, 25 + +Preamble, 25 + + +Relief, work in, 205 + +"Renaissance," the, 249 + +"Reynard, the Fox," carved oak book-cover, 267, 291 + +"Rifler," 41 + +Rounded forms, 88 + +"Router," 41 + +Ruskin, John, 240 + + +"S," pattern, 121 + +St. Sophia, church of, 251 + +Sall Church, nave roof, 226, 266, 279 + +Sandalwood, 51 + +Sawing and drilling, 110 + +Schools, craft, past and present, 240 + +Screens, choir, 227, 229, 268, 295 + +Sculpture and carving, 249 + +Settle or bench, design and carving for, 168, 174 + +Settle, carved leg of, 269, 302 + +Sharpening stones, 42 + +Sharpening tools, 52 + +Sheep, drawing of, 197, 212, 266, 282, 284 + +Sheepfold, the, collotype plate, 266, 282, 284 + +Sketch-book, use of the, 137, 191 + +Slips, 43, 58, 61 + +"Soft" wood, 51 + +South Kensington Museum, carvings from, 140, 141, 142 + +South Sea carving, 63 + +Southwell Minster, Gothic capital in, 96 + +Spoon tools, 59 + +Stalls, choir, 227, 267, 293 + +Stone carving, 96, 223 + +Stones, sharpening, 42 + +Stones (sharpening), case for, 42 + +Stropping, 54 + +Student and apprentice, their aims and conditions of work, 25 + +Students, the, opportunity lies on the side of design, 25 + +Studies, beast and bird, 191 + +Studies from nature, 153, 191 + +Study, necessity for variety in, 249 + +Style, 249 + +Subjects, animal, 161, 191 + +Subjects, choice of, 82 + +Subjects, flower, 158 + +Subjects, foliage, 159 + +Subjects, fruit, 159 + +Subjects, in perspective, 219 + +Subjects, picture, 219 + +Subjects, still life, 83 + +Subjects, vegetable, 159 + +Surface contours, 103 + +Surface finish, 234 + +Swiss carving, 191 + +Sycamore wood, 49 + + +"Tale of Troy," carved oak book-cover for, 267, 288, 289 + +Tempering tools, 39 + +Texture and surface finish, 234 + +Theory and practise, 25 + +Thimble pattern, 121 + +"Throwing about," 106 + +Time, carvers the historians of their, 149 + +Tool marks, the importance of their direction, 234 + +Tools, 31 + +Tools, average number, 31 + +Tools, blunted or broken, 40 + +Tools, description of, 27 + +Tools, handling, 27, 52, 78 + +Tools, joiner's, 41 + +Tools, position on oilstone, 52 + +Tools, position when in use, 27 + +Tools, sharpening, 52 + +Tools, spoon, 59 + +Tools, stropping, 54 + +Tools, tempering, 39 + +Tracing, 72 + +Trunch Church, font canopy at, 233, 268, 298 + +"Turkey," oilstone, 42 + +Turner, Laurence, 269 + + +Undercutting and "built-up" work, 214 + + +"V" tool, 31, 34, 36, 59 + +Vegetable designs, 159 + +"Veiner," 31, 34, 36, 58 + +Vines, the, 115, 156, 159 + + +Walnut wood, 48, 50 + +"Washita" oilstone, 42 + +Wave pattern, 121 + +Webb, Philip, drawings and designs by, 177, 196, 268, 286, 300 + +Winchester Cathedral, carvings from, 190, 216, 227, 267, 293, 295 + +Wood, hard, 48, 51 + +Wood, soft, 48, 51 + +Woods, 48 + +Woods, American, 48 + +Woods, colors of, 48 + +Woods, grain of, 48, 69 + +Woods, list of, 48 + +Woods, "soft" and "hard," 48, 51 + +Work, critical inspection of, from a distance, as it proceeds, 103 + + +Yellow pine wood, 48, 71 + +York Cathedral, old chest in, 265, 273 + +Yorkshire settle, 168 + + +THE END + + + + +Transcriber's Note: Minor corrections were made to normalize spelling +and punctuation. 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