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diff --git a/old/22117.txt b/old/22117.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..316a3ec --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22117.txt @@ -0,0 +1,24494 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Across Coveted Lands, by Arnold Henry Savage Landor + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Across Coveted Lands + or a Journey from Flushing (Holland) to Calcutta Overland + +Author: Arnold Henry Savage Landor + +Release Date: July 22, 2007 [EBook #22117] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACROSS COVETED LANDS *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Illustration: His Majesty the Shah of Persia.] + + + + +ACROSS +COVETED LANDS + +OR + +A JOURNEY FROM FLUSHING (HOLLAND) +TO CALCUTTA, OVERLAND + +BY + +A. HENRY SAVAGE LANDOR + +_WITH 175 ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS, PLANS AND MAPS_ +_BY AUTHOR_ + +IN TWO VOLUMES +VOL. I + +London +MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited +1902 + +_All rights reserved_ + +Richard Clay and Sons, Limited, +LONDON AND BUNGAY + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + _To face page_ +His Majesty the Shah of Persia _Frontispiece_ +The Baku Oil Wells 20 +The Amir of Bokhara leaving Baku to return to his Country 26 +Persian Wrestling 38 +Fourgons on the Russian Road between Resht and Teheran 50 +Making a _Kanat_ 74 +The Murderer of Nasr-ed-din Shah 90 +Persian Cossacks (Teheran) Drilled by Russian Officers 100 +The Eftetahie College, supported by Meftah-el-Mulk 102 +H. E. Mushir-ed-Doulet, Minister of Foreign Affairs 106 +Persian Soldiers--The Band 112 +Recruits learning Music 112 +The Arrival of a Caravan of Silver at the Imperial Bank of Persia 126 +The Imperial Bank of Persia Decorated on the Shah's Birthday 134 +A Typical Persian Window. (Mr. Rabino's House, Teheran.) 140 +The First Position in Persian Wrestling 158 +Palawans, or Strong Men giving a Display of Feats of Strength 158 +Iman Jumeh. Head Priest of Teheran, and Official Sayer + of Prayers to the Shah 170 +Sahib Divan, who was at various periods Governor of + Shiraz and Khorassan 190 +Persian Woman and Child 206 +A Picturesque Beggar Girl 206 +Ruku Sultaneh, Brother of the present Shah 218 +The Shah in his Automobile 224 +The Sadrazam's (Prime Minister's) Residence, Teheran 224 +In the Shah's Palace Grounds, Teheran 230 +The Shah and his Suite 240 +Rock Sculpture near Shah-Abdul-Azim 244 +Author's Diligence between Teheran and Kum 244 +The Track along the Kohrut Dam 270 +Between Gyabrabad and Kohrut 270 +The Interior of Chappar Khana at Kohrut 272 +Chapparing--the Author's post horses 278 +Persian Escort firing at Brigands 278 +Jewish Girls, Isfahan 292 +An Isfahan Jew 292 +The Square, Isfahan 298 +The Palace Gate, Isfahan 304 +Boys Weaving a Carpet 314 +Cotton Cleaners 314 +Handsome Doorway in the Madrassah, Isfahan 322 +One of Zil-es-Sultan's Eunuchs 326 +The "Hall of Forty Columns," Isfahan 326 +The Quivering Minarets near Isfahan 330 +H.R.H. Zil-es-Sultan, Governor of Isfahan 350 +Agriculture and Pigeon Towers near Isfahan 352 +Persian Spinning Wheels and Weaving Looms 366 +Halting at a Caravanserai 380 +A Street in Yezd, showing High _Badjirs_ or Ventilating Shafts 380 +Ardeshir Meheban Irani and the Leading Members of the + Anguman-i-Nasseri (Parsee National Assembly), Yezd 394 +Parsee Priests of Yezd Officiating during Ceremony in + their Fire Temple 400 +Interior of Old Caravanserai with Central Water Tank 410 +Typical Caravanserai and Mud Fort in the Desert between + Yezd and Kerman 414 +A Trade Caravanserai, Kerman 414 +H. E. Ala-el-Mulk, Governor of Kerman, in his Palace 432 +Tiled Walls and Picturesque Windows in the Madrassah, Kerman 438 +Sirkar Agha's Son, the Head of the Sheikhi Sect, Kerman 438 +The Interior of a Hammam or Bath--First Room 442 +The Hot Room in a Persian Bath 444 +The Kala-i-Dukhtar or Virgin Fort 444 +Graveyard and Kala-i-Dukhtar or Virgin Fort, Kerman 446 +Ruined Houses of Farmitan 450 +Plan of House at Farmitan 450 +A Steep Rock Climb, Kerman 454 +A View of the Kerman Plain from the "Ya Ali" Inscription 458 +Wives Returning from the Pilgrimage for Sterile Women 458 +Map at the End of Volume. + + + + +ACROSS COVETED LANDS + + +CHAPTER I + + The start--The terrors of the Russian Custom-house--An amusing + incident at the Russian frontier--Politeness of Russian + officials--Warsaw: its sights; its lovely women--The talented + Pole--People who know how to travel by train--A ludicrous scene. + + +"First single to Baku," I requested when my turn came at the window of +the ticket office at Victoria Station. + +"Baku?--where is that?" queried the ticket man. + +"In Southern Russia." + +"Oh, I see! Well, we cannot book further than Warsaw for Russia." + +"Warsaw will do. . . . . How much? . . . Thank you." + +My baggage having next been duly registered direct for the capital of +Poland, off I set to Queenborough, crossed over by the night boat to +Flushing, and continued the following morning by express to Berlin. + +Once in the Russian train from the German capital one hears a great deal +of the terrors of the approaching Russian Custom-house, and here I may +relate rather an amusing incident which will prove what these terrors +amount to. In my sleeping car there happened to be some French merchants +on their way to the fair of Nijni-Novgorod. On perceiving my two rifles, +a good-sized ammunition case, and two cameras, one of the gentlemen +gratuitously informed me that if I intended to proceed to Russia I had +better leave all these things behind, or they would all be confiscated at +the frontier. I begged to differ, and the Frenchmen laughed boisterously +at my ignorance, and at what would happen presently. In their imaginative +minds they perceived my valued firearms being lost for ever, and +predicted my being detained at the police station till it pleased _les +terribles Cossacques_ to let me proceed. + +"Evidently," shouted one of the Frenchmen at the top of his voice, "this +is your first journey abroad. . . . _We_," he added, "are great +travellers. We have been once before in Russia." + +"You _are_ great travellers!" I exclaimed, with the emphasis very strong +on the _are_, and pretending intense admiration. + +Naturally the Franco-Russian Alliance was dragged into the conversation; +were I a Frenchman I might fare less badly. The Russians and the French +were brothers. But a British subject! A hated Englishman bringing into +Russia two rifles, two revolvers, six hundred cartridges, twelve hundred +photographic plates, two cameras, a large case of scientific instruments, +all of which I would duly declare! Why? Russia was not England. I should +soon experience how Englishmen were treated in some countries. +"Russians," he exclaimed, "have not a polished manner like the French. +_Ah, non!_ They are semi-barbarians yet. They respect and fear the +French, but not the English. . . . _par exemple!_" + +The frontier station of Alexandrovo was reached, and a horde of +terror-stricken passengers alighted from the carriages, preceded and +followed by bags, portmanteaux, hold-alls, and bundles of umbrellas, +which were hastily conveyed to the long tables of the huge Custom-house +inspection room. + +The two Frenchmen had their belongings next to mine on the long counter, +and presently an officer came. They were French subjects and they had +nothing to declare. Their elaborately decorated bags were instantly +ordered open and turned upside down, while the officer searched with some +gusto among the contents now spread on the table. There was a small +pocket camera, two packets of photographic plates, some soiled +handkerchiefs, collars and cuffs, a box of fancy note-paper, a bottle of +scent, a pair of embroidered pantoufles, and a lot of patent brass studs +and cuff links. + +With the exception of the soiled linen, everything was seized, for all +were liable to duty, and some sharp words of reprimand were used by the +officer to my now subdued French neighbours for attempting to smuggle. + +The officer moved on to me. + +"Monsieur," mournfully remarked the Frenchman, "now _you_ will be done +for." + +I declared everything and produced a special permit, which had been very +courteously given me by the Russian Ambassador, and handed it to the +officer. Having eagerly read it, he stood with his heels together and +gave me a military salute. With a profound bow he begged me to point out +to him all my luggage so that he could have it stamped without giving me +further trouble. He politely declined to use the keys I handed him, and +thinking that I might feel uncomfortable in the hustling crowd of people +he conveyed me to a chair in order that I might sit down. + +I turned round to look at the Frenchmen. They had altogether collapsed. + +"I thought you said that Englishmen were hated in Russia, and that they +would confiscate all my things? You see they have confiscated nothing," I +meekly remarked to the Frenchmen, when they returned to the sleeping car. +"I do not think that I have met with more polite Customs officials +anywhere." + +"_Oui, oui_," muttered the stouter Frenchman, who was evidently in no +mood to enter into further conversation. "_Et nous autres betes_," he +soliloquized, "_qui avons fait l'alliance avec ces sauvages la! On m'a +tout pris meme le papier a lettres!_" + +He removed his coat and waistcoat and the many interesting patent +appliances for holding his tie in the correct position--where it never +remained--then he threw himself violently on the berth, face towards the +wall, and grumbled the greater part of the night on the stupid mistake of +the Franco-Russian Alliance. On his return to France he would write a +letter to the Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres. After a long and tedious +soliloquy he fortunately fell asleep. + +Warsaw on the Vistula, the old capital of Poland, was reached in the +morning. + +The quickest way to Baku would have been to proceed to Moscow and then by +the so-called "petroleum express," which leaves once a week, every +Tuesday, for Baku. Unluckily, I could not reach Moscow in time, and +therefore decided to travel across Russia by the next best route, _via_ +Kiev, Rostoff, and the Caspian. The few hours I remained in Warsaw were +pleasantly spent in going about seeing the usual sights; the Palace and +lovely Lazienski gardens, laid out in the old bed of the Vistula; the +out-of-door theatre on a small island, the auditorium being separated by +water from the stage; the lakes, the Saski Ogrod, and the Krasinski +public gardens; the Jewish quarter of the town; the museums of ancient +and modern art. + +There are few cities in Europe that are prettier, cleaner, and more +animated than Warsaw, and few women in the world that have a better claim +to good looks than the Warsaw fair sex. The majority of women one sees in +the streets are handsome, and carry themselves well, and their dress is +in good taste, never over-done as it is in Paris, for instance. + +The whole city has a flourishing appearance, with its tramways, gay +omnibuses, electric light, telephones, and every modern convenience. The +streets are broad and cheerful. In the newer parts of the city there are +beautiful residences, several of which, I was told, belong to British +subjects settled there. The Russian military element is very strong, for +Poland's love for Russia is not yet very great. As we walk along the main +thoroughfares a long string of Cossacks, in their long black felt cloaks +and Astrakan caps, canter along. They are a remarkably picturesque and +business-like lot of soldiers. + +Poles are civility itself, that is, of course, if one is civil to them. + +Historically the place is of extreme interest, and the battlefields of +Novogeorgievsk, which played such an important part in the Polish +insurrection of 1831, and of Grochowo, where the Poles were defeated, are +well worth a visit. At Maciejowice, too, some fifty miles up the Vistula, +Kosciuzko was made prisoner by the conquering Russians. + +Warsaw is the third largest city in the Russian Empire, and its +favourable geographical position makes it one of the great pivots of +Eastern Europe. With a navigable river and the great main railway lines +to important centres such as Berlin, Vienna, Moscow, St. Petersburg, +Dantzig, Kiev, and Odessa, with good climatic conditions, and fertile +soil; with the pick of natural talent in art and science, and the love +for enterprise that is innate in the Polish character, Warsaw cannot help +being a prosperous place. + +The city has very extensive suburbs. The best known to foreigners, Praga, +on the opposite bank of the Vistula, is connected with Warsaw by two iron +bridges. Warsaw itself is built on terraces, one above another, along the +bank of the river, but the main portion of the city stands on a high +undulating plain above. There are over a hundred Catholic, several Greek +churches, and a number of synagogues; a university, schools of art, +academies, fourteen monasteries, and two nunneries. + +There are few places in the world where the artisan or the common workman +is more intelligent and artistic, and where the upper classes are more +refined and soundly cultured, than in Warsaw. With a certain reflex of +the neighbouring German commercial influence, the place has become a +thriving manufacturing and trading centre. Machinery, excellent pianos +and other musical instruments, carriages, silver and electro-plate, boots +and leather goods are manufactured and exported on a large scale. The +tanneries of Warsaw are renowned the world over, and the Warsaw boots are +much sought after all over the Russian Empire for their softness, +lightness and durability. Then there are great exports of wheat, flax, +sugar, beer, spirits, and tobacco. + +But time is short, and we must drive to the station. Say what you will +about the Russian, there is a thing that he certainly knows how to do. He +knows how to travel by rail. One has a great many preconceived ideas of +the Russian and his ways. One is always reminded that he is a barbarian, +that he is ignorant, that he is dirty. He is possibly a barbarian in one +way, that he can differentiate good from bad, real comfort from "optical +illusions" or illusions of any other kind, a thing highly civilised +people seem generally unable to do. This is particularly noticeable in +Russian railway travelling,--probably the best and cheapest in the world. + +To begin with, when you take a first-class ticket it entitles you to a +seat numbered and reserved that nobody can appropriate. No more tickets +are sold than correspond with the accommodation provided in the train. +This does away entirely with the "leaving one's umbrella" business, to +secure a seat, or scattering one's belongings all over the carriage to +ensure the whole compartment to one's self, to the inconvenience of other +travellers. Then first, second and third-class passengers are provided +with sleeping accommodation. The sleeping accommodation, especially for +first and second-class passengers, consists of a wide and long berth +wherein they can turn round at their will, if they please, not of a +short, narrow bunk in which even a lean person has to lie edgewise or +roll out, as in the continental sleeping car, for which discomfort +(rather than accommodation) preposterous extra charges have to be paid, +above the first-class fare. Then, too, in the latter the compartments are +so small, so ridiculously ventilated, that after one night spent boxed +in, especially if another passenger shares the same cabin, one feels sick +for some hours, and in the day-time one has no room to turn round, nor +space to put one's legs. As for the lighting, the less said the better. +These faults exist in our own and the continental first-class +compartments. + +But the barbarian Russian knows and does better. The line being of a very +broad gauge, his first-class carriages are extremely spacious and very +high, with large windows and efficacious ventilators; and there is plenty +of room everywhere to spread one's limbs in every direction. There is +probably less gilding about the ceiling, fewer nickel-plated catches +about the doors; not so much polished wood, nor ghastly coloured +imitation-leather paper, nor looking-glasses, but very convenient +folding-tables are found instead; the seats are ample and serviceable, of +plain, handsome red velvet, devoid of the innumerable dust-collecting +button-pits--that striking feature of British and continental +railway-carriage decoration. Movable cushions are provided for one's back +and head. There are bright electric lights burning overhead, and +adjustable reading lights in the corners of the carriage. A corridor runs +along the whole train, and for a few kopeks passengers can at any moment +procure excellent tea, caviare sandwiches, or other light refreshments +from attendants. + +Now for the bedding itself. The Russian, who is ever a practical man, +carries his own bedding--a couple of sheets, blankets, and small +pillow,--a custom infinitely cleaner and more sensible than sleeping in +dubious, smelly blankets of which one does not know who has used them +before, nor when they were washed last. But if passengers wish, by paying +a rouble (two shillings) a night to the guard, bedding is provided by the +Railway. There is a fine _lavabo_ at the end of each carriage, with +shampoo, hot and cold water, etc. Here, too, by asking the guard, towels +are handed over to those passengers who have not brought their own. + +Here I may relate another amusing incident. Unable to get at my towels +packed in my registered baggage, and ignorant of the Russian language, I +inquired of a polyglot fellow-passenger what was the Russian word for +towel, so that I could ask the guard for one. + +"_Palatiensi_," said he, and I repeated, "Palatiensi, palatiensi, +palatiensi," so as to impress the word well upon my memory. Having +enjoyed a good wash and a shampoo, and dripping all over with water, I +rang for the guard, and sure enough, when the man came, I could +not recollect the word. At last it dawned upon me that it +was,--"_Palatinski_," and "_Palatinski_," I asked of the guard. + +To my surprise the guard smiled graciously, and putting on a modest air +replied: "_Palatinski niet, paruski_ (I do not speak Latin, I speak only +Russian)," and the more I repeated "palatinski," putting the inflection +now on one syllable, then on the other, to make him understand, the more +flattered the man seemed to be, and modestly gave the same answer. + +This was incomprehensible to me, until my polyglot fellow-passenger came +to my assistance. + +"Do you know what you are asking the guard?" he said in convulsions of +laughter. + +"Yes, I am asking for a 'palatinski'--a towel." + +"No, you are not!" and he positively went into hysterics. "Palatinski +means 'Do you speak Latin?' How can you expect a Russian railway-guard to +speak Latin? Look how incensed the poor man is at being mistaken for a +Latin scholar! Ask him for a _palatiensi_, and he will run for a towel." + +The man did run on the magic word being pronounced, and duly returned +with a nice clean _palatiensi_, which, however, was little use to me for +I had by this time nearly got dry by the natural processes of dripping +and evaporation. + +One or two other similar incidents, and the extreme civility one meets +from every one while travelling in Russia, passed the time away +pleasantly until Kiev, one of the oldest cities of Russia, was reached. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + Kiev--Its protecting Saint--Intellectuality and trade--Priests + and education--Wherein lies the strength of Russia--Industries--A + famous Monastery--The Catacombs of St. Theodosius and St. + Anthony--Pilgrims--Veneration of Saints--The Dnieper + river--Churches--A luminous cross--Kharkoff--Agriculture--Horse + fairs--Rostoff--Votka drunkenness--Strong fortifications--Cheap + and good travelling--Baku. + + +Tradition tells us that Kiev was founded before the Christian era, and +its vicissitudes have since been many and varied. It has at all times +been considered one of the most important ecclesiastical centres of +Russia,--if not indeed the most important--but particularly since St. +Vladimir, the protecting saint of the city, preached Christianity there +in 988, this being the first time that the religion of Christ had been +expounded in Russia. A century and a half before that time (in 822) Kiev +was the capital city of the state and remained such till 1169. In 1240 it +was captured by Mongols who held it for 81 years. The Lithuanians came +next, and remained in possession for 249 years, until 1569; then Poland +possessed it until the year 1654, when it became part of the Russian +Empire. + +Kiev has the name of being a very intellectual city. Somehow or other, +intellectuality and trade do not seem to go together, and although the +place boasts of a military school and arsenal, theological colleges, a +university, a school of sacred picture painters, and a great many +scientific and learned societies, we find that none of these are locally +put to any marked practical use, except the sacred-picture painting; the +images being disposed of very rapidly, and for comparatively high prices +all over the country. Hardly any religious resorts are great commercial +centres, the people of these places being generally conservative and +bigoted and the ruling priestly classes devoting too much attention to +idealism to embark in commercial enterprise, which leaves little time for +praying. Agriculture and horticulture are encouraged and give good +results. + +The priests make money--plenty of it--by their religion, and they +probably know that there is nothing more disastrous to religion in laymen +than rapid money-making by trade or otherwise. With money comes +education, and with education, too powerful a light thrown upon +superstition and idolatry. It is nevertheless possible, even probable, +that in the ignorance of the masses, in the fervent and unshaken +confidence which they possess in God, the Czar and their leaders, may yet +lie the greatest strength of Russia. It must not be forgotten that +half-educated, or half uneducated, masses are probably the weakness +to-day of most other civilised nations. + +Some business on a small scale, however, is transacted at the various +fairs held in Kiev, such as the great fair at the beginning of the +Russian year. There are many beet-root sugar refineries, the staple +industry of the country, and next come leather tanneries, worked leather, +machinery, spirits, grain and tobacco. Wax candles are manufactured in +huge quantities, and in the monastery there is a very ancient +printing-press for religious books. + +Peter the Great erected a fortress here in a most commanding spot. It is +said to contain up-to-date guns. A special pass has to be obtained from +the military authorities to be allowed to enter it, not so much because +it is used as an arsenal, but because from the high tower a most +excellent panoramic view is obtained of the city, the neighbourhood, and +the course of the river down below. + +But Kiev is famous above all for its monastery, the Kievo-Petcherskaya, +near which the two catacombs of St. Theodosius and St. Antony attract +over three hundred thousand pilgrims every year. The first catacomb +contains forty-five bodies of saints, the other eighty and the revered +remains are stored in plain wood or silver-mounted coffins, duly labelled +with adequate inscriptions. The huge monastery itself bears the +appearance of great wealth, and has special accommodation for pilgrims. +As many as 200,000 pilgrims are said to receive board and lodging yearly +in the monastery. These are naturally pilgrims of the lower classes. + +Enormous riches in solid gold, silver and jewellery are stored in the +monastery and are daily increased by devout gifts. + +But let us visit the catacombs. + +The spare-looking, long-haired and bearded priests at the entrance of the +catacomb present to each pilgrim, as a memento, a useful and much valued +wax candle, which one lights and carries in one's hand down the steep and +slippery steps of the subterranean passages. All along, the procession +halts before mummified and most unattractive bodies, a buzzing of prayers +being raised by the pilgrims when the identity of each saint is explained +by the priest conducting the party. The more devout people stoop over the +bodies and kiss them fervently all over, voluntarily and gladly +disbursing in return for the privilege all such small cash as may lie +idle in their pockets. + +Down and down the crowd goes through the long winding, cold, damp, +rancid-smelling passages, devoid of the remotest gleam of ventilation, +and where one breathes air so thick and foul that it sticks to one's +clothes and furs one's tongue, throat and lungs for several hours after +one has emerged from the catacombs into fresh air again. Yet there are +hermit monks who spend their lives underground without ever coming up to +the light, and in doing so become bony, discoloured, ghastly creatures, +with staring, inspired eyes and hollow cheeks, half demented to all +appearance, but much revered and respected by the crowds for their +self-sacrifice. + +Further on the pilgrims drink holy water out of a small cup made in the +shape of a cross, with which the liquid is served out from a larger +vessel. The expression of beatitude on their faces as they sip of the +holy water, and their amazing reverence for all they see and are told to +do, are quite extraordinary to watch, and are quite refreshing in these +dying days of idealism supplanted by fast-growing and less poetic +atheistic notions. The scowl I received from the priest when my turn came +and he lifted the tin cross to my lips, is still well impressed upon my +mind. I drew back and politely declined to drink. There was a murmur of +strong disapproval from all the people present, and the priest grumbled +something; but really, what with the fetid smell of tallow-candle smoke, +the used-up air, and the high scent of pilgrims--and religious people +ever have a pungent odour peculiar to themselves--water, whether holy or +otherwise, was about the very beverage that would have finished me up at +that particular moment. + +Glad I was to be out in the open air again, driving through the pretty +gardens of Kiev, and to enjoy the extensive view from the high cliffs +overlooking the winding Dnieper River. A handsome suspension bridge joins +the two banks. The river is navigable and during the spring floods the +water has been known to rise as much as twenty feet. + +The city of Kiev is situated on high undulating ground some 350 feet +above the river, and up to 1837 consisted of the old town, Podol and +Petchersk, to which forty-two years later were added Shulyavka, +Solomenka, Kurenevka and Lukyanovka, the city being divided into eight +districts. The more modern part of the town is very handsome, with wide +streets and fine stone houses of good architecture, whereas the poorer +abodes are mostly constructed of wood. + +As in all the other cities of Russia there are in Kiev a great many +churches, over seventy in all, the oldest of which is the Cathedral of +St. Sophia in the centre of the town, built as early as 1037 on the spot +where the Petchenegs were defeated the previous year by Yarosloff. It is +renowned for its superb altar, its valuable mosaics and the tombs of +Russian grand-dukes. Next in importance is the Church of the Assumption, +containing the bodies of seven saints conveyed here from Constantinople. +At night the cross borne by the statue of Vladimir, erected on a high +point overlooking the Dnieper, is lighted up by electricity. This +luminous cross can be seen for miles and miles all over the country, and +the effect is most impressive and weird. + +From Kiev I had to strike across country, and the trains were naturally +not quite so luxurious as the express trains on the main line, but still +the carriages were of the same type, extremely comfortable and spacious, +and all the trains corridor trains. + +The next important city where I halted for a few hours was Kharkoff in +the Ukraine, an agricultural centre where beet-root was raised in huge +quantities and sugar manufactured from it; wheat was plentiful, and good +cattle, sheep and horses were bred. The population was mostly of Cossacks +of the Don and Little Russians. The industries of the place were closely +akin to farming. Agricultural implements were manufactured; there were +wool-cleaning yards, soap and candle factories, wheat-mills, brandy +distilleries, leather tanneries, cloth manufactories, and brick kilns. + +The horse fairs at Kharkoff are patronised by buyers from all parts of +Russia, but to outsiders the city is probably better known as the early +cradle of Nihilistic notions. Although quite a handsome city, with fine +streets and remarkably good shops, Kharkoff has nothing special to +attract the casual visitor, and in ordinary times a few hours are more +than sufficient to get a fair idea of the place. + +With a railway ticket punched so often that there is very little left of +it, we proceed to Rostoff, where we shall strike the main line from +Moscow to the Caucasus. Here is a comparatively new city--not unlike the +shambling lesser Western cities of the United States of America, with +plenty of tumbling-down, made-anyhow fences, and empty tin cans lying +everywhere. The streets are unpaved, and the consequent dust blinding, +the drinking saloons in undue proportion to the number of houses, and +votka-drunken people in undue proportion to the population. +Votka-drunkenness differs from the intoxication of other liquors in one +particular. Instead of "dead drunk" it leaves the individuals drunk-dead. +You see a disgusting number of these corpse-like folks lying about the +streets, cadaverous-looking and motionless, spread flat on their faces or +backs, uncared-for by everybody. Some sleep it off, and, if not run over +by a droshki, eventually go home; some sleep it on, and are eventually +conveyed to the graveyard, and nobody seems any the wiser except, of +course, the people who do not drink bad votka to excess. + +Rostoff stands at the head of the Delta of the Don, a position of great +strategical importance, where of course the Russians have not failed to +build strong fortifications. These were begun as early as 1761. Now very +active ship-building yards are found here, and extensive caviare +factories. Leather, wool, corn, soap, ropes and tobacco are also +exported, and the place, apart from its military importance, is steadily +growing commercially. The majority of shops seem to deal chiefly in +American and German made agricultural implements, machinery and tools, +and in firearms and knives of all sizes and shapes. The place is not +particularly clean and certainly hot, dusty and most unattractive. One is +glad to get into the train again and steam away from it. + +As we get further South towards the Caucasus the country grows more +barren and hot, the dust is appalling, but the types of inhabitants at +the little stations become very picturesque. The Georgians are very fine +people and the Armenians too, in appearance at least. The station sheds +along the dusty steppes are guarded by soldiers, presumably to prevent +attacks on the trains, and as one gets near the Caspian one begins to see +the wooden pyramids over oil wells, and long freight trains of petroleum +carried in iron cylindrical tanks. The wells get more numerous as we go +along; the stations more crowded with petroleum tanks. We are nearing the +great naphtha wells of Baku, where at last we arrive, having travelled +from Tuesday to Sunday afternoon, or five days, except a few hours' halt +in Kiev, Kharkoff and Rostoff. + +[Illustration: The Baku Oil Wells.] + +The first-class railway fare from Warsaw for the whole journey was fully +covered by a five-pound note, and, mind you, could have been done cheaper +if one chose to travel by slower trains on a less direct route! + + + + +CHAPTER III + + Baku--Unnecessary anxiety--A storm--Oil wells--Naphtha + spouts--How the wells are worked--The native city--The Baku + Bay--Fortifications--The Maiden's Tower--Depressing + vegetation--Baku dust--Prosperity and hospitality--The Amir of + Bokhara--The mail service to Persia on the Caspian--The Mercury + and Caucasus line--Lenkoran--Astara (Russo-Persian + boundary)--Antiquated steamers. + + +So many accounts are heard of how one's registered baggage in Russia +generally arrives with locks smashed and minus one's most valuable +property, and how unpunctual in arriving luggage is, and how few +passengers escape without having their pockets picked before reaching +their destination--by the way, a fellow-passenger had his pockets picked +at the station of Mineralnya Vod--that I was somewhat anxious to see my +belongings again, and fully expected to find that something had gone +wrong with them. Much to my surprise, on producing the receipt at the +very handsome railway terminus, all my portmanteaux and cases were +instantly delivered in excellent condition. + +The Caspian Sea steamers for Persia leave Baku on Sunday and Tuesday at +midnight. There was a fierce sand storm raging at the time and the +steamer had returned without being able to land her passengers at their +destination. I decided to wait till the Tuesday. There is plenty to +interest one in Baku. I will not describe the eternal fires, described so +often by other visitors, nor tell how naphtha was tapped for the first +time at this place, and how in 1886 one particular well spouted oil with +such tremendous force that it was impossible to check it and it deluged a +good portion of the neighbourhood. A year later, in 1887, another +fountain rose to a height of 350 ft. There are myriads of other lesser +fountains and wells, each covered by a wooden shed like a slender +pyramid, and it is a common occurrence to see a big spout of naphtha +rising outside and high above the top of the wooden shed, now from one +well, now from another. + +The process of bringing naphtha to the surface under ordinary +circumstances is simple and effective, a metal cylinder is employed that +has a valve at the lower end allowing the tube to fill while it descends, +and closing automatically when the tube is full and is being raised above +ground and emptied into pits provided for the purpose. The naphtha then +undergoes the process of refinement. There are at the present moment +hundreds of refineries in Baku. The residue and waste of naphtha are used +as fuel, being very much cheaper than coal or wood. + +The greater number of wells are found a few miles out of the town on the +Balakhani Peninsula, and the naphtha is carried into the Baku refineries +by numerous pipe lines. The whole country round is, however, impregnated +with oil, and even the sea in one or two bays near Baku is coated with +inflammable stuff and can be ignited by throwing a lighted match upon it. +At night this has a weird effect. + +Apart from the oil, Baku--especially the European settlement--has nothing +to fascinate the traveller. In the native city, Persian in type, with +flat roofs one above the other and the hill top crowned by a castle and +the Mosque of Shah Abbas, constant murders occur. The native population +consists mostly of Armenians and Persians. Cotton, saffron, opium, silk +and salt are exported in comparatively small quantities. Machinery, grain +and dried fruit constitute the chief imports. + +The crescent-shaped Baku Bay, protected as it is by a small island in +front of it, affords a safe anchorage for shipping. It has good +ship-yards and is the principal station of the Russian fleet in the +Caspian. Since Baku became part of the Russian Empire in 1806 the harbour +has been very strongly fortified. + +The most striking architectural sight in Baku is the round Maiden's Tower +by the water edge, from the top of which the lovely daughter of the Khan +of Baku precipitated herself on to the rocks below because she could not +marry the man she loved. + +The most depressing sight in Baku is the vegetation, or rather the +strenuous efforts of the lover of plants to procure verdure at all costs +in the gardens. It is seldom one's lot to see trees and plants look more +pitiable, notwithstanding the unbounded care that is taken of them. The +terrific heat of Baku, the hot winds and sand-storms are deadly enemies +to vegetation. Nothing will grow. One does not see a blade of grass nor a +shrub anywhere except those few that are artificially brought up. The +sand is most trying. It is so fine that the wind forces it through +anything, and one's tables, one's chairs, one's bed are yellow-coated +with it. The tablecloth at the hotel, specklessly white when you begin to +dine, gets gradually yellower at sight, and by the time you are half +through your dinner the waiter has to come with a brush to remove the +thick coating of dust on the table. + +These are the drawbacks, but there is an air of prosperity about the +place and people that is distinctly pleasing, even although one may not +share in it. There is quite a fair foreign community of business people, +and their activity is very praiseworthy. The people are very +hospitable--too hospitable. When they do not talk of naphtha, they drink +sweet champagne in unlimited quantities. But what else could they do? +Everything is naphtha here, everything smells of naphtha, the steamers, +the railway engines are run with naphtha. The streets are greasy with +naphtha. Occasionally--frequently of late--the monotony of the place is +broken by fires of gigantic proportions on the premises of over-insured +well-owners. The destruction to property on such occasions is immense, +the fires spreading with incalculable rapidity over an enormous area, and +the difficulty of extinguishing them being considerable. + +When I was in Baku the Amir of Bokhara was being entertained in the city +as guest of the Government. His suite was quartered in the Grand Hotel. +He had taken his usual tour through Russia and no trouble had been spared +to impress the Amir with the greatness of the Russian Empire. He had been +given a very good time, and I was much impressed with the pomp and +cordiality with which he was treated. Neither the Governor nor any of the +other officials showed him the usual stand-off manner which in India, for +instance, would have been used towards an Asiatic potentate, whether +conquered by us or otherwise. They dealt with him as if he had been a +European prince--at which the Amir seemed much flattered. He had a +striking, good-natured face with black beard and moustache, and dark +tired eyes that clearly testified to Russian hospitality. + +I went to see him off on the steamer which he kept waiting several hours +after the advertised time of departure. He dolefully strode on board over +a grand display of oriental rugs, while the military brass band provided +for the occasion played Russian selections. Everybody official wore +decorations, even the captain of the merchant ship, who proudly bore upon +his chest a brilliant star--a Bokhara distinction received from the Amir +on his outward journey for navigating him safely across the Caspian. + +[Illustration: The Amir of Bokhara leaving Baku to return to his +Country.] + +The Amir's suite was very picturesque, some of the men wearing long +crimson velvet gowns embroidered in gold, others silk-checked garments. +All had white turbans. The snapshot reproduced in the illustration shows +the Amir accompanied by the Governor of Baku just stepping on board. + +There is a regular mail service twice a week in summer, from April to the +end of October, and once a week in winter, on the Caspian between Baku +and Enzeli in Persia, the Russian Government paying a subsidy to the +Kavkas and Mercury Steam Navigation Company for the purpose of conveying +passengers, mails (and, in the event of war, troops) into Persia and +back. There are also a number of coasting steamers constantly plying +between the various ports on the Caspian both on the Russian and Persian +coast. + +The hurricane having abated there was a prospect of a fair voyage and the +probability of landing at Enzeli in Persia, so when the Tuesday came I +went on board the old rickety paddle-steamer (no less than forty-five +years old) which was to convey me to that port. She was one of the +Mercury-Caucasus Co. fleet, and very dirty she was, too. + +It is perhaps right to mention that for the first time in Russia, +purposeless rudeness and insolence came to my notice on the part of the +ticket officials of the Mercury line. They behaved like stupid +children, and were absolutely incompetent to do the work which had been +entrusted to them. They were somewhat surprised when I took them to task +and made them "sit up." Having found that they had played the fool with +the wrong man they instantly became very meek and obliging. It is +nevertheless a great pity that the Mercury Company should employ men of +this kind who, for some aim of their own, annoy passengers, both foreign +and Russian, and are a disgrace to the Company and their country. + +On board ship the captain, officers and stewards were extremely civil. +Nearly all the captains of the Caspian steamers were Norwegian or from +Finland, and were jolly fellows. The cabins were very much inhabited, so +much so that it was difficult to sleep in them at all. Insects so +voracious and in such quantities and variety were in full possession of +the berths, that they gave one as lively a night as it is possible for +mortals to have. Fortunately the journey was not a long one, and having +duly departed at midnight from Baku I reached Lenkoran the next day, with +its picturesque background of mountains and thickly-wooded country. This +spot is renowned for tiger-shooting. + +Our next halt was at Astara, where there were a number of wooden sheds +and drinking saloons,--a dreadful place, important only because on the +Perso-Russian boundary line formed by the river of the same name. We +landed here a number of police officers, who were met by a deputation of +some fifty Persian-looking men, who threw their arms round their necks +and in turn lustily kissed them on both cheeks. It was a funny sight. +When we got on board again after a couple of hours on shore the wind rose +and we tossed about considerably. Another sleepless night on the "living" +mattress in the bunk, and early in the morning we reached the Persian +port of Enzeli. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + The Port of Enzeli--Troublesome landing--Flat-bottomed boats--A + special permit--Civility of officials--Across the Murd-ap + lagoon--Piri-Bazaar--A self-imposed golden rule--Where our stock + came from--The drive to Resht--The bazaar--The native shops and + foreign goods--Ghilan's trade--The increase in trade--British and + Russian competitions--Sugar--Tobacco--Hotels--The British + Consulate--The Governor's palace--H.E. Salare Afkham--A Swiss + hotel--Banks. + + +One calls Enzeli a "port" _pour facon de parler_, for Persia has no +harbours at all on the Caspian sea. Enzeli, Meshed-i-Sher or Astrabad, +the three principal landing places on the Persian coast, have no shelter +for ships, which have to lie a good distance out at sea while passengers +and cargo are transhipped by the Company's steam launch or--in rough +weather--by rowing boats. In very rough weather it is impossible to +effect a landing at all, and--this is a most frequent occurrence on the +treacherous Caspian--after reaching one's journey's end one has to go all +the way back to the starting point and begin afresh. There are people who +have been compelled to take the journey four or five times before they +could land, until the violent storms which often rage along the Persian +coast had completely subsided and allowed the flimsy steam-launch at +Enzeli to come out to meet the steamers, lying about a mile outside. + +We had passengers on board who had been unable to land on the previous +journey, and were now on their second attempt to set foot in Persia. We +were rolling a good deal when we cast anchor, and after waiting some +hours we were informed that it was too rough for the steam-launch to come +out. The captain feared that he must put to sea again, as the wind was +rising and he was afraid to remain so near the coast. Two rowing boats +eventually came out, and with some considerable exertion of the rowers +succeeded in getting near the steamer. I immediately chartered one, and +after a good deal of see-saw and banging and knocking and crackling of +wood alongside the steamer, my baggage and I were transhipped into the +flat-bottomed boat. Off we rowed towards the shore, getting drenched each +time that the boat dipped her nose into the sea. + +The narrow entrance of the Enzeli bay is blocked by a sand-bar. The water +is here very shallow, only about six feet deep. Riding on the top of the +breakers was quite an experience, and we occasionally shipped a good deal +of water. We, however, landed safely and had to pay pretty dearly for the +convenience. The boatmen do not run the risk of going out for nothing, +and when they do, take every advantage of passengers who employ them. I +was fortunate to get off by giving a backshish of a few _tomans_ +(dollars), but there are people who have been known to pay three, four +and even five pounds sterling to be conveyed on shore. + +Here, too, thanks to the civility of the Persian Ambassador in London, I +had a special permit for my firearms, instruments, etc., and met with the +greatest courtesy from the Belgian and Persian officers in the Customs. +It is necessary to have one's passport in order, duly _vise_ by the +Persian Consul in London, or else a delay might occur at Enzeli. + +There is a lighthouse at Enzeli, the Customs buildings and a small hotel. +From this point a lagoon, the Murd-ap has to be crossed, either by the +small steam-launch or by rowing boat. As there seemed to be some +uncertainty about the departure of the launch, and as I had a good deal +of luggage, I preferred the latter way. Eight powerful men rowed with all +their might at the prospect of a good backshish; and we sped along at a +good pace on the placid waters of the lagoon, in big stretches of open +water, now skirting small islands, occasionally through narrow canals, +the banks of which were covered with high reeds and heavy, tropical, +confused, untidy vegetation. The air was still and stifling--absolutely +unmoved, screened as it was on all sides by vegetation. The sailors sang +a monotonous cadence, and the boat glided along for some three hours +until we arrived at the mouth of the Piri river, hardly wide enough for a +couple of boats to go through simultaneously, and so shallow that rowing +was no longer practicable. + +The men jumped off, tied the towing rope that hung from the mast to their +belts, and ran along the banks of the Piri river, the water of which was +almost stagnant. An hour or so later we suddenly came upon a number of +boats jammed together in the miniature harbour of Piri Bazaar--a pool of +putrid water a few feet in circumference. As the boat gradually +approached, a stone-paved path still separated from you by a thick wide +layer of filthy mud wound its way to the few miserable sheds--the +bazaar--up above. A few trays of grapes, some Persian bread, some +earthenware pottery of the cheapest kind, are displayed in the shop +fronts--and that is all of the Piri-Bazaar. On landing at Enzeli one +hears so much of Piri-Bazaar that one gets to imagine it a big, important +place,--and as it is, moreover, practically the first really typical +Persian place at which one touches, the expectations are high. Upon +arrival there one's heart sinks into one's boots, and one's boots sink +deep into black stinking mud as one takes a very long--yet much too +short--jump from the boat on to what one presumes to be _terra firma_. + +With boots clogged and heavy with filth, a hundred people like ravenous +birds of prey yelling in your ears (and picking your pockets if they have +a chance), with your luggage being mercilessly dragged in the mud, with +everybody demanding backshish on all sides, tapping you on the shoulder +or pulling your coat,--thus one lands in real Persia. + +In the country of Iran one does not travel for pleasure nor is there any +pleasure in travelling. For study and interest, yes. There is plenty of +both everywhere. + +Personally, I invariably make up my mind when I start for the East that +no matter what happens I will on no account get out of temper, and this +self-imposed rule--I must admit--was never, in all my travels, tried to +the tantalising extent that it was in the country of the Shah. The +Persian lower classes--particularly in places where they have come in +contact with Europeans--are well-nigh intolerable. There is nothing that +they will not do to annoy you in every possible way, to extort backshish +from you. In only one way do Persians in this respect differ from other +Orientals. The others usually try to obtain money by pleasing you and +being useful and polite, whereas the Persian adopts the quicker, if not +safer, method of bothering you and giving you trouble to such an +unlimited degree that you are compelled to give something in order to get +rid of him. And in a country where no redress can be obtained from the +police, where laws do not count, and where the lower classes are as +corrupt and unscrupulous as they are in the more civilised parts of +Persia (these remarks do not apply to the parts where few or no Europeans +have been) the only way to save one's self from constant worry and +repressed anger--so bad for one's health--is to make up one's mind at +once to what extent one is prepared to be imposed upon, and leave the +country after. That is to say, if one does not wish to adopt the only +other and more attractive alternative of inflicting summary justice on +two-thirds of the natives one meets,--too great an exertion, to be sure, +in so hot a climate. + +They say that Persia is the country that our stock came from. It is quite +possible, and if so we are indeed to be congratulated upon having morally +improved so much since, or the Persians to be condoled with on their sad +degeneration. The better classes, however, are very different, as we +shall see later. + +Personally, I adopted the first method suggested above, the easier of the +two, and I deliberately put by what I thought was a fair sum to be +devoted exclusively to extortion. On leaving the country several months +later, much to my astonishment I found that I had not been imposed upon +half as much as I expected, although I had stayed in Persia double the +time I had intended. Maybe this can be accounted for by my having spent +most of my time in parts not so much frequented by Europeans. Indeed, if +the Persian is to-day the perfidious individual he is, we have to a great +extent only ourselves to blame for making him so. + +Keeping my temper under control, and an eye on my belongings, I next +hired a carriage to convey me to the town of Resht, seven miles distant. +In damp heat, that made one's clothes moist and unpleasant, upon a road +muddy to such an extent that the wheels sank several inches in it and +splashed the passenger all over, we galloped through thick vegetation and +patches of agriculture, and entered the city of Resht. Through the narrow +winding streets of the bazaar we slowed down somewhat in some places, the +carriage almost touching the walls of the street on both sides. The +better houses possess verandahs with banisters painted blue, while the +walls of the buildings are generally white. + +One is struck by the great number of shoe shops in the bazaar, displaying +true Persian shoes with pointed turned-up toes,--then by the brass and +copper vessel shops, the ancient and extremely graceful shapes of the +vessels and amphoras being to this date faithfully preserved and +reproduced. More pleasing still to the eye are the fruit shops, with huge +trays of water-melons, cucumbers, figs, and heaps of grapes. The latter +are, nevertheless, not so very tasty to the palate and do not compare +with the delicate flavour of the Italian or Spanish grapes. + +Somewhat incongruous and out-of-place, yet more numerous than truly +Persian shops, are the semi-European stores, with cheap glass windows +displaying inside highly dangerous-looking kerosene lamps, badly put +together tin goods, soiled enamel tumblers and plates, silvered glass +balls for ceiling decoration, and the vilest oleographs that the human +mind can devise, only matched by the vileness of the frames. Small +looking-glasses play an important part in these displays, and +occasionally a hand sewing-machine. Tinned provisions, wine and liquor +shops are numerous, but unfortunate is the man who may have to depend +upon them for his food. The goods are the remnants of the oldest stocks +that have gradually drifted, unsold, down to Baku, and have eventually +been shipped over for the Persian market where people do not know any +better. Resht is the chief city in the Ghilan province. + +Ghilan's trade in piece-goods is about two-thirds in the hands of Russia, +while one-third (or even less) is still retained by England,--Manchester +goods. This cannot well be helped, for there is no direct route from +Great Britain to Resht, and all British goods must come through Bagdad, +Tabriz, or Baku. The two first routes carry most of the trade, which +consists principally of shirtings, prints, cambrics, mulls, nainsooks, +and Turkey-reds, which are usually put down as of Turkish origin, whereas +in reality they come from Manchester, and are merely re-exported, mainly +from Constantinople, by native firms either in direct traffic or in +exchange for goods received. + +One has heard a great deal of the enormous increase in trade in Persia +during the last couple of years or so. The increase has not been in the +trade itself, but in the collection of Customs dues, which is now done in +a regular and business like fashion by competent Belgian officials, +instead of by natives, to whom the various collecting stations were +formerly farmed out. + +It will not be very easy for the British trader to compete successfully +with the Russian in northern Persia, for that country, being +geographically in such close proximity, can transport her cheaply made +goods at a very low cost into Iran. Also the Russian Government allows +enormous advantages to her own traders with Persia in order to secure the +Persian market, and to develop her fast-increasing industrial +progress,--advantages which British traders do not enjoy. Still, +considering all the difficulties British trade has to contend with in +order to penetrate, particularly into Ghilan, it is extraordinary how +some articles, like white Manchester shirtings, enjoy practically a +monopoly, being of a better quality than similar goods sent by Russia, +Austria, Hungary, Germany, Italy or Holland. + +Loaf sugar, which came at one time almost entirely from France, has been +cut out by Russian sugar, which is imported in large quantities and +eventually finds its way all over Persia. It is of inferior quality, but +very much cheaper than sugar of French manufacture, and is the chief +Russian import into Ghilan. + +Tobacco comes principally from Turkey and Russia. In going on with our +drive through the bazaar we see it sold in the tiny tobacco shops, where +it is tastily arranged in heaps on square pieces of blue paper, by the +side of Russian and Turkish cigarettes. + +[Illustration: Persian Wrestling.] + +And now for the Resht Hotels. Here is an Armenian hotel--European style. +From the balcony signs and gesticulations and shouts in English, French, +and Russian endeavour to attract the passer-by--a youth even rushes to +the horses and stops them in order to induce the traveller to alight and +put up at the hostelry; but after a long discussion, on we go, and slowly +wind our way through the intricate streets crowded with men and women and +children--all grumbling and making some remark as one goes by. At one +point a circle of people squatting in the middle of a road round a pile +of water-melons, at huge slices of which they each bit lustily, kept us +waiting some time, till they moved themselves and their melons out of the +way for the carriage to pass. Further on a soldier or two in rags lay +sleeping flat on the shady side of the road, with his pipe (kalian) and +his sword lying by his side. Boys were riding wildly on donkeys and +frightened women scrambled away or flattened themselves against the side +walls of the street, while the hubs of the wheels shaved and greased +their ample black silk or cotton trousers made in the shape of sacks, and +the horses' hoofs splashed them all over with mud. The women's faces were +covered with a white cloth reaching down to the waist. Here, too, as in +China, the double basket arrangement on a long pole swung across the +shoulders was much used for conveying loads of fruit and vegetables on +men's shoulders;--but least picturesque of all were the well-to-do +people of the strong sex, in short frock-coats pleated all over in the +skirt. + +One gets a glimpse of a picturesque blue-tiled pagoda-like roof with a +cylindrical column upon it, and at last we emerge into a large +quadrangular square, with European buildings to the west side. + +A little further the British flag flies gaily in the wind above H.M.'s +Consulate. Then we come upon a larger building, the Palace of the +Governor, who, to save himself the trouble and expense of having sentries +at the entrances, had life-size representations of soldiers with drawn +swords painted on the wall. They are not all represented wearing the same +uniform, as one would expect with a guard of that kind, but for variety's +sake some have red coats, with plenty of gold braiding on them, and blue +trousers, the others blue coats and red trousers. One could not honestly +call the building a beautiful one, but in its unrestored condition it is +quite picturesque and quaint. It possesses a spacious verandah painted +bright blue, and two windows at each side with elaborate ornamentations +similarly coloured red and blue. A red-bordered white flag with the +national lion in the centre floats over the Palace, and an elaborate +castellated archway, with a repetition of the Persian Lion on either +side, stands in front of the main entrance in the square of the Palace. +So also do four useful kerosene lamp-posts. The telegraph office is to +the right of the Palace with a pretty garden in front of it. + +The most important political personage living in Resht is His Excellency +Salare Afkham, called Mirza Fathollah Khan, one of the richest men in +Persia, who has a yearly income of some twenty thousand pounds sterling. +He owns a huge house and a great deal of land round Resht, and is much +respected for his talent and kindly manner. He was formerly Minister of +the Customs and Posts of all Persia, and his chest is a blaze of Russian, +Turkish and Persian decorations of the highest class, bestowed upon him +by the various Sovereigns in recognition of his good work. He has for +private secretary Abal Kassem Khan, the son of the best known of modern +Persian poets, Chams-echoera, and himself a very able man who has +travelled all over Asia, Turkestan and Europe. + +Persia is a country of disappointments. There is a general belief that +the Swiss are splendid hotel-keepers. Let me give you my experience of +the hotel at Resht kept by a Swiss. + +"Can this be the Swiss hotel?" I queried to myself, as the driver pulled +up in front of an appallingly dirty flight of steps. There seemed to be +no one about, and after going through the greater part of the building, I +eventually came across a semi-starved Persian servant, who assured me +that it was. The proprietor, when found, received me with an air of +condescension that was entertaining. He led me to a room which he said +was the best in the house. On inspection, the others, I agreed with him, +were decidedly not better. The hotel had twelve bedrooms and they were +all disgustingly filthy. True enough, each bedroom had more beds in it +than one really needed, two or even three in each bedroom, but a +_coup-d'oeil_ was sufficient to assure one's self that it was out of the +question to make use of any of them. I counted four different coloured +hairs, of disproportionate lengths and texture, on one bed-pillow in my +room, leaving little doubt that no less than four people had laid their +heads on that pillow before; and the pillow of the other bed was so black +with dirt that I should imagine at least a dozen consecutive occupants of +that couch would be a low estimate indeed. As for the sheets, blankets, +and towels, we had better draw a veil. I therefore preferred to spread my +own bedding on the floor, and slept there. The hotel boasted of three +large dining-rooms in which a few moth-eaten stuffed birds and a case or +two of mutilated butterflies, a couple of German oleographs, which set +one's teeth on edge, and dusty, stamped cotton hangings formed the entire +decoration. + +To give one an appetite--which one never lost as long as one stayed +there--one was informed before dinner that the proprietor was formerly +the Shah's cook. After dinner one felt very, very sorry for the poor +Shah, and more so for one's self, for having put up at the hotel. But +there was no other place in Resht, and I stuck to my decision that I +would never get angry, so I stood all patiently. The next day I would +start for Teheran. + +One talks of Persian extortion, but it is nothing to the example offered +to the natives by Europeans in Persia. The charges at the hotel were +exorbitant. One paid as much per day as one would at the very first hotel +in London, New York, or Paris, such as the Carlton, the Waldorf, or Ritz. +Only here one got absolutely nothing for it except very likely an +infectious disease, as I did. In walking bare-footed on the filthy +matting, while taking my bath, some invisible germ bored its way into the +sole of my right foot and caused me a good deal of trouble for several +weeks after. Animal life in all its varieties was plentiful in all the +rooms. + +Previous to starting on the long drive to the capital I had to get some +meat cooked for use on the road, but it was so putrid that even when I +flung it to a famished pariah dog he refused to eat it. And all this, +mind you, was inexcusable, because excellent meat, chickens, eggs, +vegetables, and fruit, can be purchased in Resht for a mere song, the +average price of a good chicken, for instance, being about 5_d._ to +10_d._, a whole sheep costing some eight or ten shillings. I think it is +only right that this man should be exposed, so as to put other travellers +on their guard, not so much for his overcharges, for when travelling one +does not mind over-paying if one is properly treated, but for his +impudence in furnishing provisions that even a dog would not eat. Had it +not been that I had other provisions with me I should have fared very +badly on the long drive to Teheran. + +It may interest future travellers to know that the building where the +hotel was at the time of my visit, August, 1901, has now been taken over +for five years by the Russian Bank in order to open a branch of their +business in Resht, and that the hotel itself, I believe, has now shifted +to even less palatial quarters! + +The Imperial Bank of Persia has for some years had a branch in Resht, and +until 1901 was the only banking establishment in the town. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + Resht--Impostors--A visit to the Head Mullah--Quaint + notions--Arrangements for the drive to Teheran--The Russian + concession of the Teheran road--The stormy Caspian and unsafe + harbours--The great Menzil bridge--A detour in the road--Capital + employed in the construction of the road--Mistaken English + notions of Russia--Theory and practice--High tolls--Exorbitant + fares--A speculator's offer refused--Development of the road. + + +Resht is an odious place in every way. It is, as it were, the "Port Said" +of Persia, for here the scum of Armenia, of Southern Russia, and of +Turkestan, stagnates, unable to proceed on the long and expensive journey +to Teheran. One cannot go out for a walk without being accosted by any +number of impostors, often in European clothes, who cling like leeches +and proceed to try to interest you in more or less plausible swindles. +One meets a great many people, too, who are on the look out for a "lift" +in one's carriage to the Persian capital. + +I paid quite an interesting visit to a near relation of the Shah's, who +was the guest of the local Head Mullah. The approach to the Mullah's +palace was not attractive. I was conveyed through narrow passages, much +out of repair, until we arrived in front of a staircase at the foot of +which lay in a row, and in pairs, shoes of all sizes, prices, and ages, +patiently waiting for their respective owners inside the house. A great +many people were outside in the courtyard, some squatting down and +smoking a kalian, which was passed round after a puff or two from one +person to the other, care being taken by the last smoker to wipe the +mouthpiece with the palm of his hand before handing it to his neighbour. +Others loitered about and conversed in a low tone of voice. + +A Mullah received me at the bottom of the staircase and led me up stairs +to a large European-looking room, with glass windows, cane chairs, and +Austrian glass candelabras. There were a number of Mullahs in their long +black robes, white or green sashes, and large turbans, sitting round the +room in a semicircle, and in the centre sat the high Mullah with the +young prince by his side. They all rose when I entered, and I was greeted +in a dignified yet very friendly manner. A chair was given me next to the +high Mullah, and the usual questions about one's family, the vicissitudes +of one's journey, one's age, one's plans, the accounts of what one had +seen in other countries, were duly gone through. + +It was rather curious to notice the interest displayed by the high Mullah +in our South African war. He seemed anxious to know whether it was over +yet, or when it would be over. Also, how was it that a big nation like +Great Britain could not conquer a small nation like the Boers. + +"It is easier for an elephant to kill another elephant," I replied, "than +for him to squash a mosquito." + +"Do you not think," said the Mullah, "that England is now an old nation, +tired and worn--too old to fight? Nations are like individuals. They can +fight in youth--they must rest in old age. She has lived in glory and +luxury too long. Glory and luxury make nations weak. Persia is an +example." + +"Yes, there is much truth in your sayings. We are tired and worn. We have +been and are still fast asleep in consequence. But maybe the day will +come when we shall wake up much refreshed. We are old enough to learn, +but not to die yet." + +He was sorry that England was in trouble. + +Tea, or rather sugar with some drops of tea on it was passed, in tiny +little glasses with miniature perforated tin spoons. Then another +cross-examination. + +"Do you drink spirits and wine?" + +"No." + +"Do you smoke?" + +"No." + +"You would make a good Mussulman." + +"Possibly, but not probably." + +"In your travels do you find the people generally good or bad?" + +"Taking things all round, in their badness, I find the people usually +pretty good." + +"How much does your King give you to go about seeing foreign countries?" + +"The King gives me nothing. I go at my own expense." + +This statement seemed to take their breath away. It was bad enough for a +man to be sent--for a consideration--by his own Government to a strange +land, but to pay for the journey one's self, why! it seemed to them too +preposterous for words. They had quite an excited discussion about it +among themselves, the Persian idea being that every man must sponge upon +the Government to the utmost extent. + +The young Prince hoped that I would travel as his guest in his carriage +to Teheran. Unfortunately, however, I had made other arrangements, and +was unable to accept his invitation. + +My visit ended with renewed salaams and good wishes on their part for my +welfare on the long journey I was about to undertake. I noticed that, +with the exception of the Prince, who shook my hand warmly, the Mullahs +bowed over and over again, but did not touch my hand. + +Now for the business visit at the post station. After a good deal of talk +and an unlimited consumption of tea, it had been arranged that a landau +with four post horses to be changed every six farsakhs, at each post +station, and a _fourgon_--a large van without springs, also with four +horses,--for luggage, should convey me to Teheran. So little luggage is +allowed inside one's carriage that an additional _fourgon_ is nearly +always required. One is told that large packages can be forwarded at a +small cost by the postal service, and that they will reach Teheran soon +after the passengers, but unhappy is the person that tries the rash +experiment. There is nothing to guarantee him that he will ever see his +luggage again. In Persia, a golden rule while travelling, that may +involve some loss of time but will avoid endless trouble and worry in the +end, is never to let one's luggage go out of sight. One is told that the +new Teheran road is a Russian enterprise, and therefore quite reliable, +and so it is, but not so the company of transportation, which is in the +hands of natives, the firm of Messrs. Bagheroff Brothers, which is merely +subsidized by the Russian Road Company. + +As every one knows, in 1893 the Russians obtained a concession to +construct a carriage-road from Piri-Bazaar _via_ Resht to Kasvin, an +extension to Hamadan, and the purchase of the road from Kasvin to +Teheran, which was already in existence. Nominally the concession was not +granted to the Russian Government itself--as is generally believed in +England--but to a private company--the "Compagnie d'Assurance et de +Transport en Perse," which, nevertheless, is a mere off-shoot of +Government enterprise and is backed by the Russian Government to no mean +degree. The Company's headquarters are in Moscow, and in Persia the chief +office is at Kasvin. + +Here it may be well to add that if this important concession slipped out +of our hands we have only ourselves to blame. We can in no way accuse the +Russians of taking advantage of us, but can only admire them for knowing +how to take advantage of a good opportunity. We had the opportunity +first; it was offered us in the first instance by Persia which needed a +loan of a paltry sixty million francs, or a little over two million +pounds sterling. The concession was offered as a guarantee for the loan, +but we, as usual, temporised and thought it over and argued--especially +the people who did not know what they were arguing about--and eventually +absolutely refused to have anything to do with the scheme. The Russians +had the next offer and jumped at it, as was natural in people well versed +in Persian affairs, and well able to foresee the enormous possibilities +of such an undertaking. + +It was, beyond doubt, from the very beginning--except to people +absolutely ignorant and mentally blind--that the concession, apart from +its political importance, was a most excellent financial investment. Not +only would the road be most useful for the transit of Russian goods to +the capital of Persia, and from there all over the country, but for +military purposes it would prove invaluable. Maybe its use in the latter +capacity will be shown sooner than we in England think. + +Of course, to complete the scheme the landing at Enzeli must still be +improved, so that small ships may enter in safety and land passengers and +goods each journey without the unpleasant alternative, which we have +seen, of having to return to one's point of departure and begin again, +two, or three, or even four times. One gentleman I met in Persia told me +that on one occasion the journey from Baku to Enzeli--thirty-six +hours--occupied him the space of twenty-six days! + +[Illustration: Fourgons on the Russian Road between Resht and Teheran.] + +The Caspian is stormy the greater part of the year, the water shallow, no +protection from the wind exists on any side, and wrecks, considering the +small amount of navigation on that sea, are extremely frequent. As we +have seen, there are not more than six feet of water on the bar at +Enzeli, but with a jetty which could be built at no very considerable +expense (as it probably will be some day) and a dredger kept constantly +at work, Enzeli could become quite a possible harbour, and the dangers of +long delays and the present risks that await passengers and goods, if not +absolutely avoided, would at least be minimised to an almost +insignificant degree. The navigation of the lagoon and stream presents no +difficulty, and the Russians have already obtained the right to widen the +mouth of the Murd-ap at Enzeli, in conjunction with the concession of the +Piri-Bazaar-Teheran road. + +The road was very easy to make, being mostly over flat country and rising +to no great elevation, 5,000 feet being the highest point. It follows the +old caravan track nearly all the way, the only important detour made by +the new road being between Paichinar and Kasvin, to avoid the high +Kharzan or Kiajan pass--7,500 feet--over which the old track went. + +Considering the nature of the country it crosses, the new road is a +good one and is well kept. Three large bridges and fifty-eight small ones +have been spanned across streams and ravines, the longest being the +bridge at Menzil, 142 yards long. + +From Resht, _via_ Deschambe Bazaar, to Kudum the road strikes due south +across country. From Kudum (altitude, 292 feet) to Rudbar (665 feet) the +road is practically along the old track on the north-west bank of the +Kizil Uzen River, which, from its source flows first in a south-easterly +direction, and then turns at Menzil almost at a right angle towards the +north-east, changing its name into Sefid Rud (the White River). Some +miles after passing Rudbar, the river has to be crossed by the great +bridge, to reach Menzil, which lies on the opposite side of the stream. + +From Menzil to Kasvin the Russian engineers had slightly more trouble in +constructing the road. A good deal of blasting had to be done to make the +road sufficiently broad for wheeled traffic; then came the important +detour, as we have seen, from Paichinar to Kasvin, so that practically +the portion of the road from Menzil to Kasvin is a new road altogether, +_via_ Mala Ali and Kuhim, the old track being met again at the village of +Agha Baba. + +The width of the road averages twenty-one feet. In difficult places, such +as along ravines, or where the road had to be cut into the rock, it is +naturally less wide, but nowhere under fourteen feet. The gradient +averages 1--20 to 1--24. At a very few points, however, it is as steep +as 1 in 15. If the hill portion of the road is excepted, where, being in +zig-zag, it has very sharp angles, a light railway could be laid upon it +in a surprisingly short time and at no considerable expense, the ground +having been made very hard nearly all along the road. + +The capital of L340,000 employed in the construction of the road was +subscribed in the following manner: 1,000 shares of 1,000 rubles each, or +1,000,000 rubles original capital subscribed in Moscow; 1,000,000 rubles +debentures taken by the Russian Government, and a further 500,000 rubles +on condition that 700,000 rubles additional capital were subscribed, +which was at once done principally by the original shareholders. + +The speculation had from the very beginning a prospect of being very +successful, even merely considered as a trade route--a prospect which the +British Government, capitalist, and merchant did not seem to grasp, but +which was fully appreciated by the quicker and more far-seeing Russian +official and trader. Any fair-minded person cannot help admiring the +Russian Government for the insight, enterprise and sound statesmanship +with which it lost no time in supporting the scheme (discarded by us as +worthless), and this it did, not by empty-winded, pompous speeches and +temporising promises, to which we have so long been accustomed, but by +supplying capital in hard cash, for the double purpose of enhancing to +its fullest extent Russian trade and of gaining the strategic advantages +of such an enterprise, which are too palpable to be referred to again. + +So it was, that while we in England relied on the everlasting and +ever-idiotic notion that Russia would never have the means to take up the +loan, being--as we are told--a bankrupt country with no resources, and a +Government with no credit and no cash,--that we found ourselves left (and +laughed at), having lost an opportunity which will never present itself +again, and which will eventually cost us the loss of Northern Persia, if +not of the whole of Persia. + +Russia--it is only too natural--having once set her foot, or even both +feet, on Persian soil, now tries to keep out other nations--which, owing +to her geographical position, she can do with no effort and no +trouble--in order to enhance her youthful but solid and fast-growing +industries and trade. + +In the case of the Teheran road, the only one, it must be remembered, +leading with any safety to the Persian capital, it is theoretically open +to all nations. Practically, Russian goods alone have a chance of being +conveyed by this route, owing to the prohibitive Customs duties exacted +in Russia on foreign goods in transit for Persia. Russia is already +indirectly reaping great profits through this law, especially on +machinery and heavy goods that have no option and must be transported by +this road. There is no other way by which they can reach Teheran on +wheels. But the chief and more direct profit of the enterprise itself is +derived from the high tolls which the Russian Company, with the +authorisation of the Persian Government, has established on the road +traffic, in order to reimburse the capital paid out and interest to +shareholders. + +The road tolls are paid at Resht (and at intermediate stations if +travellers do not start from Resht), and amount to 4 krans == 1_s._ 8_d._ +for each pack animal, whether it be a camel, a horse, a mule, or a +donkey. + +A post-carriage with four horses (the usual conveyance hired between +Resht and Teheran) pays a toll of no less than 17_s._ 2_d._ + + _s._ _d._ + A carriage with 3 horses 12 6 + " " 2 " 8 4 + " " 1 horse 4 2 +A _fourgon_, or luggage van, 4 horses, L1 0_s._ 10_d._ + +Passengers are charged extra and above these tolls, so that a landau or a +victoria, for instance, actually pays L1 8_s._ for the right of using the +road, and a _fourgon_ with one's servants, as much as L1 13_s._ 2_d._ + +The fares for the hire of the conveyance are very high:-- + + L _s._ _d._ +Landau 11 16 7 +Victoria 10 16 7 +Coupe 11 4 10 +Fourgon 10 0 10 + +As only 72 lbs. of personal luggage are allowed in the landau or 65 lbs. +in other carriages, and this weight must be in small packages, one is +compelled to hire a second conveyance, a _fourgon_, which can carry 650 +lbs. Every pound exceeding these weights is charged for at the rate of +two shillings for every 131/2 lbs. of luggage. The luggage is weighed with +great accuracy before starting from Resht, and on arrival in Teheran. +Care is taken to exact every half-penny to which the company is entitled +on luggage fares, and much inconvenience and delay is caused by the +Persian officials at the scales. It is advisable for the traveller to be +present when the luggage is weighed, to prevent fraud. + +It may be noticed that to travel the 200 miles, the distance from Resht +to Teheran, the cost, without counting incidental expenses, tips +(amounting to some L3 or more), etc., + + L _s._ _d._ L _s._ _d._ L _s._ _d._ +Landau, 11 16 7 plus toll, 1 8 0 13 4 7 +Fourgon, 10 0 10 plus toll, 1 13 2 11 14 0 + ------------ + Total L24 18 7 + +which is somewhat high for a journey of only 72 to 80 hours. + +This strikes one all the more when one compares it with the journey of +several thousand miles in the greatest of luxury from London across +Holland, Germany, Russia, and the Caspian to Enzeli, which can be covered +easily by three five-pound notes. + +As every one knows, the road from Piri-Bazaar to Kasvin and Teheran was +opened for wheel traffic in January 1899. + +I am told that in 1899--before the road was completed--a Persian +speculator offered the sum of L200 a day to be paid in cash every +evening, for the contract of the tolls. The offer was most emphatically +refused, as the daily tolls even at that time amounted to between L270 +and L300. + +In these last three years the road has developed in a most astounding +manner, and the receipts, besides being now considerably greater, are +constantly increasing. The Russian shareholders and Government can indeed +fairly congratulate themselves on the happy success which their +well-thought-out investment has fairly won them. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + A journey by landau and four--Picturesque + coachman--Tolls--Intense moisture--Luxuriant + vegetation--Deschambe Bazaar--The silk industry of Ghilan--The + cultivation and export of rice--The Governor's + energy--Agriculture and Allah--The water question--The coachman's + backshish--The White River--Olive groves--Halting places on the + road--The effects of hallucination--Princes abundant. + + +We have seen how the road was made. Now let us travel on it in the hired +landau and four horses driven by a wild-looking coachman, whose locks of +jet-black hair protrude on either side of his clean-shaven neck, and +match in colour his black astrakan, spherical, brimless headgear. Like +all good Persians, he has a much pleated frockcoat that once was black +and is now of various shades of green. Over it at the waist he displays a +most elaborate silver belt, and yet another belt of leather with a +profusion of cartridges stuck in it and a revolver. + +Why he did not run over half-a-dozen people or more as we galloped +through the narrow streets of Resht town is incomprehensible to me, for +the outside horses almost shaved the walls on both sides, and the +splash-boards of the old landau ditto. + +That he did not speaks volumes for the flexibility and suppleness of +Persian men, women and children, of whom, stuck tight against the walls +in order to escape being trampled upon or crushed to death, one got mere +glimpses, at the speed one went. + +The corners of the streets, too, bore ample testimony to the inaccuracy +of drivers in gauging distances, and so did the hubs and splash-boards of +the post-carriages, all twisted and staved in by repeated collisions. + +It is with great gusto on the part of the drivers, but with a certain +amount of alarm on the part of the passenger, that one's carriage chips +off corner after corner of the road as one turns them, and one gets to +thank Providence for making houses in Persia of easily-powdered mud +instead of solid stone or bricks. + +One's heart gets lighter when we emerge into the more sparsely inhabited +districts where fields and heavy vegetation line the road, now very wide +and more or less straight. Here the speed is greatly increased, the +coachman making ample use of a long stock whip. In Persia one always +travels full gallop. + +After not very long we pull up to disburse the road toll at a wayside +collecting house. There are a great many caravans waiting, camels, mules, +donkeys, horsemen, _fourgons_, whose owners are busy counting hard silver +krans in little piles of 10 krans each--a _toman_, equivalent to a +dollar,--without which payment they cannot proceed. Post carriages have +precedence over everybody, and we are served at once. A receipt is duly +given for the money paid, and we are off again. The coachman is the cause +of a good deal of anxiety, for on the chance of a handsome backshish he +has indulged in copious advance libations of rum or votka, or both, the +vapours of which are blown by the wind into my face each time that he +turns round and breathes or speaks. That this was a case of the horses +leading the coachman and not of a man driving the horses, I have +personally not the shade of a doubt, for the wretch, instead of minding +his horses, hung backwards, the whole way, from the high box, yelling, I +do not know what, at the top of his voice, and making significant +gestures that he was still thirsty. Coachmen of all countries invariably +are. + +We ran full speed into caravans of donkeys, scattering them all over the +place; we caused flocks of frightened sheep to stampede in all +directions, and only strings of imperturbable camels succeeded in +arresting our reckless flight, for they simply would not move out of the +way. Every now and then I snatched a furtive glance at the scenery. + +The moisture of the climate is so great and the heat so intense, that the +vegetation of the whole of Ghilan province is luxuriant,--but not +picturesque, mind you. There is such a superabundance of vegetation, the +plants so crammed together, one on the top of the other, as it were, all +untidy, fat with moisture, and of such deep, coarse, blackish-green tones +that they give the scenery a heavy leaden appearance instead of the +charming beauty of more delicate tints of less tropical vegetation. + +We go through Deschambe Bazaar, a place noted for its fairs. + +Here you have high hedges of reeds and hopelessly entangled shrubs; there +your eyes are rested on big stretches of agriculture,--Indian corn, +endless paddy fields of rice and cotton, long rows of mulberry trees to +feed silkworms upon their leaves. Silk is even to-day one of the chief +industries of Ghilan. Its excellent quality was at one time the pride of +the province. The export trade of dried cocoons has been particularly +flourishing of late, and although prices and the exchanges have +fluctuated, the average price obtained for them in Resht when fresh was +from 201/2 krans to 221/2 krans (the kran being equivalent to about +fivepence). + +The cocoon trade had until recently been almost entirely in the hands of +Armenian, French and Italian buyers in Resht, but now many Persian +merchants have begun to export bales of cocoons direct to Marseilles and +Milan, the two chief markets for silk, an export duty of 5 per cent. on +their value being imposed on them by the Persian Government. The cocoons +are made to travel by the shortest routes, _via_ the Caspian, Baku, +Batum, and the Black Sea. + +The year 1900 seems to have been an exceptionally good year for the +production and export of cocoons. The eggs for the production of +silkworms are chiefly imported by Levantines from Asia Minor (Gimlek and +Brussa), and also in small quantities from France. According to the +report of Mr. Churchill, Acting-Consul at Resht, the quantity of cocoons +exported during that year showed an increase of some 436,800 lbs. above +the quantity exported the previous year (1899); and a comparison between +the quantity exported in 1893 and 1900 will show at a glance the enormous +apparent increase in the export of dried cocoons from Ghilan. + +1893 76,160 lbs. Value L6,475 +1900 1,615,488 " " L150,265 + +It must, however, be remembered that the value given for 1893 may be very +incorrect. + +Large meadows with cattle grazing upon them; wheat fields, vegetables of +all sorts, vineyards, all pass before my eyes as in a kaleidoscope. A +fine country indeed for farmers. Plenty of water--even too much of +it,--wood in abundance within a stone's throw. + +Next to the silk worms, rice must occupy our attention, being the staple +food of the natives of Ghilan and constituting one of the principal +articles of export from that province. + +The cultivation and the export of rice from Ghilan have in the last +thirty years become very important, and will no doubt be more so in the +near future, when the mass of jungle and marshes will be cleared and +converted into cultivable land. The Governor-General of Resht is showing +great energy in the right direction by cutting new roads and repairing +old ones on all sides, which ought to be of great benefit to the country. + +In Persia, remember, it is not easy to learn anything accurately. And as +for Persian statistics, unwise is the man who attaches any importance to +them. Much as I would like to quote statistics, I cannot refrain from +thinking that no statistics are a hundredfold better than slip-shod, +haphazard, inaccurate ones. And this rule I must certainly apply to the +export of rice from Ghilan to Europe, principally Russia, during 1900, +and will limit myself to general remarks. + +Extensive tracts of country have been cleared of reeds and useless +vegetation, and converted into paddy fields, the natives irrigating the +country in a primitive fashion. + +It is nature that is mostly responsible if the crops are not ruined year +after year, the thoughtless inhabitants, with their natural laziness, +doing little more than praying Allah to give them plenty of rain, instead +of employing the more practical if more laborious expedient of +artificially irrigating their country in some efficient manner, which +they could easily do from the streams close at hand. Perhaps, in addition +to this, the fact that water--except rain-water--has ever to be purchased +in Persia, may also account to a certain extent for the inability to +afford paying for it. In 1899, for instance, rain failed to come and the +crops were insufficient even for local consumption, which caused the +population a good deal of suffering. But 1900, fortunately, surpassed all +expectations, and was an excellent year for rice as well as cocoons. + +We go through thickly-wooded country, then through a handsome forest, +with wild boars feeding peacefully a few yards from the road. About every +six farsakhs--or twenty-four miles--the horses of the carriage, and those +of the fourgon following closely behind, are changed at the +post-stations, as well as the driver, who leaves us, after carefully +removing his saddle from the box and the harness of the horses. He has to +ride back to his point of departure with his horses. He expects a present +of two krans,--or more if he can get it--and so does the driver of the +fourgon. Two krans is the recognised tip for each driver, and as one gets +some sixteen or seventeen for each vehicle,--thirty-two or thirty-four if +you have two conveyances,--between Resht and Teheran, one finds it quite +a sufficient drain on one's exchequer. + +As one gets towards Kudum, where one strikes the Sefid River, we begin to +rise and the country gets more hilly and arid. We gradually leave behind +the oppressive dampness, which suggests miasma and fever, and begin to +breathe air which, though very hot, is drier and purer. We have risen 262 +feet at Kudum from 77 feet, the altitude of Resht, and as we travel now +in a south-south-west direction, following the stream upwards, we keep +getting higher, the elevation at Rustamabad being already 630 feet. We +leave behind the undulating ground, covered with thick forests, and come +to barren hills, that get more and more important as we go on. We might +almost say that the country is becoming quite mountainous, with a few +shrubs here and there and scenery of moderate beauty, (for any one +accustomed to greater mountains), but quite "wildly beautiful" for the +ordinary traveller. We then get to the region of the grey olive groves, +the trees with their contorted, thickly-set branches and pointed leaves. +What becomes of the olives? They are exported to Europe,--a flourishing +trade, I am told. + +One bumps a great deal in the carriage, for the springs are not "of the +best," and are hidden in rope bandages to keep them from falling apart. +The road, too, is not as yet like a billiard table. The doors of the +landau rattle continuously, the metal fastenings having long disappeared, +and being replaced by bits of string. + +One travels incessantly, baked in the sun by day and chilled by the cold +winds at night, trying to get a little sleep with one's head dangling +over the side of the carriage, one's legs cramped, and all one's bones +aching. But this is preferable to stopping at any of the halting-places +on the road, whether Russian or Persian, which are filthy beyond words, +and where one is mercilessly swindled. Should one, however, be compelled +to stop anywhere it is preferable to go to a thoroughly Persian place, +where one meets at least with more courtesy, and where one is imposed +upon in a more modest and less aggressive way than at the Russian places. +It must, however, be stated that the Russian places are usually in charge +of over-zealous Persians, or else in the hands of inferior Russian +subjects, who try to make all they can out of their exile in the lonely +stations. + +I occasionally halted for a glass of tea at the Persian Khafe-Khanas, and +in one of them a very amusing incident happened, showing the serious +effects that hallucination may produce on a weak-minded person. + +I had got off the carriage and had carried into the khafe-khana my +camera, and also my revolver in its leather case which had been lying on +the seat of the carriage. At my previous halt, having neglected this +precaution, my camera had been tampered with by the natives, the lenses +had been removed, and the eighteen plates most of them already with +pictures on them--that were inside, exposed to the light and thrown +about, with their slides, in the sand. So to avoid a repetition of the +occurrence, and to prevent a probable accident, I brought all into the +khafe-khana room and deposited the lot on the raised mud portion along +the wall, seating myself next to my property. I ordered tea, and the +attendant, with many salaams, explained that his fire had gone out, but +that if I would wait a few minutes he would make me some fresh _chah_. I +consented. He inquired whether the revolver was loaded, and I said it +was. He proceeded to the further end of the room, where, turning his +back to me, he began to blow upon the fire, and I, being very thirsty, +sent another man to my fourgon to bring me a bottle of soda-water. The +imprisoned gases of the soda, which had been lying for the whole day in +the hot sun, had so expanded that when I removed the wire the cork went +off with a loud report and unfortunately hit the man in the shoulder +blade. By association of ideas he made so certain in his mind that it was +the revolver that had gone off that he absolutely collapsed in a +semi-faint, under the belief that he had been badly shot. He moaned and +groaned, trying to reach with his hand what he thought was the wounded +spot, and called for his son as he felt he was about to die. We supported +him, and gave him some water and reassured him, but he had turned as pale +as death. + +"What have I done to you that you kill me?" he moaned pitifully. + +"But, good man, you have no blood flowing,--look!" + +A languid, hopeless glance at the ground, where he had fallen and sure +enough, he could find no blood. He tried to see the wound, but his head +could not revolve to a sufficiently wide arc of a circle to see his +shoulder-blade, so in due haste we removed his coat and waistcoat and +shirt, and after slow, but careful, keen examination, he discovered that +not only there were no marks of flowing blood, but no trace whatever of a +bullet hole in any of his garments. Even then he was not certain, and two +small mirrors were sent for, which, by the aid of a sympathising friend, +he got at proper angles minutely to survey his whole back. + +He eventually recovered, and was able to proceed with the brewing of tea, +which he served with terribly trembling hand on the rattling saucer under +the tiny little glass. + +"It was a very narrow escape from death, sahib," he said in a wavering +voice--"for it might have been the revolver." + +There is nothing like backshish in Persia to heal all wounds, whether +real or otherwise, and he duly received an extra handsome one. + +In Persia the traveller is particularly struck by the number of Princes +one encounters on the road. This is to a certain extent to be accounted +for by the fact that the word _khan_ which follows a great many Persian +names has been translated, mainly by flattering French authors, into the +majestic but incorrect word "Prince." In many cases the suffix of _khan_ +is an equivalent of Lord, but in most cases it is no more than our +nominal "Esquire." + +I met on the road two fellows, one old and very dignified; the other +young, and who spoke a little French. He informed me that they were both +Princes. He called his friend "_Monsieur le Prince, mon ami_," and +himself "_Monsieur le Prince, moi!_" which was rather amusing. He +informed me that he was a high Customs official, and displayed towards +his fellow countrymen on the road a great many qualities that revealed a +very mean native indeed. + +The elder one wore carpet slippers to which he had attached--I do not +know how--an enormous pair of golden spurs! He was now returning from +Russia. He was extremely gentleman-like and seemed very much annoyed at +the behaviour of his companion. He begged me to believe that not all men +in Persia were like his friend, and I quite agreed with him. + +We travelled a great portion of the road together, and the old fellow was +extremely civil. He was very well informed on nearly all subjects, and +had belonged to the army. He pointed out to me the important sights on +the road, such as Mount Janja (7,489 ft.) to the East. + +After passing Rudbar (665 ft.) the road is mostly in narrow gorges +between mountains. It is rocky and arid, with hardly any vegetation. The +river has to be crossed by the new bridge, a handsome and solid +structure, and we arrive at the village of Menjil or Menzil. The Russian +station-house is the most prominent structure. Otherwise all is desert +and barren. Grey and warm reddish tints abound in the dried-up landscape, +and only a few stunted olive groves relieve the scenery with some +vegetable life. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + Menzil and the winds--The historical Alamut mountain--A low + plateau--Volcanic formation--Mol-Ali--A genuine case of + smallpox--Characteristic sitting posture--A caravan of + mules--Rugged country--The remains of a volcanic commotion--The + old track--Kasvin, the city of misfortunes--The Governor's palace + and palatial rest house--Earthquakes and famine--_Kanats_, the + marvellous aqueducts--How they are made--Manufactures--Kasvin + strategically. + + +Perhaps Menzil should be mentioned in connection with the terrific winds +which, coming from the north-east and from the south, seem to meet here, +and blow with all their might at all times of the year. The traveller is +particularly exposed to them directly above the river course on crossing +the bridge. Menzil is celebrated for these winds, which are supposed to +be the worst, in all Persia, but unpleasant as they may be to any one who +has not experienced worse, they are merely gentle breezes as compared, +for instance, with the wind storms of the Tibetan plateau. To the east +there is a very mountainous region, the Biwarzin Yarak range, or +Kuse-rud, averaging from 6,000 to 7,000 ft.; further north a peak of +7,850 ft., and south-west of the Janja, 7,489 ft., the high Salambar, +11,290 ft. On the historical Mt. Alamut the old state prisons were +formerly to be found, but were afterwards removed to Ardebil. + +From Menzil we have left the Sefid River altogether, and we are now in a +very mountainous region, with a singular low plateau in the centre of an +extensive alluvial plain traversed by the road. We cross the Shah Rud, or +River of the King, and at Paichinar, with its Russian post-house, we have +already reached an altitude of 1,800 ft. From this spot the road proceeds +through a narrow valley, through country rugged and much broken up, +distinctly volcanic and quite picturesque. It is believed that coal is to +be found here. + +Perhaps one of the prettiest places we had yet come to was Mol-Ali, a +lovely shady spot with veteran green trees all round. While the horses +were being changed I was asked by the khafe-khana man to go and inspect a +man who was ill. The poor fellow was wrapped up in many blankets and +seemed to be suffering greatly. He had very high fever and his was a +genuine case of smallpox. Next to him, quite unconcerned, were a number +of Persian travellers, who had halted here for refreshments. They were +squatting on their heels, knees wide apart, and arms balanced, resting +above the elbow on their knees--the characteristic sitting posture of all +Asiatics. Very comfortable it is, too, when you learn to balance yourself +properly and it leaves the free use of one's arms. The _kalian_ was being +passed round as usual, and each had a thimble-full of sugared tea. + +I was much attracted by a large caravan of handsome mules, the animals +enjoying the refreshing shade of the trees. They had huge saddles +ornamented with silver pommels and rings and covered over with carpets. +Variegated cloth or carpet or red and green leather saddle-bags hung on +either side of the animals behind the saddles. The bridle and bit were +richly ornamented with shells and silver or iron knobs. + +The few mud houses in the neighbourhood had flat roofs and were not +sufficiently typical nor inviting enough for a closer internal +inspection. + +We are now on a tributary of the Shah-rud on the new road, instead of the +old caravan track, which we have left since Paichinar. + +The country becomes more interesting and wild as we go on. In the +undoubtedly volcanic formation of the mountains one notices large patches +of sulphurous earth on the mountain-side, with dark red and black baked +soil above it. Over that, all along the range, curious column-like, +fluted rocks. Lower down the soil is saturated with sulphurous matter +which gives it a rich, dark blue tone with greenish tints in it and +bright yellow patches. The earth all round is of a warm burnt sienna +colour, intensified, when I saw it, by the reddish, soft rays of a dying +sun. It has all the appearance of having been subjected to abnormal heat. +The characteristic shape of the peaks of the range is conical, and a +great many deep-cut channels and holes are noticeable in the rocky sides +of these sugar-loaf mountains, as is frequently the case in mountains of +volcanic formation. + +We rise higher and higher in zig-zag through rugged country, and we then +go across an intensely interesting large basin, which must at a previous +date have been the interior of an exploded and now collapsed volcano. +This place forcibly reminded me of a similar sight on a grander +scale,--the site of the ex-Bandaisan Mountain on the main island of +Nippon in Japan, after that enormous mountain was blown to atoms and +disappeared some few years ago. A huge basin was left, like the bottom +part of a gigantic cauldron, the edges of which bore ample testimony to +the terrific heat that must have been inside before the explosion took +place. In the Persian scene before us, of a much older date, the basin, +corroded as it evidently was by substances heated to a very high +temperature and by the action of forming gases, had been to a certain +extent obliterated by the softening actions of time and exposure to air. +The impression was not so violent and marked as the one received at +Bandaisan, which I visited only a few days after the explosion, but the +various characteristics were similar. + +In the basin was a solitary hut, which rejoiced in the name of Kort. +These great commotions of nature are interesting, but to any one given to +sound reflection they are almost too big for the human mind to grasp. +They impress one, they almost frighten one, but give no reposeful, real +pleasure in gazing upon them such as less disturbed scenery does. The +contrasts in colour and shape are too violent, too crude to please the +eye: the freaks too numerous to be comprehensible at a glance. Here we +have a ditch with sides perfectly black-baked, evidently by lava or some +other hot substance which has flowed through; further on big splashes of +violent red and a great variety of warm browns. The eye roams from one +spot to the other, trying to understand exactly what has taken place--a +job which occupies a good deal of one's time and attention as one drives +through, and which would occupy a longer time and study than a gallop +through in a post landau can afford. + +At Agha Baba we were again on the old track, quite flat now, and during +the night we galloped easily on a broad road through uninteresting +country till we reached Kasvin, 185 _versts_ from Resht. + +Kasvin, in the province of Irak, is a very ancient city, which has seen +better days, has gone through a period of misfortune, and will in future +probably attain again a certain amount of prosperity. It is situated at +an altitude of 4,094 feet (at the Indo-European telegraph office), an +elevation which gives it a very hot but dry, healthy climate with +comparatively cool nights. The town is handsome, square in form, enclosed +in a wall with towers. + +The governor's palace is quite impressive, with a fine broad avenue of +green trees leading from it to the spacious Kasvin rest-house. This is +by far the best rest-house on the road to the Persian capital, with large +rooms, clean enough for Persia, and with every convenience for cooking +one's food. Above the doorway the Persian lion, with the sun rising above +his back, has been elaborately painted, and a picturesque pool of +stagnant water at the bottom of the steps is no doubt the breeding spot +of mosquitoes and flies, of which there are swarms, to make one's life a +misery. + +[Illustration: Making a _Kanat_.] + +The palatial rest-house, the governor's palace, a mosque or two, and the +convenient bath-houses for Mahommedans being barred, there is nothing +particular to detain the traveller in Kasvin. + +One hears that Kasvin occupied at one time a larger area than Teheran +to-day. The remains of this magnitude are certainly still there. The +destruction of the city, they say, has been due to many and varied +misfortunes. Earthquakes and famines in particular have played an +important part in the history of Kasvin, and they account for the many +streets and large buildings in ruins which one finds, such as the remains +of the Sufi Palace and the domed mosque. The city dates back to the +fourth century, but it was not till the sixteenth century that it became +the _Dar-el-Sultanat_--the seat of royalty--under Shah Tamasp. It +prospered as the royal city until the time of Shah Abbas, whose wisdom +made him foresee the dangers of maintaining a capital too near the +Caspian Sea. Isfahan was selected as the future capital, from which time +Kasvin, semi-abandoned, began its decline. + +In 1870 a famine devastated the town to a considerable extent, but even +previous to that a great portion of the place had been left to decay, so +that to-day one sees large stretches of ruined houses all round the +neighbourhood and in Kasvin itself. The buildings are mostly one-storied, +very few indeed boasting of an upper floor. The pleasant impression one +receives on entering the city is mostly caused by the quantity of verdure +and vegetation all round. + +One of the principal things which strike the traveller in Persia, +especially on nearing a big city, is the literal myriads of curious +conical heaps, with a pit in the centre, that one notices running across +the plains in long, interminable rows, generally towards the mountains. +These are the _kanats_, the astounding aqueducts with which dried-up +Persia is bored in all directions underground, the canals that lead fresh +water from the distant springs to the cities, to the villages, and to +irrigate the fields. The ancient process of making these _kanats_ has +descended unchanged to the modern Persian, who is really a marvellous +expert--when he chooses to use his skill--at conveying water where Nature +has not provided it. I watched some men making one of these _kanats_. +They had bored a vertical hole about three feet in diameter, over which a +wooden windlass had been erected. One man was working at the bottom of +the shaft. By means of buckets the superfluous earth was gradually raised +up to the surface, and the hole bored further. The earth removed in the +excavation is then embanked all round the aperture of the shaft. When +the required depth is attained a tunnel is pierced, mostly with the hands +and a small shovel, in a horizontal direction, and seldom less than four +feet high, two feet wide, just big enough to let the workman through. +Then another shaft has to be made for ventilation's sake and to raise to +the surface the displaced earth. Miles of these _kanats_ are thus bored, +with air shafts every ten to twenty feet distant. In many places one sees +thirty, forty, fifty parallel long lines of these aqueducts, with several +thousand shafts, dotting the surface of the ground. + +Near ancient towns and villages one finds a great many of these _kanats_ +dry and disused at present, and nearly everywhere one sees people at work +making fresh ones, for how to get water is one of the great and serious +questions in the land of Iran. Near Kasvin these _kanats_ are +innumerable, and the water carried by them goes through the streets of +the city, with holes here and there in the middle of the road to draw it +up. These holes are a serious danger to any one given to walking about +without looking where he is placing his feet. It is mainly due to these +artificial water-tunnels that the plain of Kasvin, otherwise arid and +oppressively hot, has been rendered extremely fertile. + +There are a great many gardens with plenty of fruit-trees. Vineyards +abound, producing excellent stoneless grapes, which, when dried, are +mostly exported to Russia. Pomegranates, water-melons, cucumbers, and +cotton are also grown. Excellent horses and camels are bred here. + +Kasvin being the half-way house, as it were, between Resht and Teheran, +and an important city in itself, is bound--even if only in a reflected +manner--to feel the good effects of having through communication to the +Caspian and the capital made so easy by the completion of the Russian +road. + +The silk and rice export trade for Bagdad has gone up during the last two +years, and in the fertile plain in which Kasvin lies agriculture is +beginning to look up again, although not quite so much as in the Resht +district, which is naturally the first to reap benefit from the +development of Northern Persia. + +The chief manufactures of Kasvin are carpets, a kind of coarse +cotton-cloth called _kerbas_, velvet, brocades, iron-ware and +sword-blades, which are much appreciated by Persians. + +There is a large bazaar in which many cheap European goods are sold +besides the more picturesque articles of local manufacture. + +From a strategical point of view, Kasvin occupies a position not to be +overlooked, guarding as it does the principal entrance from the south +into the Ghilan province. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + Four thousand feet above sea-level--Castellated walls--An + obnoxious individual--Luggage weighing--The strange figure of an + African black--How he saved an Englishman's life--Teheran + hotels--Interesting guests--Life of bachelors in Teheran--The + Britisher in Persia--Home early--Social + sets--Etiquette--Missionaries--Foreign communities--The servant + question. + + +A few hours' rest to give one's aching bones a chance of returning into +their normal condition and position, and amidst the profound salaams of +the rest-house servants, we speed away towards Teheran, 130 versts more +according to the Russian road measurement (about 108 miles). We gallop on +the old, wide and flat road, on which the traffic alone diverts +one,--long strings of donkeys, of camels, every now and then a splendid +horse with a swaggering rider. We are travelling on the top of the +plateau, and are keeping at an altitude slightly above 4,000 feet. +Distant mountains lie to the north, otherwise there is absolutely nothing +to see, no vegetation worth mentioning, everything dry and barren. + +Now and then, miles and miles apart, comes a quadrangular or rectangular, +castellated mud wall enclosing a cluster of fruit trees and vegetable +gardens; then miles and miles again of dreary, barren country. + +Were it not for the impudence of the natives--increasing to a +maximum--there is nothing to warn the traveller that one is approaching +the capital of the Persian Empire, and one finds one's self at the gate +of the city without the usual excitement of perceiving from a distance a +high tower, or a dome or a steeple or a fortress, or a landmark of some +sort or other, to make one enjoy the approach of one's journey's end. + +Abdulabad, 4,015 feet, Kishslak, 3,950 feet, Sankarabad, 4,210 feet, +Sulimaneh, 4,520 feet, are the principal places and main elevations on +the road, but from the last-named place the incline in the plateau tends +to descend very gently. Teheran is at an altitude of 3,865 feet. + +Six farsakhs from Teheran, where we had to change horses, an individual +connected with the transport company made himself very obnoxious, and +insisted on accompanying the carriage to Teheran. He was picturesquely +attired in a brown long coat, and displayed a nickel-plated revolver, +with a leather belt of cartridges. He was cruel to the horses and a +nuisance to the coachman. He interfered considerably with the progress of +the carriage and made himself unbearable in every possible way. When I +stopped at a khafe-khana for a glass of tea, he actually removed a wheel +of the carriage, which we had considerable difficulty in putting right +again, and he pounded the coachman on the head with the butt of his +revolver, in order, as far as I could understand, that he should be +induced to go half-shares with him in the backshish that the driver would +receive at the end of the stage. + +All this provided some entertainment, until we reached the Teheran gate. +Only half a mile more and I should be at the hotel. But man proposes and +the Persian disposes. The carriage and fourgon were driven into a large +courtyard, the horses were unharnessed, all the luggage removed from the +fourgon and carriage, and deposited in the dust. A primitive scale was +produced and slung to a tripod, and each article weighed and weighed over +again so as to take up as much of one's time as possible. Various +expedients to impose upon me, having failed I was allowed to proceed, a +new fourgon and fresh horses being provided for the journey of half a +mile more, the obnoxious man jumping first on the box so as to prevent +being left behind. + +At last the hotel was reached, and here another row arose with a +profusion of blows among a crowd of beggars who had at once collected and +disputed among themselves the right of unloading my luggage. + +A strange figure appeared on the scene. A powerful, half-naked African, +as black as coal, and no less than six foot two in height. He sported a +huge wooden club in his hand, which he whirled round in a most dangerous +manner, occasionally landing it on people's skulls and backs in a +sonorous fashion. The crowd vanished, and he, now as gently as possible, +removed the luggage from the fourgon and conveyed it into the hotel. + +The obnoxious man now hastily descended from his seat and demanded a +backshish. + +"What for?" + +"Oh, sir," intervened a Persian gentleman present, "this man says he has +annoyed you all the way, but he could not make you angry. He must have +backshish! He makes a living by annoying travellers!" + +In contrast to this low, depraved parasite, the African black seemed +quite a striking figure,--a scamp, if you like, yet full of character. He +was a dervish, with drunken habits and a fierce nature when under the +influence of drink, but with many good points when sober. On one occasion +an Englishman was attacked by a crowd of Persians, and was in danger of +losing his life, when this man, with considerable bravery (not to speak +of his inseparable mallet which he used freely), went to the rescue of +the sahib and succeeded in saving him. For this act of courage he has +ever since been supported by the charity of foreigners in Teheran. He +unfortunately spends all his earnings in drink, and can be very coarse +indeed, in his songs and imitations, which he delights in giving when +under the influence of liquor. He hangs round the hotel, crying out +"_Yahu! yahu!_" when hungry--a cry quite pathetic and weird, especially +in the stillness of night. + +There are two hotels in Teheran and several European and Armenian +restaurants. The English hotel is the best,--not a dream of cleanliness, +nor luxury, nor boasting of a cuisine which would remain impressed upon +one's mind, except for its elaborate monotony,--but quite a comfortable +place by comparison with the other European hotels of Persia. The beds +are clean, and the proprietress tries hard to make people comfortable. + +More interesting than the hotel itself was the curious crowd of people +whom one saw at the dinner-table. I remember sitting down one evening to +dinner with nine other people, and we represented no less than ten +different nationalities! The tower of Babel sank almost into +insignificance compared with the variety of languages one heard spoken +all round, and one's polyglot abilities were tested to no mean extent in +trying to carry on a general conversation. One pleasant feature of these +dinners was the amount of talent and good-humour that prevailed in the +company, and the absolute lack of distinction of class or social +position. Side by side one saw a distinguished diplomat conversing with +the Shah's automobile driver, and a noteworthy English member of +Parliament on friendly terms with an Irish gentleman of the Indo-European +Telegraphs. A burly, jolly Dutchman stood drinks all round to members of +the Russian and English Banks alike, and a French _sage-femme_ just +arrived discussed her prospects with the hotel proprietress. The Shah's +A.D.C. and favourite music-composer and pianist came frequently to +enliven the evenings with some really magnificent playing, and by way of +diversion some wild Belgian employees of the derelict sugar-factory used +almost nightly to cover with insults a notable "Chevalier d'industrie" +whose thick skin was amazing. + +Then one met Armenians--who one was told had come out of jail,--and +curio-dealers, mine prospectors, and foreign Generals of the Persian +army. + +Occasionally there was extra excitement when an engagement or a wedding +took place, when the parties usually adjourned to the hotel, and then +there was unlimited consumption of beer, nominally (glycerine really, +for, let me explain, beer does not stand a hot climate unless a large +percentage of glycerine is added to it), and of highly-explosive +champagne and French wines, Chateau this and Chateau that--of Caspian +origin. + +Being almost a teetotaller myself, this mixed crowd--but not the mixed +drink--was interesting to study, and what particularly struck me was the +_bonhomie_, the real good-heartedness, and manly but thoughtful, genial +friendliness of men towards one another, irrespective of class, position +or condition, except, of course, in the cases of people with whom it was +not possible to associate. The hard, mean, almost brutal jealousy, spite, +the petty rancour of the usual Anglo-Indian man, for instance, does not +exist at all in Persia among foreigners or English people. On the +contrary, it is impossible to find more hospitable, more gentlemanly, +polite, open-minded folks than the Britishers one meets in Persia. + +Of course, it must be remembered, the type of Britisher one finds in +Persia is a specially talented, enterprising and well-to-do individual, +whose ideas have been greatly broadened by the study of several foreign +languages which, in many cases, have taken him on the Continent for +several years in his youth. Furthermore, lacking entirely the ruling +"look down upon the native" idea, so prevalent in India, he is thrown +much in contact with the Persians, adopting from them the courteous +manner and form of speech, which is certainly more pleasant than the +absurd rudeness of the "keep-aloof" notion which generally makes us hated +by most Orientals. + +The Britisher in Persia, with few exceptions, is a charming person, +simple and unaffected, and ready to be of service if he can. He is not +aggressive, and, in fact, surprisingly suave. + +This abnormal feature in the British character is partly due to the +climate, hot but very healthy, and to the exile to which the Briton has +to reconcile himself for years to come. Indeed, Persia is an exile, a +painful one for a bachelor, particularly. Woman's society, which at all +times helps to make life sweet and pleasant, is absolutely lacking in +Persia. European women are scarce and mostly married or about to get +married. The native women are kept in strict seclusion. One never sees a +native woman except heavily veiled under her _chudder_, much less can a +European talk to her. The laws of Persia are so severe that anything in +the shape of a flirtation with a Persian lady may cost the life of Juliet +or Romeo, or both, and if life is spared, blackmail is ever after levied +by the police or by the girl's parents or by servants. + +In Teheran all good citizens must be indoors by nine o'clock at night, +and any one found prowling in the streets after that hour has to deal +with the police. In the European quarter this rule is overlooked in the +case of foreigners, but in the native city even Europeans found +peacefully walking about later than that hour are taken into custody and +conveyed before the magistrate, who satisfies himself as to the man's +identity and has him duly escorted home. + +There are no permanent amusements of any kind in Teheran. An occasional +concert or a dance, but no theatres, no music-halls. There is a +comfortable Club, where people meet and drink and play cards, but that is +all. + +Social sets, of course, exist in the Teheran foreign community. There are +"The Telegraph" set, "the Bank," "the Legations." There is an uncommon +deal of social etiquette, and people are most particular regarding calls, +dress, and the number of cards left at each door. It looks somewhat +incongruous to see men in their black frock-coats and silk tall hats, +prowling about the streets, with mud up to their knees if wet, or blinded +with dust if dry, among strings of camels, mules, or donkeys. But that is +the fashion, and people have to abide by it. + +There are missionaries in Teheran, American and English, but fortunately +they are not permitted to make converts. The English, Russian and Belgian +communities are the most numerous, then the French, the Dutch, the +Austrian, the Italian, the American. + +Taking things all round, the Europeans seem reconciled to their position +in Teheran--a life devoid of any very great excitement, and partaking +rather of the nature of vegetation, yet with a certain charm in it--they +say--when once people get accustomed to it. But one has to get accustomed +to it first. + +The usual servant question is a very serious one in Teheran, and is one +of the chief troubles that Europeans have to contend with. There are +Armenian and Persian servants, and there is little to choose between the +two. Servants accustomed to European ways are usually a bad lot, and most +unreliable; but in all fairness it must be admitted that, to a great +extent, these servants have been utterly spoilt by Europeans themselves, +who did not know how to deal with them in a suitable manner. I repeatedly +noticed in Teheran and other parts of Persia that people who really +understood the Persian character, and treated subordinates with +consideration, had most excellent servants--to my mind, the most +intelligent and hard-working in the world--and spoke very highly of +them. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + Teheran--The seat of the Kajar family--The square of the + gun--Sanctuaries--The Top Meidan--Tramways--A railway--Opposition + of the Mullahs and population--Destruction of a + train--Mosques--Habitations--Extortion and blackmail--Persian + philosophy. + + +A description of Teheran is hardly necessary here, the city being so +well-known, but for the help of people unfamiliar with its character a +rough sketch of the place may be given. + +Teheran, it must be remembered, has only been the capital of Persia for +the last hundred years, when the capital was removed from Isfahan. +Previous to that it was merely a royal resort and nothing more. In shape +it was formerly almost circular--or, to be strictly accurate, polygonal, +the periphery of the polygon measuring a _farsakh_, four miles. Like all +Persian cities it was enclosed in a mud wall and a moat. Since then the +city has so increased that an extension has been made to an outer +boundary some ten miles in circumference, and marked by an uneven ditch, +the excavated sand of which is thrown up to form a sort of battlement. +Twelve gates, opened at sunrise and closed at night, give access to the +town. The citadel, the ancient part of the city, contains the principal +public buildings, the private residences of high officials, and the +Shah's Palace. To the south of this are found the extensive domed bazaars +and the commercial portion of Teheran. To the north lies the European +quarter with the Legations, Banks and European shops. + +We will not go as far back as the Afghan invasion in 1728 when, according +to history, Teheran was looted and razed to the ground by the Afghans, +but we will only mention the fact, which is more interesting to us, that +it was not till about 1788 that the city was selected on account of its +geographical position and of political necessities, as the seat of the +Kajar dynasty by Agha Mohammed, who in 1796 became the first King of his +family. The Kajar, as everybody knows, has remained the reigning dynasty +of Persia to this day. + +The most interesting point of Teheran, in the very centre of the city, is +the old "Place du Canon," where on a high platform is a gigantic piece of +ordnance enclosed by a railing. In the same square is a large reservoir +of more or less limpid water, in which at all hours of the day dozens of +people are to be seen bathing. But the big gun attracts one's attention +principally. A curious custom, which is slowly being done away with, has +made this spot a sanctuary. Whoever remains within touch or even within +the shadow of the gun--whether an assassin, a thief, a bankrupt, an +incendiary, a traitor or a highwayman,--in fact, a criminal of any kind +cannot be touched by the police nor by persons seeking a personal +revenge--the usual way of settling differences in Persia. A number of +distinctly criminal types can always be observed near the gun and are fed +by relations, friends, or by charitable people. Persians of all classes +are extremely charitable, not so much for the sake of helping their +neighbours in distress, as for increasing their claims to a seat in +Paradise, according to the Mussulman religion. + +These sanctuaries are common in Persia. The mosques, the principal +shrines, such as Meshed, Kum, the houses of Mullahs, and in many cases +the bazaars which are generally to be found adjoining places of +pilgrimage, afford most convenient shelter to outlaws. The Mullahs are +greatly responsible for the protection of miscreants. By exercising it +they are able to show their power over the authorities of the country--a +fact which impresses the masses. That is why in the neighbourhood of many +mosques one sees a great number of ruffianly faces, unmistakable +cut-throats, men and boys whose villainy is plainly stamped on their +countenances. As long as they remain inside the sacred precincts--which +they can do if they like till they die of old age--they can laugh at the +law and at the world at large. But let them come out, and they are done +for. + +The Shah's stables are considered a very safe sanctuary. Houses of +Europeans, or Europeans themselves, were formerly considered sanctuaries, +but the habit has--fortunately for the residents--fallen into disuse. I +myself, when driving one day in the environs of Teheran, saw a horseman +leading a man whose neck was tied to a substantial rope. Much to my +surprise, when near enough, the prisoner jumped into my carriage, and it +was only after some persuasion on my side and a few pulls at the rope +from the rider at the other end that the unwelcome companion was made to +dismount again. + +[Illustration: The Murderer of Nasr-ed-din Shah.] + +When in the company of high Mullahs evil characters are also inviolable. + +The largest square in Teheran is the Top Meidan or "Cannon plain," where +several small and antiquated pieces of artillery are enclosed in a fence. +Two parallel avenues with trees cross the rectangular square at its +longest side from north to south. In the centre is a large covered +reservoir. The offices of both the Persian and Indo-European Telegraphs +are in this square, and also the very handsome building of the Bank of +Persia. + +The square is quite imposing at first sight, having on two sides uniform +buildings with long balconies. The _lunettes_ of the archways underneath +have each a picture of a gun, and on approaching the southern gates of +the parallelogram a smile is provoked by the gigantic but crude, almost +childish representations of modern soldiers on glazed tiles. To the west +is the extensive drill ground for the Persian troops. Another +important artery of Teheran runs from east to west across the same +square. + +One cannot but be interested on perceiving along the main thoroughfares +of Teheran a service of horse tramways working quite steadily. But the +rolling stock is not particularly inviting outwardly--much less inwardly. +It is mostly for the use of natives and Armenians, and the carriages are +very dirty. The horses, however, are good. The Tramway Company in the +hands of Russian Jews, I believe, but managed by an Englishman and +various foreigners--subalterns--was doing pretty fair business, and +jointly with the tramways had established a capital service of "Voitures +de remise," which avoided all the trouble and unpleasantness of employing +street cabs. The carriages, mostly victorias, were quite good and clean. + +Among other foreign things, Teheran can also boast of a railway--a mere +steam tramway, in reality--of very narrow gauge and extending for some +six miles south of the city to the shrine of Shah Abdul Hazim. + +The construction of even so short and unimportant a line met with a great +deal of opposition, especially from the priestly class, when it was first +started in 1886 by a Belgian company--"La Societe des Chemins de Fer et +des Tramways de Perse." The trains began to run two years later, in 1888, +and it was believed that the enormous crowds of pilgrims who daily +visited the holy shrine would avail themselves of the convenience. Huge +profits were expected, but unluckily the four or five engines that were +imported at an excessive cost, and the difficulties encountered in laying +down the line, which was continually being torn up by fanatics, and, most +of all, the difficulty experienced in inducing pilgrims to travel in +sufficient numbers by the line instead of on horses, mules or donkeys +were unexpected and insoluble problems which the managers had to face, +and which made the shareholders grumble. The expenses far exceeded the +profits, and the capital employed in the construction of the line was +already vastly larger than had been anticipated. One fine day, +furthermore, a much-envied and respected pilgrim, who had returned in +holiness from the famous shrine of Kerbalah, was unhappily run over and +killed by a train. The Mullahs made capital of this accident and preached +vengeance upon foreign importations, the work of the devil and +distasteful to Allah the great. The railway was mobbed and the engine and +carriages became a mass of debris. + +There was nearly a serious riot about this in Teheran city; the trains +continued to run with the undamaged engines, but no one would travel by +them. Result? "La Compagnie des Chemins de Fer et des Tramways de Perse" +went bankrupt. The whole concern was eventually bought up cheap by a +Russian Company, and is now working again, as far as regards the railway, +in a more or less spasmodic manner. + +The tramway service connects the three principal gates of the outer wall +of Teheran with the centre of the city "the Place des Canons" +(Meidan-Top-Khaned). + +Although there are a great many mosques in Teheran city there is not one +of great importance or beauty. The Mesjid-i-shah, or the Shah's Mosque, +is the most noteworthy, and has a very decorative glazed tiled facade. +Then next in beauty is probably the mosque of the Shah's mother, but +neither is in any way uncommon for size, or wealth, architectural lines, +or sacredness. Several mosques have colleges attached to them, as is the +usual custom in Persia. Access to the interior of the mosques is not +permitted to Europeans unless they have embraced the Mahommedan religion. + +Outwardly, there are few native houses in Teheran that impress one with +any remarkable features of wealth or beauty; in fact, they are nearly all +wretchedly miserable,--a plastered mud or brick wall with a modest little +doorway being all one sees from the street of the dwellings of even the +richest and noblest of Persians. Inside matters are different. Frequently +a miserable little tumbling-down gate gives access, after going through +similarly miserable, narrow, low passages, to magnificent palaces and +astoundingly beautiful and luxurious courts and gardens. I asked what was +the reason of the poor outward appearance of these otherwise luxurious +dwellings. Was it modesty,--was it to deceive envious eyes? + +There are few countries where blackmail and extortion are carried on on a +more extensive and successful scale than in Persia; all classes and +conditions of people are exposed to the danger, and it is only by an +assumed air of poverty that a certain amount of security is obtained. A +miserable-looking house, it was explained by a Persian, does not attract +the covetous eye of the passer-by; an unusually beautiful one does. "It +is a fatal mistake," he added, "to let anybody's eye rest on one's +possessions, whether he be the Shah, a minister, or a beggar. He will +want to rest his hands upon them next, and then everything is gone. +Besides," he said, "it is the inside of a house that gives pleasure and +comfort to the occupier and his friends. One does not build a house to +give pleasure and comfort to the people in the street. That is only +vainglory of persons who wish to make their neighbours jealous by outward +show. They usually have to repent it sooner or later." + +There was more philosophy than European minds may conceive in the +Persian's words--at least, for Persian householders. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + Legations--Germany a stumbling-block to Russia's and England's + supremacy--Sir Arthur Hardinge, British Minister in Teheran--His + talent, tact, and popularity--The British Legation--Summer + quarters--Legation guards--Removal of furniture. + + +As late as 1872 there were only four Legations in Teheran: the English, +French, Russian and Turkish; but since then the Governments of Austria, +Belgium, Holland, and the United States have established Legations in the +Persian capital. By the Persians themselves only four are considered of +first-class importance, viz.: the British, Russian, Turkish and Belgian +Legations, as being more closely allied with the interests of the +country. The Austrian Legation comes next to these in importance, then +the German. + +American interests are so far almost a negligible quantity in Persia, but +Germany is attempting to force her trade into Persia. In future, if she +can realise her railway schemes in Asia Minor, Germany will be a very +serious stumbling-block to England's and Russia's supremacy, both in +North and Southern Persia. Germany's representative in Teheran is a man +of considerable skill and untiring energy. No doubt that when the +opportune time comes and Germany is ready to advance commercially in the +Persian market, England in particular will be the chief sufferer, as the +British manufacturer has already experienced great difficulty in +contending with the cheap German goods. Even in India, where transport is +comparatively easy, German goods swamp the bazaars in preference to +English goods. Much more will this be the case in Persia when the railway +comes to the Persian boundary. + +The German Minister is certainly sparing no efforts to foster German +interests in Persia, and the enterprising Emperor William has shown every +possible attention to the Shah on his visit to Berlin, in order that the +racial antipathy, which for some reason or other Persians entertain +towards Germans, may with all due speed be wiped out. + +To us the British Legation is more interesting at present. We may well be +proud of our present Minister, Sir Arthur Hardinge, a man of whose like +we have few in our diplomatic service. I do not think that a man more fit +for Persia than Sir Arthur could be found anywhere in the British Empire. +He possesses quite extraordinary talent, with a quick working brain, a +marvellous aptitude for languages--in a few months' residence in Persia +he had mastered the Persian language, and is able to converse in it +fluently--and is endowed with a gift which few Britishers possess, +refined tact and a certain amount of thoughtful consideration for other +people's feelings. + +Nor is this all. Sir Arthur seems to understand Orientals thoroughly, and +Persians in particular. He is extremely dignified in his demeanour +towards the native officials, yet he is most affable and cheery, with a +very taking, charming manner. That goes a much longer way in Persia than +the other unfortunate manner by which many of our officials think to show +dignity--sheer stiffness, rudeness, bluntness, clumsiness--which offends, +offends bitterly, instead of impressing. + +A fluent and most graceful speaker, with a strong touch of Oriental +flowery forms of speech in his compliments to officials, with an eye that +accurately gauges situations--usually in Persia very difficult ones--a +man full of resource and absolutely devoid of ridiculous insular +notions--a man who studies hard and works harder still--a man with +unbounded energy and an enthusiast in his work--a man who knows his +subject well, although he has been such a short time in Teheran--this is +our British Minister at the Shah's Court. + +Nor is this faint praise. Sir Arthur Hardinge has done more in a few +months to save British prestige and to safeguard British interests in +Persia than the public know, and this he has done merely by his own +personal genius and charm, rather than by instructions or help from the +home Government. + +While in Teheran I had much opportunity of meeting a great many high +Persian officials, and all were unanimous in singing the praises of our +new Minister. Many of them seemed very bitter against some of his +predecessors, but whether the fault was in the predecessors themselves or +in the home Government, it is not for me to say. Anyhow, bygones are +bygones, and we must make the best of our present opportunities. The +staff at our Legation and Consulate is also first-class. + +It is to be hoped, now that the South African war is over, that the +Government will be able to devote more attention to the Persian Question, +a far more serious matter than we imagine; and as extreme ignorance +prevails in this country about Persia--even in circles where it should +not exist--it would be well, when we have such excellent men as Sir +Arthur Hardinge at the helm, in whose intelligence we may confidently and +absolutely trust, to give him a little more assistance and freedom of +action, so as to allow him a chance of safeguarding our interests +properly, and possibly of preventing further disasters. + +It is not easy for the uninitiated to realise the value of certain +concessions obtained for the British by Sir Arthur Hardinge, such as, for +instance, the new land telegraph line _via_ Kerman Beluchistan to India. +Of the petroleum concessions, of which one hears a great deal of late, I +would prefer not to speak. + +The Legation grounds in Teheran itself are extensive and beautiful, with +a great many fine trees and shady, cool avenues. The Legation house is +handsomely furnished, and dotted all over the gardens are the various +other buildings for secretaries, attaches, and interpreters. All the +structures are of European architecture--simple, but solid. In summer, +however, all the Legations shift their quarters to what is called in +Teheran "_la campagne de_ Golahek, de Tejerish, de Zargandeh,"--by which +gracefully misleading and misapplied terms are indicated the suburban +residences of the Legations, at the foot of the arid, barren, hot, dusty +Shamran range of mountains. + +Golahek, where the British Legation is to be found, does actually boast +of a few green trees in the Legation grounds; and a cluster or two of +nominally "green" vegetation--really whitish brown--can be seen at +Zargandeh, where the Russian and Belgian Legations are side by side, and +Tejerish, where the Persian Foreign Office and many Persian officials +have their summer residences. + +The drive from Teheran to Golahek--seven miles--is dusty beyond words. +There are wretched-looking trees here and there along the road, so dried +and white with dust as to excite compassion. Half-way to Golahek the +monotony of the journey is broken by a sudden halt at a khafe-khana, into +which the coachman rushes, leaving the horses to take care of themselves, +while he sips refreshing glasses of tea. When it suits his convenience he +returns to splash buckets of water between the horses' legs and under +their tails. This, he told me, in all seriousness, was to prevent +sunstroke (really, the Persian can be humorous without knowing it), and +was a preventive imported with civilised ways from Europe! The ears and +manes of the animals are then pulled violently, after which the horses +are considered able to proceed. + +[Illustration: Persian Cossacks (Teheran) Drilled by Russian Officers.] + +The Persian Government gives each Legation a guard of soldiers. The +British Legation is guarded by infantry soldiers--an untidy, ragged, +undisciplined lot, with cylindrical hats worn at all angles on the side +of the head, and with uniforms so dirty and torn that it is difficult to +discern what they should be like. Nearly all other Legations are provided +with soldiers of the (Persian) Cossack regiment, who are infinitely +better drilled and clothed than the infantry regiments. They are quite +military in appearance. It was believed that these Cossacks, being +drilled by Russian military instructors, would not be acceptable at the +British Legation, hence the guard of infantry soldiers. + +The Russian Legation has two additional Russian cavalry soldiers. + +The country residences of all the Legations are quite comfortable, pretty +and unpretentious, with the usual complement of furniture of folding +pattern, so convenient but so inartistic, and a superabundance of cane +chairs. Really good furniture being very expensive in Teheran, a good +deal of the upholstery of the Teheran Legations is conveyed to the +country residences for the summer months. Perhaps nothing is more +amusing to watch than one of these removals to or from the country. +Chairs, tables, sofas, and most private effects are tied to pack-saddles +on ponies, mules or donkeys, with bundles of mattrasses, blankets, and +linen piled anyhow upon them, while the more brittle articles of the +household are all amassed into a high pyramid on a gigantic tray and +balanced on a man's head. Rows of these equilibrists, with the most +precious glass and crockery of the homestead, can be noticed toddling +along on the Golahek road, dodging carriages and cavaliers in a most +surprising manner. They are said never to break even the smallest and +most fragile articles, but such is certainly not the case with the +heavily laden donkeys and mules, which often collide or collapse +altogether, with most disastrous results to the heavier pieces of +furniture. + +On my arrival in Teheran I received a most charming invitation to go and +stay at the British Legation, but partly owing to the fact that I wished +to remain in town and so be more in touch with the natives themselves, +partly because I wished to be unbiassed in any opinion that I might form, +I decided not to accept anybody's hospitality while in Teheran. This I am +very glad I did, for I feel I can now express an opinion which, whether +right or wrong, is my own, and has not been in any way influenced by any +one. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + Visits to high Persian officials--Meftah-es-Sultaneh--Persian + education--A college for orphans--Uncomfortable etiquette--The + Foreign Office--H.E. Mushir-ed-Doulet, Minister of Foreign + Affairs--Persian interest in the Chinese War of 1900--Reform + necessary. + + +Perhaps the description of one or two visits to high Persian officials +may interest the reader. + +Through the kindness of the Persian Legation in London I had received +letters of introduction which I forwarded to their addresses on my +arrival in Teheran. The first to answer, a few hours after I had reached +Teheran, was Meftah-es-Sultaneh (Davoud), the highest person in the +Foreign Office after the Minister, who in a most polite letter begged me +to go to tea with him at once. He had just come to town from Tejerish, +but would leave again the same evening. + +[Illustration: The Eftetahie College, supported by Meftah-el-Mulk.] + +Escorted by the messenger, I at once drove to Meftah's Palace, outwardly, +like other palaces, of extremely modest appearance, and entered by a +small doorway leading through very narrow passages. Led by my guide, we +suddenly passed through a most quaint court, beautifully clean and with a +pretty fountain in the centre,--but no time was given me to rest and +admire. Again we entered another dark passage, this time to emerge into a +most beautiful garden with rare plants and lovely flowers, with a huge +tank, fountains playing and swans floating gracefully on the water. A +most beautiful palace in European architecture of good taste faced the +garden. + +I was admitted into a spacious drawing-room, furnished in good European +style, where Meftah-es-Sultaneh--a rotund and jovial gentleman--greeted +me with effusion. Although he had never been out of Persia, he spoke +French, with a most perfect accent, as fluently as a Frenchman. + +What particularly struck me in him, and, later, in many other of the +younger generation of the upper classes in Persia, was the happy mixture +of the utmost charm of manner with a keen business head, delightful tact +and no mean sense of humour. Meftah-es-Sultaneh, for instance, spoke most +interestingly for over an hour, and I was agreeably surprised to find +what an excellent foreign education students can receive without leaving +Persia. It is true that Meftah is an exceptionally clever man, who would +make his mark anywhere; still it was nevertheless remarkable how well +informed he was on matters not concerning his country. + +He comes from a good stock. His father, Meftah-el-Mulk, was Minister +member of the Council of State, a very wealthy man, who devoted much of +his time and money to doing good to his country. Among the many +praiseworthy institutions founded and entirely supported by him was the +college for orphans, the Dabetsane Daneshe, and the Eftetahie School. The +colleges occupy beautiful premises, and first-rate teachers are provided +who instruct their pupils in sensible, useful matters. The boys are well +fed and clothed and are made quite happy in every way. + +Meftah told me that His Excellency the Minister of Foreign Affairs wished +to see me, so it was arranged that I should drive to Tejerish the next +morning to the Minister's country residence. + +As early as five a.m. the following day I was digging in my trunks in +search of my frock-coat, the only masculine attire in Persia that is +considered decent, and without which no respectable man likes to be seen. +Then for the tall hat; and with the temperature no less than 98 deg. in the +shade I started in an open victoria to drive the nine miles or so to the +appointment. + +Not being a Persian myself, and not quite sharing the same ideas of +propriety, I felt rather ridiculous in my get-up, driving across the +sunny, dusty and barren country until we reached the hills. I had to keep +my feet under the seat of the carriage, for when the sun's rays +(thermometer above 125 deg.) struck my best patent-leather shoes, the heat +was well-nigh intolerable. + +At last, after going slowly up-hill through winding lanes enclosed in mud +walls, and along dry ditches with desiccated trees on either side, we +arrived at the _Campagne de Tejerish_, and pulled up in front of a big +gate, at the residence of the Minister. + +The trials of the long drive had been great. With the black frock-coat +white with dust, my feet absolutely broiled in the patent shoes, and the +perspiration streaming down my forehead and cheeks, I really could not +help laughing at the absurdity of civilised, or semi-civilised fashions, +and at the purposeless suffering inflicted by them. + +There were a number of soldiers at the gate with clothes undone--they +were practical people--and rusty muskets resting idle on a rack. + +"Is Meftah-es-Sultaneh here?" I inquired. + +"Yes, he is waiting for you," answered a soldier as he sprang to his +feet. He hurriedly buttoned up his coat and hitched his belt, and, +seizing a rifle, made a military salute in the most approved style. + +An attendant led me along a well-shaded avenue to the house, and here I +was ushered into a room where, round tables covered with green cloth, sat +a great many officials. All these men wore pleated frock-coats of all +tints and gradations of the colours of the rainbow. One and all rose and +politely saluted me before I sat down. + +Through the passage one could see another room in which a number of other +officials, similarly clad and with black astrakan caps, were opening and +sorting out correspondence. + +Suddenly there was a hurried exit of all present--very much like a +stampede. Up the avenue a stately, tall figure, garbed in a whitish +frock-coat over which a long loose brown coat was donned, walked slowly +and ponderously with a crowd of underlings flitting around--like +mosquitoes round a brilliant light. It was Mushir-ed-Doulet, the Minister +of Foreign Affairs. He turned round, now to one, then to another +official, smiling occasionally and bowing gracefully, then glancing +fiercely at another and sternly answering a third. + +[Illustration: H. E. Mushir-ed-Doulet, Minister of Foreign Affairs.] + +I was rather impressed by the remarkable facility with which he could +switch on extreme courteousness and severity, kindliness and contempt. +His face was at no time, mind you, subjected to very marked exaggerated +changes or grimaces, such as those by which we generally expect emotions +to show themselves among ourselves, but the changes in his expression, +though slight, were quite distinct and so expressive that there was no +mistake as to their meaning. A soft look of compassion; a hard glance of +offended dignity; the veiled eyes deeply absorbed in reflection; the +sudden sparkle in them at news of success, were plainly visible on his +features, as a clerk approached him bringing correspondence, or asking +his opinion, or reporting on one matter or another. + +A considerable amount of the less important business was disposed of in +this fashion, as the Minister strode up the avenue to the Foreign Office +building, and more still with two or three of the more important +personages who escorted him to his tents some little way from the avenue. + +Meftah-es-Sultaneh, who had disappeared with the Minister, hurriedly +returned and requested me to follow him. On a sofa under a huge tent, sat +Mushir-ed-Doulet, the Minister, who instantly rose and greeted me +effusively as I entered. He asked me to sit on his right on the sofa +while Meftah interpreted. His Excellency only spoke Persian. Cigarettes, +cigars, coffee and tea were immediately brought. + +The Minister had a most intelligent head. As can be seen by the +photograph here reproduced, he might have passed for a European. He was +extremely dignified and business-like in his manner. His words were few +and much to the point. + +Our interview was a pleasant one and I was able to learn much of interest +about the country. The Minister seemed to lay particular stress on the +friendly relations of Russia and England, and took particular care to +avoid comments on the more direct relations between Persia and Russia. + +One point in our conversation which his Excellency seemed very anxious to +clear up was, what would be the future of China? He seemed keenly +interested in learning whether Russia's or England's influence had the +supremacy in the Heavenly Empire, and whether either of these nations was +actually feared by the Chinese. + +"Will the Chinese ever be able to fight England or Russia with success? +Were the Chinese well-armed during the war of 1900? If properly armed and +drilled, what chances had the Chinese army of winning against the Allies? +Would China be eventually absorbed and divided into two or more shares by +European powers, or would she be maintained as an Empire?" + +Although the Minister did not say so himself, I could not help suspecting +that in his mind the similarity and probably parallel futures of China +and Persia afforded ground for reflection. + +There is no doubt that in many ways the two countries resemble one +another politically, although Persia, owing to her more important +geographical position, may have a first place in the race of European +greed. + +The interest displayed by Persians of all classes in the Chinese war of +1900 was intense, and, curiously enough, the feeling seemed to prevail +that China had actually won the war because the Allies had retreated, +leaving the capital and the country in the hands of the Chinese. + +"More than in our actual strength," said a Persian official once to me, +"our safety lies in the rivalry of Great Britain and Russia, between +which we are wedged. Let those two nations be friends and we are done +for!" + +After my visit to the Minister of Foreign Affairs I had the pleasure of +meeting the Prime Minister, the Minister of War, and the Minister of +Public Works. I found them all extremely interesting and courteous and +well up in their work. But although talent is not lacking in Persia +among statesmen, the country itself, as it is to-day, does not give these +men an opportunity of shining as brightly as they might. The whole +country is in such a decayed condition that it needs a thorough +overhauling. Then only it might be converted into quite a formidable +country. It possesses all the necessary requirements to be a first-class +nation. Talent in exuberance, physical strength, a convenient +geographical position, a good climate, considerable mineral and some +agricultural resources, are all to be found in Persia. All that is wanted +at present is the development of the country on a solid, reliable basis, +instead of the insecure, unsteady intrigues upon which business, whether +political or commercial, is unfortunately carried on in the present state +of affairs. + +No one realises this better than the well-to-do Persian, and nothing +would be more welcome to him than radical reform on the part of the Shah, +and the establishment of the land of Iran on unshakable foundations. With +a national debt so ridiculously small as Persia has at present, there is +no reason why, with less maladministration, with her industries pushed, +with her army reorganised and placed on a serviceable footing, she should +not rank as one of the first and most powerful among Asiatic independent +nations. + +We have seen what young Japan, against all odds, has been able to +accomplish in a few years. All the more should a talented race like the +Persians, situated to begin with in a far less remote position than +Japan, and therefore more favourably for the acquisition of foreign ways, +be able to emulate, and even in a short time surpass, the marvellous +success attained by the little Islanders of the Far East. + +It is grit that is at present lacking in Persia. The country has a +wavering policy that is extremely injurious to her interests. One cannot +fail to compare her to a good old ship in a dangerous sea. The men at her +helm are perplexed, and cannot quite see a clear way of steering. The +waves run high and there are plenty of reefs and rocks about. A black +gloomy sky closes the horizon, forecasting an approaching cyclone. The +ship is leaking on all sides, and the masts are unsteady; yet when we +look at the number of rocks and reefs and dangers which she has steered +clear through already, we cannot fail to have some confidence in her +captain and crew. Maybe, if she is able to resist the fast-approaching +and unavoidable clash of the wind and sea (figuratively England is the +full-blown wind, Russia the sea)--she may yet reach her destination, +swamped by the waves, dismantled, but not beyond repair. Her damage, if +one looks at her with the eye of an expert, is after all not so great, +and with little present trouble and expense she will soon be as good as +new. Not, however, if she is left to rot much longer. + +Such is Persia at present. The time has come when she must go back into +the shelter of a safe harbour, or face the storm. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + The Persian army--The Persian soldier as he is and as he might + be--When and how he is drilled--Self-doctoring under + difficulties--Misappropriation of the army's salary--Cossack + regiments drilled by Russian officers--Death of the Head + Mullah--Tribute of the Jews--The position of Europeans--A gas + company--How it fulfilled its agreement. + + +A painful sight is the Persian army. With the exception of the good +Cossack cavalry regiment, properly fed, dressed, armed and drilled by +foreign instructors such as General Kossackowski, and Russian officers, +the infantry and artillery are a wretched lot. There is no excuse for +their being so wretched, because there is hardly a people in Asia who +would make better soldiers than the Persians if they were properly +trained. The Persian is a careless, easy-going devil, who can live on +next to nothing; he is a good marksman, a splendid walker and horseman. +He is fond of killing, and cares little if he is killed--and he is a +master at taking cover. These are all good qualities in a soldier, and if +they were brought out and cultivated; if the soldiers were punctually +paid and fed and clothed and armed, there is no reason why Persia should +not have as good an army as any other nation. The material is there and +is unusually good; it only remains to use it properly. + +[Illustration: Persian Soldiers--The Band.] + +[Illustration: Recruits Learning Music.] + +I was most anxious to see the troops at drill, and asked a very high +military officer when I might see them. + +"We do not drill in summer," was the reply, "it is too hot!" + +"Do you drill in winter?" + +"No, it is too cold." + +"Are the troops then only drilled in the autumn and spring?" + +"Sometimes. They are principally drilled a few days before the Shah's +birthday, so that they may look well on the parade before his Majesty." + +"I suppose they are also only dressed and shod on the Shah's birthday?" + +"Yes." + +"What type and calibre rifle is used in the Persian army?" + +"Make it plural, as plural as you can. They have every type under the +sun. But," added the high military officer, "we use of course 'bullet +rifles' (_fusils a balle_) not 'small shot guns'!" + +This "highly technical explanation" about finished me up. + +As luck or ill-luck would have it, I had an accident which detained me +some four weeks in Teheran. While at the Resht hotel, it may be +remembered how, walking barefooted on the matting of my room, an +invisible germ bored its way into the sole of my foot, and I could not +get it out again. One day, in attempting to make its life as lively as +the brute made my foot, I proceeded to pour some drops of concentrated +carbolic acid upon the home of my invisible tenant. Unluckily, in the +operation my arm caught in the blankets of my bed, and in the jerk the +whole contents of the bottle flowed out, severely burning all my toes and +the lower and upper part of my foot, upon which the acid had quickly +dripped between the toes. + +With the intense heat of Teheran, this became a very bad sore, and I was +unable to stand up for several days. Some ten days later, having gone for +a drive to get a little air, a carriage coming full gallop from a side +street ran into mine, turning it over, and I was thrown, injuring my leg +very badly again; so with all these accidents I was detained in Teheran +long enough to witness the Shah's birthday, and with it, for a few days +previous, the "actual drilling of the troops." + +I have heard it said, but will not be responsible for the statement, that +the troops are nearer their full complement on such an auspicious +occasion than at any other time of the year, so as to make a "show" +before his Majesty. Very likely this is true. When I was in Teheran a +great commotion took place, which shows how things are occasionally done +in the land of Iran. The ex-Minister of War, Kawam-ed-douleh, who had +previously been several times Governor of Teheran, was arrested, by order +of the Shah, for embezzling a half year's pay of the whole Persian army. +Soldiers were sent to his country residence and the old man, tied on a +white mule, was dragged into Teheran. His cap having been knocked +off--it is a disgrace to be seen in public without a hat--his relations +asked that he should be given a cap, which concession was granted, on +payment of several hundred tomans. A meal of rice is said to have cost +the prisoner a few more hundred tomans, and so much salt had purposely +been mixed with it that the thirsty ex-Minister had to ask for copious +libations of water, each tumbler at hundreds of tomans. + +Several other high officials were arrested in connection with these army +frauds, and would probably have lost their heads, had it not been for the +special kindness of the Shah who punished them by heavy fines, repayment +of the sums appropriated, and exile. It is a well-known fact in Persia +that whether the frauds begin high up or lower down in the scale of +officials, the pay often does not reach the private soldier, and if it +does is generally reduced to a minimum. + +The food rations, too, if received by the men at all, are most irregular, +which compels the soldiers to look out for themselves at the expense of +the general public. This is a very great pity, for with what the Shah +pays for the maintenance of the army, he could easily, were the money not +appropriated for other purposes, keep quite an efficient little force, +properly instructed, clothed, and armed. + +The drilling of the soldiers, which I witnessed just before the Shah's +birthday, partook very much of the character of a theatrical performance. +The drilling, which hardly ever lasted more than a couple of hours a day, +was limited to teaching the soldiers how to keep time while marching and +presenting arms. The brass bands played _fortissimo_--but not +_benissimo_--all the time, and various evolutions were gone through in +the spacious _place d'armes_ before the Italian General, in Persian +employ, and a bevy of highly-dressed Persian officers. There was a great +variety of ragged uniforms, and head-gears, from kolah caps to brass and +tin helmets, and the soldiers' ages ranged from ten to sixty. + +The soldiers seemed very good-humoured and obedient, and certainly, when +I saw them later before the Shah in their new uniforms, they looked quite +different and had not the wretched appearance they present in daily life. + +But these infantry soldiers do not bear comparison with the +Russian-drilled Persian Cossacks. The jump is enormous, and well shows +what can be done with these men if method and discipline are used. Of +course perfection could not be expected in such a short time, especially +considering the difficulties and interference which foreign officers have +to bear from the Persians, but it is certainly to be regretted that such +excellent material is now practically wasted and useless. + +There were several other excitements before I left Teheran. The head +Mullah--a most important person--died, and the whole population of +Teheran turned out to do him honour when his imposing funeral took place. +Curiously enough, the entire male Jewish community marched in the funeral +procession--an event unprecedented, I am told, in the annals of Persian +Mussulman history. The head Mullah, a man of great wisdom and justice, +had, it was said, been very considerate towards the Jews and had +protected them against persecution: hence this mark of respect and grief +at his death. + +The discovery of the ex-Minister of War's frauds, the death of the head +Mullah, the reported secret attempts to poison the Shah, the prospects of +a drought, the reported murder of two Russians at Resht, and other minor +sources of discontent, all coming together, gave rise to fears on the +part of Europeans that a revolution might take place in Teheran. But such +rumours are so very frequent in all Eastern countries that generally no +one attaches any importance to them until it is too late. Europeans are +rather tolerated than loved in Persia, and a walk through the native +streets or bazaars in Teheran is quite sufficient to convince one of the +fact. Nor are the Persians to be blamed, for there is hardly a nation in +Asia that has suffered more often and in a more shameful manner from +European speculators and adventurers than the land of Iran. + +Perhaps the country itself, or rather the people, with their vainglory +and empty pomp, are particularly adapted to be victimised by impostors +and are easy preys to them. Some of the tricks that have been played upon +them do not lack humour. Take, for instance, the pretty farce of the +_Compagnie generale pour l'eclairage et le chauffage en Perse_, which +undertook to light the city of Teheran with no less than one thousand +gas lights. Machinery was really imported at great expense from Europe +for the manufacture of the gas--many of the heavier pieces of machinery +are still lying on the roadside between Resht and Teheran--extensive +premises were built in Teheran itself, and an elaborate doorway with a +suitable inscription on it, is still to be seen; but the most important +part of all--the getting of the coal from which the gas was to be +extracted--had not been considered. The Lalun coal mines, which offered a +gleam of hope to the shareholders, were exploited and found practically +useless. The Company and Government came to loggerheads, each accusing +the other of false dealing, and the result was that the Persians insisted +on the Company lighting up Teheran with the agreed 1,000 lights. If gas +could not be manufactured, oil lights would do. There was the signed +agreement and the Company must stick to it. + +The Company willingly agreed, but as the document did not specify the +site where each lamp-post should be situate nearly all were erected, at a +distance of only a few feet from one another--a regular forest of +them--in the two main streets of the European settlement. + +One single man is employed after dark to set the lamps alight, and when +he has got to the end of the two streets he proceeds on his return +journey to blow them all out again. By ten o'clock everything is in +perfect darkness. + +The Company now claim that they have fulfilled their agreement! + +The Belgian Company for the manufacture of Beetroot Sugar was another +example of how speculations sometimes go wrong, and no wonder. In theory +the venture seemed quite sound, for the consumption of sugar in Persia is +large, and if it had been possible to produce cheap sugar in the country +instead of importing it from Russia, France and India, huge profits would +have been probable; but here again the same mistake was made as by the +gas company. The obtaining of the raw material was neglected. + +The sugar refinery was built at great cost in this case, too, machinery +was imported to manufacture the three qualities of sugar most favoured by +the Persians--loaf sugar, crystallised sugar, and sugar-candy,--but all +this was done before ascertaining whether it was possible to grow the +right quality of beetroot in sufficient quantities to make the concern +pay. Theoretically it was proved that it would be possible to produce +local sugar at a price which, while leaving the Company a huge profit, +would easily beat Russian sugar, by which French and Indian sugar have +now been almost altogether supplanted. + +A model farm was actually started (and is still in existence) near +Shah-Abdul Azim, where beetroot was to be grown in large quantities, the +experts declaring that the soil was better suited for the crop than any +to be found in Europe. Somehow or other it did not answer as well as +expected. Moreover, the question of providing coal for the engines +proved--as in the case of the Gas Company--to be another serious +stumbling block. An attempt to overcome this difficulty by joining with +the Gas Company in working the Lalun Mines was made, but, alas! proved an +expensive failure. + +Moreover, further difficulties were encountered in obtaining the right +manure for the beetroots, in order that the acids, which delay +crystallisation, might be eliminated; and the inexperience, carelessness +and reluctance with which the natives took up the new cultivation--and, +as it did not pay, eventually declined to go on with it--render it by no +means strange that the sugar factory, too, which was to make the fortunes +of so many became a derelict enterprise. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + Cash and wealth--Capital as understood by Persians--Hidden + fortunes--Forms of extravagance--Unbusiness-like + qualities--Foreign examples--Shaken confidence of natives in + foreigners--Greed for money--Small merchants--Illicit ways of + increasing wealth--The Persian a dreamer--Unpunctuality--Time no + money and no object--Hindrance to reform--Currency--Gold, silver, + and copper--Absorption of silver--Drainage of silver into + Transcaspia--Banknotes--The fluctuations of the Kran--How the + poorer classes are affected by it--Coins old and new--Nickel + coins--The _Shai_ and its subdivisions. + + +The Persian does not understand the sound principles on which alone +extensive business can be successful. Partly owing to prevailing +circumstances he is under the misapprehension that hard cash is +synonymous with wealth, and does not differentiate between treasure, +savings, and savings transformed into capital. This is probably the main +cause of the present anaemic state of business in the Shah's Empire. +Thus, when we are told there is in Persia enormous "capital" to be +invested, we are not correctly informed. There are "enormous +accumulations of wealth" lying idle, but there is no "capital" in the +true meaning of the word. These huge sums in hard cash, in jewellery, or +bars of gold and silver, have been hidden for centuries in dark cellars, +and for any good they are to the country and commerce at large might as +well not exist at all. + +Partly owing to the covetousness of his neighbours, partly owing to a +racial and not unreasonable diffidence of all around him, and to the fact +that an Asiatic always feels great satisfaction in the knowledge that he +has all his wealth within his own reach and protection, rich men of +Persia take particular care to maintain the strictest secrecy about their +possessions, and to conceal from the view of their neighbours any signs +which might lead them to suspect the accumulation of any such wealth. We +have already seen how even the houses of the wealthiest are purposely +made humble outwardly so as to escape the notice of rapacious officials, +and it is indeed difficult to distinguish from the outside between the +house of a millionaire and that of a common merchant. + +The Persian, it must be well understood, does not hide his accumulated +treasure from avaricious reasons; on the contrary, his inclinations are +rather toward extravagance than otherwise, which extravagance he can only +satisfy under a mask of endless lies and subterfuges. No honest ways of +employing his wealth in a business-like and safe manner are open to the +rich Persian under the present public maladministration, nor have the +foreign speculations in the country offered sufficient examples of +success to induce natives to embark upon them again. Far from it; these +enterprises have even made Persians more sceptical and close than before, +and have certainly not shown foreign ways of transacting business at the +best. + +That is why, no other way being open to him, the Persian who does wish to +get rid of his wealth, prefers to squander his money, both capital and +income (the latter if he possesses land), in luxurious jewellery and +carpets, and in unhealthy bribery and corruption, or in satisfying +caprices which his voluptuous nature may suggest. The result? The Persian +is driven to live mostly for his vanity and frivolity--two +unbusiness-like qualities not tending to the promotion of commercial +enterprise on a large scale, although it is true that in a small way his +failings give rise and life to certain industries. For instance, even in +remote, poor and small centres where food is scarce and the buildings +humble, one invariably finds a goldsmith, filigree-workers and embroidery +makers, whereas the necessaries of life may be more difficult to obtain. + +Of course Persia contains a comparatively small number of Persians of a +more adventurous nature, men who have travelled abroad and have been +bitten with the Western desire for speculation to increase their money +with speed, if not always with safety; but even these men have mostly +retired within their shells since the colossal _fiascos_ of the +speculations started in Persia by foreign "company promoters." A +considerable number of Persians, seduced by glowing prospectuses and +misplaced faith in everything foreign, were dreadfully taken in by the +novel experiments--everything novel attracts the Persian +considerably--and readily unearthed solid gold and silver bars, that had +lain for centuries in subterranean hiding-places, and now came out to be +converted into shares in the various concerns, hardly worth the paper on +which they were printed, but promising--according to the prospectus--to +bring the happy possessors fabulous incomes. + +We have seen how the Sugar Refinery, the Glass Factory, the "Gas" +Company--a more appropriate name could not have been given--and the +ill-fated Mining Company have created well-founded suspicion of foreign +ways of increasing one's capital, nor can we with any fairness blame the +Persians for returning to their old method of slow accumulation. True +enough, a fortune, if discovered, has a fair possibility of being seized +in the lump by a greedy official, but that is only a possibility; +whereas, when invested in some foreign speculations the loss becomes a +dead certainty! More even than the actual loss of the money, the Persians +who burned their fingers by meddling with foreign schemes felt the scorn +of their friends, of whom they had become the laughing stock. + +There is no doubt that to-day the confidence of the natives towards +foreigners has been very much shaken, and excepting a few men whom they +well know, trust and respect, they regard most Europeans as adventurers +or thieves. The "treasuring" of capital instead of the investment of it +is, therefore, one of the reasons why industries in Persia seldom assume +large proportions. It is only the small merchant, content to make a +humble profit, who can prosper in his own small way while more extensive +concerns are distrusted. + +But it must not be understood that Persians do not care for money. There +is, on the contrary, hardly a race of people on the face of the earth +with whom the greed for money is developed to such an abnormal extent as +in all classes in the land of Iran! But, you will ask, how can money be +procured or increased fast and without trouble in a country where there +is no commercial enterprise, where labour is interfered with, where +capital cannot have a free outlet or investment? An opening has to be +found in illicit ways of procuring wealth, and the most common form +adopted is the loan of money at high interest on ample security. As much +as 50 per cent., 80 per cent., 100 per cent. and even more is demanded +and obtained as interest on private loans, 15 per cent. being the very +lowest and deemed most reasonable indeed! (This does not apply to foreign +banks.) All this may seem strange in a Mussulman country, where it is +against all the laws of the Koran to lend money at usury, and it is more +strange still to find that the principal offenders are the Mullahs +themselves, who reap large profits from such illegal financial +operations. + +The Persian is a dreamer by nature; he cannot be said to be absolutely +lazy, for he is always absorbed in deep thought--what the thoughts are it +does not do to analyse too closely--but he devotes so much time to +thinking that he seldom can do anything else. His mind--like the minds +of all people unaccustomed to hard work and steady, solidly-built +enterprise--runs to the fantastic, and he ever expects immense returns +for doing nothing. The returns, if any, and no matter how large they may +be, are ever too small to satisfy his expectations. + +As for time, there is no country where it is worth less than to the +natives of Persia. The _manana_ of the Spaniards sinks into perfect +insignificance when compared with the habits of the land of Iran. +Punctuality is unknown--especially in payments, for a Persian must take +time to reflect over everything. He cannot be hurried. A three months' +limit of credit--or even six months--seems outrageously short in the eyes +of Persians. Twelve months and eighteen, twenty, or twenty-four months +suit him better, but even then he is never ready to pay, unless under +great pressure. He does disburse the money in the end, capital and +interest, but why people should worry over time, and why it should matter +whether payment occurs to-day or to-morrow are quite beyond him. + +If he does transact business, days are wasted in useless talk and +compliments before the subject with which he intends to deal is +incidentally approached in conversation, and then more hours and days and +weeks, even months have to elapse before he can make up his mind what to +do. Our haste, and what we consider smartness in business, are looked +upon by the Persian as quite an acute form of lunacy,--and really, when +one is thrown much in contact with such delightful placidity, almost +torpor, and looks back upon one's hard race for a living and one's +struggle and competition in every department, one almost begins to fancy +that we are lunatics after all! + +[Illustration: The Arrival of a Caravan of Silver at the Imperial Bank of +Persia.] + +The Persian must have his hours for praying, his hours for ablutions, +more hours for meditation, and the rest for sleep and food. Whether you +hasten or not, he thinks, you will only live the number of years that God +wills for you, and you will live those years in the way that He has +destined for you. Each day will be no longer and no shorter, your life no +sadder and no happier. Why then hurry? + +Amid such philosophic views, business in European fashion does not +promise to prosper. + +Unable to attach a true meaning to words--his language is beautiful but +its flowery form conduces to endless misunderstandings--casual to a +degree in fulfilling work as he has stipulated to do it; such is the +Persian of to-day. Whether the vicissitudes of his country, the fearful +wars, the famines, the climate, the official oppression have made him so, +or whether he has always been so, is not easy to tell, but that is how he +is now. + +Besides all this, each man is endowed with a maximum of ambition and +conceit, each individual fully believing himself the greatest man that +ever lived and absolute perfection. Moreover the influence of Mullahs is +used to oppose reform and improvement, so that altogether the economic +development of production, distribution and circulation of capital is +bound to be hampered to no mean extent. On examining things carefully it +seems almost astonishing that the trade of Persia should be as well +developed as it is. + +Another difficulty in the way is the currency, which offers some +interesting lessons, and I am indebted to the author of a paper read +before the Statistical Society for the following details. + +Gold is not produced in Persia. Bar gold is imported in very small +quantities only. Gold coin is a mere commodity--is quite scarce, and is +mostly used for presents and hoarding. It is minted principally from +Russian Imperials and Turkish pounds which drift into Persia in small +quantities in the course of business. Goldsmiths, too, in their work, +make use of foreign coins, although some gold and silver bullion is +imported for manufacturing purposes. + +Silver, too, is not obtainable in Persia except in very small quantities, +and the imported silver comes from Great Britain, _via_ the Gulf or _via_ +Hamburg and Russia. In the year 1901 the Persian Government, in +connection with the Russian Loan, imported some three million tomans' +worth of silver to be minted, and the Imperial Bank of Persia another +million tomans; while some 500,000 tomans more were brought into the +country by other importers. But under normal circumstances the annual +output hardly ever exceeds three to four million tomans. In 1900 it was +something between 2,000,000 and 2,500,000 tomans. + +The Mint--like all other institutions of Persia--is in a tumbling-down +condition, with an ancient plant (1877) so obsolete and worn as to be +almost useless. Partly owing to the insufficient production of coin, +partly because of the export in great quantities of Persian silver coin +into Transcaspia, and, last but not least, owing to the Persian custom of +"making a corner" by speculators, the commercial centres of Persia suffer +from a normal dearth of silver coins. Persian silver coin has for the +foregoing reasons a purchasing power of sometimes 20 per cent. beyond its +intrinsic value. In distant cities, like Yezd or Kerman, it is difficult +to obtain large sums in silver coin at face value, as it disappears into +the villages almost as soon as it arrives by caravan or post. New coin is +generally in great demand and commands a premium. + +So the yearly drain of silver coin from Teheran as soon as it is minted +is very considerable, especially to the north, north-east and north-west +provinces. This coin does not circulate but is almost entirely absorbed +and never reappears, the people themselves holding it, as we have seen, +as treasure, and huge quantities finding their way into Transcaspia and +eventually into Afghanistan, where Persian coin is current and at a +premium, especially on the border land. + +In Transcaspia Persian coin is cherished because the nominally equivalent +Persian coin contains a much larger quantity of silver than the Russian. +Russian silver is a mere token of currency, or, at best, stands midway +between a token and a standard or international currency, and its +difference when compared with the Persian coin amounts to no less than +21.92 per cent. in favour of the Persian. Persian coin, although +defective and about 2 per cent. below legal weight and fineness, is a +standard or international currency. + +It appears that a good deal of the silver exported into Transcaspia finds +its way to Chinese Turkestan, where it is converted into bars and ingots, +and is used for the inland trade to China. The Russian Government have +done all in their power to prevent the competition of Persian and Russian +coins in their Transcaspian provinces. A decree was issued some eleven +years ago forbidding the importation, and in 1897 a second Ukase further +prohibited foreign silver from entering the country after the 13th of May +(1st of May of our calendar), and a duty of about 20 per cent. was +imposed on silver crossing the frontier. All this has resulted in silver +entering the provinces by smuggling instead of openly, but it finds its +way there in large quantities just the same as before. + +The Government of Persia does not issue bank-notes, which would be +regarded with suspicion among the people, but it is interesting to find +that the monopoly granted to the Imperial Bank of Persia for the issue of +paper money has had excellent results, in Teheran particularly, where the +Bank is held in high esteem and the notes have been highly appreciated. +In other cities of Persia which I visited, however, the notes did not +circulate, and were only accepted at the Bank's agencies and in the +bazaar by some of the larger merchants at a small discount. + +Naturally, with the methods adopted by Persians, and the insecurity which +prevails everywhere, the process of convincing the natives that a piece +of printed paper is equivalent to so many silver krans, and that the +silver krans will surely be produced in full on demand is rather a slow +one; but the credit of the Imperial Bank and the popular personality of +Mr. Rabino, the manager, have done much towards dispelling the +suspicions, and since 1890 the notes have assumed a considerable place in +the circulation. In September 1890 the circulation of them amounted to +29,000 tomans; in 1895 it had gradually increased to 254,000 tomans, and +by leaps and bounds had reached the sum of 1,058,000 in 1900.[1] It is +rather curious to note that in the previous year, 1899, the note +circulation was 589,000 tomans, and became very nearly double in the +following twelve months. + +This only applies to Teheran and the principal cities; in the villages, +and in out-of-the-way towns, notes are out of the question, and even +silver coins are very scarce. A two-kran piece of the newer type is +seldom found, and only one-kran pieces, little irregular lumps of silver, +are occasionally to be seen. Copper is really the currency and is a mere +subsidiary or token coinage with a value fluctuating according to local +dearth or other causes at almost every place one goes to. + +The precarious system of farming, accompanied by the corruption of +officials, has given an opportunity for most frequent and flagrant abuses +in the excessive over-issue of copper coin, so that in many cities copper +issued at the nominal value of 20 shais per kran was current at 30, 40, +50, and even, in Eastern Persia, at 80 shais per kran. I myself, on +travelling through Persia, never knew exactly what a kran was worth, as +in almost every province I received a different exchange of shais for my +krans. In Birjand and Sistan, particularly, the exchange differed very +considerably. + +This state of maladministration affects the poorer classes, for the +copper currency forms their entire fortune. On coming to the throne the +present Shah, with praiseworthy thoughtfulness, endeavoured to put a stop +to this cause of misery in his people, and ordered the Government to +withdraw some 720,000 tomans' worth of copper coins at 25 to 30 shais per +kran. This had a good effect, and although much of the depreciated coin +is still in circulation, particularly in out-of-the-way places, its +circulation in the larger towns has been considerably diminished. + +Lately the Government has adopted the measure of supplying the public +with nickel coins, one-shai and two-shai pieces, which, although looked +at askance at first, are now found very handy by the natives and +circulate freely, principally in Resht, Kasvin, Teheran and Isfahan. In +other cities I did not see any, nor would the natives accept mine in +payment, and in villages no one would have anything to do with them as +they were absolutely unknown. But wherever it has been possible to +commence the circulation of these nickel coins--which were struck at the +Brussels Mint and which are quite pretty--they have been accepted with +great pleasure. + +The old gold coins in circulation in Persia--very few and far apart--were +the toman, half-toman, and two-kran piece. The gold had a legal fineness +of 990. The legal weight in grains troy was: toman, 53.28; half-toman, +26.64; two-kran piece, 10.656. Weight in pure gold; toman, 51.7572; +half-toman, 26.3736; two-kran piece, 10.54944. + +The new coins are the two-tomans, one-toman (differentiated in 1879 and +subsequent to 1879), half-toman and two-kran pieces, the gold having a +legal fineness of 900. Legal weight:-- + + | | One toman. | | + | Two | | Subsequent| Half | Two kran + | tomans.| 1879. | to 1879. | toman. | piece. +--------------------+---------+--------+-----------+--------+--------- +Grains troy | 100.64 | 50.32 | 44.40 | 22.20 | 8.88 +Weight in pure gold | 90.576 | 45.288 | 39.96 | 19.98 | 7.992 + +The new silver coinage consists of 2-kran pieces (five of which make a +toman), one-kran, half-kran, and quarter-kran, all keeping to the legal +fineness of 900 as in the older coins struck from 1857 to 1878:-- + + | Two | One | Half | Quarter + | krans. | kran. | kran. | kran. +---------------------------+---------+--------+--------+-------- +Legal weight (grains troy) | 142.08 | 71.04 | 30.52 | 15.26 +Weight in grains silver | 127.872 | 63.936 | 27.468 | 13.734 + +The 1857 to 1878 coins were merely one-kran, half-kran, quarter-kran:-- + + | One kran. | Half kran. | Quarter kran. +---------------------+-----------+------------+-------------- +Legal weight | 76.96 | 38.48 | 19.24 +Weight in pure silver| 69.264 | 34.632 | 17.316 + +The older coinage before 1857, a most irregular coin--of one kran--varied +considerably and had an approximate average fineness of 855, an average +weight (grains troy) of 75.88, and a weight in pure silver of grains troy +64.877, which is below the correct standard by no less than 6.76 per +cent. + +In the newest coinage of two-kran pieces, the coin most used in +cities,--large payments being always made in two-kran pieces--we have an +average fineness of 892.166; average weight, grains troy, 119.771; weight +in pure silver, grains troy, 124.69, or 2.55 per cent. below the +standard. + +In nickel coinage, composed of 25 per cent. of nickel and 75 per cent. of +copper, we have:-- + +Two shai pieces (grains troy) 69.45 +One shai pieces (grains troy) 46.30 + +The copper coins are in great variety. There is the _abassi_ (one-fifth +of a kran) worth four shais, and very scarce now. + +The _sadnar_ (one-tenth of a kran) equivalent to two shais. + +The (one) _shai_ (one-twentieth of a kran). + +The _pul_ (one-fortieth of a kran), half a shai. + +And the _jendek_ (one-eightieth of a kran) a quarter shai; this coin only +found in circulation in Khorassan. + +When it is remembered that at the present rate of exchange the kran can +be reckoned at fivepence in English money, and the toman as roughly +equivalent to one American dollar, it will be seen that the subdivisions +of the kran are rather minute for the average European mind. + +[Illustration: The Imperial Bank of Persia Decorated on the Shah's +Birthday.] + +Yet there are things that one can buy even for a _jendek_; think of +it,--the fourth part of a farthing! But that is only in Khorassan. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] I understand this figure has since considerably increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + The Banks of Persia--The Imperial Bank of Persia--The most + revered foreigner in Persia--Loans--The road concession--The + action of the Stock Exchange injurious to British + interests--Securities--Brains and not capital--Risks of importing + capital--An ideal banking situation--Hoarding--Defective + communication--The key to profitable banking in Persia--How the + exchange is affected--Coins--Free trade--The Russian Bank and Mr. + De Witte--Mr. Grube an able Manager--Healthy competition--Support + of the Russian Government. + + +The Banks of Persia can be divided into three classes. One, containing +the smaller native bankers, who often combine the jeweller's business +with that of the money changer; the larger and purely native banking +businesses, and then the foreign banks, such as the Imperial Bank of +Persia (English Bank), the Banque d'Escompte et de Prets (Russian Bank) +and the Agency of the Banque Internationale de Commerce de Moscow (Banque +Poliakoff). There are other foreign firms too, such as Ziegler and Co., +Hotz, the Persian Gulf Trading Co., etc., which transact banking to a +limited extent besides their usual and principal trading business; but +these are not banks proper. + +The Imperial Bank of Persia, being a purely British enterprise, is the +most interesting to us. Its main offices are in a most impressive +building in the principal square of Teheran, and it has branch offices at +Tabriz, Isfahan, Meshed, Yezd, Shiraz, in the Teheran Bazaar, at Bushire +and Kermanshah. It would be useless to go into the various vicissitudes +through which the Bank has passed since it was first started, and the +difficulties which it encountered in meeting the unusual ways of doing +business of Persians and satisfying the desires of directors and +shareholders in simple London town. One thing is, nevertheless, certain, +and that is that if the Imperial Bank of Persia maintains the prestige +now belonging to it, it owes this to Mr. Rabino, of Egyptian fame, the +Manager of the Bank,--without exception the most revered foreigner in +Persia. + +I will not touch on the sore question of the Persian loans, eventually +secured by Russia, but, curiously enough, the capital of the first loan, +at least, was in great measure practically transferred from Russia to +Persia by the Imperial Bank, which had the greatest stock of money in +Teheran; nor shall I go into the successful and unsuccessful ventures of +the Bank, such as the Road Concession, and the Mining Corporation. As to +the road concession, it is beyond doubt that had the Bank not become +alarmed, and had they held on a little longer, the venture might have +eventually paid, and paid well. But naturally, in a slow country like +Persia, nothing can be a financial success unless it is given time to +develop properly. + +With regard to its relation with the Banque d'Escompte et de Prets, the +Russian Bank--believed by some to be a dangerous rival--matters may to my +mind be seen in two aspects. I believe that the Russian Bank, far from +damaging the Imperial Bank, has really been a godsend to it, as it has +relieved it by sharing advances to the Government which in time might +have proved somewhat of a burden on one establishment. It is a mistake, +too, to believe that in a country like Persia there is not room for two +large concerns like the two above-mentioned Banks, and that one or the +other is bound to go. + +The rumoured enormous successes of the Russian Bank and its really +fast-increasing prestige are indisputable, but the secret of these things +is well known to the local management of the Imperial Bank, which could +easily follow suit and quickly surpass the Russians if more official and +political support were forthcoming. + +The action of the London Stock Exchange in depreciating everything +Persian, for the sake of reprisal, is also injurious to the Bank, and +more so to the prestige of this country, though we do not seem to see +that our attitude has done much more harm to ourselves than to the +Persians. It is true that Persia is a maladministered country, that there +is corruption, that there is intrigue, and so forth, but is there any +other country, may I ask, where to a greater or smaller extent the same +accusation could not be made? Nor can we get away from the fact that +although Persia has been discredited on the London market it is one of +the few countries in which the national debt is extremely small and can +easily be met. + +The obligations of the Imperial Government and of Muzaffer-ed-din Shah's +signature, have never failed to be met, nor has the payment of full +interest on mortgages contracted ever been withheld. Delays may have +occurred, but everything has come right in the end. Our absurd attitude +towards the Persians, when we are at the same time ready to back up +enterprises that certainly do not afford one-tenth of the security to be +found in Persia, is therefore rather difficult to understand. + +There are few countries in which so much can be done with a comparatively +small outlay as in Persia. It is not enterprises on a gigantic scale, nor +millions of pounds sterling that are needed; moderate sums handled with +judgment, knowledge and patient perseverance, would produce unlooked-for +results. Large imported sums of capital in hard cash are not wanted and +would involve considerable risk. First of all, stands the danger of the +depreciation of capital by the fall in silver and the gradual rise in +exchange due to the excess of imports over exports. Then comes the +narrowness of the Persian markets which renders the return of large sums +in cash an extremely long and difficult operation; and last but not +least, the serious fact that capital is generally imported at a loss, +inasmuch as the intrinsic value of the kran is much below its exchange +value. + +The ideal situation of an English Bank trading with the East,[2] is when +its capital remains in gold, whilst its operations are conducted in +silver by means of its deposits. This, because of the instability in the +price of silver as compared with that of gold, and the risks which follow +upon holding a metal fluctuating in value almost daily. The situation in +Persia, partly owing to the constant appreciation of the Persian +currency, due to the great dearth of silver produced by hoarding as well +as by the export of coin to Central Asia, is quite suitable to the system +of banking indicated above. + +The difference between the intrinsic and the exchange value of the kran, +notwithstanding the constant demand for exchange, is quite worthy of +note. Political preoccupation is the principal cause of the hoarding +system in Government circles, and in the masses the absence of banking +organisations in which the natives have sufficient confidence to deposit +their savings. Slowly but surely the Persian is beginning to feel the +good effects of depositing his money in a European-managed Bank offering +sound guarantees, and it is certain that in time all the money required +for trade purposes will be found in Persia itself. + +When better communication between the various commercial centres has been +established, the distribution of the funds as required, now a matter of +great difficulty and risk, will be greatly facilitated. When the +despatching of sums from one city to another instead of taking minutes +by telegraph or hours by post occupy, under normal circumstances, days, +weeks, a month or even more, because the payments are made in solid +silver which has to travel by caravan, it is easy to understand how the +dangerous system of hoarding comes to be practised with impunity and +facility all over Persia. + +[Illustration: A Typical Persian Window. (Mr. Rabino's House, Teheran.)] + +Of course every precaution is taken to foresee abnormal scarcity of +funds, by sending specie to the places threatened, in order to help +trade. During the summer months, for instance, most of the floating +capital is absorbed in the provinces by the opium crop in the Yezd and +Isfahan markets, when the silver krans find their way _en masse_ to the +villages, much to the inconvenience of the two cities. In the autumn a +similar occurrence hampers trade during the export season of dried fruit +and silk from Azerbaijan and Ghilan, the exchange falling very low owing +to scarcity of money. + +A very important item in the Bank's transactions in Persia is the +constant demand for remittances of revenue to Teheran for Government +purposes, such as payments for the army, officials, etc., and these +remittances amount to very large sums. + +The key to profitable banking in Persia is the arbitration of foreign +exchanges, which being so intimately connected with internal exchange +allows the latter to be worked at a profit, advantage being taken of +breaks in the level of prices; but of course, with the introduction of +telegraphs and in future of railways, these profits will become more +and more difficult to make. In Persia the lack of quick communication +still affords a fair chance of good remuneration without speculation for +the important services rendered by a bank to trade. + +The exchange of Persia upon London is specially affected by two +influences. In the north by the value of the ruble, the more important +and constant factor, Tabriz, the Persian centre of the Russian exchange, +being the nearest approach in Persia to a regular market; and in the +south by the rupee exchange, which differs from the ruble in its being +dependent upon the price of silver. + +In a country like Persia, where the exchange is not always obtainable and +money at times is not to be procured, it is easy to conceive the +difficulty of a bank. Forecasts of movements, based on general causes, +are of little or no value in Persia. To this must be added the +difficulties of examining and counting coins--weighing is not practicable +owing to the irregularity of each coin--of the transmission of funds to +distant places, and the general ignorance except in mercantile +circles--of banking methods as we understand them. + +The Imperial Bank is established in Persia, not as is believed by some +persons to do business for England and English people, but to do business +with everybody. "The spirit of free trade alone," said Mr. Rabino to me, +"must animate the management of such a bank. Its services must be at the +disposal of all; its impartiality to English, Russian, Austrian, +Persian, or whatever nationality a customer may belong to, unquestioned. +All must have a fair and generous treatment." The interests of the +Imperial Bank are firstly those of its shareholders, secondly those of +Persia which gives the Bank hospitality. + +The Bank has already rendered inestimable services to Persia by diffusing +sound business principles, which the Persians seem slowly but gladly to +learn and accept. That the future of a bank on such true principles is +bound to be crowned with success seems a certainty, but as has often been +pointed out, it would be idle to fancy that a couple of years or three +will remove the prejudices and peculiar ways of thinking and of +transacting business of an Oriental race, whose civilisation is so +different from ours, or that the natives will accept our financial system +with its exactitude and punctuality, the result of ages of experience, +unhesitatingly and immediately. + +The Persian requires very careful handling. He is obstinate, and by mere +long, tedious, passive resistance will often get the better in a bargain. +By the employment of similar methods however, it is not difficult to +obtain one's way in the end. A good deal of patience is required and time +_ad libitum_, that is all. + +There is no need for a large stock of gold and rubles, but what is mostly +wanted is a greater number of men who might be sent all over the country, +men with good business heads and a polite manner, and, above all, men +well suited to the present requirements of the country. + +The Russian, we find,--contrary to our popular ideas, which ever depict +him knut in hand,--almost fraternises with the Asiatics, and in any case +treats them with due consideration as if they had a right to live, at +least in their own country. Hence his undoubted popularity. But we, the +quintessence of Christianity and charity towards our neighbours, +habitually treat natives with much needless harshness and reserve, which +far from impressing the natives with our dignity--as we think--renders us +ridiculous in their eyes. A number of younger Englishmen are beginning to +be alive to this fact, and instruction on this point should form part of +the commercial training of our youths whose lives are to be spent in the +East. + +The other important bank in Persia upon which great hopes are built, +although worked on different lines, is the so-called Russian Bank, the +_Societe de Prets de Perse_, as it was at first called when founded by +Poliakoff in 1891. It was an experiment intended to discover exactly what +was wanted in the country and what was the best way to attract business. +The monopoly of Public Auctions was obtained in conjunction with the +Mont-de-Piete--a scheme which did not work very well at first, the +natives not being accustomed to sudden innovations. The concern +subsequently developed into the _Bank Estekrasi_ (Bank of Loans), or +_Banque de Prets de Perse_, as it styled itself, but financially it did +not pay, and at one moment was expected to liquidate. It is said that it +then threatened to amalgamate with the Imperial Bank. Mr. De Witte, of +St. Petersburg fame, was consulted in the matter, and took exactly +twenty-four hours to make up his mind on what was the best course to +pursue. He bought the bank up, the State Bank of St. Petersburg making an +advance on the shares. The Minister of Finance has a right to name all +the officials in the bank, who, for appearance sake, are not necessarily +all of Russian nationality, and the business is transacted on the same +lines as at the State Bank of St. Petersburg. + +A most efficient man was sent out as manager; Mr. Grube, a gentleman of +much tact and most attractive manner, and like Mr. Rabino--a genius in +his way at finance; a man with a thorough knowledge of the natives and +their ways. In the short time he has been in Teheran the bank has made +enormous strides, by mere sound, business capability and manly, +straightforward enterprise. + +Mr. Grube has, I think, the advantage of the manager of the Imperial Bank +in the fact that, when the Russians know they have a good man at the +helm, they let him steer his ship without interference. He is given +absolute power to do what he thinks right, and is in no way hampered by +shareholders at home. This freedom naturally gives him a very notable +advantage over the Imperial Bank, which always has to wait for +instructions from London. + +Mr. Grube, with whom I had a long and most interesting conversation, +told me how he spends his days in the bazaar branch of his bank, where he +studies the ways and future possibilities of the country and its natives, +and the best ways of transacting business compatible with European +principles, and in particular carefully analysing the best ways of +pushing Russian trade and industries in Persia. In all this he has the +absolute confidence and help of his Government, and it is really +marvellous how much he has been able to do to further Russian influence +in Persia. There is no trickery, no intrigue, no humbug about it; but it +is mere frank, open competition in which the stronger nation will come +out first. + +It was most gratifying to hear in what glowing terms of respect the +managers of the two rival banks spoke of each other. They were fighting a +financial duel, bravely, fairly, and in a most gentlemanly manner on both +sides. There was not the slightest shade of false play on either side, +and this I specially mention because of the absurd articles which one +often sees in English papers, written by hasty or ill-informed +correspondents. + +Russia's trade, owing to its convenient geographical position, is bound +to beat the English in Northern Persia, but it should be a good lesson to +us to see, nevertheless, how the Russian Government comes forward for the +protection of the trade of the country, and does everything in its power +to further it. Russia will even go so far as to sell rubles at a loss to +merchants in order to encourage trade in Persia, no doubt with the +certainty in sight that as trade develops the apparent temporary loss +will amply be compensated in due time by big profits. + +It is, to an Englishman, quite an eye-opener to watch how far the +Russians will go for the absolute benefit of their own trade, and this +conduct pursued openly and blamelessly can only be admired by any +fair-minded person. It is only a pity that we are not yet wide awake +enough to do the same. + +The Russian Bank has branches in the principal cities of Northern Persia, +her business being so far merely confined to the North. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] See Institute of Bankers. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + Illegitimate Bank-notes--Hampering the Bank's work--The grand + fiasco of the Tobacco Corporation--Magnificent behaviour of the + natives--The Mullahs and tobacco--The nation gives up + smoking--Suppression of the monopoly--Compensation--Want of + tact--Important European commercial houses and their + work--Russian and British trade--Trade routes--The new Persian + Customs--What they are represented to be and what they + are--Duties--The employment of foreigners in Persia--The Maclean + incident. + + +The work of the Imperial Bank has at various times been hampered by +speculators who tried to make money by misleading the public. Their +speculations were always based on the prestige of the bank. For instance, +take the Bushire Company and the Fars Trading Company, Limited, companies +started by native merchants. They illegally issued bank-notes which, +strangely enough, owing to the security found in the Imperial bank-notes, +found no difficulty in circulating at a small discount, especially in +Shiraz. + +Naturally, the Imperial Bank, having in its conventions with the Persian +Government the exclusive right to issue bank-notes payable at sight, +protested against this infringement of rights, but for a long time got +little redress, and some of the fraudulent bank-notes are to this day +circulating in Southern Persia. + +Sooner or later this was bound to interfere with the bank, as the +natives, unaccustomed to bank-notes, confused the ones with the others. +Moreover, the enemies of the bank took advantage of this confusion to +instigate the people against the Imperial Bank, making them believe that +the word "Imperial" on the bank-notes meant that the issuing of +bank-notes was only a new scheme of the Government to supply people with +worthless paper instead of a currency of sound silver cash. In the +southern provinces this stupid belief spread very rapidly, and was +necessarily accentuated by the issue of the illegal bank-notes of local +private concerns, which, although bearing foreign names, were merely +Persian undertakings. + +Necessarily, the many foreign speculations to which we have already +referred, cannot be said to have strengthened confidence in anything of +European importation; but the grand successive abortions of the Belgian +and Russian factories--which were to make gas, sugar, glass, matches, +etc.--are hardly to be compared in their disastrous results to the +magnificent English fiasco of the Tobacco Corporation, which not only +came to grief itself, but nearly caused a revolution in the country. It +is well-known how a concession was obtained by British capitalists in +1890 to establish a tobacco monopoly in Persia, which involved the usual +payment of a large sum to the Shah, and presents to high officials. + +The company made a start on a very grand scale in February, 1891, having +the whole monopoly of purchase and sale of tobacco all over Persia. No +sooner had it begun its work than a commission of injured native +merchants presented a petition to the Shah to protest against it. A +decree was, however, published establishing the monopoly of the +corporation all over Persia, and upon this the discontent and signs of +rebellion began. + +Yet this affair of the tobacco monopoly showed what fine, dignified +people the Persians can be if they choose. The want of tact, the absolute +mismanagement and the lack of knowledge in dealing with the natives, the +ridiculous notion that coercion would at once force the Persians to +accept the tobacco supplied by the Corporation, fast collected a dense +cloud of danger overhead. Teheran and the other larger cities were +placarded with proclamations instigating the crowds to murder Europeans +and do away with their work. + +But the Persians, notwithstanding their threats, showed themselves +patient, and confident that the Shah would restore the nation to its +former happiness. In the meantime the company's agents played the devil +all over the empire. It seems incredible, even in the annals of Persian +history, that so little lack of judgment could have been shown towards +the natives. + +The Mullahs saw an excellent opportunity to undo in a few days the work +of Europeans of several scores of years. "Allah," they preached to the +people, "forbids you to smoke or touch the impure tobacco sold you by +Europeans." On a given day the Mugte halh, or high priest of sacred +Kerbalah, declared that the faithful throughout the country must touch +tobacco no more; tobacco, the most cherished of Persian indulgences. + +Mirza Hassan Ashtiani, _mujtehed_ of Teheran, on whom the Shah relied to +pacify the crowds now in flagrant rebellion, openly preached against his +Sovereign and stood by the veto of his superior priest at Kerbalah. He +went further and exhorted the people to cease smoking, not because +tobacco was impure, but because the Koran says that it is unlawful to +make use of any article which is not fairly dealt in by all alike. + +At a given date all through the Shah's dominions--and this shows a good +deal of determination--the foreigner and his tobacco were to be treated +with contempt. Tobacco was given up by all. In the bazaars, in the +caravanserais, in the streets, in the houses, where under ordinary +circumstances every man puffed away at a _kalian_, a _chibuk_ (small +pocket-pipe) or cigarette, not a single soul could be seen smoking for +days and days. Only the Shah made a point of smoking in public to +encourage the people, but even his wife and concubines--at the risk of +incurring disfavour--refused to smoke, and smashed the _kalians_ before +his eyes. In house-holds where the men--ever weaker than women--could, +after weeks of abstinence, not resist the temptation in secrecy, their +wives destroyed the pipes. + +For several weeks not a single individual touched tobacco--a most +dignified protest which quite terrified the Shah and everybody, for, +indeed, it was apparent that people so strong-willed were not to be +trifled with. + +In many places the natives broke out into rebellion, and many lives were +lost. Nasr-ed-din Shah, frightened and perplexed, called the high Mullah +of Teheran to the palace (January 5th-6th, 1892). By his advice the +tobacco monopoly was there and then abolished by an Imperial Decree, and +the privileges granted for the sale and export of tobacco revoked. +Furthermore, the Mullah only undertook to pacify the people on condition +that all foreign enterprises and innovations in Persia should be +suppressed; that all people imprisoned during the riots should be freed, +and the families of those killed fully indemnified. + +The sudden end of the Tobacco Corporation necessarily led to much +correspondence with the British Minister, Sir Frank Lascelles, on the +question of compensation and damages to the company which, depending on +its monopoly, had entered into agreements, and had already paid out large +sums of money. It was finally agreed that the Shah should pay L500,000 +sterling compensation, and take over the assets of the company, supposed +to be some L140,000, subject to realisation. + +With the assistance of the Bank of Persia, a six per cent. loan was +issued, which was taken up principally by the shareholders of the Tobacco +Corporation. The interest and the sinking fund of this loan were +punctually met until the year 1900 when it was repaid in full on the +conclusion of the Russian loan. + +In England this failure seems to have been ascribed to Russian intrigue, +but it must in all fairness be said that had the Russians tried a similar +scheme in a similar manner, they would have fared even worse than we did. +Even Persian concerns established on European principles have serious +troubles to contend with; but it was madness to believe that an entire +Eastern nation could, at a moment's notice, be forced to accept--in a way +most offensive to them--such an article of primary use as tobacco, which, +furthermore, was offered at a higher price than their own tobaccos which +they liked better. + +There are in Persia a few important European commercial houses, such as +Ziegler and Co., and Hotz and Son, which have extensive dealings with +Persians. Ziegler and Co. deal in English imports and in the exportation +of carpets, etc., whereas Hotz and Son import Russian articles, which +they find cheaper and of easier sale. Both are eminently respectable +firms, and enjoy the esteem of everybody. + +Notwithstanding the Swiss name, Ziegler and Co. is an English firm, +although, as far as I know, it has not a single English employee in its +various branches in Persia. The reason, as we have seen, is that +foreigners are considered more capable. It has in the various cities some +very able Swiss agents, who work most sensibly and excellently, and who +certainly manage to make the best of whatever business there is to be +done in the country. For over thirty years the house has been established +in Persia, having begun its life at Tabriz and then extended to Teheran, +Resht, Meshed, Isfahan, Yezd--the latter so far a non-important +branch--and Shiraz, Bushire, Bandar Abbas and Bagdad, where it has +correspondents working for the firm. + +The house imports large quantities of Manchester goods and exports +chiefly carpets, cloths, opium and dried fruit. The carpets, which are +specially made for the European market, are manufactured chiefly at +Sultanabad where thousands of hands are employed at the looms, scattered +about in private houses of the people and not in a large factory. The +firm takes special care to furnish good wool and cottons coloured with +vegetable dyes, and not with aniline. Ancient patterns are selected and +copied in preference to new designs. Of course, besides these, other +carpets are purchased in other parts of the country. Carpets may be +divided into three classes. The scarce and most expensive pure silk rugs; +the _lamsavieh_ or good quality carpets, and the _mojodeh_ or cheaper +kind. There is a good demand for the two latter qualities all over Europe +and in America. + +Articles specially dealt in are the cotton and wool fabrics called +_ghilim_, the designs of which are most artistic; and to a certain extent +other fabrics, such as the vividly coloured Kashan velvets, the watered +silks of Resht, the Kerman cloths resembling those of Cashmir, the silver +and gold embroidered brocades of Yezd, and the silk handkerchiefs +manufactured in the various silk districts, principally Tabriz, Resht, +Kashan and Yezd. + +The stamped and hand-drawn _kalamkars_ in stringent colours upon white +cotton also find their way in large quantities to Europe, but are more +quaint than beautiful. Large and ill-proportioned figures are frequently +attempted in these designs. When of truly Persian manufacture the colours +are said to be quite permanent under the action of both light and water. + +The firm of Hotz and Son deals in well-nigh everything, and has made good +headway of late years. It has large establishments at Isfahan, Shiraz and +Bushire, and two agencies, one at Ahwaz on the Karun River, and one in +Teheran (Groeneweg, Dunlop, and Co.); while it has correspondents in +Bagdad, Busrah, Hongkong and Rotterdam, the head offices being in London. +Its carpet manufacturing business in Sultanabad is now carried on by the +Persian Manufacturing Co. The exports are similar to those of Ziegler and +Co. + +There are also smaller firms, particularly in Teheran, such as the Toko, +Virion, and others who do a retail business in piece goods and articles +of any kind, and are entirely in the hands of foreigners, Belgians, +Austrians, and French. Without reference to statistics, which are +absolutely worthless in a country like Persia, the yearly foreign trade +of Persia, divided between the Gulf ports and the north and north-western +and south-western frontiers, may be put down roughly at some nine or ten +millions sterling. + +The Russian trade in the north may be considered as about equal to the +British in the south. Then there are the goods brought by the +Trebizonde-Tabriz trade route from Turkey and the Mediterranean, and by +the Bagdad-Kermanshah, another very important route. + +The extravagant system of farming prevailing until quite lately in +Persia, as well as the uncertainties of Customs and revenue returns, +makes it difficult to give trustworthy figures; but in future, probably +this year, we may expect some more reliable data from the new Belgian +customs office, a really sensible and well-managed administration +organised by Monsieur Naus, who is, indeed, to be congratulated on the +success with which his efforts at bringing about so radical a reform in +the system of collecting duties have in so short a time been crowned. We +often hear in England that the Customs of Persia are absolutely in the +hands of Russia, and are worked by Russian officials. Even serious papers +like _The Times_ publish misleading statements of this kind, but nothing +could be more erroneous. M. Naus, at the head of the Customs, is a +Belgian, and so are nearly all the foreign employees (there are one or +two French, I believe) in Persian employ, but not a single Russian is to +be found among their number. That the Russians hold a comparatively +trifling mortgage on the Customs as a security for their loan is true, +but, as long as Persia is able to pay interest on it, Russia has no more +power over the Persian Customs than we have. Under regular and honest +management, like the present, the Customs have already given considerable +results, and were it not for the weakness of the Government in the +provinces, the Customs receipts might easily be doubled, even without a +change in the tariff. + +The duties levied in Persia are determined by the treaty of Turkmantchai +with Russia in 1828, by which a uniform and reciprocal five per cent. for +import and export was agreed to, a special convention, nevertheless, +applying to Turkey, which fixed a reciprocal 12 per cent. export and 6 +per cent. import duty, and 75 per cent. on tobacco and salt. An attempt +was made to negotiate a new commercial treaty with Russia last year, but +unfortunately, matters did not go as was expected by M. Naus, who was +very keen on the subject. A high Russian official was despatched to +Teheran who caused a good deal of trouble, and eventually the whole +matter fell through. + +Regarding the employment of foreigners by the Persian Government, it is +not out of place to recall the Maclean incident. + +An agreement had been entered into with Mr. Maclean, a British subject, +and a former employee of the Imperial Bank, to take charge of the Mint, +in order to bring it up to date and work it on more business-like +principles than at present. This led to a demand from the Russians that a +similarly high office in the Shah's Government should be given to a +Russian, so that this appointment might not be taken as a slight against +Russia; or, if this were not possible, that two or three Russians might +be employed instead in minor capacities in the new Customs. The Persian +Government would not agree to this, but owing to the pressure that had +been brought to bear by the Russians they felt obliged to dismiss Mr. +Maclean. The British minister necessarily then stood up for British +rights, and a great scandal was made of the whole affair, and as an +agreement for three years had been signed, the Persian Government had to +pay the salary in full for that period, although they had only availed +themselves of Mr. Maclean's services for a few months. + +It is to be regretted that the Sadrazam acted in so reckless a manner, +for the whole matter might have been settled quietly without the +slightest disturbance and unpleasantness. Anyhow, this led to a decree +being passed (in 1901) that in future _no British subject, no Russian, +and no Turk_ will be accepted in Persian employ. This includes the army, +with the exception of the special Cossack regiment which had previously +been formed under Russian instructors. It can safely be said that there +is not a single Russian in any civil appointment in Persia, no more than +there is any Britisher; but, in the Customs service particularly, M. +Naus being a Belgian, nearly all the employees are Belgian, as I have +said, with only one or two French lower subordinates. + +[Illustration: The First Position in Persian Wrestling.] + +[Illustration: Palawans, or Strong Men giving a Display of Feats of +Strength.] + +The Customs service is carried on with great fairness to all alike, and +the mischievous stories of Russian preference and of the violation of +rules in favour of Russian goods are too ridiculous to be taken into +consideration. One fact is certain, that any one who takes the trouble to +ascertain facts finds them very different from what they are represented +to be by hasty and over-excited writers. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + Russia on the brain--The apprehended invasion of India--Absolute + nonsense--Russia's tariff--In the House of Commons--A friendly + understanding advisable--German competition--The peace of the + world--Russia's firm policy of bold advance--An outlet in the + Persian Gulf--The policy of drift--Sound knowledge of foreign + countries needed--Mutual advantages of a Russian and British + agreement--Civilisation--Persia's integrity. + + +There is, unfortunately, a class of Englishmen--especially in India--who +have Russia on the brain, and those people see the Russian everywhere and +in everything. Every humble globe-trotter in India must be a Russian +spy--even though he be an Englishman--and much is talked about a Russian +invasion of India, through Tibet, through Afghanistan, Persia or +Beluchistan. + +To any one happening to know these countries it is almost heartrending to +hear such nonsense, and worse still to see it repeated in serious papers, +which reproduce and comment upon it gravely for the benefit of the +public. + +In explanation, and without going into many details, I will only mention +the fact that it is more difficult than it sounds for armies--even for +the sturdy Russian soldier--to march hundreds of miles across deserts +without water for men and animals, or over a high plateau like Tibet, +where (although suggested by the wise newspaper Englishman at home as a +sanatorium for British troops in India) the terrific climate, great +altitudes, lack of fuel, and a few other such trifles would reduce even +the largest European army into a very humble one at the end of a journey +across it. + +Then people seem to be ignorant of the fact that, with a mountainous +natural frontier like the Himahlyas, a Maxim gun or two above each of the +few passable passes would bring to reason any army--allowing that it +could get thus far--that intended to cross over into India! + +But, besides, have we not got soldiers to defend India? Why should we +fear the Russians? Are we not as good as they are? Why should we ever +encourage the so far unconcerned Russian to come to India by showing our +fear? It is neither manly nor has it any sense in it. The Russian has no +designs whatever upon India at present--he does not even dream of +advancing on India--but should India eventually fall into Russia's +hands--which is not probable--believe me, it will never be by a Russian +army marching into India from the north, or north-west, or west. The +danger, if there is any, may be found probably very much nearer home, in +our own ignorance and blindness. + +We also hear much about the infamy of Russia in placing a tariff on all +goods in transit for Persia, and we are told that this is another blow +directed at English trade. Such is not the case. Russia, I am told by +people who ought to know, would be only too glad to come to an +understanding with England on some sensible basis, but she certainly is +not quite so unwise as we are in letting Germany, her real enemy, swamp +her market with cheap goods. The tariff is chiefly a protection against +Germany. Of course, if we choose to help Germany to ruin Russia's markets +as well as our own, then we must suffer in consequence, but looking ahead +towards the future of Asia, it might possibly not be unwise to come to +some sensible arrangement with Russia, by which her commercial interests +and ours would mutually benefit instead of suffering as they do at +present. + +In Persia we are playing a rapidly losing game. Commercially, as I have +already said, we have lost Northern Persia, and Russian influence is fast +advancing in Southern Persia. This is surely the time to pull up and +change our tactics, or we shall go to the wall altogether. + +As Mr. Joseph Walton, M.P., very ably put it before the House of Commons +on January 22nd, 1902, in the case of Russia we have at present to +contend with abnormal conditions of competition. It would therefore be +wise for the British Government to reconsider its policy in order to +maintain, at least, our commercial interests in Southern Persia. The +Government of India, too, should take its share in upholding British +interests--being directly concerned in affairs that regard the welfare +of Persia. Russia has gone to great expense to construct two excellent +roads from the north into Persia to facilitate Russian commerce, and it +would be advisable if we were to do the same from the south. (One of the +roads, the Piri Bazaar--Kasvin Road, is said to have cost, including +purchase of the Kasvin Teheran section, something like half a million +sterling). It is indeed idle, as Mr. Walton said, to adhere to methods of +the past when foreign Governments are adopting modern methods in order to +achieve the commercial conquest of new regions. + +The matter of establishing Consulates, too, is of the greatest +importance. We find even large trading cities like Kermanshah, Yezd, +Shiraz and Birjand devoid of British Consuls. Undoubtedly we should wish +a priority of right to construct roads and railways in Southern +Persia--in the event of the Persians failing to construct these +themselves--to be recognised, and it seems quite sensible and fair to let +Persia give a similar advantage to Russia in Northern Persia. Nothing but +a friendly understanding between England and Russia, which should clearly +define the respective spheres of influence, will save the integrity of +Persia. That country should remain an independent buffer state between +Russia and India. But to bring about this result it is more than +necessary that we should support Persia on our side, as much as Russia +does on hers, or the balance is bound to go in the latter's favour. + +The understanding with Russia should also--and I firmly believe Russia +would be only too anxious to acquiesce in this--provide a protection +against German commercial invasion and enterprise in the region of the +Persian Gulf. Germany--not Russia--is England's bitterest enemy--all the +more to be dreaded because she is a "friendly enemy." It is no use to try +and keep out Russia merely to let Germany reap any commercial advantages +that may be got--and that is the policy England is following at the +present moment. The question whether or no we have a secret agreement +with Germany, in connection with the Euphrates Valley Railway, is a +serious one, because, although one cannot but admire German enterprise in +that quarter, it would be well to support it only in places where it is +not likely to be disastrous to our own trade and interests generally. + +Little or no importance should be attached to the opinion of the Russian +Press in their attacks upon England. The influential men of Russia, as +well as the Emperor himself, are certainly anxious to come to a +satisfactory understanding with England regarding affairs not only in +Persia but in Asia generally. An understanding between the two greatest +nations in the world would, as long as it lasted, certainly maintain the +peace of the world, and would have enormous control over the smaller +nations; whereas petty combinations can be of little practical solid +assistance or use to us. + +As I have pointed out before on several occasions,[3] Russia is not +to-day what she was half a century ago. She has developed enough to know +her strength and power, and her soldiers are probably the finest in +Europe--because the most practical and physically enduring. Her steady, +firm policy of bold advance, in spite of our namby-pamby, ridiculous +remonstrances, can but command the admiration of any fair-minded person, +although we may feel sad, very sad, that we have no men capable of +standing up against it, not with mere empty, pompous words, but with +actual deeds which might delay or stop her progress. As matters are +proceeding now, we are only forwarding Russia's dream of possessing a +port in the Persian Gulf. She wants it and she will no doubt get it. In +Chapters XXXIII and XXXIV the question of the point upon which her aims +are directed is gone into more fully. The undoubted fact remains that, +notwithstanding our constant howling and barking, she invariably gets +what she wants, and even more, which would lead one to believe that, at +any rate, her fear of us is not very great. + +We are told that our aggressive--by which is meant retrogressive--policy +towards Russia is due to our inability to effect an entire reversal of +our policy towards that country, but this is not the case at all. At any +rate, as times and circumstances have changed, our policy need not be +altogether reversed, but it must necessarily be subjected to +modifications in order to meet changed conditions. If we stand still +while Russia is going fast ahead, we are perforce left behind. The +policy of drift, which we seem to favour, is bound to lead us to +disaster, and when we couple with it inefficacious resistance and bigoted +obstruction we cannot be surprised if, in the end, it only yields us +bitter disappointment, extensive losses, enmity and derision. + +The policy of drift is merely caused by our absolute ignorance of foreign +countries. We drift simply because we do not know what else to do. We +hear noble lords in the Government say that the reason we did not lend +Persia the paltry two and a half millions sterling was because "men of +business do not lend money except on proper security, and that before +embarking on any such policy the Government must be anxious to see +whether the security is both sufficient and suitable." Yes, certainly, +but why did the Government not see? Had the Government seen they +certainly would have effected the loan. Surely, well-known facts, already +mentioned in previous pages, have proved very luminously our folly in +taking the advice of incompetent men who judge of matters with which, to +say the least, they are not familiar. But the real question appears to +be, not how to make a safe and profitable financial investment, which is +no part of the functions of the British or any other Government, but +rather whether it is not better to lay out a certain sum for a valuable +political object than to allow a formidable competitor to do so to our +prejudice. + +Hence the disadvantageous position in which we find ourselves at +present, all over Asia, but particularly in Persia. It would no doubt be +the perfection of an agreement if an amicable understanding could be +arrived at with Russia, not only regarding Persia but including China, +Manchuria, and Corea as well. A frank and fair adjustment of Russian and +British interests in these countries could be effected without serious +difficulty, mutual concessions could advantageously be granted, and +mutual advice and friendly support would lead to remarkably prosperous +results for both countries. + +Russia, notwithstanding all we hear of her, would only be too glad to +make sacrifices and concessions in order to have the friendship and +support of England, and Russia's friendship to England would, I think, be +of very great assistance to British manufacturers. It must be remembered +that Russia is an enormous country, and that her markets both for exports +and imports are not to be despised. In machinery alone huge profits could +be made, as well as in cloths, piece goods, fire-arms, Manchester goods, +worked iron, steel, etc. + +Articles of British manufacture are in much demand in Russia and Siberia, +and, should the British manufacturer see his way to make articles as +required by the buyer, very large profits could be made in the Russian +market. Also huge profits will eventually be made by the export of +Siberian products into England and the Continent, a branch of industry +which the Russians themselves are attempting to push into the British +market with the assistance of their Government. + +To return to Persia it must not be forgotten that British imports into +that country (in 1900) amounted to L1,400,000, whilst Russia imported +L21,974,952 of British goods. Which, after all, is the customer best +worth cultivating: Persia which takes L1,400,000 of our goods, or Russia +which buys from us for L21,974,952? + +It is a mistake to believe that we are the only civilising agents of the +world, and that the work of other powers in that direction only tends to +the stagnation of Eastern peoples. One might affirm with more truth that +our intercourse with the civilisation of the East tends to our own +stagnation. We do impart to the natives, it is true, some smattering of +the semi-barbaric, obsolete ways we possess ourselves, but standing aside +and trying to look upon matters with the eye of a rational man, it is +really difficult to say whether what we teach and how we teach it does +really improve the Eastern people or not. Personally, with a long +experience of natives all over Asia, it appears to me that it does not. + +The Russian, though from a British point of view altogether a barbarian, +does not appear to spoil the natives quite so much in his work among +them. The natives under his _regime_ seem happy, and his work of +civilisation is more of the patriarchal style, tending more to enrich the +people, to promote commerce and trade on appropriate lines, than to +educate the masses according to Western methods and laws. The results +are most decidedly good, and anyhow lead to much greater contentment +among the masses than we can secure, for instance, in India. Above all +things it makes for peace; the natives are treated with extreme +consideration and kindness, but at the same time they know that no +nonsense is tolerated, and that is undoubtedly the way most appreciated +by Asiatics. + +In Persia, it is to be hoped for the peace of all that neither Russia nor +England will acquire any territorial rights, but that the integrity of +the Shah's Empire may long be preserved. Only it would not be unwise to +prepare for emergencies in case the country--already half spoiled by +European ways--should one day collapse and make interference necessary. +The integrity of states in Asia intended to serve as buffers is all very +well when such states can look after themselves, but with misgovernment +and want of proper reform, as in Persia, great trouble may be expected +sooner than we imagine, unless we on our side are prepared to help Persia +as much as Russia does on her side. + +If this can be done, with little trouble to ourselves, and in a way +agreeable to the Persians, there is no reason why, as an independent +state, Persia should not fully develop her resources, reorganise her +government and army, become a powerful nation, and establish a +flourishing trade, Russia and England profiting equally by the assistance +given her. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3] See _China and the Allies_, Heinemann; Scribner. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + Education--Educated but not instructed--The Mullahs--The + Madrassahs--The Royal College in Teheran--Secular Schools--The + brain of Persian students--Hints on commercial education for + Englishmen--Languages a necessity--Observation--Foreigners and + Englishmen--The Englishman as a linguist--Special commercial + training in Germany--The British manufacturer--Ways and ways--Our + Colonies swamped with foreign-made goods--Russia fast and firmly + advancing. + + +To believe that the Persians are illiterate would be a mistake, and to +think that the masses of Iran were properly educated would be a greater +mistake still; but, if I may be allowed the expression, the average +Persian cannot be better described than by saying he is "educated in +ignorance"; or, in other words, the average Persian is educated, yes; but +instructed, no. + +If what the people are taught can be called education--and we in England +should not be the first to throw stones at others--the average Persian is +better educated than the average European. But there is education and +education. It is difficult to find the commonest man in Persian cities +who cannot read to a certain extent, and most people can also write a +little and have a smattering of arithmetic. + +The teaching, except in the larger and principal centres, is almost +entirely in the hands of the Mullahs, so that naturally, as in our +clerical schools, religion is taught before all things, verses of the +Koran are learnt by heart, and the various rites and multiple religious +ceremonies are pounded into the children's brains, and accessory +religious sanitary duties of ablutions, etc., which are believed to +purify the body and bring it nearer to Allah, are inculcated. Even in +remoter villages, the boys are taught these things in the Mosques as well +as a little reading, and enough writing for daily uses and how to add and +subtract and multiply figures. Famous bits of national poetry and further +passages from the Koran are committed to memory. + +[Illustration: Iman Jumeh. Head Priest of Teheran, and Official Sayer of +Prayers to the Shah.] + +In the large cities a higher education can be obtained in the elaborate +Madrassahs adjoining the mosques, and here, too, entirely at the hands of +the Mullahs; but these higher colleges, a kind of university, are only +frequented by the richer and better people, by those who intend to devote +themselves to medicine, to jurisprudence, or to theological studies. +Literature and art and science, all based mostly on the everlasting +Koran, are here taught _a fond_, the students spending many years in deep +and serious study. These are the old-fashioned and more common schools. +But new schools in European or semi-European style also exist and, +considering all things, are really excellent. + +In Teheran, a Royal College has been in existence for some years. It has +first-class foreign teachers, besides native instructors educated in +Europe, and supplies the highest instruction to the students. Modern +languages are taught to perfection, the higher mathematics, international +jurisprudence, chemistry, philosophy, military strategy, and I do not +know what else! I understood from some of the professors that the +students were remarkable for their quickness and intelligence as compared +with Europeans, and I myself, on meeting some of the students who had +been and others who were being instructed in the University, was very +much struck by their facility in learning matters so foreign to them, and +by their astounding faculty of retaining what they had learnt. It must be +recollected that the various scientific lessons and lectures were +delivered not in Persian, but in some foreign language, usually French, +which intensified their difficulty of apprehending. + +Other private schools have also been started on similar principles in +various parts of the Empire. Even in Yezd a most excellent school on +similar lines is to be found and will be described later on. + +Naturally the Mullahs look askance upon these Government schools, in +which foreign methods are adopted. The Alliance Francaise of Paris, which +has a committee in Teheran, has opened a French school under the +direction of Mr. Virioz, a certificated professor. The school has nearly +100 pupils, all natives. This is a primary school, of which the studies +are in French, but a Mullah has been added to the staff to teach the +Koran and religious subjects. In Hamadan, a large Jewish centre, the +Alliance Israelite has opened important schools which have largely +drained the American Presbyterian schools of their Jewish pupils. Other +secular schools, it appears, are to be opened in which foreign education +is to be imparted, and no doubt this is a first and most excellent step +of Persia towards the improvement, if not the actual reform, of the old +country. + +Not that the religious education received from the priests was without +its good points. The love for literature and poetry, which it principally +expounded, developed in the people the more agreeable qualities which +have made the Persian probably the most polite man on this earth. The +clerical education, indeed, worked first upon the heart, then upon the +brain; it taught reverence for one's parents, love for one's neighbours, +and obedience to one's superiors; it expounded soft, charitable ways in +preference to aggression or selfishness--not the right instead of the +duty--as is frequently the case in secular schools. + +But softness, consideration, poetry, and charity are things of the past; +they can only be indulged in by barbarians; in civilisation, unluckily, +there is very little use for them except for advertisement sake. So the +Persians were wise to resort to our style of education, which may yet be +the means of saving their country. They will lose their +courteousness--they are fast beginning to do that already--their filial +love, their charity, and all the other good qualities they may possess; +only when these are gone will they rank in civilisation quite as high as +any European nation! + +The wealthier people send their sons to be educated abroad in European +capitals, and one cannot help being struck by the wonderful ease with +which these fellows master not only languages, but science and extremely +complex subjects. Whether this is due to the brain of young Persians +being fresher owing to its not having been overtaxed for generations--and +therefore the impressions are clearly received and firmly recorded, or +whether the mode of life is apt to develop the brain more than any other +part of their anatomy is difficult to say, but the quickness and lucidity +of the average young Persian brain is certainly astounding when compared +to that of European brains of the same ages. + +The Persian, too, has a most practical way of looking at things,--when he +does take the trouble to do so--not sticking to one point of view but +observing his subject from all round, as it were, with a good deal of +philosophical humour that is of great help to him in all he undertakes; +and it is curious to see how fast and thoroughly the younger Persians of +better families can adapt themselves to European ways of thought and +manner without the least embarrassment or concern. In this, I think, they +surpass any other Asiatic nation, the small community of the Parsees of +India alone excepted. + +And here a word or two on the education of Englishmen intending to make +a living abroad, especially in Asia, and particularly in Persia, will +not, I hope, be out of place. With the fast-growing intercourse between +East and West, sufficient stress cannot be laid upon the fact that sound +commercial education on up-to-date principles is chiefly successful in +countries undergoing the processes of development, and that, above all, +the careful study of foreign languages--the more the better--should +occupy the attention of the many students in our country who are to live +in Asia. There is a great deal too much time absolutely wasted in English +schools over Latin and Greek, not to mention the exaggerated importance +given to games like cricket, football, tennis, which, if you like, are +all very well to develop the arms and legs, but seem to have quite the +reverse effect upon the brain. + +Yet what is required nowadays to carry a man through the world are +brains, and not muscular development of limbs. As for a classical +education, it may be all right for a clergyman, a lawyer, or for a man +with high but unprofitable literary tastes, but not for fellows who are +not only to be useful to themselves, but indirectly to the mother +country, by developing the industries or trades of lands to be opened up. + +If I may be permitted to say so, one of the principal qualities which we +should develop in our young men is the sense of observation in all its +forms--a sense which is sadly neglected in English education. It has +always been my humble experience that one learns more of use in one +hour's keen observation than by reading all the books in the world, and +when that sense is keenly developed it is quite extraordinary with what +facility one can do things which the average unobservant man thinks +utterly impossible. It most certainly teaches one to simplify everything +and always to select the best and easiest way in all one undertakes, +which, after all, is the way leading to success. + +Again, when observation is keenly developed, languages--or, in fact, +anything else--can be learnt with amazing facility. The "knack" of +learning languages is only due to observation; the greatest scientific +discoveries have been due to mere observation; the greatest commercial +enterprises are based on the practical results of observation. But it is +astounding how few people do really observe, not only carefully, but at +all. The majority of folks might as well be blind for what they see for +themselves. They follow like sheep what they are told to do, and make +their sons and grandsons do the same; and few countries suffer more from +this than England. + +When travelling in the East one cannot help being struck by the +difference of young Englishmen and foreigners employed in similar +capacities in business places. The foreigner is usually fluent in four, +five or six different languages, and has a smattering of scientific +knowledge which, if not very deep, is at any rate sufficient for the +purposes required. He is well up in engineering, electricity, the latest +inventions, explorations, discoveries and commercial devices. He will +talk sensibly on almost any subject; he is moderate in his habits and +careful with his money. + +Now, take the young Englishman. He seldom knows well more than one +language; occasionally one finds fellows who can speak two tongues +fluently; rarely one who is conversant with three or four. His +conversation generally deals with drinks, the latest or coming races, the +relative values of horses and jockeys and subsequent offers to bet--in +which he is most proficient. The local polo, if there is any, or tennis +tournaments afford a further subject for conversation, and then the lack +of discussible topics is made up by more friendly calls for drinks. The +same subjects are gone through with variations time after time, and that +is about all. + +Now, I maintain that this should not be so, because, taking things all +round, the young Englishman is really _au fond_ brighter and infinitely +more intelligent than foreigners. It is his education and mode of living +that are at fault, not the individual himself, and this our cousins the +Americans have long since discovered; hence their steaming ahead of us in +every line with the greatest ease. + +We hear that the Englishman is no good at learning languages, but that is +again a great mistake. I do not believe that there is any other nation in +Europe, after the Russians, who have greater facility--if properly +cultivated--and are more capable of learning languages to perfection than +the English. I am not referring to every shameless holiday tripper on +the Continent who makes himself a buffoon by using misapplied, +mispronounced, self-mistaught French or Italian or German sentences, but +I mean the rare observant Englishman who studies languages seriously and +practically. + +Speaking from experience, in my travels--which extend more or less all +over the world--I have ever found that Englishmen, when put to it, could +learn languages perfectly. Hence my remarks, which may seem blunt but are +true. Truly there is no reason why the gift of learning languages should +be neglected in England,--a gift which, I think, is greatly facilitated +by developing in young people musical qualities, if any, and training the +ear to observe and receive sounds correctly,--a fact to which we are just +beginning to wake up. + +It is undoubted that the command of several languages gives a commercial +man an enormous advantage in the present race of European nations in +trying to obtain a commercial superiority; but the command of a language +requires, too, to a limited extent the additional etiquette of ways and +manners appropriate to it to make it quite efficient; and these, as well +as the proper manner of speaking the language itself, can only, I repeat, +be learnt by personal observation. + +The Germans train commercial men specially for the East, men who visit +every nook of Asiatic countries where trade is to be developed, and +closely study the natives, their ways of living, their requirements, +reporting in the most minute manner upon them, so that the German +manufacturers may provide suitable articles for the various markets. In +the specific case of Persia, Russia, the predominant country in the +North, does exactly the same. The Russian manufacturer studies his +client, his habits, his customs, and supplies him with what he desires +and cherishes, and does not, like the British manufacturer, export to +Eastern countries articles which may very well suit the farmer, the +cyclist, or the cabman in England, but not the Persian agriculturist, +camel-driver, or highwayman. + +The everlasting argument that the British manufacturer supplies a better +article borders very much on the idiotic. First of all, setting apart the +doubt whether he does really supply a better article, what is certain is +that a "better article" may not be of the kind that is wanted at all by +the people. There are in this world climates and climates, peoples and +peoples, religions and religions, houses and houses, customs and customs; +and therefore the well-made English article (allowing it to be well-made) +which suits English people is not always adapted for all other countries, +climates, and usages. + +Another prevalent mistake in this country is to believe that the Persian, +or any other Oriental, will only buy cheap things. The Oriental may +endeavour to strike a bargain--for that is one of the chief pleasures of +his existence, though a fault which can easily be counter-balanced--but +he is ever ready to pay well for what he really wants. Thus, if because +of his training in fighting he requires a certain curl and a particular +handle to his knife; if he fancies a particular pattern printed or woven +in the fabrics he imports, and if because of his religious notions he +prefers his silver spoons drilled with holes; there does not seem to be +any plausible reason why his wishes should not be gratified as long as he +pays for the articles supplied. + +We, who own half the world, and ought to know better by this time, seem +constantly to forget that our customs, and ways, seem as ridiculous to +Orientals (to some of ourselves, too,) quite as ridiculous as theirs to +us. In some cases, even, great offence can be caused by trying to enforce +our methods too suddenly upon Eastern countries. Civilised people may +prefer to blow their noses with an expensive silk handkerchief, which +they carefully fold up with contents into the most prominent pocket of +their coats; the unclean Oriental may prefer to close one nostril by +pressing it with his finger and from the other forcibly eject extraneous +matter to a distance of several feet away, by violent blowing, repeating +the operation with the other nostril. This may be thought not quite +graceful, but is certainly a most effective method, and possibly cleaner +than ours in the end. We may fancy it good manners when in public to show +little more of our shirts than the collar and cuffs, but the Persian or +the Hindoo, for instance, prefers to let the garment dangle to its full +extent outside so as to show its design in full. Again, we may consider +it highly unbecoming and improper for ladies to show their lower limbs +above the ankle; the Persian lady thinks nothing of that, but deems it +shocking to show her face. + +And so we could go on and on; in fact, with the Persians, one might +almost go as far as saying that, with the exception of eating and +drinking and a few other matters, they do most things in a contrary way +to ours. They remove their shoes, when we would remove our hats; they +shave their heads and let the beard grow; they sleep in the day and sit +up the greater portion of the night; they make windows in the roof +instead of in the walls; they inoculate smallpox instead of vaccinating +to prevent it; they travel by night instead of by day. + +It would be absurd to believe that we can alter in a day the customs, +religions, and manners of millions of natives, and it seems almost +incomprehensible that in such long colonial experience as ours we have +not yet been able to grasp so simple a fact. But here, again, comes in my +contention that our failing is absolute lack of observation; unless it be +indeed our conceited notion that other people must rise up to our +standard. Anyhow, we have lost and are losing heavily by it. + +We see the Germans and Austrians swamping our own Colonies with goods +wherewith our bazaars in India are overflowing; whereas English +articles--if cottons are excepted--are seldom to be seen in the bazaars. +This seems indeed a curious state of affairs. Nor do we need to go to +India. England itself is overflowing with foreign-made goods. Now, why +should it not be possible--and certainly more profitable--to meet the +wishes of natives of Eastern countries and give them what they want? + +There is another matter which greatly hampers the British manufacturer, +in his dealings with Persians particularly. It is well to recollect that +the blunt way we have of transacting business does not always answer with +Orientals. Impatience, too, of which we are ever brimful, is a bad +quality to possess in dealings with Persians. Times have gone by when +England had practically the monopoly of the trade of the East and could +lay down the law to the buyers. The influx of Europeans and the extension +of trade to the most remote corners of the globe have increased to such +an extent during the last few years--and with these competition--that the +exporter can no longer use the slack, easy ways of half-a-century ago, +when commercial supremacy was in our hands, and must look out for +himself. + +A knowledge of the language, with a conciliatory, courteous manner, a +good stock of patience and a fair capacity for sherbet, hot tea and +coffee, will, in Persia, carry a trader much further in his dealings than +the so-called "smarter ways" appreciated in England or America; and +another point to be remembered in countries where the natives are +unbusiness-like, as they are in Persia, is that personal influence and +trust--which the natives can never dissociate from the bargain in +hand--go a very long way towards successful trading in Iran. + +This is, to my mind, one of the principal reasons of Russian commercial +successes in Northern Persia. We will not refer here to the ridiculous +idea, so prevalent in England, that Russia was never and never will be a +manufacturing country. Russia is very fast developing her young +industries, which are pushed to the utmost by her Government, and what is +more, the work is done in a remarkably practical way, by people who +possess a thorough knowledge of what they are doing. The natives and the +geographical features of the country have been carefully studied, and the +Russian trading scheme is carried firmly and steadily on an unshakable +base. We sit and express astonishment at Russian successes in Persia; the +people at home can hardly be made to realise them, and I have heard +people even discredit them; but this is only the beginning and nothing to +what we shall see later on unless we proceed to work on similar sensible +lines. It certainly arouses admiration to see what the Russians can do +and how well they can do it with ridiculously small capital, when we +waste, absolutely waste, immense sums and accomplish nothing, or even the +reverse of what we intend to accomplish. But there again is the +difference between the observant and the unobservant man. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + + Persia's industrial, mineral and agricultural resources--Climate + of various districts--Ghilan's trade--Teheran and the surrounding + country--Khorassan and Sistan--The Caspian provinces--Mazanderan, + Astrabad and Azerbaijan--Russian activity and concessions in + Azerbaijan--Hamadan--The Malayer and Borujird districts--The + nomads of Kurdistan--Naphtha--The tribes of Pusht-i-kuh--The + pastoral people of + Luristan--Arabistan--Farsistan--Laristan--Shiraz wines--Persian + Beluchistan. + + +The geographical situation of Persia, its extent, the altitude of its +plateau above the sea level, its vast deserts and its mountain ranges, +give the country a good selection of climates, temperatures and +vegetation. We have regions of intense tropical heat and of almost arctic +cold, we have temperate regions, we have healthy regions, and regions +where everybody is fever-stricken. Regions with moist air, plenty of +water, and big marshes, and dreary waterless deserts. + +Necessarily such natural conditions are bound to give a great variety of +resources which show themselves in various guises. A quick survey of the +agricultural, industrial and mineral resources of the principal provinces +of Persia according to up-to-date information may not be out of place, +and will help the reader to appreciate the journey through some of the +districts mentioned. + +We have already been through Ghilan with its almost temperate climate in +the lowlands, but damp in the northern portion, where fever is rampant, +but where, at the same time, luxuriant vegetation with thick forests, +grass in abundance, paddy fields for the extensive cultivation of rice, +olive-groves, vineyards, cotton, wheat, tobacco, sugar-cane, fruit and +all kinds of vegetables nourish; while the production of silk for export +on a large and fast-increasing scale--it might be increased enormously if +more modern methods were adopted--and wool and cotton fabrics, mostly for +the Persian market, are manufactured. It exports, mostly to Russia, great +quantities of dried fruit, wool, cotton, and tobacco (made into +cigarettes), salt fish, caviare and oil. + +South-east of Ghilan we find Teheran on a high plateau, its situation +giving it a delightful and healthy climate, but very scanty agricultural +resources owing to lack of water. In and near the capital city there are +good gardens, grown at considerable expense and trouble, but very little +other vegetation. We have seen in previous chapters what the industries +of the capital, both native and foreign, are, and what they amount to; +there is also a manufacture of glazed tiles, quite artistic, but not to +be compared in beauty of design, colour and gloss with the ancient ones. +Teheran is dependent on the neighbouring provinces and Europe for nearly +everything. + +This is not, however, the case with Isfahan, the ancient capital, in the +province of which cotton, wheat, Indian corn, tobacco and opium are grown +in fair quantities, the last-named for export. Mules and horses are +reared, and there are several flourishing industries, such as +carpet-making, metal work, leather tanneries, gold and silver work, and +silk and wool fabrics. + +To the east we have Khorassan and Sistan, a great wheat-growing country +with some good pastures, and also producing opium, sugar-cane, dates and +cotton. In summer the northerly winds sweeping over the desert are +unbearable, and the winter is intensely cold. In the northern part of +Khorassan snow falls during the coldest months, but in Sistan the winter +is temperate. Life is extremely cheap for natives in Sistan, which is a +favourite resort for camel men and their beasts, both from Afghanistan +and Beluchistan. Northern Khorassan is the great centre of turquoise +mining; copper and coal are also found there, but its local trade, now +that the export of grain is forbidden, is mostly in opium, worked +leather, wool and excellent horses, which can be purchased for very +little money. Camels, both loading and riding (or fast-going camels) are +also reared here in the southern portion of the province, the northern +part being too cold for them in winter. + +The handsomest and richest districts of Persia, but not the healthiest, +are undoubtedly the northern ones on the Caspian Sea, or bordering on +Russian territory, such as Mazanderan, Astrabad, and Azerbaijan. In the +first two, rice is grown in large quantities, castor-oil, wheat, cotton +and barley; and in Mazanderan extensive pasturages are found on the hills +for sheep; but not so in Astrabad, which, owing to its peculiar +formation, is exposed to broiling heat on the sandy wastes, and to +terrific cold on the mountains, but has a fairly temperate climate in the +southern portion of the province. These--if the production of silk is +excepted--are mostly agricultural districts. At one time Mazanderan had +beautiful forests which are now fast being destroyed. Considerable +bartering is carried on between the towns and the nomad tribes, in rugs, +carpets, horses and mules, against grain, rice, felts and woollen cloths +of local manufacture. + +Azerbaijan, the most northern province of Persia, with Tabriz as a +centre, is very rich in agricultural products, particularly in rice and +wheat. Notwithstanding the severe climate in winter, when the snowfall is +rather heavy, and the thermometer down to 20 deg. below zero centigrade in +February, there are good vineyards in the neighbourhood of Tabriz, and +most excellent vegetables and fruit. Tobacco is successfully grown (and +manufactured for the pipe and into cigarettes). The heat in summer is +intense, with hot winds and dust storms; but owing to the altitude (4,420 +feet at Tabriz) the nights are generally cool. In the spring there are +torrential rains, and also towards the end of the autumn, but the months +of May, June, October and November are quite pleasant. + +The local trade of Azerbaijan is insignificant, but being on the Russian +border the transit trade has of late assumed large proportions, and is +increasing fast. The importation, for instance, of Turkey-reds by Russia +is growing daily, and also the importation of silk, in cocoons and +manufactured, velvet, woollen goods, various cotton goods, raw wool, dyes +(such as henna, indigo, cochineal and others), and sugar, the principal +import of all. With the exception of tea, indigo and cochineal, which +come from India, the imports into Azerbaijan come almost altogether from +Russia, Turkey, Austria-Hungary and France. The Russian trade in sugar is +enormous from this quarter. + +The carpet trade, which at one time seemed to be dying out, is now about +to enter on a prosperous phase; but not so the wool-weaving, which does +not go beyond the local market. Firearms are manufactured and sold to the +Kurds, and jewellery is made; but the principal exports are dried fruit, +raisins, almonds, pistachios, chiefly to Russia and Turkey; also gum, +oils, raw metals (copper, iron), hides, precious stones, alimentary +products (honey and dried vegetables), various kinds of wood, live stock +(mainly sheep and oxen), tobacco, raw and manufactured, dyes, and raw and +manufactured cotton and silk, carpets, rugs, and cloth. + +All these exports are to Russia and Turkey, and do not all necessarily +come from Azerbaijan. The Russians are displaying great activity in this +province, and have established an important branch of their "Banque +d'Escompte et de Prets de Perse." They have obtained road, railway, and +mining concessions, and according to the report of our consul in Tabriz, +the Russian Bank makes advances, to the extent of fifty per cent., to +merchants dealing in Russian goods, especially to native exporters of +dried fruit, such advances being repaid in Russia by the sale of such +produce, or in Persia by the sale of corresponding imports of +manufactured goods. + +Tabriz itself, being a centre of export of the produce of Northern +Persia, is a promising field for banking enterprise, and will assume +greater importance even than it has now when the carriage road scheme, a +concession which was granted by the Shah, is completed, and furnishes +easier communication for trade and travelling purposes. Russian engineers +are said to have surveyed and mapped the country for the establishment of +a railway system in Azerbaijan. + +The mineral resources of Azerbaijan are said to be considerable, iron +being found in rich deposits of hematite; sulphur, copper and arsenical +pyrites, bitumen, lignite, salt, mineral, ferruginous and sulphurous +springs, and variegated marble. A similar geological formation is found +extending to Hamadan, where beds of lignite and anthracite exist, and +fine marbles and granites are to be found. Here, too, we have a trifling +market for local produce, but a considerable transit trade between the +capital and Kermanshah, Bagdad and Tabriz. + +Hamadan is mostly famous for its capital tanneries of leather and for +its metal work; but its climate is probably the worst in Persia, if the +suffocating Gulf coast is excepted--intensely cold in winter and spring, +moist and rainy during the rest of the year. This produces good +pasturages and gives excellent vegetables, wine of sorts, and a +flourishing poppy culture--a speciality of the province. + +The same remarks might apply to the adjoining (south) Malayer and +Borujird districts, which, however, possess a more temperate climate, +although liable to sudden terrific storms accompanied by torrential +rains. There is a great deal of waste lands in these regions; but, where +irrigated and properly cultivated, wheat flourishes, as well as fruit +trees, vines, vegetables, poppies, cotton and tobacco. The people are +extremely industrious, being occupied chiefly in carpet-making for +foreign export, and preparing opium and dried fruit, as well as dyed +cottons. Gold dust is said to be found in beds of streams and traces of +copper in quartz. + +Other provinces, such as Kurdistan, are inhabited by nomadic peoples, who +have a small trade in horses, arms, opium, wool and dates; but the +cultivation of land is necessarily much neglected except for the supply +of local needs. In many parts it is almost impossible, as for five or six +winter months the soil is buried in snow, and the heat of the summer is +unbearable. There seem to be no intermediate seasons. The people live +mostly on the caravan traffic from Bagdad to various trading centres of +Persia, and they manufacture coarse cloths, rugs and earthenware of +comparatively little marketable value. Naphtha does exist, as well as +other bituminous springs, but it is doubtful whether the quantity is +sufficient and whether the naphtha wells are accessible enough to pay for +their exploitation. + +That naphtha does exist, not only in Kurdistan, but in Pusht-i-kuh, +Luristan, and all along the zone extending south of the Caucasus, is +possible; but whether those who bore wells for oil in those regions will +make fortunes similar to those made in the extraordinarily rich and +exceptionally situated Baku region, is a different matter altogether, +which only the future can show. + +[Illustration: Sahib Divan, who was at various periods Governor of Shiraz +and Khorassan.] + +The tribes of Pusht-i-kuh are somewhat wild and unreliable. On the +mountain sides are capital pasturages. A certain amount of grain, tobacco +and fruit are grown, principally for local consumption. + +In Luristan, too, we have partly a nomad pastoral population. Being a +mountainous region there are extremes of temperature. In the plains the +heat is terrific; but higher up the climate is temperate and conducive to +good pasturages and even forests. As in the Pusht-i-kuh mountain +district, here, too, wheat, rice and barley are grown successfully in +huge quantities, and the vine flourishes at certain altitudes as well as +fruit trees. The local commerce consists principally in live stock, the +horses being quite good, and there is a brisk trade in arms and +ammunition. + +There remain now the large districts of Khuzistan, better known as +Arabistan, Farsistan and Laristan. The heat in these provinces is +terrible during the summer, and the latter district is further exposed to +the Scirocco winds of the Gulf, carrying with them suffocating sand +clouds. If properly developed, and if the barrage of the Karun river at +Ahwaz were put in thorough repair, the plains of Arabistan could be made +the richest in Persia. Wheat, rice and forage were grown in enormous +quantities at one time, and cotton, tobacco, henna, indigo and +sugar-cane. But this region, being of special interest to Britain, a +special chapter is devoted to it, as well as to the possibilities of +Farsistan and Laristan, to which future reference will be made. + +The trade in Shiraz wines is fairly developed, and they are renowned all +over Persia. Considering the primitive method in which they are made they +are really excellent, especially when properly matured. The better ones +resemble rich sherries, Madeira and port wine. + +Indigo, horses, mules and carpets form the trade of the province which, +they say, possesses undeveloped mineral resources such as sulphur, lead, +presumed deposits of coal, mercury, antimony and nickel. + +Persian Beluchistan is quite undeveloped so far, and mostly inhabited by +nomad tribes, somewhat brigand-like in many parts and difficult to deal +with. They manufacture rugs and saddle-bags and breed good horses and +sheep. Their trade is insignificant, and a good deal of their country is +barren. The climate is very hot, and in many parts most unhealthy. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + + A Persian wedding--Polygamy--Seclusion of + women--Match-makers--Subterfuges--The _Nomzad_, or official + betrothal day--The wedding ceremony in the harem--For luck--The + wedding procession--Festival--Sacrifices of sheep and camels--The + last obstacle, the _ruhmah_--The bride's endowment--The + bridegroom's settlement--Divorces--A famous well for unfaithful + women--Women's influence--Division of property. + + +The general European idea about Persian matrimonial affairs is about as +inaccurate as is nearly every other European popular notion of Eastern +customs. We hear a great deal about Harems, and we fancy that every +Persian must have dozens of wives, while there are people who seriously +believe that the Shah has no less than one wife for each day of the year, +or 365 in all! That is all very pretty fiction, but differs considerably +from real facts. + +First of all, it may be well to repeat that by the Mahommedan doctrine no +man can have more than four wives, and this on the specified condition +that he is able to keep them in comfort, in separate houses, with +separate attendants, separate personal jewellery, and that he will look +upon them equally, showing no special favour to any of them which may be +the cause of jealousy or envy. All these conditions make it well-nigh +impossible for any man of sound judgment to embark in polygamy. Most +well-to-do Persians, therefore, only have one wife. + +Another important matter to be taken into consideration is, that no +Persian woman of a good family will ever marry a man who is already +married. So that the chances of legal polygamy become at once very small +indeed in young men of the better classes, who do not wish to ruin their +career by marrying below their own level. + +An exception should be made with the lower and wealthy middle classes, +who find a satisfaction in numbers to make up for quality, and who are +the real polygamists of the country. But even in their case the real +wives are never numerous--never above the number permitted by the +Koran,--the others being merely concubines, whether temporary or +permanent. The Shah himself has no more than one first wife, with two or +three secondary ones. + +In a country where women are kept in strict seclusion as they are in +Persia, the arrangement of matrimony is rather a complicated matter. +Everybody knows that in Mussulman countries a girl can only be seen by +her nearest relations, who by law cannot marry her, such as her father, +grandfather, brothers and uncles--but not by her cousins, for weddings +between cousins are very frequently arranged in Persia. + +It falls upon the mother or sisters of the would-be bridegroom to pick a +suitable girl for him, as a rule, among folks of their own class, and +report to him in glowing terms of her charms, social and financial +advantages. If he has no mother and sisters, then a complaisant old lady +friend of the family undertakes to act as middlewoman. There are also +women who are professional match-makers--quite a remunerative line of +business, I am told. Anyhow, when the young man has been sufficiently +allured into matrimonial ideas, if he has any common sense he generally +wishes to see the girl before saying yes or no. This is arranged by a +subterfuge. + +The women of the house invite the girl to their home, and the young +fellow is hidden behind a screen or a window or a wall, wherein +convenient apertures have been made for him, unperceived, to have a good +look at the proposed young lady. This is done several times until the boy +is quite satisfied that he likes her. + +The primary difficulty being settled, his relations proceed on a visit to +the girl's father and mother, and ask them to favour their son with their +daughter's hand. + +If the young man is considered well off, well-to-do, sober and eligible +in every way, consent is given. A day is arranged for the Nomzad--the +official betrothal day. All the relations, friends and acquaintances of +the two families are invited, and the women are entertained in the harem +while the men sit outside in the handsome courts and gardens. The +bridegroom's relations have brought with them presents of jewellery, +according to their means and positions in life, with a number of +expensive shawls, five, six, seven or more, and a mirror. Also some large +trays of candied sugar. + +After a great consumption of tea, sherbet, and sweets, the young man is +publicly proclaimed suitable for the girl. Music and dancing (by +professionals) are lavishly provided for the entertainment of guests, on +a large or small scale, according to the position of the parents. + +Some time elapses between this first stage of a young man's doom and the +ceremony for the legal contract and actual wedding. There is no special +period of time specified, and the parties can well please themselves as +to the time when the nuptial union is to be finally effected. + +When the day comes the parties do not go to the mosque nor the convenient +registry office--Persia is not yet civilised enough for the latter--but a +_Mujtehed_ or high priest is sent for, who brings with him a great many +other Mullahs, the number in due proportion to the prospective backshish +they are to receive for their services. + +The wedding ceremony takes place in the bride's house, where on the +appointed day bands, dancing, singing, and sweets in profusion are +provided for the great number of guests invited. + +The high priest eventually adjourns to the harem, where all the women +have collected with the bride, the room being partitioned off with a +curtain behind which the women sit. The bride and her mother (or other +lady) occupy seats directly behind the curtain, while the priest with +the bridegroom and his relations take places in the vacant portion of the +room. + +The priest in a stentorian voice calls out to the girl:-- + +"This young man, son of so-and-so, etc., etc., wants to be your slave. +Will you accept him as your slave?" + +(No reply. Trepidation on the bridegroom's part.) + +The priest repeats his question in a yet more stentorian voice. + +Again no reply. The women collect round the bride and try to induce her +to answer. They stroke her on her back, and caress her face, but she +sulks and is shy and plays with her dress, but says nothing. When the +buzzing noise of the excited women-folk behind the curtain has subsided, +the priest returns to his charge, while the expectant bridegroom +undergoes the worst quarter of an hour of his life. + +The third time of asking is generally the last, and twice the girl has +already not answered. It is a terrible moment. Evidently she is not over +anxious to bring about the alliance, or is the reluctance a mere feminine +expedient to make it understood from the beginning that she is only +conferring a great favour on the bridegroom by condescending to marry +him? The latter hypothesis is correct, for when the priest thunders for +the third time his former question, a faint voice--after a tantalizing +delay--is heard to say "Yes." + +The bridegroom, now that this cruel ordeal is over, begins to breathe +again. + +The priest is not yet through his work, and further asks the girl whether +she said "Yes" out of her will, or was forced to say it. Then he appeals +to the women near her to testify that this was so, and that the voice he +heard behind the curtain was actually the girl's voice. These various +important points being duly ascertained, in appropriate Arabic words the +priest exclaims: + +"I have married this young lady to this man and this man to this young +lady." + +The men present on one side of the curtain nod and (in Arabic) say they +accept the arrangement. The women are overheard to say words to the same +effect from the other side of the partition. Congratulations are +exchanged, and more sherbet, tea and sweets consumed. + +The religious ceremony is over, but not the trials of the bridegroom, now +legal husband. + +When sufficient time has elapsed for him to recover from his previous +mental anguish, he is conveyed by his mother or women relatives into the +harem. All the women are veiled and line the walls of the drawing-room, +where a solitary chair or cushion on the floor is placed at the end of +the room. He is requested to sit upon it, which he meekly does. A small +tray is now brought in with tiny little gold coins (silver if the people +are poor) mixed with sweets. The bridegroom bends his head; and sweets +and coins are poured upon his back and shoulders. Being round--the coins, +not the shoulders--they run about and are scattered all over the room. +All the ladies present gracefully stoop and seize one pellet of gold, +which is kept for good luck; then servants are called in to collect the +remainder which goes to their special benefit. + +This custom is not unlike our flinging rice for luck at a married couple. + +The bridegroom then returns to the men's quarters, where he receives the +hearty congratulations of relatives and friends alike. + +From this moment the girl becomes his wife, and the husband has the right +to see her whenever he chooses, but not to cohabit with her until further +ordeals have been gone through. + +The husband comes to meet his wife for conversation's sake in a specially +reserved room in the harem, and each time he comes he brings presents of +jewellery or silks or other valuables to ingratiate himself. So that, by +the time the real wedding takes place, they can get to be quite fond of +one another. + +There is no special limit of time for the last ceremony to be celebrated. +It is merely suited to the convenience of the parties when all necessary +arrangements are settled, and circumstances permit. + +Usually for ten days or less before the wedding procession takes place a +festival is held in the bridegroom's house, when the Mullahs, the +friends, acquaintances, relations and neighbours are invited--fresh +guests being entertained on each night. Music, dancing, and lavish +refreshments are again provided for the guests. The men, of course, are +entertained separately in the men's quarter, and the women have some fun +all to themselves in the harem. + +On the very last evening of the festival a grand procession is formed in +order to convey the bride from her house to that of her husband. He, the +husband, waits for her at his residence, where he is busy entertaining +guests. + +All the bridegroom's relations, with smart carriages--and, if he is in +some official position, as most Persians of good families are,--with +infantry and cavalry soldiers, bands and a large following of friends and +servants on horseback and on foot proceed to the bride's house. + +A special carriage is reserved for the bride and her mother or old lady +relation, and another for the bridesmaids. She is triumphantly brought +back to the bridegroom's house, her relations and friends adding to the +number in the procession. + +Guns are fired and fireworks let off along the road and from the bride's +and bridegroom's houses. One good feature of all Persian festivities is +that the poor are never forgotten. So, when the bride is driven along the +streets, a great many sheep and camels are sacrificed before her carriage +to bring the bride luck and to feed with their flesh the numberless +people who congregate round to divide the meat of the slaughtered +animals. In the house of the bridegroom, too, any number of sheep are +sacrificed and distributed among the poor. + +There are great rejoicings when the procession arrives at the house, +where the bridegroom is anxiously awaiting to receive his spouse. As she +alights from the carriage more sheep are sacrificed on the door-step--and +the husband, too, is sacrificed to a certain extent, for again he has to +content himself with merely conducting his bride to the harem and to +leave her there. It is only late in the evening, when all the guests, +stuffed with food, have departed, that the husband is led by his best man +to a special room prepared for him and his wife in the harem. The bride +comes in, heavily veiled, in the company of her father or some old and +revered relation, who clasps the hands of husband and wife and joins them +together, making a short and appropriate speech of congratulation and +good wishes for a happy conjugal existence. Then very wisely retreats. + +There is yet another obstacle: the removal of the long embroidered veil +which hangs gracefully over the bride's head down to her knees. This +difficulty is easily surmounted by another present of jewellery, known as +the _ruhmuhah_ or "reward for showing the face." There is no further +reward needed after that, and they are at last husband and wife, not only +in theory but in fact. + +True, some gold coins have to be left under the furniture to appease +expecting servants, and the next day fresh trials have to be endured by +the bride, who has to receive her lady friends and accept their most +hearty congratulations. This means more music, more professional dancing, +more sweets, more sherbet, more tea. But gradually, even the festivities +die out, and wife and husband can settle down to a really happy, quiet, +family life, devoid of temptations and full of fellow-feeling and +thoughtfulness. + +Ten days before this last event takes place the wife is by custom +compelled to send to the husband's house the endowment which by her +contract she must supply: the whole furniture of the apartments complete +from the kitchen to the drawing-room, both for the man's quarter and for +her own. Besides this--which involves her in considerable expense--she, +of course, further conveys with her anything of which she may be the +rightful owner. Her father, if well-off, will frequently present her on +her wedding-day with one or more villages or a sum in cash, and +occasionally will settle on her what would go to her in the usual course +of time after his death. All this--in case of divorce or +litigation--remains the wife's property. + +On the other hand, the bridegroom, or his parents for him, have to settle +a sum of money on the bride before she consents to the marriage, and this +is legally settled upon her by the Mullah in the wedding contract. She +has a right to demand it whenever she pleases. + +It can be seen by all this that a Persian legal marriage is not a simple +matter nor a cheap undertaking. The expense and formalities connected +with each wedding are enormous, so that even if people were inclined to +polygamy it is really most difficult for them to carry their desire into +effect. Among the nobility it has become unfashionable and is to-day +considered quite immoral to have more than one wife. + +Partly because the marriages are seldom the outcome of irresistible--but +fast burning out--love; partly because it is difficult for a husband and +almost impossible for a wife to be unfaithful, divorces in Persia are not +common. Besides, on divorcing a wife, the husband has to pay her in full +the settlement that has been made upon her, and this prevents many a rash +attempt to get rid of one's better-half. To kill an unfaithful wife is, +in the eyes of Persians, a cheaper and less degrading way of obtaining +justice against an unpardonable wrong. + +One hears a good deal in Persia about a famous and extraordinarily deep +well--near Shiraz, I believe--into which untrue wives were precipitated +by their respective offended husbands, or by the public executioner; and +also how dishonoured women are occasionally stoned to death; but these +cases are not very frequent nowadays. The Persian woman is above all her +husband's most intimate friend. He confides all--or nearly all--his +secrets to her. She does the same, or nearly the same with him. Their +interests are mutual, and the love for their own children unbounded. Each +couple absolutely severed from the outside world, forbidden to get +intoxicated by their religion, with no excitements to speak of, and the +wife in strict seclusion--there is really no alternative left for them +than to be virtuous. Women have in Persia, as in other countries, great +influence over their respective husbands, and through these mediums +feminine power extends very far, both in politics and commerce. + +At the husband's death the property is divided among his children, each +male child taking two shares to each one share for every girl's part, +after one-eighth of the whole property has been paid to the deceased's +widow, who is entitled to that amount by right. + +Most praiseworthy union exists in most Persian families, filial love and +veneration for parents being quite as strong as paternal or maternal +affection. Extreme reverence for old age in any class of man is another +trait to be admired in the Persian character. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + + Persian women--Their anatomy--Their eyes--_Surmah_--Age of + puberty--The descendants of + Mohammed--Infanticide--Circumcision--Deformities and + abnormalities--The ear--The teeth and dentistry--The nose--A + Persian woman's indoor dress--The _yel_--The _tadji_ and other + jewels--Out-of-door dress--The _Chakchur_--The _ruh-band_--The + _Chudder_. + + +Persia, they say, is the country of the loveliest women in the world. It +probably has that reputation because few foreign male judges have ever +seen them. The Persians themselves certainly would prefer them to any +other women. Still, there is no doubt, from what little one sees of the +Persian woman, that she often possesses very beautiful languid eyes, with +a good deal of animal magnetism in them. Her skin is extremely fair--as +white as that of an Italian or a French woman--with a slight yellowish +tint which is attractive. They possess when young very well modelled arms +and legs, the only fault to be found among the majority of them being the +frequent thickness of the wrists and ankles, which rather takes away from +their refinement. In the very highest classes this is not so accentuated. +The women are usually of a fair height, not too small, and carry +themselves fairly well, particularly the women of the lower classes who +are accustomed to carry weights on their head. The better-off women walk +badly, with long steps and a consequent stoop forward; whereas the poorer +ones walk more firmly with a movement of the hips and with the spine well +arched inwards. The neck lacks length, but is nicely rounded, and the +head well set on the shoulders. + +Anatomically, the body is not striking either for its beauty or its +strength or suppleness. The breasts, except with girls of a very tender +age, become deformed, and very pendant, and the great tendency to fatness +rather interferes with the artistic beauty of their outlines. + +The skeleton frame of a Persian woman is curiously constructed, the +hip-bones being extremely developed and broad, whereas the shoulder +blades and shoulders altogether are very narrow and undeveloped. The +hands and feet are generally good, particularly the hand, which is less +developed and not so coarse as the lower limbs generally and the feet in +particular. The fingers are usually long and quite supple, with +well-proportioned nails. The thumb is, nevertheless, hardly ever in good +proportion with the rest of the hand. It generally lacks length and +character. The feet bear the same characteristics as the hands except, as +I have said, that they are infinitely coarser. Why this should be I +cannot explain, except that intermarriage with different races and social +requirements may be the cause of it. + +[Illustration: Persian Woman and Child.] + +[Illustration: A Picturesque Beggar Girl.] + +The head I have left to the last, because it is from an artist's point of +view the most picturesque part of a Persian woman's anatomy. It may +possibly lack fine chiselled features and angularity; and the first +impression one receives on looking at a Persian woman's face is that it +wants strength and character--all the lines of the face being broad, +uninterrupted curves. The nose is broad and rounded, the cheeks round, +the chin round, the lips large, voluptuous and round--very seldom tightly +closed; in fact, the lower lip is frequently drooping. But when it comes +to eyes, eyelashes and eyebrows, there are few women in the world who can +compete with the Persian. There is exuberant fire and expression in the +Persian feminine organs of vision, large and almond-shaped, well-cut, and +softened by eyelashes of abnormal length, both on the upper and lower +lid. The powerful, gracefully-curved eyebrows extend far into the +temples, where they end into a fine point, from the nose, over which they +are very frequently joined. The iris of the eye is abnormally large, of +very rich dark velvety brown, with jet black pupils, and the so-called +"white of the eye" is of a much darker tinge than with Europeans--almost +a light bluish grey. The women seem to have wonderful control over the +muscles of the eyelids and brows, which render the eyes dangerously +expressive. The habit of artificially blackening the under lid with +_Surmah_, too, adds, to no mean extent, to the luminosity and vivid power +of the eyes in contrast to the alabaster-like, really beautiful skin +of the younger Persian women. + +I said "younger," for owing to racial and climatic conditions the Persian +female is a full-grown woman in every way at the age of ten or twelve, +sometimes even younger. They generally keep in good compact condition +until they are about twenty or twenty-five, when the fast expanding +process begins, deforming even the most beautiful into shapeless masses +of flesh and fat. They are said, however, to be capable of bearing +children till the mature age of forty to forty-five, although from my own +observation thirty-five to forty I should take to be the more common +average at which Persian women are in full possession of prolific powers. + +In the case of Sayids, the descendants of Mahommed, both sexes of whom +are reputed for their extraordinary powers and vitality, women are said +not to become sterile till after the age of fifty. + +Whether this is a fact or not, I cannot say, but it is certain that the +Sayids are a superior race altogether, more wiry and less given to +orgies--drinking and smoking,--which may account for their natural powers +being preserved to a later age than with most other natives of Persia. +Their women are very prolific. Sayid men and women are noticeable even +from a tender age for their robustness and handsome features. They are +dignified and serious in their demeanour, honest and trustworthy, and are +a fine race altogether. + +Infanticide after birth is not very common in Persia, but abortion +artificially procured has, particularly of late, become frequent for the +prevention of large families that cannot be supported. This is done by +primitive methods, not dissimilar to those used in European countries. +Medicine is occasionally also administered internally. These cases are +naturally illegal, and although the law of the country is lenient--or, +rather, short-sighted--in such matters, any palpable case, if discovered, +would be severely punished. + +The umbilicus of newly-born children is inevitably tied by a doctor and +not by a member of the family, as with some nations. Circumcision is +practised on male children when at the age of forty days. It is merely +performed as a sanitary precaution, and is not undergone for religion's +sake. + +There are few countries where deformities and abnormalities are as common +as they are in Persia. In women less than in men; still, they too are +afflicted with a good share of Nature's freaks. The harelip is probably +the most common abnormality. Webbed and additional fingers and toes come +next. Birth-marks are very common--especially very large black moles on +the face and body. + +Persian ears are very seldom beautiful. They are generally more or less +malformed and somewhat coarse in modelling, although they seem to answer +pretty well the purpose for which they are created. But although the +hearing is very good in a general sense, I found that the Persian, of +either sex, had great difficulty in differentiating very fine modulations +of sounds, and this is probably due to the under-development or +degeneration of the auricular organ, just the same as in the ears of +purely Anglo-Saxon races. + +To an observant eye, to my mind, there is no part of people's anatomy +that shows character and refinement more plainly than the ear. Much more +delicate in texture than the hands or feet, the ear is, on the other +hand, less subject to misleading modifications by artificial causes which +are bound to affect the other extremities. + +The ear of a Persian is, in the greater percentage of cases, the ear of a +degenerate. It is coarse and lumpy, and somewhat shapeless, with animal +qualities strongly marked in it. Occasionally one does come across a good +ear in Persia, but very rarely. + +Similar remarks might apply to teeth. When young, men and women have good +teeth, of fairly good shape and length, and frequently so very firmly set +in their sockets as to allow their possessors to lift heavy weights with +them, pulling ropes tight, etc., when the strength of the hands is not +sufficient. One frequently notices, however, irregularity, or additional +teeth--caused again by intermixture of race--the upper teeth not fitting +properly the lower ones, and causing undue friction, early injury to the +enamel, and consequent decay. This is also greatly intensified by the +unhealthy state of Persian blood, especially in people inhabiting the +cities, where the worst of venereal complaints has crept in a more or +less virulent form into the greater part of the population. Add to this, +a disorganized digestion, coloration by constant smoking, and the injury +to the enamel brought on by the great consumption of sugary stuff; and if +one marvels at all it is that Persian teeth are as good and serviceable +as they are to a fair age. + +Native Persian dentistry is not in a very advanced stage. With the +exception of extraction by primitive and painful methods, nothing +efficient is done to arrest the progress of decay. + +The Persian nose is well shaped--but it is not perfection, mind you--and +generally does not perform its duties in a creditable manner. It has +nearly all the drawbacks of civilised noses. Partly owing to defective +digestive organs and the escaping fumes of decayed teeth, the nose, +really very well shaped in young children, generally alters its shape as +they get older, and it becomes blocked up with mucous matter, causing it +unduly to expand at the bridge, and giving it rather a stumpy, fat +appearance. The nostrils are not very sharply and powerfully cut in most +cases, and are rounded up and undecided, a sign of pliant character. + +Women have better cut and healthier noses than men, as they lead a more +wholesome life. In children and young people, however, very handsome +noses are to be seen in Persia. The sense of odour is not very keen in +either sex; in fact, it is probably the dullest of all Persian senses, +which is not unfortunate for them in a country where potent smells +abound. In experimenting upon healthy specimens, it was found that only +comparatively strong odours could be detected by them, nor could they +distinguish the difference between two different scents, when they did +succeed in smelling them at all! + +A Persian woman is not seen at her best when she is dressed. This sounds +very shocking, but it is quite true. Of all the ugly, inartistic, clumsy, +uncomfortable, tasteless, absurd female attires, that of the Persian lady +ranks first. + +Let us see a Persian lady indoors, and describe her various garments in +the order in which they strike the observer. First of all one's eye is +caught by a "bundle" of short skirts--usually of very bright +colours--sticking out at the hips, and not unlike the familiar attire of +our ballet girls--only shorter. These skirts are made of cotton, silk or +satin, according to the lady's wealth and position. + +There are various versions of how such a fashion was adopted by Persian +ladies. It is of comparatively modern importation, and up to fifty or +sixty years ago women wore long skirts reaching down to the ankle. The +skirts gradually got shorter and shorter as the women got more +civilised--so a Persian assures me--and when Nasr-ed-din Shah visited +Europe and brought back to his harem the glowing accounts of the ladies' +dress--or, rather, undress--at the Empire and Alhambra music-hall +ballets, which seem to have much attracted him, the women of his court, +in order to compete with their European rivals, and to gain afresh the +favour of their sovereign, immediately adopted a similar attire. Scissors +were busy, and down (or up) were the skirts reduced to a minimum length. + +As in other countries, fashions in men and women are copied from the +Court, and so the women from one end of Persia to the other, in the +cities, took up the hideous custom. One of the principal points in the +fashion is that the skirt must stick out at the sides. These skirts are +occasionally very elaborate, with heavy gold braiding round them, richly +embroidered, or covered all over with small pearls. The shape of the +skirt is the same in all classes of women, but of course the difference +lies in the material with which the dress is made. + +Under the skirt appear two heavy, shapeless legs, in long foreign +stockings with garters, or in tight trousers of cotton or other light +material--a most unseemly sight. When only the family are present the +latter garments are frequently omitted. + +Perhaps the only attractive part of a woman's indoor toilet is the neat +zouave jacket with sleeves, breast and back profusely embroidered in +gold, or with pearls. It is called the _yel_. When lady friends are +expected to call, some additions are made to the costume. A long veil +fastened to the belt and supported on the projecting skirt hangs down to +the feet. Sometimes it is left to drag behind. It is quite transparent, +and its purposeless use none of my Persian friends could explain. "The +women like it, that is all," was the only answer I could elicit, and that +was certainly enough to settle the matter. + +Persian women are extremely fond of jewellery, diamonds, pearls and +precious stones. On the head, the hair being plastered down with a +parting in the centre and knot behind on the neck, a diadem is worn by +the smarter ladies, the _tadji_. Those who can afford it have a _tadji_ +of diamonds, the shape varying according to fashion; others display +sprays of pearls. The _tadji_ is a luxurious, heavy ornament only worn on +grand occasions; then there is another more commonly used, the _nim +tadji_, or small diadem, a lighter and handsome feathery jewel worn +either in the upper centre of the forehead, or very daintily and in a +most coquettish way on one side of the head, where it really looks very +pretty indeed against the shiny jet black hair of the wearer. + +Heavy necklaces of gold, pearls, turquoises and amber are much in vogue, +and also solid and elaborate gold rings and bracelets in profusion on the +fingers and wrists. + +Out of doors women in the cities look very different to what they do +indoors, and cannot be accused of any outward immodesty. One suspects +blue or black bag-like phantoms whom one meets in the streets to be +women, but there is really nothing to go by to make one sure of it, for +the street costume of the Persian lady is as complete a disguise as was +ever conceived. + +Before going out a huge pair of loose trousers or bloomers--the +_chakchur_--fastened at the waist and pulled in at the ankle, are +assumed, and a _ruh-band_--a thick calico or cotton piece of cloth about +a yard wide, hangs in front of the face, a small slit some three to four +inches long and one and a half wide, very daintily netted with heavy +embroidery, being left for ventilation's sake and as a look-out window. +This is fastened by means of a hook behind the head to prevent its +falling, and is held down with one hand at the lower part. Over all this +the _chudder_--a black or blue piece of silk or cotton about two yards +square and matching the colour of the trousers, covers the whole from +head to foot, and just leaves enough room in front for the ventilating +parallelogram. + +In public places this cloak is held with the spare hand quite close to +the chin, so that, with the exception of a mass of black or blue clothing +and a tiny bit of white embroidery over the eyes, one sees absolutely +nothing of the Persian woman when she promenades about the streets. With +sloping shoulders, broad hips, and huge bloomers, her silhouette is not +unlike a soda-water bottle. + +Her feet are socked in white or blue, and she toddles along on dainty +slippers with no back to the heels. A husband himself could not recognise +his wife out of doors, nor a brother his sister, unless by some special +mark on her clothing, such as a spot of grease or a patch--otherwise, +poor and rich, young and old, are all dressed alike. Of course the diadem +and other such ornaments are only worn in the house, and the _chudder_ +rests directly on the head. + +Yet with some good fortune one occasionally gets glimpses of women's +faces, for face-screens and _chudders_ and the rest of them have their +ways of dropping occasionally, or being blown away by convenient winds, +or falling off unexpectedly. But this is only the case with the prettier +women, the ugly old ones being most particular not to disillusion and +disappoint the male passers-by. + +This is possibly another reason why hasty travellers have concluded that +Persian women must all be beautiful. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + + The Shah's birthday--Illuminations--The Shah in his + automobile--Ministers in audience--Etiquette at the Shah's + Court--The Shah--A graceful speaker--The Shah's directness of + speech--The Kajars and the Mullahs--The _defile_ of troops--A + blaze of diamonds. + + +There are great rejoicings in Teheran and all over Persia on the Shah's +birthday and the night previous to it, when grand illuminations of all +the principal buildings, official residences and business concerns take +place. Large sums of money are spent in decorating the buildings suitably +on such an auspicious occasion, not as in our country with cheap, +vari-coloured cotton rags and paper floral ornaments, but with very +handsome carpets, numberless looking-glasses of all sizes and shapes, +pictures in gold frames, plants and fountains. Nor are the lights used of +a tawdry kind. No, they are the best candles that money can purchase, +fitted in nickel-plated candlesticks with tulip globes--thousands of +them--and crystal candelabras of Austrian make, or rows of paraffin lamps +hired for the occasion. + +It is customary in Teheran even for foreign business houses to illuminate +their premises lavishly, and the Atabeg Azam or Prime Minister and other +high officials go during the evening to pay calls in order to show their +appreciation of the compliment to their sovereign, and admire the +decorations of the leading banks and merchants' buildings. + +In front of each illuminated house carpets are spread and a number of +chairs are prepared for friends and guests who wish to come and admire +the show. Sherbet, tea, coffee, whisky, brandy, champagne, cigarettes and +all sorts of other refreshments are provided, and by the time you have +gone round to inspect all the places where you have been invited, you +have been refreshed to such an extent by the people, who are very jolly +and hospitable, that you begin to see the illuminations go round you of +their own accord. + +The show that I witnessed was very interesting and really well done, the +effect in the bazaar, with all the lights reflected in the mirrors, and +the gold and carpets against the ancient wood-work of the caravanserais, +being quite picturesque. The crowds of open-mouthed natives were, as a +whole, well behaved, and quite amusing to watch. They seemed quite +absorbed in studying the details of each bit of decoration. The Bank of +Persia was decorated with much artistic taste. Side by side, in the wind, +two enormous flags--the British and the Persian--flew on its facade. + +Fireworks were let off till a late hour of the night from various parts +of the town, and bands and strolling musicians played in the squares, in +the bazaar, and everywhere. + +The following morning the Shah came in his automobile to town from his +country residence, driven, as usual, by a Frenchman. The Persian and +foreign Ministers were to be received in audience early in the morning, +and I was to be presented after by Sir Arthur Hardinge, our Minister at +the Shah's Court. + +The strict etiquette of any Court--whether European or Eastern--does +remind one very forcibly of the comic opera, only it is occasionally +funnier. + +[Illustration: Ruku Sultaneh, Brother of the present Shah.] + +As early as 9 a.m. we left the Legation in a procession--all on +horseback--the officials in their diplomatic uniforms, with plenty of +gold braiding, and cocked hats; I in my own frock-coat and somebody +else's tall hat, for mine had unluckily come to grief. We rode along the +very dusty streets and arrived at the Palace, where we got off our +horses. We entered the large court of the Alabaster Throne. There were a +great many dismounted cavalry soldiers, and we were then led into a small +ante-room on the first floor where all the foreign representatives of +other nations in Teheran were waiting, received by a Persian high +official. + +We were detained here for a considerable time, and then marched through +the garden to another building. By the number of pairs of shoes lining +both sides of the staircase in quadruple rows, it was evident that his +Majesty had many visitors. We were ushered into the Jewelled Globe Room +adjoining the Shah's small reception room. + +After some adjustment of clothes and collars in their correct positions, +and of swords and belts, the door opened and the Ministers were let in to +the Shah's presence. One peculiarity of the Shah's court is that it is +etiquette to appear before the sovereign with one's hat on, and making a +military salute. In former days carpet slippers were provided for the +Ministers to put on over the shoes, but the custom has of late been +abandoned, as it looked too ludicrous, even for a court, to see the +ministers, secretaries, and attaches in their grand uniforms dragging +their feet along for fear of losing a _pantoufle_ on the way. + +There was the usual speech of greeting and congratulation on the part of +the _doyen_ Minister, and presently the crowd of foreign representatives +returned to the ante-room in the most approved style, walking backwards +and stooping low. + +My turn came next. As we entered, the Shah was standing almost in the +centre of the room, with the familiar aigrette in his _kolah_ (black +headgear) and his chest a blaze of diamonds. He rested his right hand on +a handsome jewelled sword. He looked pale and somewhat worn, but his +features were decidedly handsome, without being powerful. One could +plainly see depicted on his face an expression of extreme +good-nature--almost too soft and thoughtful a face for a sovereign of an +Eastern country. His thick underlip added a certain amount of obstinate +strength to his features, which was counter-balanced by the dreamy, +far-away look of his eyes heavily shadowed by prominent lids. His thick +black eyebrows and huge moustache were in great contrast to the Shah's +pallid face. His Majesty appeared bored, and was busy masticating a +walnut when we entered, the shell of which lay in _debris_ by the side of +two additional entire walnuts and a nut-cracker on a small jewelled +side-table. + +We stood at attention with our hats on while Sir Arthur, who, as we have +seen, is a linguist of great distinction, delivered to the sovereign, a +most charming and graceful speech in Persian with an oriental fluency of +flowery language that nearly took my breath away. + +The Shah seemed highly delighted at the nice compliments paid him by our +Minister, and graciously smiled in appreciation. Then Sir Arthur broke +forth in French--which he speaks like a Frenchman--and with astounding +grace proceeded to the presentation. The Shah was curt in his words and +much to the point, and I was greatly delighted at the charming directness +of his remarks. There was no figure of speech, no tawdry metaphor in the +compliment paid me. + +I had presented his Majesty with two of my books. + +"_Vous ecrivez livres?_" thundered the Shah to me in lame French, as he +stroked his moustache in a nervous manner. + +"_Malheureusement pour le public, oui, Majeste_," (Unfortunately for the +public, yes, your Majesty), I replied, touching my hat in military +fashion. + +"_Combien de livres avez vous ecrits?_" (How many books have you +written?) + +"_Quatre, Majeste._" (Four, your Majesty.) + +"_Combien livres avez vous envoye moi?_" (How many books have you sent +me?) he roared again in his Perso adaptation of French. + +"_Deux, Majeste._" (Two, your Majesty.) + +"_Envoyez encore deux autres._" (Send the other two.) And with a nod the +conversation was over, and we retreated backwards through the glass door, +but not before Sir Arthur Hardinge had completed the interview with +another most appropriate and graceful little speech. + +The foreign Ministers departed, but I was allowed to remain in the Palace +grounds to witness the various native officials and representatives +paying their salaams to the Shah. + +After us the foreigners in Persian employ were received in audience, and +it was interesting to notice that they had adopted the Persian headgear, +and some even the Persian pleated frock-coat. The Shah's reception room +had a very large window overlooking the garden. The glass was raised and +a throne was placed close to the edge of the window on which the Shah +seated himself with a _kalian_ by his side. + +Then began the _defile_ of native representatives. The _Kajars_ in their +grand robes and white turbans paraded before the window, and then forming +a semicircle salaamed the head of their family. One of them stepped +forward and chanted a long poem, while the Shah puffed away at the +_kalian_ and stroked his luxuriant moustache. Every now and then the +sovereign bowed in acknowledgment of the good wishes paid him, and his +bow was repeated by the crowd below in the court. After the Kajars came +the Mullahs. Again another recitation of poetry, again more bows, more +_kalian_ smoking. Then foreign generals stood before the window, and +native officers, Court servants and eunuchs. The _defile_ of troops, +colleges, merchant associations and schools came next, and was very +interesting. + +Persian Cossacks in their nice long white uniforms and formidable chest +ornamentations; bandsmen with tin helmets and linoleum top boots; hussars +with plenty of braiding on cotton coats and trousers; infantrymen, +artillerymen, military cadets,--all were reviewed in turn by his Majesty, +who displayed his royal satisfaction by an occasional bow. + +There were no shrieks of enthusiasm, no applause, no hurrahs, as they +went, but they all walked past the royal window in a quiet, dignified +way--no easy matter, considering the extraordinary clothing that some +were made to wear. One had a sort of suspicion that, not unlike the +armies marching on the stage, one recognised the same contingents +marching past several times to make up for numbers, but that did not take +away from the picturesqueness of the scene, in the really beautiful +garden, with lovely fountains spouting and flowers in full bloom. + +The procession with banners and music went on for a very long time, but +at last the garden was cleared of all people. His Majesty wished to +descend for a little walk. + +Absolutely alone, the Shah sauntered about, apparently quite relieved +that the ordeal was over. The Atabeg Azam was signalled to approach, and +Prime Minister and Sovereign had a friendly conversation. + +Although personally not fond of jewellery, I must confess that I was much +impressed by the resplendent beauty of the Shah's diamonds when a ray of +sun shone upon them. His chest and the aigrette on the cap were a blaze +of dazzling light, with a myriad of most beautiful flashing colours. + +The great social excitement of the year in Teheran was the Prime +Minister's evening party on the Shah's birthday, when all the higher +Persian officials were invited, and nearly all the Europeans resident in +Teheran, regardless of their grade or social position. + +This evening party was preceded by an official dinner to the members of +the Legations. Elaborate fireworks were let off in the beautiful gardens +and reflected in the ponds in front of the house, and the gardens were +tastefully illuminated with vari-coloured lanterns and decorated with +flags. + +The house itself was full of interesting objects of art, and had spacious +rooms in the best European style. Persian officials, resplendent in +gold-braided uniforms, their chests a mass of decorations, were +politeness itself to all guests. Excellent Persian bands, playing +European airs, enlivened the evening, and it was quite interesting to +meet the rank and file and beauty of Teheran official and commercial life +all here assembled. Persian ladies, naturally, did not appear, but a few +Armenian ladies of the better classes were to be observed. + +[Illustration: The Shah in his Automobile.] + +[Illustration: The Sadrazam's (Prime Minister's) Residence, Teheran.] + +The gentle hint given to the guests to depart, when the Prime Minister +got tired and wanted to retire, was quaintly clever. A soft music was +heard to come from his bedroom. It was the signal. All hastened to make +their best bows and departed. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + + The Shah's Palace--The finest court--Alabaster throne hall--A + building in European style--The Museum--A chair of solid gold and + silver--The _Atch_--Paintings--The banqueting room--The audience + room--Beautiful carpets--An elaborate clock--Portraits of + sovereigns and their places--Pianos and good music--The + Jewelled-Globe room--Queen Victoria's photograph--Moving + pictures--Conservatory--Roman mosaics--Toys--Adam and Eve--Royal + and imperial oil paintings--A decided slight--The picture + gallery--Valuable collection of arms--Strange + paintings--Coins--Pearls--Printing press--Shah's country places. + + +One is told that one must not leave Teheran without carefully inspecting +the Shah's Palace, its treasures and its museum. A special permit must be +obtained for this through the Legation or the Foreign Office. + +The first large court which I entered on this second visit has pretty +tiled buildings at the sides, with its rectangular reservoir full of +swans, and bordered by trees, is probably the most impressive part of the +Palace. Fountains play in the centre, the spouts being cast-iron women's +heads of the cheapest European kind. + +The lofty throne hall stands at the end, its decorative curtains +screening its otherwise unwalled frontage. For my special benefit the +curtains were raised, leaving exposed the two high spiral stone columns +that support the roof in front. The bases of these columns bore +conventionalized vases with sunflowers and leaf ornamentations, while the +capitols were in three superposed fluted tiers, the uppermost being the +largest in diameter. The frieze of the ceiling was concave, made of bits +of looking-glass and gold, and the ceiling itself was also entirely +composed of mirrors. The back was of shiny green and blue, with eight +stars and two large looking-glasses, while at the sides there was a blue +frieze. + +Two large portraits of Nasr-ed-din Shah, two battle scenes and two +portraits of Fath-Ali-Shah decorated the walls. The two side doors of the +throne-hall were of beautifully inlaid wood, and the two doors directly +behind the throne were of old Shiraz work with ivory inscriptions upon +them in the centre. The lower part of the wall was of coloured alabaster, +with flower ornaments and birds, principally hawks. There were also other +less important pictures, two of which I was told represented Nadir and +Mahmud Shah, and two unidentified. + +High up in the back wall were five windows, of the usual Persian pattern, +and also a cheap gold frame enclosing a large canvas that represented a +half-naked figure of a woman with a number of fowls, a cat and a dog. Two +gold _consoles_ were the only heavy articles of movable furniture to be +seen. + +The spacious throne of well-marked yellow alabaster was quite gorgeous, +and had two platforms, the first, with a small fountain, being reached +by three steps, the second a step higher. The platform was supported by +demons, "guebre" figures all round, and columns resting on the backs of +feline animals. On the upper platform was spread an ancient carpet. + +On leaving this hall we entered a second court giving entrance to a +building in the European style, with a wide staircase leading to several +reception rooms on the first floor. One--the largest--had a billiard +table in the centre, expensive furniture along the walls, and curtains of +glaring yellow and red plush, the chairs being of the brightest blue +velvet. Taken separately each article of furniture was of the very best +kind, but it seemed evident that whoever furnished that room did his +utmost to select colours that would not match. + +There were two Parisian desks and a fine old oak inlaid desk, a capital +inlaid bureau, manufactured by a Russian in Teheran, and some Sultanabad +carpets not more than fifty years old. On the shelves and wherever else a +place could be found stood glass decorations of questionable artistic +taste, and many a vase with stiff bunches of hideous artificial flowers. + +Let us enter the adjoining Museum, a huge room in five sections, as it +were, each section having a huge chandelier of white and blue Austrian +glass, suspended from the ceiling. There are glass cases all round +crammed full of things arranged with no regard to their value, merit, +shape, size, colour or origin. Beautiful Chinese and Japanese +_cloisonne_ stands next to the cheapest Vienna plaster statuette +representing an ugly child with huge spectacles on his nose, and the most +exquisite Sevres and other priceless ceramic ware is grouped with empty +bottles and common glass restaurant decanters. In company with these will +be a toy--a monkey automatically playing a fiddle. + +Costly jade and cheap prints were together in another case; copies of old +paintings of saints and the Virgin, coloured photographs of theatrical +and music-hall stars, and of picturesque scenery, a painting of the Shah +taken in his apartments, jewels, gold ornaments inlaid with precious +stones, a beautiful malachite set consisting of clock, inkstand, vases, +and a pair of candlesticks; meteoric stones and fossil shells--all were +displayed in the utmost confusion along the shelves. + +At the further end of the Museum, reached by three steps, was a gaudy +throne chair of solid gold and silver enamelled. The throne had amphoras +at the sides and a sunflower in diamonds behind it. The seat was of red +brocade, and the chair had very small arms. It rested on a six-legged +platform with two supports and two ugly candelabras. + +A glance at the remaining glass cases of the museum reveals the same +confusion; everything smothered in dust, everything uncared for. One's +eye detects at once a valuable set of china, and some lovely axes, +pistols and swords inlaid in gold, ivory and silver. Then come busts of +Bismarck and Moltke, a plaster clown, tawdry painted fans and +tortoiseshell ones; a set of the most common blue table-service, and two +high candelabras, green and white; a leather dressing-bag with silver +fittings (unused), automatic musical figures, shilling candlesticks, +artificial coloured fruit in marble, and a really splendid silver +dinner-service. + +From the Museum we passed into the _Atch_, a kind of store-room, wherein +were numberless cigar-boxes, wicker-work baskets, and badly-kept tiger +skins. Here were photographs of some of the Shah's favourites, a great +assortment of nut-crackers--the Persians love walnuts--cheap prints in +profusion, and some good antelope-skins. + +This led into the banqueting room, in the European style--and quite a +good, sober style this time. The room was lighted by column candelabras, +and there was a collection of the Shah's family portraits in medallions; +also a large-sized phonograph, which is said to afford much amusement to +His Majesty and his guests. + +The paintings on the walls ran very much to the nude, and none were very +remarkable, if one excepts a life-size nude figure of a woman sitting and +in the act of caressing a dove. It is a very clever copy of a painting by +Foragne in the Shah's picture gallery, and has been done by a Persian +artist named Kamaol-el-Mulk, who, I was told, had studied in Paris. + +Most interesting of all in the room, however, was the exquisite old +carpet with a delightful design of roses. It was the carpet that +Nasr-ed-din Shah brought to Europe with him to spread under his chair. + +The dining-room bore evident signs of His Majesty's hasty departure for +the country. On the tables were piled up anyhow mountains of dishes, +plates, wine-glasses, and accessories, the table service made in Europe +being in most excellent taste, white and gold with a small circle in +which the Persian "Lion and Sun" were surmounted by the regal crown. + +[Illustration: In the Shah's Palace Grounds, Teheran.] + +We go next into the Shah's favourite apartments, where he spends most of +his time when in Teheran. We are now in the small room in which I had +already been received in audience by his Majesty on his birthday, a room +made entirely of mirrors. There was a low and luxurious red couch on the +floor, and we trod on magnificent soft silk carpets of lovely designs. +One could not resist feeling with one's fingers the deliciously soft +Kerman rug of a fascinating artistic green, and a charming red carpet +from Sultanabad. The others came from Isfahan and Kashan. The most +valuable and beautiful of all, however, was the white rug, made in +Sultanabad, on which the Shah stands when receiving in audience. + +Next after the carpets, a large clock by Benson with no less than +thirteen different dials, which told one at a glance the year, the month, +the week, the day, the moon, the hour, minutes, seconds, and anything +else one might wish to know, was perhaps the most noticeable item in the +Shah's room. + +There was nothing in the furniture to appeal to one, the chairs and +tables being of cheap bamboo of the familiar folding pattern such as are +commonly characteristic of superior boarding-houses. In the way of art +there was a large figure of a woman resting under a palm tree, a +photographic enlargement of the Shah's portrait, and on the Shah's +writing-desk two handsome portraits of the Emperor and Empress of Russia, +the Emperor occupying the highest place of honour. Two smaller +photographs of the Czar and Czarina were to be seen also in shilling +plush frames on another writing-desk, by the side of an electric clock +and night-light. + +The eye was attracted by three terrestrial globes and an astronomical one +with constellations standing on a table. A number of very tawdry articles +were lying about on the other pieces of furniture; such were a metal dog +holding a ten-shilling watch, paper frames, cheap imitation leather +articles, numerous photographs of the Shah, a copy of the _Petit Journal_ +framed, and containing a representation of the attempt on the Shah's +life, an amber service, and last, but not least, the nut-cracker and the +empty nutshells, the contents of which the Shah was in process of eating +when I had an audience of him some days before, still lying undisturbed +upon a small desk. The Shah's special chair was embroidered in red and +blue. + +All this was reflected myriads of times in the diamond-shaped mirror +ceiling and walls, and the effect was somewhat dazzling. The room had a +partition, and on the other side was an ample couch for his Majesty to +rest upon. In each reception room is to be seen a splendid grand piano, +the music of which, when good, the Shah is said passionately to enjoy. +One of his aides de camp--a European--is an excellent pianist and +composer. + +We now come to the world-renowned "Jewelled-Globe" room, and of course +one makes at once for the priceless globe enclosed in a glass case in the +centre of the room. The frame of the large globe is said to be of solid +gold and so is the tripod stand, set in rubies and diamonds. The Globe, +to do justice to its name, is covered all over with precious stones, the +sea being represented by green emeralds, and the continents by rubies. +The Equator line is set in diamonds and also the whole area of Persian +territory. + +There is nothing else of great artistic interest here, and it depressed +one to find that, although the portraits in oil and photographs of the +Emperors of Russia and Austria occupied prominent places of honour in the +Shah's apartments, the only image of our Queen Victoria was a wretched +faded cabinet photograph in a twopenny paper frame, thrown carelessly +among empty envelopes and writing paper in a corner of his Majesty's +writing desk. Princess Beatrice's photograph was near it, and towering +above them in the most prominent place was another picture of the Emperor +of Russia. We, ourselves, may attach little meaning to these trifling +details, but significant are the inferences drawn by the natives +themselves. + +In this room, as in most of the others, there is Bohemian glass in great +profusion, and a "one year chronometer" of great precision. A really +beautiful inlaid ivory table is disfigured by a menagerie of coloured +miniature leaden cats, lions, lizards, dogs, a children's kaleidoscope, +and some badly-stuffed birds, singing automatically. On another table +were more glass vases and a variety of articles made of cockle shells on +pasteboard, cycle watches, and brass rings with imitation stones. + +Adjoining this room is a small boudoir, possessing the latest appliances +of civilisation. It contains another grand piano, a large apparatus for +projecting moving pictures on a screen, and an ice-cream soda fountain +with four taps, of the type one admires--but does not wish to possess--in +the New York chemists' shops!! The Shah's, however, lacks three +things,--the soda, the ice, and the syrups! + +Less modern but more reposeful is the next ante-room with white walls and +pretty wood ceiling. It has some military pictures of no great value. + +On going down ten steps we find ourselves in a long conservatory with +blue and yellow tiles and a semi-open roof. A channel of water runs in +the centre of the floor, and is the outlet of three octagonal basins and +of spouts at intervals of ten feet. There is a profusion of lemon and +orange trees at the sides of the water, and the place is kept deliciously +cool. + +Here we emerge again into the gardens, which are really beautiful +although rather overcrowded, but which have plenty of fountains and huge +tanks, with handsome buildings reflected into the water. + +The high tiled square towers, one of the landmarks of Teheran, are quite +picturesque, but some of the pleasure of looking at the really fine view +is destroyed by numerous ugly cast-iron coloured figures imported from +Austria which disfigure the sides of all the reservoirs, and are quite +out of keeping with the character of everything round them. + +We are now conducted into another building, where Roman mosaics occupy a +leading position, a large one of the Coliseum being quite a valuable work +of art; but on entering the second room we are suddenly confronted by a +collection of hideous tin ware and a specimen case of ordinary fish +hooks, manufactured by Messrs. W. Bartlett and Sons. Next to this is a +framed autograph of "Nina de Muller of St. Petersburg," and a +photographic gathering of gay young ladies with suitable +inscriptions--apparently some of the late Shah's acquaintances during his +European tours. Here are also stuffed owls, an automatic juggler, an +imitation snake, Japanese screens, and an amusing painting by a Persian +artist of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden--the forbidden fruit already +missing. + +Previous to entering the largest room we come to an ante-room with +photographs of scenery and events belonging to the Shah's tour to +Europe. + +In the large gold room the whole set of furniture, I am told, was +presented to Nasr-ed-din Shah by the Sultan of Turkey, and there are, +besides, six large oil-paintings hanging upon the walls in gorgeous gold +frames. They represent the last two Shahs, the Emperor and Empress of +Russia, the Crown Prince at the time of the presentation, and the Emperor +of Austria. A smaller picture of Victor Emmanuel also occupies a +prominent place, but here again we have another instance of the little +reverence in which our beloved Queen Victoria was held in the eyes of the +Persian Court. Among the various honoured foreign Emperors and Kings, to +whom this room is dedicated, Queen Victoria's only representation is a +small, bad photograph, skied in the least attractive part of the room--a +most evident slight, when we find such photographs as that of the Emperor +William occupying a front and honoured place, as does also the photograph +of Queen Wilhelmina of Holland with her mother. Yet another palpable +instance of this disregard for the reigning head of England appears in a +series of painted heads of Sovereigns. The Shah, of course, is +represented the biggest of the lot, and King Humbert, Emperor William, +the Sultan of Turkey and the Emperor of Austria, of about equal sizes; +whereas the Queen of England is quite small and insignificant. + +The furniture in this room is covered with the richest plush. + +We now come upon the royal picture gallery (or, rather, gallery of +painted canvases), a long, long room, where a most interesting display +of Persian, Afghan, Beluch and Turkish arms of all kinds, ancient and +modern, gold bows and arrows, jewelled daggers, Damascus swords, are much +more attractive than the yards of portraits of ladies who have dispensed +altogether with dressmakers' bills, and the gorgeously framed +advertisements of Brooks' Machine Cottons, and other products, which are +hung on the line in the picture gallery! The pictures by Persian art +students--who paint in European style--are rather quaint on account of +the subjects chosen when they attempt to be ideal. They run a good deal +to the fantastic, as in the case of the several square yards of canvas +entitled the "Result of a dream." It contains quite a menagerie of most +suggestive wild animals, and dozens of angels and demons in friendly +intercourse playing upon the surface of a lake and among the entangled +branches of trees. In the background a pyrotechnic display of great +magnitude is depicted, with rockets shooting up in all directions, while +ethereal, large, black-eyed women lie gracefully reclining and +unconcerned, upon most unsafe clouds. The result on the spectator of +looking at the "Result of a dream," and other similar canvases by the +same artist, is generally, I should think, a nightmare. + +There are some good paintings by foreign artists, such as the life-size +nude with a dove by Folagne, which we have already seen, most faithfully +and cleverly copied by a Persian artist, in the Shah's dining-room. Then +there are some pretty Dutch and Italian pictures, but nothing really +first-rate in a purely artistic sense. + +The cases of ancient and rare gold and silver coins are, however, indeed +worthy of remark, and so are the really beautiful Persian, Afghan and +Turkish gold and silver inlaid shields, and the intensely picturesque and +finely ornamented matchlocks and flintlocks. Here, too, as in China, we +find an abnormally large rifle--something like the _gingal_ of the +Celestials. These long clumsy rifles possess an ingenious back sight, +with tiny perforations at different heights of the sight for the various +distances on exactly the principle of a Lyman back sight. + +The Persians who accompanied me through the Palace seemed very much +astonished--almost concerned--at my taking so much interest in these +weapons--which they said were only very old and obsolete--and so little +in the hideous things which they valued and wanted me to admire. They +were most anxious that I should stop before a box of pearls, a lot of +them, all of good size but not very regular in shape. Anything worth big +sums of money is ever much more attractive to Persians (also, one might +add, to most Europeans) than are objects really artistic or even pleasing +to the eye. + +Next to the pearls, came dilapidated butterflies and shells and fossils +and stuffed lizards and crocodiles and elephants' tusks, and I do not +know what else, so that by the time one came out, after passing through +the confusion that reigned everywhere, one's brain was so worn and jumpy +that one was glad to sit and rest in the lovely garden and sip cup after +cup of tea, which the Palace servants had been good enough to prepare. + +But there was one more thing that I was dragged to see before +departing--a modern printing-press complete. His Majesty, when the fancy +takes him, has books translated and specially printed for his own use. +With a sigh of relief I was glad to learn that I had now seen everything, +quite everything, in the Shah's Palace! + +The Shah has several country seats with beautiful gardens on the hills to +the north of Teheran, where he spends most of the summer months, and in +these residences, too, we find the rooms mostly decorated with mirrors, +and differing very little in character from those in the Teheran Palace, +only not quite so elaborate. European influence has frequently crept in +in architectural details and interior decorations, but not always +advantageously. + +The Andarun or harem, the women's quarter, is generally less gaudy than +the other buildings, the separate little apartments belonging to each +lady being, in fact, quite modest and not always particularly clean. +There is very little furniture in the bedrooms, Persian women having +comparatively few requirements. There is in addition a large reception +room, furnished in European style, with elaborate coloured glass windows. +This room is used when the Shah visits the ladies, or when they entertain +friends, but there is nothing, it may be noted, to impress one with the +idea that these are regal residences or with that truly oriental, +gorgeous pomp, popularly associated in Europe with the Shah's court. +There is probably no court of any importance where the style of life is +simpler and more modest than at the Shah's. All the houses are, +nevertheless, most comfortable, and the gardens--the principal feature of +all these country places--extremely handsome, with many fountains, tanks, +and water channels intersecting them in every direction for the purpose +of stimulating the artificially reared vegetation, and also of rendering +the places cooler in summer. + +Unlike most natives of the Asiatic continent, the Persian shows no +reluctance in accepting foreign ways and inventions. He may lack the +means to indulge in foreign luxuries, but that is a different matter +altogether; the inclination to reform and adopt European ways is there +all the same. + +More forward in this line than most other Persians is the Shah's son, a +very intelligent, bright young fellow, extremely plucky and charmingly +simple-minded. He takes the keenest interest in the latest inventions and +fads, and, like his father the Shah, fell a victim to the motor car +mania. Only, the Shah entrusts his life to the hands of an expert French +driver, whereas the young Prince finds it more amusing to drive the +machine himself. This, of course, he can only do within the Palace +grounds, since to do so in the streets of the town would be considered +below his dignity and would shock the people. + +At the country residences he is said to have a good deal of amusement out +of his motor, but not so the Shah's Ministers and friends who are now +terrified at the name "motor." The young Prince, it appears, on the +machine being delivered from Europe insisted--without previous knowledge +of how to steer it--on driving it round a large water tank. He invited +several stout Ministers in all their finery to accompany him, which they +did with beaming faces, overcome by the honour. The machine started full +speed ahead in a somewhat snake-like fashion, and with great destruction +of the minor plants on the way; then came a moment of fearful +apprehension on the part of spectators and performers alike. The car +collided violently with an old tree; some of the high dignitaries were +flung into the water, others though still on dry land lay flat on their +backs. + +[Illustration: The Shah and his Suite. + +Prime Minister. General Kossakowski.] + +It speaks volumes for the young Prince's pluck that, when the car was +patched up, he insisted on driving it again; but the number of excuses +and sudden complaints that have since prevailed among his father's +friends when asked to go for a drive with the Prince are said to be quite +unprecedented. + +The Prince is a great sportsman and much beloved by all for his frankness +and geniality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + + The selection of a servant--A Persian + _diligence_--Shah-Abdul-Azim mosque--Rock carving--The round + tower--Beggars--The _Kerjawa_--Hasanabad--Run-away + horses--Misplaced affection--Characteristics of the + country--Azizawad--Salt lake of Daria-i-Nimak--Aliabad--Sunsets. + + +I had much difficulty in obtaining a really first-class servant, although +many applied with glowing certificates. It has always been my experience +that the more glowing the certificates the worse the servant. For my +particular kind of travelling, too, a special type of servant has to be +got, with a constitution somewhat above the average. I generally cover +very great distances at a high speed without the least inconvenience to +myself, but I find that those who accompany me nearly always break down. + +After inspecting a number of applicants I fixed upon one man whose +features showed firmness of character and unusual determination. He was a +man of few words--one of the rarest and best qualities in a travelling +servant, and--he had no relations dependent upon him--the next best +quality. He could shoot straight, he could stick on a saddle, he could +walk. He required little sleep. He was willing to go to any country +where I chose to take him. He required a high salary, but promised by all +he held most sacred that he would die before he would give me the +slightest trouble. This seemed all fair, and I employed him. + +Only one drawback did this man have--he was an excellent European cook. I +had to modify him into a good plain cook, and then he became perfection +itself. His name was Sadek. + +On October 2nd I was ready to start south. My foot was still in a bad +condition, but I thought that the open air cure would be the best instead +of lying in stuffy rooms. Riding is my favourite way of progression, but +again it was necessary to submit to another extortion and travel by +carriage as far as Kum on a road made by the Bank of Persia some few +years ago. The speculation was not carried on sufficiently long to become +a success, and the road was eventually sold to a Persian concern. The +same company runs a service of carriages with relays of horses between +the two places, and if one wishes to travel fast one is compelled to hire +a carriage, the horses not being let out on hire for riding purposes at +any of the stations. + +This time I hired a large diligence--the only vehicle in the stables that +seemed strong enough to stand the journey. It was painted bright yellow +outside, had no windows, and was very properly divided into two +compartments, one for men and one for women. The money for the journey +had to be paid in advance, and the vehicle was ordered to be at the door +of the hotel on Friday, October 4th, at 5.30 a.m. + +It arrived on Sunday evening, October 6th, at 6.30 o'clock. So much for +Persian punctuality. Sadek said I was lucky that it did come so soon; +sometimes the carriages ordered come a week later than the appointed +time; occasionally they do not come at all! + +Sadek, much to his disgust, was made to occupy the ladies' compartment +with all the luggage, and I had the men's. We were off, and left the city +just in time before the South Gate was closed. There were high hills to +the south-east, much broken and rugged, and to the north beyond the town +the higher ones above Golahek, on which snow caps could be perceived. +Damovend (18,600 ft.), the highest and most graceful mountain in Persia, +stood with its white summit against the sky to the north-east. + +Even two hundred yards away from the city gate there was nothing to tell +us that we had come out of the capital of Persia--the place looks so +insignificant from every side. A green-tiled dome of no impressive +proportions, a minaret or two, and a few mud walls--that is all one sees +of the mass of houses one leaves behind. + +Barren country and dusty road, a graveyard with its prism-shaped graves +half-buried in sand, are the attractions of the road. One comes to an +avenue of trees. Poor trees! How baked and dried and smothered in dust! A +couple of miles off, we reached a patch of verdure and some really green +trees and even signs of agriculture. To our left (east) lay the +narrow-gauge railway line--the only one in Persia--leading to the +Shah-Abdul Azim mosque. The whole length of the railway is not more than +six miles. + +To the right of the road, some little distance before reaching the +mosque, a very quaint, large high-relief has been sculptured on the face +of a huge rock and is reflected upside down in a pond of water at its +foot. Men were bathing here in long red or blue drawers, and hundreds of +donkeys were conveying veiled women to this spot. An enormous tree casts +its shadow over the pool of water in the forenoon. + +[Illustration: Rock Sculpture near Shah-Abdul-Azim.] + +[Illustration: Author's Diligence between Teheran and Kum.] + +It is interesting to climb up to the high-relief to examine the figures +more closely. The whole sculpture is divided into three sections +separated by columns, the central section being as large as the two side +ones taken together. In the centre is Fath-ali-shah--legless +apparently--but supposed to be seated on a throne. He wears a high cap +with three aigrettes, and his moustache and beard are of abnormal length. +In his belt at the pinched waist he disports a sword and dagger, while he +holds a baton in his hand. There are nine figures to his right in two +rows: the Naib Sultaneh, Hussein Ali, Taghi Mirza, above; below, +Mahommed, Ali Mirza, Fatali Mirza, Abdullah Mirza, Bachme Mirza, one +figure unidentified. To the Shah's left the figures of Ali-naghi Mirza +and Veri Mirza are in the lower row; Malek Mirza, the last figure to +the left, Hedar Mirza and Moh-Allah-Mirza next to Fath-Ali-Shah. All +the figures are long-bearded and garbed in long gowns, with swords and +daggers. On Fath-Ali-Shah's right hand is perched a hawk, and behind his +throne stands an attendant with a sunshade, while under the seat are +little figures of Muchul Mirza and Kameran Mirza. There are inscriptions +on the three sides of the frame, but not on the base. A seat is carved in +the rock by the side of the sculpture. + +A few hundred yards from this well-preserved rock carving, a round tower +90 or 100 feet in height has been erected. Its diameter inside is about +40 feet and the thickness of the wall about 20 feet. It has two large +yellow doors. Why this purposeless structure was put up, nobody seems to +know for certain. One gets a beautiful view from the top of the +wall--Teheran in the distance on one side; the Shah-Abdul-Azim mosque on +the other. Mountains are close by to the east, and a patch of cultivation +and a garden all round down below. Near the mosque--as is the case with +all pilgrimage places in Persia--we find a bazaar crammed with beggars, +black bag-like women riding astride on donkeys or mules, depraved-looking +men, and stolid-looking Mullahs. There were old men, blind men, lame men, +deaf men, armless men, men with enormous tumours, others minus the nose +or lower jaw--the result of cancer. Millions of flies were buzzing about. + +One of the most ghastly deformities I have ever seen was a tumour under a +Mullah's foot. It was an almost spherical tumour, some three inches in +diameter, with skin drawn tight and shining over its surface. It had +patches of red on the otherwise whitish-yellow skin, and gave the +impression of the man resting his foot on an unripe water-melon with the +toes half dug into the tumour. + +Non-Mussulmans are, of course, forbidden to enter the mosque, so I had to +be content with the outside view of it--nothing very grand--and must take +my reader again along the flat, uninteresting country towards Kum. + +The usual troubles of semi-civilised Persia are not lacking even at the +very first stage. There are no relays of horses, and those just +unharnessed are too tired to proceed. They are very hungry, too, and +there is nothing for them to eat. Several hours are wasted, and Sadek +employs them in cooking my dinner and also in giving exhibitions of his +temper to the stable people. Then follow endless discussions at the top +of their voices, in which I do not take part, for I am old and wise +enough not to discuss anything with anybody. + +The prospects of a backshish, the entreaties and prayers being of no +avail, Sadek flies into a fury, rushes to the yard, seizes the horses and +harness, gives the coachman a hammering (and the post master very nearly +another), and so we are able to start peacefully again at three a.m., and +leave Chah-herizek behind. + +But the horses are tired and hungry. They drag and stumble along in a +most tiresome manner. There is moonlight, that ought to add poetry to +the scenery--but in Persia there is no poetry about anything. There are a +great many caravans on the road--they all travel at night to save the +animals from the great heat of the day--long strings of camels with their +monotonous bells, and dozens of donkeys or mules, some with the covered +double litters--the _kerjawa_. These _kerjawas_ are comfortable enough +for people not accustomed to ride, or for women who can sleep comfortably +while in motion inside the small panier. The _kerjawa_ is slung over the +saddle like two large hampers with a roof of bent bands of wood. A cloth +covering is made to turn the _kerjawa_ into a small private room, an +exact duplicate of which is slung on the opposite side of the saddle. Two +persons balancing each other are required by this double arrangement, or +one person on one side and an equivalent quantity of luggage on the other +so as to establish a complete balance--a most important point to consider +if serious accidents are to be avoided. + +Every now and then the sleepy voice of a caravan man calls out +"Salameleko" to my coachman, and "Salameleko" is duly answered back; +otherwise we rattle along at the speed of about four miles an hour, +bumping terribly on the uneven road, and the diligence creaking in a most +perplexing manner. + +At Hasanabad, the second stage, I was more fortunate and got four good +horses in exchange for the tired ones. One of them was very fresh and +positively refused to go with the others. The driver, who was brutal, +used his stock-whip very freely, with the result that the horse smashed +part of the harness and bolted. The other three, of course, did the same, +and the coachman was not able to hold them. We travelled some few hundred +yards off the road at a considerable speed and with terrible bumping, the +shaky, patched-up carriage gradually beginning to crumble to pieces. The +boards of the front part fell apart, owing to the violent oscillations of +the roof, and the roof itself showed evident signs of an approaching +collapse. We were going down a steep incline, and I cannot say that I +felt particularly happy until the horses were got under control again. I +feared that all my photographic plates and cameras might get damaged if +the diligence turned over. + +While the men mended the harness I had a look at the scenery. The +formation of the country was curious. There were what at first appeared +to be hundreds of small mounds like ant-hills--round topped and greyish, +or in patches of light brown, with yellow sand deposits exposed to the +air on the surface. On getting nearer they appeared to be long +flat-topped ridges evidently formed by water-borne matter--probably at +the epoch when this was the sea or lake bottom. + +"_Khup es!_" (It is all right!) said the coachman, inviting me to mount +again--and in a sudden outburst of exuberant affection he embraced the +naughty horse and kissed him fondly on the nose. The animal reciprocated +the coachman's compliment by promptly kicking the front splashboard of +the carriage to smithereens. + +We crossed a bridge. To the east the water-level mark, made when this +valley was under water, is plainly visible on the strata of gravel with +reddish mud above, of which the hills are formed. + +Then, rising gradually, the diligence goes over a low pass and along a +flat plateau separating the first basin we have left behind from a +second, more extensive, of similar formation. The hills in this second +basin appear lower. To the S.S.E. is a horseshoe-shaped sand dune, much +higher than anything we had so far encountered, and beyond it a range of +mountains. Salt can be seen mixed with the pale-brownish mud of the soil. + +Then we drive across a third basin, large and flat, with the scattered +hills getting lower and seemingly worn by the action of weather. They are +not so corrugated by water-formed channels as the previous ones we had +passed. Twenty feet or so below the summit of the hills a white sediment +of salt showed itself plainly. + +The fourth basin is at a higher level than the others--some 100 feet or +so above the third--and is absolutely flat, with dark, gravelly soil. + +Azizawad village has no special attraction beyond the protecting wall +that encloses it--like all villages of Persia--and the domed roofs of +houses to which one begins to get reconciled. Next to it is the very +handsome fruit garden of Khale-es-Sultan. + +At Khale Mandelha the horses are changed. The road becomes very +undulating, with continuous ups and downs, and occasional steep ascents +and descents. Glimpses of the large salt lake, Daria-i-Nimak, or the +Masileh, as it is also called, are obtained, and eventually we had quite +a pretty view with high blue mountains in the background and rocky black +mounds between the spectator and the silvery sheet of water. + +Aliabad has a large caravanserai with a red-columned portico to the east; +also a special place for the Sadrazam, the Prime Minister, when +travelling on this road; a garden with a few sickly trees, and that is +all. + +On leaving the caravanserai one skirts the mountain side to the west, and +goes up it to the horse station situated in a most desolate spot. From +this point one gets a bird's-eye view of the whole lake. Its waters, +owing to evaporation, seem to withdraw, leaving a white sediment of salt +along the edge. The road from the Khafe-khana runs now in a perfectly +straight line S.W., and, with the exception of the first short incline, +is afterwards quite flat, passing along and very little above the lake +shore, from which the road is about one mile distant. The lake is to the +S.E. of the road at this point. To the S.W., W., N.W., N., lies a long +row of dark-brown hills which circle round the valley we are about to +cross. + +The sunset on that particular night was one in which an amateur painter +would have revelled. A dirty-brown foreground as flat as a +billiard-table--a sharp cutting edge of blue hill-tops against a bilious +lemon-yellow sky blending into a ghastly cinabrese red, which gradually +vanished into a sort of lead blue. There are few countries where the sun +appears and disappears above and from the earth's surface with less glow +than in Persia. Of course, the lack of moisture in the atmosphere largely +accounts for this. During the several months I was in the country--though +for all I know this may have been my misfortune only--I never saw more +than half a dozen sunsets that were really worth intense admiration, and +these were not in Western Persia. The usual sunsets are effects of a +washed-out sort, with no force and no beautiful contrasts of lights and +colours such as one sees in Egypt, in Morocco, in Spain, Italy, or even, +with some amount of toning down, in our little England. + +The twilight in Persia is extremely short. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + + Severe wind--Kum, the holy city--Thousands of + graves--Conservative Mullahs--Ruin and decay--Leather + tanning--The gilt dome--Another extortion--Ingenious + bellows--Damovend--The scenery--Passangun--Evening prayers--A + contrivance for setting charcoal alight--Putrid water--Post + horses--Sin Sin--Mirage--Nassirabad--Villages near Kashan. + + +On a deserted road, sleepy and shaken, with the wind blowing so hard that +it tore and carried away all the cotton curtains of the carriage, I +arrived at Kum (3,200 feet above sea level) in the middle of the night. +The distance covered between Teheran and Kum was twenty-four farsakhs, or +ninety-six miles. + +As we approached the holy city there appeared to be a lot of vegetation +around, and Sadek and the coachman assured me that this was a region +where pomegranates were grown in profusion, and the castor-oil plant, +too. Cotton was, moreover, cultivated with success. + +Kum is, to my mind, and apart from its holiness, one of the few really +picturesque cities of Persia. I caught the first panoramic glimpse of the +shrine and mosque at sunrise from the roof of the post house, and was +much impressed by its grandeur. Amidst a mass of semi-spherical mud +roofs, and beyond long mud walls, rise the gigantic gilded dome of the +mosque, two high minarets, and two shorter ones with most beautifully +coloured tiles inlaid upon their walls, the general effect of which is of +most delicate greys, blues and greens. Then clusters of fruit trees, +numerous little minarets all over the place, and ventilating shafts above +the better buildings break the monotony agreeably. + +Kum, I need hardly mention, is one of the great pilgrimages of +Mahommedans. Happy dies the man or woman whose body will be laid at rest +near the sacred shrine, wherein--it is said--lie the remains of Matsuma +Fatima. Corpses are conveyed here from all parts of the country. Even +kings and royal personages are buried in the immediate neighbourhood of +the shrine. Round the city there are thousands of mud graves, which give +quite a mournful appearance to the holy city. There are almost as many +dead people as living ones in Kum! + +Innumerable Mullahs are found here who are very conservative, and who +seem to resent the presence of European visitors in the city. Access to +the shrine is absolutely forbidden to foreigners. + +Immense sums of money are brought daily to the holy city by credulous +pilgrims, but no outward signs of a prosperous trade nor of fine streets +or handsome private buildings can be detected on inspecting the bazaar or +streets of the town. On the contrary, the greater part of the residences +are in a hopeless state of decay, and the majority of the inhabitants, to +all appearance, little above begging point. + +Leather, tanned with the bark of the pomegranate, and cheap pottery are +the chief industries of the holy city. On inquiring what becomes of all +the wealth that comes into the town, a Persian, with a significant +gesture, informed me that the Mullahs get it and with them it remains. + +The handsome dome over the shrine was begun by order of Hussein Nadir +Shah, but the gorgeous gilding of the copper plates was not finished till +a few years ago by Nasr-ed-din Shah. A theological college also exists at +this place. There is a station here of the Indo-European Telegraphs, with +an Armenian in charge of it. + +Much to my disgust, I was informed that the owner of the post-house had +the monopoly of the traffic on the track for six or seven farsakhs more, +and so travellers were compelled to submit to a further extortion by +having to hire another wheeled conveyance instead of being able to ride. +This time I chartered a victoria, and off we went as usual at a gallop. + +Two horses had to be sent ahead while the carriage was driven with only +two animals through the narrow streets of the bazaar, covered over with +awnings or with domed perforated roofs. The place had a tawdry, miserable +appearance, the leather shops being the only interesting ones, with the +many elaborate saddles, harness, saddle-bags, and horses' ornamentations +displayed on nails along the walls. + +I saw in a blacksmith's shop an ingenious device to create a perpetual +draught with bellows. The big bellows were double and allowed sufficient +room to let two boys stand between the two. The boys clinging to handles +in the upper part of the bellows and using the weight of their bodies now +to the right, then to the left, inflated first one then the other, the +wind of each bellow passing through a common end tube and each being in +turn refilled with air while the other was blowing. This human pendulum +arrangement was carried on with incredible rapidity by the two boys, who +dashed their bodies from one side to the other and back, keeping steady +time and holding their feet stationary, but describing an almost complete +semicircle with the remainder of the body, the whole length of the boy +forming the radius. + +There was a shop or two where glass was being blown, and numerous +fruit-shops with mountains of pomegranates, water-melons and grapes. At +the entrance of the mosques crowds of people stood waiting for admission, +some praying outside. + +Once out of the town the extra two horses, which were waiting at the +gate, were harnessed, and as we sped along, the lungs rejoiced in the +pure air of which the stuffy, cellar-like bazaar had afforded none. + +Behind, in the far distance, Damovend Mountain, covered with snow, could +still be seen rising high above everything. It was undoubtedly a +good-looking mountain. To the south-west and west lay indented hills of +the most curious shapes and colours--one, particularly, like a roof, with +a greenish base surmounted by a raw-sienna top; a twin-sister hill +further west presented the same peculiarities. In the distant mountains +to the west the same characteristics were apparent, the greenish stratum +below extending all along and increasing in depth towards the south. + +The road--if one may call it so--was extremely bad and hardly fit for +wheeled traffic. After leaving Kum the vegetation ceased, and it was only +at Langherut village that a patch of green refreshed the eye. + +A few strolling wayfarers crowded round when the carriage stopped to give +the horses a rest under the shade of a tree, and Sadek was cross-examined +about the Sahib whom he was accompanying. It was quite amusing to hear +one's self and one's doings commented upon in the most open manner, +regardless of one's personal feelings, which are better discarded +altogether while travelling in Persia. There is absolutely nothing +private in the land of Iran. One's appearance, one's clothes, the +quantity of food one eats, the amount of money one carries, where one +comes from and where one goes, whom one knows, one's servants, one's +rifles, one's cameras,--everything is remarked upon, as if one were not +present. If one possesses no false pride and a sense of humour, a deal +of entertainment is thus provided on the road. + +Passangun could be perceived in the distance, and a dreary, desolate +place it was when one got there. In the way of architecture, we found a +large tumbling-down caravanserai, a tea-shop, and the Chappar Khana (the +post-house). As to vegetation, thirteen sickly trees, all counted. +Barren, uninteresting country surrounded the halting place. + +I spent here a pleasant hour while waiting for my luggage to arrive on +pack animals. A caravan of some fifty horses and mules had halted at +sunset, and a number of pilgrims, with beards dyed bright-red, were +making their evening salaams towards Mecca. Having removed shoes and duly +washed their feet and hands, they stood erect on the projecting platform +of the caravanserai, and after considerable adjusting of caps and +head-scratching, assumed a meditative attitude, head bent forward, and +muttered prayers with hands down. Then the hands were raised flat before +the face, with a bow. Kneeling followed, with hands first resting on the +knees, then raised again to cover the face, after which, with the palms +of the hands resting flat on the ground, the head was brought down until +it touched the ground too. A standing position was further assumed, when +the temples were touched with the thumb while prayers were recited, and +then the petitioners stooped low and fell a second time on their knees, +saying the beads of their rosaries. The forehead was made to touch the +ground several times before the evening prayers were over. + +Next, food was cooked in the small fire places of the caravanserai, and +tea brewed in large quantities. The inevitable kalian was called for, and +the caravanserai boy brought out his interesting little arrangement to +set charcoal quickly alight for the large cup of the kalian. To a string +three feet long, hung a small perforated iron cup, which he filled with +charcoal, one tiny bit being already alight. By quickly revolving the +contrivance as one would a sling, the draught forced through the +apertures in the cup produced quick combustion, and charcoal was at once +distributed alight among the kalians of the impatient guests. + +Much amusement and excitement was caused among the pilgrims by a fight +between a puppy-dog and five or six small goats. Only one of these at a +time fought the dog, while the others occupied a high point of vantage on +which they had hastily climbed, and from that place of security displayed +a keen interest in the fight. + +The water at Passangun was extremely bad. There were two tanks of rain +water drained from the hillside along a dirty channel filled with animal +refuse. The wells were below the ground level, and were walled and domed +over to prevent too rapid an evaporation by the sun's rays. The water was +pestilential. It had a nasty green look about it, and patches of putrid +matter decomposing visibly on its surface. The stench from it when +stirred was sickening. Yet the natives drank it and found it all right! +There is no accounting for people's taste, not even in Persia. + +At last, from this point, the positive torture of driving in carriages +was over, and _Chappar_ horses were to be obtained. The saddles were got +ready, and with five horses we made a start that same evening for Sin +Sin. After the wretched bumping and thumping and being thrown about in +the wheeled conveyance on the badly-kept road, it seemed heavenly to be +ambling along at a fairly good pace, even on these poor, half-starved +animals, which could not in all honesty be considered to afford perfect +riding. Indeed, if there ever was a society for the prevention of cruelty +to animals, it should have begun its work along the Persian postal roads. +The poor brutes--one can hardly call them horses--are bony and starved, +with sore backs, chests and legs, with a bleeding tongue almost cut in +two and pitifully swollen by cruelly-shaped bits, and endowed with +stinking digestive organs and other nauseous odours of uncared-for sores +heated by the friction of never-removed, clumsy, heavy pads under the +saddles. It requires a pretty strong stomach, I can tell you, to ride +them at all. Yet the poor devils canter along, when they do not amble, +and occasionally gallop clumsily on their unsteady, skeleton-like legs. +So that, notwithstanding everything, one generally manages to go at the +rate of six or seven miles an hour. + +If the horses at the various post-stations have just returned from +conveying the post-bags, an extra sorry time is in store for the +traveller. The poor animals are then so tired that they occasionally +collapse on the road. I invariably used all the kindness I could to these +wretches, but it was necessary for me to get on, as I intended to proceed +in the greatest haste over the better known parts of Persia. + +It is important to see the horses fed before starting from all the +post-houses, but on many occasions no food whatever could be procured for +them, when, of course, they had to go without it. + +Changing horses about every 20 to 28 miles, and being on the saddle from +fourteen to twenty hours out of the twenty-four, I was able to cover long +distances, and kept up an average of from 80 to 120 miles daily. One can, +of course, cover much greater distances than these in one day, if one is +fortunate enough to get good and fresh horses at the various stations, +and if one does not have to keep it up for a long period of time as I had +to do. + +From Sin Sin we go due south along a flat trail of salt and mud. We have +a barrier of mountains to the south-west and higher mountains to the +south. To the south-east also a low ridge with another higher behind it. +To the north we leave behind low hills. + +Sin Sin itself is renowned for its water-melons, and I, too, can humbly +certify to their excellence. I took a load of them away for the journey. + +From here we began to see the wonderful effects of deceitful mirage, +extremely common all over Persia. One sees beautiful lakes of silvery +water, with clusters of trees and islands and rocks duly reflected upside +down in their steady waters, but it is all an optical deception, caused +by the action of the heated soil on the expanding air immediately in +contact with it, which, seen from above and at a distance, is of a bluish +white tint with exactly the appearance and the mirror-like qualities of +still water. + +Although in Central Persia one sees many of these effects every day, they +are sometimes so marvellous that even the most experienced would be +deceived. + +The country is barren and desolate. Kasimabad has but two buildings, both +caravanserais; but Nassirabad, further on, is quite a large village, with +domed roofs and a couple of minarets. On the road is a large +caravanserai, with the usual alcoves all round its massive walls. Except +the nice avenue of trees along a refreshing brook of limpid water, there +was nothing to detain us here but the collision between one of my +pack-horses and a mule of a passing caravan, with disastrous results to +both animals' loads. But, with the assistance of one or two natives +commandeered by Sadek, the luggage scattered upon the road was replaced +high on the saddles, the fastening ropes were pulled tight by Sadek with +his teeth and hands, while I took this opportunity to sit on the roadside +to partake of my lunch--four boiled eggs, a cold roast chicken, Persian +bread, some cake, and half a water-melon, the whole washed down with a +long drink of clear water. Riding at the rate I did, the whole day and +the greater part of the night, in the hot sun and the cold winds at +night, gave one a healthy appetite. + +As we got nearer Kashan city, the villages got more numerous; Aliabad and +the Yaze (mosque) and Nushabad to my left (east), with its blue tiled +roof of the mosque. But the villages were so very much alike and +uninteresting in colour and in architecture, that a description of each +would be unimportant and most tedious, so that I will only limit myself +to describing the more typical and striking ones with special features +that may interest the reader. + +In the morning of October 9th I had reached the city of Kashan, seventeen +farsakhs (sixty-eight miles) from Kum, and forty-one farsakhs or 164 +miles from Teheran, in two days and a half including halts. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + + Kashan--Silk manufactories--Indo-European Telegraph--The + Zein-ed-din tower--The Meh-rab shrine--The Madrassah Shah--The + Panja Shah--The hand of Nazareth Abbas--The Fin Palace--Hot + springs--The tragic end of an honest Prime Minister--Ice + store-houses--Cultivation--In the bazaar--Brass work--Silk--The + Mullahs and places of worship--Wretched post-horses--The + Gyabrabad caravanserai--An imposing dam--Fruit-tree + groves--Picturesque Kohrut village. + + +Kashan, 3,260 feet above sea level, is famous for its gigantic and +poisonous scorpions, for its unbearable heat, its capital silk works, and +its copper utensils, which, if not always ornamental, are proclaimed +everlasting. The silk manufactories are said to number over three +hundred, including some that make silk carpets, of world-wide renown. The +population is 75,000 souls or thereabouts. Nothing is ever certain in +Persia. There are no hotels in the city, and it is considered undignified +for Europeans to go to a caravanserai--of which there are some three +dozen in Kashan--or to the Chappar Khana. + +The Indo-European Telegraphs have a large two-storied building outside +the north gate of the city, in charge of an Armenian clerk, where, +through the courtesy of the Director of Telegraphs, travellers are +allowed to put up, and where the guests' room is nice and clean, with a +useful bedstead, washstand, and a chair or two. + +A capital view of Kashan is obtained from the roof of the Telegraph +building. A wide road, the one by which I had arrived, continues to the +north-east entrance of the bazaar. The town itself is divided into two +sections--the city proper, surrounded by a high wall, and the suburbs +outside. To the south-west, in the town proper, rises the slender tower +of Zein-ed-din, slightly over 100 feet high, and not unlike a factory +chimney. Further away in the distance--outside the city--the mosque of +Taj-ed-din with its blue pointed roof, adjoins the famous Meh-rab shrine, +from which all the most ancient and beautiful tiles have been stolen or +sold by avid Mullahs for export to Europe. + +Then we see the two domes of the mosque and theological college, the +Madrassah Shah, where young future Mullahs are educated. To the west of +the observer from our high point of vantage, and north-west of the town, +lies another mosque, the Panja Shah, in which the hand of one of the +prophets, Nazareth Abbas, is buried. A life-size hand and portion of the +forearm, most beautifully carved in marble, is shown to devotees in a +receptacle in the east wall of the mosque. The actual grave in which the +real hand lies is covered with magnificent ancient tiles. + +It is with a certain amount of sadness that one gazes on the old Fin +Palace, up on the hills some six miles to the west, and listens to the +pathetic and repellent tragedy which took place within its garden walls. + +The square garden is surrounded by a high wall, and has buildings on +three sides. Marble canals, fed by large marble tanks, in which run +streams of limpid water, intersect the garden in the middle of a wide +avenue of dark cypresses. The garden was commenced by Shah Abbas. The +Palace, however, was built by Fath-Ali-Shah, who also much improved the +gardens and made this a favourite residence during the hot summer months. + +There is here a very hot natural spring of sulphur water, and copper, +which is said to possess remarkable curative qualities, especially for +rheumatism and diseases of the blood. One bath is provided for men and +another for women. + +The Palace, with its quaint pictures and decorations is now in a state of +abandonment and semi-collapse. The tragic end (in 1863 or 1864, I could +not clearly ascertain which) at this place of Mirza-Taki Khan, then Prime +Minister of Persia--as honest and straightforward a politician as Persia +has ever possessed--adds a peculiar gloom to the place. + +A man of humble birth, but of great genius, Mirza-Taki Khan, rose to +occupy, next to the Shah, the highest political position in his country, +and attempted to place the Government of Persia on a firm basis, and to +eradicate intrigue and corruption. To this day his popularity is +proverbial among the lower classes, by whom he is still revered and +respected for his uprightness. The Shah gave him his only sister in +marriage, but unhappily one fine day his enemies gained the upper hand at +Court. He fell into disgrace, and was banished to Kashan to the Fin +Palace. Executioners were immediately sent to murder him by order of the +Shah. Mirza-Taki Khan, when their arrival was announced, understood that +his end had come. He asked leave to commit suicide instead, which he did +by having the arteries of his arms cut open. He bled to death while in +his bath. + +Royal regret at the irreparable loss was expressed, but it was too late. +The body of the cleverest statesman Persia had produced was conveyed for +burial to the Sanctuary of Karbala. + +One cannot help being struck, in a stifling hot place like Kashan, to +find large ice store-houses. Yet plenty of ice is to be got here during +the winter, especially from the mountains close at hand. These ice-houses +have a pit dug in the ground to a considerable depth, and are covered +over with a high conical roof of mud. To the north-east, outside the +city, in the suburbs a great many of these ice store-houses are to be +seen, as well as a small, blue-tiled roof of a mosque, the pilgrimage of +Habbib-Mussah. + +There is some cultivation round about Kashan, principally of cotton, +tobacco, melons and water-melons, which one sees in large patches +wherever there is water obtainable. + +Kashan is protected by mountains to the south and west, and by low hills +to the north-west, but to the north and north-east the eye roams +uninterrupted over an open, flat, dusty, dreary plain of a light brown +colour until it meets the sky line on the horizon, softly dimmed by a +thick veil of disturbed sand. Due east lie the Siah Kuh (mountains), then +comes another gap in the horizon to the south-east. + +In the dark and gloomy bazaar the din of hundreds of wooden hammers on as +many pieces of copper being made into jugs, trays, pots or pans, is +simply deafening, echoed as it is under the vaulted roofs, the sound +waves clashing in such an unmusical and confused way as to be absolutely +diabolical. A few of these copper vessels are gracefully ornamented and +inlaid, but the majority are coarse in their manufacture. They are +exported all over the country. The manufactured silk, the other important +product of Kashan, finds its way principally to Russia. + +The inhabitants are most industrious and, like all industrious people, +are extremely docile, amenable to reason, and easy to manage. The Mullahs +are said to have much power over the population, and, in fact, we find in +Kashan no less than 18 mosques with five times that number of shrines, +counting large and small. + +I experienced some difficulty in obtaining relays of fresh post horses, +the mail having been despatched both north and south the previous night, +and therefore no horses were in the station. At seven in the evening I +was informed that five horses had returned and were at my disposal. +Twenty minutes later the loads were on their saddles, and I was on the +road again. + +After travelling under the pitch-dark vaulted bazaars (where, as it was +impossible to see where one was going, the horses had to be led), and +threading our way out of the suburbs, we travelled on the flat for some +time before coming to the hilly portion of the road where it winds its +way up at quite a perceptible gradient. We had no end of small accidents +and trouble. The horses were half-dead with fatigue. They had gone 48 +miles already with the post, and without rest or food had been sent on +with me for 28 more miles! The poor wretches collapsed time after time on +the road under their loads, although these were very light, and my +servant and I and the chappar boy had to walk the whole way and drag the +animals behind us, for they had not sufficient strength to carry us. Even +then their knees gave way every now and then, and it was no easy job to +get them to stand up again. One of them never did. He died, and, +naturally, we had to abandon him. + +It came on to blow very hard, and with the horses collapsing on all sides +and the loads getting constantly undone owing to the repeated falls of +the animals, we could not cover more than one mile, or two, an hour. +Caravans generally take the road over these mountains during the day, so +that now the road was quite deserted and we could get no assistance from +any one. The loss of one horse increased our difficulty, as it involved +putting more weight on the other horses. + +At 3.30 a.m. we managed to reach the caravanserai in the mountains at +Gyabrabat (Gabarabat), the sight of which was enough to settle all the +horses. They one and all threw themselves down on reaching the door, and +it was not possible to make them stand again. To continue the journey to +Kohrut (Kohrud) through the night, as I had intended, was absolutely out +of the question, so we roused the keeper of the hostelry and demanded +admission. + +The man was extremely uncivil, as he said he had some grievance against a +previous English traveller, but on being assured that I would pay with my +own hands for all I got and not through servants--a rule which I always +follow, and which saves much unpleasantness and unfair criticism from the +natives--he provided me with all I required. First of all I fed the +horses. Then Sadek cooked me a capital supper. Then I gave the horses and +myself some four hours rest--that refreshed us all very much. + +The caravanserai was filthy. All the small rooms and alcoves were +occupied, and I preferred to sleep out in the yard, sheltered from the +wind behind the huge doorway. I had with me some boxes of my own +invention and manufacture, which had accompanied me on several previous +journeys, and which, besides a number of other purposes, can serve as a +bedstead. They came in very usefully on that particular occasion. + +From Gyabrabad to Kohrut the region is supposed to be a famous haunt of +robbers. Undoubtedly the country lends itself to that kind of enterprise, +being mountainous and much broken up, so that the occupation can be +carried on with practical impunity. The road is among rocks and boulders. +Although there are no very great elevations in the mountains on either +side, the scenery is picturesque, with black-looking rocky slopes, at the +bottom of which a tiny and beautifully limpid stream descends towards +Kashan. The track is mostly along this stream. + +[Illustration: The Track along the Kohrut Dam.] + +[Illustration: Between Gyabrabad and Kohrut.] + +After a steep, stony incline of some length, half-way between Gyabrabad +and the Kohrut pass, one comes across a high and well-made dam, the work +of a speculator. In winter and during the rains the water of the stream +is shut up here into a large reservoir, a high wall being built across +the two mountain slopes, and forming a large lake. The water is then sold +to the city of Kashan. If in due course of time the purchase-money is not +forthcoming, the supply is cut off altogether by blocking up the small +aperture in the dam--which lets out the tiny stream the course of which +we have been following upwards. + +The Persian post-horse is a most wonderful animal. His endurance and +powers of recovery are simply extraordinary. Having been properly fed, +and enjoyed the few hours' rest, the animals, notwithstanding their +wretched condition and the bad road, went fairly well. + +On nearing Kohrut one is agreeably surprised to find among these barren +mountains healthy patches of agriculture and beautiful groves of +fruit-trees. The fruit is excellent here,--apples, plums, apricots, +walnuts, and the Kohrut potatoes are said (by the people of Kohrut) to be +the best in the world. The most remarkable thing about these patches of +cultivation is that the soil in which they occur has been brought +there--the mountain itself being rocky--and the imported earth is +supported by means of strong stone walls forming long terraces. This +speaks very highly for the industry of the natives, who are extremely +hardworking. We go through these delightful groves for nearly one mile, +when suddenly we find ourselves in front of Kohrut village, most +picturesquely perched on the steep slope of the mountain. + +The houses are of an absolutely different type from the +characteristically domed Persian hovels one has so far come across. They +have several storeys, two or even three--an extremely rare occurrence in +Persian habitations. The lower windows are very small, like slits in the +wall, but the top windows are large and square, usually with some lattice +woodwork in front of them. The domed roofs have been discarded, owing to +the quantity of wood obtainable here, and the roofs are flat and +thatched, supported on long projecting beams and rafters. Just before +entering the village a great number of ancient graves can be seen dotted +on the mountain-side, and along the road. The view of the place, with +its beautiful background of weird mountains, and the positions of the +houses, the door of one on the level with the roof of the underlying one, +against the face of the rock, are most striking. + +[Illustration: The Interior of Chappar Khana at Kohrut.] + +The inhabitants of this village are quite polite and friendly, and lack +the usual aggressiveness so common at all the halting places in Persia. + +Fresh horses were obtained at the Chappar Khana, and I proceeded on my +journey at once. We still wound our way among mountains going higher and +higher, until we got over the Kuh-i-buhlan (the pass). From the highest +point a lovely view of the valley over which we had come from the +north-west displayed itself in dark brown tints, and to the east we had a +mass of barren mountains. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + + Crossing the Pass--Held up by robbers--Amusing courtesy--Brigands + to protect from brigands--Parting friends--Soh--Biddeshk--Copper + and iron--Robber tribes--An Englishman robbed--A feature of + Persian mountains--A military escort--How compensation is paid by + the Persian Government--Murchikhar--Robbers and the + guards--Ghiez--Distances from Teheran to Isfahan. + + +It was not till after sunset that we crossed the Pass, and, the horses +being tired, my men and I were walking down the incline on the other side +to give the animals a rest. It was getting quite dark, and as the chappar +boy had warned me that there were brigands about the neighbourhood I +walked close to my horse, my revolver being slung to the saddle. The +place seemed absolutely deserted, and I was just thinking how still and +reposeful the evening seemed, the noise of the horses' hoofs being the +only disturbing element amid quiescent nature, when suddenly from behind +innocent-looking rocks and boulders leapt up, on both sides of the road, +about a dozen well-armed robbers, who attempted to seize the horses. +Before they had time to put up their rifles they found themselves covered +by my revolver and requested to drop their weapons or I would shoot +them. They hastily complied with my request, and instead of ransacking my +baggage, as they had evidently designed to do, had to confine themselves +to polite remarks. + +"You are very late on the road, sahib?" said one brigand, in a voice of +assumed kindness and softness. + +"Please put back your revolver. We will not harm you," said suavely and +persuasively another, who displayed a most gaudy waistcoat which he +evidently did not want perforated. + +Sadek was in a great state of excitement, and entreated me not to shoot. +"Persian robbers," he assured me, with a logic of his own, "do not kill +the master until the servant has been killed, because it is the servant +who is in charge of the luggage. . . . . They would not steal anything +now, but I must be kind to these fellows." + +As is usual with persons accustomed to stalk other persons, I did not +fail to notice that, while trying to attract my attention by +conversation, my interlocutors were endeavouring to surround us. But I +checked them in this, and warned them that I had met many brigands +before, and was well acquainted with their ways. I hoped they would not +compel me to shoot, which I would most certainly do if they attempted any +tricks. They well understood that it was risky to try their luck, so they +changed tactics altogether. The conversation that ensued was amusing. + +"Sahib," shouted a boisterous robber, very gaily attired, and with +cartridges in profusion in his belt, "there are lots of brigands near +here and we want to protect you." + +"Yes, I know there are brigands not far from here," I assented. + +"We will escort you, for you are our friend, and if we lead you safely +out of the mountains, maybe, sahib, you will give us backshish." + +I felt certain that I could have no better protection against brigands +than the brigands themselves, and preferred to have them under my own +supervision rather than give them a chance of attacking us unexpectedly +again some miles further on. Anyhow, I resolved to let them come as far +as the next pass we had to cross, from which point the country would be +more open and a sudden surprise impossible. So I accepted their offer +with a politely expressed condition that every man must keep in front of +me and not raise his rifle above his waist or I would send a bullet +through him. + +In the middle of the night we parted on the summit of the pass, and I +gave them a good backshish--not so much for the service they had rendered +me as for relieving for a few hours the monotony of the journey. They +were grateful, and were the most civil brigands I have ever encountered. + +While resting on the pass we had an amicable conversation, and I asked +them where they got their beautiful clothes and the profusion of gold and +silver watch-chains. + +"It is not everybody we meet, sahib, that has a formidable revolver like +yours," answered the boisterous brigand, with a fit of sarcastic +merriment, echoed by all of us. + +"Yes," I retorted in the same sarcastic spirit, "if it had not been for +the revolver, possibly next time I came along this road I might meet the +company dressed up like sahibs, in my clothes!" + +I advised them to put up a white flag of truce next time they sprang out +from behind rocks with the intention of holding up another Englishman, or +surely some day or other there would be an accident. + +We all laughed heartily, and parted with repeated salaams--and my luggage +intact. + +In the moonlight I took the precaution to see them well out of sight on +one side of the pass before we began to descend on the other, and then we +proceeded down the steep and rocky incline. + +We reached Soh (8,000 feet) early in the morning, and went on to the +Chappar house at Biddeshk. Here one abandons the region of the Kehriz +Kohrud and Kale Karf mountains, west and east of the road respectively, +and travels over a flat sandy country devoid of vegetation and water. + +Copper and iron are to be found at several places in the mountains +between Kashan and Soh, for instance near Gudjar, at Dainum, and at +Kohrut. + +October is the month when the Backhtiari tribes are somewhat troublesome +previous to their return to winter quarters. A great many caravans are +attacked and robbed on this road, unless escorted by soldiers. Daring +attempts have even been made to seize caravans of silver bullion for the +Bank of Persia. Only a few days before I went through, an English +gentleman travelling from Isfahan was robbed between Soh and Murchikhar +of all his baggage, money, and clothes. + +The country lends itself to brigandage. One can see a flat plain for +several miles to the north and south, but to the west and east are most +intricate mountain masses where the robber bands find suitable hiding +places for themselves and their booty. To the north-west we have flat +open country, but to the west from Biddeshk there are as many as three +different ranges of mountains. To the east rises the peak Kehriz Natenz. +A great many low hill ranges lie between the main backbone of the high +and important range extending from north-west to south-east, and the +route we follow, and it is curious to notice, not only here but all over +the parts of Persia I visited, that the great majority of sand dunes, and +of hill and mountain ranges face north or north-east. In other words, +they extend either from north-west to south-east, or roughly from west to +east; very seldom from north to south. + +From Biddeshk two soldiers insisted on escorting my luggage. I was +advised to take them, for in default, one cannot claim compensation from +the Persian Government should the luggage be stolen. In the case of _bona +fide_ European travellers, robbed on the road, the Persian Government is +extremely punctual in making good the damage sustained and paying ample +compensation. + +The method employed by the local Governor, responsible for the safety of +travellers on the road, is to inflict heavy fines on all the natives of +the district in which the robbery has occurred,--a very simple and +apparently effective way, it would seem, of stopping brigandage, but one +which, in fact, increases it, because, in order to find the money to pay +the fines, the natives are driven to the road, each successive larceny +going towards part payment of the previous one. + +[Illustration: Chapparing--the Author's Post Horses.] + +[Illustration: Persian Escort firing at Brigands.] + +One or two domed reservoirs of rain-water are found by the road-side, but +the water is very bad. + +The soldiers, laden with cartridges, ran along by the side of my horses +and pretended to keep a sharp look-out for robbers. Every now and then +they got much excited, loaded their rifles, and fired away shot after +shot at phantom brigands, whom, they said, they perceived peeping above +sand hills a long way off. + +At Murchikhar there is nothing to be seen. The post-horses were very good +here and I was able to go through this uninteresting part of the road at +a good speed of from six to seven miles an hour. To the west the +mountains were getting quite close, and, in fact, we had hills all round +except to the south-east. Murchikhar is at a fairly high altitude, 5,600 +ft. + +One still heard much about brigands. Soldiers, armed to the teeth, +insisted on accompanying my luggage. This, of course, involved endless +backshish, but had to be put up with, as it is one of the perquisites +of the guards stationed at the various stages. I have heard it stated +that if one does not require their services it is often these protectors +themselves who turn into robbers. There is a guard-house on the road, and +the two soldiers stationed there told us that a large band of thirty +robbers had visited them during the early hours of the morning, and had +stolen from them all their provisions, money and tobacco! + +We were not troubled in any way, and, with the exception of some +suspicious horsemen a long way off making for the mountains, we hardly +met a soul on the road. + +A curious accident happened to one of my luggage horses. For some reason +of his own he bolted, and galloped to the top of one of the _kanat_ +cones, when getting frightened at the deep hole before him he jumped it. +His fore-legs having given way on the steep incline on the other side, he +fell on his head and turned a complete somersault, landing flat on his +back, where, owing to the packs, he remained with his legs up in the air +until we came to his aid and freed him of the loads. + +On nearing Ghiez the track is over undulating country, but after that the +road to Isfahan is good and flat, but very sandy and dusty. I got to +Ghiez in the evening but proceeded at once to Isfahan. We galloped on the +twelve miles, and in less than two hours I was most hospitably received +in the house of Mr. Preece, the British Consul-General in Isfahan. + +The distances from Teheran are as follows:-- + +From Teheran to Kum 24 farsakhs 96 miles. + " Kum to Kashan 17 " 68 " + " Kashan to Kohrut 7 " 28 " + " Kohrut to Biddeshk 6 " 24 " + " Biddeshk to Murchikhar 6 " 24 " + " Murchikhar to Ghiez 6 " 24 " + " Ghiez to Isfahan 3 " 12 " + -- -- + Total 69 farsakhs or 276 miles. + +The time occupied in covering the whole distance, including halts and +delays, was somewhat less than four days. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + + Missionary work in Persia--Educational and medical work--No + Mahommedan converts--Bibles--Julfa--Armenian + settlement--Conservative customs--Armenian women--Their + education--The Armenian man--Europeans--A bird's-eye view of + Isfahan--Armenian graveyard--A long bridge--The Rev. James + Loraine Garland--Mission among the Jews. + + +There is little to say of interest in connection with Missionary work in +Persia, except that a considerable amount of good is being done in the +educational and medical line. There are well-established schools and +hospitals. The most praiseworthy institution is the supply of medicinal +advice and medicine gratis or at a nominal cost. As far as the work of +Christianising is concerned, it must be recollected that Missionaries are +only allowed in Persia on sufferance, and are on no account permitted to +make converts among the Mahommedans. Any Mussulman, man, woman, or child, +who discards his religion for Christianity, will in all probability lose +his life. + +If any Christianising work is done at all it has to be done +surreptitiously and at a considerable amount of risk to both convert and +converter. Some interest in the Christian religion is nevertheless shown +by Mussulmans of the younger generation--who now are practically atheists +at heart--but whether this interest is genuine or not it is not for me to +say. There is much in the Bible that impresses them, and I understand +that constant applications are made for copies of translations into the +Persian language. To avoid the great waste which occurred when Bibles +were given away for nothing, a nominal charge is now made so as to +prevent people throwing the book away or using it for evil purposes. + +In Isfahan itself there are no missionaries among the Mahommedans, but +some are to be found at Julfa, a suburb of Isfahan, on the south bank of +the Zindah-rud (river). Julfa was in former days a prosperous Armenian +settlement of some 30,000 inhabitants, but is now mostly in ruins since +the great migration of Armenians to India. + +There is an Armenian Archbishop at Julfa. He has no real power, but is +much revered by the Armenians themselves. He provides priests for the +Armenians of India. + +A handsome cathedral, with elaborate ornamentations and allegorical +pictures, is one of the principal structures in Julfa. + +One cannot help admiring the Armenians of Julfa for retaining their +conservative customs so long. Within the last few years, however, rapid +strides have been made towards the abandonment of the ancient dress and +tongue. At Julfa the Armenians have to a great extent retained their +native language, which they invariably speak among themselves, although +many of the men are equally fluent in Persian; but in cities like +Teheran, where they are thrown into more direct contact with Persians, +the Armenians are almost more conversant with Persian than with their own +tongue. The men and women of the better classes have adopted European +clothes, in which they might easily be mistaken for Southern Italians or +Spaniards. + +But in Julfa such is not the case, and the ancient style of dress is so +far maintained. One is struck by the great number of women in the streets +of Julfa and the comparative lack of men. This is because all able-bodied +men migrate to India or Europe, leaving their women behind until +sufficient wealth is accumulated to export them also to foreign lands. + +The education of the Armenian women of the middle and lower classes +consists principally in knitting socks--one sees rows of matrons and +girls sitting on the doorsteps busily employed thus,--and in various +forms of culinary instruction. But the better class woman is well +educated in European fashion, and is bright and intelligent. + +The Armenian woman, in her ample and speckless white robes, her +semi-covered face, and beautiful soft black eyes, is occasionally +captivating. The men, on the other hand, although handsome, have +something indescribable about them that does not make them particularly +attractive. + +The Armenian man--the true type of the Levantine--has great business +capacities, wonderful facility for picking up languages, and a persuasive +flow of words ever at his command. Sceptical, ironical and humorous--with +a bright, amusing manner alike in times of plenty or distress--a born +philosopher, but uninspiring of confidence,--with eyes that never look +straight into yours, but are ever roaming all over the place,--with +religious notions adaptable to business prospects,--very hospitable and +good-hearted, given to occasional orgies,--such is the Persian-Armenian +of to-day. + +The more intelligent members of the male community migrate to better +pastures, where they succeed, by steady hard work and really practical +brains, in amassing considerable fortunes. The less enterprising remain +at home to make and sell wine. Personally, I found Armenians surprisingly +honest. + +In Julfa the Europeans--of whom, except in business, there are few--have +comfortable, almost luxurious residences. The principal streets of the +Settlement are extremely clean and nice for Persia. The Indo-European +Telegraph Office is also here. But the best part of Julfa--from a +pictorial point of view--is the extensive Armenian cemetery, near a +picturesque background of hills and directly on the slopes of Mount +Sofia. There are hundreds of rectangular tombstones, many with neatly +bevelled edges, and epitaphs of four or five lines. A cross is engraved +on each grave, and some have a little urn at the head for flowers. + +From the roof of a house situated at the highest point of the inclined +plane, one obtains a magnificent bird's-eye view of Isfahan, its ancient +grandeur being evinced by the great expanse of ruins all round it. The +walls of Isfahan were said at one time to measure twenty-four miles in +circumference. Like all other cities of Persia, Isfahan does not improve +by too distant a view. The mud roofs are so alike in colour to the dried +mud of the streets that a deadly monotony must follow, as a matter of +course; but the many beautiful green gardens round about and in Isfahan +itself are a great relief to the eye, and add much attraction to the +landscape. + +Most prominent of all buildings in the city are the great semi-spherical +dome of the Mesjid-i-Shah, with its gracefully ornamented tiles; the +Madrassah; the multi-columned, flat-roofed Palace, and the high minarets +in couples, dotted all over the city. Then round about, further away, +stand any number of curious circular towers, the pigeon towers. + +The bed of the river between Isfahan and Julfa is over six hundred feet +wide, and is spanned by three bridges. One of these, with thirty-four +arches, is no less than 1,000 ft. in length, but is much out of repair. + +The Armenian Christians of Julfa are enjoying comparative safety at +present, but until quite recently were much persecuted by the +Mahommedans, the Mullahs being particularly bitter against them. + +One sees a great many priests about Julfa, and as I visited the place on +a Sunday the people looked so very demure and sanctimonious--I am +speaking of the Armenians--on their way out of church; taciturn and with +head low or talking in a whisper, all toddling alongside the wall--as +people from church generally do,--that I must confess I was glad when I +left this place of oppressive sanctity and returned to Isfahan. Somehow, +Julfa impresses one as a discordant note in Persian harmony--although a +very fine and pleasing note in itself. + +Until quite recently the Persians objected to foreigners residing even in +Isfahan itself. The officials of the Bank of Persia were the first to +take up their abode within the city wall, then soon after came Mr. +Preece, our able and distinguished Consul-General. + +There is now a third Englishman residing in Jubareh, the Jewish quarter, +the Revd. James Loraine Garland, of the London Society for Promoting +Christianity amongst the Jews of Isfahan. Why such a Society should exist +at all seems to any one with a sense of humour bewildering, but on +getting over the first shock of surprise one finds that of all the +Missions to Persia it is probably the most sensible, and worked on +practical, sound, useful lines. Much as I am unfavourably inclined +towards religious Missions of any kind, I could not help being impressed +with Mr. Garland's very interesting work. + +The first time I saw Mr. Garland I was nearly run over by him as he was +riding a race with a sporting friend on the Golahek road near +Teheran--raising clouds of dust, much to the concern of passers-by. + +The same day I met Mr. Garland in Teheran, when he was garbed in the +ample clothes of the sporting friend, his own wardrobe having been +stolen, with his money and all other possessions, by robbers on the +Isfahan-Kashan road. In fact, he was the Englishman referred to in +Chapter XXVI. + +Being somewhat of a sportsman myself, this highly-sporting clergyman +appealed to me. Extremely gentlemanly, courteous, tactful, sensible and +open-minded, he was not a bit like a missionary. He was a really good +man. His heart and soul were in his work. He very kindly asked me to +visit his Mission in Isfahan, and it was a real pleasure to see a Mission +worked on such sensible lines. + +The first Mission to the Jews of Persia and Chaldea was established in +1844 by the Reverend Dr. Stern, who resided part of the year in Bagdad, +and the remainder in Isfahan. The work was up-hill, and in 1865 the +Mission was suspended. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + + The Mission among Jews--Schools for boys and girls--A practical + institution--The Jews of Persia--Persecution by + Persians--Characteristics of + Jews--Girls--Occupations--Taxation--The social level of Jews. + + +From October, 1889, to December, 1891, a Christianised Jew of Teheran, +named Mirza Korollah, worked in Isfahan as the representative of the +Society for promoting Christianity among the Jews. A Bible depot was +opened, and a school started at the request of the Jews themselves. In +December, 1891, however, Mirza Korollah was banished from the city, and +the work was again interrupted. + +In 1897, Mr. Garland volunteered to undertake the work in Persia, and his +offer was gladly accepted. On his arrival in Isfahan he found, he told +me, a prosperous boys' school, that had been re-opened in 1894 by a +native Jewish Christian, who rejoiced in the name of Joseph Hakim, and +who carried on the educational work under the supervision of members of +the Church Missionary Society resident in Julfa. It was deemed advisable +to commence a night-school, as many of the boys were unable to attend +day classes. The scheme answered very well, and has been steadily +continued. + +As many as 200 boys attended the school daily in February, 1898, a fact +that shows the success of the new enterprise from the very beginning. + +At the invitation of a number of Jewesses, Miss Stuart, the Bishop of +Waiapu's daughter, kindly consented to go over twice a week to the Jewish +quarter to instruct them in the Holy Scriptures. This led to the +commencement of a girls' school with twelve pupils, at a time of great +turmoil and anxiety. However, the experiment had the happiest results. + +It was not, nevertheless, till 1899 that Mr. Garland was able to take up +his abode in the Jewish quarter. He met with no opposition whatever from +Mahommedans or Jews. The usual Sunday service, attended by converts and +inquirers, and a Saturday afternoon class were commenced in 1899, and +have uninterruptedly continued to the present time. + +To me, personally, the most important part of the Mission, and one to +which more time is devoted than to praying, was the excellent carpentry +class for boys, begun in 1900, and the carpet-weaving apparatus set up on +the premises for the girls. The former has been a great success, even +financially, and is paying its way. The latter, although financially not +yet a success, is of great value in teaching the girls how to weave. +Necessarily, so many hands have to be employed in the manufacture of a +large carpet, and the time spent in the manufacture is so long, that it +is hardly possible to expect financial prosperity from mere beginners; +but the class teaches the girls a way to earn money for themselves in +future years. + +Both trades were selected by Mr. Garland, particularly because they were +the most suitable in a country where Jews are excluded from the more +honest and manly trades, and Jewesses often grow up to be more of a +hindrance than a help to their husbands. Worse still is the case of Jews +who become Christians; they have the greatest difficulty in earning their +living at all. + +These industrial occupations are a great practical help to the studies of +the pupils, who are taught, besides their own language, Persian and +Hebrew, and, if they wish, English, geography, etc. + +More frivolous but less remunerative forms of recreation, such as +cricket, tennis, football, or gymnastic drills,--which invariably +accompany Christianity in the East, and develop most parts of a convert's +anatomy except his brain,--have not been deemed of sufficient importance +among the Jews of Isfahan, who would, moreover, think our best English +games or muscle-developers in the highest degree indecorous and unseemly. + +On the whole the Society's work among the Jews of Teheran, Hamadan and +Isfahan has been most encouraging, and this is to be put down entirely to +the tact and personal influence of Mr. Garland, who is greatly respected +by Jews and Mahommedans alike. No better testimony to the appreciation of +his work could exist than the fact that in his interesting journeys +through Persia, he is frequently invited to preach in crowded +synagogues. + +It seems probable that the Jews of Persia are descendants of the Ten +Tribes, and more probable still that Jews have resided in Isfahan from +its earliest foundation. + +In the tenth century--under the Dilemi dynasty--Isfahan consisted of two +cities, Yahoodieh (Jewry) and Shehristan (the City). In the middle of the +twelfth century, according to Benjamin of Tudela, the Jews of Isfahan +numbered 15,000. + +At present they number about 5,000. They are mostly pedlars by +profession, or engaged in making silk thread (Abreesham Kar, Charkhtabee, +etc.). There are a few merchants of comparative influence. Jewellers and +traders in precious stones, brokers and wine-sellers are frequent, but +the majority consists almost entirely of diviners, musicians, +dancers--music and dancing are considered low, contemptible occupations +in Persia--scavengers, and beggars. + +The Jews of Isfahan, like those of all other cities in Persia, have been +subjected to a great deal of oppression. There is a story that +Timour-i-Lang (Tamerlane--end of 14th century) was riding past a +synagogue in Isfahan, where the Mesjid-i-Ali now stands, and that the +Jews made such a horrible noise at their prayers (in saying the "Shema, +Israel" on the Day of Atonement) that his horse bolted and he was thrown +and lamed. Hence his name, and hence also a terrible massacre of the +Jews, which reduced their number to about one-third. + +Even to this day it is not easy for Jews to obtain justice against +Mahommedans. Only as recently as 1901 a Jew was murdered in cold blood a +few miles from Isfahan, and his body flung into the river. Although the +murder had been witnessed, and the murderer was well known, no punishment +was ever inflicted upon him. + +[Illustration: Jewish Girls, Isfahan.] + +[Illustration: An Isfahan Jew.] + +The Jews of Isfahan possess striking features, as can be seen by a +characteristic head of a man reproduced in the illustration. The face is +generally very much elongated, with aquiline nose of abnormal length and +very broad at the nostrils. The brow is heavy, screening deeply-sunken +eyes revealing a mixed expression of sadness and slyness, tempered +somewhat by probable abuse of animal qualities. Of a quiet and rather +sulky nature--corroded by ever-unsatisfied avidity--assumedly courteous, +but morose by nature,--with a mighty level head in the matter of +business; such is the Jew of Isfahan. He is extremely picturesque, quite +biblical in his long loose robe and skull cap, with turban wound tight +round his head. + +Jewish girls when very young are nice-looking without being beautiful, +very supple and pensive, and with expressive eyes. They lack the +unsteady, insincere countenance of the men, and have reposeful, placid +faces, with occasional good features. There is a good deal of character +in their firmly closed lips, the upper lip being slightly heavy but +well-shaped. The inside of the mouth is adorned with most regular, firm, +and beautiful teeth. Curiously enough, the typical Jewish nose--so +characteristic in men--is seldom markedly noticeable in women. I have +even seen Jewish girls with turned-up noses. Their arms are beautifully +modelled, and the hands as a whole extremely graceful, with unusually +long and supple fingers, but with badly-shaped nails of an unwholesome +colour. + +Jewesses in Persia are not kept in seclusion and go about with uncovered +faces, which exposes them to constant and unpleasant insult from the +Mahommedans. They dress differently from Persian women, with a long skirt +of either black, blue, or coloured cotton. The head is framed in a white +kerchief, leaving exposed the jet black hair parted in the middle and +covering the temples. Over that is worn a long cloak, either black or +white, almost identical with the Persian "chudder." + +Jewesses are said to be most affectionate and devoted to their husbands +and their families. They are extremely amenable to reason--except in +cases of jealousy, which is one of the leading characteristics of the +race in general and of Jewish women in particular. They are hard-working, +intelligent, thrifty. They take life seriously: are endowed with no sense +of humour to speak of--it would be difficult to have any under their +circumstances--and whether owing to severe anaemia, caused by wretched and +insufficient food, or to some external influence, are often affected by +melancholia. + +Soft and shy in manner and speech, under normal circumstances, pale and +silent, the Jewish woman is not unattractive. + +One of the few occupations open to Jewesses is the practice of midwifery. + +Hunted as the Jews are by everybody in the streets, and in the bazaar, +insulted, spat upon, the women often compelled to prostitution, it is to +be marvelled that any honesty at all is left in them. + +The higher Persian schools and colleges do not admit Jews as students, +nor is education permitted to them even in the lower Persian schools. +Therefore, the welcome work of Mr. Garland is much needed and +appreciated. A special quarter is reserved in which the Jews must live, +huddled together, the majority of them in abject poverty. Until of late +no peace was given them. Their customs were interfered with in every way +by vagabond Persians, and the little money they made by industrious +habits was extorted from them by officials or by the enterprising Persian +to whom the Jewish community was farmed out. + +The Jews of a city are taxed a certain sum, usually beyond what they can +afford to pay. Some speculator undertakes to pay the amount for them to +the local Governor and receives authority to compensate himself from the +Jewish community as best he can, either by making them work, or trade, or +by selling their clothes or depriving them of the few articles of +furniture they may possess. + +Until quite lately, at public festivities the meek and resigned Jews were +driven before an insulting mob who held them in derision, and exposed +them to most abject treatment; some of their number ending by being +pitched into the water-tank which adorns the courtyard or garden of most +residences. Little by little, however, with the spread of civilisation, +Jews have been spared the torture of these baths. + +The Jew is looked upon as unclean and untrustworthy by the Persian, who +refuses to use him as a soldier, but who gladly employs him to do all +sorts of dirty jobs which Persian pride would not allow him to do +himself. His social level therefore stands even lower than that of the +Shotri of India, the outcast who does not stop at the basest occupations. + +The majority of the older Jews are illiterate, but not unintelligent. +Each city has one or more Rabbis or priests, but they have no power and +receive a good share of the insults in the Persian bazaars. + +Whatever feeling of repulsion towards the race one may have, the position +of the Jews in Persia--although infinitely better than it was before--is +still a most pathetic one. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + + The square of Isfahan--The Palace gate--The entrance to the + bazaar--Beggars--Formalities and etiquette--The + bazaar--Competition--How Persians buy--Long + credit--Arcades--Hats--Cloth shops--Sweet + shops--Butchers--Leather goods--Saddle-bags--The bell + shop--Trunks. + + +The great square of Isfahan is looked upon as the centre of the city. It +is a huge oblong, with the great and beautiful dome of the Mesjid-i-Shah +on one side of the long rectangle, and another high domed mosque with two +high minarets at the end. The very impressive red and white quadrangular +palace gate, flat-topped, and with a covered blue verandah supported on +numerous slender columns, stands on the side of the square opposite the +Mesjid-i-Shah mosque. + +To the north of the great square one enters the bazaar by a high gate, +handsomely tiled with flower ornamentations; this gateway has three lower +windows and a triple upper one, and a doorway under the cool shade of the +outer projecting pointed archway. To the right of the entrance as one +looks at it, rises a three-storied building as high as the gate of the +bazaar. It has a pretty upper verandah, the roof of which is supported on +transverse sets of three wooden columns each, except the outer corner +roof-supports, which are square and of bricks. In front is an artistic +but most untidy conglomeration of awnings to protect from the sun +pedlars, merchants and people enjoying their kalians, or a thimbleful of +tea. + +There are men selling fruit which is displayed upon the dirty ground, and +there are tired horses with dismounted cavaliers sleeping by their side, +the reins fastened for precaution to a heavy stone or slung to the arm. +One sees masses of children of all ages and conditions of health, from +the neatly attired son of the wealthy merchant, who disports himself with +his eldest brother, to the orphan boy, starving, and in rags covered with +mud. There is a little cripple with a shrunken leg, and further, an old +man with lupus in its most ghastly form. Disreputably-clothed soldiers +lie about in the crowd, and a woman or two with their faces duly screened +in white cloths may be seen. + +The sight of a sahib always excites great curiosity in Persia. Followed +by a crowd of loafers and most insistent beggars, one forces one's way +into the crowded bazaar, while the ghulams of the Consulate--without whom +it would be indecorous to go anywhere--shove the people on one side or +the other without ceremony, drive the donkeys, laden with wood or +panniers of fruit, into the shops--much to the horror of the +shopman,--and disband the strings of mules and the horsemen to make room +for the passing sahib. + +It is very difficult, under such circumstances, to stop any length of +time at any particular spot to study the shops, the shop-people, and the +buyers, for instead of being an unobserved spectator, one is at all times +the principal actor in the scene and the centre of attention, and +therefore a most disturbing element in the crowd. + +There are so many complicated and tiresome formalities to be adhered to +in order to avoid offending the natives, or the officials, or the +susceptibilities of foreign residents, who seem to feel responsible for +the doings of every traveller--and who, at all events, remain to suffer +for the untactful deeds of some of them,--and there are so many things +one must not do for fear of destroying the prestige of one's country, +that, really, if one possesses a simple and practical mind, one gets +rather tired of Persian town life, with its exaggerated ties, its empty +outward show and pomp and absolute lack of more modest aims which, after +all, make real happiness in life. + +[Illustration: The Square, Isfahan.] + +As for European ladies it is considered most improper to be seen with +uncovered faces in the bazaar. In fact, walking anywhere in the town they +are generally exposed to insult. + +I once took a walk through the various bazaars, but the second time, at +our Consul's recommendation, was advised to ride in state, with +gold-braided, mounted Consulate ghulams preceding and following me, while +I myself rode a magnificent stallion presented by Zil-es-Sultan to our +Consul. The horse had not been ridden for some time and was slightly +fresh. The place to which we directed our animals was the brass +bazaar, the most crowded and diabolically noisy place in the Shah's +dominions. + +The sudden change from the brilliant light of the sun to the pitch +darkness of the vaulted bazaar, affected one's sight, and it was some few +seconds before one could distinguish anything, although one could hear +the buzzing noise of an excited crowd, and the cries of the ghulams +ordering the people to make room for the cavalcade. + +In nearly all bazaars of the principal cities of Persia a very good +custom prevails. One or more streets are devoted entirely to the same +article, so that the buyer may conveniently make comparisons, and the +various merchants are also kept up to the mark by the salutary +competition close at hand thus rendered unavoidable. A Persian does not +go to a shop to buy anything without going to every other shop in the +bazaar to ask whether he can get a similar article better and cheaper. +Such a convenience as fixed prices, alike for all, does not exist in the +Persian bazaar, and prices are generally on the ascending or descending +scale, according to the merchant's estimate of his customer's wealth. It +is looked upon as a right and a duty to extort from a rich man the +maximum of profit, whereas from a poor fellow a few shais benefit are +deemed sufficient. + +To buy anything at all in the bazaar involves great loss of time--and +patience,--excessive consumption of tea plus the essential +kalian-smoking. Two or three or more visits are paid to the stall by +Persian buyers before they can come to an agreement with the merchant, +and when the goods are delivered it is the merchant's turn to pay endless +visits to his customer's house before he can obtain payment for them. +Long credit is generally given by merchants to people known to them. +There is comparatively little ready money business done except in the +cheapest goods. + +We shoved our way along through the very narrow streets with a long row +before us of sun columns, piercing through the circular openings in the +domed arcade of the bazaar, and projecting brilliant patches of light now +on brightly-coloured turbans, now on the black chudder of a woman, now on +the muddy ground constantly sprinkled with water to keep the streets +cool. + +There are miles of bazaar, in Teheran and Isfahan, roofed over in long +arcades to protect the shops and buyers from the sun in summer, from the +rain and snow in winter. The height of the arcade is from thirty to sixty +feet, the more ancient ones being lower than the modern ones. + +To any one well acquainted with other Eastern countries there is +absolutely nothing in a Persian bazaar that is worth buying. The old and +beautiful objects of art have left the country long ago, and the modern +ones have neither sufficient artistic merit nor intrinsic value to be +worth the trouble and expense of sending them home. For curiosity's +sake--yes, there are a few tawdry articles which may amuse friends in +Europe, but what I mean is that there is nothing that is really of +intense interest or skilful workmanship, such as one can find in Japan, +in China, in Morocco or Egypt. + +We ride through the street of hatters, each shop with walls lined with +piles of _kolah_ hats, black and brimless, shaped either in the section +of a cone or rounded with a depression on the top. They are made of +astrakan or of black felt, and are worn by the better people; but further +on we come to cheaper shops, where spherical skull caps of white or light +brown felt are being manufactured for the lower classes. + +As we ride along, a stinging smell of dyes tells us that we are in the +cloth street, indigo colours prevailing, and also white and black cottons +and silks. One cannot help pitying the sweating shopman, who is busy +unrolling cloths of various makes before a number of squatting women, who +finger each and confabulate among themselves, and request to have the +roll deposited by their side for further consideration with a mountain of +other previously unrolled fabrics,--just like women at home. The rolls +are taken from neat wooden shelves, on which, however, they seldom rest. +Soiled remnants of European stocks play a very important part in this +section of the bazaar. + +On turning round a corner we have shoes and boots, foreign made, of the +favourite side-elastic pattern, or the native white canvas ones with rope +soles--most comfortable and serviceable for walking. The local leather +ones have strong soles with nails and turned-up toes, not unlike the +familiar Turkish shoe; while the slippers for women have no back to them +at the heel and have fancy toes. + +Then come the attractive sweet-shops, with huge trays of transparent +candy, and the _Pash mak_ pulled sugar, as white and light as raw silk, +most delicious but sticky. In bottles above, the eye roams from highly +coloured confetti to _Abnabad_ and _Kors_ or other deadly-looking +lozenges, while a crowd of enraptured children deposit shais in the hands +of the prosperous trader, who promptly weighs and gives in exchange a +full measure of _rahat-ul-holkoom_, "the ease of the throat," or candied +sugar, duly packed in paper bags. + +There is nothing very attractive in the butchers' bazaar; the long rows +of skinned animals black with flies, and in various degrees of freshness, +made even less artistic by ornamentations of paper rosettes and bits of +gold and silver paper. Beef, camel, mutton, game and chickens, all dead +and with throats cut--the Mahommedan fashion of killing--can be purchased +here, but the smell of meat is so strong and sickening that we will +promptly adjourn to the leather-work bazaar. + +For a man, this is probably the most typical and interesting section of +the Persian retail commerce. There is something picturesque and artistic +in the clumsy silver or brass or iron mounted saddles, with handsome red, +or green, or brown ample leather flaps, gracefully ornamented with more +or less elaboration to suit the pockets of different customers. Then the +harness is pretty, with its silver inlaid iron decoration, or solid +silver or brass, and the characteristic stirrups, nicely chiselled and +not unlike the Mexican ones. The greater part of the foot can rest on the +stirrup, so broad is its base. Then come the saddlebags of all sizes, the +_horjin_, in cloth, in sacking, in expensive leather, in carpeting, of +all prices, with an ingenious device of a succession of loops fastening +the one into the other, the last with a padlock, to secure the contents +of the bag from intrusive hands. + +These _horjins_--or double bags--are extremely convenient and are the +most usual contrivance in Persia for conveying luggage on horseback or +mules. + +Then in the lower part of the shop there is a grand display of leather +purses, sheaths for knives, and a collection of leather stock whips, +gracefully tied into multiple knots. + +In this same bazaar, where everything in connection with riding or +loading animals can be purchased, are also to be found the bell shops. +These confine themselves particularly to horses', mules' and camels' neck +decorations. Long tassels, either red or black, in silk or dyed +horsehair, silk or leather bands with innumerable small conical shrill +bells, and sets of larger bells in successive gradations of sizes, one +hanging inside the other, are found here. Then there are some huge +cylindrical bells standing about two and a half feet high, with scrolls +and geometrical designs on their sides. These are for camels and are not +intended to hang from the neck. They are slung on one side under the +lighter of the two loads of the pack. + +[Illustration: The Palace Gate, Isfahan.] + +Next, one is attracted by a shop full of leather trunks, of the reddest +but not the best morocco, stretched while wet upon a rough wooden frame. +Primitive ornamentations are painted on the leather, and the corners of +each box are strengthened with tin caps and rings. The trunks for pack +animals are better made than the others, and are solidly sewn, with heavy +straps and rings to sling them upon the saddles. Gaudy revolver pouches, +cartridge belts, and slings for daggers are to be purchased in the same +shop. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + + The Brass Bazaar--Mirror shop--Curdled milk--A tea shop--Fruit + and vegetable bazaar--The walnut seller--The Auctioneer--Pipe + shops--Barber--Headdress--Bread shops--Caravanserais--The day of + rest. + + +Winding our way through the labyrinth of narrow streets, and meeting a +crescendo of diabolical din as we approach it, we emerge into a more +spacious and lighter arcade, where hundreds of men are hammering with all +their might upon pieces of copper that are being shaped into trays, pots +with double spouts, or pans. This is the coppersmiths' bazaar. On a long +low brick platform, extending from one end to the other on both sides of +the street, is tastefully arranged the work already finished. Huge +circular trays have coarse but elaborate ornamentations of figures, trees +and birds chiselled upon them--not unlike the Indian Benares trays in +general appearance, but not in the character of the design. Copper vases +with spouts are gracefully shaped, the ancient Persian models being +maintained. They are much used by Persians in daily life. More elaborate +is the long-necked vessel with a circular body and slender curved spout, +that rests upon a very quaint and elegantly designed wash-basin with +perforated cover and exaggerated rim. This is used after meals in the +household of the rich, when an attendant pours tepid water scented with +rose-water upon the fingers, which have been used in eating instead of a +fork. These vessels and basins are usually of brass. All along the +ground, against the wall, stand sets of concentric trays of brass, copper +and pewter, and metal tumblers innumerable, having execrable designs upon +them, and rendered more hideous by being nickel-plated all over. Each +shop, about ten to twenty feet long and eight to fifteen wide, has a +furnace in one corner. + +Considering the few and primitive tools employed, it is really wonderful +that the work is as good as it is. The polishing of trays is generally +done with their feet by boys, who stand on them and with a circular +motion of the body revolve the tray to the right and left upon a layer of +wet sand until, after some hours of labour, a sufficiently shiny surface +is obtained by friction. + +I became much interested in watching a man joining together two pieces of +metal to be turned into an amphora, but the noise made the horse I rode +very restless. It was impossible to hear any one speak, the din of the +hammered metal being so acute and being echoed in each dome of the +arcade. The horse became so alarmed when the bellows began to blow upon +the fire that he tried to throw me, first by standing on his fore-legs +and scattering the crowd of yelling natives with his hindlegs, then by +standing up erect the other way about. In a moment the place was clear of +people; some had leapt on to the side platform: others had rushed inside +the shops. The horse delighted in pirouetting about, kicking the nearest +metal vases and trays all over the place, and causing quite a commotion. +It was rather amusing to watch the rapidity with which the merchants a +little way off withdrew their goods to safety inside the premises to +prevent further damage. The horse, being then satisfied that he could not +shake me off, continued the journey more or less peacefully through the +bazaar. + +Here is a mirror shop--imports from Austria. There the flourishing grain +merchants, whose premises are the neatest and cleanest of the whole +bazaar. Each merchant tastily displays his various cereals in heaps on +speckless enormous brass trays, and by the side of them dried fruit, in +which he also deals extensively. His shop is decorated with silvered or +red or blue glass balls. + +Further on is another very neat place, the curdled-milk retailer's, with +large flat metal tanks filled with milk, and a great many trays, large +and little, in front of his premises. He, too, keeps his place and +belongings--but not himself--most beautifully clean. He does a +flourishing business. + +Every now and then we come upon a very spacious and well-lighted room, +with gaudy candelabras of Bohemian glass, and a large steaming samovar. +This is a tea-shop. There are plenty of men in it, in green or brown or +blue long coats, and all squatting lazily, cross-legged, sipping tea from +tiny glasses and being helped to sugar from a large tray containing a +mountain of it. + +The fruit and vegetable bazaar is always a feature of Persian city +markets, water-melons, cucumbers, grapes, apples, pomegranates, almonds +and walnuts playing a prominent part in the various displays. Then there +is the retailer of peeled walnuts, a man who wears a red cap and green +coat, and who sells his goods spread on a brass tray. The walnuts as soon +as peeled from their skin are thrown into a large basin full of water, +and when properly washed are spread on the tray to dry, ready for +consumption. + +The walnut man is generally a character. He keeps his stall open even at +night, when other shops are closed, and has plenty to say to all the +passers-by on the merits of his walnuts. + +To enumerate all one sees in the bazaar would take a volume to itself, +but on glancing through we see the excited auctioneer in his white turban +calling out figures on an ascending scale, and tapping on a piece of wood +when a sufficient sum is offered and no more bids are forthcoming. He has +assistants showing round the various articles as they are being +sold,--umbrellas, tooth-brushes, mirrors, knives, etc. + +The pipe shops are small--with black and red and blue earthenware cups +for the kalian. There is not much variety in the shape of the pipes +except that some are made to be used in the joined hands as a draw-pipe +for the smoke, the cup being held between the thumbs. Others, the +majority of them, are intended for the top part of the kalian. + +The barber's shop is a quaint one, remarkably clean with whitewashed +walls and a brick floor. Up to some five feet along the walls is nailed a +cloth, usually red, against which the customers rest their heads while +being shaved. Hung upon the walls are scissors of all sizes, razors, and +various other implements such as forceps for drawing teeth, sharp lancets +for bleeding, the knives used for the operation of circumcision, and a +variety of wooden combs and branding irons. + +Yes, the Persian barber has multifarious occupations. He is surgeon, +dentist and masseur, besides being an adept with comb and razor. He +is--like his brother of the West--an incessant talker, and knows all the +scandal of the town. While at work he has a bowl of clean water by his +side which he uses on the patient's face or top of the skull and neck, +which are in male Persians all clean-shaved. No soap is used by typical +Persian barbers. Their short razors, in wooden cases, are stropped on the +barber's arm, or occasionally leg, and are quite sharp. + +The younger folks of Persia shave the top of the skull leaving long locks +of hair at the side of the head, which are gracefully pushed over the ear +and left hanging long behind, where they are cut in a straight horizontal +line round the neck. This fashion is necessitated by the custom in +Persia of never removing the heavy headgear. The elder people, in fact, +shave every inch of the scalp, but balance this destruction of hair by +growing a long beard, frequently dyed bright red or jet black with henna +and indigo. + +The bread-shops of Persia are quaint, a piece of bread being sometimes as +big as a small blanket and about as thick. These huge flat loaves are +hung up on slanting shelves. In Central and Southern Persia, however, the +smaller kind of bread is more commonly used, not unlike an Indian +_chapati_. A ball of flour paste is well fingered and pawed until it gets +to a semi-solid consistency. It is then flung several times from one palm +of the hand into the other, after which it is spread flat with a roller +upon a level stone slab. A few indentations are made upon its face with +the end of the baker's fingers; it is taken up and thrown with a rapid +movement upon the inner domed portion of a small oven, some three to four +feet high, within which blazes a big charcoal fire. Several loaves are +thus baked against the hot walls and roof of the oven, which has an +aperture at the top, and when properly roasted and beginning to curl and +fall they are seized with wonderful quickness and brought out of the +oven. Gloves on the hands and a cover over the baker's face are necessary +to prevent burns and asphyxia from the escaping gases of the charcoal +from the aperture over which the man must lean every time. + +In the bazaars of large cities one finds every now and then large +caravanserais, handsome courts with a tank of water in the centre and +shops all round. It is here that wholesale dealers and traders have their +premises, and that caravans are accommodated on their arrival with goods. +There are generally trees planted all round these courts to shade the +animals and buyers, and often a high and broad platform or verandah all +round, where the goods are spread for inspection. Some of the richer +caravanserais are quite handsome, with neat latticed windows and doors. +The walls are painted white. The court is crammed with tired camels, +mules, beggars and loafers. + +The camel men squat in one corner to smoke their pipes and eat their +bread, while the merchants form another ring up above on the verandah, +where prices are discussed at the top of their voices, a crowd of +ever-to-be-found loafers taking active part in the discussion. + +On a Friday, the day of rest of the Mahommedan, the bazaar, so crowded on +other days, is absolutely deserted. All the shops--if a hatter or two be +excepted--are barricaded with heavy wooden shutters and massive padlocks +of local or Russian make. Barring a dog or two either lying asleep along +the wall, or scraping a heap of refuse in the hope of satisfying +hunger--there is hardly a soul walking about. Attracted by a crowd in the +distance, one finds a fanatic gesticulating like mad and shouting at the +top of his voice before an admiring crowd of ragamuffins squatting round +him in a circle. + +On these holidays, when the streets are clear, the effect of the columns +of sunlight pouring down from the small circular apertures from each dome +of the arcade, and some twenty feet apart, is very quaint. It is like a +long colonnade of brilliant light in the centre of the otherwise dark, +muddy-looking, long, dirty tunnel. At noon, when the sun is on the +meridian, these sun columns are, of course, almost perfectly vertical, +but not so earlier in the morning or later in the afternoon. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + + A carpet factory--Children at work--The process of + carpet-making--Foreign influence in the design--Aniline + dyes--"Ancient carpets" manufactured to-day--Types of + carpets--Kerman carpets--Isfahan silk carpets--Kurdistan + rugs--Birjand and Sultanabad carpets--Carpets made by wandering + tribes--Jewellers--Sword-makers and gunsmiths--Humming birds. + + +A visit to a carpet factory proves interesting. The horses must be left, +for it is necessary to squeeze through a low and narrow door in order to +enter the shed where the carpets are made. + +Every one is familiar with the intricate and gorgeous designs of Persian +carpets, and one imagines that only veteran skilful artisans can tackle +such artistic work. One cannot, therefore, help almost collapsing with +surprise on seeing mere children from the age of six to ten working away +at the looms with a quickness and ease that makes one feel very small. + +In badly lighted and worse ventilated rooms, they sit perched in long +rows on benches at various altitudes from the floor, according to the +progression and size of the carpet, the web of which is spread tight +vertically in front of them. Occasionally when the most difficult +patterns are executed, or for patterns with European innovations in the +design, a coloured drawing is hung up above the workers; but usually +there is nothing for them to go by, except that a superintendent--an +older boy--sings out the stitches in a monotonous cadence. A row of +coloured balls of the various coloured threads employed in the design +hang from the loom just within reach of the boys' hands. + +[Illustration: Boys Weaving a Carpet.] + +[Illustration: Cotton Cleaners.] + +The process of carpet-making is extremely simple, consisting merely of a +series of twisted--not absolutely knotted--coloured worsted threads, each +passing round one of the main threads of the foundation web. The +catching-up of each consecutive vertical thread in the web, inserting the +coloured worsted, giving it the twist that makes it remain in its +position, and cutting it to the proper length, is done so quickly by the +tiny, supple fingers of the children that it is impossible to see how it +is done at all until one requests them to do it slowly for one's benefit. +After each horizontal row of twisted threads, a long horizontal thread is +interwoven, and then the lot is beaten down with a heavy iron comb with a +handle to it, not unlike a huge hair-brush cleaner. There are different +modes of twisting the threads, and this constitutes the chief +characteristic of carpets made in one province or another. + +The labour involved in their manufacture is enormous, and some carpets +take several years to manufacture. The children employed are made to work +very hard at the looms--seldom less than twelve or fourteen hours a +day--and the exertion upon their memory to remember the design, which has +taken them several months to learn by heart, is great. The constant +strain on the eyes, which have to be kept fixed on each successive +vertical thread so as not to pick up the wrong one, is very injurious to +their sight. Many of the children of the factories I visited were +sore-eyed, and there was hardly a poor mite who did not rub his eyes with +the back of his hand when I asked him to suspend work for a moment. The +tension upon their pupils must be enormous in the dim light. + +Although made in a primitive method, the carpet weaving of Persia is +about the only manufacture that deserves a first-class place in the +industries of Iran. The carpets still have a certain artistic merit, +although already contaminated to no mean extent by European +commerciality. Instead of the beautiful and everlasting vegetable dyes +which were formerly used for the worsted and silks, and the magnificent +blue, reds, greens, greys and browns, ghastly aniline dyed threads--raw +and hurtful to the eye--are very commonly used now. Also, of the carpets +for export to Europe and America the same care is not taken in the +manufacture as in the ancient carpets, and the bastard design is often +shockingly vulgarised to appease the inartistic buyer. + +But even with all these faults, Persian carpets, if not to the eye of an +expert, for all general purposes are on the whole better than those of +any other manufacture. They have still the great advantage of being made +entirely by hand instead of by machinery. It is not unwise, before buying +a Persian carpet, to rub it well with a white cloth. If it is +aniline-dyed, some of the colour will come off, but if the old Persian +dyes have been used no mark should remain on the cloth. However, even +without resorting to this, it must be a very poor eye indeed that cannot +recognise at once the terrible raw colours of aniline from the soft, +delicious tones of vegetable dyes, which time can only soften but never +discolour. + +To manufacture "ancient carpets" is one of the most lucrative branches of +modern Persian carpet-making. The new carpets are spread in the bazaar, +in the middle of the street where it is most crowded, and trampled upon +for days or weeks, according to the age required, foot-passengers and +their donkeys, mules and camels making a point of treading on it in order +to "add age" to the manufacturer's goods. When sufficiently worn down the +carpet is removed, brushed, and eventually sold for double or treble its +actual price owing to its antiquity! + +There are some thirty different types of carpets in Persia. The Kerman +carpets are, to my mind, the most beautiful I saw in Persia, in design, +colour and softness. They seem more original and graceful, with +conventional plant, flower and bird representations of delicate and very +varied tints, and not so much geometrical design about them as is the +case in the majority of Persian carpets. + +Less successful, in fact quite ugly, but quaint, are those in which very +large and ill-proportioned figures are represented. One feels Arab +influence very strongly in a great many of the Kerman designs. They say +that Kerman sheep have extremely soft and silky hair, and also that the +Kerman water possesses some chemical qualities which are unsurpassable +for obtaining most perfect tones of colour with the various dyes. + +The principal carpet factory is in the Governor's Palace, where old +designs are faithfully copied, and really excellent results obtained. The +present Governor, H. E. Ala-el-Mulk, and his nephew take particular +interest in the manufacture, and devote much attention to the carpets, +which retain the ancient native characteristics, and are hardly +contaminated by foreign influence. + +The Isfahan silk carpets are also very beautiful, but not quite so +reposeful in colour nor graceful in design. Those of Kurdistan are +principally small prayer rugs, rather vivid in colour, and much used by +Mahommedans in their morning and evening salaams towards Mecca. In +Khorassan, Meshed, Sultanabad, Kaian (Kain) and Birjand, some very thick +carpets are made, of excellent wear, but not so very artistic. In the +Birjand ones, brown camel-hair is a prevailing colour, used too freely as +a background, and often taking away from the otherwise graceful design. +Sultanabad is probably the greatest centre of carpet-making for export +nearly every household possessing a loom. The firm of Ziegler & Co. is +the most extensive buyer and exporter of these carpets. The Herat +(Afghanistan) carpets are also renowned and find their way mostly to +Europe. + +In Shiraz and Faristan we find the long narrow rugs, as soft as velvet, +and usually with geometrical designs on them. Red, blue and white are the +prevalent colours. + +It would be too long to enumerate all the places where good carpets are +made; but Kermanshah, Tabriz, Yezd,--in fact, nearly all big centres, +make carpets, each having special characteristics of their own, although +in general appearance bearing to the uninitiated more or less similar +semblance. + +The rugs made by the wandering tribes of South-east and South-west Persia +are quaint and interesting. The Persian Beluch rugs are somewhat minute +and irregular in design, deep in colour, with occasional discords of +tones, but they recommend themselves by being so strongly made that it is +almost impossible to wear them out. They are generally small, being woven +inside their tents by the women. + +In Northern Persia Turcoman carpets--the most adaptable of all for +European houses--are seldom to be found now, as they are generally bought +up for Russia. Dark red, warm and extremely soft is the striking note in +these carpets, and the design is quite sedate. + +Carpets, except the cheaper ones, are seldom sold in the bazaars +nowadays. They are purchased on the looms. The best ones are only made +to order. There are, of course, a few rug shops, and occasionally an old +carpet finds its way to a second-hand shop in the bazaar. + +Next in attraction to carpets come the jewellers' shops. The goldsmiths' +and silversmiths' shops are not very numerous in the bazaars, nor, when +we come to examine the work carefully, do they have anything really worth +buying. The work is on good gold or silver of pure quality, but, with few +exceptions, is generally clumsy in design and heavily executed. Figures +are attempted, with most inartistic results, on silver cases and boxes. +The frontage of a goldsmith's shop has no great variety of articles. +Bracelets, rings, necklaces, tea and coffee pots, stands for coffee cups, +and enamelled pipe heads; a silver kalian or two, an old cigar-box full +of turquoises, and another full of other precious stones--or, rather, +imitations of precious stones--a little tray with forgeries of ancient +coins; that is about all. Pearls and diamonds and really valuable stones +are usually concealed in neat paper parcels carried on the person by the +jeweller and produced on the demand of customers. + +The swordmaker and gunsmith displays many daggers and blades of local +make and a great number of obsolete Belgian and Russian revolvers; also a +good many Martini and Snider rifles, which have found their way here from +India. Occasionally a good modern pistol or gun is to be seen. Good +rifles or revolvers find a prompt sale in Persia at enormous figures. +Nearly every man in the country carries a rifle. Had I chosen, I could +have sold my rifles and revolvers twenty times over when in Persia, the +sums offered me for them being two or three times what I had paid for +them myself. But my rifles had been very faithful companions to me; one, +a 256. Mannlicher, had been twice in Tibet; the other, a 30.30 take-down +Winchester, had accompanied me through the Chinese campaign, and I would +accept no sum for them. + +One is carried back a few score of years on seeing the old rings for +carrying gun-caps, and also gunpowder flasks, and even old picturesque +flintlocks and matchlocks; but still, taking things all round, it is +rather interesting to note that there is a considerable number of men in +Iran who are well-armed with serviceable cartridge rifles, which they can +use with accuracy. Cartridge rifles are at a great premium, and although +their importation is not allowed, they have found their way in +considerable quantities from all sides, but principally, they tell me, +from India, _via_ the Gulf. + +One of the notes of the bazaar is that in almost every shop one sees a +cage or two with humming-birds. In the morning and evening a male member +of the family takes the cage and birds out for a walk in the air and sun, +for the dulness and darkness of the bazaar, although considered +sufficiently good for Persians themselves, is not regarded conducive to +sound health and happiness for their pets. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + + The Grand Avenue of Isfahan--The Madrassah--Silver gates--The + dome--The Palace--The hall of forty columns--Ornamentations--The + picture hall--Interesting paintings--Their artistic + merit--Nasr-ed-din Shah's portrait--The ceiling--The quivering + minarets. + + +The grand Avenue of Isfahan, much worn and out of repair, and having +several lines of trees along its entire length of half a mile or so down +to the river, is one of the sights of the ancient capital of Persia. + +About half-way down the Avenue the famous Madrassah is to be found. It +has a massive, handsome silver gate, in a somewhat dilapidated condition +at present, and showing evident marks of thieving enterprise. At the +entrance stand fluted, tiled columns, with alabaster bases, in the shape +of vases some ten feet in height, while a frieze of beautiful blue tiles +with inscriptions from the Koran, and other ornamentations, are to be +admired, even in their mutilated condition, on tiles now sadly tumbling +down. + +So much for the exterior. Inside, the place bears ample testimony to +former grandeur and splendour, but at present hopeless decay is rampant +here as everywhere else in Persia. The Madrassah is attributed to Shah +Sultan Hussein, the founder of the Shrine at Kum, and some magnificent +bits of this great work yet remain. One can gaze at the beautiful dome, +of a superb delicate greenish tint, surmounted by a huge knob supposed to +be of solid gold, and at the two most delightful minarets, full of grace +in their lines and delicately refined in colour, with lattice work at +their summit. + +[Illustration: Handsome Doorway in the Madrassah, Isfahan.] + +In the courts and gardens are some fine old trees, amid a lot of uncouth +vegetation, while grass sprouts out between the slabs of stone on the +paths and wherever it should not be; the walls all round, however, are +magnificent, being built of large green tiles with ornamentations of +graceful curves and the favourite leaf pattern. In other places white +ornamentations, principally curves and yellow circles, are to be noticed +on dark blue tiles. In some of the courts very handsome tiles with flower +patterns are still in good preservation. + +There are in the college 160 rooms for students to board and lodge. The +buildings have two storeys and nearly all have tiled fronts, less +elaborate than the minarets and dome, but quite pretty, with quaint white +verandahs. When I visited the place there were only some fifty students, +of all ages, from children to old men. Much time is devoted by them to +theological studies and some smattering of geography and history. + +One cannot leave Isfahan without visiting the old Palace. + +In a garden formerly beautiful but semi-barren and untidy now, on a +pavement of slabs which are no longer on the level with one another, +stands the Palace of the Twenty Columns, called of "the forty columns," +probably because the twenty existing ones are reflected as in a mirror in +the long rectangular tank of water extending between this palace and the +present dwelling of H. E. Zil-es-Sultan, Governor of Isfahan. Distance +lends much enchantment to everything in Persia, and such is the case even +in this palace, probably the most tawdrily gorgeous structure in +north-west Persia. + +The Palace is divided into two sections, the open throne hall and the +picture hall behind it. The twenty octagonal columns of the open-air hall +were once inlaid with Venetian mirrors, and still display bases of four +grinning lions carved in stone. But, on getting near them, one finds that +the bases are chipped off and damaged, the glass almost all gone, and the +foundation of the columns only remains, painted dark-red. The lower +portion of the column, for some three feet, is ornamented with painted +flowers, red in blue vases. The floor under the colonnade is paved with +bricks, and there is a raised platform for the throne, reached by four +stone steps. + +There is a frieze here of graceful although conventional floral +decoration with gold leaves. In the wall are two windows giving light to +two now empty rooms. The end central receptacle or niche is gaudily +ornamented with Venetian looking-glasses cut in small triangles, and it +has a pretty ceiling with artichoke-leaf pattern capitals in an upward +crescendo of triangles. + +The ceiling above the upper platform is made entirely of mirrors with +adornments in blue and gold and glass, representing the sky, the sun, and +golden lions. Smaller suns also appear in the ornamentation of the +frieze. The ceiling above the colonnade and the beams between the columns +are richly ornamented in blue, grey, red, and gold. This ceiling is +divided into fifteen rectangles, the central panel having a geometrical +pattern of considerable beauty, in which, as indeed throughout, the +figure of the sun is prominent. + +The inner hall must have been a magnificent room in its more flourishing +days. It is now used as a storeroom for banners, furniture, swords, and +spears, piled everywhere on the floor and against the walls. One cannot +see very well what the lower portion of the walls is like, owing to the +quantity of things amassed all round, and so covered with dust as not to +invite removal or even touch; but there seems to be a frieze nine feet +high with elaborate blue vases on which the artist called into life gold +flowers and graceful leaves. + +The large paintings are of considerable interest apart from their +historical value. In the centre, facing the entrance door, we detect +Nadir Shah, the Napoleon of Persia, the leader of 80,000 men through +Khorassan, Sistan, Kandahar and Cabul. He is said to have crossed from +Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass to Peshawar, and from there to +Delhi, where his presence led to a scene of loot and carnage. But to him +was certainly due the extension of the Persian boundary to the Indus +towards the East and to the Oxus on the North. In the picture he is +represented on horseback with a great following of elephants and turbaned +figures. + +To the right we have a fight, in which Shah Ismail, who became Shah of +Persia in 1499, is the hero, and a crowd of Bokhara warriors and Afghans +the secondary figures. Evidently the painting is to commemorate the great +successes obtained by Ismail in Khorassan, Samarkand and Tashkend. + +The third is a more peaceful scene--a Bokhara dancing girl performing +before Shah Tamasp, eldest of four sons of Ismail and successor to his +throne. The Shah is represented entertaining the Indian Emperor Humaiyun +in 1543. The lower portion of this picture is in good preservation, but +the upper part has been patched up with hideous ornamentations of birds +and flowers on red ground. + +Over the door Shah Ismail, wearing a white turban, is represented riding +a white horse and carrying a good supply of arrows. The Shah is in the +act of killing a foe, and the painting probably represents one of his +heroic deeds at the battle of Khoi against Salim. + +To the right of the door there is a picture of dancing and feasting, with +Shah Abbas offering drink in sign of friendship to Abdul Mohmek Khan +Osbek. + +Finally, to the left of the front door we have pictorially the most +pleasing of the whole series, another scene of feasting, with the +youthful figure of Shah Abbas II. (died 1668), a man of great pluck, but +unfortunately given to drunkenness and licentious living, which developed +brutal qualities in him. It was he who blinded many of his relations by +placing red-hot irons in front of their eyes. Considering this too +lenient a punishment he ordered their eyes to be extracted altogether. We +see him now, sitting upon his knees, garbed in a red tunic and turban. In +the foreground a most graceful dancing-girl, in red and green robes, with +a peculiar waistband, and flying locks of hair. The artist has very +faithfully depicted the voluptuous twist of her waist, much appreciated +by Persians in dancing, and he has also managed to infuse considerable +character into the musicians, the guitar man and the followers of the +Shah to the left of the picture, as one looks at it, and the tambourine +figure to the right. Fruit and other refreshments lie in profusion in +vessels on the floor, elaborately painted. This picture is rectangular, +and is probably not only the most artistic but the best preserved of the +lot. + +[Illustration: One of Zil-es-Sultan's Eunuchs.] + +[Illustration: The "Hall of the Forty Columns," Isfahan.] + +Great labour and patience in working out details have been the aim of the +artists of all these pictures, rather than true effects of nature, and +the faces, hands, and poses are, of course, as in most Persian paintings, +conventionalized and absolutely regardless of proportion, perspective, +fore-shortening or atmospherical influence or action--generally called +aerial perspective. The objection, common in nearly all countries, +England included, to shadows on the faces is intensified a thousand-fold +in Persian paintings, and handicaps the artist to no mean degree in his +attempts to give relief to his figures. Moreover, the manipulation and +concentration of light, and the art of composing a picture are not +understood in old Persian paintings, and the result is that it is most +difficult to see a picture as an _ensemble_. The eye roams all over the +painting, attracted here by a patch of brilliant yellow, there by another +equally vivacious red, here by some bright detail, there by something +else; and like so many ghosts in a haunted room peep out the huge, black, +almond-shaped eyes, black-bearded heads, all over the picture, standing +like prominent patches out of the plane they are painted on. + +The pictures are, nevertheless, extremely interesting, and from a +Persian's standpoint magnificently painted. Such is not the case with the +modern and shocking portrait of Nasr-ed-din Shah, painted in the best oil +colours in European style, his Majesty wearing a gaudy uniform with great +wealth of gold and diamonds. This would be a bad painting anywhere in +Persia or Europe. + +The ceiling of this hall is really superb. It has three domes, the centre +one more lofty than the two side ones. The higher dome is gilt, and is +most gracefully ornamented with a refined leaf pattern and twelve gold +stars, while the other two cupolas are blue with a similar leaf +ornamentation in gold. There is much quaint irregularity in the +geometrical design of the corners, shaped like a kite of +prettily-arranged gold, blue and green, while other corners are red and +light blue, with the sides of green and gold of most delicate tones. +These are quite a violent contrast to the extravagant flaming red patches +directly over the paintings. + +The hall is lighted by three windows at each end near the lower arch of +the side domes, and three further double windows immediately under them. +There is one main entrance and three exits (one large and two small) +towards the throne colonnade. + +Through narrow lanes, along ditches of dirty water, or between high mud +walls, one comes six miles to the west of Isfahan to one of the most +curious sights of Persia,--the quivering minarets above the shrine and +tomb of a saint. These towers, according to Persians, are at least eight +centuries old. + +Enclosed in a rectangular wall is the high sacred domed tomb, and on +either side of the pointed arch of the Mesjid rise towards the sky the +two column-like minarets, with quadrangular bases. A spiral staircase +inside each minaret, just wide enough to let a man through, conveys one +to the top, wherein four small windows are to be found. By seizing the +wall at one of the apertures and shaking it violently an unpleasant +oscillation can be started, and continues of its own accord, the minaret +diverging from the perpendicular as much as two inches on either side. +Presently the second minaret begins to vibrate also in uniformity with +the first, and the vibration can be felt along the front roof-platform +between the two minarets, but not in other parts of the structure. A +large crack by the side of one of the minarets which is said to have +existed from time immemorial foretells that some day or other minarets +and front wall will come down, but it certainly speaks well for the +elasticity of minarets of 800 years ago that they have stood up quivering +so long. + +The minarets are not very high, some thirty-five feet above the roof of +the Mesjid, or about seventy-five feet from the ground. The whole +structure, of bricks and mud, is--barring the dangerous crack--still in +good preservation. On the outside, the minarets are tiled in a graceful, +geometrical transverse pattern of dark and light blue. + +A visit to the sacred shrine of the quivering minarets has miraculous +powers--say the Persians--of curing all diseases or protecting one +against them, hence the pilgrimage of a great number of natives afflicted +with all sorts of complaints. Beggars in swarms are at the entrance +waiting, like hungry mosquitoes, to pounce upon the casual visitor or +customary pleasure-seeker of Isfahan, for whom this spot is a favourite +resort. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + + Isfahan the commercial heart of Persia--Dangers of maps in + argument--Bandar Abbas--The possibility of a Russian railway to + Bandar Abbas--Bandar Abbas as a harbour--The caravan road to + Bandar Abbas--Rates of transport--Trade--British and Russian + influence--Shipping--A Russian line of steamers--Customs under + Belgian officials--Lingah--Its exports and imports. + + +Isfahan is for England the most important city, politically and +commercially, in Western Persia. It is the central point from which roads +radiate to all parts of the Shah's Empire. It is the commercial heart, as +it were, of Persia, and the future preponderance of Russian or British +influence in Isfahan will settle the balance in favour of one or the +other of the two countries and the eventual preponderance in the whole of +Western Iran. + +Khorassan and Sistan stand on quite a different footing, being severed +from the West by the great Salt Desert, and must be set apart for the +moment and dealt with specially. + +[Illustration: The Quivering Minarets near Isfahan.] + +A reliable map ought to be consulted in order to understand the question +properly, but it should be remembered that it is ever dangerous to base +arguments on maps alone in discussing either political or commercial +matters. Worse still is the case when astoundingly incorrect maps such as +are generally manufactured in England are in the hands of people +unfamiliar with the real topography and resources of a country. + +To those who have travelled it is quite extraordinary what an appalling +mass of nonsensical rubbish can be supplied to the public by politicians, +by newspaper penny-a-liners, and by home royal geographo-parasites at +large, who base their arguments on such unsteady foundation. It is quite +sufficient for some people to open an atlas and place their fingers on a +surface of cobalt blue paint in order to select strategical harbours, +point out roads upon which foreign armies can invade India, trade routes +which ought to be adopted in preference to others, and so on, regardless +of sea-depth, currents, winds, shelter, and climatic conditions. In the +case of roads for invading armies, such small trifles as hundreds of +miles of desert, impassable mountain ranges, lack of water, and no fuel, +are never considered! These are only small trifles that do not +signify--as they are not marked on the maps--the special fancy of the +cartographer for larger or smaller type in the nomenclature making cities +and villages more or less important to the student, or the excess of ink +upon one river course rather than another, according to the +cartographer's humour, making that river quite navigable, notwithstanding +that in reality there may not be a river nor a city nor village at all. +We have flaming examples of this in our Government maps of Persia. + +I myself have had an amusing controversy in some of the London leading +papers with no less a person than the Secretary of a prominent +Geographical Society, who assured the public that certain well-known +peaks did not exist because he could not find them (they happened to be +there all the same) on his map! + +Such other trifles as the connecting of lakes by imaginary rivers to +maintain the reputation of a scientific impostor, or the building of +accurate maps (_sic_) from badly-taken photographs--the direction of +which was not even recorded by the distinguished photographers--are +frauds too commonly perpetrated on the innocent public by certain +so-called scientific societies, to be here referred to. Although these +frauds are treated lightly, the harm they do to those who take them +seriously and to the public at large, who are always ready blindly to +follow anybody with sufficient bounce, is enormous. + +Without going into minor details, let us take the burning question of the +fast-expanding Russian influence in the south of Persia. We are assured +that Russia wishes an outlet in the Persian Gulf, and suspicions are +strong that her eye is set on Bandar Abbas. On the map it certainly +appears a most heavenly spot for a harbour, and we hear from scribblers +that it can be made into a strong naval base and turned into a formidable +position. The trade from Meshed and Khorassan and Teheran, Isfahan, Yezd, +and Kerman is with equal theoretical facility switched on to this place. +Even allowing that Russia should obtain a concession of this place--a +most unlikely thing to be asked for or conceded while Persia remains an +independent country--matters would not be as simple for Russia as the man +in the street takes them to be. + +It would first of all be necessary to construct a railway connecting the +Trans-Caspian line with Bandar Abbas, a matter of enormous expense and +difficulty, and likely enough never to be a profitable financial +enterprise. The political importance is dubious. A long railway line +unguarded in a foreign country could but be of little practical value. It +must be remembered that Persia is a very thinly populated country, with +vast tracts of land, such as the Salt Desert, almost absolutely +uninhabited, and where the construction of such a railway would involve +serious difficulties, owing to the lack of water for several months of +the year, intense heat, shifting sands, and in some parts sudden +inundations during the short rainy season. + +Moreover, Bandar Abbas itself, although ideally situated on the maps, is +far from being an ideal harbour. The water is shallow, and there is no +safe shelter; the heat unbearable and unhealthy. At enormous expense, of +course, this spot, like almost any other spot on any coast, could be +turned into a fair artificial harbour. The native town itself--if it can +be honoured with such a name--consists of a few miserable mud houses, +with streets in which one sinks in filth and mud. The inhabitants are the +most miserable and worst ruffians in Persia, together with some Hindoos. +There is a European community of less than half-a-dozen souls. + +The _British India_ and other coasting steamers touch here, and therefore +this has been made the starting-point for caravans to Kerman and Yezd and +Sistan _via_ Bam. But for Isfahan and Teheran the more direct and shorter +route _via_ Bushire is selected. The caravan road from Bandar Abbas to +Kerman and Yezd is extremely bad and unsafe. Several times of late the +track has been blocked, and caravans robbed. During 1900, and since that +date, the risk of travelling on the road seems to have increased, and as +it is useless for Persians to try and obtain protection or compensation +from their own Government the traffic not only has been diverted when +possible to other routes, principally Bushire, but the rates for +transport of goods inland had at one time become almost prohibitive. In +the summer of 1900, it cost 18 tomans (about L3 9_s._) to convey 900 lbs. +weight as far as Yezd, but in the autumn the charges rose to 56 tomans +(about L10 13_s._) or more than three times as much for the same weight +of goods. Eventually the rates were brought down to 22 tomans, but only +for a short time, after which they fluctuated again up to 28 tomans. It +was with the greatest difficulty that loading camels could be obtained at +all, owing to the deficiency of exports, and this partly accounted for +the extortionate prices demanded. An English gentleman whom I met in +Kerman told me that it was only at great expense and trouble that he was +able to procure camels to proceed from Bandar Abbas to Kerman, and even +then he had to leave all his luggage behind to follow when other animals +could be obtained. + +According to statistics furnished by the British Vice-Consul, the exports +of 1900 were half those of 1899, the exact figures being L202,232 for +1899; L102,671 for 1900. Opium, which had had the lead by far in previous +years, fell from L48,367 to L4,440. Raw cotton, however, not only held +its own but rose to a value of L18,692 from L6,159 the previous year. In +the years 1888, 1889, 1890, and 1891 the exports of raw cotton were +abnormal, and rose to about L35,000 in 1890, the highest record during +the decade from 1888 to 1897. + +Large quantities of henna and opium are also exported from this spot, as +it is the principal outlet of the Kerman and Yezd districts, but the +trade may be said to be almost entirely in British hands at present, and +Russian influence so far is infinitesimal. + +We find that, next to opium, fruit and vegetables, especially dates, +constitute a large part of the export, then wool, drugs and spices, salt, +carpets and woollen fabrics, piece goods, silk (woven), seeds, skins and +tanned leather, wheat and cereals, and cotton raw and manufactured. +Perfumery--rose-water--was largely exported from 1891 to 1896. The +exportation of tobacco seems to decrease, although it is now beginning to +look up again a little. Dyes and colouring substances are also exported. + +The value of imports is very nearly double that of the exports. Cotton +goods have the lead by a long way, then come tea, and piece goods, +loaf-sugar, powdered sugar, indigo, metals, wheat and cereals, spices, +drugs, wool and woollen fabrics, jute fabrics, cheap cutlery, coffee, +tobacco, mules, horses, donkeys, etc., in the succession enumerated. + +It is pleasant to find that the shipping increases yearly at Bandar +Abbas, and that, second only to Persian vessels, the number of British +sailing vessels entering Bandar Abbas in 1900 was nearly double (48) of +the previous year (28). Steamers were in the proportion of 101 to 64. +Although in number of sailing vessels the Persians have the priority, +because of the great number of small crafts, the total tonnage of the +Persian vessels was 5,320 tons against 75,440 tons in 1899, and 139,164 +tons in 1900 British. + +Turkish steamers occasionally ply to Bandar Abbas and Muscat and also +Arab small sailing crafts. + +It is rather curious to note that in 1899 the imports into Bandar Abbas +came entirely from India, Great Britain and France, and in a small +measure from Muscat, Zanzibar, the Arab Coast, Bahrain and Persian ports, +whereas the following year, 1900, the imports from India fell to less +than half their previous value, from L435,261 to L204,306, and from the +United Kingdom there was a diminution from L86,197 to L69,597; whereas +France doubled hers in 1900 and other countries entered into competition. +The Chinese Empire, curiously enough, was the strongest, to the value of +L18,419, presumably with teas, and Austria-Hungary L10,509. Germany and +Turkey imported to the value of some L2,174 and L2,147 respectively. +Belgium L2,254, Java L7,819, Mauritius L3,564, Muscat L692, the Canaries +L637, America L600, and Arabia L494. Japan contributed to the amount of +L305, Sweden L273, Italy L82, and Switzerland the modest sum of L8. + +A most significant point is that Russia, with all her alleged aims and +designs, only contributed to the small amount of L572. Nothing was +exported from Bandar Abbas to Russia. It would appear from this that at +least commercially Russia's position at Bandar Abbas was not much to be +feared as late as 1900. Since then a Russian line of steamers has been +established from the Black Sea to the Persian Gulf ports, but I have no +accurate statistics at hand. It is said not to be a financial success. + +The establishment of Customs under Belgian officials in 1900 caused some +trouble at first, and may have been responsible for a portion of the +falling-off in trade, but it is now agreed by everybody that the system +is carried on in a fair and honest manner, preferable to the extortionate +fashion employed by the former speculators who farmed out the Customs. + +I rather doubt whether Russia's aim is even directed towards Lingah, to +the south-west of Bandar Abbas, as has been supposed by others. Although +this port would afford a deeper and better anchorage and a breakwater, +it has the same difficulties of approach by land from Russia as Bandar +Abbas--in fact, greater ones, being further south. + +Lingah is a more prosperous port than Bandar Abbas, its exports being +roughly two-thirds larger than those of Bandar Abbas, and its imports +one-third in excess. In value the export and import of pearls form the +chief item, next come wheat and cotton. Very little tea is disembarked at +Lingah, but dates and firearms were landed in considerable quantities, +especially in 1897. Coffee and tobacco were more in demand here than at +Bandar Abbas, and metals were largely imported. White sea-shells found +their way in huge quantities to Beluchistan, where the women use them for +decorating their persons. Bangles and necklaces are made with them, and +neck-bands for the camels, horses and mules, as well as ornamentations on +the saddle bags. With these two exceptions the imports and exports of +Lingah are made up of larger quantities of articles similar to those +brought to and from Bandar Abbas. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + + Mahommerah--Where Russia's aims are directed--Advantages of + Mahommerah--The navigation of the Karun River--Traffic--Rates on + the Ahwaz-Isfahan track--The Government's + attitude--Wheat--Russian influence--Backhtiari Chiefs--Up and + down river trade--Gum--Cotton goods--Sugar--Caravan + route--Steamers--Disadvantages of a policy of drift--Russian + enterprise. + + +So much for Bandar Abbas and Lingah. I will not touch on Bushire, too +well known to English people, but Mahommerah may have a special interest +to us, and also to Russia. It is rather curious to note that it has never +struck the British politician nor the newspaper writer that Russia's +aims, based usually on sound and practical knowledge, might be focussed +on this port, which occupies the most favourable position in the Persian +Gulf for Russia's purposes. Even strategically it is certainly as good as +Bandar Abbas, while commercially its advantages over the latter port are +a thousandfold greater. + +These advantages are a navigable river, through fertile country, instead +of an almost impassable, waterless desert, and a distance as the crow +flies from Russian territory to Mahommerah one-third shorter than from +Bandar Abbas. A railway through the most populated and richest part of +Persia could easily be constructed to Ahwaz. The climate is healthy +though warm. + +Another most curious fact which seems almost incredible is that the +British Government, through ignorance or otherwise, by a policy of drift +may probably be the cause of helping Russia to reap the benefit of +British enterprise on the Karun River, in the development of which a +considerable amount of British capital has already been sunk. The +importance, political and commercial, of continuing the navigation of the +Karun River until it does become a financial success--which it is bound +to be as soon as the country all round it is fully developed--is too +obvious for me to write at length upon it, but it cannot be expected that +a private company should bear the burden and loss entirely for the good +of the mother country without any assistance from the home Government. + +The British firm, who run the steamers, with much insight and +praiseworthy enterprise improved the existing caravan track from Isfahan +to Ahwaz on the Karun River, the point up to which the river is navigable +by steamers not drawing more than four feet. They built two fine +suspension bridges, one over the Karun at Godar-i-Balutak and the other, +the Pul-Amarat (or Built-bridge) constructed on the side of an ancient +masonry bridge. The track has thus been rendered very easy and every +assistance was offered to caravans, while a regular service of river +steamers plied from Mahommerah to Ahwaz, to relieve the traffic by +water. The s.s. _Blosse Lynch_, 250 tons, was sent up at first, but was +too large, so the s.s. _Malamir_, 120 tons, was specially built for the +Karun navigation. + +Matters were very prosperous at first, until many obstacles came in the +way. The road has been open to traffic some three years. The first year +traffic was healthy and strong, but the second year, owing to famine in +Arabistan, the traffic suddenly dropped and nothing would induce +muleteers to travel by that route. Although they were offered as much as +100 (L2) to 110 krans (L2 4_s._) per load from Isfahan to Ahwaz, a +distance of 17 stages--277 miles--they preferred to take 70 krans (L1 +9_s._ 2_d._) to Bushire, a journey of about 30 stages, over a distance of +510 miles. + +The caravan men in Persia are curious people to deal with, and it takes a +very long time to imbue their minds with new ideas. In the case of the +Ahwaz road it was partly conservatism and fear instigated by the Mullahs +that prevented their taking loads to the steamers. + +It was fully expected that the route could not pay its way for at least +five years from its inauguration, and the British Government--which at +that time seemed to understand the value of the undertaking--agreed to +give in equal shares with the Government of India a collective guarantee +against losses up to L3,000 for the first two years, then of L2,000 for +five years. For some unaccountable reason the Government of India, which +the scheme mostly concerned, dropped out, and the guarantee was further +reduced to L1,000 payable by the home Government only. As a result of +this the steamers have been run since at a considerable loss, and had it +not been for the patriotism of Lynch Brothers, and the prospects to which +they still cling of a successful issue, the navigation of the Karun would +have already come to an untimely end. + +The principal article of export of any importance was wheat, grown in +enormous quantities in the fertile plains of Arabistan; and were its +export legal, the export of grain would be infinitely greater than the +whole of the present imports. But the Persian Government unfortunately +prohibited the export of grain from Persia, nominally to allay and +prevent famine in the country, in fact to enrich local governors by +permitting illicit export. Consequently, the peasants could not sell +their produce in the open market and had to sell it, accepting what they +could get from speculators at about half the actual value. This led to +the discontinuance of the cultivation of wheat. When for three years the +exportation of grain was permitted, the acreage under cultivation was +enormous and yielded very large returns, but as soon as the prohibition +was set in force it dwindled year by year until it became approximately +the fifth part of what it originally was. On the top of all this a severe +drought occurred and a famine resulted. + +It seems very likely that the British Government may now fall out also +and stop the meagre guarantee of L1,000. This may have disastrous +results, for it cannot be expected that a private firm will continue the +navigation of the Karun at a great loss. This is, in a few words, what it +may lead to. Should the British abandon the work already done, Russia +will step in--she has had her eye upon the Karun more than upon any other +spot in Persia--and reap the benefit of the money and labour that has +been spent by us. In the plain of Arabistan Russian influence is not yet +very far advanced, but among the Backhtiaris it is spreading fast. +Intrigue is rampant. The Russian agents endeavour to get the tribesmen +into disgrace with the Government and they succeed to a great extent in +their aim. + +Isphandiar Khan, who has the title of Sirdar Assad, is the head chief of +the Backhtiaris, and with his cousin Sephadar keeps going the various +branches of the family, but serious family squabbles are very frequent +and may eventually cause division. The two above named men manage to keep +all together except Hadji-Riza Kuli Khan, who is an opposing factor. He +is an uncle of Isphandiar Khan, and his rancour arises from having been +ousted from the chieftainship. He is said to have fallen very badly under +Russian influence, and instigated his followers to rebellion, the cause +being, however, put down not to family squabbles and jealousy--the true +causes--but to disapproval of the new road and the influence exercised by +it upon the Backhtiari country. + +Only about one-fifth of foreign imports into Mahommerah find their way up +the Karun River. It is certainly to be regretted that no articles direct +from the United Kingdom are forced up the river. The trade with India in +1900 only amounted to some L43,062 against L30,149 the previous year, +France, Turkey, and Egypt being the only other importers. The total +imports into Mahommerah for transhipment to Karun ports amounted to +L59,194 in 1900, and showed a considerable increase on 1899. + +Piece goods find their way up the river in considerable quantities. Then +loaf-sugar and soft sugar are the principal articles of import; dates, +iron, and treacle come next; while various metals, tea and matches come +last. + +In regard to local commerce the river trade for 1900 was L100,437, +showing an increase of L37,449 upon the trade of 1899. This ought to be +regarded as satisfactory, considering the slowness of Oriental races in +moving from their old grooves. + +The down river trade falls very short of the up river commerce, and +consists mostly of wheat, oil seeds, opium, wool, gum, flour, beans, +cotton, rice, tobacco, piece goods, glue. In 1900 the decrease in the +carriage of wheat was enormous, and also the trade in oil seeds. Although +gum was carried down stream in much larger quantities, owing to the yield +being unusually abundant, the price obtained was very poor, owing to the +falling London market. Gum Tragacanth was conveyed principally by the +Isfahan-Ahwaz route. Notwithstanding all this there was an increase of +L17,000 in 1900 over the trade of 1899, which shows that the route is +nevertheless progressing and is worth cultivating. + +Cotton goods, which are reimported from India mostly by Parsee and Jewish +firms, originally come from Manchester and are in great demand. They +consist of grey shirtings, prints (soft finish), lappets, imitation +Turkey red, Tanjibs and jaconets. Marseilles beetroot sugar is holding +its own against other cheaper sugars imported lately and finds its way to +Isfahan by the Ahwaz road. + +Caravans usually employ twenty days on the Ahwaz-Isfahan journey, but the +distance can easily be covered in fifteen days and even less. A +fortnightly steamer is run by the Euphratis and Tigris Steam Navigation +Company to Ahwaz. + +Mahommerah exports chiefly to India, then to Turkey, the United Kingdom, +Hong Kong, the Persian Gulf ports, Egypt and France. In 1900 the exports +were to the value of L115,359. The imports were similar to those of +Bandar Abbas, viz.:--cotton goods, sugar, coffee, silk, iron, tea, +manufactured metal, thread, spices, etc. They amounted to an aggregate +sum of L281,570 in 1900, against L202,492 in 1899.[4] + +If I have gone into details it is to show the mistake made by the British +Government in letting such a valuable position, of absolute vital +importance to our interest, drift slowly but surely into Russian hands. +Russia's aims in the Gulf are at present concentrated on the Karun River; +our movements are closely watched, and nothing could be more probable +than, that if we abandon the Karun, Russia will at once fill our place +and turn the whole business into a formidable success. + +The Russian Government have now granted a subsidy of L5,000 per round +voyage to the Russian Steam Navigation to run three steamers a year from +Odessa to Bussorah, touching at all the principal ports of the Persian +Gulf. The s.s. _Kornilof_ made two voyages in 1901, arriving in Bussorah +in April and November. On her first voyage she landed most of her cargo +in Bushire, and only conveyed 8,000 cases of petroleum and a quantity of +wood for date boxes; but on her second journey 16,500 cases of petroleum +were landed at Bussorah and a further supply of wood, besides a great +number of samples of Russian products, such as flour, sugar and matches. +On the second return journey the _Kornilof_ took back to Odessa freight +for two thousand pounds from Bussorah, principally dates, a cargo which +had been previously carried by British steamers to Port Said and then +transhipped for the Black Sea. + +The appearance of the Russian boats excited considerable interest among +the natives and merchants, both British and indigenous. Comments are +superfluous on the grant given by the Russian Government to further +Russian trade, and the wavering attitude of the British Government in +safeguarding interests already acquired. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[4] See Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Trade of Persian Gulf for the + year 1900. Foreign Office. H.M. Stationery Office. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + + The British Consul-General in Isfahan--Russia's influence in + Southern Persia--H.R.H. Zil-es-Sultan--Departure for Yezd--Pigeon + towers--A Persian telegraph line--Ghiavaz--Characteristics of the + scenery--A village in ruins--Types--Saigsi--Mud dunes--Mirage--A + reservoir--Kanats--Scarcity of fodder. + + +I only halted a few days in Isfahan, during which time I was the guest of +Mr. Preece, the British Consul-General. Mr. Preece's hospitality and +popularity are proverbial among Europeans and natives all over Persia. A +step in the right direction was taken by the British Government in making +a Consulate-General in Isfahan, and another good step was that of +furnishing the Consulate with a guard of mounted Indian soldiers. +Prestige and outward show go much together in Persia, and no matter to +what extent one's private feelings may rebel at the idea, we must make a +display, I suppose. + +We have in Mr. Preece a very able and intellectual officer; a man who +understands the Persians thoroughly, and a gentleman of uncommon tact and +kindliness. His artistic taste has served him well, so that the Consulate +and grounds have been rendered most comfortable and delightful, and the +collections of carpets and silver which he has made during his many +years' residence in Persia are very interesting. + +It is true that Russian influence is spreading fast towards the south, +and that the establishment of a Russian Consulate in Isfahan, with its +guard of Cossacks, has made considerable impression on the population, +but no doubt Mr. Preece will be able to maintain British prestige high, +if the Government at home show grit and enable him to do so. + +It is most important, I think, to come to some sound conclusion on the +policy to be followed towards Russia in Persia, either to check her +advance immediately and firmly, or to come to some satisfactory agreement +with her so that her interests and ours may not altogether clash; but it +cannot be impressed too often upon our minds that our present policy of +drift and wavering is most disastrous to our interests. We have lost +Northern Persia. Southern Persia will soon slip from our grip unless we +pull up soon and open our eyes wide to what is happening. + +We place too much reliance on the fact that Zil-es-Sultan, the Shah's +brother and now Governor of Isfahan, was once extremely pro-British. We +have a way of getting ideas into our heads and nothing will drive them +out again, but we forget that things and people change in Persia as +everywhere else, and what was accurate fifteen years ago may not be so +now. Also it must be remembered that Zil-es-Sultan, although in high +power, does not occupy the same high position politically as before the +late Shah's death. He and his family are kept under strict control of the +Shah, and any pro-English ideas which they may still have are +discouraged, if not promptly eradicated. His Highness's sons have been +forbidden to be educated in Europe or to travel abroad, although a visit +to Russia only might be allowed. Beyond the secondary power of a High +Governor, Zil-es-Sultan has no other influence, and has to conform to +superior orders. He is now no longer very young, and his popularity, +although still very great, cannot be said to be on the increase. + +[Illustration: H. R. H. Zil-es-Sultan, Governor of Isfahan.] + +While in Isfahan I had an audience of his Highness. One could not help +being struck at first glance by the powerful countenance of the Prince, +and the mixture of pride and worry plainly depicted on his face. He spoke +very intelligently but was most guarded in his speech. One of his sons +Baharam Mirza--a wonderfully clever young man, who spoke French and +English fluently although he had never been out of Persia--interpreted. I +was much impressed by the kindliness of the Zil-es-Sultan towards his +children, and in return by the intense respect, almost fear, of these +towards their father. After a pleasant visit and the usual compliments +and refreshments, coffee was brought, the polite signal that the audience +should come to a close. The Prince accompanied the Consul and myself to +the door of the room--a most unusual compliment. + +There were many soldiers, and servants and attendants with silver-topped +maces who escorted us out of the grounds, where we found the Consular +guard again, and returned to the Consulate. + +Two days later I departed for Yezd. There is no high road between the two +cities; only a mere track. No postal service and relays of horses are +stationed on the track, but, by giving notice some days previous to one's +departure, horses can be sent out ahead from Isfahan to various stages of +the journey, until the Kashan-Nain-Yezd road is met, on which post horses +can again be obtained at the Chappar Khanas. This, however, involved so +much uncertainty and exorbitant expense that I preferred to make up my +own caravan of mules, the first part of the journey being rather hilly. + +On leaving Isfahan there are mountains to the south, the Urchin range, +and also to the east, very rugged and with sharply defined edges. To the +north-east stand distant elevations, but nothing can be seen due north. +We go through a great many ruins on leaving the city, and here, too, as +in other cities of Persia, one is once more struck by the unimportant +appearance of the city from a little distance off. The green dome of the +Mosque, and four minarets are seen rising on the north-east, five more +slender minarets like factory chimneys--one extremely high--then +everything else the colour of mud. + +The traffic near the city is great. Hundreds of donkeys and mules toddle +along both towards and away from the city gate. The dust is appalling. +There is nothing more tantalizing than the long stretches of +uninteresting country to be traversed in Persia, where, much as one +tries, there is nothing to rest one's eye upon; so it is with great +relief--almost joy--that we come now to something new in the scenery, in +the shape of architecture--a great number of most peculiar towers. + +[Illustration: Agriculture and Pigeon Towers near Isfahan.] + +These are the pigeon towers--a great institution in Central Persia. They +are cylindrical in shape, with castellated top, and are solidly built +with massive walls. They stand no less than thirty to forty feet in +height, and possess a central well in which the guano is collected--the +object for which the towers are erected. A quadrangular house on the top, +and innumerable small cells, where pigeons lay their eggs and breed their +young, are constructed all round the tower. These towers are quite +formidable looking structures, and are so numerous, particularly in the +neighbourhood of Isfahan, as to give the country quite a strongly +fortified appearance. The guano is removed once a year. After passing +Khorasgun, at Ghiavaz--a small village--one could count as many as +twenty-four of these pigeon houses. + +Some amusement could be got from the way the Persian telegraph line had +been laid between Isfahan and Yezd, _via_ Nain. There were no two poles +of the same height or shape; some were five or six feet long, others ten +or fifteen;--some were straight, some crooked; some of most irregular +knobby shapes. As to the wire, when it did happen to be supported on the +pole it was not fastened to an insulator, as one would expect, but merely +rested on a nail, or in an indentation in the wood. For hundreds of yards +at a time the wire lay on the ground, and the poles rested by its side or +across it. Telegrams sent by these Persian lines, I was told, take +several days to reach their destination, if they ever do reach at all; +and are usually entrusted for conveyance, not to the wire, but to caravan +men happening to travel in that particular direction, or to messengers +specially despatched from one city to the other. + +Some two farsakhs from Isfahan we went through a passage where the hills +nearly meet, after which we entered a flat plain, barren and ugly. In the +distance to the south-east lay a line of blackish trees, and another in +front of us in the direction we were travelling, due east. Then we saw +another bunch of pigeon towers. + +Leaving behind the hills nearer to us to the north-west, west, and +south-west, and the more distant and most fantastically shaped range to +the south, my mules gradually descend into the plain. For an angle of 40 deg. +from east to S.S.E. no hills are visible to the naked eye, but there is a +long range of comparatively low hills encircling us from N.N.W. to S.S.E. +and N.E. of the observer, the highest points being at 80 deg. (almost +N.E.E.). To the north we have a long line of _kanats_. + +Following the drunken row of telegraph poles we arrive at Gullahbad +(Gulnabad)--a village in ruins. From this point for some distance the +soil is covered with a deposit of salt, giving the appearance of a +snow-clad landscape, in sharp contrast with the terrific heat prevailing +at the time. This road is impassable during the rainy weather. As one +nears the hills to the N.E. tufts of grass of an anaemic green cover the +ground (altitude 5,250 feet). + +Under a scorching sun we reached Saigsi (8 farsakhs from Isfahan) at six +o'clock in the afternoon, and put up in the large caravanserai with two +rooms up stairs and ten down below around the courtyard. The difference +in the behaviour of the natives upon roads on which Europeans do not +frequently travel could be detected at once here. One met with the +greatest civility and simplicity of manner and, above all, honesty, which +one seldom finds where European visitors are more common. + +There are few countries where the facial types vary more than in Persia. +The individuals of nearly each town, each village, have peculiar +characteristics of their own. At Saigsi, for instance, only 32 miles from +Isfahan, we find an absolutely different type of head, with abnormally +large mouth and widely-expanded nostrils, the eyes wide apart, and the +brow overhanging. The latter may be caused by the constant brilliant +refraction of the white soil in the glare of the sun (altitude of Saigsi +5,100 feet). + +About four miles east of Saigsi and north of the track we come across +five curious parallel lines of mud-heaps or dunes stretching from north +to south. Each of these heaps is precisely where there is a gap in the +mountain range to the north of it, and each has the appearance of having +been gradually deposited there by a current passing through these gaps +when the whole of this plain was the sea-bottom. These mud heaps are +flat-topped and vary from 20 to 40 feet in height, the central row of all +being the highest of the series. This is a grand place for wonderful +effects of mirage all round us. To the W. spreads a beautiful lake in the +depression of the plain--as complete an optical deception as it is +possible to conceive, for in reality there is no lake at all. + +Water is not at all plentiful here. One finds a reservoir made for +caravans along this track. It is a tank 25 feet by 10 feet sunk deep into +the ground and roofed over with a vault. The water is sent to it by means +of a channel from the small village of Vartan north of it. + +We gradually rise to 5,550 feet and again we have before us another +beautiful effect of mirage in the shape of a magnificent lake with a +village and cluster of trees apparently suspended in the air. My caravan +man assures me that the village, which appears quite close by, is many +miles off. + +Long rows of _kanats_, ancient and modern, to the south-east warn us of +the approach of a small town, and on the road plenty of skeletons of +camels, donkeys, and mules may be seen. Fodder is very scarce upon this +track, and many animals have to die of starvation. Also animals caught +here during the rains cannot proceed in the sinking soft ground, and +eventually die. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + + Khupah--Sunken well--Caravanserai--Night marching--Kudeshk--The + Fishark and Sara ranges--Lhas--The + pass--Whirlwinds--Robbers--Fezahbad--The dangers of a telegraph + wire--An accident--Six villages--Deposits of sand and + gravel--Bambis--The people--Mosquitoes--A Persian house--Weaving + loom--Type of natives--Clothing--Sayids. + + +Early in the afternoon Khupah (altitude 5,920 feet) was reached, with its +very large and dirty caravanserai to the west, just outside the town +wall. From the roof--the only clean part of the hostelry--one obtains a +good panoramic view of the town. It is built in a most irregular shape, +and is encircled by a castellated mud wall with round turrets. There is a +humble dome of a mosque rising somewhat higher than all the other little +domes above each dwelling. + +Feeble attempts at raising a bazaar have been made on different sites in +the town, where bits of arcades have been erected, but there are no signs +about the place of a flourishing industry or trade. The majority of +houses, especially in the northern part of the city, are in ruins. The +principal thoroughfare is picturesque enough, and on the occasion of my +visit looked particularly attractive to me, with its huge trays of +delicious grapes. They were most refreshing to eat in the terrific heat +of the day. One peculiarity of the place is that most doorways of houses +are sunk--generally from one to three feet--below the level of the +street. + +Between the caravanserai and the city is a sunken well with flat roof and +four ventilating shafts to keep the water cool. Further away, are seven +more buildings--probably dead-houses--and a garden. The little range +north of the city is quite low, and has in front of it a pyramidal +dune--a similar deposit to those we have already noticed to the +north-west in the morning on our march to this place, but much higher. + +South of the town many trees and verdant gardens are visible, and to the +West the immense stretch of flat--some sixty miles of it that we had +travelled over from Isfahan. + +For want of a better amusement I sat on the roof to watch the sunset, +while Sadek cooked my dinner. The nearer hills, of a bright cobalt blue, +faded into a light grey in the distance, the sky shone in a warm cadmium +yellow, and beneath stretched the plain, of a dark-brown bluish colour, +uninterrupted for miles and miles, were it not for one or two +tumbled-down huts in the immediate foreground, and a long, snake-like +track winding its way across the expanse until it lost itself in the dim +distance. + +Directly below, in the courtyard of the caravanserai, four camels +squatted round a cloth on which was served straw mixed with cotton +seeds, that gave flavour to their meal. The camels slowly ground their +food, moving their lower jaws sideways from right to left, instead of up +and down as is usual in most other animals; and some of the caravan men +placidly smoked their kalians, while others packed up their bundles to +make ready for their departure as soon as the moon should rise. In +another corner of the courtyard my own caravan man groomed the mules, and +around a big flame a little further off a crowd of admiring natives gazed +open-mouthed at Sadek boiling a chicken and vegetables for my special +benefit. + +We were to make a night march, as the heat of the day was too great to +travel in. At three in the morning, yawning and stretching our limbs when +we were roused by the charvadar,[5] we got on the mules and made our +departure. The cold was intense, and the wind blowing with all its might +from the west. Six miles off we passed Kamalbek, then six miles further +the large village of Moshkianuh in ruins, with a few green trees near it. + +The plain on which we are travelling rises gently up to the village of +Kudeshk at the foot of the mountain (altitude 6,750 feet). We ascend +gradually between hills to the north and south and find ourselves in +another flat valley, about three quarters of a mile broad and one mile +and a half long. (Altitude 7,200 feet.) We are surrounded by hills, and +find two villages, one to the east, the other to the west of the valley. +The latter possesses buildings with masonry walls instead of the usual +mud ones, and also masonry enclosures round wheat-fields and fruit-tree +groves. + +We continue to rise until the highest point of the plain is reached, +7,620 feet. Two or three smaller hamlets are found in the centre of the +plain. + +A second basin is found on proceeding east, with here and there miserable +clusters of trees; otherwise everything is as barren as barren could be. +On the reddish hills the rocky portion shows through at the summit only, +whereas the bases are enveloped in a covering of sand and salt. To the +north the Fishark and Sara mountain range extends in a general direction +of N.W. to S.E., and its formation is quite interesting. Due north of us +the eye is attracted by a peculiar hill, a double cone, two pointed, and +much redder in colour than the hills near it. + +On nearing the mountains many small villages appear. Yazih village has a +solid stone wall round it. Wheat is cultivated by the natives, good water +being obtainable here in small but limpid streams. Then we have the old +village of Lhas, now rejoicing in the new name of Mazemullahmat, and near +it, Fezahbad, where I halted. + +I strolled in the afternoon a mile from the latter village to the pass, +8,000 feet above sea level. Directly in front of the pass (at 110 deg. +bearings magnetic) stands a high peak, and beyond it to the right of the +observer (at 140 deg. b.m.) another and higher summit. + +We leave behind to the W.N.W. the high Sara mountain range, no peaks of +which, I estimated, rose above 10,000 feet. W.N.W. (at 280 deg. b.m.) is a +most curious conical hill, standing isolated and very high above the +plain. + +Among the most common sights of these parts are the whirlwinds--the +_tourbillons_,--each revolving with terrific rapidity round its own axis +and raising to the sky a cylindrical column of dust. They further move +along the country in a spasmodic manner, but never so fast that they +cannot be avoided. The diameter of the wind columns I observed by the +dust carried with it, varied from 3 feet to 20 feet. + +The mountains we are travelling on are said to be somewhat unsafe, the +villagers being given to attacking caravans, and robber bands coming here +for shelter when it becomes unsafe for them to be on the Kashan-Yezd high +road. In fact, while resting in the house of Haji-Mulla Ahmed at +Fezahbad, a curious lot of men appeared, who, notwithstanding the +remonstrances of Sadek and Haji, broke into the house in a most +boisterous manner, demanding food of the landlord. They were armed with +revolvers and old Martini rifles, and had plenty of cartridges about +their persons. They seemed quite taken aback to find a European inside +the room. They changed their attitude at once, and became quite polite. + +I entertained them to tea, of which they drank gallons. I cannot say that +I was particularly charmed with their faces, but their manner was +certainly most courteous. They showed me their rifles--English Martinis +with additional gold ornamentations of lion and sun, such as one sees in +thousands all over Persia. I asked them where they got them from. They +said they came from the Persian Gulf. + +Haji Mulla Ahmed, the founder of the village, was a fine old fellow with +a kindly face, eyes shining like beads under an overhanging brow, and a +crimson beard dyed with henna. He appeared rather sulky at this unwonted +visit, and more sulky still later when the visitors left me and he had to +provide food for them. He said that the robbers frequently called upon +him, and were a great drain on his supplies. + +When we left at 1.45 a.m. to go across the pass, he advised Sadek and +myself to load our rifles and keep a sharp look-out. As I had already +measured the altitude of the pass in the afternoon I had no particular +object in keeping awake, so I slung the rifle to my saddle and dozed off +on my mule as we were slowly winding our way up to the summit. The long +night marches were so dreary and the sound of the mules' bells so +monotonous that it was most difficult to keep awake. One gradually learns +to balance one's self quite well on the saddle while asleep, and it does +shorten the long hours of the night very considerably. Occasionally one +wakes up abruptly with a jolt, and one fancies that one is just about to +tumble over, but although I suppose I must have ridden in my life +hundreds of miles while asleep on the saddle, I have never once had a +fall in the natural course of affairs. The animals, too, are generally so +intelligent that they do for one the balancing required and manage to +keep under the rider. + +On that particular night I was extremely sleepy. I opened my eyes for a +second when we reached the pass and began to descend on the other side, +but sleepiness overcame me again. I was riding the first mule in the +caravan. Unexpectedly I received a fearful blow in the face, and I was +very nearly torn off the saddle. There was a curious metallic buzzing +resounding in the air, and before I had time to warn those that came +after, Sadek, who came next, was knocked down, and the mules, frightened +at this unusual occurrence, stampeded down the steep incline. It was the +telegraph wire hanging loose right across the road that had caused the +accident. The road was in zig-zag, and was crossed several times by the +wire which was laid more or less in a straight line. But this, of course, +I did not know, so a few minutes later, before we had time to bring the +runaway mules to a stop, the wire, unseen, was again met with a foot or +so above the ground. It caught the mules on the legs, and as they were +tied to one another, and were carried on by the impetus of the pace at +which we were going, all the animals tumbled down one on the top of the +other in a heap. The packs got mercilessly undone, and it took us the +best part of an hour to disentangle all and get things straight again. + +The cold was bitter. Some two miles East of the pass there were two +roads, one leading to Nain, the other to Nao Gombes. We took the latter +and shorter route, and with some sense of relief now we left the +telegraph line, which proceeds to Nain. + +On the plateau east of the pass, we found six small villages, the most +eastern--Eshratawat (Ishratabad)--being the largest (altitude 6,800 ft.). +When the sun was about to rise we more clearly distinguished a grey, +sombre, mountainous mass to the east, sharply indented at its summit, +like the teeth of a gigantic saw, and ending abruptly on the northern +terminus. + +We had come between mountains, and some twelve miles from Fezahbad we +reached Kudarz (altitude 6,580 ft.), a village situated at the foot of +the range we had crossed. As the sun peeped above the mountains close by +to the east a large plain disclosed itself before the observer. A long +mountain range, bluish and indistinct, could just be perceived in the +distance, bounding the plain to the north. Some low, semi-spherical and a +few conical hills, and also a somewhat higher and rugged rocky elevation, +were found on entering the plain from the west. + +Oskholun village lies in the plain 16 miles from Fezahbad. At the foot of +the mountains on one's right one notices a curious deposit of sand and +gravel, cushion shaped, rising in a gentle incline up the mountain side +to a height of 150 feet. It would be interesting to find out exactly how +these accumulations have formed, and whether the wind or water or both +are responsible for them. + +On arriving at Bambis (altitude 5,660 ft.) Sadek was in a great state of +mind to find a suitable house where we could put up, as there were no +caravanserais. Several of the principal people in the town offered me +their own houses, and eventually, after careful inspection, I accepted +the cleanest. + +Of course, in small, out-of-the-way villages no great luxury could be +expected even in dwellings of well-to-do people, but after entering by a +miserable door and going through a filthy passage, one came to a nice +little court with an ornamental tank of somewhat fetid water. Swarms of +mosquitoes rose from the floating leaves of the water plants as soon as +we appeared and gave us a very warm reception. In a few seconds we were +stung all over. + +The women folks were made to stampede to the upper storey on our arrival, +where they remained concealed while we stayed in the house, and the +younger male members of the family hastily removed all the bedding and +personal belongings from the principal room, which I was to occupy. +Clouds of dust were raised when an attempt was made to sweep the dried +mud floor. Out of the windows of the upper storey the women flung +handsome carpets, which Sadek duly spread upon the floor. + +The room was a very nice one, plastered all over and painted white, +enriched with adhering dried leaves of red roses forming a design upon +the ceiling. There were nine receptacles in the walls, and four more in +the sides of the chimney piece. Next to this room was another similar +one, and opposite in the courtyard a kind of alcove was used as a +kitchen. It had a raised part of mud bricks some three feet high and +about as broad, on which was fixed the weaving loom that stretched right +across the court when in use. A hole was made in the raised portion, in +which the weaver sat when at work, so as to keep the legs under the loom. + +[Illustration: Persian Spinning Wheels and Weaving Looms.] + +The loom is simple enough, the two sets of long horizontal threads being +kept at high tension by an iron bar fixed into the cylindrical wooden +rollers, round which the threads are rolled. There is then a vertical +arrangement for moving the long horizontal sets of threads alternately up +and down by means of pedals, a cross thread being passed between them +with a spool, and beaten home each time with the large comb suspended in +a vertical position. The threads are kept in position by two additional +combs which represent the width of the cloth, and in which each +horizontal thread is kept firm in its central position by a clever device +of inverted loops between which it is passed and clenched tight. The +cloth is rolled round a wooden cylinder. It is extremely strong and +durable. Almost each house has a weaving loom. + +On one side of the court was a recess in the wall for valuables. The +padlock was closed by means of a screw. By the side of the kitchen one +found the lumber and refuse room, and there were corresponding +arrangements on the floor above. Unlike other Persian houses this was +lighted by windows with neat woodwork, instead of by the usual skylight +hole in the dome of the room. + +The natives at this village were very handsome. There was a touch of the +Afghan type in the men, and the women had fine faces with magnificent +eyes. One found firm mouths with well-cut and properly developed lips, in +contrast to the weak, drooping mouths of the people one had met in the +western cities; and the noses were finely chiselled, with well-defined +nostrils. There was no unsteadiness in the eyes, so common to the +Persians of the north-west,--and these fellows consequently presented +quite an honest appearance, while the overhanging brow added a look of +pensiveness. The skull was peculiarly formed, slanting upwards +considerably from the forehead to an abnormal height, and giving the +cranium an elongated shape. The ears, too, generally malformed or +under-developed in most Persians, were better shaped in these people, +although by no means perfect. They, nevertheless, showed a certain +refinement of blood and race. + +In the matter of men's clothing it was gratifying to find the ugly +pleated frockcoats discarded--or, rather, never adopted--and long +picturesque shirts and ample trousers worn instead, held together by a +kamarband. Over all was thrown a brown burnous, not unlike that of the +Bedouins, and the head was wound in an ample turban of the Hindoo +pattern. + +Children wore short coats ornamented with embroidery and shells at the +back and pretty silver buttons in front. Their little caps, too, were +embellished with shells, beads, or gold braiding. + +Nearly all male natives, old and young, suffered from complaints of the +eyes, but not so the women,--probably because they spent most of the time +in the house and did not expose themselves to the glare of the sun and +salty dust, which seemed to be the principal cause of severe inflammation +of the eyes. + +Bambis village was greatly dependent upon Isfahan for its provisions, and +therefore everything was very dear. Excellent vegetables, _shalga_, +_sardek_, _churconda_, and pomegranates were nevertheless grown, by means +of a most elaborate and ingenious way of irrigation, but the water was +very brackish and dirty. Felt filters were occasionally used by the +natives for purifying the drinking water. + +There were a number of Sayids living at Bambis, who looked picturesque in +their handsome green turbans; they were men of a splendid physique, very +virile, simple in manner, serious and dignified, and were held in much +respect by their fellow villagers. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5] Charvadar--Caravan man. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + + Bambis--The Kashsan-Yezd high road--The Kevir + plain--Minerals--Chanoh--Sand + deposits--Sherawat--Kanats--Agdah--Stone cairns--Kiafteh--An + isolated mount--A long sand bar--A forsaken village--Picturesque + Biddeh--Handsome caravanserai at Meiboh--Rare + baths--Shamsi--Sand-hills--Hodjatabad--Fuel--A "tower of + silence"--A split camel--Thousands of borings for water--A + four-towered well. + + +We left Bambis at ten o'clock on Sunday evening and travelled on a flat +plain the whole night. One village (Arakan) was passed, and eventually we +entered the Teheran-Kashan-Yezd high road which we struck at Nao Gombes. +Here there were a Chappar Khana and an ancient Caravanserai--the latter +said to be of the time of Shah Abbas--but we did not stop, and continued +our journey along a broad, immense stretch of flat country consisting of +sand and gravel. + +My men were fast asleep on their mules, but the animals seemed to know +their way well, as they had been on this road many times before. The +night was extremely cold. We were now at an altitude of 4,240 feet in +what is called the "Kevir," a small salt desert plain, enclosed to the +south-west of the track by the south-easterly continuation of the Sara +and Keble range; to the north-east by the Mehradji, Turkemani, and Duldul +mountains; and to the north by the Aparek and Abiane mountains. + +During the rainy weather the drainage of the latter two ranges is carried +in large volumes into the plain between them, and eventually into the +Kevir, in which it loses itself. To the south-east the Ardakan mountains +form a barrier, having, however, a gap between them and the Andjile +mountains, through which the road crosses in a south-easterly direction. + +Antimony is found in the Mehradji mountains, and copper, lead (in several +localities), nickel and antimony in the Anarek region. Silver is said to +have been found in the Andjile. To the north-east, almost in the middle +of the Kevir, stands the isolated high mountain of Siakuh. + +Thirty-six miles from Bambis we reached Chanoh, a most desolate place, +with a rest-house in ruins and a couple of suspicious-looking wells. We +arrived here at eight in the morning, after having travelled since ten +o'clock the previous evening, but we only allowed ourselves and our mules +four hours' rest for breakfast, and we were again in the saddle at noon. + +There is nothing to interest the traveller on this part of the road +except an occasional passing caravan, and the scenery is dreary beyond +words. Long, long stretches of flat, uninteresting sand and gravel, or +sand alone in places. On nearing the spot where the track passes between +the Andjile and Ardakan mountains we find sand deposits stretching out +for nearly two miles from the mountain ranges to the south-west and +south. + +Shehrawat (Shehrabad) village differs from most we have seen in the shape +of its few roofs, which are semi-cylindrical, like a vault, and not +semi-spherical. A mud tower rises above them, and there are a few fields +and some fruit-trees near the habitations. + +About a mile further, more sand dunes are to be found, and a long row of +kanats carrying water to the village of Nasirabad, half a mile east of +the track. Further on we come upon an open canal, and we can perceive a +village about two miles distant, also to the east of the track. + +Just before arriving at Agdah the earth has positively been disembowelled +in search of water, so numerous are the kanats of all sizes and depths +among which we wind our way. The large village of Agdah itself stands on +a prominence (4,080 ft.) against a background of mountains, and is +embellished with a great many orchards tidily walled round. It is a +famous place for pomegranates, which are really delicious. As usual a +number of ruined houses surround those still standing, and as we skirt +the village wall over 30 feet high we observe some picturesque high round +towers. + +The telegraph wire (which we had met again at Nao Gombes) was here quite +an amusing sight. In the neighbourhood of the village it was highly +decorated with rags of all colours, and with stones tied to long strings +which, when thrown up, wind themselves round and remain entangled in the +wire. + +There were some 300 habitations in Agdah, the principal one with a large +quadrangular tower, being that of the Governor; but both the Chappar +khana and the caravanserai were the filthiest we had so far encountered. +A number of Sayids lived here. + +We halted at four in the afternoon on Monday, October 19th. The mules +were so tired that I decided to give them twelve hours' rest. It may be +noticed that we had travelled from ten o'clock the previous evening until +four in the afternoon--eighteen hours--with only four hours' rest,--quite +good going for caravan marching. The mules were excellent. + +At 4 a.m. on the Tuesday we rode out of the caravanserai, and still +travelled south-east on a flat gravel plain, with the high Ardakan +Mountains to the east. Fourteen miles or so from Agdah the country became +undulating with large pebble stones washed down from the mountain-sides. +Cairns of stone had been erected on the first hillock we came to near the +road. We passed two villages, one on the track, the other about a mile +north of it, and near this latter two or three smaller hamlets were +situated. + +Sixteen miles from Agdah we halted for an hour or so at the village of +Kiafteh (Chaftah)--altitude 3,960 feet--with its round tower and the +Mosque of Semur-ed-din one mile north of it. Here there was a Chappar +khana. The labourers wore a short blue shirt and ample trousers, with +white turban and white shoes. Having partaken of a hearty breakfast we +were off again on the road in the broiling sun at 10.30 a.m. Beautiful +effects of mirage were before us like splendid lakes, with the mountains +reflected into them, and little islands. + +As we go through the gap in the mountains that are now to the south-west +and north-east of us the plain narrows to a width of some four miles, and +the direction of the track is east-south-east. To the south-east the +hillocks of a low range stretch as far as the mountains on the +south-west, and several parallel ranges lie on the north-east. South, +very far off, is the high Shirkuh mountain. + +Eight miles from Kiafteh we cross over the low hill range by a pass +(4,090 ft.) about 100 feet above the plain (3,990 ft.). There is a +mournful look about the soil of black sand, and also about the gloomy +shingle hill range extending from the north-east to the south-west. The +black underlying rock where exposed to the air shows numberless holes +corroded in it, as by the action of moving salt water. An inexplicable +isolated hill stands in the centre of the valley, which here is not +perfectly flat, but in a gentle incline, higher at its south-western +extremity than at its north-eastern edge. + +A formation of mud dunes similar to those we had encountered near Saigsi +is here to be noticed, this time, however, not directly in front of each +gap in the mountain range, but opposite them near the range in front, +that forms a kind of bay. These dunes were probably caused by the +deposit of sand and gravel left by a current that met the barrier of +mountains on the opposite side of the bay. + +On crossing the hill range some eighteen miles from Kiafteh, we come +across a sand-bar which stretches in a semi-circle half way across the +valley, where it then suddenly turns south-east. It is about 80 feet +high. To all appearance the sand deposited upon this bar seems to have +travelled in a direction from north north-east to south south-west. A +mile further it meets another sand dune, stretching in a general +direction of south-west to north-east. Where the higher dune comes to an +end half-way across the valley we find a village, having the usual +quadrangular mud enclosure with towers, an abandoned caravanserai fast +tumbling down, and a few domed mud hovels. The larger and better +preserved village of Bafru, one mile to the east of the track, is well +surrounded by a long expanse of verdant trees. South of it is the other +flourishing settlement of Deawat (Deabad). + +The abandoned village of Assiabo Gordoneh, now in ruins, tells us a sad +story. The village at one time evidently ran short of water. Hundreds of +borings can be seen all round it in all directions, but they must have +been of no avail. The place had to be forsaken. + +The sand dune is here 80 feet high. The space between these two sand +dunes--plateau-like--is nicely cultivated in patches where some water has +been found. + +We arrived in the evening at Biddeh, a very large and most weird place, +with habitations partly cut into the high mud banks. The houses were +several storeys high. The greater number of buildings, now in ruins, show +evidence of the former importance of this place and the wonderful ancient +aqueducts with the water carried over a high bridge from one side of a +ravine to the other are of great interest. This must have been a +prosperous place at one time. The whitish clay soil has been quaintly +corroded by the action of water, and one finds curious grottoes and deep, +contorted, natural channels. A mosque and several impressive +buildings--the adjective only applies when you do not get too near +them--stand high up against the cliff side. The whole place is quite +picturesque. + +The mules go along a narrow lane between walled fields, and then by a +steepish ascent among ruined houses and patches of cultivation we reach +the summit of the clay dune, on which the newer village of Meiboh +(Maibut)--3,940 feet--is situated. + +There is a most beautiful (for Persia) caravanserai here with a +delightful domed tank of clear spring water, in which I then and there +took a delicious bath, much to the horror of the caravanserai proprietor +who assured me--when it was too late--that the tank was no _hammam_ or +bath, but was water for drinking purposes. His horror turned into white +rage when, moreover, he declared that my soap, which I had used freely, +would kill all the fish which he had carefully nursed for years in the +tank. We spent most of the evening in watching the state of their health, +and eventually it was with some relief that we perceived all the soap +float away and the water again become as clear as crystal. To the evident +discomfiture of the caravanserai man, when we paid the last visit to the +tank at 4 a.m. just previous to my departure, no deaths were to be +registered in the tank, and therefore no heavy damages to pay. + +There is nothing one misses more than baths while travelling in central +and eastern Persia. There is generally hardly sufficient water to drink +at the various stages, and it is usually so slimy and bad that, although +one does not mind drinking it, because one has to, one really would not +dream of bathing or washing in it! Hence my anxiety not to lose my chance +of a good plunge at Meiboh. + +On leaving Meiboh at 4 a.m. we passed for a considerable distance through +land under cultivation, the crop being principally wheat. A large +flour-mill was in course of construction at Meiboh. After that we were +again travelling on a sandy plain, with thousands of borings for water on +all sides, and were advancing mainly to the south-west towards the +mountains. We continued thus for some twelve miles as far as Shamsi, +another large village with much cultivation around it. After that, there +were sand and stones under our mules' hoofs, and a broiling sun over our +heads. On both sides the track was screened by mountains and by a low +hill range to the north-east. + +About eight miles from Shamsi we entered a region of sand hills, the sand +accumulations--at least, judging by the formation of the hills--showing +the movement of the sand to have been from west to east. This fact was +rather curious and contrasted with nearly all the other sand +accumulations which we found later in eastern Persia, where the sand +moved mostly in a south-westerly direction. No doubt the direction of the +wind was here greatly influenced and made to deviate by the barriers of +mountains so close at hand. + +There were numerous villages, large and small, on both sides of the +track. Hodjatabad, our last halt before reaching Yezd, only sixteen miles +further, had a handsome caravanserai, the porch of which was vaulted over +the high road. It was comparatively clean, and had spacious stabling for +animals. Delicious grapes were to be obtained here, and much of the +country had been cleared of the sand deposit and its fertile soil +cultivated. + +Fuel was very expensive in Persia. At the entrance of nearly every +caravanserai was displayed a large clumsy wooden scale, upon which wood +was weighed for sale to travellers, and also, of course, barley and +fodder for one's animals. The weights were generally round stones of +various sizes. + +Jaffarabad, a very large and prosperous place, stood about one mile to +the north-west of the caravanserai, and had vegetation and many trees +near it; this was also the case with the other village of Medjamed, which +had innumerable fields round it. + +Firuzabad came next as we proceeded towards Yezd, and then, after +progressing very slowly,--we sank deep in sand for several miles--we +perceived upon a rugged hill a large round white "tower of silence," +which had been erected there by the Guebres (or Parsees) for the disposal +of their dead. We skirted the mud wall of Elawad--where the women's dress +was in shape not unlike that of Turkish women, and consisted of ample, +highly-coloured trousers and short zouave jacket. The men resembled +Afghans. + +I here came across the first running camel I had seen in Persia, and on +it was mounted a picturesque rider, who had slung to his saddle a sword, +a gun, and two pistols, while round his waistband a dagger, a +powder-flask, bullet pouch, cap carrier, and various such other warlike +implements hung gracefully in the bright light of the sun. A few yards +further we came upon a ghastly sight--a split camel. The poor obstinate +beast had refused to cross a narrow stream by the bridge, and had got +instead on the slippery mud near the water edge. His long clumsy +hind-legs had slipped with a sudden _ecart_ that had torn his body ripped +open. The camel was being killed as we passed, and its piercing cries and +moans were too pitiful for words. + +The mountain on which the huge tower of silence has been erected--by +permission of Zil-es-Sultan, I was told--is quadrangular with a long, +narrow, flat-topped platform on the summit. The best view of it is +obtained from the south. Sadek told me in all seriousness from +information received from the natives, that the bodies are placed in +these towers in a sitting position with a stick under the chin to support +them erect. When crows come in swarms to pick away at the body, if the +right eye is plucked out first by a plundering bird, it is said to be a +sure sign that the ex-soul of the body will go to heaven. If the left eye +is picked at first, then a warmer climate is in store for the soul of the +dead. + +After leaving behind the Guebre tower we come again upon thousands of +borings for water, and ancient _kanats_, now dry and unused. The country +grows less sandy about eight miles from Yezd, and we have now gradually +ascended some 320 feet from the village of Meiboh (Maibut) to an altitude +of 4,230 feet. Here we altogether miss the flourishing cultivation which +lined the track as far as the Guebre tower, and cannot detect a single +blade of grass or natural vegetation of any kind on any side. There are +high mountains to the south-west and east. + +On the right (west) side of the track, eight miles from Yezd, is the neat +mud wall of Nusseratabad, with a few trees peeping above it, but to the +left of us all is barren, and we toddled along on grey, clayish sand. + +Half-way between Nusseratabad and Yezd a four-towered well is to be +found, and a quarter of a mile further the Mazereh Sadrih village, one +and a-half farsakhs from Yezd. The mules sank deep in the fine sand. +There were a good many Guebres about, mostly employed in carrying manure +on donkeys. One of them, who was just returning from one of these +errands, addressed me, much to my surprise, in Hindustani, which he spoke +quite fluently. He told me that he had travelled all over India, and was +about to start again for Bombay. + +[Illustration: Halting at a Caravanserai.] + +[Illustration: A Street in Yezd, showing High _Badjirs_ or Ventilating +Shafts.] + +Some "_badjir_"--high ventilating shafts--and a minaret or two tell us +that we are approaching the town of Yezd--the ancient city of the +Parsees--and soon after we enter the large suburb of Mardavoh, with its +dome and graceful tower. + +A track in an almost direct line, and shorter than the one I had +followed, exists between Isfahan and Yezd. It passes south of the Gao +Khanah (Salt Lake) to the south-east of Isfahan. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + + Yezd--Water supply--Climate--Cultivation--Products--Exports and + imports--Population--Trade--Officials--Education--Persian + children--Public schools--The Mushir school--The Parsee + school--C.M.S. mission school--The medical mission--The + hospital--Christianizing difficult--European ladies in + Persia--Tolerance of race religions. + + +Yezd is the most central city of Persia, but from a pictorial point of +view the least interesting city in the Shah's empire. There are a great +many mosques--it is said about fifty--but none very beautiful. The +streets are narrow and tortuous, with high walls on either side and +nothing particularly attractive about them. Curious narrow arches are +frequently to be noticed overhead in the streets, and it is supposed that +they are to support the side walls against collapse. + +There is not, at least I could not find, a single building of note in the +city except the principal and very ancient mosque,--a building in the +last degree of decay, but which must have formerly been adorned with a +handsome frontage. There is a very extensive but tumbling-down wall +around the city, and a wide moat, reminding one of a once strongly +fortified place. + +To-day the greater portion of Yezd is in ruins. The water supply is +unfortunately very defective and irregular. There are no perennial +streams of any importance, and all the irrigation works are dependent on +artificial subterranean canals and kanats, and these in their turn are +mostly subject to the rain and snow fall on the hills surrounding Yezd. +Unluckily, the rains are now neither frequent nor abundant, and the land +has in consequence been suffering severely from want of water. Snow falls +in winter and to a great extent feeds the whole water supply of Yezd and +its neighbourhood. It is not surprising, therefore, that more than +three-quarters of the province of Yezd is barren land, cultivation being +under the circumstances absolutely out of the question. Some portions of +the province, however, where water is obtainable are quite fertile. + +Towards the west the hills show some signs of vegetation, mainly fruit +trees. But nothing larger than a bush grows wild, if we except occasional +stunted fig-trees. Surrounded by mountains as Yezd is, there are two +different climates close at hand: that of the "Kohestan" or hills, +temperate in summer but piercing cold in winter, and the other, much +warmer, of the low-lying land. In the eastern lowlands the summer heat is +excessive, in autumn just bearable, and in the spring the climate is +quite delightful. In all seasons, however, with few exceptions, it is +generally dry and always healthy and pure. + +Where some moisture is obtainable the soil is very fertile and is +cultivated by the natives. The chief cultivated products are wheat, +barley, and other cereals, cotton, opium, and tobacco. The vine +flourishes near Yezd, and the wines used by the Parsees are not +unpalatable. Mulberries are cultivated in large quantities. Silk is +probably the most important product of the Yezd district. Wild game is +said to be plentiful on the mountains. With the exception of salt, the +mineral products of the district are insignificant. + +Yezd is a great trading centre, partly owing to its geographical +position, partly because its inhabitants are very go-ahead and +enterprising. Yezd men are great travellers and possess good business +heads. They go across the salt desert to Khorassan and Afghanistan, and +they trade, with India principally, via Kerman, Bandar Abbas, and Lingah, +and also to a small extent via Sistan. Previously the trade went entirely +by Shiraz and Bushire, but now that road is very unsafe, owing to +robbers. Yezd traders travel even much further afield, as far as China, +India, Java. During my short stay I met quite a number of people who had +visited Bombay, Calcutta, Russia, Bokhara, and Turkestan. + +The settled population of Yezd consists mostly of Shia Mahommedans, the +descendants of the ancient Persian race, with an intermixture of foreign +blood; the Parsees or Zoroastrians, who still retain their purity of race +and religious faith, and who are principally engaged in agriculture and +commerce; a very small community of European Christians, including a few +Armenian natives of Julfa (Isfahan). Then there are about one thousand +Jews, who live mostly in abject poverty. + +The Mahommedan population of the town may be approximately estimated at +sixty thousand. Here, even more noticeably than in any other Persian +town, there is very little outward show in the buildings, which are of +earth and mud and appear contemptible, but the interiors of houses of the +rich are pleasant and well-cared for. The miserable look of the town, +however, is greatly redeemed by the beauty of the gardens which surround +it. + +It is to be regretted that the roads in and around Yezd are in a wretched +condition, being absolutely neglected, for were there safer and more +practicable roads trade would be facilitated and encouraged to no mean +degree. As things stand now, indigenous trade is increasing slowly, but +foreign trade is making no headway. The silk and opium trades, which were +formerly the most profitable, have of late declined. Cottons and +woollens, silk, the _Kasb_ and _Aluhi_ of very finest quality, shawls, +cotton carpets and noted felts equal if not superior to the best of Kum, +are manufactured both for home use and for export. + +The exports mainly consist of almonds and nuts, tobacco, opium (to +China), colouring matters, walnut-wood, silk, wool, cotton carpets, +felts, skins, assafoetida, shoes, copper pots, country loaf-sugar, +sweetmeats, for which Yezd is celebrated, etc. Henna is brought to Yezd +from Minab and Bandar Abbas to be ground and prepared for the Persian +market, being used with _rang_ as a dye for the hair. + +The chief imports are spices, cotton goods, yarn, prints, copper +sheeting, tin slabs, Indian tea, broadcloth, jewellery, arms, cutlery, +watches, earthenware, glass and enamel wares, iron, loaf-sugar, powdered +sugar, etc. + +The Government of Yezd, as of other cities of Persia, is purely despotic, +limited only by the power and influence of the Mahommedan priests, the +Mullahs, and by the dread of private vengeance or an occasional +insurrection. It is true that the actions of Hakims and Governors and +their deputies are liable to revision from the Teheran authorities, but +this does not prevent exactions and extortions being carried on quite +openly and on a large scale. + +The present Governor, Salal-ud-dauleh--"Glory of the state,"--eldest son +of Zil-es-Sultan, is an intelligent and well-to-do young man, sensibly +educated, who tries his best to be fair to everybody; but it is very +difficult for him to run alone against the strong tide of corruption +which swamps everything in Persia. He is not in good health, and spends +much of his time hunting wild game at his country place in the hills near +Yezd. His town residence is a kind of citadel--not particularly +impressive, nor clean--inside the city wall. The Naib-ul-Kukumat was the +Deputy-Governor at the time of my visit. He seemed quite an affable and +intelligent man. + +Near the Palace in the heart of the city are the covered bazaars, old and +new, and well stocked with goods, but they are in character so exactly +like those of Teheran and Isfahan, already described in previous +chapters, that a repetition is quite unnecessary. The streets are +irregularly planned, and the older ones are very dark and dingy, but the +newer arcades are lofty and handsome. The merchants seem--for +Persia--quite active and business-like. + +At the beginning of the nineteenth century the population of Yezd is said +to have been one hundred thousand souls, and to have dwindled down to +less than thirty thousand in 1868-1870 during the terrific famine which +took place at that time. Whether this is correct or not, it is difficult +to ascertain, but to-day the city is on the increase again, and the +population, as already stated, is certainly not less than sixty thousand. +There are numerous Mahommedan _hammams_ (baths)--some 65 or more--in +Yezd, but Europeans are not allowed to enter them. + +The Yezd people are very forward in educational matters. I inspected some +of the schools and colleges, and was much impressed by the +matter-of-fact, sensible way in which some of the more modern +institutions were conducted. They would indeed put to shame a great many +of our schools in England, and as for the talent of children, as compared +with English children of the same age, one had better say nothing at all. +With no exaggeration, children aged six analysed and reasoned out +problems placed before them in a way that would in this country baffle +men of six times that age. The quickness of the Persian child's brain is +well-nigh astounding, and as for their goodness and diligence, there is +only one word that fits them: they are simply "angelic." Their intense +reverence for the teachers, their eagerness really to learn, and their +quiet, attentive behaviour were indeed worthy of admiration. But it must +be well understood that these angelic traits are confined to the +school-days only. When they leave school the "angelic" wears off very +soon, and the boys, unluckily, drift into the old and demoralized ways +with which Persia is reeking. + +There are about a dozen public schools in Yezd, but the one conducted on +most modern lines is the new school started by the Mushir. If I +understood aright, the Mushir provided the buildings and money to work +the school for a period of time, after which if successful it will be +handed over to be supported by the city or by private enterprise. + +The school was excellent. There were a hundred pupils from the ages of +six to fifteen, and they were taught Arabic, Persian, English, French, +geography, arithmetic, &c. There was a Mudir or head master who spoke +French quite fluently, and separate teachers for the other various +matters. The school was admirably conducted, with quite a military +discipline mingled with extreme kindness and thoughtfulness on the part +of the teachers towards the pupils. By the sound of a bell the boys were +collected by the Mudir in the court-yard, round which on two floors were +the schoolrooms, specklessly clean and well-aired. + +While I was being entertained to tea, sherbet, and coffee, on a high +platform, I was politely requested to ascertain for myself the knowledge +of the boys--most of whom had only been in the school less than a year. +It was rather interesting to hear little chaps of six or eight rattle +off, in a language foreign to them and without making a single mistake, +all the capitals of the principal countries in the world, and the largest +rivers, the highest mountains, the biggest oceans, and so on. And other +little chaps--no taller than three feet--summed up and subtracted and +divided and multiplied figures with an assurance, quickness and accuracy +which I, personally, very much envied. Then they wrote English and French +sentences on the slate, and Persian and Arabic, and I came out of the +school fully convinced that whatever was taught in that school was +certainly taught well. These were not special pupils, but any pupil I +chose to pick out from the lot. + +I visited another excellent institution, the Parsee school--one of +several teaching institutions that have been established in Yezd by the +Bombay Society for the amelioration of Persian Zoroastrians,--in a most +beautiful building internally, with large courts and a lofty vaulted hall +wherein the classes are held. The boys, from the ages of six to fifteen, +lined the walls, sitting cross-legged on mats, their notebooks, +inkstands, and slate by their side. At the time of my visit there were as +many as 230 pupils, and they received a similar education, but not quite +so high, as in the Mushir school. In the Parsee school less time was +devoted to foreign languages. + +Ustad Javan Mard, a most venerable old man, was the head-master, and +Ustad Baharam his assistant. The school seemed most flourishing, and the +pupils very well-behaved. Although the stocks for punishing bad children +were very prominent under the teacher's table, the head-master assured me +that they were seldom required. + +Another little but most interesting school is the one in connection with +the clerical work done by the Rev. Napier Malcolm. It is attended +principally by the sons of well-to-do Mussulmans and by a few Parsees, +who take this excellent opportunity of learning English thoroughly. Most +of the teaching is done by an Armenian assistant trained at the C. M. S. +of Julfa. Here, too, I was delightfully surprised to notice how +intelligent the boys were, and Mr. Malcolm himself spoke in high terms of +the work done by the students. They showed a great facility for learning +languages, and I was shown a boy who, in a few months, had picked up +sufficient English to converse quite fluently. The boys, I was glad to +see, are taught in a very sensible manner, and what they are made to +learn will be of permanent use to them. + +The Church Missionary Society is to be thanked, not only for this good +educational work which it supplies in Yezd to children of all creeds, but +for the well-appointed hospital for men and women. A large and handsome +caravanserai was presented to the Medical Mission by Mr. Godarz +Mihri-ban-i-Irani, one of the leading Parsees of Yezd, and the building +was adapted and converted by the Church Missionary Society into a +hospital, with a permanent staff in the men's hospital of an English +doctor and three Armenian assistants. There is also a smaller women's +hospital with an English lady doctor, who in 1901 was aided by two ladies +and by an Armenian assistant trained at Julfa. + +There are properly disinfected wards in both these hospitals, with good +beds, a well appointed dispensary, and dissecting room. + +The natives have of late availed themselves considerably of the +opportunity to get good medical assistance, but few except the very +poorest, it seems, care actually to remain in the hospital wards. They +prefer to take the medicine and go to their respective houses. A special +dark room has been constructed for the operation and cure of cataract, +which is a common complaint in Yezd. + +The health of Yezd is uncommonly good, and were it not that the people +ruin their digestive organs by excessive and injudicious eating, the +ailments of Yezd would be very few. The population is, without exception, +most favourable to the work of the Medical Mission, and all classes seem +to be grateful for the institution in the town. + +The school work of the Mission necessarily appeals to a much smaller +circle, but there is no doubt whatever about its being appreciated, and, +further, there seems to be exceedingly little hostility to such religious +inquiry and teaching as does not altogether collide with or appear to +tend to severance from the Mussulman or Parsee communities. This is very +likely due to the fast extending influence of the Behai sect, the members +of which regard favourably an acquaintance with other non-idolatrous +religions. These people, notwithstanding their being outside of official +protection and in collision with the Mullahs, form to-day a large +proportion of the population of Yezd, and exercise an influence on public +opinion considerably wider than the boundaries of their sect. As for +actual Missionary work of Christianization going beyond this point, the +difficulties encountered and the risks of a catastrophe are too great at +present for any sensible man to attempt it. + +The European staff of the C.M.S. Mission, employed entirely in +educational and medical work in Yezd, consists of the Rev. Napier +Malcolm, M.A., a most sensible and able man, and Mrs. Malcolm, who is of +great help to her husband; George Day Esq., L.R.C.P. & S., and Mrs. Day; +Miss Taylor, L.R.C.P. & S., Miss Stirling, Miss Brighty. + +The work for ladies is somewhat uphill and not always pleasant, for in +Mussulman countries women, if not veiled, are constantly exposed to the +insults of roughs; but people are beginning to get reconciled to what +appeared to them at first the very strange habits of European women, and +no doubt in time it will be less unpleasant for ladies to work among the +natives. So far the few English ladies who have braved the consequences +of undertaking work in Persia are greatly to be admired for their pluck, +patience, and tact. + +The Yezd C.M.S. Mission was started in May, 1898, by Dr. Henry White, who +had a year's previous experience of medical work at Julfa and Isfahan. He +was then joined in December of the same year by the Rev. Napier Malcolm, +who had just come out from England. The European community of Yezd is +very small. Besides the above mentioned people--who do not always reside +in Yezd--there are two Englishmen of the Bank of Persia, and a Swiss +employed by the firm of Ziegler & Co. That is all. + +The fact that the Persian Government recognizes the "race religions," +such as those of Armenians, Parsees and Jews, has led many to believe +that religious liberty exists in Persia. There is a relative tolerance, +but nothing more, and even the Parsees and Jews have had until quite +lately--and occasionally even now have--to submit to considerable +indignities on the part of the Mullahs. For new sects like the Behai, +however, who abandon the Mussulman faith, there is absolutely no official +protection. Great secrecy has to be maintained to avoid persecution. +There seems, nevertheless, to be a disposition on the part of the +Government to go considerably beyond this point of sufferance, but wider +toleration does not exist at present, nor is it perfectly clear to what +length the Government of the country would be prepared to go. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + + The Guebres of Yezd--Askizar--The Sassanian + dynasty--Yezdeyard--The name "Parsees"--The Arab invasion of + Persia--A romantic tale--Zoroaster--Parsees of India--Why the + Parsees remained in Yezd and Kerman--Their + number--Oppression--The teaching of the Zoroastrian religion and + of the Mahommedan--A refreshing quality--Family + ties--Injustice--Guebre places of worship--The sacred + fire--Religious ceremonies--Three excellent points in the + Zoroastrian religion--The Parsees not "fire + worshippers"--Purification of fire--No ancient sacred + books--Attire--No civil rights--The "jazia" tax--Occupations--The + Bombay Parsees Amelioration Society and its work--The pioneers of + trade--A national assembly--Ardeshir Meheban Irani--Establishment + of the Association--Naturalized British subjects--Consulates + wanted--The Bombay Parsees--Successful traders--Parsee + generosity--Mr. Jamsetsji Tata. + + +Yezd is extremely interesting from a historical point of view, and for +its close association with that wonderful race the "Guebres," better +known in Europe by the name of Parsees. The ancient city of Askizar was +buried by shifting sands, in a desert with a few oases, and was followed +by the present Yezd, which does not date from earlier than the time of +the Sassanian dynasty. + +[Illustration: Ardeshir Meheban Irani and the Leading Members of the +Anguman-i-Nasseri (Parsee National Assembly), Yezd.] + +Yezdeyard, the weak and unlucky last King of the Sassan family, which had +reigned over Persia for 415 years, was the first to lay the +foundations of the city and to colonize its neighbourhood. It is in this +city that, notwithstanding the sufferings and persecution of Mussulmans +after the Arab invasion of Persia, the successors of a handful of brave +people have to this day remained faithful to their native soil. + +To be convinced that the Parsees of Yezd are a strikingly fine lot of +people it is sufficient to look at them. The men are patriarchal, +generous, sober, intelligent, thrifty; the women, contrary to the usage +of all Asiatic races, are given great freedom, but are renowned for their +chastity and modesty. + +The name of Parsees, adopted by the better-known Guebres who migrated to +India, has been retained from Fars or Pars, their native country, which +contained, before the Arab invasion, Persepolis as the capital, with a +magnificent royal palace. From this province the whole kingdom eventually +adopted the name. + +It is not necessary to go into the history of the nine dynasties which +ruled in Persia before it was conquered by the Arabs, but for our purpose +it is well to remind the reader that of all these dynasties the Sassanian +was the last, and Yezdeyard, as we have seen, the ultimate King of the +Sassan family. + +One is filled with horror at the romantic tale of how, through weakness +on his part and treachery on that of his people, the fanatic Arabs, +guided by the light of Allah the Prophet, conquered Persia, slaying the +unbelievers and enforcing the Mahommedan religion on the survivors. The +runaway Yezdeyard was treacherously slain with his own jewelled sword by +a miller, in whose house he had obtained shelter after the disastrous +battle of Nahavand and his flight through Sistan, Khorassan and Merv. +Persia, with every vestige of its magnificence, was lost for ever to the +Persians, and the supremacy of Mahommedanism, with its demoralizing +influence, its haughty intolerance and fanatic bigotism, was firmly +established from one end of the country to the other. The fine temples, +the shrines of the Zoroastrians, were mercilessly destroyed or changed +into mosques. + +Zoroaster, the prophet of the Parsees, had first promulgated his religion +during the reign of Gushtasp (b.c. 1300) of the Kayanian family, but +after centuries of vicissitudes and corruption it was not till the time +of the Sassanian dynasty (a.d. 226) that Ardeshir Babekhan, the brave and +just, restored the Zoroastrian religion to its ancient purity. It is this +religion--the true religion of ancient Persia--that was smothered by the +conquered Arabs by means of blood and steel, and is only to-day retained +in a slightly modified character by the few remaining Guebres of Yezd and +Kerman, as well as by those who, sooner than sacrifice their religious +convictions and their independence, preferred to abandon their native +land, migrating to India with their families, where their successors are +to be found to this day still conservative to their faith. + +It is not too much to say that, although--in the conglomeration of races +that form the Indian Empire--the Parsees are few in number, not more than +100,000 all counted, they nevertheless occupy, through their honesty, +intelligence and firmness of character, the foremost place in that +country. But with these Parsees who migrated we have no space to deal +here. We will merely see why the remainder escaped death at the hands of +the Mahommedans, and, while ever remaining true to their religion, +continued in Yezd and Kerman when, under the new rulers, almost the whole +of the Zoroastrian population of Persia was compelled to embrace the +religion of Islam. + +The fact that Yezd and Kerman were two distant and difficult places of +access for the invading Moslems, may be taken as the likely cause of the +Zoroastrians collecting there. Also for the same reason, no doubt, the +Arabs, tired of fighting and slaying, and having given way to luxury and +vice, had become too lazy to carry on their wholesale slaughter of the +Zoroastrian population. This leniency, however, has not done away +entirely with constant tyrannical persecution and oppression of the +unbelievers, so that now the number of Zoroastrians of Yezd does not +exceed 7,000, and that of Kerman is under 3,000. A great many +Zoroastrians have, notwithstanding their unwillingness, been since +compelled to turn Mahommedans. Even fifty years ago the Zoroastrians of +Yezd and Kerman called in Persia contemptuously "Guebres," were subjected +to degradations and restrictions of the worst kind. Now their condition, +under a stronger government and some foreign influence, has slightly +ameliorated, but is not yet entirely secure against the cruelty, +fanaticism, and injustice of the Mullahs and officials in the place. + +If Yezd is, for its size, now the most enterprising trading centre of +Persia, it is mostly due to the Guebres living there. Although held in +contempt by the Mullahs and by the Mahommedans in general, these Guebres +are manly fellows, sound in body and brain, instead of lascivious, +demoralized, effeminate creatures like their tyrants. Hundreds of years +of oppression have had little effect on the moral and physical condition +of the Guebres. They are still as hardy and proud as when the whole +country belonged to them; nor has the demoralizing contact of the present +race, to whom they are subject, had any marked effect on their industry, +which was the most remarkable characteristic in the ancient Zoroastrians. + +The Zoroastrian religion teaches that every man must earn his food by his +own exertion and enterprise,--quite unlike the Mahommedan teaching, that +the height of bliss is to live on the charity of one's neighbours, which +rule, however, carries a counterbalancing conviction that the more money +dispensed in alms, the greater the certainty of the givers obtaining +after death a seat in heaven. + +One of the most refreshing qualities of the Guebres (and of the Parsees +in India) is that they are usually extraordinarily truthful for natives +of Asia, and their morality, even in men, is indeed quite above the +average. There are few races among which marriages are conducted on more +sensible lines and are more successful. The man and woman united by +marriage live in friendly equality, and are a help to one another. Family +ties are very strong, and are carried down even to distant relations, +while the paternal and maternal love for their children, and touching +filial love for their parents, is most praiseworthy and deserves the +greatest admiration. + +The Mussulmans themselves, although religiously at variance and not keen +to follow the good example of the Guebres, admit the fact that the +Zoroastrians are honest and good people. It is principally the Mullahs +who are bitter against them and instigate the crowds to excesses. There +is not such a thing for the Guebres as justice in Persia, and even up to +quite recent times their fire temples and towers of silence were attacked +and broken into by Mussulman crowds, the fires, so tenderly cared for, +mercilessly put out: the sacred books destroyed, and the temples +desecrated in the most insulting manner. + +There are a number of Guebre places of worship in Yezd, and in the +surrounding villages inhabited by Guebre agriculturists, but the +principal one is in the centre of the Guebre quarter of Yezd city. It is +a neat, small structure, very simple and whitewashed inside, with a +fortified back room wherein the sacred fire is kept alight, well covered +with ashes by a specially deputed priest. It is hidden so as to make it +difficult for intending invaders to discover it; and the strong door, +well protected by iron bars, wants a good deal of forcing before it can +be knocked down. + +The religious ceremony in the temple of the Guebres is very interesting, +the officiating priests being dressed up in a long white garment, the +_sudra_, held together by a sacred girdle, and with the lower portion of +the face covered by a square piece of cloth like a handkerchief; on the +head they wear a peculiar cap. Various genuflexions, on a specially +spread carpet, and bows are made and prayers read. + +[Illustration: Parsee Priests of Yezd Officiating during Ceremony in +their Fire Temple.] + +The priests belong generally to the better classes, and the rank is +mostly hereditary. Certain ceremonies are considered necessary before the +candidate can attain the actual dignity of a prelate. First of the +ceremonies comes the _navar_, or six days' retreat in his own dwelling, +followed by the ceremony of initiation; four more days in the fire temple +with two priests who have previously gone through the _Yasna_ prayers for +six consecutive mornings. Although after this he can officiate in some +ceremonies, such as weddings, he is not fully qualified as a priest until +the _Bareshnun_ has been undergone and again the _Yasna_. The following +day other prayers are offered to the guardian spirit, and at midnight the +last ceremony takes place, and he is qualified to the degree of +_Maratab_, when he can take part in any of the Zoroastrian rituals. + +As a preliminary, great purity of mind and body are required from +candidates, and they are made to endure lavish ablutions of water and +cow urine, clay and sand--an ancient custom, said to cleanse the body +better than modern soaps. After that the candidate is secluded for nine +whole days in the fire temple, and is not permitted to touch human +beings, vegetation, water nor fire, and must wash himself twice more +during that time, on the fourth day and on the seventh. It is only then +that he is considered amply purified and able to go through the _Navar_ +ceremony. + +The Zoroastrian religion is based on three excellent points--"good +thoughts, good words, good deeds"--and as long as people adhere to them +it is difficult to see how they can go wrong. They worship God and only +one God, and do not admit idolatry. They are most open-minded regarding +other people's notions, and are ever ready to recognise that other +religions have their own good points. + +Perhaps no greater libel was ever perpetrated on the Parsees than when +they were put down as "fire-worshippers," or "worshippers of the +elements." The Parsees are God-worshippers, but revere, not worship, fire +and the sun as symbols of glory, heat, splendour, and purity; also +because fire is to human beings one of the most necessary things in +creation, if not indeed the most necessary thing; otherwise they are no +more fire-worshippers than the Roman Catholics, for instance, who might +easily come under the same heading, for they have lighted candles and +lights constantly burning in front of images inside their churches. + +Besides, it is not the fire itself, as fire, that Parsees nurse in their +temples, but a fire specially purified for the purpose. The process is +this: Several fires, if possible originally lighted by some natural +cause, such as lightning, are brought in vases. Over one of these fires +is placed a flat perforated tray of metal on which small pieces of very +dry sandal-wood are made to ignite by the mere action of the heat, but +must not actually come in contact with the flame below. From this fire a +third one is lighted in a similar manner, and nine times this operation +is repeated, each successive fire being considered purer than its +predecessor, and the result of the ninth conflagration being pronounced +absolutely pure. + +It is really the idea of the purifying process that the Parsees revere +more than the fire itself, and as the ninth fire alone is considered +worthy to occupy a special place in their temples, so, in similarity to +it, they aim in life to purify their own thoughts, words, and actions, +and glorify them into "good thoughts, true words, noble actions." This is +indeed very different from fire-worshipping of which the Parsees are +generally accused. + +In Yezd the Guebres told me that they possessed very few sacred books in +their temple (or if they had them could not show them). They said that +all the ancient books had been destroyed by the Mahommedans or had been +taken away to India. + +There were also several smaller temples in the neighbourhood of Yezd, +which had gone through a good many vicissitudes in their time, but now +the Parsees and their places of worship are left in comparative peace. +Parsee men and women are still compelled to wear special clothes so as to +be detected at once in the streets, but this custom is gradually dying +out. The women are garbed in highly-coloured striped garments, a short +jacket and a small turban, leaving the face uncovered. The men are only +allowed to wear certain specially-coloured cloaks and are not allowed to +ride a horse in the streets of Yezd. + +Parsees do not enjoy the civil rights of other citizens in Persia, and +justice was until quite lately out of the question in the case of +differences with Mussulmans. At death a man's property would be lawfully +inherited by any distant relation who had adopted the religion of Moslem, +instead of by the man's own children and wife who had remained faithful +to their creed; and in the matter of recovering debts from Mussulmans the +law of Persia is certainly very far indeed from helping a Guebre. This is +necessarily a great obstacle in commercial intercourse. + +Worst of all the burdens formerly inflicted upon the Guebres--as well as +upon Armenians and Jews of Persia--was the "jazia" tax. Some thousand or +so male Guebres of Yezd were ordered to pay the tax yearly, which with +commissions and "squeezes" of Governors and officials was made to amount +to some two thousand tomans, or about L400 at the present rate of +exchange. Much severity and even cruelty were enforced to obtain payment +of the tax. + +The Parsees were, until quite lately, debarred from undertaking any +occupation that might place them on a level with Mahommedans. With the +exception of a few merchants--who, by migrating to India and obtaining +British nationality, returned and enjoyed a certain amount of nominal +safety--the majority of the population consists of agriculturists and +scavengers. + +Mainly by the efforts of the Bombay Amelioration Society of the Parsees, +the Guebres of Yezd and Kerman fare to-day comparatively well. The +"jazia" has been abolished, and the present Shah and the local Government +have to be congratulated on their fairness and consideration towards +these fine people. May-be that soon they will be permitted to enjoy all +the rights of other citizens, which they indeed fully deserve. Many steps +have been made in that direction within the last few years. The Parsees +are a most progressive race if properly protected. They are only too +anxious to lead the way in all reformation, and, with all this, are +remarkable for their courteousness and refined manner. + +The most prominent members of the Yezd community, especially the sons of +Meheban Rustam, have been the pioneers of trade between Yezd and India. +Besides the excellent Parsee school, several other institutions have been +established in Yezd and its suburbs by the Bombay Society, supported by a +few charitable Parsees of Bombay and some of the leading members of the +Parsee community in Yezd. The Bombay Society has done much to raise the +Zoroastrians of Persia to their present comparatively advanced state, but +trade and commerce also have to a great extent contributed to their +present eminence. + +The Bombay Society nominates and sends an agent to reside in Teheran, the +capital of Persia, to look after the interests of helpless Zoroastrians, +and the Parsees of Yezd have moreover a national assembly called the +Anguman-i-Nasseri. + +I was entertained by this interesting body of men, and received from +their president, Ardeshir Meheban Irani, much of the valuable information +here given about the Yezd Parsees. The Association has an elected body of +twenty-eight members, all honorary, the most venerable and intelligent of +the community, and its aims are to advocate the social rights of the +Zoroastrians as a race, to settle disputes arising between the +individuals of the community, to defend helpless Parsees against Moslem +wantonness, and to improve their condition generally. + +The Association was established on the 3rd of February, 1902, by the late +Mr. Kaikosroo Firendaz Irani, the then agent of the Bombay Society. In +this work he had the advice and help of the leading men of the community. + +There are several naturalised British subjects in Yezd, including the +President of the Association--who speaks and writes English as well as +any Englishman--but it is greatly to be regretted that these men cannot +obtain proper protection from the British Government. Yet these fellows +could be of very great assistance to England in spreading British +influence in Yezd, not to speak of increasing British trade--which they +are only too anxious to do, if a chance is given them--in conjunction +with the representatives of their race in Bombay--the most Anglicised, +except in religion, of all our subject races of India. There was formerly +a British Vice-Consul in Yezd, but for some reason known to the +Government, while Russia finds it expedient to establish Consular agents +in all the principal centres of Persia, we have actually withdrawn our +representative even from so important a city as Yezd! + +The Parsee communities of Yezd and Bombay are in constant communication +with each other, and it is well known what marvellous prosperity these +fugitives of Fars have now attained in Bombay, through their honesty and +hard work, especially since their connection with the British, whose +civilisation, with the exception of religion and the hat, they have +entirely adopted. Most of them speak perfect English, and many of the +sons of the wealthier Parsees have been educated at universities in +England. We find them working banking houses on a large scale, and cotton +mills, running lines of steamers and shipbuilding yards. They trade +considerably with the Far East and Far West, and with every nook in Asia. +Even as far as Samarkand, Bokhara, Siberia, Nijni-Novgorod, and St. +Petersburg, Parsee traders are to be found, and in Japan, China, the +United States, and Canada. With England they carry on a very extensive +trade, and through them as intermediaries much of the import trade into +India finds its way into neighbouring markets more difficult of access to +the direct British exporter. + +One of the most noticeable traits of the flourishing Parsees of Bombay is +their extreme generosity, often hampered by petty, stupid, Anglo-Indian +officialdom, which they seem to stand with amazing patience and +good-nature. We find well appointed hospitals erected by them; schools, +clubs, and only lately one of the richest of all Parsees, Mr. Jamsetsji +Tata, has given the city of Bombay no less a gift than a quarter of a +million pounds for the erection of a university on the most modern lines +in that city. + + + + +CHAPTER XL + + _Badjirs_--Below the sand level--Chappar service between Yezd and + Kerman--The elasticity of a farsakh--Sar-i-Yezd--An escort--Where + three provinces meet--Etiquette--Robbers' impunity--A capital + story--Zen-u-din--The Serde Kuh range--Desert--Sand + accumulations--Kermanshah--The Darestan and Godare Hashimshan + Mountains--Chappar Khana inscriptions and ornamentations by + travellers--Shemsh. + + +The most characteristic objects in Yezd are the _badjirs_, a most +ingenious device for catching the wind and conveying it down into the +various rooms of dwelling. These _badjirs_ are on the same principle as +the ventilating cowls of ships. The ventilating shafts are usually very +high and quadrangular, with two, three, or more openings on each side at +the summit and corresponding channels to convey the wind down into the +room below. The lower apertures of the channels are blocked except on the +side where the wind happens to blow, and thus a draught is created from +the top downwards, sweeping the whole room and rendering it quite cool +and pleasant even in the hottest days of summer. The reason that one +finds so many of these high _badjirs_ in Yezd is probably that, owing to +constant accumulations of sand, the whole city is now below the level of +the surrounding desert, and some device had to be adopted to procure +fresh air inside the houses and protect the inhabitants from the +suffocating lack of ventilation during the stifling heat of the summer. +The _badjirs_ are certainly constructed in a most scientific or, rather, +practical manner, and answer the purpose to perfection. + +When we leave Yezd the city itself cannot be seen at all, but just above +the sand of the desert rise hundreds of these quadrangular towers, some +very large indeed, which give the place a quaint appearance. + +From Yezd to Kerman there is again a service of post-horses, so I availed +myself of it in order to save as much time as possible. The horses were +not much used on this road so they were excellent. + +I departed from Yezd on October 26th, and soon after leaving the city and +riding through the usual plentiful but most unattractive ruins, we were +travelling over very uninteresting country, practically a desert. We +passed two villages--Najafabat and Rachmatabad--and then wound our way +through avenues of dried-up mulberry trees at Mahommedabad or Namadawat, +a village where silk-worms are reared in quantities, which accounts for +the extensive mulberry plantations to provide food for them. The village +is large and is three farsakhs from Yezd, or something like ten miles. + +The "farsakh"--the most elastic measure ever invented--decreases here to +just above three miles, whereas further north it averaged four miles. + +In a strong wind we rode on, first on sand, then on gravelly soil, ever +through dreary, desolate country. The villages, Taghiabad, Zehnawat, +etc., get smaller and poorer and further apart, and some eight farsakhs +from Yezd we eventually reach the small town of Sar-i-Yezd. From +Namadawat the country was an absolutely flat gravel plain with no water. + +[Illustration: Interior of Old Caravanserai with Central Water Tank.] + +At Sar-i-Yezd (altitude 4,980 feet) we were detained some time. The +highest official in the place had received orders from the Governor of +Yezd not to let me proceed without a strong guard to accompany me. This +was rather a nuisance than otherwise, for, although the country between +Sar-i-Yezd and Anar was reported infested by robbers, we really should +have been able to hold our own against them even without the rabble that +was sent to accompany us. + +After a delay of some hours five soldiers--as picturesque as they would +have been useless in case of danger--put in an appearance. They had old +long muzzle loaders, which must have been more dangerous to the person +firing them than to the ones fired at, and they wore elaborate leather +belts with two ample pouches for lead bullets, two gunpowder flasks made +of desiccated sheep testicles, a leather bag for small shot, and a large +iron ring with small clips for caps. Horses could not be procured for +these men, so they had to follow my baggage on foot, which caused a +further delay. + +We left shortly before sunset as I intended marching the whole night. +There was a great discussion among these soldiers about crossing over +into Kerman territory, four farsakhs beyond Sar-i-Yezd, and just at the +point where the robbers are supposed to attack caravans the guard, +whether through fear or otherwise, declined to come on. Sadek +remonstrated most bitterly, but three of them left us, while two said +they had been entrusted with orders to see me and my luggage safely to +the place where another guard could be obtained and would continue. I +tried to persuade them to go back too, but they would not. + +It appears that between Sar-i-Yezd and Zen-u-din there is an expanse of +waste land near the boundary of the Yezd, Kerman and Farsistan (Shiraz) +provinces, the possession of which is declared by the Governors of all +these provinces not to belong to them, the boundary having never been +properly defined. So robbers can carry on their evil deeds with +comparative immunity, as they do not come under the jurisdiction of any +of the three Governors in question. Moreover, if chased by Yezd soldiers, +they escape into Shiraz or Kerman territory, and if pursued by Kerman +troops they escape into either of the neighbouring provinces, while the +Governor of Shiraz, being the furthest and least interested in that +distant corner of his province, really never knows and probably does not +care to learn what takes place in so remote and barren a spot. In any +case he will not be held responsible for anything happening there. It +would certainly involve him in too great expense and difficulty to send +soldiers to live so far into the desert, and unless in great force they +could be of little assistance to caravans; so that, as things stand, +robber bands have it all their own way. + +Strict etiquette is observed between Governors of provinces and their +subordinates, and an encroachment on one's neighbour's territory would be +considered a most outrageous breach of good manners and respective +rights. + +Still travelling quite fast across sand, and with no brigands in sight, +we went on, pleasantly entertained by the astounding yarns of the two +remaining soldiers. We were told how, twenty years ago, a foreign +doctor--nationality unknown--being attacked by a band of thirty robbers, +produced a small bottle of foreign medicine--presumably a most highly +concentrated essence of chloroform--from his waistcoat pocket and, having +removed the cork, the thirty brigands immediately fell on all sides in a +deep sleep. The doctor and his party then continued their journey +quietly, and returned several days later with a number of soldiers, who +had no trouble in despatching the robbers from a temporary into an +eternal sleep, without their waking up at all! + +On being asked how it was that the doctor himself remained awake when +such a powerful narcotic was administered, the narrator did not lose his +presence of mind nor his absence of conscience, and said the doctor had, +during the operation, held his nose tight with his two fingers. The +doctor had since been offered thousands of tomans for the precious +bottle, but would not part with it. + +The soldiers told us a great many more stories of this type, and they +recounted them with such an _aplomb_ and seriousness that they nearly +made one fall off one's saddle with laughter. Every now and then they +insisted on firing off their rifles, which I requested them to do some +distance away from my horses. There were no mishaps. + +At Sar-i-Yezd I had not been able to obtain fresh horses, so the Yezd +horses had been taken on, with an additional donkey. They had gone +splendidly, and we arrived at Zen-u-din shortly after ten o'clock at +night. + +Solitary, in the middle of the desert, and by the side of a salt water +well, stands Zen-u-din (Alt. 5,170 feet). There is a chappar station, and +a tumbling-down, circular caravanserai with massively built watch-towers. +These appeared much battered as if from the result of repeated attacks. + +We left our soldier protectors behind here, and two more military +persons, in rags and with obsolete guns, insisted on accompanying us, but +as they were on foot and would have delayed us considerably I paid them +off, a hundred yards from Zen-u-din, and sent them back. + +There are mountains extending from the north-east to the south-east, the +Serde Kuh range, and to the south-east they are quite close to the track +and show low passes a mile or so apart by which the range could easily be +crossed. To the west also we have high hills, some three or four miles +apart from the mountains to the north-east, and to the north an open +desert as far as Yezd. We notice here again the curious accumulations of +sand high up on the south mountain side, and also to the south-west of +the mountain range east of us. + +[Illustration: Typical Caravanserai and Mud Fort in the Desert between +Yezd and Kerman.] + +[Illustration: A Trade Caravanserai, Kerman.] + +At ten in the morning, after a dreary ride through desolate country, we +reached the small village of Kermanshah (5,300 feet), where a post +station and caravanserai were to be found, a few trees and, above all, +some good drinking water. From Zen-u-din to Kermanshah, a distance of +sixteen miles (five farsakhs), we had seen only one solitary tree to the +south-west of the track. + +We had now rugged mountains about a mile to the west and south-west. +These were ranges parallel to one another, the Darestan mountains being +the nearest to us and the Godare Hashimshan behind them further +south-west. + +While I was waiting for fresh horses to be got ready I amused myself at +every station studying the curious inscriptions and ornamentations by +scribbling travellers on the caravanserai and post-house walls. +Laboriously engraved quotations from the Koran were the most numerous, +then the respective names of travellers, in characters more or less +elaborate according to the education of the writer, and generally +accompanied by a record of the journey, place of birth, and +destination of the scribbler. Occasionally one was startled by a French +inscription in sickening terms of humility, the work of Persian minor +officials in Government employ, who thus made a public exhibition of +their knowledge of a foreign language and expounded in glowing terms +their servile admiration for superiors. + +More interesting were the records of illiterate travellers who, in +default of literature, placed one arm and hand upon the whitewashed wall +and traced their silhouette with the point of a knife or a bit of +charcoal or a brush held in the other hand. + +Then came those still more artistically inclined, who ventured into +conventionalised representations of the peacock with widely-expanded +tail--the most favourite and frequent of Persian outbursts of Chappar +khana art, and probably the most emblematic representation of Persian +character. The conventionalised peacock is represented in a few lines, +such as one sees on the familiar Persian brass trays. + +The Shah's portrait with luxuriant moustache is met in most Chappar +khanas scraped somewhere upon the wall, and not infrequently other whole +human figures drawn in mere lines, such as children do in our country, +but with a greater profusion of anatomical detail. Very frequent indeed +are the coarse representations of scenes in daily life, which we +generally prefer to leave unrecorded--in fact, the artistic genius of the +Persian traveller seems to run very much in that direction, and these +drawings are generally the most elaborate of all, often showing signs of +multiple collaboration. + +Horses fully harnessed are occasionally attempted, but I never saw a +camel represented. Only once did I come across a huge representation of a +ship or a boat. Small birds drawn with five or six lines only, but quite +characteristic of conventionalised Persian art, were extremely common, +and were the most ingeniously clever of the lot. Centipedes and +occasional scorpions were now and then attempted with much ingenuity and +faithfulness of detail but no artistic merit. + +All these ornamentations, studied carefully, taught one a good deal of +Persian character. That the Persian is very observant and his mind very +analytical, is quite out of the question, but his fault lies in the fact +that in art as in daily life minor details strike him long before he can +grasp the larger and more important general view of what he sees. He +prefers to leave that to take care of itself. We find the same +characteristics not only in his frivolous Chappar khana art--where he can +be studied unawares and is therefore quite natural--but in his more +serious art, in his music, in his business transactions, in his political +work. The lack of simplicity which we notice in his rude drawings can be +detected in everything else he does, and the evident delight which he +takes in depicting a peacock with its tail spread in all its glory is +nothing more and nothing less than an expression of what the Persian +feels within himself in relation to his neighbours. + +Nothing has a greater fascination for him than outward show and +pomp. He cares for little else, and a further proof of this unhappy +vainglory is obtained by the study of the wall scrolls of the +travelling public--whether travelling officially or for trading +purposes--representing in Persia usually the most go-ahead and +intelligent section of the Persian population. + +On we go along the dreary track, again on flat, desolate country of sand +and stones at the spur of the mountains to the west and south-west. Sand +deposits rise at a gentle gradient up to half the height of these +mountains, well padding their slopes. The track here leads us due south +to a low pass at an altitude of 5,680 feet. One gets so tired of the +monotonous scenery that one would give anything to perceive something +attractive; nor is the monotony of the journey diminished by two other +miserable nagging soldiers who have clung to us as an escort from +Kermanshah, and who are running after our horses moaning and groaning and +saying they are starved and tired and have not received their pay nor +their food from the Government for several months. + +On the other side of the pass there is a basin encircled by mountains, +except to the south-east, where we find an open outlet. The track goes +south-south-east through this yellow plain, and on proceeding across we +find several conical black mounds with curious patches of a verdigris +colour. To the east rises a low sand dune. + +We come in sight of Shemsh, a most forlorn, cheerless place. Sadek +gallops ahead with the _horjins_, in which he has the cooking pans, some +dead fowls, and a load of vegetables and pomegranates, and I slow down to +give him time to prepare my lunch. I arrived at the place at 2.45 p.m. +There was only a desolate caravanserai and a Chappar khana. + +On the Yezd-Kerman track there are not more than three horses at each +post station--at some there are only two,--and as I required no less than +five horses, or, if possible, six, I always had to take on the deficient +number of horses from the previous stations. I generally gave these +horses two or three hours' rest, but it made their marches very long +indeed, as it must be remembered that on my discharging them they must at +once return to their point of departure. Fortunately, the traffic was so +small by this road that the horses were in good condition, and so I was +able to proceed at a good rate all along. Occasionally, one or two horses +had to be taken on for three consecutive stages, which, taking as an +average six farsakhs for each stage, made the distance they had to +travel, including return journey, six stages, or some 120 miles in all. + +The altitude of Shemsh was 5,170 feet. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + + Desolate scenery--Anar--A word for Persian servants--Sadek's + English--Bayas village--Sand deposits--Robber + villagers--Kushkuhyeh Chappar khana--The post contractor, his + rifle--Cotton cultivation--Fast growing Rafsenju--Trade + tracks--Hindu merchants--Sadek and the Chappar + boy--Kafter-han--Photography and women--A flat, salty stretch of + clay and sand--The Kuh Djupahr peaks--Robat + women--Baghih--Attractive girls--_Mirage_--Arrival in Kerman. + + +I left Shemsh two hours later, at 4.30, and we travelled over slightly +undulating country on sandy ground with occasional tracts of stones and +gravel. If possible, this part was even more desolate than the scenery we +had found before reaching here, and not a vestige of vegetation or animal +life could be detected anywhere. When night descended upon us we had +glorious moonlight to brighten our way, and we marched on gaily--this +time without the nuisance of an escort--until we arrived at Anar at 9.30 +p.m.--seven farsakhs (about 22 miles) from Shemsh. + +From what one could see during our short stay in the night there appeared +to be a large village, mostly in ruins, with a few trees and a mud fort. +We had gradually descended here to 4,800 feet. The water was quite good. +We only allowed ourselves three hours to have our dinner and sleep, and +I ordered the horses to be ready shortly after midnight. + +And here, whatever other faults they may have, a word of commendation +must be put in for the endurance of Persian servants. It is all very well +for one's self to do with little sleep, but servants who will go days and +days without any at all, and without a word of complaint or sign of +collapse, are retainers not easily found and not to be despised. +Certainly, one seldom obtains such qualities in European servants. After +doing fifty or sixty miles on the saddle we would get off, and I rested +awhile, writing up my notes or, if at night, changing plates in my +cameras, but Sadek never had any rest at all. No sooner had we jumped off +our horses than he had to undo the saddles and unpack the baggage and +kill fowls and cook my meals, which all took him some little time; then +he had to wash or clean up everything and repack, and run about the +villages to purchase provisions, and all this kept him well employed +until the hour of departure; so that, even when I could put in a couple +of hours' sleep of a night, he never had time to sleep at all. Sleeping +on the saddle, of course, was usual when we travelled by caravan, but was +impossible when chapparing. So that he had to go several days at a time +without a moment's wink. + +The remarkable facility with which, under these trying circumstances, he +got most excellent meals ready at all hours of the day or night and in +the most outlandish places, and the magic way in which he could produce +fuel and make a fire out of the most unlikely materials, was really +extraordinary. True, he took himself and his work most seriously and his +pride lay principally in having no reproach about the cooking. + +He had a smattering of English that was very quaint. Everything above +ground he called "upstairs"; anything on the ground or below was +"downstairs." Thus, to mount and dismount a horse was laconically +expressed "horse upstairs," "horse downstairs." Similarly, to lie down +was "downstairs," to get up "upstairs." Anything involving violent motion +was "shoot," by which single word to fall, to kick, to bite, to drop, to +jump, to throw away, were defined. He possessed a good vocabulary of +swear words--which he had learnt from sailors at Bushire--and these +served him well when anything went wrong; but I forbade him to use them +in my presence as I wished to have the monopoly myself, and thus his +English vocabulary was very much curtailed. The remainder of his English +conversation applied entirely to cooking chickens. + +Shortly after midnight we moved out of the Chappar khana, and, barring +some slight cultivation in the immediate neighbourhood of the village, we +soon entered again upon the flat, sandy desert. We had a lovely full moon +over us, which added to the pleasure of travelling, and we rode on to +Bayas (five farsakhs), some seventeen or eighteen miles, where we arrived +at five in the morning. The altitude of this place was exactly the same +as that of Anar, 4,800 feet. + +Bayas is a tiny village with a few mulberry trees and a small stream of +water. It has a fair caravanserai. We rested the horses for a couple of +hours, while I had breakfast, and by 7.30 a.m. we were again in our +saddles. + +To the south-west and north-east by east we again perceived the familiar +high sand deposits, all along the base of the mountain ranges, and they +reached up to two-thirds of the height of the mountains, forming a +smooth, inclined plane rising very gently from the flat desert on which +we were travelling. To the north-east by east the sand-banks rose nearly +to the summit of the hill range. + +Sadek and the chappar boy pointed out to me a village to the north-east +of the track, and informed me that all its inhabitants were robbers and +murderers. In fact upon the road, we came across a poor boy crying, and +bruised all over. We asked him what was the matter. He pointed to three +men in the distance who were running away, and said they had beaten him +and stolen his money, two krans, and two pomegranates. Sure enough, when +we galloped to the men and stopped them they did not wait to be accused +but handed me at once both fruit and money to be returned to their +rightful owner. + +These folks had very brutal faces, framed in flowing locks of shaggy +hair. They were garbed in long thick coats of white felt, made entirely +of one piece, and quite stiff, with sleeves sticking out at the sides, +into which the arms were never to be inserted. There were two red and +blue small circular ornamentations at the bottom of the coat in front, +and one in the centre of the back, as on Japanese kimonos. + +We began to see more habitations now, and about one mile north-east of +the track we perceived the villages of Esmalawat, Aliabad, and +Sher-i-fabad,--the latter quite a large place. We still went on over sand +and white salt deposits. + +Poor Sadek was so tired and sleepy that he fell off his horse a couple of +times. The soil got very stony on getting near Kushkuhyeh (altitude 4,900 +feet), where we entered the Chappar khana exactly at noon. + +The contractor of the postal service lived at this village, and he was +extremely civil. As many as eight horses were in his stable, and he +ordered that the best should be given me. He entertained me to tea and +took the keenest interest in my rifles. He also possessed one of the +familiar discarded British Martini military rifles, specially decorated +for the Persian market--a rifle worth at its most a pound sterling, or +two, but for which he had paid no less than 100 tomans (about L20). The +smugglers of firearms must have made huge profits on the sale of these +antiquated weapons, for firearms are among the few articles for which +large sums of ready money can be obtained in Persia. + +This particular man now took a great fancy to my .256 Mannlicher, and +jokingly said he would not let me proceed until I had sold it to him. He +produced large sums in solid silver to tempt me, about four times the +value of the rifle, and was greatly upset when I assured him that I would +not part with the rifle at all. + +When I left, he accompanied me part of the way, some few hundred yards, +and he took with him his Martini and a belt full of cartridges; his +servant who followed him was also similarly armed. On inquiring of him +why master and servant loaded themselves with arms and ammunition to go +such a short distance, he replied that it was not safe for him to go +unarmed even one yard out of his house. One of his friends had been +murdered only a few days before, and one never knows in Persia when one's +turn will come next. In out-of-the-way places in Persia private revenge +is extremely common, which generally takes the form of shooting one's +adversary in the back. + +There seemed to be abundance of water at Kushkuhyeh, and the fields were +properly irrigated. Cultivation seemed prosperous, and vast cotton +plantations were to be seen all round. When we passed, hundreds of men, +women and children were busy taking in the cotton, and scores of camels, +donkeys, sheep and goats grazing were dotting the green patch in the +landscape. This gay scene of active life and verdure was all the more +refreshing after the many miles of sand and gravel and barren hills of +which we had grown so weary since leaving Yezd. + +Two hours were wasted for lunch, and off we went again. On leaving behind +Kushkuhyeh we also left behind vegetation, and again we sank in sand. A +few tamarisk shrubs were scattered here and there on the large plain we +were traversing, bounded on all sides by distant mountains. + +Three and a half farsakhs (about 13 miles) saw us at Hemmatawat, a large +walled enclosure. + +At 6.30 p.m. we entered the small town of Barawamad +(Bahramabad)--altitude 5,150 feet--or Rafsenju as it is called now by its +new name. This is a fast-growing place of quite modern origin, and it +owes most of its prosperity to the extensive cultivation of cotton, +exported from here direct to the Persian Gulf and India. + +Besides the route on which we are travelling there are several other +tracks leading out of Barawamad. A minor one runs in a north-easterly +direction, over the Dehring Mountains to the Seroenan district, where +many villages are to be found, and then turns sharply south-east _via_ +Zerend to Kerman. It is also possible, when once one has crossed into +Seroenan, to continue to Lawah (Rawar) and then, across the Salt Desert, +to Meshed or to Birjand. + +To the Persian Gulf there are three tracks. One south-west by west to +Sher-i-balek, from which place the traveller has the option to travel to +Bushire (_via_ Shiraz) or to Lingah or to Bandar Abbas _via_ Forg. Two +different tracks, to Reshitabad and Bidu, join at Melekabad (south-west) +and these eventually enter the Kerman-Shiraz-Bushire track; while another +track, the most in use, goes almost due south, direct to Bidu, skirting +the Pariz Mountains on their westerly slopes. This track, too, crosses +the Kerman-Shiraz route at Saidabad, and proceeds due south to Bandar +Abbas. + +The few Hindoo merchants of Kerman come here during the cotton season to +make their purchases and send their goods direct to Bandar Abbas for +shipment to India. Pottery of an inferior kind is manufactured at +Rafsenju. + +We left the Chappar khana at midnight in a terrific cold wind, and this +time on shockingly bad horses. They were tired and lame, the cold wind +probably intensifying the rheumatic pains from which most of them were +suffering. The country was undulating and we gradually rose to 5,700 +feet. The horses gave us no end of trouble and we had to walk the greater +portion of the night. + +Sadek, five feet two in height, and the Chappar boy, six feet two, came +to words and soon after to most sonorous blows. To add to our comfort, +the Chappar boy, who got the worst of the scrimmage, ran away, and it was +only at sunrise that we perceived him again a long way off following us, +not daring to get too near. Eventually, by dint of sending him peaceful +messages by a caravan man who passed us, Sadek induced him to return, and +still struggling in the sand of the desolate country all round us, and +our horses sinking quite deep into it, we managed to drag men, horses, +and loads into Kafter-han (Kebuter-han)--altitude 5,680 feet--at 8.30 in +the morning, where we were glad to get relays of fresh steeds. We had +gone about twenty-eight miles from the last station. + +A few mud huts, an ice store-house, a flour mill, a high building, said +to have been an arsenal, the usual caravanserai, and a dingy Chappar +khana were all, quite all one could rest one's eye upon at Kafter-han. +There was some cultivation, but nothing very luxuriant. The few +inhabitants were quite interested in the sudden appearance of a +_ferenghi_ (a foreigner). The women, who were not veiled here, were quite +good-looking, one girl particularly, whose photograph I snatched before +she had time to run away to hide herself--the usual effect of a camera on +Persian women, quite the reverse to its effects on the European fair sex. + +We left almost directly on better animals, and proceeded south-east +having lofty rugged hills to the north-east, east, and south of us, with +the usual high sand accumulations upon their sides. To the south-east we +could just discern the distant mountains near Kerman. The track itself, +on the sandy embankment at the foot of the hillside to the south-west, is +rather high up and tortuous, owing to a very long salt marsh which fills +the lower portion of the valley during the rainy weather and makes +progress in a straight line impossible. But now, owing to the absolute +absence of rain for months and months, the marsh was perfectly dry and +formed a flat white plastered stretch of clay, sand and salt, as smooth +as a billiard-table, and not unlike an immense floor prepared for +tennis-courts. The dried salt mud was extremely hard, our horses' hoofs +leaving scarcely a mark on it. I reckoned the breadth of this flat, white +expanse at one and a half miles, and its length a little over eleven +miles. Two high peaks stood in front of us to the south-east, the Kuh +Djupahr, forming part of a long range extending in a south-east +direction. + +At a distance of four farsakhs (about thirteen miles), and directly on +the other side of the dried-up salt stretch, we came to another Chappar +khana, at the village of Robat. There were a good many women about in +front of the huge caravanserai, and they looked very ridiculous in the +tiny short skirts like those of ballet girls, and not particularly clean, +over tight trousers quite adhering to the legs. + +We have the same mountains on both sides, and we continue over undulating +ground, the valley getting somewhat narrower as we proceed towards +Baghih. Six or seven miles from Kafter-han was Esmaratabad village, a +mass of ruins, and ten miles or so a large village, still in fair +preservation, Sadi, with some vegetation, principally wheat. The track +lay mostly over a stony, barren desert, with here and there, miles and +miles apart, a forced patch of green. + +Baghih, our last halt before reaching Kerman, was nine farsakhs from +Kafter-han. It stood at an elevation of 5,740 feet, and had plenty of +excellent water. The village was large, with handsome walled gardens and +nicely-kept wheat-fields all round. The inhabitants were most affable +and civil, and the women and children particularly simple and attractive. +The girls were attired in longer and more graceful skirts than the +damsels of Robat, and did not leave the leg exposed even as high as the +knee. Over it they had an ample shirt with wide short sleeves, showing +their gracefully modelled and well rounded arms, adorned with metal +bracelets. On the head was a kerchief neatly bound quite tight over the +head by means of a ribbon. + +It was not possible to get fresh horses here, and mine were very tired or +I would have continued to Kerman the same evening, completing the journey +from Yezd (220 miles) in three days. We had arrived early in the +afternoon, and had I not been compelled to take on the tired horses for +the remaining four farsakhs (13 miles) I could have easily reached Kerman +before the gates of the city were closed at sunset. As it was, I had to +give it up, and had to sleep the night at Baghih, making an early start +on Wednesday, the 30th. + +Baghih is actually south-west of Kerman, and the track makes this long +detour to avoid the Bademan Mountains to the north. It thus passes over +comparatively level land in the valley between that range and the Kuh +Djupahr, the track turning here sharply to the north-east, in which +direction, when we get to the highest point of the track (5,980 feet) one +and a half farsakhs from Baghih, we can almost discern Kerman in the +distance. Except to the north-west we have high mountains all round, the +highest being the Djupahr to the south-east, and of which we now get a +most lovely view, and also of the whole Kerman plain with its innumerable +semi-spherical sand-hills. + +At the foot of the Djupahr below us we see the two villages of Kheirabad +and Akhibarabad, with many trees and some cultivation round them. On +descending into the Kerman plain we have deceiving effects of mirage, +lovely lakes on both sides and streams of water, but on the rising of a +gentle breeze, limpid lakes and streams suddenly disappear, and the whole +plain is nothing but a big undulating stretch of yellow sand, until we +arrive within almost a stone's-throw of the city gates of Kerman. + +At 11 a.m. on Wednesday, October the 30th, I halted at the palatial +Chappar khana of Kerman, just outside the city wall, in a handsome +garden, having accomplished the journey from Yezd in four days, including +halts. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII + + Kerman--The _Ark_ or citadel--Civility of the + natives--Europeans--The British Consulate--Major Phillott--H. E. + Ala-el-Mulk, Governor of Kerman--Soldiers--Teaching music to + recruits--Preparation for the campaign against the Beluch--Cloth + manufacture. + + +It was my intention to pay my respects to the British Consul for whom I +had letters of introduction from the Minister at Teheran, and I at once +proceeded through the city, entering first the "Ark" or citadel, and then +the south-west gate with two side columns of green and blue tiles in a +spiral design and pointed archway, into the Meidan--a fine rectangular +square of great length and breadth. Sentries posted at the gates of the +city and at the sides of the square saluted, and also many of the people +along the road. This extraordinary civility was very refreshing in a +country where one only expects extreme rudeness from the lower classes. + +We entered the vaulted bazaar, the main big artery of Kerman city, +intersected about half-way by a tortuous street from north to south and +by other minor narrow lanes, and crowded with people, donkeys, camels and +mules; and here, too, one was rather surprised to see various merchants +get up in their shops salaaming as I passed, and to receive a +"Salameleko" and a bow from most men on the way. The bazaar itself, being +in appearance more ancient than those of Yezd, Isfahan and Teheran, was +more alluring and had many quaint bits. It bore, however, very much the +same characteristics as all other bazaars of Persia. At the end of it on +the north-east we emerged into an open space with picturesque awnings, +suspended mats, and spread umbrellas shading innumerable baskets of +delicious green figs, trays of grapes, and pomegranates, piles of +water-melons and vegetables of all sorts. + +[Illustration: H. E. Ala-el-Mulk, Governor of Kerman, in his Palace.] + +No Europeans live within the wall of Kerman city itself, and at the time +of my visit there were only four Europeans altogether residing in the +neighbourhood of the town. Two missionaries, husband and wife; a +gentleman who, misled by representations, had been induced to come from +India to dig artesian wells at great expense--in a country where the +natives are masters at finding water and making aqueducts--and our most +excellent Consul, Major Phillott, one of the most practical and sensible +men that ever lived. + +The Consulate was at Zeris or Zirisf, some little distance to the east of +the town. We passed through a graveyard on leaving the inhabited +district, and had in front of us some ancient fortifications on the rocky +hills to the south, which we skirted, and then came to some huge +conical ice-houses--very old, but still in excellent preservation. We +passed the solidly-built and foreign-looking gateway of the Bagh-i-Zeris, +and a little further at the end of a short avenue the British flag could +be seen flying upon a gate. + +As I came upon him a ragged infantry soldier, who, being at his dinner, +was busy licking his fingers, sprang to his feet and made a military +salute. Having passed through a court and a garden and a series of +dismantled rooms I found myself in the Consulate, where I was greeted +effusively by Major Phillott, who had no idea I was coming, and who, +owing to my being very much sun-tanned, had at first mistaken me for a +Persian! He would not hear of my remaining at the Chappar khana, and most +kindly sent at once for all my luggage to be brought up to the Consulate. +The hospitality of Englishmen in Persia is really unbounded. + +H. E. Ala-el-Mulk, Governor of Kerman, called on the Consul that same +afternoon, and I was able to present the letter I had brought to him. +Having lived long in Europe Ala-el-Mulk is a most fluent French scholar, +and, being a man of considerable talent, sense, and honesty he is rather +adverse to the empty show and pomp which is ever deemed the necessary +accompaniment of high-placed officials in Persia. He can be seen walking +through the town with only a servant or two, or riding about inspecting +every nook of his city hardly attended at all. This, curiously enough, +has not shocked the natives as people feared, but, on the contrary, has +inspired them with intense respect for the new Governor, whose tact, +gentleness, consideration and justice were fully appreciated by the whole +town; so that, after all, it is pleasant to notice that the lower classes +of Persia have more common sense and power of differentiation than they +have hitherto been credited with. + +"When I want anything well done," said the Governor to me, "I do it +myself. I want the welfare of my people and am only glad when I can see +with my own eyes that they get it. I inspect my soldiers, I see them +drilled before me; I go to the bazaar to talk to the people, and any one +can come to talk to me. Nobody need be afraid of coming to me; I am ever +ready to listen to all." + +Although this innovation in the system of impressing the crowds created +somewhat of a sensation at first, the Governor soon managed to impress +the people with his own personality, and he is now extraordinarily +popular among all classes, except the semi-official, who cannot carry on +their usual extortions with impunity. + +He asked me to go and inspect his troops, whom he had drilled before his +own eyes every morning, and undoubtedly, of all the soldiers I had seen +in Persia, they were the only ones--barring the Cossack regiments drilled +by Russians--that had a real military appearance and were trained +according to a method. They were better dressed, better fed, and more +disciplined even than the soldiers of Teheran. + +The teaching of music to recruits for the band was quite interesting. The +musical notes were written on a black-board and the young fellows were +made to sing them out in a chorus until they had learnt the whole melody +by heart. The boys had most musical voices and quite good musical ears, +while their powers of retention of what they were taught were quite +extraordinary, when it was considered that these fellows were recruited +from the lowest and most ignorant classes. + +The garrison of Kerman was armed with Vrandel rifles, an old, discarded +European pattern, but quite serviceable. Anyhow, all the men possessed +rifles of one and the same pattern, which was an advantage not noticeable +in the Teheran troops, for instance. For Persians, they went through +their drill in an accurate and business-like manner, mostly to the sound +of three drums, and also with a capital band playing European brass +instruments. + +The Governor took special delight in showing me several tents which he +had had specially manufactured for his approaching campaign, in +conjunction with British troops from British Beluchistan, against +marauding Beluch tribes who had been very troublesome for some time, and +who, being so close to the frontier, were able to evade alike Persian, +Beluch, and British law, until a joint movement against them was made +from west and east. H. E. Ala-el-Mulk told me that he intended to command +the expedition himself. + +Ala-el-Mulk, a man extraordinarily courteous and simple in manner, was +former Persian Ambassador in Constantinople. Through no fault of his own, +owing to certain customs prevalent at the Sultan's court, the Shah during +his visit to Constantinople was unreasonably displeased, and the +Ambassador was recalled. The Governorship of distant Kerman was given +him, but a man like Ala-el-Mulk, one of the ablest men in Persia, would +be more useful in a higher position nearer the capital, if not in the +capital itself. Kerman is a very out-of-the-way place, and of no very +great importance just yet, although, if Persia develops as she should, it +will not be many years from the present time before Kerman becomes a +place of great importance to England. + +However, Ala-el-Mulk is, above all, a philosopher, and he certainly makes +the best of his opportunities. He has to contend with many difficulties, +intrigue, false dealing, and corruption being rampant even among some of +the higher officials in the town; but with his sound judgment and +patience he certainly manages to keep things going in a most satisfactory +manner. + +Besides his official business, and with the aid of his nephew, he +superintends the manufacture, as we have already seen, of the best, the +most characteristically Persian carpets of the finest quality and dyes. +There are a great many looms in the buildings adjacent to the Palace and +hundreds of hands employed in the Governor's factories. He also possesses +a good collection of very ancient carpets, from which the modern ones +are copied. + +I returned his visit at his Palace, where the Consul and I were received +most cordially and had a lengthy and most interesting conversation with +his Excellency. Then he showed me all the buildings in the Ark. + +Kerman is celebrated for its cloth manufacture and felts. The cloth is of +fine worsted, and is generally in pieces six yards long by three quarters +of a yard wide. It is much used by the natives, both for hangings and for +making clothes for men and women, being very soft and durable. +Embroidered turbans and kamarbands are made from these cloths, especially +in white cloth, generally of a fine quality. The process of weaving these +cloths, called inappropriately "Kerman shawls," is identical with that of +the loom described at the village of Bambis in Chapter XXXVI. The +material used for the best quality is the selected fine wool, growing +next to the skin of goats. These dyed threads are cut into short lengths +and woven into the fabric by the supple and agile fingers of the children +working, packed tight together, at the looms. Some of the best cloths, +not more than ten feet in length, take as long as a month per foot in +their manufacture, and they realise very high prices, even as much as +nine or ten pounds sterling a yard. The design on the more elaborate ones +is, as in the carpets, learnt by heart, the stitches being committed to +memory like the words of a poem. This is not, however, the case with the +simpler and cheaper ones, which are more carelessly done, a boy reading +out the design from a pattern or a book. + +[Illustration: Tiled Walls and Picturesque Windows in the Madrassah, +Kerman.] + +[Illustration: Sirkar Agha's Son, the Head of the Sheikhi Sect, Kerman.] + +The carpet factories of Kerman are very extensive, the process being +similar to that already described in a previous chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII + + The Madrassah--"Peace on Abraham"--The _Hammam_--Trade + caravanserais--The Hindoo caravanserai--Parsees--Ancient + fortifications--The Kala-i-Dukhtar, or virgin + fort--Speculation--The Kala-Ardeshir--A deep well--Why it was + made. + + +A visit to the Madrassah on the north side of the bazaar was extremely +interesting, it being the best preserved building of that type I had so +far seen in Persia. The Consul and I were shown round it by the Son of +Sirkar Agha, the head of the Sheikhi sect, a most dignified individual +with long black cloak and ample white turban, and with a beard dyed as +black as ink. He conversed most intelligently and took great delight in +showing every nook of the building. + +The college is only some ninety years old. Its courts, its walls, its +rooms, its dome, are most beautifully tiled all over, and, strange to +say, it is kept in good repair and the gardens are well looked after. +There is a handsome lecture-hall, with four strong receptacles high up in +the corners of the room, and fret-work at the windows, not unlike +Egyptian _musharabeahs_. Four very high ventilating shafts are +constructed over the buildings to keep the rooms cool. + +"Peace on Abraham" reads an elaborate inscription, quoted from the Koran, +but applying in this case, Sirkar Agha's son tells me, to the founder of +the institution. There are other inscriptions on the towers and +ventilating shafts. + +At the time of my visit the number of pupils was two hundred. The +adjoining Hammam belonging to the College was, to our astonishment, also +shown us. Such baths are underground and are reached by steps or by a +slippery incline. These particular ones were very superior and had a +beautifully tiled entrance, but the door itself was small and always kept +closed. The first room was domed with a fountain playing in the centre +and platforms, three feet high all round, on the matting of which lay +spread a great many cotton towels, red and blue. The only light came from +a centre aperture in the dome. High earthen jugs stood artistically +resting against one another, and a few people were dressing or undressing +preparatory to taking or after having taken a bath. This was all that was +done in this room. + +Through a narrow slippery passage we entered another room, where the +steamy heat was considerable. There were small sections round the room +divided by a wall, like the cells of a monastery, and in each cell was a +tap of cold water. Then we ascended through a small aperture into another +and warmer room, spacious enough, but stifling with a sickening acid +odour of perspiration and fumes of over-heated human skins. The steam +heat was so great that one saw everything in a haze, and one felt one's +own pores expand and one's clothes get quite wet with the absorbed damp +in the atmosphere over-saturated with moisture. + +There were two or three men, stripped and only with a loin cloth, lying +down flat on their backs,--one undergoing massage, being thumped all +over; another having the hair of his head and beard dyed jet-black. The +reason that the Persian hair-dyes are so permanent is principally because +the dyeing is done at such a high temperature and in such moist +atmosphere which allows the dye to get well into the hair. When the same +dyes are used at a normal temperature the results are never so +successful. Further, a third man was being cleansed by violent rubbing. +He needed it badly; at least, judging by the amount of black stuff that +rolled from his skin under the operator's fingers. The attendants, too, +barring a loin-cloth, were naked. + +With perspiration streaming down my cheeks I took the photographs here +reproduced, and then proceeded to a yet hotter small room--as suffocating +a place as one may wish to enter in one's lifetime, or after! One +received a positive scorching blow in the face as one entered it, the +heat was so great. This is the last chamber, and in a corner is a tap of +cold water with which the skin is repeatedly rinsed and made to sweat +several times until the pores are considered absolutely clean. There were +two people lying down in a semi-unconscious state, and although I was +only there a few minutes I came out quite limp and rag-like. It ruined +my watch, and only by very careful nursing I was able to save my camera +from falling to pieces. On returning to the previous hot chamber it +seemed quite cool by comparison, and when we emerged again into the open +air, thermometer about 90 deg. in the shade, one felt quite chilled. + +The various trade caravanserais, of which there were over a dozen in +Kerman on either side of the main bazaar street, were quite interesting. +They were large courts with high platforms, six to ten feet high, all +round them, the centre well, enclosed by them, being tightly packed with +camels, mules and donkeys. Above on the broad platform lay all the packs +of merchandise which had arrived from Birjand and Afghanistan, from +Beluchistan or from India _via_ Bandar Abbas. The shops and store rooms +were neat and had wood-work in front, with gigantic padlocks of a +primitive make. Some, however, had neat little English padlocks. + +[Illustration: The Interior of a Hammam or Bath--First Room.] + +The most interesting to us, but not the most beautiful, was the Hindoo +caravanserai, where some forty British Hindoo merchants carried on their +commerce. The place looked old and untidy, and the shops overcrowded with +cheap articles of foreign make, such as are commonly to be seen in +India,--paraffin lamps, knives, enamelled ware, cotton goods, indigo, +tea, sugar and calicos being prominent in the shops. The piece goods come +mostly from Germany and Austria, the cottons from Manchester. + +The Hindoos were very civil and entertained us to tea, water melon, +and a huge tray of sweets, while a crowd outside gazed at the unusual +sight of Europeans visiting the caravanserais. The merchants said that +the trade in cotton, wool, gum and dates was fairly good, and that, +taking things all round, matters went well, but they had a great many +complaints--they would not be Hindoos if they had not--of petty quarrels +to be settled among themselves and with the Persians. These, of course, +arose mostly out of matters of money. They seemed otherwise quite jolly +and happy, notwithstanding the exaggerated hats and curious costumes they +are compelled to wear, so that they may be distinguished at a glance from +the Persians themselves. + +Here, too, as has been already said, there is a small Parsee community of +about 3,000 souls. They are, however, rather scattered nowadays, and are +not so prominent as in Yezd. + +The side streets leading out of the bazaar are narrow and dingy, covered +up in places with awnings and matting. There is very little else worth +seeing in the city, but the many ruins to the east of the town and the +ancient fortifications are well worth a visit. + +It is to the east of the city that the ancient fortifications are found, +on the most western portion of the crescent-shaped barrier of mountains. +According to some natives the smaller fort, the Kala-i-Dukhtar, or Virgin +fort, on the terminal point of the range, at one time formed part of +ancient Kerman. The fort, the Kala-i-Dukhtar is on the ridge of the hill, +with a fairly well-preserved castellated wall and a large doorway in the +perpendicular rock at the end of the hill range. + +In a long semicircular wall at the foot of the hill a row of niches can +be seen, but whether these made part of an ancient stable for horses, or +were used for other purposes, I could not quite ascertain. Some people +said that they were a portion of a _hammam_; others said they might have +been cells of a prison, but what remained of them was not sufficient to +allow one to come to a satisfactory conclusion. + +[Illustration: The Hot Room in a Persian Bath.] + +[Illustration: The Kala-i-Dukhtar or Virgin Fort. + +(Kala Ardeshir on summit of mountain) Kerman.] + +The outside wall of the fort was very high, and had strong battlements +and towers. Inside the lower wall at the foot of the hill was a moat from +twenty-five to thirty feet wide and fifteen feet deep. The upper wall +went along the summit of two ridges and was parallel to the lower one, +which had four large circular turrets, and extended down to and over the +flat for some 120 yards. There was another extensive but much demolished +fortress to the east of this on the lower part of the hill range, +guarding the other side of the entrance of the pass, and this, too, had +two large walled enclosures in the plain at its foot. A great many +fragments of pottery with angular geometrical patterns and small circles +upon them were to be found here and in the neighbourhood. + +The fort of Kala-i-Dukhtar is attributed by the people to King Ardishir, +and is one of the three mentioned by Mukaddasi in the tenth century, who, +in describing the city of Bardasir, unmistakably identified with the +present Kerman, speaks of the three famous impregnable castles--the +_Hisn_ defended by a ditch, evidently the one above described, directly +outside the city gate, and the old castle, the Kala-i-Kuh, on the crest +of the hill. It has been assumed that the third castle mentioned by +Mukaddasi, was where the _Ark_ or citadel is now, but personally I doubt +whether this is correct. The citadel, the residence of the present +Governor, is to my mind of much more recent origin. There is every sign +to make one doubt whether Kerman extended in those days as far west as +the citadel, which to-day occupies the most western point outside the +city; whereas in the accounts of Mukaddasi one would be led to understand +that the third fortress was well within the city near a great mosque. In +Persian chronicles, too, the Hill Castle, the old, and the new castles +are often referred to, but personally I believe that these three castles +were adjoining one another on the same chain of hills. + +An ascent to the Kala Ardeshir well repays the trouble of getting there. +It is not possible to reach the Castle from the south side, where the +rocky hills are very precipitous, and even from the north it is not easy +of access. On the north-west side, facing the British Consulate, there is +a somewhat narrow and slippery track in the rock along a ravine, by +which--in many places "on all fours"--one can get up to the top. + +The gateway is very much blocked with sand, but squeezing through a small +aperture one can get inside the wall, within which are several small +courts, and a series of tumbled-down small buildings. In the walls can +still be seen some of the receptacles in which grain and food were +formerly stored. + +[Illustration: Graveyard and Kala-i-Dukhtar or Virgin Fort, Kerman.] + +Although the exterior of the castle, resting on the solid rock and built +of sun-dried bricks so welded together by age as to form a solid mass, +appears in fair preservation from a distance, when one examines the +interior it is found to be in a dreadful state of decay. The courts and +spaces between the walls are now filled up with sand. There is a well of +immense depth, bored in the rock, the fort standing some five hundred +feet above the plain; but although this is said by some writers to have +been a way of escape from this fortress to as distant a place as Khabis, +some forty-five miles as the crow flies to the east of Kerman, I never +heard this theory expounded in Kerman itself, but in any case, it is +rather strange that the well should have been made so small in diameter +as hardly to allow the passage of a man, its shaft being bored absolutely +perpendicular for hundreds and hundreds of feet and its sides perfectly +smooth, so that an attempt to go down it would be not a way of escape +from death, but positive suicide. The well was undoubtedly made to supply +the fort with water whenever it became impracticable to use the larger +wells and tanks constructed at the foot of the hills within the +fortification walls. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV + + The deserted city of Farmidan--More speculation--The Afghan + invasion--Kerman surrenders to Agha Muhammed Khan--A cruel + oppressor--Luft-Ali-Khan to the rescue--The Zoroastrians--Mahala + Giabr--Second Afghan invasion--Luft-Ali-Khan's escape--Seventy + thousand human eyes--Women in slavery--Passes--An outpost--Fire + temples--Gigantic inscriptions--A stiff rock climb--A pilgrimage + for sterile women--A Russian picnic--A Persian + dinner--Fatabad--The trials of abundance--A Persian + menu--Rustamabad--Lovely fruit garden. + + +The very large deserted city of Farmidan lies directly south of the +mountainous crescent on which are found the fortifications described in +the previous chapter. The houses of the city do not appear very ancient, +their walls being in excellent preservation, but not so the domed roofs +which have nearly all fallen in. The houses are entirely constructed of +sun-dried mud bricks, now quite soldered together by age and reduced into +a compact mass. A few of the more important dwellings have two storeys, +and all the buildings evidently had formerly domed roofs. In order that +the conformation of each house may be better understood, a plan of one +typical building is given. On a larger or smaller scale they all +resembled one another very closely, and were not unlike the Persian +houses of to-day. + +There was a broad main road at the foot of the mountains along the +southern side of which the city had been built, with narrow and tortuous +streets leading out of the principal thoroughfare. Curiously enough, +however, this city appeared not to have had a wall round it like most +other cities one sees in Persia. It is possible that the inhabitants +relied on taking refuge in the strength and safety of the forts above, +but more probable seems the theory that Farmidan was a mere settlement, a +place of refuge of the Zoroastrians who had survived the terrible +slaughter by Agha Muhammed Khan. + +It may be remembered that when the Afghan determined to regain his throne +or die, he came over the Persian frontier from Kandahar. He crossed the +Salt Desert from Sistan, losing thousands of men, horses and camels on +the way, and with a large army still under his command, eventually +occupied Kerman. + +Kerman was in those days a most flourishing commercial centre, with +bazaars renowned for their beauty and wealth, and its forts were well +manned and considered impregnable. So unexpected, however, was the +appearance of such a large army that the inhabitants made no resistance +and readily bowed to the sovereignty of Agha Muhammed. They were brutally +treated by the oppressors. Luft-Ali-Khan hastened from the coast to the +relief of the city, and fiercely attacked and defeated the Afghan +invader, who was compelled to retreat to Kandahar; but Kerman city, +which had undergone terrible oppression from the entry of the Afghans, +fared no better at the hands of the Persians. The Zoroastrians of Kerman +particularly were massacred wholesale or compelled to adopt the +Mahommedan religion. + +It is not unlikely--although I assume no responsibility for the +statement--that at that time the Zoroastrians, who were still numerous in +Kerman, driven from their homes by the invading Afghan and Persian +armies, settled a few miles from the city, unable to proceed further +afield owing to the desolate nature of the country all round. With no +animals, no means of subsistence, it would have been impossible for them +with their families to go much further _en masse_ in a country where food +and even water are not easily obtainable. The name of the +town--Farmidan--also would point to the conclusion that it had been +inhabited by Fars, and the age attributed to the city by the natives +corresponds roughly with the epoch of the Afghan invasion. + +To the north of Kerman city we have another similar settlement, now +deserted, Mahala-Giabr (a corruption of Guebre), of which there is little +doubt that it was inhabited by Zoroastrians. One of the reasons that +these cities are now deserted may be found in the fact that Agha +Muhammed, having raised another army in Afghanistan, proceeded a second +time to the conquest of Persia. The Zoroastrians, who had fared worse at +the hands of Luft-Ali-Khan than under the Afghan rule, were persuaded to +join Agha Muhammed against their Perso-Arab oppressors, in hopes of +obtaining some relief to their misery, but history does not relate what +became of them. They were never heard of again. One fact only is known, +that very few of those living in Kerman at the time succeeded in escaping +massacre. That previous to this the Zoroastrians must have been very +numerous in Kerman can be judged by the remains of many fire-temples to +be seen, especially in the neighbourhood of the city. + +[Illustration: Ruined Houses of Farmitan.] + +[Illustration: Plan of House at Farmitan.] + +In his second invasion of Persia Agha Muhammed again reached Kerman in +1795 and besieged the city defended by Luft-Ali-Khan. The inhabitants, +who had suffered at the hands of their saviours as much if not more than +at those of their oppressors, made a half-hearted resistance and +eventually, in the thick of the fighting, the city gates were opened by +treachery. Luft-Ali-Khan and a handful of his faithful men fought like +lions in the streets of the city, but at last, seeing that all hope of +victory had vanished, and forsaken by most of his men, Luft-Ali-Khan rode +full gallop in the midst of the Afghans. According to chronicles, he +defiantly ran the gauntlet with only three followers, and they were able +to force their way through the Kajar post and escape to Bam-Narmanshir, +the most eastern part of the Kerman province, on the borders of Sistan. + +Agha Muhammed demanded the surrender of Luft-Ali-Khan; the city was +searched to find him, and when it was learned that he had succeeded in +effecting an escape, the wrath of the Afghan knew no bounds. The people +having declared that they could not find Luft-Ali, he ordered 70,000 eyes +of the inhabitants to be brought to him on trays, and is said to have +counted them himself with the point of a dagger. But this punishment he +believed to be still too lenient. A general massacre of the men was +commanded, and no less than 20,000 women and children were made into +slaves. To this day the proverbially easy morals of the Kerman women are +attributed to the Afghan invasion, when the women became the concubines +of soldiers and lost all respect for themselves; and so is the +importation of the dreadful disease which in its most virulent form is +pitifully common in a great portion of the population of the present +Kerman city. According to some the city was razed to the ground, but +whether this was so or not, there is no doubt that Kerman has never +recovered from the blow received, and from the subsequent oppression at +the hands of this barbarous conqueror. + +In the south-west part of the mountainous crescent are three very low +passes, by which the hill range can be crossed. One pass between the +Kala-i-Dukhtar and the Kala-Ardeshir forts; one between the Kala-Ardeshir +and the ruins south of it along the southern continuation of the range; +and the third at the most southern point of the crescent, where the +precipitous rocky hill-ranges are separated by a narrow gap, level with +the flat plains on either side. One can still see the remains of a ruined +wall on the east side of this entrance, a round, outpost mud turret, with +other buildings and a large walled enclosure directly outside the pass on +the flat to the south; while on the lower slope of the eastern mountain +stands a tall square building, now roofless, erected on a strong +quadrangular base with corner turrets. It has three pointed arch doorways +(east, west, south), almost as tall as the building itself, and by the +side of these are found high and broad windows in couples. This building +appears to be of a much more recent date than the underlying castle +filled up with earth on which it stands. It has rather the appearance of +a fire temple. + +On going through the pass we find ourselves in the centre basin formed by +the mountainous crescent, and here we have another deserted settlement +smaller than Farmidan, also to all appearance not more than a century +old, and directly under the lee of the precipitous rocky mountains. A +high building of a rich burnt-sienna colour, with a dome of stone and +mortar--the latter said to have been mixed with camel's milk, which gives +the mortar greater consistency--is to be seen here. This, too, is +supposed to have been a fire temple. Its base is quadrangular, with two +tiers of three windows each. A small lateral wall is next to the +entrance, but nothing is to be seen in the interior except the bare +walls. + +East of this, on the face of the cliff and several hundred feet above the +valley, one is shown a gigantic inscription, "Ya Ali," in white +characters depicted on the rock. The letters are so big that they can be +seen from Kerman, about three miles off. This is a pilgrimage well worth +making, for they say every wish of those who climb up to the inscription +will come true. Two qualities are required--a very steady head and the +agility of a monkey. The angle of the rock is very steep,--almost +vertical, as can be seen on the left side of the photograph, which I took +from the site of the inscription looking down upon the ruined city and +the whole Kerman plain. The only way by which,--on all fours,--one can +climb up is so worn, greasy and slippery, owing to the many pilgrims who +have glided up and down, that it is most difficult to get a grip on the +rock. + +Yet the going-up is much easier than the coming down. The full-page +illustration shows the man who accompanied me just about to reach the +inscription,--I took the photograph as I clung to the rock just below +him, as can be seen from the distortion of his lower limbs caused by my +being unable to select a suitable position from which to take the +photograph. We were then clinging to the rock with a drop below us in a +straight line of several hundred feet. + +We reached the inscription safely enough, and sat on the edge of the +precipice--the only place where we could sit--with our legs dangling over +it. Screened as we were in deep shadow, we obtained a magnificent +bird's-eye view of the Kerman plain, brilliantly lighted by the morning +sun, and of the forts to our left (south-west) and the many ruins down +below between ourselves and Kerman city. A bed of a stream, now dry, +wound its way from these mountains to almost the centre of the plain, +where it lost itself in the sand beyond a cluster of ruined buildings. +Undoubtedly at some previous time this torrent carried a good volume of +water to the village, and this accounts for the deserted settlement being +found there. + +The letters of the inscription were ten feet high, painted white. + +[Illustration: A Steep Rock Climb, Kerman. + +Photograph of Guide taken by the Author on reaching the Inscription +several hundred feet above the plain.] + +The man who had climbed up with me related an amusing incident of the +occasion when H. E. the Governor of the city was persuaded to climb to +inspect the inscription. Hauled up with the assistance of ropes and +servants, he became so nervous when he reached the inscription and looked +down upon the precipice below that he offered a huge reward if they took +him down again alive. Although otherwise a brave man he was unaccustomed +to mountaineering, and owing to the great height, had been seized with +vertigo and was absolutely helpless and unable to move. With considerable +difficulty he was hauled down and safely conveyed to his palace. + +The descent presented more difficulty than the ascent, and one's shoes +had to be removed to effect it in more safety. Eventually we reached the +bottom again where, in a gully is a small ruined temple and a mud hut or +two. + +A great many women, who from this point had been watching us come down +along the face of the cliff, stampeded away, giggling, at our approach, +and on my asking why so many representatives of the fair sex were to be +found here--there were lots more dotting the landscape below in their +white or black chudders, all converging towards this point--it was +explained that, a few yards off, was a rock possessing marvellous +properties. The rock in question forms part of the mountain-side, and in +its natural formation coarsely suggests, much magnified, the effigy of a +component of feminine anatomy. At the foot of it there was an inscription +and certain offerings, while above it, in a recess, a large wax candle +was burning. Near this stone a stunted tree was to be seen, laden with +bits of red and white rags and various kinds of hair--a most unedifying +sight. + +This is a well-known pilgrimage for sterile women, who, after certain +exorcisms in front of and on the divine stone, and a night or two spent +in the neighbouring ruins, are said infallibly to become prolific. The +neighbouring ruins, it should be added, are the favourite night resort of +the Kerman young men in search of romantic adventure, and a most +convenient rendezvous for flirtations; but whether the extraordinary +qualities of prolificness are really due to the occult power of the magic +stone or to the less mystic charms of nights spent away from home, the +reader is no doubt better able to discriminate than I. Judging by the +long strings of ladies of all ages to be seen going on the pilgrimage, +one would almost come to the conclusion that half the women of Kerman are +in a bad plight, or else that the other half only is a good lot! + +Much unsuspected amusement was provided to the natives by a Russian +political agent who had visited Kerman a few weeks before I did, with the +intention--it was stated--of starting a Consulate there and a +caravanserai to further Russian trade. Previous to his departure, +attracted merely by the lovely view from the pilgrimage stone, and +absolutely unaware of what misconstruction might be placed on his +hospitality, the Russian gave a picnic at this spot to the tiny European +community of Kerman. Needless to say, the evil-minded Persians of course +put a wrong construction upon the whole thing, and a good deal of +merriment was caused among the natives--who may lack many other +qualities, but not wit--by the sahibs going _en masse_ to the pilgrimage. + +The Russian picnic was the talk of the bazaar when I was there, and will +probably remain so for some little time. + +We will now leave ruins and puzzling pilgrimages alone, and will accept +an invitation to a substantial Persian dinner with Hussein-Ali-Khan, +known by the title of Nusrat-al-Mamalik, and probably the richest man in +the province of Kerman. At great expense and trouble, this man bought an +English carriage, for the pleasure of driving in which he actually made a +road several miles long. He kindly sent the carriage for the Consul and +me to drive to his place, and had relays of horses half-way on the road +so that we could gallop the whole way. He has planted trees all along the +new road, and brought water down from the hills by a canal along the +roadside in order to provide sufficient moisture to make them grow. + +When we reached Fatabad--that was the name of the village close to which +our host's country residence stood--we alighted at a most beautiful +avenue of high trees on either side of a long tank of limpid water, in +which gracefully floated dozens of swans and ducks. We were met at the +gate by our host, a charming old fellow, and his son, Mahommed Ali Khan, +a most intelligent young man. Surrounded by a crowd of servants we were +shown round the beautiful garden, with its rare plants from all parts of +the world, its well-cared-for flowers, and its fruit trees of every +imaginable kind. There was a handsome house built in semi-European style +and with European furniture in it. On a table in the dining-room were +spread a great many trays of sweets. After the usual compliments dinner +was brought in by a long row of attendants, who carried tray after tray +full of delicacies, part of which they deposited on the table, the rest +on the floor. + +Our host, with much modesty, asked us to sit at the table, and he and his +Persian friends sat themselves on the floor. We--the Consul, the two +other Englishmen, residents of Kerman, and myself, however--declined to +take advantage of his offer and declared that we should all sit on the +floor in the best Persian style, an attention which was greatly +appreciated by our host and by his friends. + +It was with some dismay that I saw more trays of food being conveyed into +the room, until the whole floor was absolutely covered with trays, large +and small, and dishes, cups and saucers, all brim-full of something or +other to eat. + +[Illustration: A View of the Kerman Plain from the "Ya Ali" Inscription. + +(How steep the ascent to the inscription is can be seen by the mountain +side on left of observer.)] + +[Illustration: Wives Returning from the Pilgrimage for Sterile Women.] + +Persian food of the better kind and in moderation is not at all bad nor +unattractive. It is quite clean,--cleaner, if it comes to that, than the +general run of the best European cooking. The meat is ever fresh and +good, the chickens never too high--in fact, only killed and bled a few +minutes before they are cooked; the eggs always newly laid in fact, and +not merely in theory, and the vegetables ever so clean and tasty. As for +the fruit of Central and Southern Persia, it is eminently excellent and +plentiful. + +The Persians themselves eat with their fingers, which they duly wash +before beginning their meals, but we were given silver forks and spoons +and best English knives. Really to enjoy a Persian meal, however, one's +fingers are quite unapproachable by any more civilised device. + +The most sensible part of a Persian meal is its comparative lack of +method and order, anybody picking wherever he likes from the many dishes +displayed in the centre of the room and all round him; but any one +endowed with digestive organs of moderate capacity feels some +apprehension at the mountains of rice and food which are placed before +one, and is expected to devour. A European who wants to be on his best +behaviour finds the last stages of a Persian dinner a positive trial, and +is reminded very forcibly of the terrible fable of the frog that tried to +emulate the cow. To show the reader to what test of expansion one's +capacity is put, no better evidence can be given than a faithful +enumeration of the viands spread before us at the dinner here described, +all of which we were made to taste. + +Qalam pal[=a]j[=o] = Cabbage pilao. +Chil[=a]-[=o] = White rice with a soupcon of butter. +Khurish-i-murgh-i-b[=a]dinj[=a]n = Stew of chicken with tomatoes. +Kab[=a]b-i-ch[=u]ja = Broiled chicken. +Sh[=a]m[=i] = Meat sausages. +Dulmayi qalam = Meat wrapped in cabbage leaves with + onions and beans. +[=A]b-g[=u]sht = Soup with a lump of meat. +Halwa = A dish of honey, pistache, and camel's + milk. +K[=u]-k[=u] = Omelette of eggs and vegetables. +Mushta = Rissoles. +Mast = Curds. +Kharbuza = Melon. +Pan[=i]r = Cheese. +Turb = Radishes. +Pista = Pistachio nuts. +[=A]n[=a]r = Pomegranates. +Zab[=a]n-i-gaw = Green bombes. +Tursh[=i] = Pickles of all sorts. +Rishta = White and green vermicelli cakes. +Murabba bihi = Preserved gum. + +To these must be added the numerous sweets of which one has to partake +freely before dinner. Through dinner only water is drunk, or nothing at +all, but before and after, tea--three-quarters sugar and one quarter tea, +with no milk,--is served, and also delicious coffee. + +The capacity of Persians is enormous, and on trying to emulate it we all +suffered considerably. So pressing were our hosts to make us eat some of +this and some of that, and to taste some of the other, that by the time +we had finished we were all in a semi-conscious state. An attendant +passed round a brass bowl and poured upon our fingers, from a graceful +amphora, tepid water with rose-leaf scent. Then our host very +considerately had us led to the upper floor of the building to a +deliciously cool room, wherein were soft silk broad divans with velvet +pillows. Five minutes later, one in each corner of the room, we were all +fast asleep. It is the custom in Persia to have a siesta after one's +meals--one needs it badly when one is asked out to dinner. So for a +couple of hours we were left to ourselves, while our hosts retired to +their rooms. Then more tea was brought, more coffee, more sweets. + +We paid an interesting visit to the village of Fatabad, the older portion +of which, formerly called Rustamabad, had from a distance the appearance +of a strongly fortified place. It had a high broad wall with four +circular towers at the corners, and quite an imposing gateway. The +interior of the village was curious, the habitations being adjacent to +the village wall all round, and each room having a perforated dome over +it. There was spacious stabling on one side for horses, and several +irregular courts in the centre of the village. A long wall stretched from +this village to the Fatabad gardens and palatial dwelling of +Hussein-Ali-Khan, and on one side of this wall were nicely kept wheat +fields, while on the other lay a capital fruit garden. + +In the new village of Fatabad, directly outside the wall of Rustamabad, +there were but few houses, with an interesting underground hammam, with +water coming from natural mineral springs brought here from the village +of Ikhtiyarabad, some little distance off. Behind this village, to the +west, a barrier of high rugged hills closed the horizon before us, and +made the view a most delightfully picturesque one. + +In the evening, in the same grand carriage, we were again conveyed back +to Kerman, as I intended to start at midnight on my journey across the +Great Salt Desert. + +[Illustration: Sketch Map Showing Route Followed by Author and Principal +Tracks between Kum and Kerman (Persia). + +Drawn by A. Henry Savage Landor.] + +END OF VOL. I + + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Mahommed Hussein. Sadek. + +(Author's Servants.)] + + + + +ACROSS +COVETED LANDS + +OR + +A JOURNEY FROM FLUSHING (HOLLAND) +TO CALCUTTA, OVERLAND + +BY + +A. HENRY SAVAGE LANDOR + +_WITH 175 ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS, PLANS AND MAPS_ +_BY AUTHOR_ + +IN TWO VOLUMES +VOL. II + +London +MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited +1902 + +_All rights reserved_ + +Richard Clay and Sons, Limited, +LONDON AND BUNGAY + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + _To face page_ +Mahommed Hussein and Sadek (Author's Servants) _Frontispiece_ +Kerman and Zeris, the two Kittens who accompanied + Author on his wanderings 6 +Author's Caravan and Others Halting in the Desert 20 +Author's Caravan in the Salt Desert 26 +Ali Murat Making Bread 26 +Wolves in Camp 34 +Author's Camel Men in their White Felt Coats 38 +Camel Men saying their Prayers at Sunset 38 +Author's Camels being Fed in the Desert 48 +The Trail we left behind in the Salt Desert 54 +Author's Caravan Descending into River Bed near Darband 58 +Rock Habitations, Naiband 58 +The Village of Naiband, and Rock Dwellings in the Cliff 60 +Young Men of an Oasis in the Desert 64 +Man and Child of the Desert 64 +Naiband Barber Stropping a Razor on his Leg 68 +A Woman of Naiband 68 +Fever Stricken Man at Fedeshk 86 +The Citadel, Birjand 86 +The City of Birjand, showing main street and river bed combined 90 +Women Visiting Graves of Relatives, Birjand. + (Ruined Fort can be observed on Hill.) 110 +In the Desert. (Tamarisks in the Foreground.) 118 +Women at Bandan 142 +Dr. Golam Jelami and his Patients 142 +The Main Street, Sher-i-Nasrya (Showing centre of City) 144 +The British Bazar (Husseinabad), Sistan 150 +The Wall of Sher-i-Nasrya at Sunset 156 +The Sar-tip 162 +The Customs Caravanserai, Sher-i-Nasrya, Sistan (Belgian + Customs Officer in foreground) 166 +The Sistan Consulate on Christmas Day, 1901 174 +Major R. E. Benn, British Consul for Sistan, and his Escort + of 7th Bombay Lancers 186 +The Citadel of Zaidan, the Great City 202 +The Zaidan West Towers and Modern Village 204 +Towers of the Citadel, Zaidan 206 +S.E. Portion of Zaidan City, showing how it disappears + under distant sand accumulations 208 +Double Wall and Circular Unroofed Structures, Zaidan. In + the distance high sand accumulations above City 208 +Interior of Zaidan Fortress 212 +Graveyard of Zaidan City 212 +East View of the Zaidan Citadel 214 +The Figure we dug out at Zaidan 218 +Arabic Inscription and marble columns with earthenware + lamps upon them. Fragment of water-pipe. Stone + implements. Brick wall of the "Tombs of Forty + Saints" showing in top corners of photograph 218 +Arabic Inscription on Marble dug by Author at the City of Zaidan 220 +Transfer of Inscription dated 1282, found in the "Tomb of Forty + Saints," Zaidan 222 +Transfer of Ornament above four lines of Koran on Grave Stone 222 +Transfer of Ornamentations on Marble Grave 222 +Presumed Summits of Towers buried in Sand, Zaidan + (Notice top of Castellated Wall behind.) 222 +Sketch Plan of Zaidan Citadel, by A. Henry Savage Landor 228 +Sketch Map of Summit of Kuh-i-Kwajah, by A. Henry Savage Landor 238 +Dead Houses and Ziarat on Kuh-i-Kwajah 240 +A Family Tomb (Eight Compartments) on Kuh-i-Kwajah 240 +Kala-i-Kakaha, the "City of Roars of Laughter" 242 +The "Gandun Piran" Ziarat on Kuh-i-Kwajah 242 +A Bird's Eye View of Kala-i-Kakaha, the "City of Roars of Laughter" 246 +Sher-i-Rustam. (Rustam's City) 260 +The Stable of Rustam's Legendary Horse 260 +The Gate of Rustam's City, as seen from Rustam's House 262 +The Remains of the Two Upper Storeys of Rustam's House 266 +Rustam's City, showing Rustam's House in Citadel, also + domed roofs blown in from the north 268 +Plan of Sher-i-Rustam 270 +View of Sher-i-Rustam from Rustam's House. (West + portion of City under the lee of wall) 272 +View of Sher-i-Rustam from Rustam's House (South-east + section of City) 274 +Said Khan, Duffadar and Levies at the Perso-Beluch + Frontier Post of Robat 294 +Beluch Musicians (at Sibi) 298 +Beluch Dance (at Sibi) 304 +The Beluch-Afghan Boundary Cairn and Malek-Siah + Mountains in Background 306 +Rest House at Mahommed Raza Chah overlooking Afghan Desert 310 +Beluch Black Tents at Mahommed Raza Chah 314 +Rock Pillar between Kirtaka and Saindak 314 +Sand Hills 318 +A Caravan of Donkeys in Afghanistan 320 +In Afghanistan. Who are you? 322 +In the Afghan Desert. Afghan Caravan Men 322 +The Thana and New Bungalow at Saindak. (Saindak Mt. in Background.) 324 +Beluch Prisoners at Saindak 326 +Interior of Rest House, Mukak 332 +The Rest House at Sahib Chah 332 +Windmill at Mushki Chah 350 +Three Beluch who would not be Photographed! 350 +Ziarat at Chah Sandan. (Belind Khan Salaaming) 362 +Desert covered with Gypsum, near Sotag 362 +Circular Mesjid, with Tomb and Outer Kneeling Place 364 +Mesjid on the Site where a Man had been Killed between + Kishingi and Morad Khan Kella 364 +The Type of Thana and New Bungalow between Nushki and Robat 368 +The Nushki-Robat Track 372 +A Beluch Family 382 +Beluch Huts thatched with Palm Leaves and Tamarisk 394 +Circular Ziarat with Stone, Marble and Horn Offerings 398 +Ziarat with Tomb showing Stone Vessels 398 +Beluch Mesjid and Graveyard at Dalbandin 402 +Kuchaki Chah Rest House 410 +Old Beluch Mud Fort near Nushki 410 +Beluch Huts and Weaving Loom 416 +Cave Dwellers, Nushki 416 +A Badini Sardar 422 +The Salaam of the Beluch Sardars at Nushki 422 +The New City of Nushki (overlooking the Tashil Buildings.) 426 +Jemadar and Levies, Nushki 428 +A Giant Beluch Recruit. (Chaman.) 428 +The Track between Nushki and Kishingi 432 +Taleri (Kanak). The new type of Rest House between Nushki and Quetta 438 +The Horse Fair at Sibi, Beluchistan 440 +Beluch Boys off to the Races--Horse Fair at Sibi 442 +Map at the End of Volume. + + + + +ACROSS COVETED LANDS + + +CHAPTER I + + Difficulties of crossing the Great Salt Desert--The trials of + arranging a caravan--The ways of camel-men--A quaint man of the + Desert--A legal agreement--Preparations for the + departure--"Kerman" and "Zeris," my two Persian kittens and + travelling companions--Persian cats--The start--The charms of + camel riding--Marching among mountains. + + +My intention was to cross the Salt Desert in an almost easterly direction +by the route from Khabis to Neh, which seemed the most direct route from +Kerman to the Afghan frontier, but on mentioning my project to the Consul +and his Persian assistant, Nasr-el Khan, they dissuaded me from +attempting it, declaring it impossible to get across in the autumn. Why +it was impossible I could not quite ascertain, each man from whom I +inquired giving a different reason, but the fact remained that it was +impossible. The Governor of Kerman, all the highest officials in the +town, told me that it could not be done till three or four months later, +when the Afghan camels would come over, laden with butter, by that +route. Even faithful Sadek, whom I had despatched to the bazaar to get +camels at all costs, returned with a long face after a whole day's +absence, and for the first time since he was in my employ had to change +his invariable answer of "Sahib, have got," to a bitterly disappointing +"Sahib, no can get." + +A delay was predicted on all hands of at least a month or two in Kerman +before I could possibly obtain camels to cross the desert in any +direction towards the east. The tantalising trials of arranging a caravan +were not small. + +I offered to purchase camels, but no camel driver could be induced to +accompany me. Offers of treble pay and bakshish had no effect, and I +found myself in a serious dilemma when a camel man appeared on the scene. +His high terms were then and there accepted, everything that he asked for +was conceded, when suddenly, probably believing that all this was too +good to come true, he backed out of the bargain and positively refused to +go. Had I chosen to go by the southern route, skirting the desert _via_ +Bam, the difficulty would not have been so great, but that route is very +easy, and had been followed by several Europeans at different times, and +I declined to go that way. + +I was beginning to despair when Sadek, who had spent another day hunting +in the various caravanserais, entered my room, and with a broad grin on +his generally stolid countenance, proclaimed that he had found some good +camels. To corroborate his words a clumsy and heavy-footed camel man, +with a face which by association had become like that of the beasts he +led, was shoved forward into the room. + +He was a striking figure, with an ugly but singularly honest countenance, +his eyes staring and abnormally opened, almost strained--the eyes of a +man who evidently lived during the night and slept during the day. His +mouth stretched, with no exaggeration, from ear to ear, and displayed a +double row of powerful white teeth. What was lacking in quantity of nose +was made up by a superabundance of malformed, shapeless ears, which +projected at the sides of his head like two wings. When his legs were +closed--_pour facon de parler_--they were still some six inches apart, +and a similar space was noticeable between each of his arms and his body. +Unmistakably this fellow was the very picture of clumsiness. + +He seemed so much distracted by the various articles of furniture in the +Consul's room that one could get no coherent answer from him, and his +apprehension gave way to positive terror when he was addressed in flowing +language by the various high officials who were then calling on the +Consul. Their ways of persuasion by threats and promises alarmed the +camel man to such an extent that his eyes roamed about all over the +place, palpably to find a way to effect an escape. He was, however, so +clumsy at it, that the consul's servants and soldiers checked him in +time, and Sadek broke in with one of his usual flows of words at the top +of his voice, which, however, could hardly be heard amid the vigorous +eloquence of the Persians present, who all spoke at the same time, and at +an equally high pitch. + +With a sinking heart I closely watched the camel man, in whom rested my +faint and last hope of crossing the Salt Desert. He looked so +bewildered--and no wonder--almost terror-stricken, that when he was asked +about his camels, the desert, the amount of pay required, he sulkily +mumbled that he had no camels, knew nothing whatever about the desert, +and did not wish to receive any pay. + +"Why, then, did you come here?" + +"I did not come here!" + +"But you are here." + +"I want to go away." + +"Yes, sahib," cried the chorus of Persians, "he has the camels, he knows +the desert; only he is frightened, as he has never spoken to a sahib +before." + +Here a young Hindoo merchant, Mul Chan Dilaram, entered the room, and +with obsequious salaams to the company, assured me that he had brought +this camel man to me, and that when he had got over his first fears I +should find him an excellent man. While we were all listening to the +Hindoo's assurances the camel man made a bolt for the door, and escaped +as fast as he could lay his legs to the ground towards the city. + +He was chased by the soldiers, and after some time was dragged back. + +"Why did you run away?" he was asked. + +"Sahib," he replied, almost crying, "I am only a man of the desert; my +only friends are my camels; please have pity on me!" + +"Then you have camels, and you do know the desert; you have said so in +your own words." + +The camel man had to agree, and on being assured that he would be very +well paid and treated, and have a new pair of shoes given him, and as +much tea brewed for him on the road, with as much sugar in it as his +capacity would endure, he at last said he would come. The Hindoo, with +great cunning, at once seized the hand of the camel man in his own and +made him swear that death should descend upon himself, his camels and his +family if he should break his word, or give me any trouble. The camel man +swore. An agreement was hastily drawn up before he had time to change his +mind, and a handsome advance in solid silver was pressed into his hands +to make the agreement good and to allay his feelings. When requested to +sign the document the camel man, who had sounded each coin on the +doorstep, and to his evident surprise found them all good, gaily dipped +his thumb into the inkstand and affixed his natural mark, a fine smudge, +upon the valuable paper, and licked up the surplus ink with his tongue. +The man undertook to provide the necessary camels and saddles, and to +take me across the Salt Desert in a north-easterly direction, the only +way by which, he said, it was possible to cross the _Lut_, the year +having been rainless, and nearly all the wells being dry. It would take +from twenty-two to twenty-six days to get across, and most of the journey +would be waterless or with brackish water. Skins had to be provided to +carry our own supply of water. + +A whole day was spent in preparing for the journey, and when November 4th +came, shortly before midnight my provisions were packed upon my camels, +with an extra load of fowls and one of fruit, while on the hump of the +last camel of my caravan were perched, in a wooden box made comfortable +with straw and cotton-wool, two pretty Persian kittens, aged respectively +three weeks and four weeks, which I had purchased in Kerman, and which, +as we shall see, lived through a great many adventures and sufferings, +and actually reached London safe and sound, proving themselves to be the +most wonderful and agreeable little travelling companions imaginable. One +was christened "Kerman," the other "Zeris." + +[Illustration: Kerman and Zeris, the two Kittens who accompanied Author +on his wanderings.] + +The Persian cat, as everybody knows, possesses a long, soft, silky coat, +with a beautiful tail and ruff, similar to the cats known in Europe as +Angora, which possess probably longer hair on the body. The Persian cats, +too, have a longer pencil of hair on the ears than domestic cats, and +have somewhat the appearance and the motions of wild cats, but if +properly treated are gentleness itself, and possess the most marvellous +intelligence. Unlike cats of most other nationalities, they seem to enjoy +moving from place to place, and adapt themselves to fresh localities +with the greatest ease. If fed entirely on plenty of raw meat and water +they are extremely gentle and affectionate and never wish to leave you; +the reason that many Persian cats--who still possess some of the +qualities of wild animals--grow savage and leave their homes, being +principally because of the lack of raw meat which causes them to go +ahunting to procure it for themselves. The cat, it should be remembered, +is a carnivorous animal, and is not particularly happy when fed on a +vegetable diet, no more than we beef-eating people are when invited to a +vegetarian dinner. + +Isfahan is the city from which long-haired Persian cats, the _burak_, are +brought down to the Gulf, and from there to India, but the Kerman cats +are said by the Persians themselves to be the best. The white ones are +the most appreciated by the Persians; then the blue (grey) ones with +differently coloured eyes, and the tabby ones. Mine were, one perfectly +white, the other tabby. + +At midnight I said good-bye to Major Phillott, whose kind hospitality I +had enjoyed for four days, and began my slow and dreary march on +camel-back. Swung too and fro till one feels that one's spine is breaking +in two, we wound our way down from the Consulate at Zeris, skirted the +town, now asleep and in a dead silence, and then turned north-east among +the barren Kupayeh Mountains. + +We had a fine moonlight, and had I been on a horse instead of a camel I +should probably have enjoyed looking at the scenery, but what with the +abnormal Persian dinner to which I had been treated in the afternoon (see +Vol. I.)--what with the unpleasant swing of the camel and the monotonous +dingle of the camels' bells--I became so very sleepy that I could not +keep my eyes open. + +There is very little style to be observed about riding a camel, and one's +only aim must be to be comfortable, which is easier said than done, for +camels have so many ways of their own, and these ways are so varied, that +it is really difficult to strike a happy medium. + +Sadek had made a kind of spacious platform on my saddle by piling on it +carpets, blankets, and a mattress, and on the high butt of the saddle in +front he had fastened a pillow folded in two. + +As we wended our way along the foot of one hill and then another, while +nothing particularly striking appeared in the scenery, I thought I would +utilise what comfort I had within reach, and resting my head on the +pillow, through which one still felt the hard wooden frame of the saddle, +and with one leg and arm dangling loose on each side of the saddle, I +slept soundly all through the night. Every now and then the camel +stumbled or gave a sudden jerk, which nearly made one tumble off the high +perch, but otherwise this was really a delightful way of passing the long +dreary hours of the night. + +We marched some nine hours, and having gone over a low pass across the +range, halted near a tiny spring of fairly good water. Here we were at +the entrance of an extensive valley with a small village in the centre. +Our way, however, lay to the south-east of the valley along the +mountains. We were at an elevation of 6,300 feet, or 800 feet above +Kerman. + +The heat of the day was so great that we halted, giving the camels a +chance of grazing on what tamarisks they could find during day-light, for +indeed camels are troublesome animals. They must not eat after sundown or +it makes them ill. They are let loose on arrival at a camp, and they +drift away in search of lichens or other shrubs. At sunset they are +driven back to camp, where they kneel down and ruminate to their hearts' +content until it is time for the caravan to start. The heavy wooden +saddles with heavy padding under them are not removed from the camel's +hump while the journey lasts, and each camel has, among other +neck-ornaments of tassels and shells, one or more brass bells, which are +useful in finding the camels again when strayed too far in grazing. + +We left at midnight and crossed the wide valley with the village of +Sar-es-iap (No. 1) four miles from our last camp. Again we came among +mountains and entered a narrow gorge. The night was bitterly cold. We +caught up a large caravan, and the din of the camels' bells and the +hoarse groans of the camels, who were quite out of breath going up the +incline, made the night a lively one, the sounds being magnified and +echoed from mountain to mountain. + +Every now and then a halt had to be called to give the camels a rest, and +the camel men spread their felt overcoats upon the ground and lay down +for five or ten minutes to have a sleep. Then the long string of camels +would proceed again up the hill, the camels urged by the strange cries +and sing-songs of the men. + +This part of the journey being mountainous, one came across three little +streams of water, and at each the camel man urged me to drink as much as +I could, because, he said, the time will come when we shall see no water +at all for days at a time. + +We were gradually rising, the camels panting dreadfully, and had got up +to 7,100 feet when we camped near the village of Kalaoteh--a few small +domed hovels, a field or two, and a cluster of trees along a brook. We +were still among the Kupayeh Mountains with the Kurus peak towering +directly above us. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + Fifty miles from Kerman--Camels not made for climbing hills--The + Godar Khorassunih Pass--Volcanic formation--Sar-es-iap--A + variegated mountain--A castle--Rock dwellings--Personal + safety--Quaint natives--Women and their ways--Footgear. + + +On November 6th we were some fifty miles from Kerman. Again when midnight +came and I was slumbering hard with the two kittens, who had made +themselves cosy on my blankets, the hoarse grunts of the camels being +brought up to take the loads woke me up with a start, and the weird +figure of the camel-man stooped over me to say it was time to depart. + +"Hrrrr, hrrrr!" spoke the camel-man to each camel, by which the animals +understood they must kneel down. The loads were quickly fastened on the +saddles, the kittens lazily stretched themselves and yawned as they were +removed from their warm nooks, and Sadek in a moment packed up all my +bedding on my saddle. + +We continued to ascend, much to the evident discomfort of the camels, who +were quite unhappy when going up or down hill. It was really ridiculous +to see these huge, clumsy brutes quite done up, even on the gentlest +incline. The track went up and up in zigzag and curves, the cries of the +camel-drivers were constantly urging on the perplexed animals, and the +dingle of the smaller bells somewhat enlivened the slow, monotonous +ding-dong of the huge cylindrical bell--some two and a half feet high and +one foot in diameter--tied to the load of the last camel, and mournfully +resounding in the valley down below. + +And we swung and swung on the camels' humps, in the beautiful starlight +night--the moon had not yet risen--on several occasions going across +narrow passages with a drop under us of considerable depth, where one +earnestly hoped the quivering legs of the timid camels would not give way +or perchance stumble. The higher we got the more the camels panted and +roared, and the cries of the drivers were doubled. + +One farsakh and a half from our last camp, we reached at 2 a.m. the top +of the Godar Khorassunih Pass (8,400 ft.), and we had to halt for a while +to let the camels rest. The cold was bitter. Camels and men were +trembling all over. Then came the descent. + +Camel riding is comfortable at no time. It is passable on the flat; just +bearable going up hill, but dreadful going down a fairly steep incline. +The wretched beasts assumed a kind of hopping, jerky motion on their +front legs, with a good deal of spring in their knees, which bumped the +rider to such an extent that it seemed almost as if all the bones in +one's body began to get disjointed and rattle. When the camel happened to +stumble among the rocks and loose stones the sudden jerk was so painful +that it took some seconds to recover from the ache it caused in one's +spine. + +The moon rose shortly after we had gone over the pass, as we were wending +our way from one narrow gorge into another, between high rocks and cliffs +and mountains of most fantastic forms. We passed the little village of +Huruh, and at dawn the picturesqueness of the scenery increased tenfold +when the cold bluish tints of the moon gradually vanished in the +landscape, and first the mountains became capped and then lighted all +over with warm, brilliant, reddish tints, their edge appearing sharply +cut against the clear, glowing, golden sky behind them. + +We were now proceeding along a dry, wide river bed, which had on one side +a tiny stream, a few inches broad, of crystal-like water dripping along. +Evident signs could be noticed that during the torrential storms of the +rainy season this bed must occasionally carry large volumes of water. A +foot track can be perceived on either side some twelve feet above the +bed, which is followed by caravans when the river is in flood. + +We now entered a volcanic region with high perpendicular rocks to our +right, that seemed as if they had undergone the action of long periods of +fire or excessive heat; then we emerged into a large basin in which the +vegetation struck one as being quite luxuriant by contrast with the +barren country we had come through. There were a few old and healthy +trees on the edge of the thread of water, and high tamarisks in +profusion. On our left, where the gorge narrowed again between the +mountains, was a large flow of solid green lava. In this basin was a +quaint little hamlet--Sar-es-iap (No. 2)--actually boasting of a +flour-mill, and curious rock dwellings which the natives inhabit. + +We continued, and entered a broader valley, also of volcanic formation, +with reddish sediments burying a sub-formation of yellowish brown rock +which appeared in the section of the mountains some 300 feet above the +plain. To the W.N.W. stood a lofty variegated mountain, the higher part +of which was of dark brown in a horizontal stratum, while the lower was a +slanting layer of deep red. + +In the valley there was some cultivation of wheat, and I noticed some +plum, apple, fig and pomegranate trees. One particularly ancient tree of +enormous proportions stood near the village, and under its refreshing +shade I spent the day. The village itself--a quaint castle-like structure +with ruined tower--was curiously built in the interior. On the first +storey of the large tower were to be found several humble huts, and other +similar ones stood behind to the north. These huts were domed and so low +as hardly to allow a person to stand erect inside. Some had an opening in +the dome, most had only a single aperture, the door. The majority of the +inhabitants seemed quite derelict and lived in the most abject poverty. + +A few yards north-east of the castle were some rock habitations. There +were three large chambers dug in the rock side by side, two of one single +room and one of two rooms _en suite_. The largest room measured twenty +feet by twelve, and was some six feet high. In the interior were +receptacles apparently for storing grain. The doorway was quite low, and +the heat inside suffocating. Curiously enough, one or two of these +chambers were not quite straight, but formed an elbow into the mountain +side. + +At the sides of the row of cliff dwellings were two smaller doors giving +access to storehouses also dug in the rock. I was told that the natives +migrated to this village during the winter months from October till one +month after the Persian New Year, while they spend the remainder of the +year higher up on the mountains owing to the intense heat. Firewood, +which is scarce, is stored piled up on the top of roofs, whence a little +at a time is taken down for fuel, and prominent in front of the village +was a coarse and well-fortified pen for sheep. Wolves were said to be +plentiful in the neighbourhood, and as I was sitting down writing my +notes a shepherd boy ran into the tower to say that a wolf had killed one +of his sheep. + +Both from men and beasts there seemed to be little safety near the +village, according to the natives, who invariably took their +old-fashioned matchlocks with them when they went to work in their +fields, even a few yards away from the castle. + +One peculiarity of this village, which stood at an altitude of 6,180 +feet, was that nobody seemed to know its name. The people themselves said +that it had no name, but whether they were afraid of telling me, in their +suspicions that some future evil might come upon them or for other +reasons, I cannot say. + +The natives were certainly rather original in their appearance, their +ways and speech, and as I comfortably sat under the big tree and watched +them coming in and out of the castle-village, they interested me much. +Donkeys in pairs were taken in and out of the gate to convey manure to +the fields, and old men and young came in and out carrying their +long-poled spades and matchlocks. Even little boys were armed. + +The men reminded one very forcibly, both in features and attire, of the +figures in ancient Egyptian sculptures, of which they were the very +image. They wore felt skull caps, the side locks of jet black hair cut +straight across. They had clean-shaven necks and lumpy black beards. +Their tall bodies were slender, with short waists, and their wiry feet +showed beneath ample trousers--so ample as almost to approach a divided +skirt. The children were pretty, and although miserably clothed looked +the very picture of health and suppleness. + +The women, of whom a number sat the whole day perched on the domed roofs +of their huts to watch the doings of the _ferenghi_, showed their faces +fully, and although professing to be Mussulman made no attempt whatever +at concealment. They wore picturesque light blue and red kerchiefs on the +head and shoulders, falling into a point behind, and held fast in +position round the skull by a small black and blue turban. A pin held the +two sides of the kerchief together under the chin. The women were garbed +in short, pleated blue skirts reaching just below the knee, and a short +loose coat of the same cotton material with side slits and ample sleeves. +They had bare legs, well proportioned and straight, with handsome ankles +and long, well-formed feet and toes. When working they went about +bare-footed, but when their daily occupations were finished put on small +slippers. + +They were particularly to be admired when they walked, which they did to +perfection, looking most attractively picturesque when carrying jugs of +water on the head. The head had to be then kept very erect, and gave a +becoming curve to the well-modelled neck and a most graceful swing to the +waist. A long black cloak, not unlike a _chudder_, was worn over the head +after sunset when the air was turning cold. + +The women did all the hard work and seemed to put their whole soul into +it. Some gaily spun wool on their wheels, and others worked at small, +neat, but primitive weaving looms which were erected on the top storey of +the castle. + +Affectionate mothers carefully searched the hair of the heads of their +children--to remove therefrom all superfluous animal life,--but to my +dismay I discovered that their good-nature went so far as not to destroy +the captured brutes, which were merely picked up most gently, so as not +to injure them, and flung down from the castle-village wall, on the top +of which this operation took place. As there were other people sitting +quite unconcerned down below, no doubt this provided a good deal of +perpetual occupation to the women of the castle, and the parasites were +provided with a constant change of abode. + +Probably what astonished me most was to see a young damsel climb up a +tall tree in the best monkey fashion, with successively superposed arms +and legs stiff and straight, not round the tree, mind you, and using her +toes for the purpose with almost equal ease as her fingers. + +The foot-gear of the men was interesting. They wore wooden-soled clogs, +held fast to the foot by a string between the big toe and the next, and +another band half way across the foot. Some of the men, however, wore +common shoes with wooden soles. + + + + +CHAPTER III + + An abandoned caravanserai--Fantastic hill tops--No water--A most + impressive mountain--Sediments of salt--A dry river bed--Curious + imprints in the rock--A row--Intense heat--Accident to our supply + of eggs--The end of a meeting--Misleading maps--Haoz Panch--The + camel-man's bread--Lawah. + + +Again we left camp shortly before midnight, and ascended continually +between mountains until we reached a pass 7,250 ft. above the sea, after +which we came upon the abandoned caravanserai of Abid (pronounced Obit). +On descending, the way was between high vertical rocks, and then we found +ourselves among hills of most peculiar formation. The sun was about to +rise, and the fantastic hill-tops, in some places not unlike sharp teeth +of a gigantic saw, in others recalled Stonehenge and the pillar-like +remains of temples of Druids. In this case they were, of course, entirely +of natural formation. Although there was no water in the valley into +which we had descended, we camped here owing to the camels being very +tired, and I took the opportunity of climbing to a neighbouring hill +(6,300 ft.) in order to obtain a panoramic view of the surrounding +country. + +To the South-East, whence we had come, were low and comparatively +well-rounded mountains with two narrow valleys separated by a +flat-topped, tortuous hill range. To the north-east of my camp was a high +and most impressive mountain, the upper portion of which appeared at +first almost of a basaltic formation, with vertical quadrangular columns, +while the lower portion of the mountain, evidently accumulated at a later +period, and slanting at an angle of 45 deg., displayed distinct strata of +light brown, a deep band of grey, then dark brown, light brown, a thin +layer of grey, and then a gradation of beautiful warm burnt sienna +colour, getting richer and richer in tone towards the base. Here at the +bottom, all round the mountain, and in appearance not unlike the waves of +a choppy sea in shallow water, rose hundreds of broken-up, pointed +hillocks, the point of each hillock being invariably turned in a +direction away from the mountain, and these were formed not of sand, but +by a much broken-up stratum of black, burnt slate, at an angle of 20 deg. in +relation to an imaginary horizontal plane. + +[Illustration: Author's Caravan and Others Halting in the Desert.] + +It was most curious to find these enormous layers of black slate here, +for they were quite different in character from the whole country around. +About two miles further off, north-east, we had, for instance, a range of +mountains of quite a different type, not at all broken up nor with sharp +cutting edges, but quite nicely rounded off. Between this range and the +high peculiar mountain which I have just described--in the flat +stretch--were to be seen some curious hillocks, apparently formed by +water. + +N.N.E. was the way towards Birjand, first across a long flat plain +bounded before us by low greyish hills, beyond which a high +mountain-range--the Leker Kuh--towered sublime. Two mountain masses of +fair height stood in front of this range, one N.N.E. on the left of the +track, the other N.N.W., with a white sediment of salt at its base; while +beyond could be distinguished a long flat-topped mountain with a peculiar +white horizontal band half way up it, like a huge chalk mark, all along +its entire length of several miles. This mountain appeared to be some +thirty miles off. The mountain mass to the N.W. showed no picturesque +characteristics, but a more broken-up mountain, somewhat similar to the +one to our N.E., stood between my camp and the range beyond. + +As I have already stated, we had come along a dry river bed, and from my +high point of vantage I could see its entire course to the north-west. It +ran in a tortuous manner until it absolutely lost itself in the flat +desert. The long snake-like hill-range separating the parallel valleys +from south-east to north-west appeared to owe its formation to the action +of water, the surface pebbles, even at the summit of it, being well +rounded and worn quite smooth, many with grooves in them. + +Near my camp I came across some very curious imprints in the hard rock, +like lava. There were some rocks hollowed out, in a fantastic way, as if +the hollows had been formed by some softer matter having been enclosed in +the rock and having gradually disappeared, and also a perfect cast of a +large tibia bone. On other rocks were footprints of large animals, +evidently made when the lava was soft. + +On returning to camp I found a general row going on between Sadek and the +camel men--my own and those of the other caravan who had asked permission +to travel with me. There was no water at this camp, and only salt water +could be procured in small quantities some distance away. The intense +heat had played havoc with some of my fresh provisions, and we +unfortunately had an accident to the load of eggs which were all +destroyed. A great many of the chickens, too, had gone bad, and we were +running rather short of fresh food. The caravan men said that it was +impossible to go on, because, this being such a dry year, even the few +brackish wells across the desert would be dry, and they refused to come +on. + +The greater part of the evening was spent in arguing--everybody except +myself shouting himself hoarse. At midnight, the usual hour of our +departure, the camel men refused to pack the loads and continue across +the desert. At 1 a.m. they were preparing to leave me to return to +Kerman. At 1.30, my patience being on the verge of being exhausted, they +most of them received a good pounding with the butt of my rifle. At 1.45, +they having come back to their senses, I duly entertained each of them to +a cup of tea, brewed with what salt water we had got, on a fire of camel +dung, and at 2 a.m. we proceeded on our course as quietly as possible as +if nothing had happened. + +We still followed the dry river bed among hills getting lower and lower +for about three miles on either side of us, and at last we entered a vast +plain. We went N.N.W. for some twelve miles, when by the side of some low +hillocks of sand and pebbles we came upon a caravanserai, and an older +and smaller structure, a large covered tank of rain water (almost empty) +which is conveyed here from the hills twelve miles off by means of a +small canal. + +To the S.S.E. we could still see the flat-topped mountain under which we +had camped the previous day, and all around us were distant mountains. +The flat plain stretching for miles on every side had deep grooves cut +into it by water flowing down from the mountain-side during the +torrential rains and eventually losing themselves in the sand. + +On the English and some of the German maps these dry grooves are marked +as large and important rivers, but this is a mistake. There is not a drop +of water in any of them at any time of the year except during heavy +storms, when the drainage of the mountains is immediately carried down by +these channels and lost in the desert. It is no more right to mark these +channels as rivers than it would be to see Piccadilly marked on a map of +London as a foaming torrent because during a heavy shower the surplus +water not absorbed by the wood pavement had run down it half an inch deep +until the rain stopped. + +To the N.E. we saw much more clearly than the day before the extensive +salt deposits at the base of the mountains, and to the N.N.E. a grey +mountain with a fluted top. A high mountain mass stretched from the South +to the North-West and then there was a wide opening into another flat +sandy plain. Far, far beyond this a distant range of high mountains could +hardly be distinguished, for a sand-storm was raging in that direction +and veiled the view with a curtain of dirty yellowish grey. + +This caravanserai, called Haoz Panch (or "Fifth water") altitude 5,050 +feet--was built by some charitable person to protect caravans during +sand-storms, and also to supply them with water, which was quite +drinkable, if one were not too particular, and if one did not look at it. +The caravanserai, very solidly built, was left to take care of itself, +there being no one in charge of it. The _kilns_ erected to bake the +bricks with which the caravanserai had been built, still stood near it. + +It is rather curious to notice what effect a drink of fair water has on +the temper of one's men. My camel man, Ali Murat, for that was his name, +was in high spirits and came to fetch me to show me how he made his +bread, for he was keen to know whether camel men(!) in my country made it +the same way! I reserved my answer until I had seen his process. + +The hands having been carefully washed first, flour and water, with great +lumps of salt, were duly mixed together in a bowl until reduced into +fairly solid paste. A clean cloth was then spread upon the ground and the +paste punched hard upon it with the knuckles, care having been taken to +sprinkle some dry flour first so that the paste should not stick to the +cloth. When this had gone on for a considerable time the paste was +balanced upon the knuckles and brought gaily bounding to where the hot +cinders remained from a fire of camel dung which had previously been +lighted. The flattened paste was carefully laid upon the hot ashes, with +which it was then covered, and left to bake for an hour or so. + +When ready, Ali Murat brought me a piece of the bread to try--which I +reluctantly did so as not to offend his feelings. + +"Do camel men in your country, Sahib, make as good bread as this when +they cross the _lut_ (desert)?" inquired Ali Murat, with an expectant +grin from ear to ear. + +"We have no camel men in my country, and no camels, and no _lut_! How +could we then get as good bread as yours?" (Really, when one tried to +forget the process of making it, which did not quite appeal to one, the +bread was not bad.) + +"You have no camels, sahib,--no _lut_--in your country?" exclaimed Ali, +with his eyes fast expanding with surprise; "Why, then, did you come +here?" + +"We have so much scenery in my country that I thought I would come here +for a change." + +[Illustration: Author's Caravan in the Salt Desert.] + +[Illustration: Ali Murat Making Bread.] + +We left the caravanserai at 11.30 p.m. on November 9th and travelled +across the plain all through the night. About 4 miles from Haoz Panch we +found an ancient mud caravanserai abandoned and partly ruined. We had the +hills quite close on our right and we came across a good many dry +channels cut by water. We travelled on the flat all the time, but we +passed on either side a great many low mounds of sand and gravel. There +was absolutely nothing worth noticing in the night's journey until we +came to the small villages of Heirabad and Shoshabad, eighteen miles from +our last camp. Two miles further we found ourselves at Lawah +(Rawar)--altitude 4,430 feet--a very large oasis with a small town of +some three thousand mud huts and ten thousand inhabitants, according to +native accounts. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + Lawah or Rawar--A way to Yezd--The bazaar--Trade--Ruined + forts--Opium smoking and its effects--Beggar's ingenious + device--In a local gentleman's home--The Tokrajie--Buying fresh + provisions--Water skins--An unhealthy climate--A fight--When + fever is contracted--Wolves in camp--Fever stricken--A third cat + purchased. + + +Lawah or Rawar is, in a way, quite an important centre. It is the last +place one passes before entering the Salt Desert proper, on the border of +which it is situated, and is, therefore, the last spot where provisions +and good water can be obtained. It has a certain amount of local trade +and is connected with Yezd by a very tortuous track _via_ Bafk-Kuh-Benan. +It has no possible resting place, and we therefore camped just outside +the town. The natives were not particularly friendly and seemed inclined +to give trouble. There was considerable excitement when we crossed the +town in the morning on our arrival, and even more when I went to inspect +the city alone in the afternoon. + +There was nothing to see, the bazaar in the place being one of the most +miserable looking in Persia. It was not domed over like those of other +Persian cities, but the streets were merely covered with rafters +supporting brush wood and rotten mats. There were no shops proper, but +various merchants, and brass-smiths, fruit-sellers, or sellers of +articles for caravans, had a certain amount of cheap goods within their +habitation doors. + +More quaintly interesting were the commercial caravanserais, or small +squares with receptacles all round for travelling merchants to display +their goods upon. Lawah's trade is principally a transit trade, the +caravans which occasionally come through the desert taking an opportunity +of selling off some of their goods here, as also, of course, do those +that come from Yezd or Kerman. + +There is some cultivation of wheat and cotton in the immediate +neighbourhood, and of fruit, which is quite excellent. The water is not +very plentiful, as can be seen by the hundreds of borings for water and +disused _kanats_ to the north of the city, where most fields are to be +found, while the majority of fruit gardens and trees are to the east. + +Here, as everywhere else in Persia, a great portion of the town is +uninhabited and in ruins, and to the south-west, outside the inhabited +part, can be seen an interesting ruined quadrangular castle with a double +wall and moat with an outer watch tower besides the corner turrets. +Inside this castle was formerly a village. Another smaller fort, also in +ruins, is situated to the S.S.W. + +There are a great many palm trees within the place, and they produce +good dates. The climate is most unhealthy, fever of the desert being +rampant. Great use is made of opium, which is smoked to excess by the +natives and has very disastrous effects in such an unhealthy climate. +Personally, I have ever believed, and believe still, that opium used in +moderation has no worse effects upon the light-headed human beings who +choose to make themselves slaves to it than whisky or tobacco, but under +these particular circumstances and in this particular climate it had +undoubtedly most evil effects in just the same way that whisky, which is +certainly the best drink for damp Scotland, is most injurious to those +who make use of it in similar doses in India. + +Although I have visited opium dens, merely for the purpose of observing, +in almost every Asiatic country where opium smoking is practised, I have +never seen cases quite so depressing as here. A great proportion of the +population suffered from fever, to allay the sufferings of which opium +was used. + +There was, of course, the usual contingent of sick people visiting my +camp to obtain medicine for their various troubles--one fever-stricken +man, with cadaverous face and skeleton-like limbs, collapsing altogether +when reaching me and remaining senseless for a considerable time. As I +never carry medicine of any kind in my travels I was unable to satisfy +them, but I gave them some little present each, which did them just as +much good. + +Beggars, too, visited the camp in appalling numbers, and their ways were +quite interesting; but none was so ingenious as that of an old woman, who +waited till there was a goodish crowd of visitors in my camp, and then +rushed at me and made a violent scene, saying that I must pay her 50 +tomans--about L10. + +"But I have never seen you before! What have you done to earn such a +sum?" + +"Oh, Sahib, you have ruined me!" and she yelled as only an angry old +woman can! She plumped herself on my best carpet and proceeded to +explain. She said that she had buried the above stated sum in solid +silver within a pile of straw, which she had sold the day before to a man +to feed his camels upon. She was therefore--according to a reasoning of +her own, since I had not yet arrived here the day before, nor could she +identify the man with any of my party--certain that my camels had +devoured the sum, and I, therefore, must pay the sum back! She was, +nevertheless, sure that I was not to blame in the matter, and was willing +to waive the claim on the immediate payment of two shais--about a +half-penny! + +Although it is well to be as kind as one can to the natives, it is never +right to allow them to go unpunished for playing tricks. Of all the +people--and they were many--who applied for charity that day, she was the +only one who received nothing. This punishment, I was glad to see, was +approved of by the many natives who had collected round. + +A gentlemanly-looking fellow came forward and asked me to visit his +house, where he was manufacturing a huge carpet--very handsome in design, +but somewhat coarse in texture--ordered for Turkestan. Three women in his +house had uncovered faces, and were very good-looking. They brought us +tea in the garden, and sweets and water melon, but did not, of course, +join in the conversation, and modestly kept apart in a corner. They wore +white _chudders_ over the head and long petticoats--quite a becoming +attire--while the men, too, were most artistic in appearance, with smart +zouave yellow jackets trimmed with fur, with short sleeves not reaching +quite to the elbow, leaving the arm quite free in its movements, and +displaying the loose sleeve of the shirt underneath. + +A couple of newly-born babies were swung in hammocks in the garden, and +were remarkably quiet when asleep! + +On going for a walk on the outskirts of the city one found a great many +fairly high mud hillocks to the east, averaging 400 feet. East-south-east +there stood hundreds more of these hillocks, with taller brown hills (the +Leker Kuh) behind them, and to the west a high peak, rising to an +estimated 11,000 feet, in the Kuh-Benan mountains. The Tokrajie +Mountains, south-west of Lawah, did not seem to rise to more than 9,000 +or 10,000 feet, and extended in a south-south-east direction. South-east +we could still see the Kuh Legav Mountain, at the foot of which we had +camped on November 8th. To the north was a long mountain, with a white +stratum like a horizontal stripe half-way up it, and the summit was in +regular teeth like those of a saw. Another similar but more pointed +mountain was to the east-south-east, the white stratum being less +horizontal in this portion. This curious white stripe in the hills +extended over an arc of a circle from 70 deg. (east-north-east) to 320 deg. +(north-west). + +We made great purchases of provisions in Lawah--sheep, chickens, eggs, +vegetables and fruit, the slaughtered chickens being carefully prepared +in layers of salt to make them last as long as possible. Then we +purchased a number of sheep skins to carry a further supply of drinking +water, for from this place, we were told, we should be several days +without finding any. Sadek was busy all day smearing these skins with +molten butter to make them absolutely water tight, and I, on my part, was +glad to see all the butter go in this operation, for with the intense +heat of the day it was impossible to touch it with one's food. Sadek's +idea of good cooking was intense richness--everything floating in grease +and butter; so these skins, which absorbed all the butter we had, were +really a godsend to me--as far as the _cuisine_ of the future was +concerned. + +There was something in the climate of Lawah that made one feverish and +irritable. In the afternoon some of the camel men had a fight with a +number of Lawah people, and later the camel men in a body attacked Sadek. +He was very plucky and quick--they were heavy but clumsy--so that Sadek +succeeded with a heavy mallet in giving them several cracks on the head, +but as they were eight to one and closed in upon him and were about to +give him a good hammering, I had to rush to his assistance and with the +butt of my rifle scattered the lot about. For a moment they seemed as if +they were going to turn on me; they were very excited and seized whatever +they could lay their hands upon in the shape of sticks and stones, but I +casually put a few cartridges in the magazine of my rifle and sat down +again on my carpets to continue writing my diary. They came to beg pardon +for the trouble they had given, and embraced my feet, professing great +humility. + +Four camels of the combined caravans had been taken ill with fever and +had to be left behind. Their cries from pain were pitiful. Owing to the +abundant dinner we got here, with lavish supplies of meat, fruit--most +delicious figs, pomegranates and water melons--of which we partook more +copiously than wisely, all the men got attacks of indigestion, and so did +my poor little kittens, who had stuffed themselves to their hearts' +content with milk and the insides of chickens; so that when night came, +everybody being ill, we were unable to make a start. + +At sunset, with the sudden change in the temperature, and the revulsion +from intense dryness to the sudden moisture of the dew, a peculiar +feeling took possession of me, and I could feel that I was fast inhaling +the miasma of fever. The natives shut themselves up inside their +houses--for sunset, they say, and sunrise are the times when fever is +contracted,--but we were out in the open and had no protection against +it. It seems to seize one violently from the very beginning and sends up +one's temperature extremely high, which produces a fearful exhaustion, +with pains in the ribs, arms and spinal column. + +[Illustration: Wolves in Camp.] + +The altitude of Lawah is 4,420 ft. and therefore the nights are terribly +cold in contrast to the stifling heat of the day. I had wrapped myself up +in my blankets, shivering with the fever that had seized me quite +violently, and the kittens were playing about near my bed. My men were +all sound asleep and only the occasional hoarse roar of the squatted +camels all round our camp broke the silence of the night. I eventually +fell asleep with my hat over my face screening it from the heavy fall of +dew. + +Suddenly I woke up, startled by the kittens dashing under my blankets and +sticking their claws into me and making a fearful racket, and also by +some other animals sniffing my face. I jumped up, rifle in hand, for +indeed there were some wolves visiting our camp. One--a most impudent +rascal--was standing on one of my boxes, and another had evidently made a +dash for the white cat; hence the commotion. + +The wolves bolted when I got up--I could not fire owing to the camels and +people being all round--but the kittens did not stir from their hiding +place until the next morning, when in broad day-light they cautiously +peeped out to see that the danger had passed. + +With the coming day the gruesome reality had to be faced, that one and +all of my party had contracted fever of the desert in more or less +violent form, even the kittens, who sneezed and trembled the whole day. +Some of the camels, too, were unwell and lay with their long necks +resting upon the ground and refused to eat. The prospects of crossing the +most difficult part of the desert with such a sorry party were not very +bright, but we made everything ready, and at ten o'clock in the evening +we were to make a start. + +I purchased here a third and most beautiful cat--a weird animal, and so +wild that when let out of the bag in which it had been brought to me, he +covered us all over with scratches. He was three months old, and had +quite a will of his own. When introduced to Master Kerman and Miss Zeris, +there were reciprocal growls and arched backs, and when asked to share +their travelling home for the night there was evident objection and some +exchange of spitting. But as there were four corners in the wooden box +and only three cats, they eventually settled down, one in each, watching +the new comer with wide expanded eyes and fully outstretched claws, +merely for defensive emergencies, but otherwise quite peacefully +inclined. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + Salt sediments as white as snow--Brilliant stars--Plaintive songs + of the camel men--An improvisatore--Unpleasant odour of camels--A + large salt deposit--No water and no fuel--A device to protect + oneself against great heat--Amazing intelligence of + cats--Nature's ways and men's ways--A hot climb--A brilliantly + coloured range--Sea shells and huge fossils. + + +On November 11th at ten o'clock p.m. we gladly left poisonous Lawah and +spent the night (November 12th) traversing a mountain region by a +flattish and low pass, and then travelling due north entered the actual +_Dasht-i-lut_--the sandy Salt Desert, the sediment of surface salt being +in some places so thick and white as to resemble snow. Here and there +some hillocks of sand relieved the monotony of the dreary journey, +otherwise flat sand and surface salt extended as far as the eye could +see. + +The nights, even when there was no moonlight, were so clear, and the +stars and planets so brilliant, that with a little practice one could, +for general purposes, see almost as well as by day. + +The night was terribly cold, which I felt all the more owing to the +fever, as I hung resting my head on the padded pommel of the saddle and +my legs and arms dangling at the sides. A howling, cutting wind blew and +made it impossible to cover one's self up with blankets, as they were +constantly being blown away, no matter how well one tucked one's self in +them. + +There was a certain picturesque weirdness in these night marches in the +desert--when one could dissociate one's self from the discomforts. The +camel men had some sad, plaintive songs of their own--quite melodious and +in good tune with the accompaniment of dingling bells hanging from the +camels' necks. There was a musician in our party--Ali Murat's young +brother--who carried a flute in his girdle during the day, but played +upon the instrument the whole night--some doleful tunes of his own +composition, which were not bad. True, when one had listened to the same +tune, not only scores but hundreds of times during one night, one rather +felt the need of a change, but still even the sound of his flute was a +great relief in the dreary night marches. Occasionally, when the fancy +took him, and he made some variations in the airs, the camel men, who +slept while mechanically walking, would join in to sing in a chorus. + +Overhead the stars gleamed with a brightness that we can never dream of +seeing in Europe, and in the distance we now began to perceive some +phantom-like hills rising from the whitish-grey surface of the desert. A +good deal of the poetry of the desert is, nevertheless, lost each time +that the camel on which you ride breathes. Behold! one is brought to +earth very soon! The rancid smell which comes in regular whiffs is +sickening. So is the powerful stench of his hump when it gets heated by +the pads of the never-removed saddle. + +About every two miles a few minutes' rest is given to the camels, then on +again they slowly swing forward, the nose of one being attached by a long +string to the tail rope of the preceding animal. + +[Illustration: Author's Camel Men in their White Felt Coats.] + +[Illustration: Camel Men saying their Prayers at Sunset.] + +Twenty miles from Lawah, mud-hills covering underlying rock were reached, +and closed us in on either side. Two miles further, when it got too hot +to proceed--thermometer 148 deg. in the sun and not a thread of shade--we +halted on a white salt deposit of considerable extent. There was no water +and no fuel, and the heat was well-nigh unbearable in the middle of the +day. It was useless to pitch my tent, for in such stifling heat it is not +possible to remain under it, nor could one breathe at all if one tried to +get a little shade by screening one's self against a wall of loads which +impeded the air moving. + +My camel men showed me a device which by the ignorant may be ridiculed, +but to the sensible is a great blessing when exposed to abnormally high +temperatures. The only way to protect one's self against the broiling air +is to cover one's self, head and all, leaving space to breathe, with one +or two thick blankets of wool or thick felt, of a white or light colour +preferably, white being a non-absorbent of the hot sun's rays. The +thickness of the cloth keeps the body at an enveloping temperature +slightly above the temperature of the body itself (even when with high +fever seldom more than 104 deg.), and therefore a cooler temperature than +outside the blankets, when it is frequently 148 deg. sometimes 150 deg. and even +more. By contrast this seems quite cool. It is, in other words, a similar +process to that used by us in summer to maintain ice from melting. + +In Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Arabia, the people who are much exposed to +the rays of the hot sun in deserts always wear extremely thick woollen +clothing, or bernouses; and in Persia the camel men of the desert, as we +have seen, possess thick white felt coats in which they wrap themselves, +head and all, during the hot hours of the day. The Italians, too, seem to +have been fully aware of this, for in Naples and Southern Italy they have +an ancient proverb in the Neapolitan dialect:--_Quel che para lo freddo +para lo caldo_--"What is protection against cold is protection against +heat." + +I know one Englishman in Southern Persia who, when crossing the broiling +plains of Arabistan, wears a thick overcoat and plenty of woollen +underwear--a method which he learnt from the nomad tribes of +Arabistan--but he is generally laughed at by his countrymen who do not +know any better. This cooling device, naturally, only applies to tropical +climates when the temperature of the air is greatly above the actual +temperature of the blood. + +I had arranged with the caravan that accompanied mine to carry fodder for +my camels, as there was no grazing for the animals here. Large cloths +were spread on which straw and cotton-seeds were mixed together, and then +the camels were made to kneel round and have a meal. + +On this occasion I was much struck by the really marvellous intelligence +of cats. We hear a lot about dogs finding their way home from long +distances by using their sense of scent (how far this explanation is +correct we have no time to discuss), but of cats the general belief is +that if they are taken away from home they seldom find their way back. +This may be the case with cats that have always been shut up in some +particular house, but it is not that they do not possess the intellect to +do so in their natural state. Here is an instance. + +On letting the cats loose when we halted, the newly-purchased one +attempted to make his escape. I was watching him carefully. He did not do +this in a haphazard manner, running here and there as a dog would, but +jumped out of the box, took his bearings with great calm and precision +and in a most scientific manner, first by looking at the sun, and then at +his own shadow, evidently to discover whether when shut up in the box he +had travelled east or west, north or south, or to some intermediate +point. He repeated this operation several times with a wonderful +expression of intelligence and reflection on his little face, and then +dashed away with astounding accuracy in the direction of Lawah town. Mind +you, he did not at all follow the track that we had come by, which was +somewhat circuitous, but went in a bee line for his native place and not +a second to the left or right of the direct bearings which I took with my +prismatic compass to check his direction. Sadek and the camel men went in +pursuit of him and he was brought back. + +This seemed so marvellous that I thought it might be a chance. We were +then only twenty-two miles from Lawah. I repeated the experiment for +three or four days from subsequent camps, until the cat reconciled +himself to his new position and declined to run away. I took the trouble +to revolve him round himself several times to mislead him in his +bearings, but each time he found his correct position by the sun and his +own shadow, and never made a mistake in the absolutely correct bearings +of his route. + +A remarkable fact in connection with this is that the most ignorant +natives of Persia, men who have never seen or heard of a compass, can +tell you the exact direction of places by a very similar method, so that +there is more in the process than we think. + +It is rather humiliating when we reflect that what we highly civilised +people can only do with difficulty with the assistance of elaborate +theodolites, sextants, artificial horizons, compasses and lengthy +computations, an ignorant camel man, or a kitten, can do practically and +simply and always correctly in a few seconds by drawing conclusions on +facts of nature which speak for themselves better than all the scientific +instruments we can manufacture. + +There was a high mountain north-east of camp, the Darband, 8,200 feet, +and as my fever seemed to be getting worse, and I had no quinine with +which to put a sudden stop to it, I thought I would climb to the top of +the mountain to sweat the fever out, and also to obtain a view of the +surrounding country. + +After having slept some three hours and having partaken of a meal--we had +the greatest difficulty in raising enough animal fuel for a fire--I +started off about one in the afternoon under a broiling sun. The camp was +at an altitude of 4,350 feet and the ascent not difficult but very steep +and rocky, and involving therefore a good deal of violent exertion. The +dark rocks were so hot with the sun that had been shining upon them that +they nearly burned one's fingers when one touched them. Still, the view +from the top well repaid one for the trouble of getting there. + +A general survey showed that the highest mountain to be seen around was +to the south-south-east (150 deg. bearings magnetic), and a couple of almost +conical hills, exactly alike in shape, but not in size, stood one in +front of the other on a line with 160 deg. b.m. Between them both to east and +west were a number of misshapen mountains. Were it not for a low confused +heap of grey mud and sand the desert would be an absolutely flat stretch +from the distant mountains enclosing the plain on the south to the others +on the north. A long high mud barrier runs diagonally at the northern +end, in a direction from east to west, and another extending from +south-east to north-west meets it, forming a slightly acute angle. The +latter range is of a most peculiar formation, extremely brilliant in +colour, the ground being a vivid red, regularly fluted and striped across +so straight with friezes and bands formed by strata of different tones of +colour, that from a distance it almost resembles the patient work of a +skilful artisan instead of the results of the corrosive action of water. +Another parallel and similar range stands exactly opposite on the east. + +The mountain itself to which I had climbed was most interesting. Imbedded +in the rock were quantities of fossil white and black sea-shells, and +about half way up the mountain a huge fossil, much damaged, resembling a +gigantic turtle. Near it on the rock were impressions of enormous paws. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + A long detour--Mount Darband--A water-cut gorge--Abandoned watch + towers--Passes into the desert--A wall-like mountain range--The + tower and fortified caravanserai at camp Darband--Brackish + water--Terrific heat--Compensating laws of nature better than + absurd patents--Weird rocks--Cairns--Chel-payeh salt well--Loss + of half our supply of fresh water--Camels and men overcome by the + heat. + + +When we left camp soon after midnight on November 13th, we had to make +quite a long detour to take the caravan around the Darband Mountain, +which barred our way directly on the course we were to follow. On foot +one could have taken a short cut in a more direct line by climbing up to +a certain height on the western mountain slope, but it was out of the +question to take camels up by it. We had to go some distance due north, +through very broken country with numerous hillocks, after which we +followed a narrow gorge cut deep by the action of water. The sides of +this gorge were like high mud and gravel walls, occasionally rocks worn +smooth, averaging from 60 to 100 feet apart. + +The river bed, now absolutely dry, evidently carried into the desert +during the torrential rain all the drainage of the mountainous country we +had traversed, practically that from Abid, the Leker Mountains, and the +combined flow of the Lawah plain from the mountains to the west of it, to +which, of course, may be added the western watershed of the Darband +Mountain itself. A glance at the natural walls, between which we were +travelling, and the way in which hard rocks had been partly eaten away +and deeply grooved, or huge hollows bored into them, was sufficient to +show the observer with what terrific force the water must dash its way +through this deep-cut channel. The highest water-mark noticeable on the +sides was twenty-five feet above the bed. The impetus with which the rain +water must flow down the almost vertical fluted mountain sides must be +very great, and immense also must be the body of water carried, for the +mountain sides, being rocky, absorb very little of the rain falling upon +them and let it flow down to increase the foaming stream--when it is a +stream. + +Some sixteen miles from our last camp we came across a circular tower, +very solidly built, standing on the edge of a river cliff, and higher up +on a ridge of hills in a commanding position stood the remains of two +quadrangular towers in a tumbling-down condition. Of one, in fact, there +remained but a portion of the base; of the other three walls were still +standing to a good height. The circular tower below, however, which +seemed of later date, was in good preservation. According to the camel +men, none of these towers were very ancient and had been put up to +protect that passage from the robber bands which occasionally came over +westward from Sistan and Afghanistan. It had, however, proved impossible +to maintain a guard in such a desolate position, hence the abandonment of +these outposts. + +This is one of the three principal passages by which the mountains can be +crossed with animals from Kerman towards the east (north of the latitude +of Kerman 30 deg. 17' 30"). The other two passages are: one to Khabis over a +pass (north-east of Kerman) in the Husseinabad Mountains; the second +between the Derun Mountain and the Leker Kuh from Abid, also to Khabis. +From the latter place it is also possible to cross the Desert to +Birjiand, but the lack of water even at the best of times makes it a very +dangerous track to follow both for men and animals. Barring these +passages there are high mountains protecting Kerman and continuously +extending, roughly, from N.N.W. to S.S.E. + +We travelled partly above the high cliffs, then, near the circular tower, +we descended to the dry river-bed of well-rounded pebbles and sand. Our +course had gradually swerved to the south-east, then we left the river +bed once more and went due east, over confused masses of mud hillocks +from twenty to a hundred feet high. To the north we had a wall-like +mountain range formed of superposed triangles of semi-solidified rock, +the upper point of each triangle forming either an angle of 45 deg. or a +slightly acute angle; and to the south also another wall-like range, +quite low, but of a similar character to the northern ones. Beyond it, to +the south-west, twenty miles back (by the way followed) lay the Darband +Mountain, on the other side of which we had made our previous camp. + +The camp at which we halted bore the name of Darband, and from this point +the desert again opened into a wide flat expanse. The mountains to the +north suddenly ended in a crowded succession of low mud-hills, descending +for about a mile into the flat. The desert in all its dignified grandeur, +spread before us almost uninterruptedly from due north to south-east, as +far as the eye could see. North, a long way off, one could perceive a low +range of hills extending in an easterly direction, and beyond at 30 deg. +bearings magnetic (about N.N.E.) rose a very high mountain and yet +another very far north-east, with some isolated conical hills of fair +height standing before it in the same direction; otherwise everything +else in front of us was as flat and as barren as could be. + +At Darband halting place there is an interesting old circular tower, much +battered, as if it had seen some fighting. The attacks on it seem to have +taken place mostly from the south-westerly side, which aspect bears +evident marks of violent assaults. The tower is most cleverly loopholed, +so as to protect the inmates while firing on the enemy, and has a +look-out house on the top. For additional protection the entrance door is +about twenty feet above the ground and can only be reached by a ladder, +which was drawn up in cases of emergency. + +A large dilapidated and filthy caravanserai--a regular fortress with a +watch tower of its own and loop-holes all round--is erected in the +vicinity in another commanding position. In the gully below there is a +small oasis of palm trees and a few square yards of vegetation alongside +a small spring of brackish water--the only water there is--with a +reservoir. Next to this, west of the caravanserai, are the remains of a +few mud huts in ruins. + +We were here only 3,780 feet above the sea. The heat was terrific. + +[Illustration: Author's Camels being Fed in the Desert.] + +Brackish water is not pleasant to drink, but it is not necessarily +unhealthy. Personally, I am a great believer in the compensating laws of +Nature in preference to the ill-balanced habits of civilised men, and am +certain that the best thing one can drink in the desert, under the +abnormal conditions of heat, dust and dryness, is salt water, which +stimulates digestion and keeps the system clean. Of filters, condensing +apparatuses, soda-water cartridges, and other such appliances for +difficult land travelling, the less said the better. They are very pretty +toys, the glowing advertisements of which may add to the profits of +geographical magazines, but they are really more useful in cities in +Europe than practical in the desert. Possibly they may be a consolation +to a certain class of half-reasoning people. But anything else, it might +be argued would serve equally well. One sees them advertised as +preventatives of malarial fever, but no sensible person who has ever +had fever or seen it in others would ever believe that it comes from +drinking water. Fever is in the atmosphere--one breathes fever; one does +not necessarily drink it. When the water is corrupted, the air is also +corrupted, and to filter the one and not the other is an operation the +sense of which I personally cannot see. + +It has ever been my experience, and that also of others, that the fewer +precautions one takes, the more one relies on Nature to take care of one +instead of on impracticable devices--the better for one's health in the +end. I do not mean by this that one should go and drink dirty water to +avoid fever,--far from it,--but if the water is dirty the best plan is +not to drink it at all, whether filtered--or, to be accurate, passed +through a filter--or not, or made into soda-water! + +One fact is certain, that if one goes through a fever district one can +take all the precautions in the world, but if one's system is so inclined +one is sure to contract it; only the more the precautions, the more +violent the fever. + +But to return to our specific case, brackish water is not necessarily +dirty, and as I have said, is to my mind one of Nature's protections +against fever of the desert. In my own case, when I partook of it freely, +it decidedly kept the fever down. + +We made a much earlier start, at 8 p.m., on November 13th, and I had to +walk part of the way as it was too steep for the camels. We had great +trouble in taking them down to the dry river-bed--which we were to +follow, being quite flat and therefore easier for the animals. We went +along between low hills, getting lower and lower, and some two miles from +the Darband tower we emerged into the open, the river-bed losing itself +here in the desert. + +During the night of the 13th-14th we travelled 28 miles on the flat until +we came to more low hills, which we entered by another river-bed, also +dry. We had come in a north-north-east direction so far, but we now +turned due east among high, flat-topped hills which resembled a mass of +ruined Persian houses of a quadrangular shape, so strangely had they been +carved out by the corrosive action of water. They were of solid rock, and +eaten into holes here and there, which from a distance gave the +appearance of windows and doors, and of caves. + +The river-bed on which we travelled was of soft sand--very +troublesome--and minute gravel strewn here and there with large boulders +fallen from the cliffs at the sides. Cairns had been erected in various +prominent points by caravan men, to show future travellers the way to +Naiband for Birjiand and Meshed. + +Following this in an easterly direction we came to a large basin, and +then further on to another. We continued in zig-zag for a short distance, +when we arrived at a place where the river-bed makes an elbow, turning to +the north. At this spot a caravanserai was in course of construction, +built at the expense of some charitable person. There was only one well +of brackish water, and very little of that, too. The workmen would not +let us partake of it. Everything, of course, had to be brought, as +nothing could be obtained there, and the few workmen complained bitterly +of the hardships they had to endure in going on with their work. They +feared they would soon run short even of water. They were all +fever-stricken, and two quite in a pitiable condition. They had little +food left; most of their animals had died, and they were unable to leave. +Chel-Payeh was the name of this well (altitude 4,420 feet). + +We were thirty-two miles from our last camp, and reached here at 8 a.m. +On taking the loads down we had a great disappointment. Sadek, who was +not accustomed to ride camels, was suffering considerably, and in order +to make himself comfortable he had contrived a clever device to avoid +coming in immediate contact with the wooden frame of his saddle. He had +fastened the two largest skins we had with our supply of good water on +the top of his saddle, and having covered them over with blankets and +carpets, on them, he sat and slept through the whole night. Alas! the +weight of his body burst both skins during the night and squeezed all the +water out! + +So here we were, with only two small skins of fresh water left, which +would have to last the whole party several days. But we were to have a +further misfortune on the following march. + +The heat was intense--146 deg. in the sun--not an inch of shade in the middle +of the day, and the river-bed being cut into the plain, and therefore +lower than the surface of the remainder of the desert, the lack of a +current of air made this spot quite suffocating; so much so that both +camels and men were getting quite overcome by the heat, and we had to +start off early in the afternoon at 4 o'clock. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + Fortress-like cliffs--A long troublesome march--Sixteen hours on + the saddle--All our fresh-water supply gone!--Fever--Electricity + of the desert--Troublesome camel men--A small oasis--An ancient + battered tower--A giant--Naiband mountain and village--Rock + habitations--A landmark in the desert. + + +Fortress-like, vertical rocky cliffs rose to our left and enormous +boulders tumbled down to our right. Our direction was due north. On our +right, as we were again entering the flat desert, a quadrangular fort of +natural formation stood on the mountain-side. + +We did not halt for dinner as we could find no fuel to do the cooking +with, and we marched all night (November 15th)--a most painful march, for +the camels were all more or less sick and tired, and they dragged +themselves jerkily, grunting and making the most awful noises all night. + +My fever got very bad and I was seized with bad pains in my ribs and +spine. Sadek and the camel men complained of feeling very ill, and the +cats remonstrated from their high perch at not being let out of their box +at the customary hour. To add to our happiness, one of my camels, +carrying some air-tight cases with sharp brass corners, collided with +the camel conveying the precious load of the two remaining water-skins +which hung on its sides, and, of course, as fate would have it, the brass +corners wrenched the skin and out flowed every drop of water, which was +avidly absorbed by the dry sand. + +[Illustration: The Trail we left behind in the Salt Desert.] + +The character of the country was the same as on the previous day, a long +stretch of flat, then undulations, after which we entered another dry +canal cut deep, with vertical rocky sides, very similar to the Chel-Payeh +except that in the bed of the gorge itself there were now enormous flat +slabs of stone instead of sand and gravel, as the day before. Further on +we were surrounded by low hills, which we crossed by a pass, and after +having been on the saddle continuously for sixteen hours we halted at +eight o'clock a.m. in the middle of a broiling, barren stretch of sand, +gravel and shingle. + +After so long a march, and under such unpleasant conditions, our throats +and tongues were parched with thirst. Fortunately, we still had one skin +of water left, I thought, so my first impulse was to hasten to have it +taken off the saddle that we might all have a sip. But misfortune pursued +us. On approaching the camel that carried it, the animal was all wet on +one side, and I fully realised what to expect. Sadek, with a long face of +dismay, took down the flabby empty skin; the water had all dripped out of +it, and here we were, in the middle of the desert, no well, whether salt +or otherwise, and not a thimbleful of water! + +The very thought that we could get nothing to drink made us ten times +more thirsty, and we seemed to be positively roasting under the fierce +sun. The camel men threw themselves down upon their felt coats and moaned +and groaned, and the camels, who had drunk or eaten nothing for three +days, appeared most unhappy and grunted pitifully. + +For want of better remedy we sucked pebbles, which stimulated salivation +and allayed the thirst to a certain extent, but with the high fever, +which brought about fearful exhaustion and severe aches, and the +unpleasant, abundant electricity in the air caused by the intense +dryness--which has a most peculiar effect on one's skin--we none of us +felt particularly happy. The three cats were the only philosophers of the +party and were quite sympathetic. They amused themselves by climbing up +the camel's long necks, just as they would up a tree, to the evident +discomfort of the larger animals. They had a particular fancy for sitting +on the camels' bushy heads. + +The electricity with which the air of the desert is absolutely saturated +is gradually absorbed by the human body and stored as in an accumulator. +On touching the barrel of a rifle or any other good conductor of +electricity, one would discharge an electric spark of some length. By +rubbing one's woollen blankets with one's hands one could always generate +sufficient electricity to produce a spark; and as for the cats, if one +touched them they always gave out a good many sparks. At night, if one +caressed them, there was quite a luminous greenish glow under one's +fingers as they came into contact with the hair. Quite a brilliant flash +ensued when the cats were rubbed with a woollen blanket. + +We had only risen about 100 feet to 4,520 feet from our last camp, and we +steered N.N.E. for the high Naiband Mountain. + +The camel men, taking advantage of my being ill, were very troublesome +and attempted some of their tricks; but although I was absolutely at +their mercy I screwed up what little strength I had and brought them back +to their senses. The camels, they said, were very ill, and we could not +possibly go on. We certainly could not stop where we were, and I most +decidedly would not go back, so, when night came, on we went leaving camp +at 10 p.m. and travelling first over a great flat stretch, then among low +hills and through several ravines cut by water. We travelled some ten +hours at a good pace, and when nearing the Naiband Mountain the country +became quite undulating. + +On November 16th we arrived in a small oasis of high palm trees, with a +streamlet of salt water forming a pool or two, dirty to a degree owing to +the bad habits of camels when drinking. Our camels, who had drunk nothing +for several days, on perceiving these pools made a dash for them and +sucked to their hearts' content gallons of water of a ghastly +reddish-green tint, almost as thick as syrup with mud and organic +matter, but which they seemed to enjoy all the same. + +There was here a much battered tower, attributed, to Beluch, who are said +to have fought here most bravely in times gone by, but more probably of +Afghan origin--or at least erected during the time of the Afghan +invasion. It is said to be some centuries old, but here again it is well +to have one's doubts upon the matter. + +As I was examining the tower, which has undoubtedly seen some terrific +fighting, a giant man emerged from the palm trees and came towards us. He +was some 6 feet 6 inches in height, and being slender, with a small head, +appeared to be even taller than he really was. He strode disjointedly +towards us and was somewhat peculiar in manner and speech. He examined us +very closely and then ran away up to the village--a quaint old place +perched high on the mountain side and with eight picturesque towers. Most +of these towers were round, but a large quadrangular one stood apart on a +separate hill. + +There were innumerable holes in the rock, which were at one time +habitations, but are used now as stables mostly for donkeys, of which +there were a great number in the place. The rock on which the village +stood is very rugged and difficult of access, as can be seen by the +photograph which I took, and the architecture of the buildings had a +character peculiar to itself and differed very considerably from any +other houses we had met in Persia. They were flat-roofed, with very high +walls, and four circular apertures to answer the purpose of windows about +half-way up the wall. The roof was plastered and made a kind of verandah, +where the natives spread fruit and vegetables to dry and the women had +their small weaving looms. On one side of the rock, where the greater +number of habitations were to be found, they actually appeared one on the +top of the other, the front door of one being on the level with the roof +of the underlying one. + +[Illustration: Author's Caravan Descending into River Bed near Darband.] + +[Illustration: Rock Habitations, Naiband.] + +The path to the village was very steep, tortuous and narrow. The village +extended from south-west to north-east on the top of the mountain, and +the separate quadrangular tower occupied a prominent position to its +eastern extremity. There were palm trees and fields both to the south and +east at the foot of the rocky mountain on which the village stood, and to +the W.N.W. (300 deg. bearings magnetic) of it towered the majestic Naiband +Mountain mass, very high, one of the great landmarks of the Dasht-i-Lut, +the Salt Desert. + +Directly above the village of Naiband was a peak from which, although of +no great altitude--4,500 ft.--one got a beautiful bird's-eye view both of +the village and the surrounding country. An immense stretch of desert +spread below us, uninterrupted from north-east to south except by a small +cluster of hillocks directly under us, and by the continuation towards +the south-west of the Naiband mountainous mass; a high mountain lay to +(170 deg. bearings magnetic) S.S.E. The highest peak of the Naiband was to +the north of the village, and the mountainous region extended also in a +direction further north beyond the mountain that gives its name to the +whole mass. S.S.E. (150 deg. b.m.) of the village down in the plain rose an +island of hills and also a few more to the east. + +The desert was rather more undulating in the eastern portion, but +absolutely flat towards the south-west and to the south, while north-east +of the village stood a weird collection of picturesquely confused +brown-red and whitish mountains. + +Most of the cultivation--only a few patches--was visible to the S.W. and +E.N.E. of the village. Palm trees were numerous. A spring of fresh water +ran down the mountain side, through the main street of the village, and +down into the fields, in the irrigation of which it lost itself. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + A visit to the eight-towered village--A hostile + demonstration--Quaint houses--Stoned--Brigand villagers--A + device--Peculiar characteristics of natives--Picturesque + features--Constant intermarriage and its effects--Nature's + freaks--Children--Elongating influence of the desert--Violent + women--Beasts of burden--Photography under difficulty--Admirable + teeth of the natives--Men's weak chests--Clothing--A farewell + demonstration--Fired at. + + +I climbed up to the village, accompanied by one of my camel men, but our +friend the giant had preceded us and given the warning that a _ferenghi_ +had arrived, and we were met on the road by a number of boys and men who +were running down the hill to see the new arrival. The people were not +particularly respectful, and freely passed remarks, not always +complimentary--in fact, most offensive; but as I was bent on seeing all +that there was to be seen, I paid no heed and continued to go up. + +[Illustration: The Village of Naiband, and Rock Dwellings in the Cliff.] + +The camel man, who was getting quite alarmed--especially when a stone or +two were flung at us--begged me to return to camp, but I would not, and +as I had my rifle with me I thought I could hold my own, and certainly +did not wish the natives to think that an Englishman feared them. + +It appears that a European had visited this spot some time previously, +and they had some grievance against him, but although it seemed rather +hard that I should come in for the punishment which should have been +meted to my predecessor, I well knew that the only way out of the scrape +was to face the music. To run away would have been fatal. + +So we entered the village by a narrow path, while men, women and children +collected on the house-tops and in the doorways and gesticulated and +spouted away as fine a collection of insults as one may expect to listen +to in one's life. The Naiband people may certainly be congratulated on +the possession of a most extensive and complete vocabulary of swear +words. + +Pretending unconcern, but keeping a watchful eye on what was taking place +all round, I stopped here and there to examine the small water-skins +hanging in couples or more outside each doorway, and halted in the small +square of the village to admire the wretched buildings all round. + +The lower portion of the houses was of mud, the upper of stone. Down the +side of the main street gurgled the limpid little stream. Each house had +a sort of walled recess outside the front door, reached by a step or two, +where tilling tools rested against the wall, and where the women's +spinning wheels were worked during the day. The wheels, however, were now +idle, for the women had joined the men in the demonstration. + +It was most evident that _ferenghis_ were not popular at Naiband, but, +come what might, here I was, and here I would stay as long as it suited +me. A stone flung with considerable force hit me in the knee--stones +always have a way of striking you in the most sensitive spots--and it +took me some minutes before I could recover from the pain and move on; +but I never let the natives suspect what agony I was enduring, or they +would have done worse. + +The slow march through the village up to the highest point was decidedly +not pleasant, missiles flying pretty plentifully all round. Fortunately, +no more hit me quite as badly again. The camel man had warned me that the +population of Naiband was a mixture of robbers and cut-throats, and the +facts fully proved his words, so I was rather glad that I had taken not +only my rifle with me but a pocketful of cartridges as well. + +Things were getting rather hot, and it was only when, having reached a +high point of vantage, I stopped and, in full view of the crowd, inserted +a five cartridge clip in the magazine of my Mannlicher, that most anxious +inquiries were made from the camel man as to what I was about to do. The +camel man, amid a sudden silence and eager attention, explained the +terrific powers of a _ferenghi's_ rifle which, he said, never misses and +ever kills, even ten miles off; and to add more humour to his words he +explained that shots could be fired so quick that one had not time to +count them. + +At this point of the lecture I casually produced a handful of cartridges +from my coat pocket, and having counted them aloud, proceeded to count +the people, who watched, somewhat flabbergasted. The device answered +perfectly. They dropped the stones which, during the short armistice, +they had carefully nursed in their hands, and some thought they had +better return to their homes, the bolder ones only remaining, who put a +grin of friendship on their faces, and made signs that they would try to +do no further harm. + +Peace being proclaimed, and after making them pay their salaams, which +seemed the most unusual thing they ever had to do in their lifetime, I +spoke to them in a friendly way and patted them on the back. They were +much impressed with the rifle and wanted me to let them see it in their +own hands, which, of course, I did not do. They showed me some of their +houses, which were very dirty--people, fowls, and in some cases a donkey +or a goat, occupying the same room. + +These brigand villagers were most interesting as a type. They were quite +unlike the Persians of the West, and they certainly had nothing in common +with the Afghan; nor did they resemble the people of the northern part of +Persia. The Beluch type came nearer. It would be curious to trace exactly +where they came from--although undoubtedly their features must have been +greatly modified, even altogether altered, by the climatic conditions of +the spot they live in. + +One was struck by the abnormal length, thinness and disjointedness of +their limbs, and by the long, well-chiselled faces, with handsome +aquiline noses, broad and high foreheads, well-defined eyebrows in a +straight line across the brow, piercing eyes well protected by the brow +and drooping at the outer corners, with quite a hollow under the lower +eyelid; very firm mouths full of expression and power, also drooping +slightly at the corners, and high cheek bones. + +[Illustration: Young Men of an Oasis in the Desert.] + +[Illustration: Man and Child of the Desert.] + +Their appearance was certainly most picturesque, and they possessed the +cat-like manner and general ways of feline animals which made them appear +rather unreliable but in a way quite attractive. They were evidently +people accustomed to high-handed ways, and they needed very careful +handling. They were frank and resolute enough in their speech--ever +talking at the top of their voices, which, however, sounded quite musical +and not grating. + +They possessed dirty but very beautifully-formed hands and feet, the +thumb only being somewhat short and stumpy, but the fingers supple, long +and tapering. The few lines which they possessed in the palms of their +hands were very strongly marked. There was a good deal of refinement +about their facial features and hands which made me think that these +people came from a good stock, and even the ears--which were generally +malformed with all the natives of Persia which had so far come under my +observation--were in this case much more delicately modelled and +infinitely better shaped. The chins were beautifully chiselled, even when +somewhat slanting backwards. + +I give here a photograph which I took of two typical young men, and +which I think bears out my remarks. + +There was an extraordinary family resemblance in nearly all the heads one +saw, which made one suspect constant intermarriage among relations in the +small community. In fact, on asking, they professed to be all related to +one another. + +Another very curious point about the faces of the male members of Naiband +village, which contrasted with other natives of Persia, was that, whereas +the latter can grow heavy beards from a comparatively very tender age, +the Naiband young men were quite hairless on the face, almost like +Mongolians--even at twenty or twenty-two years of age. When they had +reached a fairly advanced age, however, some forty years, they seemed to +grow quite a good black beard and heavy moustache, somewhat curly, never +very long, and of a finer texture than with modern Persians. The hair of +the skull was perfectly straight, and was worn long, parted in the +middle, with an occasional fringe on the forehead. + +Nature's freaks are many and varied. While the men had invariably long +aquiline noses, elongated faces, and eyes well protected by the brow, the +children, until the age of ten or twelve, had rather stumpy faces with +noses actually turned up, and most beautiful large eyes softened by +abnormally long eyelashes, the eyes themselves, strangely enough, being +quite _a fleur de tete_. I noticed this curious phenomenon in members of +the same family, and the older ones told me that when they were young +their faces were also stubby and their noses turned up. + +The inference I drew was that it must be the climatic conditions of the +desert that have the elongating effect, not only upon the facial +features, but on all the limbs of the people. The people were not +naturally born elongated. The climate certainly has an elongating effect +on plants, or leaves, which all tend to come to a point, such as the +leaves of the elongated palm trees, for instance, or any of the other +spiky plants one finds in parts of the desert. + +There was a good deal of the demon about the women of the place, a +superabundance of fire in their movements and in the expression of their +flashing eyes, which was a great contrast to the slow, dignified manner +of the men, when seen under normal circumstances. Their frame was much +more powerfully built than that of the men. The ladies seemed to be in a +perpetual state of anger. That they were industrious there could be no +mistake, and one could but be amazed at their muscular strength in +lifting heavy loads; but, taking things all round, one was rather glad to +have no friends among the Naiband fair sex when one saw how their men, +relations or otherwise, were pulled about by them. The men positively +feared them, and the women seemed to have it all their own way. + +They were so violent that it was most difficult to approach them, but +with some careful coaxing I succeeded in persuading the wildest and most +typical of the lot to sit for her photograph, which I look upon as quite +an achievement, considering that it might have cost her life or mine or +both. As it was it went pretty well, and when I gave her a few silver +pieces, she screamed with delight and sounded them on a stone to make +sure they were good. + +Women blackened their eyes underneath artificially, which gave them a +languid but ardent appearance. Their long, wild, curly hair hung loose at +the side of the head, over which they wore a kerchief fastened into a +knot under the chin. Their costume was simple, a mere short blue cotton +skirt reaching below the knee, and a little red loose shirt with ample +sleeves. Various silver ornaments and charms, mainly old coins, hung +round their necks from leather cords. + +The arms and legs, quite bare, were well-shaped in most cases, and showed +abnormal muscular development, due, no doubt, to the hard work the women +were made to endure. They were positively used as beasts of burden--which +occupation they seemed to like--while the men, I presume, lazily sat +about smoking their tobacco or opium. But the body--very likely owing to +the same reason--is, from a European point of view, quite shapeless, even +in comparatively young women hardly above twenty. Their little blouses, +generally torn or carelessly left open, display repulsively pendent +breasts and overlapping waists, while the abdominal region, draped by a +thin skirt, appeared much deformed by undue development. + +These facts are given as they were typical of the majority of women in +the place. The diet and the strain of lifting and carrying huge weights +on the head may, to a certain extent, account for these evils. I also saw +one or two cases of varicose veins. + +The children seemed very pale and anaemic, a condition which has been +mainly brought about, I think, by the constant intermarriage among +relations. + +[Illustration: Naiband Barber Stropping a Razor on his Leg.] + +[Illustration: A Woman of Naiband.] + +Men, women and children possessed admirable teeth, of a slightly +yellowish tint, very thick, powerful and regular enough, although the +front teeth were rather too long, especially in adults. They were, +however, generally well protected and covered by the lips, almost +invariably tightly closed. + +The people, I noticed, had a tendency to breathe mostly through the nose. +Their nostrils were wide, well-cut and healthy looking. They all +possessed very keen eyesight, but not good hearing. + +The want of expansion of the men's chests was a striking feature of +masculine anatomy at Naiband, and, in fact, the profile silhouette of +members of the Naiband strong sex was not unlike that of a phonograph +trumpet resting on the ground, for they wore trousers of enormous size, +divided skirts of the largest pattern, pure and simple, and little +jackets over them with broad sleeves and buttoned over on the right +shoulder. It seemed almost that the further we got into the desert the +larger the trousers of the men in the oases. Some of the men had several +yards of material draped round their legs, in Hindoo fashion, instead +of trousers. + +The colours of their clothes were white and dark blue, while their +headgear consisted of a double skull cap, a thin, coloured one underneath +and a light brown, thick felt one over it. The men were either barefooted +or wore sandals. + +Things went fairly well while we remained talking in the village, but in +the meantime the entire population had turned out, and for some reason of +their own again became rather boisterous. Having seen all there was to be +seen I made my way down to camp as slowly as possible, followed by a +howling mob. The moment one had one's back turned stones flew in +abundance. The camel man and I went down the steep incline, and when we +reached the last houses of the village a great number of people were +congregated on the roofs, who gesticulated frantically and yelled +something or other at me as I passed. One or two of them had long +matchlocks. We had gone but a few yards when a shot was fired at us, and +a minute or so later another, but no damage was inflicted. + +We went on with assumed calm and stopped, apparently to look at the +scenery all round, but really to watch what the howling mob behind were +doing, and eventually, when we reached the foot of the mountain and were +out in the open instead of among rocks, the mob, taken by panic, bolted, +and we saw them scrambling with great speed up the rocky path to the +village like so many rabbits. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + Misfortunes--Suffocating heat--An expected + attack--Electricity--Strayed camels--A barber and his ways--A + track to Meshed--Pilgrim husband and wife across the + desert--Another long march--A salt stream--Brackish well. + + +Many misfortunes befel us at this place. We had made our camp in the +oasis of palm trees at the foot of the mountain, and as the camels were +much worn out we were unable to proceed on our journey the same evening. +The heat during the night under the palm trees was quite suffocating, and +I had to remove my bedding into the open where one could breathe a little +better. + +The camel men feared that during the night we might be attacked by the +villagers and we made ready for any emergency, but nobody came. + +There was so much electricity in the air that it gave quite an unpleasant +feeling, and had a curious effect upon one's skin. The cats on coming in +contact with the woollen blankets discharged sparks all over, and sparks +also snapped from one's fingers on touching anything that was a good +conductor of electricity. + +A wild animal came into our camp during the night and carried away some +newly-purchased hens. We had been told that there were many wolves and +foxes in the neighbourhood. + +In the morning we were confronted with what seemed a disaster. Eleven +camels of our combined caravans had disappeared. Had they been stolen or +had they run away? The camel men were in tears, and, instead of going to +look for them, sat on the loads sobbing bitterly and wiping the tears +from their eyes with the skirts of their long coats. A ray of hope arose +when we discovered their tracks. They had made for some hot water +springs, some miles to the east, and judging from their footprints were +evidently travelling at a great pace. Two men on other camels were +despatched after them, and we had to resign ourselves to a delay of +another day. + +Curiously enough, there was a sudden change in the temperature, and the +thermometer in the sun only registered 105 deg., which made us feel quite +chilly after the 140 deg. and 150 deg. of previous days. Our camp was at an +altitude of 3,810 ft. (at the foot of the Naiband Mountain). + +Sadek took the opportunity of the delay to set everything tidy, and we +had a great washing day. He sent for a barber in the village to trim his +hair and beard. The Naiband Figaro was an extraordinary creature, a most +bare-faced rascal, who had plenty to say for himself, and whose peculiar +ways and roaming eyes made us conceal away out of his sight all small +articles, for fear that he should walk away with them. He carried all +the tools of his trade around his waist in a belt, and ground his razor +first on a stone which he licked with his tongue, then using his bare +arms and legs for stropping purposes, as snapshotted in the accompanying +photograph. + +The camel men--on whom he was first requested to experiment--he shaved, +splashing their faces with salt water during the process, but Sadek, the +next victim, produced a cake of soap with which he luxuriously lathered +his own face, and which the barber scraped gradually from the chin and +cheeks and every now and then deposited the razor's wipings on his +patient's head. + +We were able to buy some fresh water skins, and this time they were +really water tight. The natives, naturally, took every advantage of us in +the bargains, but we were able to purchase a lot of fresh provisions, +which we needed badly, and men and beasts felt none the worse for our +compulsory halt. + +In the middle of the second night we were waked up by some distant +grunts, and the camel men jumped up in great glee as they had recognised +the beloved voices of some of their strayed camels. A few minutes later, +in fact, the whole eleven were brought back by the two men who had gone +in search of them. They had found them some twenty miles off. + +From Lawah to Naiband we had come practically due north, but from this +camp to Birjand the way lay due east for the first portion of the +journey. At 160 deg. b.m. (S.S.E.) in the desert rose a high mountain. + +We had everything ready for our departure, but the camel men were in a +dreadful state as some villager had told them that the news had spread +that the strong boxes which the _ferenghi_ had were full of silver and +gold--as a matter of fact there was hardly any left of either--and that a +raid was being arranged for that night to kill us and rob our baggage +when we were starting. The camel men spent the whole day polishing up the +old rifles they possessed and, much to my concern for their safety, +loaded them. + +To allay their fears we made a sudden start at 5 p.m. instead of at the +hour of 10 p.m. which had been previously arranged. + +One mile beyond Naiband a track branches to the north-east for Meshed, +and here we bade good-bye to a Persian husband and wife--he aged +twenty-eight, she aged twelve--who in the company of a donkey, were on a +pilgrimage from Yezd to the Sacred Shrine. We had picked them up in a +sorry plight in the desert, the husband riding the lame donkey, the girl +on foot and shoving both from behind. I could not help admiring their +enterprise. All the provisions they had carried were a few cucumbers, +figs, and a load of bread, nearly all of which were exhausted when we +found them. On remonstrating with the strapping youth for riding the +donkey while he made his poor wife walk, he replied that they had been +newly married and it would not do for a man to show consideration for a +wife so soon! + +She, being a city girl, was a bundle of clothing and we could not see her +face, but she seemed a nice meek little thing, with pretty hands and +feet. On being asked whether she was tired, a thread of voice from under +her _chudder_ said she was, and on being invited to ride one of my camels +on the top of a load, there was a giggle which meant "yes." + +The selected camel was brought down on his knees, and Sadek and Ali Murat +hauled her up in the most approved style; she having an evident joke at +her selfish husband for having a better mount than he after all. +Unfortunately, the poor child was so exhausted that after she had gone +some distance, with the swaying of the camel she became fast asleep, lost +her balance and fell on her head. Nobody delighted in the misfortune more +than her lord and master, who did not fail to impress upon her that this +was evidently Allah's punishment for her vanity in trying to be superior +to her better half! Rubbing her aching skull, and much concerned at the +_chudder_ having got torn, the bride thought she had better resign +herself to walk after all. + +Here, too, as in other parts of the desert, near mountainous regions we +found the usual deep, cut channels carrying into the desert the overflow +of rain water from the Naiband Mountain, and the many little hills at its +foot; otherwise in the thirty-six miles which we covered during the night +there was absolutely nothing of interest. + +When we had gone some ten miles from Naiband the camel men, tired of +carrying their matchlocks, slung them to the saddles and professed the +danger of an attack over. We were in the open again. I was much troubled +by my fever, which had seized me violently and brought on aches all over +my body. + +We camped at 3,480 feet, having descended 330 feet in thirty-six miles, +an almost perfectly flat stretch except a hillock or undulation here and +there. My fever continued so fierce the whole day that I had not the +strength to stand up nor the inclination to eat, the exhaustion caused by +the very high temperature being indescribable. + +We left at 7 p.m., meaning to make another long march. The night was +intensely cold, with a terrific wind sweeping from the north-east. +Several times during the night, when we came across a tamarisk shrub or +two, we halted for a few minutes to make a bonfire and warm our frozen +hands and toes. We actually came across a stream of brackish water--four +feet broad, and about two to three inches deep--the largest stream we had +seen since entering the desert, and having been twelve hours on the +saddle to cover only twenty-four miles, camels and men shivering +pitifully from the cold, and the latter also from fever, we made camp in +a spot where there was an abundance of tamarisks and a deep well, the +water of which was fully twenty feet below the earth's surface. + +A small basin had been excavated next to the well. We filled it with +water by means of a bucket, and it was a real pleasure to see the camels +crowding round it and satisfying their thirst of two days. We did not +allow them to drink the water of the brackish stream. + +The elevation of this camp was 3,890 feet. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + Intense cold--Dulled sense of taste--Characteristics of the + country--Beautiful stones--Clouds of the desert--A salt + stream--Icicles on the moustache and eyelashes--Longing for + sunrise--Prayers of the camel men--Fedeshk--Ali Murat meets his + wife--Opium dens and opium smokers--Effects of smoking opium in + excess--Fever-stricken people--Dwellings--An official + visitor--Science reduced to practice--Sadek's idea of sunset and + sunrise--"Keshk" cheese--Arrival in Birjand. + + +We left camp at 8 p.m. on the night of November 20th-21st, and by +midnight the cold grew intense. The camel men lighted big bonfires all +through the night wherever they found a few shrubs, but I was so ill with +fever that I had not the strength and energy to dismount from my camel, +on which I was shivering with cold although well wrapped up in blankets. + +After marching eight miles from our last camp we came to a brackish well +where the camel men replenished their water-skins. I was rather +interested to see what dulled sense of taste these men of the desert +possessed. When I saw them making a rush for this well I thought that +probably we had come to fresh water, and on asking them they said this +was a well of excellent "sweet water." When I tasted it, it was so salt +that it quite made one's inflamed gums and palate smart with pain. I +noticed some days later that when we did actually get fairly sweet water +they could detect no difference between it and the most brackish water. + +We had come through hilly and broken country, over low passes and narrow +gorges flanking dry river-beds. Then we had entered another immense flat +stretch of _lut_, quite level except an occasional solitary hillock +breaking the monotonous line of the horizon here and there. From one of +these hillocks (4,300 feet) near our camp of November 21st one got quite +an interesting panorama all round. + +The highest mountain in sight was still the Naiband peak to the +south-west of us. A range which seemed about 50 miles off spread to the +north-west, and before it--about 20 miles distant from us--a very long +low hill range. In an arc from our west to our north were distinguishable +several high pointed peaks. A blackish brown, handsomely cut hill stood +prominent a mile or so from us in the middle of the plain. + +To the north the country was much broken up and low. There was a stream +of salt water running from east to west with thick salt deposits on each +side of the water edge. To the north-east the hills showed no peculiar +characteristics but to the east and south-east could be observed two +short hill-ranges, much indented, of broken up and corroded rock, similar +to the many we had already found across the desert. To the north and to +the south of the hill range which stood to the east of us there were low +passes, and behind them again the flat _lut_. + +The only thing of real interest in the absolutely bare parts of the +desert is the geological formation of the soil and the only amusement is +to examine the different beautifully coloured stones that can be picked +up, such as handsome agates, bits of malachite, crystals, beautiful +marbles, and flints. These are all the more interesting when one thinks +that most of them may have travelled hundreds, some, thousands of miles +to get there, either brought by the water when the country was submerged +or shifted on and on by the wind. They all bear marks of travel, and even +the hardest are polished smooth, the original natural angles of crystals +being in many cases actually worn down and quite rounded. Sand-polished +pebbles of red jasper, jasper-conglomerates, chalcedony, quartz and +agatescent quartz, pink and brown corroded limestone, and calcite were +the most frequently met with. + +A desert is, in England, always associated with glorious sunsets. Why +this should be so is rather difficult to be understood by anybody +reasoning in the right way, because the magnificent tints of a sunset are +caused by moisture in the air and not by abnormal dryness. All the time +that I was in the desert itself I never saw a sunset that really had half +the picturesqueness of one of our most modest sunsets in Europe. The sun +disappeared very fast, leaving a slightly yellow glow above the horizon, +which soon became greenish by blending with the blue sky and then black +with night. The twilight was extremely short. + +We seldom saw clouds at all in the desert and when we did they were +scrubby, little, patchy, angular lumps at enormous heights above the +earth's surface. They were generally white or light grey. Occasionally +they were of the fish-bone pattern, in long successive ridges, resembling +the waves formed on the sand surface when shifted by wind. Soon after the +sun had disappeared behind the horizon, these clouds generally changed +their colour from white into black and made long lines stretching for +great distances across the sky, but adding no beauty to it. + +Naturally, the play of shifting lights and shadows upon the desert when +the sun shone above the clouds was quite weird, especially when the last +formation of clouds referred to cast long bluish shadows slowly moving +upon the brilliantly-lighted, whitish tint of the ground. Lower upon the +horizon line a curtain of a dirty brownish tint was generally to be seen, +due to particles of sand in the air, otherwise in almost all cases that +came under my observation the clouds formed well-defined, thin, clean, +horizontal lines, or else when very high up patchy small skiffs. + +One missed greatly the fat, rolling, globular clouds which are so common +to Europe, and which fill the sky with fantastic forms. There is such a +thing as getting tired of an everlasting spread of blue sky and the glow +of a roasting sun. + +A strong westerly gale swept low over the surface of the desert. It was +very cold after sunset, but fortunately we had plenty of tamarisk shrubs +at hand and camel dung with which to make big fires. + +The river bed below our camp was very wide, but the salt stream itself +not more than three to four feet across. It eventually lost itself to the +north-west in the desert. The camels had been let loose to graze and had +a good feed of tamarisk, which they seemed to enjoy much after their long +diet on reduced rations of straw and cotton seeds. + +We left this camp (4,120 feet) soon after dinner at 7 p.m., and during +the night passed several ranges of hills, we travelling all the time on +the flat. In the middle of the night the cold was bitter, so cold that I +had icicles hanging on my moustache and eyelashes. It was impossible to +remain on the camels, and ill as we all felt we had to walk--drag +ourselves would be a more suitable expression--to keep ourselves from +freezing. On these cold nights we simply longed for the sun to come out. +The dark hours seemed interminable. One began slightly to revive when the +first glimmering of yellowish light began to tinge the dark blue sky, and +the dazzling stars gradually lost their brilliancy and eventually +disappeared altogether from the heaven above us. + +On the first ray of sun appearing the devout camel men stopped the +caravan, spread a small cloth upon the ground, and, having picked up a +small stone, placed it in front of them. They duly turned towards sacred +Mecca and lifted their arms, then, muttering their prayers, knelt and +placed their heads upon the ground, as we have already seen others do, in +the usual Mussulman manner. They were most diligent in this respect, and +one could not help admiring the intent fervour of their appeals to Allah. +At sunset, too, their prayers never failed to be recited--no matter what +they were busy doing at the time, all being interrupted for the purpose. + +At 5.30 a.m. we arrived at a village called Fedeshk--quite a large place, +situated in a flat oblong plain ten miles long and a mile and a half +wide, surrounded by low hills on all sides. + +On being asked why he had made the camels go so fast on this march, Ali +Murat, my camel man, blushingly confessed that in this village was his +home and his wife, whom he had not seen for eight months. The anxiety to +see his better half, who lived only a stone-throw from where we made +camp, did not, however, prevent him looking carefully after his camels, +whom he placed first of all in his affection, and smoking Sadek's +cigarettes, and a pipe with the other camel men, and waiting till my tea +had been brewed to receive his customary six cups. After all this had +been gone through, which took the best part of two hours, he disappeared +and we did not see him again for the remainder of the morning. + +The people of Fedeshk were striking for two reasons, first for being +sadly fever-stricken, secondly because they were addicted to opium +smoking to a disastrous degree. There were a number of opium dens in the +place, and I went to see them. They were dreadful places, in which one +would suspect opium smoking was not the only vice indulged in by the +natives. + +As I entered one of these houses, after a considerable knocking at the +door and a great rustling of people running about the small courtyard +inside, we were admitted into a room so dark that I at first could +discern nothing at all. The pungent, sickening odour of the opium pipes +gave one quite a turn, and I lighted up a match to see where I was. + +There were men lying about on mats in a semi-stupefied state, and men +attendants refilling the pipes--similar to those used in China, a cane +holder with earthenware pipe in which tiny pills of opium were inserted +and consumed over the flame of a small lamp. Several of the men were in +such a torpid state that they mechanically inhaled the opium smoke when +the pipes were pressed to their lips, but were hardly cognizant of what +went about around them. The opium-den keeper in the meantime did a +roaring business, and had a little scale on which he weighed the opium +that he served out. + +It seemed evident, as I lighted match after match, by certain articles of +ladies' attire which in the hurried departure had been left behind in the +room, that the usual attendants of the smokers were women, but they had +stampeded away on our arrival. One heard them chuckle in the adjoining +rooms, and in their haste, they had left behind a great many pairs of +slippers at the entrance of the room. + +I had two men conveyed out into the sun where I wanted to examine them. +The pupils of their eyes had contracted to a most abnormal extent, even +before they were exposed to the sunlight, and seemed to have almost lost +the power of expanding and contracting in various lights, and although +the eyes were wide opened and staring they did not seem to discern what +was placed before them. The eye-ball had a yellowish tinge and the iris +was not well-defined but seemed to have undergone discoloration and faded +away into the white of the eye. They seemed affected by a kind of +temporary atrophy. + +The pulse beat extremely slow and faintly; the lips were drawn tight; the +hearing so dulled that even loud noises seemed to have no effect upon +them. The body was flabby and almost lifeless. It was not possible to +obtain an answer to anything one asked them. They had quite a cadaverous +appearance, with yellowish, pallid skins, sunken eyes, and teeth showing +fully under the drawn lips. + +Only now and then, as one watched them, a sigh, followed by a shiver or a +grunt, came forth to show us that they were still alive. The fingers and +toes displayed some muscular contraction, but not the other joints, which +were quite loose. The heart beat so feebly that one could hardly feel +it. + +They remained spread out in the yard in the positions we had placed them, +and were indeed most pitiful objects. The den-keeper told me that these +two men were most inveterate smokers, and were at it the whole time until +they became quite unconscious. + +There were other men in a slightly better condition, but all more or less +showing the same symptoms of stupefaction. Those that could mutter words +said that it was an irresistible passion that they could never stop. The +opium gave them no dreams, they told me, but a delicious feeling of +absolute contentment and happiness, which they could never experience +when not indulging in this disastrous vice. + +On looking upon things impartially, however, one came to the conclusion +that, bad as it was, opium-smoking had certainly more peaceful and less +disgusting effects upon those unfortunates addicted to it than whiskey or +absinthe, or votka drunkenness, for instance. + +The entire population of this village was, unfortunately, given to this +bad habit, and it was quite pitiable to look upon their haggard, staring +faces, and idiotic expression. + +Malarial fever is very prevalent at Fedeshk, and some of the corpse-like +people affected by it came to my camp for medicine. They were not unlike +walking skeletons, with stringy hands and feet and a skin of ghastly +yellow colour. They had parched, bloodless ears, curled forward, and +sunken cheeks, with deep sunk-in eyes. In the more virulent cases fever +was accompanied by rheumatic pains so strong as practically to paralyse +the legs and arms, which were reduced to a positive minimum of flesh. + +The dwellings of Fedeshk were not impressive. Mud hovels as usual, with +domes over the rooms, as everywhere in Persia, only the familiar +aperture, instead of being directly in the centre of the dome itself, had +a kind of hood over it to screen it from the terrific winds of the West. + +[Illustration: Fever Stricken Man at Fedeshk.] + +[Illustration: The Citadel, Birjand.] + +It is to be noticed in connection with these winds that to the west of +Fedeshk there are rather high mountains, and even winds originally not +coming from the west may be turned back or switched in that direction by +this chain of mountains. + +A large ice store-house is met with at the end of the village, which +testifies to the intense cold that can be experienced here in the winter +months. + +An official residing in the place sent word that he would call upon me, +and we made a grand display of all the carpets we possessed to receive +him. He arrived with a number of servants, and we had a very pleasant +interview, with great consumption of tea. He was extremely civil; +inquired whether he could be of any assistance, which was politely +declined, and showed intense interest in my firearms and scientific +instruments. He and his people were amazed when I told them that their +village stood at an elevation of 4,620 ft. above sea level, and +explained to them how I had measured the height by means of aneroids +and the hypsometrical apparatus. + +"These are wonderful!" he said, with a salaam, as he handed me back the +instruments which had been eagerly examined by all present. "And," he +added, "can you also measure the length of cloth with them?" + +A compass, too, he had never set eyes upon; and he at first thought that +it was constructed to point towards Mecca! Had not one long ago got +accustomed to similar questions often asked one by London people, the +innocence of the Persian official might have taken one's breath away, but +this was nothing to what happened later. + +The Persians showed great curiosity to learn everything in connection +with whatever foreign articles I possessed and the respective prices I +had paid for them. Then Sadek was closely examined as to the amount of +food I ate every day, the salary I paid him, and why I had come across +the desert. Was I a Russian or an Englishman? The officer had never seen +either, but heard both well spoken of. He had understood that all +Englishmen had yellow hair; why had I dark hair? London, he, like most +Persians, believed to be a suburb of Bombay, connected with Russia by +means of a "machine road,"--a railway! + +Why on earth did the _ferenghi_ want to know how high mountains were? Did +the _ferenghi_ know how to find gold in the earth? and so on, were the +queries which Sadek had to answer. + +With repeated salaams, preceded by a thousand other questions, the +official departed; but Sadek, who was much excited, was still bent on a +highly scientific conversation to the following effect:-- + +"Sahib," he said, "you have travelled in many countries, have you not?" + +"Yes." + +"Sahib, have you been to the country where the sun 'goes to sleep' in a +hole in the earth every evening?" + +That was Sadek's idea of a sunset! His idea of a sunrise was that a +brand-new sun was sent up every day, and this explained how it was that +it rose from the opposite side to that on which it had "gone to sleep." + +Ali Murat, looking somewhat washed out and absent minded, came back to +camp at noon, garbed in a very handsome new coat which his wife had woven +and embroidered for him during his absence. He was very proud of it. + +We left Fedeshk an hour later, as I was very anxious to reach the city of +Birjand the same day if possible. We were now again in fairly inhabited +country, and on our hurried march passed a great many villages, large and +small, such as Shahzileh, Mazumabad, Tagot, Siaguih, Shamzabad. Further, +at Ossenabad, is to be seen a ruined country-house of the Governor of +Birjand, then the last two villages of Khelatekhan and Khelatehajih. + +Ali Murat seemed rather dazzled on this last march, and was so worn out +that he threw himself down upon the ground several times, regardless of +spoiling his smart new coat. In a moment he became fast asleep, and it +took some rousing to make him get up again. His wife had given him a bag +of _keshk_--a kind of cheese, which looked like hardened curdled +milk--and of this he partook freely to try and regain his former +strength. Keshk cheese was very hard stuff to eat and took a lot of +chewing. To prevent it getting too hard it had to be soaked in water +every few days. + +We had a nasty wind against us, but the way was flat and good; our +direction, due east across the long narrow valley of sand, nowhere +broader than a couple of miles. To the north were a number of low hills +shaped like so many tents, white, grey, and light-red in colour, and also +to the south, where there was an additional irregular and somewhat higher +rocky mountain. + +In the evening of November 24th we had crossed the entire Salt Desert and +arrived at the large city of Birjand, after Meshed the most important +city of Khorassan, the journey having occupied twenty days, which was +considered a very fast crossing. + +There was a beautiful new caravanserai here, with clean spacious rooms, +and with a most attentive and obliging keeper in charge of it. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + My caravan disbanded--Birjand--Ruined fortress--The city--Number + of houses--Population--The citadel--Artillery--Trade + routes--Birjand as a strategical position--A trading centre--No + fresh water--The Amir--Indian pilgrims--Birjand + carpets--Industries--A pioneer British trader--Imports and + exports--How business is transacted--Russian and British + goods--Long credit--A picturesque caravanserai--Afghan + soldiers--Beluch camel men. + + +At Birjand, my camels being utterly exhausted, I disbanded my caravan, +paid up Ali Murat, and attempted to make up a fresh caravan to proceed to +Sistan. This would take two or three days at least, so I employed my time +at first by seeing all that there was to be seen in the place, then by +receiving various official callers, and last in trying to shake off the +fever, which I partially did by very violent but effective methods. + +[Illustration: The City of Birjand, showing main street and river bed +combined.] + +We entered Birjand from the west by a wide, dry river bed which formed +the main street of the city. A ruined fortress which seemed at one time +to have been of great strength, was to be seen on the western extremity +of the town on a low hillock. The interior was quite interesting, with +several tiers showing how the walls had been manned for defensive +purposes. + +The general view of Birjand reproduced in the illustration was taken +from the fort and gives a better idea of the place than any description. +It can be seen that the city is unequally divided by the combined +river-bed and main street, the northern portion (to the left of observer +in the photograph) having merely an extensive graveyard, a few houses, +the large caravanserai at which I had halted, and a row of shops; +whereas, on the southern side was the bulk of the houses, two, three and +some even four storied, all of a monotonous greyish colour, the buildings +being mostly of sun-dried mud bricks. The little windows in sets of +threes and fives, with brown wooden shutters, relieved to a certain +extent the dulness of the architecture, while a certain relief to the eye +was afforded by a dome and another building, both painted white, in +marked contrast to the mud walls. Many houses had long verandahs and +balconies, on which the women spread their washing. + +As the city was built in terraces upon undulating ground and two higher +hills, it covered a greater area than it at first appeared to do. The +streets were very tortuous and narrow, arched over in some places, +forming long dark tunnels, many of the dwellings having rooms over them +directly above the roadway. + +Making a rough guess, there were, I daresay, some 3,500 to 4,000 houses +in Birjand and its suburbs, with a population of not over 30,000 souls. +These figures, the natives said, were about correct, but no exact +statistics existed. + +The higher point of Birjand was at its south-east portion, and at the +most extreme south-east point of the town at the bottom of the hill was +the high, square, fortress-like enclosure with bastions and a high tower, +as represented in the illustration. It was in a dilapidated condition, +but was, nevertheless, the only structure in Birjand which had a claim to +some picturesqueness. It was the old citadel, inhabited at one time by +the Amir. The wall of the citadel facing south had a large window with +_musharabeah_ woodwork, and a lower building to the side. The adjacent +building also had quaint balconies. + +A good view of the whole city was obtained from a high, isolated building +to the south of the town, in the centre of a large but somewhat untidy +fruit garden, an official residence, but now very little used except in +cases of emergency to accommodate passing officials or distinguished +people. + +There were some Persian military officers staying there and they most +kindly showed me all that there was to be seen, after having entertained +me to some refreshments. They conveyed me inside the citadel where they +proudly showed me a battery of six nine-pounder guns of obsolete Austrian +manufacture; an eighteen pounder bronze gun and another gun of a somewhat +smaller calibre, both of Persian make. They were very carelessly kept, +there being apparently only a ragged boy or two to look after them. + +The officer told me that the garrison of Birjand consisted of one +thousand men, about one hundred of whom were stationed in Birjand itself, +the rest being scattered in the villages around and at one or two posts +along the Afghan frontier. For the accuracy of this statement, however, I +leave the entire responsibility to the officer. + +He was much distressed when I inquired whether the soldiers were ever +drilled in artillery practice, and he said it could not be done because +they had not sufficient ammunition, but they possessed some gunpowder. He +agreed with me that artillery would be of little use if there was no one +who knew how to use it, and no ammunition at hand! + +Birjand being so near the Afghan frontier and having direct roads to +Meshed, Herat, Sabzawar, Anardar, Farah, Lash, Sistan, Beluchistan, +Bandar Abbas, Kerman, Yezd, Isfahan, and Teheran, is a place of interest +from a strategic point of view. In its present condition it could not +possibly offer any resistance. The city and citadel can be commanded from +many points on the hills to the north-east and east, and the +citadel--even allowing that it were strong enough to make a +resistance--could be shelled with the greatest ease at close range from +the hill on which now stands the ruined fortress west of the city. This +point could be reached in perfect safety and would afford absolute cover +under fire from the citadel, but with modern artillery even of moderate +calibre would prove fatal to the citadel itself. + +Birjand is probably the greatest commercial centre in Eastern Persia, +its transit trade at various seasons of the year being very extensive +from all the routes above-mentioned. Agriculturally, Birjand could not +even support its own population, for the water supply is scanty and bad. +There is no fresh water obtainable in the city, but brackish water is a +little more plentiful. A small spring of good water is, however, to be +found some two miles from the city, and there I daily sent a man to bring +us a supply. + +In war time, therefore, the city could not support nor aid an army, which +would fare badly if locked up here. Possibly in some seasons it might +supply some camels, horses and mules, but no food. + +That the Persians themselves believe this an untenable place in time of +war is evident, as this is one of the few large cities in Persia which is +not surrounded by a wall. + +The Amir, or Governor, does not live in Birjand itself but half a +farsakh, or two miles, across the plains to the S.S.E., where he has a +handsome residence in a pretty garden. Much to my regret I was too unwell +to go and pay my respects to him, although I carried an introduction to +him from H.R.H. Zil-es-Sultan, the Shah's brother. He very kindly sent to +inquire after my health several times during my stay, and the Karghazar +was deputed to come and convey these messages to me. + +One cannot speak too highly of the extreme civility of Persian officials +if one travels in their country properly accredited and in the right +way. If one does not, naturally one only has to blame one's self for the +consequences. + +One hears a good deal about the advantages of being a Britisher in any +country, and one could not help being amused at the natives of Birjand +who could not distinguish a European from the blackest Bengalese. They +were all _Inglis_ to them. Some natives came to announce that a caravan +of twenty of my own countrymen had just arrived--which gave me quite a +pleasant surprise, although I could hardly credit its truth. On rushing +out of my room to greet them, I found myself confronted with a crowd of +black-faced, impudent, untidy Indian pilgrims from Bengal, on their way +to the Sacred Shrine of Meshed. Most of them were fever-stricken; others, +they told me, had died on the way. + +These caravans have caused a good deal of friction both with the Persian +and Russian authorities, for fear that they should bring plague into +Persia and Transcaspia. When one saw these fanatics--religious people can +be so dirty--one could not with any fairness blame the authorities for +making a fuss and taking stringent measures to protect their own +countries and people from probable infection. True, it should be +remembered that the journey of 600 miles across the hot Baluchistan +desert to Sistan, and the 500 more miles to Meshed, ought to have been a +sufficient disinfectant as far as the plague went, but their wretched +appearance was decidedly against them. + +These pilgrims were a great nuisance; they traded on the fact that they +were under British protection; they lived in the most abject fashion, +continually haggling and quarrelling with the natives, and decidedly did +not add to our popularity in Eastern Persia, to say nothing of the +endless trouble and worry they gave to our officials at the Consulates +and on the route. + +As I have said, the natives do not know the difference between these men +and Englishmen, and believe that all British subjects are of the same +stamp--by which one cannot quite feel flattered. If these pilgrimages +could be gradually restricted and eventually stopped, I think everybody +all round would benefit,--even the pilgrims themselves, who might +possibly not feel so holy, but whose health would not be impaired by the +fearful sufferings they have to endure to gain--and often obtain very +prematurely--a claim to a seat in heaven. + +The opening up of the Nushki route from Quetta to Sistan and Meshed is +responsible for the great influx of pilgrims, who have been attracted by +the glowing reports of how easy it is to travel by this route. And so it +is very easy, for men accustomed to that particular kind of travelling, +like myself or like traders or Government officials, who can travel with +all they want, and just as they please, but not for people who have to +live from hand to mouth and who are destitute of everything. Those +fellows have no idea whatever, when they start, of what they will have to +endure on the road. + +There is not much local trade in Birjand, but quite a brisk transit +trade. The industries are practically confined to carpet-weaving, the +carpets being renowned all over Persia for their softness, smooth +texture, and colours, which are said never to fade, but the designs upon +them are not always very graceful nor the colours always artistically +matched. The most curious and durable are the camel-hair ones, but the +design, usually with a very large medallion in the centre, does not seem +to appeal to European eyes. Even the smallest rugs fetch very large sums. +Although called Birjand carpets they are mostly manufactured in some of +the villages north of Birjand, especially at Darakush. + +Among the shops there are a few silversmiths', some blacksmiths', and +some sword and gunsmiths'. The latter manufacture fairly good blades and +picturesque matchlocks. + +The trade caravanserais in the town are quaint, but to me most +interesting of all was the one approached by a sharp incline--a very old +one--where an Indian British trader had started business, attempting to +further British trade in these regions. This man, by name Umar-al-din +Khan, of the firm of Mahommed Ali of Quetta, was really a remarkable +fellow. If Russian trade has not yet succeeded in getting a fair hold in +Birjand, if British trade has it so far almost altogether its own way, we +have only to thank the tact, energy, patience, and talent of this man. +The patriotism, enterprise, and hard labour of Umar-al-din and his firm +deserve indeed the greatest credit and gratitude. + +Birjand is a most interesting point commercially because it will be here +that Russian and British competition in Eastern Persia will eventually +come into collision. + +The main imports of the province of Kain, of which Birjand is the +capital, are now English and Russian made merchandise. English goods are +so far preferred and realize higher prices, because of their better +quality. The articles principally required, and for which in retail the +natives are ready to pay well, are ordinary cotton, woollen and silk +cloths, household iron, copper, brass vessels, loaf-sugar, glass-ware and +crockery, especially of shapes suitable for Persian uses. Indian tea sold +very well at first, but the market is greatly overstocked at present and +great caution should be exercised by Indian exporters. + +Russian sugar, being of a much cheaper quality, is rapidly driving out of +the place French and Indian sugars, but the quality of Russian sugar is +so bad that of late there has been rather a reaction in favour of +Shahjahanpur Rosa (Indian) sugar. + +There are in Birjand several native merchants having fair amounts of +capital at their disposal, but it appears that the prices which they are +willing to pay are so low and the credit required so long, that it is +most difficult to do business with them. The retail business is, +therefore, more profitable than the wholesale. + +The competition in Russian-made cotton cloths and tea is getting very +keen and the Russians can sell these things so cheaply that it is not +possible for Indian traders to sell at their prices. Also the Russians +have learnt to manufacture the stuff exactly as required by the natives. + +The glass ware and fancy goods are chiefly sold to the better class +people, but no very great profits, especially to passing trading +caravans, can be assured on such articles. + +The exports consist of wool and skins to Russia, and to Bandar Abbas for +India; carpets to Russia, Europe and India; _Barak_, a kind of woollen +cloth, to various parts of Persia; opium to China _via_ Bandar Abbas; +saffron, caraway seeds, _onaabs_, etc., to India, also _via_ Bandar +Abbas, and some English and Russian merchandize to Herat. + +Birjand is the commercial pivot, not only of the trade of North-eastern +Persia, but also of Western Afghanistan. The commercial supremacy of this +town will decide whether we are able in the future to hold our own in the +south or not; but once driven back from this centre we may as +well--commercially--say good-bye altogether to the northern and central +Persian markets; while even the southern markets will be very seriously +attacked, as far as goods coming overland are concerned. + +Umar-al-din has made a most careful and serious study of the trade of +Eastern Persia, and I am certain that if we were to encourage a number of +other Indian traders of the same type to establish themselves in Birjand, +with possible branches in Meshed, England could make rapid headway +against any foreign competition. Being an Asiatic himself, although +Umar-al-din has travelled, I believe, in Australia, England, etc., and +speaks Hindustani, Persian and English perfectly, he is able to deal with +the Persians in a way in which a European would not be so successful. He +is on most friendly terms with H. E. Shan-kal-el-Mulk, the Governor, and +all the local officials, by whom he is held in much respect and who have +at various times made most extensive purchases in his shop to the amount +of several thousand tomans' (dollars) worth of British goods. + +On one occasion he imported for the Amir and his son a first-class double +barrel English gun of the latest type, some revolvers, a bicycle, with a +lot of European furniture for which he received immediate payment in cash +of 4,000 rupees. + +Umar-al-din was the first Indian trader to open a shop in Birjand. By +this means he has exercised great influence over the Persian merchants of +the place, and has induced the leading ones to trade with India, in +preference to Russia, by the Nushki-Quetta route. His good work has been +reported to Government by Major Chevenix Trench, then H. B. M. Consul in +Sistan, now Consul in Meshed, by Lieutenant-Colonel Temple, Major Benn, +and others. + +On his arrival in Birjand he acted as Agent for the British Government, +and was for ten months in charge of the Consular postal arrangements from +Sistan to Meshed, while advising the Government on the best ways of +promoting trade in those regions, a work which he did mostly for love and +out of loyalty. + +He has experimented a great deal, and his experience is that indigo is +the article which commands the greatest sale at present, then plain white +and indigo dyed cottons of two qualities, a superior kind with shiny +surface for the better classes, and one rather inferior with no gloss for +the lower people. Fancy articles find no sale. + +One of the greatest difficulties that a trader has to contend with is the +impossibility of selling anything for ready money, and thus making small +but quick profits. Credit has to be given generally for one year, +eighteen months, and even as long as two years. Even in the few cases +where credit has been allowed for one or two months the greatest +difficulty is experienced in obtaining payment for the goods supplied, +threats and applications to the Amir being often necessary. Delays are +constant, although the money is always paid in the end. + +This necessitates keeping the prices very high to compensate for the +loss, but by careful handling good profits can be made, if sufficient +capital is at hand to keep the concern going. + +The caravanserai in which Umar-al-din had hired several rooms which he +had turned into a shop was now known by the name of the English +Caravanserai, and nearly all the caravans with Indian and Afghan goods +halted there. When I went to visit the place there were a number of +Afghan soldiers who had conveyed some prisoners, who had escaped into +Afghan territory, back from Herat to Birjand. Their rifles, with bayonets +fixed, were stacked on the platform outside, and they loitered about, no +two soldiers dressed alike. Some had old English military uniforms which +they wore over their ample white or blue cotton trousers. These fellows +looked very fierce and treacherous, with cruel mouths and unsteady eyes. +They wore pointed embroidered peaks inside their turbans, and curly hair +flowed upon their shoulders. At a distance they were most picturesque but +extremely dirty. + +A number of Beluch _mari_, or running camels, were being fed with huge +balls of paste which were stuffed down their mouths by their owners. +These camel men were the first Beluch I had come across, and although +they wore huge white flowing robes, long hair, and pointed turbans not +unlike the Afghans, the difference in the features and expression of the +faces was quite marked. One could see that they were fighting people, but +they had nice, honest faces; they looked straight in one's eyes, and had +not the sneakish countenance of their northern neighbours. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + A loud explosion--Persian military officers--Dr. Abbas Ali Khan, + British Agent in Birjand--His excellent work--Gratefulness of the + natives--A quaint letter--The Russian Agent--A Russian temporary + score--More British Consulates needed--Visits returned--Altitude + and temperature of Birjand--Cossacks and their houses--A bright + scene in a graveyard--Departure of Indian pilgrims for + Meshed--British Consular postal service--Russian post--Making up + a second caravan. + + +Early in the morning of the 26th I was awakened by a fearful explosion +that shook the caravanserai and made everything in the room rattle. A few +minutes later there was a second report and then a third and fourth, +twelve altogether, but these fortunately not quite so loud. Evidently my +military friends of the previous day were firing off their artillery. + +Shortly after this, in their gaudy uniforms and with a guard of soldiers, +the officers came to call upon me at the caravanserai. + +"Have you heard the guns being fired?" was their first anxious question. +Indeed I had. It appears that to make sure that I should hear them a +double charge of powder was placed in the first gun. When it was let off +in the very small court of the citadel the concussion had most +disastrous effects upon the mud walls all round, as well as upon some of +the spectators who were close at hand and who were nearly stunned by the +fearful report. + +The officers were extremely civil, intelligent and full of humour. +Intense astonishment and interest was shown in my repeating rifles. They +had never set their eyes upon, nor ever heard that there was such a thing +as, a repeating rifle! I was, nevertheless, much struck by their +quickness compared with that of the average European, in grasping the +mechanism and the way to use the weapons. + +They seemed fully to realize that it would be of little practical use to +defend Birjand city in case of an attack, because it could be commanded +from several excellent positions close at hand to the north-east, north +and north-west. Furthermore, the water supply could easily be cut off. +They told me, if I remember right, that it was the intention of the +Persian Government to strengthen this place and that some more pieces of +artillery were expected. + +We have in Birjand an Indian doctor, by name Abbas Ali Khan, who acts as +British Agent. He is a young fellow of uncommon ability and education, a +capital doctor, and a most gentlemanly man, who has had great experience +of the world, having travelled with several political missions in various +parts of Asia, including the Pekin Syndicate Survey expedition under +command of J. W. Purvis, Captain R. E., where not only did he look after +the medical necessities of a large party of Europeans, Indians and +Chinese, but helped to manage a large transport of mule carts. Captain +Purvis testifies to Abbas Ali having performed his professional duties +with zeal, and extraneous duties cheerfully, during a journey of some +2,000 miles through China. + +It was in April, 1897, that Abbas Ali Khan, at twenty-four hours' notice, +accompanied Major Brazier Creagh's Mission to Sistan, when British +influence in that part of Persia was non-existent. The Mission returned +to India in October of the same year, but Abbas Ali was sent on a second +journey to Sistan in charge of a small party from December, 1897, to +July, 1898, when he was entrusted with political business which required +great discretion and tact. + +It is greatly to his credit that he managed--in spite of many +difficulties and obstacles--to win the confidence and friendship of +officials of a district where all British subjects were regarded with +undisguised suspicion and distrust. No better proof of this could be +furnished than by reproducing here a literal translation of a quaint +document, dated May, 1898, given him, unsolicited, by Mir Masum Sar-tip, +Deputy Governor of Sistan, whose official seal it bears:-- + + "God is acquainted with what is in the minds of men. Beyond doubt + and without hesitation it is rightly and justly stated that + Military Doctor Mirza Abbas Ali Khan has during the period of his + stay in Sistan displayed his personal tact and natural ability. + He has treated with great civility and politeness any person who + has applied to him for medical attendance and treatment of + diseases, and has in no case whatever demanded payment or + anything from anybody. He has never hesitated to give gratuitous + medical aid with medicines or personal attendance, and all the + natives from the highest to the lowest are well satisfied and + under great obligation to him. It is hoped that the trouble taken + and the pecuniary loss suffered by him will be appreciated by his + Government. I have personally greatly benefited by his treatment + of my personal diseases and ailments and I trust that he will + receive great favour from his Government." + +Naturally the medicines are supplied to him by the Government, but it +would be becoming if the Government saw its way to reward men of this +type for the "soul" which they put into their work, for this it is after +all that wins the esteem of the natives more than the actual cost of the +medicines. A few grains of quinine, or a few ounces of castor oil have +often been the means of obtaining information and advantages for the +British Government, which, if properly used, may be worth millions of +pounds sterling. + +It is to these pioneers that the nation should be grateful, to these +people who build sound foundations on which the Empire can spread without +fear of collapsing we are indebted far more than to the folks who stop at +home and reap with little trouble the credit of the work which has been +done by others. + +Abbas Ali has gained a most intimate knowledge of the country and people, +which gives him enormous influence, and he has been the means of +smoothing the way to a considerable extent for the new trade route to +Quetta. Major Chevenix Trench, Consul at Meshed, fully testifies to this, +and speaks very highly of Abbas Ali's political work, and so does Captain +Webb-Ware, in charge of the Nushki-Sistan road, who writes that in his +belief the growth of British influence in Sistan and Birjand is due in no +small degree to the tact, discretion, and conscientious discharge of +duties of Abbas Ali. + +Abbas Ali was ordered again to Persia in August, 1899, and has remained +there since, stationed at Birjand. + +The Russians have established a rival agent to look after their own +interests, in the person of Veziroff Gazumbek, a Perso-Russian subject +and a Mussulman. This man very politely called upon me in great state, +wearing a decoration of the third class which had just been bestowed upon +him by the Shah, and accompanied by four Cossacks who were on their way +to the Russian Consulate at Sistan to relieve the escort there. He and +Abbas Ali were socially and outwardly on excellent terms, but great +rivalry necessarily existed in their work. + +The Russian had gained a temporary advantage in the eyes of the natives +by the honour conferred upon him by the Shah, and it was a pity that an +exception to the general rule could not be made and a similar or higher +honour obtained for Abbas Ali, whose work certainly deserves--one would +think--some consideration. Matters of that sort, although of absolutely +no significance in themselves, are of great importance in a country like +Persia, where appearances cannot altogether be neglected. + +The British Government, one feels, makes a primary and most palpable +mistake in not being represented by more English Consular officials, not +necessarily sent by the London Foreign Office, but rather of that most +excellent type, the military Political servants, such as those who are +now found in some few Persian cities. The establishment of a +vice-Consulate here at Birjand instead of a Medical Political Agency +would, I think, also, be of very great help at the present moment and +would increase British prestige there. + +The afternoon of that day was spent in returning the visits of Abbas Ali +Khan, the Russian Agent, and the Karghazar. Everywhere I met with extreme +civility. Both the British and the Russian Agent lived in nice houses, +handsomely carpeted and furnished, only Abbas Ali's place had a more +business-like appearance than that of the Russian because of the many +books, the red cross trunks of medicine and surgical instruments and +folding camp furniture. The house of the Russian was practically in +Persian style, with handsome carpets and cushions, but with hardly any +European chairs or furniture. + +Birjand is very high up, 5,310 ft. above sea level, and we did not feel +any too warm. The thermometer was seldom more than 60 deg. in the shade +during the day, and from 40 deg. to 50 deg. at night. + +In the evenings the four Cossacks of the Sistan Consular escort, who had +been detained here, and occupied one of the rooms of the caravanserai, +sat out in the open singing with melodious voices in a chorus the weird +songs of their country. These men were really wonderful. They had come +down from Turkestan, a journey of close upon five hundred miles, riding +their own horses, with only a few roubles in their pockets, and little +more than the clothing they wore, their rifles, and bandoliers of +cartridges. The affection for their horses was quite touching, and it was +fully reciprocated by the animals. One or two of the men slept by the +horses so that no one should steal them, and the animals were constantly +and tenderly looked after. + +There was a bright scene in the graveyard behind the caravanserai, the +day that all the women went to visit the graves and to lay offerings of +food, rice and dried fruit upon the tombs of their dead. Little conical +white tents were pitched by hawkers, and dozens of women in their white +chudders prowled about like so many ghosts, or else squatted down in rows +beside or upon the graves. The doleful voices of blind beggars sang +mournful tunes, and cripples of all kinds howled for charity. + +A Persian crowd is always almost colourless, and hardly relieved by an +occasional touch of green in the men's kamarbands or a bright spot of +vermilion in the children's clothes. The illustration representing the +scene, shows on the left-hand side of the observer, the ruined fortress +at the western end of the city of Birjand, and the near range of hills to +the north-west which, as I mentioned, would afford most excellent +positions for artillery for commanding Birjand. The domed building in the +centre of the photograph is one of the dead-houses adjoining every +cemetery in Persia, to which the bodies are conveyed and prepared +previous to interment. + +The Persian Government have a Belgian Customs official in Birjand, but he +generally spends much of his time travelling along the Afghan frontier. +He had left Birjand when I arrived. + +[Illustration: Women Visiting Graves of Relatives, Birjand. (Ruined Fort +can be observed on Hill.)] + +With more pity than regret I watched at the caravanserai the departure of +the Indian pilgrims for the Shrine at Meshed. They had obtained a number +of donkeys and mules, and were having endless rows with the natives about +payment. Eventually, however, the caravanserai court having been a +pandemonium for several hours, all was settled, their rags were packed in +bundles upon the saddles, and the skeleton-like pilgrims, shivering with +fever, were shoved upon the top of the loads. There was more fanaticism +than life left in them. + +The four Cossacks, also, who were at the caravanserai received orders to +leave at once for their post at Sistan, and gaily departed in charge of +the British Consular courier who was to show them the way. + +This courier travels from Meshed to Sistan with relays of two horses +each, in connection with the Quetta-Sistan postal service. The service is +worked entirely by the Consuls and by the Agent at Birjand, and is +remarkably good and punctual considering the difficulties encountered. +There is also a Persian postal service of some sort, but unfortunate is +the person who rashly entrusts letters to it. Even the Persian officials +themselves prefer to use the English post. The Russians have established +a similar service from their frontier to Sistan, but it does not run so +frequently. + +The making up a second caravan in a hurry was no easy matter, but +eventually I was able to persuade one of the men who had accompanied me +across the Salt Desert to procure fresh camels and convey me there. This +he did, and after a halt of three days we were on the road again to cross +our third desert between Birjand and Sistan, a distance of some 210 +miles. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + Departure from Birjand--A cloud like a skeleton hand--A + downpour--The village of Muht--A ruined fortress--A beautiful + sunset--A pass--Besieged by native callers--Two towers at + Golandeh--Strayed--Curious pits--Sahlabad--The impression of a + foreign bed--Fujiama's twin. + + +A large and most respectful crowd collected in and out of the +caravanserai to watch the departure of my caravan at five o'clock in the +evening on November 27th. We were soon out of Birjand and, steering a +south-easterly course, passed one or two large mud enclosures with a few +fruit-trees, but otherwise there was hardly any vegetation visible +anywhere--even in the immediate neighbourhood of Birjand. Everything was +as barren as barren could be. + +Overhead the sky after sunset was most peculiarly marked by a weird, +black, skeleton-like hand of perfect but gigantic proportions, spreading +its long bony fingers over us. As night came on, it grew very cold and +the skeleton hand of mist compressed itself into a nasty black cloud. A +few minutes later a regular downpour drenched us to the skin and the +camels experienced great difficulty in walking on the slippery mud. + +This was the first rain we had seen, or rather felt, since leaving +Teheran. Our long-unused macintoshes had been applied to such usages as +wrapping up cases of photographic plates and enveloping notebooks, so +that we could not very well get at them, now that we needed them, without +taking all the loads down. So we went on until our clothes were perfectly +saturated, when at least we had the satisfaction of knowing that we could +not get wetter than we were. + +The rain came down in bucketfuls for over an hour, then luckily stopped, +and in a few moments, with a howling wind rising, the sky was clear again +and the myriads of stars shone bright like so many diamonds. The cutting +wind and our wet clothes made this march rather a chilly one, although +one felt some relief at the sensation of moisture after so many months of +intense dryness. + +There was nothing whatever to see on any side, and I have never thanked +my stars so much as when, after marching thirteen hours, we reached the +village of Muht, a place of fair size in a picturesque little valley with +nice hills on all sides. + +To the north-east of the village was an interesting demolished fortress +standing on a low hill. It had a very deep well in the centre within its +walls, which were of stone, with twelve turrets round it. At the foot of +the hill was a _haoz_, or water tank, now dry, which the natives said was +very ancient and which they attributed to the Hindoos. To the west a +lake was said to exist called Kiemarakalah, by the side of a mountain +not unlike a Swiss roof in shape; while to the north-east of the fortress +were rugged rocks and low sand-hills. The elevation of this village was +6,520 feet. + +We left Muht at noon of the same day and passed a small village on our +way, then we gradually ascended to a pass 7,050 feet high, on the other +side of which was a plain--green not from vegetation, but because the +clayish soil was of that colour--with hills to the east and west. + +It was hardly possible to imagine more dreary, desolate scenery than that +through which we were going. There was not a living soul beyond ourselves +anywhere in sight. The camels, which had caught cold in the shower of the +previous night, had to be given a rest, and we halted again after a five +hours' march. The cold was intense. Whether owing to the moisture in the +atmosphere, or to some other cause, we had on the evening of the 28th a +really beautiful sunset. The sky was dazzling with brilliant gold and +vermilion tints. + +At midnight we were again under way, first across flat, then over +undulating country, after which we got among the mountains and between +precipitous gorges. This was quite a welcome change, but not for the +camels, the way being somewhat rough and stony. + +We had some little difficulty in going up the steep pass, 7,200 feet, the +camels panting terribly. We suffered from the cold and the heavy dew +which positively drenched men, camels, and baggage. It was quite as bad +as having been out in the rain, we were so soaked. I, unfortunately, +became ill again, fever attacking me afresh more fiercely than ever; +Sadek, too, and Abbas Ali, the camel man, were also taken very sick. + +On the other side of the pass we went through a steep, narrow, and most +fantastically picturesque defile of rocks, and eventually passed the +little hamlet of Golandeh which boasts of no less than half-a-dozen mud +huts and as many fruit trees. + +We had descended to precisely the altitude of Muht, or 6,520 feet. From +this village the Sistan track descends for a few hundred yards and then +proceeds in a south by south-east direction over a flat stretch with some +hills. A very high mountain could be seen to the south by south-west and +another quite pointed to the south by south-east (at 170 deg. b.m.). To the +east-south-east some twenty miles from Muht, was another tiny hamlet +built against the foot of the mountain along which we had come. A large +plain opened before us to the south-west. + +At Golandeh we were besieged by natives applying for medicine, as there +seemed to be hardly a soul in the place who was not affected by some +complaint or other. Affections of the eyes were most common. Those who +wanted no medicine begged for money or lumps of sugar,--which latter +there is apparently some difficulty in obtaining here and for which they +seemed to have a perfect craving. Men, women, and children implored to +be given some. + +There were two towers at Golandeh, the lower one quadrangular in shape +and two-storied. The upper floor had recesses in all the rooms for +storing grain and provisions. + +We left camp at 5.45 p.m. and all went well until about ten o'clock, when +Sadek took it into his head that we were travelling in the wrong +direction and proceeded to put us right, I being fast asleep on my camel. +The camel man, having never been on this route, did not know the way and +depended a great deal on the bearings I gave him daily by my compass. +When I awoke we had got sadly mixed up among big boulders and sharp +broken-up rocks, from which the camels had the greatest difficulty in +extricating themselves, and we wasted a good deal of time in helping the +animals to get on to better ground as they continually stumbled and fell +among the loose stones. The loads got undone several times and we were +all three so ill that we had not the strength to tie them up again +properly on the saddles. + +In the course of time I put the party on the right track again, and for +more than one hour we went up and down steep but not high passes, through +defiles, and across a small stream. We were following the dry river-bed +among rocks in a gorge, and we arrived at a spot where there was a rock +barrier several feet high beneath us, which made it impossible for camels +to get down; so Abbas Ali was despatched to try and find an easier way +while Sadek and I were left to freeze in a cutting south-west wind. + +The camel man returned and led the camels back a long distance until we +came to a faint track along a streamlet, which we tried to follow, but it +went along such precipitous places that we had to abandon it for fear the +camels, who could not get a proper foot-hold, might come to grief. In +Birjand I had only succeeded in obtaining just sufficient animals to +carry my loads, Sadek, and myself, and so was not very anxious to run the +risk of losing any and becoming stranded in such an inhospitable place. + +We eventually contrived to take the camels down to the flat without any +serious mishaps, and wandered and wandered about and went over another +pass--my compass being all we had to go by. + +Sadek, whose high fever had affected his vision, now swore that we were +going back towards Birjand instead of going on, and said he was certain +my compass was wrong; but I paid no heed to his remarks, and by carefully +steering our course with the compass--which involved a reckless waste of +matches owing to the high wind--I eventually got the party into the open, +upon a wide plain of sand and gravel. Here, having shown Abbas Ali the +right bearings to follow, I got upon my camel, again wrapped myself well +in my blankets and went fast asleep. + +So unfortunately did Abbas Ali, who was tired out after his exertions +among the rocks, and at 3 a.m. I woke up to find the camels going as and +where they pleased, and the camel man, buried under his thick felt coat, +snoring so soundly upon his camel that it took a good deal of shouting to +wake him up. I had no idea where we had drifted while I had been asleep, +and the night being an unusually dark one we could not well see what was +ahead of us, so we decided to halt until sunrise. + +[Illustration: In the Desert. (Tamarisks in the Foreground.)] + +When it grew light in the morning I was much interested in some curious +circular and quadrangular pits only a few yards from where we had +stopped, which were used as shelters for men and sheep but were now +deserted. These pits were from four to six feet deep below the level of +the ground, and from ten to thirty feet in diameter (when circular), a +section being partitioned for sheep by a fence of thick but soft cane +that grows in the neighbourhood of water. In the part reserved for human +beings there was a circular fireplace of stones, and some holes in the +earth at the sides for storing foodstuff. The lower portion of the inside +wall all round the pit was of beaten earth up to a height of two feet, +above which a wall of stones carefully fitted one upon the other was +constructed from two to four feet high, up to the level of the earth. +Here a projecting screen of cane was erected all round at an angle +converging towards the centre of the pit, for the double purpose of +preventing the sheep escaping, and of sheltering the inmates during +the fearful sand and windstorms that sweep with great force along the +earth's surface. The entrance was cut on one side with an incline to +afford easy access to the pit. + +At this particular place there were altogether some fifteen of these +pits, and in one of them we lighted a big fire with some shrubs we +collected, and rested for some three hours to give Sadek time to cook my +breakfast. + +The difference in the temperature between the interior of these pits and +the open ground was extraordinary. They were comfortably warm, even when +it was unpleasantly cold as one peeped out of them. + +While Sadek was busy with his culinary work, and the camel man chewed +dried pieces of bread and _keshk_ cheese, I proceeded to find our right +way. It lay about one mile to the east of the pits. + +On resuming our march, five farsakhs (twenty miles) from Golandeh, we +reached Sahlabad, an unimportant village. South there was to be seen an +extensive white salt deposit, which at first had all the appearance of a +large lake, and a stream of salt water flowed across the large valley and +through the village from north-east to south-west. + +To the east there was a long range of multi-coloured mountains, all with +high sand accumulations at their base; greys in several beautiful tones, +were prevalent, and there were stretches of black, brown, burnt sienna, +and a pale cadmium yellow. To the north-west, whence we had come, low +hills were visible, and to the south-west fairly high ones. + +Sahlabad was a depressing place. The natives were in abject poverty and +their habitations dismal, to say the least. The huts were partly +underground, and the top aperture of the domed roof was screened by a +hood with an opening to the north-east. No firewood was obtainable at +this place, and the only water the natives had to drink was the salt +water from the stream. At Sahlabad we had descended to an elevation of +5,050 ft., which made a considerable change in the temperature. + +We encountered here a large caravan in charge of Beluch drivers, and +among other curious articles one of the camels carried a beautiful new +enamelled iron bedstead. The reader may suppose that, after several +months of sleeping on the ground, I wished it had been mine,--but I did +not. On the contrary, I was particularly struck on that occasion by what +an elaborate, clumsy, useless thing it seemed, although, as bedsteads go, +it was one of the best! + +To the south stood a high mountain, very closely resembling in shape the +world-renowned Fujiama of Japan, only this one had a somewhat wider +angle. Beyond the white expanse of salt to the south-east there was low, +flattish country, but to the west, north-west and south-west, rose fairly +high hills. The valley itself in which we were was some two and a half +miles broad, and covered with grey sand. + +In the centre of the village in the neighbourhood of which we camped was +a tumbled-down circular tower, and an octangular tower in two tiers, also +partly ruined. The latter stood at the corner of an enclosure which at +one time must have been the beginning of the village wall. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + Suspicious characters--A trap--Held up--No water--The haunt of + robbers--Fierce daily winds--Volcanic formation--A + crater--Wall-like barriers--A salt stream--A caravan from Quetta. + + +We remained at Sahlabad the whole afternoon, and we were visited in camp +by a number of suspicious-looking people, who were most inquisitive to +know what I possessed and how much money I carried, and other such +pertinent questions which they put to Sadek and my camel man. Also a +peculiar lot of fellows, with very ugly countenances and armed to their +teeth, passed by. They were mounted on fine horses with gaudy saddles, +and on coming suddenly and unexpectedly upon us seemed quite upset. +Instead of salaaming us, as had been usual with the few well-to-do people +we had so far met, they whipped their horses and galloped away. + +Sadek said they must be Sawars--mounted soldiers. Abbas Ali said they +were robbers from Afghanistan. We shall see later what they were. + +At 6.30 p.m. we left--it was quite dark--and we had gone but two miles +when a distant voice called upon us to stop. By his speech the stranger +seemed very excited when he reached us, and said we must keep the track, +to the left and not follow the one to the right where two trails branched +off. We could not see his face, for he kept some twenty or thirty yards +off, and besides, his face was wrapped all round in the tail of his +turban. We professed to be thankful for the information, but continued on +the track to the right, which seemed greatly to disturb him--at least, +judging by the number of times he entreated us to follow his advice. + +Both Sadek and Abbas Ali corroborated my conviction that this was a trap +laid for us. The man, on seeing us go a different way from the one he +advised us, ran away, and presently we heard some shrill whistles which +were no doubt signals to his companions. + +We had gone but another mile when suddenly a figure with a gun in hand +sprang before us and seized the camel man by the chest. + +"Whose caravan is this?" he shouted. + +"It is the _ferenghi's_," hastily replied the camel man. + +There was a short pause in the conversation when our interlocutor, +looking up at my camel which had got close upon him, perceived himself +covered by my rifle. + +Sadek had leapt off his camel as quick as lightning and shoved the muzzle +of his Winchester in the man's face. As the stranger's demeanour was most +peculiar and his answers incoherent as well as flippant, Sadek first +disarmed his adversary, then turned his own rifle the round way about +and gave the man a good pounding for his impertinence in holding up my +camel man. We heard a number of voices of people hidden all around. When +the fellow managed to effect an escape he gave an alarm signal, and we +saw a lot of black figures jump up and stampede for their lives. + +This furnished a little variation in our dreary night marches, and we +proceeded briskly, Sadek, Abbas Ali and I being most grateful to our +unknown friends for the amusement they had provided us. + +Some three miles further we came upon several caravans that had halted +and were hiding, for they were aware of robbers being about--they had +seen fresh tracks of their horses during the day and were in fear of +being attacked. At first when we appeared on the scene they mistook us +for brigands, and as we discovered them hidden we also mistook them for +robbers, so that the beginning of our interview did not lack in humour. + +We had a hearty laugh over it all when their identity and ours were +established, and after a few minutes' halt we continued our journey on +soft sand, rather undulating, with frequent depressions in places. We +travelled the whole night of December 1st, passing to the right of the +salt deposits--which looked like a big stretch of country covered with +snow and threw out a certain luminosity, possibly because the salt +crystals reflected and condensed what light there was from the stars. As +the hours of the night went by we gradually left the salt stretch behind +us to the north, and proceeded on the flat for some distance. + +In the morning we passed a small village right up on the mountain side, +one mile and a half to the west of our course. We then entered a dry +river-bed between high sand hills, and having marched nineteen hours +continuously camels and men were rather in need of a rest. + +At one p.m. on December 1st we pitched our camp in the middle of the +river-bed--80 feet broad here--the only place where we could get a +draught of air,--but the heat was suffocating, the thermometer +registering 112 deg.--the altitude being 5,010 feet. + +As we expected to find water of some kind we had omitted to fill up the +skins and load the camels unnecessarily, but, unluckily, there was no +water anywhere at hand. Abbas Ali was sent to the village we had +passed--now some four miles back--to get some, but being too tired to +carry the heavy skin down to us again he entrusted it to a boy, giving +him full directions where our camp was. The boy did not find where we +were, and in the meantime Sadek and I had our throats parched with +thirst. Abbas Ali returned at seven o'clock and had to be despatched back +to the village in search of the lost boy and the water skin. It was ten +o'clock when he returned, and after twenty-eight hours of dryness we had +our first drink of water. It was brackish but it tasted delicious. + +We were compelled to remain here for the night. Several caravans passed +through going north, and also a lot of suspicious people, whose manner +was so peculiar that we were compelled to sit up the greater part of the +night and keep watch on my property. Some of the caravan men who had gone +through had warned us that we had encamped in a regular nest of robbers, +and that three men had been robbed and murdered at this spot only a few +days before. + +The high sand hills afford excellent hiding places for these gentry. It +appears that the men on horseback whom we had seen at Sahlabad, and who +had bolted on coming suddenly upon us, were the high chief of the robber +band and some of his confederates,--very likely on their way to Birjand +to dispose of booty. Being so near the Afghan border these fellows enjoy +practical safety by merely going from one country into the other to suit +their plans and to evade search parties occasionally sent out for their +capture. + +We had come forty miles from Sahlabad, and Abbas Ali brought us the news +from the village that we should find no water on our course for fifteen +miles more and no habitations for forty-eight more miles. Unluckily, we +had hardly enough provisions to last one day, and we perceived a fair +prospect before us of having to go one day without food, when Abbas Ali +was despatched for a third time for another eight miles' walk to the +village and back to see what he could get in the way of edibles. + +He returned, riding a cow, in company with another man, and a third +fellow on a mule carrying a fat sheep. The latter was there and then +purchased and killed, and we had a copious breakfast before starting +along the winding dry bed of the river at 11.30 a.m. on December 2nd. + +Before us to the south by south-west (190 deg. b.m.) was a lofty flat-topped +mountain which appeared about fifteen miles off, and directly in front of +our course was also another and more extensive long, flat-topped mountain +stretching from north-east to south-west, three miles off, with +precipitous sides towards the north-west and north. The sides were padded +with sand accumulations which reached almost to the summit of the lower +portions of the mountain barrier. To the south-west, approximately twenty +miles off, stood a high range. + +West and north-westerly winds blew every day in a fierce manner, usually +from sunset till about ten or eleven o'clock the following morning, at +which hour they somewhat abated. They are, no doubt, due to the great +jumps in the temperature at sunset and sunrise. On December 1st, for +instance, from 112 deg. in the sun during the day the thermometer dropped to +20 deg. at night, or 12 deg. of frost. On December 2nd at noon it was up again as +high as 114 deg.. + +We traversed a plain twelve miles long and at its south-east course, +where the mountain ranges met, there occurred a curious +spectacle--evidently of volcanic formation. On the top of the black hills +of gravel and sand lying in a confused mass, as if left so by an +upheaval, rose a pinnacle of bright yellow and red stone, with patches +of reddish earth and of a dissimilar texture to the underlying surface of +the hill. There seemed little doubt that both the rocky pinnacle and the +red earth had been thrown there by some force--and under the projecting +rocks and masses of soft earth one could, in fact, find a different +formation altogether, bearing the same characteristics as the remainder +of the hill surface. + +This was on the northern slope of that hill. As the track turned here due +east, and rounded, as it were, this curious mount, we found in reality on +the other side a large, crater-like basin with lips of confused masses of +earth both vermilion and of vivid burnt sienna colour, as well as most +peculiar mud-heaps in a spiral formation all round the crater, looking as +if worn into that shape by some boiling liquid substance. To the +south-east, on the very top of a hill of older formation, was perched at +a dangerous angle another great yellow boulder like the one we had seen +on the north side of the crater. For a diameter of several hundred yards +the earth was much disturbed. + +One mile further south-east, in traversing a basin a mile broad, it was +impossible not to notice a curious range of hills with some strange +enormous baked boulders--(they had evidently been exposed to terrific +heat)--standing upright or at different angles to the east side of the +hills, stuck partly in the sand and salt with which the ground was here +covered. + +Irregular and unsystematic heaps of rock, on which sand had accumulated +up to a certain height, were to be seen to the south, and huge boulders +of rich colour lay scattered here and there; whereas near the mountains +which enclosed the basin both to south and east there were thousands of +little hillocks of rock and sand in the most disconnected order. + +As we went on, two perpendicular flat-topped barriers were before us to +the east--like gigantic walls--one somewhat higher than the other, and of +a picturesque dark burnt sienna colour in horizontal strata. + +The whole country about here seemed to have been much deranged at +different periods. We passed hillocks in vertical strata of slate-like +brittle stone, in long quadrangular prisms, but evidently these strata +had solidified in a horizontal position and had been turned over by a +sudden commotion of the earth. This conclusion was strengthened by the +fact that the same formation in a horizontal position was noticeable all +along, the strata in one or two places showing strange distortions, with +actual bends, continuing in curves not unlike the letter S. In the dry +river bed there were large rocks cut into the shape of tables on a single +pillar stand, but these were, of course, made by the erosion of water, +and at a subsequent date. + +Further on we found a tiny stream of salt water in the picturesque +gorge--as weird and puzzling a bit of scenery as can be found in Persia, +if one carefully examined each hill, each rock, and tried to speculate on +their formation. + +From the rocks--a hundred feet or so above the salt stream,--we came to a +spring--if one could call it by that name--of delicious sweet water. The +water dripped at the rate of about a tumbler-full an hour, but a gallon +or two had collected in a pool directly under the rock, with a refreshing +border of green grass round it. We gladly and carefully transferred the +liquid into one of the skins by means of a cup judiciously handled so as +not to take up the deep sediment of mud in the shallow pool. + +We came across a very large caravan from Quetta in charge of some Beluch +drivers, and--after one's experience of how things are packed by Persian +caravans--one was greatly struck by the neat wooden packing boxes, duly +marked and numbered. I inquired whose caravan it was, and the Beluch said +it belonged to two English Sahibs who were ten miles behind, and were +expected to catch it up during the night. The names of the two sahibs +were so mispronounced by the Beluch that I could not, to save my life, +understand what they were. + +We halted in the gorge at four o'clock, having come only sixteen miles +from my last camp. Altitude, 4,440 feet. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + Sadek's wastefulness--Meeting two enterprising English + traders--Another circular crater--Wind and electricity in the + air--Their effects--A fortress--Soldiers and + brigandage--Zemahlabad--Windmills--Bandan--Ancient + tombs--Picturesque women--Lost our way--A welcome + messenger--Nasirabad--"Ruski" or "Inglis"--Several miles of + villages and houses--English maps and foreign names--Greeted by + Major Benn. + + +We intended continuing our journey after dinner. This camp being well +screened on all sides, Sadek gave way to his ambition to have the camp +lighted up by a number of candles, with which he was always most +wasteful. He had two candles alight where he was doing his cooking, I had +two more to do my writing by, Abbas Ali had also two to do nothing by. +Luckily, there was not a breath of wind to disturb the illumination. + +Towards nine o'clock we heard noises of camels' and horses' hoofs +stumbling against the rocks down the gorge, and my ears caught the +welcome sound of English voices. + +"What can all those lights be?" said one. + +"They look like candles," replied the other. + +"They _are_ candles!" I intervened. "Will you not get off your horses and +have some dinner with me by the light of them?" + +"Who in the world is that?" queried one of the riders of the other, +evidently taken aback at being addressed in English in such a queer place +and at such a time of the night. + +"My name is Henry Savage Landor." + +"What? not Tibet Landor? Our names are Clemenson and Marsh--but what in +the world are you doing here? Have you not some companions?" + +"Yes, I have. Here they are: three Persian kittens!" + +As Mr. Clemenson had some big dogs with him, the moment the cats were let +out of the box to be introduced there was a chase, but the kittens +climbed in due haste up the side of the cliff and left the disappointed +dogs below to bark. On this high point of vantage they squatted down and +watched our proceedings below with the greatest interest. + +It was a real delight to meet countrymen of one's own after so many weeks +of loneliness. These two enterprising English traders had brought over a +very large caravan from Quetta, and were on their way to Meshed, having +done good business in Sistan. They had with them every possible article +they could think of, from tea to phonographs, lamps, razors, music boxes, +magic lanterns, bedsteads, cottons, silks, cloths, chairs, glass-ware, +clocks, watches, and I do not know what else. I believe that it was the +largest caravan of that kind that had ever come over to Persia from +Beluchistan. + +After a pleasant interview of an hour or so, and what humble +refreshments I could offer, they were compelled to continue their journey +to the north. The kittens, having anxiously watched the departure of Mr. +Clemenson's dogs, leapt back from rock to rock and down on to my carpet, +all three sitting as usual in a row in front of my plate while I was +having my dinner, with their greedy eyes on the meat, and occasionally +also one of their paws. + +We did not make a start till 2.30 a.m., when there was moonlight, as the +way was very bad among stones and boulders. For a short distance we +travelled between high cliffs and boulders, then between low hills much +further apart. On our left we came to a most peculiar formation of rock +which seemed almost like a castle, and from this point we got into a long +and wide plain, most uninteresting and swarming with a troublesome kind +of small fly. + +A rugged mountain to the north, being higher and more vividly coloured +than the rest, attracted the eye, as one tried hard to find something to +admire in the scenery; and to the south-west we saw the back view of the +flat-topped plateau we had skirted the day before. To the S.S.W. lay +another flat-topped high mountain like the section of a cone which we had +noticed on our previous march. + +We were now marching due east, and after some sixteen miles' journey from +our last camp we again entered a hilly portion of country. We made a halt +of three hours, from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m., to have our breakfast. Then we +entered the hills by one of the usual dry channels formed by the water +washing down with great force in rainy weather from the hillsides. After +half a mile we emerged again into another plain, three miles long and +about equally wide, with very broken, low rocky mountains to the east, +and low sand hills to the south. To the south-east, in the direction we +were following, stood a massive-looking mountain, which, however, +possessed no very beautiful lines. + +More interesting and quaint was the circular crater in a conical mountain +to the north-east of the long dreary plain we were now traversing. The +mouth of this large crater was much lower on the south-west side than on +the north-east, thus exposing to the full view of the traveller the +entire opening in the centre of the mountain, reddish-brown in colour. + +Having gone some twelve miles more, we stopped, at four in the afternoon, +in a bitterly penetrating cold wind, which seemed to have a most +uncomfortable effect upon one's nervous system. Whether it was that the +intense dryness caused an excess of electricity, or what, I do not know, +but one ached all over in a frightful manner, and experienced the same +tendon-contracting feeling as when exposed to an electric current. + +One farsakh before reaching camp we had passed the camping ground of +Angiloh, where a tiny drip of fresh water exists. We happily found here a +quantity of wood, abandoned by the Clemenson caravan, which we put on +our camels and carried further down into the plain, where, having found +a depression in the ground affording some shelter from the fearful wind, +we halted to wait until the moon rose. + +My fever seized me violently on that night, and I experienced intense +pain in my spine, my legs and arms, more especially in places where I had +received wounds on previous journeys. + +We left again in the middle of the night at 3 a.m., and a great effort it +was, too, to get out of one's warm blankets and scramble on the camel, +aching as I was all over, and with the indescribable exhaustion that +fever of the desert brings on. Luckily, with the rising of the moon, the +wind had somewhat abated, but the electricity in the air was as +unpleasant as it was extraordinary. One was absolutely saturated with it, +and discharged sparks from one's finger-tips when one touched anything +that was a good conductor. + +In the morning at the foot of the mountains we passed a large fortress +where, they told me, twenty soldiers had been stationed the previous year +in order to suppress brigandage that had been rampant here. Both Afghan +and Sistan robbers seemed to be most partial to this spot, probably +because it is that at which all the caravans from Birjand and Meshed +converge on their way to Sistan. + +We actually perceived some trees in the distance, and at last we arrived +at Zemahlabad, a quadrangular fort, with two such peculiar structures at +the sides that I really could not at first guess what they were. Sadek, +called upon to explain, was no wiser, and we had to find a solution to +our speculation from one of the local authorities. They were windmills, +and most ingenious and simple they were, too, when once one had grasped +the mechanism of them. Only in their case the large opening to the east +and west, to let in and out the wind, had been screened with elaborate +wood-work, and it was not easy to understand the principle of the device +until one visited the interior. We shall come later in our journey to +some quite superior ones, which I will endeavour to describe. + +There were many palm trees at this place and some few patches of +vegetation. A great many mat-sheds had been erected, and hundreds of cows +were to be seen; the land, being marshy, provided fair pasturages. +(Altitude 2,700 ft.) + +To the extreme east of the long valley we had traversed the Bandan +mountains, converged into an acute angle with those on the opposite side +of the valley, and on the north-east side we had again the same formation +of rock in horizontal strata with some contortions at its western end. A +salt stream flowed here through a narrow gorge, between the picturesque, +wall-like barrier to the north and the handsome hills to the south-west. +A great number of palm trees gave quite a tropical appearance to this +gorge, although the whitish sand mixed with salt impressed one like dirty +snow, and the sky was also whitish and promising real snow. It was none +too hot--thermometer 34 deg.. + +Just before reaching Bandan--also called Darban by some natives (2,870 +ft.)--we noticed on the precipitous slopes of the mountain to the +south-west several buildings in ruins, said to be ancient tombs. They +were domed. At the foot of the mountain were the remains of a village. + +Bandan consisted of a quadrangular walled village with five high towers +and two more partly collapsed. The lower part of the village wall--a +regular fortress--was of stone and mud, the upper portion of sun-dried +mud bricks. It appeared to have been built at different epochs, the +south-west half especially seeming more modern than the north-east +portion. Holes about three feet above the ground in the wall served the +purpose of windows to the houses adjoining the wall inside the castle, +and a stone of suitable size shoved into the aperture was the shutter. + +The village wall had two entrances on the south-east side, where outside +the wall could be seen fifteen small domed ovens, of the usual Persian +type, for baking bread, the paste of which is plastered on the inside of +the dome when sufficiently heated. + +The highest tower was on the south-west side, and all of these structures +had a foundation of stone, but the remainder was of mud. + +We saw here a string of picturesque women. They were carrying loads of +wood and heavy bags of wheat on their heads. On perceiving me +unexpectedly they tried to run away, and did so, but not before I had got +the good snapshot of them here reproduced. It can be seen by this +photograph what long steps these women took, and how those that carried +heavier loads swung their arms about to diminish the effort and balance +themselves. They walked with a good deal of spring in their knees. + +These women had much stronger features than the Persian generally have, +and resembled--in fact, were practically--Afghan women. One or two only +had the Hindoo type, with large, soft, drooping eyes, large hook noses, +and over-developed lips, with small receding chins. The younger ones were +strikingly handsome. + +On our last march we had come from north to south, but now, after a short +halt, we went on towards the south-east on what we thought would be our +last two marches before reaching Sher-i-Nasrya, the capital city of +Sistan, only some sixty miles off. Soon after leaving Bandan we found +ourselves in an open plain with gradually vanishing mountains to the +south-west. To the north-east the wall-like barrier, about one mile from +Bandan, suddenly ceased in a gentle slope. East and E.S.E., now that the +plain became of immense breadth, one could see two isolated low hill +ranges, barring which, in the arc of a circle between north-east and +south, we had nothing before us except a flat, dreary stretch of sand and +stones meeting the sky on the horizon line. + +On getting nearer the Hamun-i-Halmund (swamp), formed by the Halmund +river and others losing themselves into the sand and flooding part of +that region, the whole country was covered with high reeds and small +water channels, which constantly made us deviate from our course. In the +middle of the night we got so mixed up that we were unable to go on. It +is most dangerous to make camels get into water channels, especially if +muddy, without being certain of their depth. The brutes, if sinking, are +seized with panic and collapse, or, in trying to get out quickly, often +slip sideways and get split in two, which necessitates their being +killed. + +In the morning we passed two Cossacks from the Sistan Consulate escort, +who, having been relieved, were now on their way back to Russia. They +gave us a hearty greeting, and shortly after a messenger from the British +Consul in Sistan handed me a letter, a most kind invitation from Major +Benn to go and stay with him at the Consulate. + +Towards noon we reached Nasirabad (altitude 2,050 ft.), a very old +village founded by one Malik Nasir Khan Kayani--the _Kayani_, as is well +known, being the former rulers of Sistan, and every big _Kayani_ being +called "Malik." We stopped for a couple of hours for lunch, the principal +house in the village being vacated by the courteous inmates for my use. +The arrival of a _ferenghi_ excited considerable attention, and numerous +and anxious inquiries were made whether I was a "Ruski" or "Inglis." On +learning that I was "Inglis," they expressed their unsolicited conviction +that all Inglis were good people and Ruski all bad, and no doubt if I +had been a Ruski the reverse conviction would have been expressed with +similar eagerness. + +The natives were polite, but extremely noisy, shouting and yelling at the +top of their voices when they spoke. The men wore large white turbans +over their white skull caps, long blue shirts, opened and buttoned on the +left side, reaching to below their knees, and the enormous Afghan +trousers. + +From Nasirabad we came across a long uninterrupted row of ruined villages +and towns, stretching in a line for some eight miles from north to south. +The most northern one had the appearance of a fortress with a very high +wall, still in fair preservation, and several more of these fortresses +were to be seen along the line of houses, the majority of dwellings being +outside these forts. The domed houses--some of which were in perfect +preservation--showed the identical architecture and characteristics of +Persian houses of to-day. + +We were benighted again. Curiously enough, even within a mile or so from +Sher-i-Nasrya, on asking some natives where the city of _Nasirabad_ or +_Nasratabad_, as it is marked in capital letters on English maps (even +those of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey), nobody could tell me, and +everybody protested that no such city existed. (The real name of it, +Sher-i-Nasrya, of course, I only learnt later.) + +This was puzzling, but not astonishing, for there is a deal of fancy +nomenclature on English maps. + +Eventually, when I had almost despaired of reaching the place that night, +although I could not have been more than a stone-throw from it, I +appealed to another passer-by, riding briskly on a donkey. + +"How far are we from Nasratabad?" + +"Never heard the name." + +"Is there a town here called Nasirabad?" + +"No, there is no such town--but you must have come through a small +village by that name, two farsakhs off." + +"Yes, I have. Do you happen to know where the English Consulate is?" + +"Oh, yes, everybody knows the English Consulate. I will take you there. +It is only a short distance from here, near the city of Sher-i-Nasrya!" + +Thanks to this fellow, a few minutes later I found myself greeted most +effusively by Major and Mrs. Benn in their charming mud Consulate. This +was on the evening of December 6th. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + English fancy geographical names--Sher-i-Nasrya--The main + street--The centre of the city--Reverence of the natives for + Major Benn--A splendid type of British official--Indian and + Russian goods--The Shikin Maghut cloth--Steadily increasing trade + of the Nushki route--Khorassan horses for + remounts--Husseinabad--Russian Vice-Consulate--Mr. + Miller--Characteristic windmills--"The wind of 120 days"--Benn + Bazaar. + + +Disappointing as it may seem that the natives themselves should be +barefaced enough not to call their city by the fancy name given it by +certain British geographers, we might as well explain why the natives +call the capital of Sistan by its real name, Sher-i-Nasrya. The three +words mean the "City of Nasr," Nasr being an abbreviation of Nasr-ed-din +Shah, in honour of whom the city was named. In Sistan itself the city +goes by the shortened name of mere "Sher" or "city," but letters sent by +Persians from other parts of the Shah's dominions are generally addressed +Sher-i-Nasrya, or simply Sher-i-Sistan. + +[Illustration: Women at Bandan.] + +[Illustration: Dr. Golam Jelami and his Patients.] + +When the place was first conquered by the father of the present Amir, +Mir-Alam-Khan, it was spoken of as Nusratabad, or the "City or Victory," +just the same as we speak of the "City of the Commune," or the "Eternal +City," or the "City of Fogs." The name "Nusratabad" only applied to +the victory and not to the city. We should certainly not wish to see the +names of the three above illustrations given on maps for Paris, Rome, or +London. + +As for calling the city Nasirabad, as the Trigonometrical Survey maps do, +there is no excuse whatever for this, which is a mere blunder--not the +only one, unfortunately--and attributes to the city the name of a small +village some eight miles off. + +The present Sher-i-Nasrya is not more than twenty years old. It has a +double wall all round, a higher one with semicircular castellated towers, +and a lower on a mud bank with outwardly projecting semicircular +protected platforms, the walls of which, eight feet high, are loopholed +in a primitive fashion. On the inner side of the lower wall there is a +platform all along the wall for soldiers to stand upon. The city wall, +forty feet high, is separated from this outer defence by a road all round +the city, and outside of all there is a moat, but with very little water +in it. + +The wall on the south side (really S.S.W.) has ten towers, the two +central ones being close together and larger than the others, between +which is the principal city gate, reached by an earthen bridge and a +tortuous way, as the entrance of the outer wall is not in a line with the +inner. The east and west side have only eight towers, including the +corner ones, the double towers being the fourth and fifth. Every tower +is semicircular, with loopholes pointing towards the sky--very useful in +case of defence--and a large opening for pieces of artillery. The corner +towers have two of these apertures, one under the other. + +A kind of bastion or battlement has been formed by piling up the earth +removed from the moat round the lower wall. The moat is forty feet broad +and thirty feet deep. + +A large road was made not long ago round three sides of the city by +Colonel Trench, then our Consul there, so that the Amir could drive to +his garden, a quarter of a mile outside the north city gate, the +residence of the Amir's son, the Sar-tip. On the west side of +Sher-i-Nasrya there is merely a sheep track. + +[Illustration: The Main Street, Sher-i-Nasrya. (Showing centre of City.)] + +In the north-west corner of the city is a higher wall enclosing a large +space and forming the citadel and Anderun, in which the Amir and part of +his family reside. There are three large towers to each side of the +quadrangle, the centre tower to the south being of much larger +proportions than the others. A lower outer wall surrounds the higher one, +and in the large tower is the entrance gate to the Governor's citadel. + +The inside of the city of Sher-i-Nasrya is neither beautiful nor +interesting from a pictorial point of view. There is a main street with +some mud buildings standing up, others tumbled down. The full-page +illustration shows the most attractive and interesting point of the city, +the centre of the quadrangle where the two streets, one from south to +north, the other from east to west, intersect at right angles. A dome of +mud bricks has been erected over the street, and under its shade a number +of the Amir's soldiers were generally to be seen with their rifles +resting idle against the wall. + +The type of Sistan residence can be seen in the two hovels to the right +of the observer in this photograph. The two hoods on the highest point of +the dome are two typical ventilators. To the left the large doorways are +mere shops, with a kind of narrow verandah on which the purchasers squat +when buying goods. The main street is very narrow and has a small +platform almost all along its sides, on which the natives sit smoking +their kalians or conversing. + +I was really very much impressed, each time that I visited the city in +the Consul's company, by the intense respect shown by these people to our +representative. There was not a single man who did not rise and salaam +when we rode through the bazaar, while many also came forward to seize +the Consul's hand and pay him the customary compliments. Major Benn +modestly put down this civility of the natives to the popularity of his +predecessor, Major Trench, and the good manners which he had taught these +men; but Major Benn himself, with his most affable manner, his +unsophisticated ways, absolutely devoid of nonsensical red-tape or false +pride, is to my mind also to be held responsible for the reverence which +he inspires among the masses. + +To me personally, I must confess, it was a very great pleasure indeed to +see an English gentleman held in such respect, and that solely on account +of his tact and _savoir faire_. It is not a common sight. + +Of course, a certain amount of show has also to be made to impress the +natives, but "show" alone, as some believe, will be of little good unless +there is something more attractive behind it. Major Benn seemed to be +everybody's welcomed friend; everybody, whether rich or poor, whether in +smart clothes or rags, gleamed with delight as they saw him come; and +Major Benn stopped his horse, now to say a kind word to a merchant, then +to shake hands with a native friend, further on to talk to a little child +who had run to the door of his parents' mud hut to say "salameleko" to +the Consul. + +It is men with sound common sense, civil manners, and human sympathy, of +Benn's type, that we want to represent England everywhere, and these men, +as I have ever maintained, can do Great Britain more good in foreign +countries in a day than all the official red-tape in a year. It is a +mistake to believe that Persians or other Asiatics are only impressed by +gold braiding and by a large retinue of servants. The natives have a +wonderful intuitive way of correctly gauging people, as we civilised folk +do not seem able to do, and it is the man himself, and his doings, that +they judge and criticise, and not so much the amount of gold braiding on +a man's coat or trousers, or the cut of a resplendent uniform. + +In the northern portion of the main street are the few shops with English +and Russian goods. Most of the articles I saw in the couple of Indian +shops were of Indian or English importation--many of the articles +appeared to me of German manufacture, like the usual cheap goods one sees +in the Indian bazaars. + +On the opposite side of the road was the rival merchant who dealt in +Russian goods, and he seemed to be doing quite a brisk business. He +appeared to deal mostly in clothes. There is a kind of moleskin Russian +cloth called the _shikin maghut_, of various shades, colours and +qualities, which commands a ready sale both in Khorassan and Sistan, +although its price is high and its quality and dye not particularly good. +With a little enterprise Indian manufacturers could certainly make a +similar and better cloth and easily undersell the Russian material. + +It is most satisfactory to find from Captain Webb-Ware's statement that +Indian trade by the Nushki-Sistan route, which was absolutely nil in the +year 1895-96, and only amounted to some 64,000 rupees in 1896-97, made a +sudden jump to 589,929 rupees in the following twelve months, 1897-98. It +has since been steadily on the increase, as can be seen by the following +figures:-- + +1898-99 Rupees 728,082 +1899-1900 " 1,235,411 +1900-01 " 1,534,452 + +These figures are the total amount of imports and exports by the Nushki +route, beginning from 1st of April each year. In 1900-01 the imports were +Rs. 748,021; the exports Rs. 786,431. + +When the route comes to be better known the returns will inevitably be +greatly increased, but of course only a railway--or a well-conducted +service of motor vans--can make this route a really practical one for +trade on a large scale. The cost of transport at present is too great. + +A point which should be noted in connection with the railway is that +every year a great number of horses are brought from Meshed to India +_via_ Quetta for remount purposes. In 1900-01 the number of horses +brought by dealers to Quetta amounted to 408, and as the Khorassan horses +are most excellent, they were promptly sold at very remunerative prices. +The average price for a capital horse in Persia is from 80 to 100 rupees +(15 rupees to L1). I understand that these horses when in Quetta are sold +by dealers to Government at an average of 300 rupees each, leaving a very +large profit indeed. As horses are very plentiful in Khorassan, if a +railway existed the Government could remount its cavalry at one-third of +the present cost. + +Adjoining Sher-i-Nasrya to the south is the partly ruined village of +Husseinabad. It has a wall, now collapsed, and a moat which forms an +obtuse angle with the east wall of Sher-i-Nasrya. There are in this +village some miserable little mud houses still standing up and inhabited, +and the high-walled, gloomy mud building of the Russian Vice-Consulate +which has lately been erected, opposite to an extensive graveyard. + +The site and the outward appearance of the Russian Vice-Consulate, which +one can only reach by jumping over various drain channels or treading +over graves, was decidedly not one's ideal spot for a residence, but once +inside the dwelling, both house and host were really charming. Mr. +Miller, the Consul, was a very intelligent and able man indeed, a most +wonderful linguist, and undoubtedly a very efficient officer for his +country. There is also in Husseinabad a round tower where the Beluch +Sirdar fought the Amir some nine years ago, and one or two windmills +characteristic of Sistan and Beluchistan. + +These windmills are not worked by sails in a vertical position like ours, +but are indeed the simplest and most ingenious contrivance of its kind I +have ever seen. The motive wheel, which revolves in a horizontal +position, is encased in high walls on three sides, leaving a slit on the +north side, from whence the prevalent winds of Sistan blow. The wind +entering with great force by this vertical slit--the walls being so cut +as to catch as much wind as possible--sets the wheel in motion--a wheel +which, although made coarsely of reeds tied in six bundles fastened +together by means of cross-arms of wood, revolves easily on a long iron +pivot, and once set in motion attains a high speed. + +The flour mill has two stories, the motive wheel occupying the entire +second floor, while attached to its pivot on the ground floor is the +actual grinding stone. The wheat to be ground flows into a central +aperture in this stone from a suspended vessel, a simple system of +strings and ropes acting as an efficient brake on the axle of the upper +wheel to control its speed, and others allowing the grain to fall +uniformly and, when necessary, preventing its flow. + +[Illustration: The British Bazar (Husseinabad) Sistan.] + +There sweeps over Sistan in the hot weather what is called the +_Bad-i-sud-o-bist-roz_, or wind of the 120 days, which blows from the +north-north-west, and, although this may seem unpleasant to the +inhabitants, it has a most undoubtedly salubrious effect upon the climate +of the province, which, owing to the great quantity of channels and +stagnant water, would otherwise be most unhealthy. As it is the climate +is now extremely healthy. The water of the Halmund is delicious to drink. + +The suburb of Husseinabad stretches for about one mile towards the south, +and contains among other places of importance the buildings of the +Customs, with a caravanserai--very modest and unsafe--a picture of which +is here given. What is called "Benn Bazaar," or the British Bazaar, is +also found at the south-east portion of Husseinabad and facing the +Consulate Hospital. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + The British Bazaar--The pioneer traders of Sistan--Sistan a + half-way house and not the terminus of the route--Comfortable + route--Protection and redress--Indian tea in Persia--Persian + market overstocked--Enterprise of Indian tea traders--Which are + the markets worth cultivating--Articles mostly wanted in Sistan + and Meshed--Exports--A problem to be faced--Ways of communication + needed to cities of central Persia. + + +The entire British bazaar--a modest one so far--can be taken in at a +glance. The snapshot reproduced in the illustration gives a very good +idea of it. Besides this, one or two Indian British merchants are +established in the main street of Sher-i-Nasrya, where, as we have seen, +they have opened nice shops. + +The pioneer merchants of Sistan were the firm of Mahommed Ali Brothers, +of Quetta, established in 1900, and represented by a very intelligent man +called Seth Suliman. + +The firm has branches in Birjand and Meshed. They have done good business +both in Sistan, Birjand and Meshed, and have been followed in Sistan by +Tek-Chand, of the wealthy firm of Chaman Singh from Shikarpur--at one +time the trade-centre of Asia. This firm holds to-day the opium contract +of the whole of the Sind district, and is a most enterprising concern. + +Mahommed Azim Khan Brothers, of Lahore, have also opened a shop in +Sistan, and so has Mahommed Hayab, agent for Shek Fars Mahommed, the +biggest British firm in Meshed. It is probable that in the near future a +number of other Indian firms may be induced to open branches in Sistan +and Khorassan; but, if they are to avoid disappointment, they should +remember that the Sistan market is merely a retail one, and there is very +little wholesale trade to be transacted so far. In time to come no doubt +a wholesale trade will eventually be developed. + +A point which is seldom grasped, or at any rate is frequently overlooked, +is that Sistan (Sher-i-Nasrya) is a mere half-way house between Quetta +and Meshed, and not, as is supposed by many people, the terminus of the +route. Considerable loss and disappointment have been sustained by some +rash British traders, who, notwithstanding the exceptional opportunities +given them to obtain accurate official information, set out with large +caravans, apparently without the most rudimentary geographical knowledge, +as well as without sound commercial foresight. + +Another mistake is frequent. Somehow or other the idea seems to prevail +among some Indian traders that Persia, or Eastern Persia, forms part of +the Indian Empire, and they forget that the protection and unusual +facilities which they enjoy from Quetta to Robat (the Beluch frontier) +and, to a certain extent, as far as Sistan, cannot possibly be given on +Persian territory beyond Sistan as far as Meshed. + +Although practically across a desert, the journey from Quetta-Nushki to +Sistan is--for travelling of that kind--extremely comfortable and easy; +the real difficulty begins for traders when they are perforce left to +look after themselves on Persian soil, where there are no more clean +rest-houses and where a Britisher--if travelling as a trader--is no more +thought of than if he were an Asiatic trader. He is no longer the +salaamed "Sahib" of the Indian cities, but becomes a mere _ferenghi_, a +stranger, and is at the mercy of everybody. + +Moreover, it should be well understood that the protection and redress +obtainable under English law, cease on crossing the Persian frontier. +Very little, if any, redress is to be obtained from Persian officials +except at great cost and infinite worry, waste of time and patience. + +Indian tea traders have probably been the greatest sufferers in +consequence of their rash ventures, and they will probably suffer even +more in the future if they do not exercise greater caution in +ascertaining beforehand the suitable markets for their teas and the +actual cost of transport to the markets selected. Several traders have +brought very large caravans of Indian tea to Sistan on various occasions, +believing that they had arrived at the end of their journey, and, after +having paid the heavy duty imposed upon goods introduced into the +country, have found before them the option of going the 600 miles back to +Quetta or continuing at great expense, _via_ Bam to Kerman, a long +journey with doubtful results at the end; or of going to Birjand, Meshed, +Teheran, where they have eventually been compelled to sell at a loss or +to pay the additional Russian duty and send the tea on to Moscow. + +The Persian market is at present very much blocked up with Indian teas, +and great caution should be exercised by intending exporters from India. +In time to come, when good roads have been made in every direction, or +railways constructed, and cost of transport greatly minimised, Persia +will be, I think, a considerable buyer of Indian teas; but as matters are +to-day the expense of conveying the tea to the various Persian markets, +especially by the land route, is too great to make any profit possible at +the very low prices paid by the Persians for tea. + +Tea exported overland to the Meshed market (not to Sistan) realised, +before the market became overstocked, better prices than the sea-borne +tea _via_ Bandar Abbas. It is certain that the delicate aroma of tea is +not improved by being exposed to the warm sea air, no matter how +carefully it has been packed. And as Major Webb-Ware, the political agent +at Chagai, points out, tea despatched by the land route direct from the +gardens or from Calcutta is not liable to the numerous incidental +charges, commissions and transhipments which are a matter of course upon +teas sent _via_ Bandar Abbas or other Persian Gulf ports. + +The demand for unspoiled teas brought overland is considerable in Russia +and all over Europe, even more than in Persia, and when a sensible +understanding has been arrived at with Russia to let Indian teas proceed +in transit through that country, there is no reason why the better Indian +teas should not favourably compete all over Europe with the China caravan +teas. + +The Persian market, to my mind, speaking generally, will only be able to +purchase the inferior teas, the Persians as individuals being +comparatively poor. Superior teas in small quantities, however, may find +a sale at good prices among the official classes and the few richer +folks, but not in sufficient quantities to guarantee a large import. The +same remarks, I think, would apply to teas finding their way into Western +Afghanistan from various points on the Sistan-Meshed route. + +The Indian tea-traders have shown very commendable enterprise in +attempting to push their teas by the overland route, and trying to +exploit the new markets which the Nushki-Meshed route has thrown open to +them, but their beginning has been made too suddenly and on too large a +scale, which I fear will cause a temporary loss to some of them. A +gradual, steady development of the tea trade is wanted in Persia, not a +rush and violent competition flooding the market with tea that has to be +sold at a loss. When the natives all over Persia have by degrees got +accustomed to Indian tea, and when it is brought in at a cheap price, +Indian teas are likely to be popular in Persia. + +[Illustration: The Wall of Sher-i-Nasrya at Sunset.] + +I may be wrong, but, to my mind, the greater profits on Indian teas +brought by this route will in the future be made not in Persia itself, +but in Transcaspia, Turkestan, Russia and Central Europe, where people +can pay well for a good article. Great credit should be given to the +Indian and Dehra Dun Tea Associations for despatching representatives to +study the requirements of the Persian market on the spot; but, as Captain +Webb-Ware suggests in the _Gazette of India_, the tea associations would +do well to turn their attention to the sale of Indian teas in Russia, and +to send some experimental consignments of their teas to Moscow by the +overland route. The same remarks might also apply to a great many other +English or Indian manufactured goods. + +We complain a great deal that the Russian protective tariff is high, but +it is mild when compared with the murderous protectionism of the United +States or of our beloved friend Germany. And, after all, does this +protection keep out our goods from those countries? By no means. Russia's +industries are indeed fast developing, but they are far from sufficient +to supply her own wants. English, German, and American goods find their +way even to the most remote spots of Siberia. It is, then, a problem +worth considering whether "free trade Persia," with her English and +Indian imports amounting to one million four hundred thousand pounds +sterling (L1,400,000), is a customer so well worth cultivating as +protectionist Russia, which buys from us nearly twenty-two millions' +(L21,974,952) worth yearly. + +In regard to the Quetta-Meshed route, it would strike a casual observer +that from our geographical situation we might, without much difficulty, +kill two birds with one stone by a happy combination--Persia being dealt +with _en passant_, as it were, while aiming for quicker, sounder, and +more extensive markets further north. + +Persia is a good market for Indian indigo, which has, so far, commanded a +ready sale. + +In Sistan itself--which, it cannot be too emphatically repeated, is +to-day only a comparatively poor and sparsely-populated district--the +articles which have, so far, found a quick retail sale, have been Indian +assorted spices, second-hand apparel, sugar, tea, boots, cheap cotton +cloths, matches, kerosene oil, thread, needles, cheap cutlery, scissors, +small looking glasses. + +The Amir and the Sardars have at different times made purchases of boots, +shoes, saddlery, silk, woollen and cotton cloths, rugs, shawls, crockery, +and enamel ware, watches, chains, and knives, and have also bought a +considerable number of English-made fancy goods, furniture, stationery, +cigarettes, cigars and tobacco, &c. The humbler Sistanis purchase very +freely from the Indian British shops, but cannot afford to pay very high +prices; but the high officials pay cash and give a good price for all +they buy. + +Speaking generally, the articles which are mostly wanted at present are +those mentioned in the official report. For these commodities there is a +steady demand in the markets of Sistan and Khorassan, but the supply, it +should be remembered, should be in proportion to the size of the +population. Sistan, Birjand, Meshed, are not London nor Paris nor Berlin. + +The articles wanted are:-- + + Woollen stuffs, flannels, muslins, mulls, sheetings, chintzes, + cottons, &c. + Velvets, satins, silks, brocades. + Indigo of medium and good quality. (Oudh indigo is principally in + demand in Bushire.) + Iron, brass and copper sheets. + Sulphur matches. + Spices, including cinnamon, cardamums, cloves, pepper, turmeric, &c. + Rice (for Sistan). + Tea, black for Persia, and green for Afghanistan and Transcaspia. + Coffee (in berry). + Refined sugar, loaf. + Ginger preserve (in jars). + Sal-ammoniac. + Baizes (specially of high class), Khinkhabs and gold cloth. + Cotton turbans (lungis) of all qualities, including those with + pure gold fringes. + Leather goods. + Boots (Cawnpore and English). + Saddlery (Cawnpore, as the English is too expensive). + Glass-ware. + Enamel-ware. + Cutlery. + Ironmongery of every description. Cheap padlocks find a ready sale. + Watches (cheap). + Jewellery. + Kalai (for tinning copper vessels). + +Fire-arms would command a very ready sale, but their importation is +strictly forbidden. + +The articles of export from Khorassan and Sistan are wool, ghi, saffron, +dried fruit of various kinds, hides, jujubes, assafoetida, +pistachio-nuts, barak, kurak, gum, valuable carpets, and some turquoises. + +In Sistan itself wheat and oats are plentiful, but their export to +foreign countries is not permitted. Opium finds its way out of the +country _via_ Bandar Abbas, and wool, ghi, feathers, carpets, and +assafoetida are conveyed principally to Kerman, Birjand, Meshed, Yezd, +the Gulf, and Quetta. + +One of the principal problems of the new land route to India is not only +how to induce British traders to go to Persia, but how to solve the more +difficult point of persuading the big Persian traders to cross the bridge +and venture into India. They seem at present too indolent and suspicious +to undertake such a long journey, and would rather pay for luxuries to be +brought to their doors than go and get them themselves. + +With the assistance, both moral and financial, of the enterprising Major +Sykes, a large caravan was sent from Kerman to Quetta with Persian +goods, and paid satisfactorily, but others that followed seem to have had +a good many disasters on the road (on Persian territory) and fared less +well. Major Sykes's effort was most praiseworthy, for indeed, as regards +purely Persian trade, I think Kerman or Yezd must in future be the aiming +points of British caravans rather than Meshed. These places have +comparatively large populations and the field of operations is +practically unoccupied, whereas in Meshed Russian competition is very +strong. + +With the present ways of communication across the Salt Desert, it is most +difficult and costly to attempt remunerative commercial communication +with these towns. Small caravans could not possibly pay expenses, and +large caravans might fare badly owing to lack of water, while the +circuitous road _via_ Bam is too expensive. + +When more direct tracks, with wells at each stage, after the style of the +Nushki-Sistan route, have been constructed between Robat and Kerman, and +also between Sher-i-Nasrya and Kerman, and Sher-i-Nasrya and Yezd, +matters will be immensely facilitated. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + + Sistan's state of transition--British Consul's tact--Advancing + Russian influence--Safety--A fight between Sistanis and + Afghans--The Sar-tip--Major Benn's pluck and personal + influence--Five Afghans seriously wounded--The city gates + closed--The Customs caravanserai--A British caravanserai + needed--Misstatements--Customs officials--Fair and just treatment + to all--Versatile Major Benn--A much needed assistant--More + Consulates wanted--Excellent British officials--Telegraph line + necessary--A much-talked-of railway--The salutary effect of a + garrison at Robat frontier post. + + +Sistan is in a state of rapid transition, and it is doubtful whether the +position of the three or four Europeans on duty there is one of perfect +safety. The natives are so far undoubtedly and absolutely favourable to +British influence in preference to Russian, a state of affairs mainly due +to the personal tact of Majors Trench and Benn rather than to +instructions from home, but great caution should be exercised in the +future if this prestige, now at its highest point, is to be maintained. + +The Russians are advancing very fast, and their influence is already +beginning to be felt in no slight degree. The Sistanis may or may not be +relied upon. They are not perfectly Europeanised like peoples of certain +parts of Western Persia, nor are they quite so amenable to reason as +could be wished. They can easily be led, or misled, and bribed, and are +by no means easy folks to deal with. For a few tomans one can have people +assassinated, the Afghan frontier so close at hand being a guarantee of +impunity for murderers, and fights between the townspeople and the +Afghans or Beluch, in which many people are injured and killed, are not +uncommon. + +[Illustration: The Sar-tip.] + +One of these fights, between Sistanis and Afghans (under British +protection), took place when I was in Sistan, and I think it is only +right that it should be related, as it proves very forcibly that, as I +have continually urged in this book, calm and tact, gentleness and +fairness, have a greater and more lasting control over Persians than +outward pomp and red-tape. + +The Consul and I, after calling on the Amir, proceeded to visit the +Sar-tip, the Amir's first son by his legal wife. The Sar-tip is the head +of a force of cavalry, and inhabits a country house, the Chahar Bagh, in +a garden to the north outside the city. He is a bright and intelligent +youth, who had travelled with Dr. Golam Jelami to India--from which +country he had recently returned, and where he had gone to consult +specialists about his sadly-failing eyesight. + +The Sar-tip, of whom a portrait is here given, received us most kindly +and detained us till dark. Being Ramzam-time we then bade him good-bye, +and were riding home when, as we neared the Consulate gate, a man who +seemed much excited rushed to the Consul and handed him a note from +the Belgian Customs officer. As I was still convalescent--this was my +first outing--and not allowed out after dusk, Major Benn asked me to go +back to the Consulate as he was called to the Customs caravanserai on +business. I suspected nothing until a messenger came to the Consulate +with news. A crowd of some 300 Sistanis had attacked some fifteen Afghan +camel men, who had come over with a caravan of tea from Quetta. These +camel drivers had been paid several thousand rupees for their services on +being dismissed, and some money quarrel had arisen. + +On the arrival of the Consul the fight was in full swing, and he found a +crowd of howling Sistanis throwing stones and bricks at the Afghans. At +Major Benn's appearance, notwithstanding that their blood was up and +their temper, one would think, beyond control, the Sistanis immediately +opened a way for him, some even temporarily stopping fighting to make a +courteous salaam. This will show in what respect our Consul is held. + +The Afghans, having by this time realised that they had been insulted, +and having, furthermore, discovered the loss of some money--which they +only detected when they went for their rifles and swords, which they kept +together in a safe place with their treasure--formed up in line and, with +drawn swords, made a rush on the Sistanis. + +Major Benn with considerable pluck dashed between the fighting men, +seizing with his left hand the rifle of the leader--who had knelt down +and was on the point of firing--and with his right hand got hold of the +blade--fortunately blunt--of another Afghan's sword, who was slashing +away at the Sistanis near him. The force of the blow caused quite a wound +in the gallant Major's hand, but suddenly, as by magic owing to the +respect he commanded on both sides, his action put a stop to the fight. + +Seizing this opportunity he talked to them calmly in his usual quiet, +jocular manner, and told the Afghans how, by behaving in this fashion, +while under his protection, they were doing him harm in the eyes of the +Persians in whose country they were guests, and that if they had any +claim they must apply to him and not take the law into their own hands. +With his keen sense of humour he even succeeded with some joke or other +in raising a laugh from both belligerent parties, and requested them to +sit down and give up their arms into his custody, which they willingly +did. + +The Afghans seated themselves at the further end of the caravanserai, +while the Sistanis, whom he next addressed in the kindest way, were +persuaded to desist from using further violence. He managed to turn the +whole thing into a joke, and eventually the Sistanis dispersed laughing +and retired within the wall of their city; but, indeed, there were five +Afghans left on the ground severely wounded,--one with a fractured skull +being carried to the Consulate Hospital in a dying condition. + +The Afghans possessed some excellent Russian rifles, a great many of +which find their way into Afghanistan from the north. + +The Consul, when the row was over, proceeded to the Amir, who had the +gates of the city instantly closed and promised the Consul that they +should not be opened again until the Consul could go the next day to +identify the ringleaders of the attacking Sistanis. The Amir received the +Consul with more than usually marked respect, and showed himself greatly +disturbed at the occurrence. He took personal charge of the keys of the +city and undertook to mete out severe punishment upon the offenders. + +The city gates, which are daily opened at sunrise, remained closed the +greater portion of the day at the Consul's request, but for a +consideration the doorkeepers let out occasional citizens,--in all +probability those very ones that should have been kept in. + +Unfortunately, being Ramzam-time, when Mussulmans sit up feasting the +greater part of the night, as they are compelled to fast when the sun is +above the horizon, his Excellency the Amir was unable to attend to even +this important matter, which was left to slide from day to day. The +Consul, however, although extremely patient, was the last man to let +things go to the wall, and no doubt in the end the leaders were duly +punished and compensation paid. + +The illustration shows the Customs caravanserai, in front of which the +fight took place. Two of the domed rooms shown in the picture are +occupied by Mr. Miletor, the Belgian Customs officer, in Persian employ. +The others are occupied by camel-men or native travellers, there being no +other caravanserai of the kind in Sher-i-Nasrya. + +[Illustration: The Customs Caravanserai, Sher-i-Nasrya, Sistan. (Belgian +Customs Officer in foreground.)] + +It would be a very great addition to the British Consulate, now that so +many Beluch and Afghans, all under British protection, travel through +Sistan, if a British caravanserai could be built in which they, their +goods and their camels, might enjoy comparative safety. The expense of +putting it up would be very small, and it would avoid the constant +friction which is bound to exist at present in a country where honesty is +not the chief forte of the lower people, and where quarrels are ever +rampant. Even during the short stay of Messrs. Clemenson and Marsh's +caravan, several articles were stolen under their very eyes in the +Consulate shelter, and at the time of my visit caravans, British or +otherwise, were absolutely at the mercy of the natives. The goods were +left out in the open in front of the caravanserai, and the Customs people +had not sufficient men to protect them from interference at the hands of +the lower people. + +I have seen it stated by correspondents in leading London papers that +"Russian" Customs officials were stationed in Sistan, and interfered +greatly with British caravans. That is mere fiction from beginning to +end. As I have already stated, there is not a single Russian in the +Customs anywhere in Persia. In Sistan the only official--a Belgian--far +from interfering with the caravans, is of great help to them and does +all in his power within the limits of his duty to be of assistance to +them. The Consul himself was full of praise of the extreme fairness and +justice to all alike of the Belgian official. There never was the +slightest trouble or hitch so long as traders were prepared to comply +with Persian laws, and so long as people paid the duty on the goods +entering the country no bother of any kind was given to anybody, either +British or others. + +On April 3rd, 1901, the Persian Government introduced a law abolishing +all inland Customs Houses and transit dues, and substituting instead a +_rahdari_ tax of 6 annas per 240 pounds. This tax is payable on crossing +the frontier, and is levied in addition to the 5 per cent. _ad valorem_ +duty to which the Persian Government is entitled under the existing +International Customs Convention. The rate of duty levied (5 per cent.), +is calculated on the actual value of goods, plus the cost of transport. + +The Sistan Consul, as well as the officials of the Nushki Sistan route in +Beluchistan, go to an immense deal of trouble to be of use to British +traders and travellers, and everything is made as easy for them as is +compatible with the nature of the country and existing laws. + +A great deal of extra heavy work was thrown upon the shoulders of Major +Benn, who acted in no less than three official capacities--Consul, +Postmaster, and Banker--as well as, unofficially, as architect, +house-builder, and general reference officer. It is very satisfactory to +learn that this autumn (1902) an assistant is to be sent out to him from +India, for the work seemed indeed too heavy for one man. Day and night's +incessant work would in time have certainly told on even the cheerful +disposition and abnormally wiry constitution of Major Benn, who, besides +being a most loyal and careful official, takes a great deal of personal +pride in fighting hard to win the severe race which will result in our +eventually acquiring or losing Sistan and Eastern Persia commercially. +Major Benn is most decidedly very far ahead in the race at present, and +owing to him British prestige happens to be at its zenith, but greater +support will be needed in the future if this advantageous race is to be +continued up to the winning post. + +Were a Vice-Consulate established at Birjand, as I have said before, the +Sistan Consular work would be relieved of much unnecessary strain, the +distance from Birjand to Sistan being too great under present conditions +to allow the Consul to visit the place even yearly. The medical British +Agent whom we have there at present is excellent, but the powers at his +disposal are small, and a Consulate with an English officer in charge +would most decidedly enhance British prestige in that important city, as +well as being a useful connecting link between Sistan and Meshed, a +distance of close upon 500 miles. + +It was a most excellent step to select for the Consular work in Eastern +and Southern Persia men from the Military Political Service, instead of +the usual Foreign Office men, who are probably better adapted for +countries already developed. The Political Service is a most perfect body +of gentlemanly, sensible, active-minded, well-educated men of versatile +talents, the pick of the healthiest and cleverest Englishmen in our +Indian Service. They cannot help doing good wherever they are sent. +Captain Trench, Major Benn, Major Phillott, Captain White, have all +answered perfectly, and have all done and are doing excellent work. + +What is most needed at present in Sistan is a telegraph line to Nushki. +Should everybody in the Sistan Consulate be murdered, it would be the +best part of a fortnight or three weeks before the news could reach India +at the present rate of post going. If assistance were needed it could not +reach Sistan from Quetta in less than a couple of months, by which time, +I think, it would be of little use to those in danger. And the danger, +mind you, does exist. It seems rather hard that we should leave men who +work, and work hard and well, for their country absolutely at the mercy +of destiny. + +The next most important point would be to join Sistan, or at least Robat, +on the Perso-Beluch frontier, with the long-talked-of railway to Quetta, +but of this we shall have occasion to speak later. So far the line has +been sanctioned to Nushki, but that point, it must be remembered, is +still 500 miles distant from Sistan, a considerable distance across, what +is for practical purposes, desert country. + +The third point--the easiest of all, which would involve little expense, +but would have a most salutary effect--would be to maintain a small +garrison at the Perso-Beluch-Afghan frontier post of Robat. This, to my +mind, would at the present moment strengthen the hands of our officials +in Persia to a most extraordinary extent. + +Something tangible, which the natives themselves could see and talk +about, together with the knowledge that a smart body of soldiers could +soon be on the spot if required, would not only assure the so far +doubtful safety of the few but precious English lives in those parts, but +would add enormously to our prestige and make us not only revered but +feared. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + + The history of the Sistan Vice-Consulate--Major Chevenix + Trench--Laying the foundation of the Consulate--Hoisting the + British flag--Major Benn--A terrible journey--A plucky + Englishwoman--The mud Consulate--Its evolution--The new + buildings--Ka-khanas--Gardening under difficulties--How horses + are kept--The enclosing wall--The legend of Trenchabad city--The + Consulate Mosque--Dr. Golam Jelami--The hospital--Successful + operations--Prevalent complaints of Sistan--The Sistan Sore. + + +The history of the Sistan Vice-Consulate does not go back very far, but +is, nevertheless, very interesting. We will recapitulate it in a few +words. + +Major Brazier-Creagh was sent to Sistan on a special mission; as has +already been said, and Captain F. C. Webb-Ware, C. I. E., Political +Assistant at Chagai, visited the place every year at the end of his +annual trip along the new route in North Beluchistan from Quetta to +Robat, the most Eastern station of the route prior to entering Persian +territory. Major Sykes visited Sistan in 1896 in connection with the +Perso-Beluch Boundary Commission and again in 1899, when he travelled +here from Kerman by the easier southern route _via_ Bam. + +It was on February 15th, 1900, that a Russian Vice-Consul for that +important Province was appointed to Sistan to take the place of a Persian +who was a news-writer in Russian employ. Major G. Chevenix Trench was +then specially selected by the Viceroy of India as a suitable person to +look after British interests in that region--and indeed no better man +could have been chosen. + +Having given up his appointment in India this officer left Quetta on +March 7th, 1900, and arrived at Sher-i-Nasrya on the 18th of April, +accompanied by Major R. E. Benn, who was on a year's furlough, and can be +said, I believe, to be the first European who has travelled all the way +from India to England by this overland route, _via_ Meshed-Transcaspia. + +Major Trench, prior to leaving for Meshed to take up his appointment of +Consul-General for Khorassan, being unable to stand the fierce heat of +the sun, laid the foundation stone--it was a "sun-dried mud brick," to be +accurate--of the present temporary buildings of the Consulate. A domed +mud hut _a la Persane_ was built, with an additional spacious window, but +no framework and no glass. + +The great difficulty of hoisting the British flag, which seems to have +been strongly objected to during the Perso-Afghan Commission when Sir +Frederic Goldsmid passed through Sistan in 1872, was overcome mainly +owing to the great tact shown by Major Trench. The Union Jack flew daily, +gaily and undisturbed, over the mud hovel which will probably be during +the next few years one of the most important consular posts we possess in +Asia. + +Major Benn, who had hastily proceeded to London on a long expected +holiday, was immediately recalled to replace Major Trench. Major Benn, +accompanied by his plucky and devoted wife and child, journeyed a second +time across the Beluchistan desert to reach his post. + +The journey was terrible, owing to torrential rains and snowstorms. When +already several marches out they were compelled to return to Quetta as +their child had become very ill. But they were despatched again on their +duty. They encountered severe storms; the country was practically +flooded; some of their camels died, and for days at a time they were in +the desert unable to move, the country being in many places inundated. In +a blizzard two of their men lost themselves and died from exposure, but +the party advanced slowly but surely, the plucky little English lady +standing all the hardships without a murmur. + +Major Benn having been ordered to make a detour, they went down into the +Sarhad, south of the Kuh-i-Malek-Siah, and it was not till February 15th, +1901, that they eventually reached Sher-i-Nasrya, and were received by +Trench in his mud-hut Consulate, he having moved into a tent. Major +Trench, on the arrival of Major Benn, proceeded to Meshed. + +During Major Benn's time the Consulate buildings went through a +marvellous evolution. It may be recollected that I reached Sistan in +December, 1901, or only ten months after his arrival, but there were +already several additional mud-rooms built and connected so as to form a +suite of a spacious office, sitting-room, dining-room, two bedrooms and a +storeroom. There were doors, made locally by imported Indian carpenters, +but no glass to the windows,--muslin nailed to the wall answering the +purpose of blinds. Famished dogs, attracted by the odour of dinner, would +occasionally jump through this flimsy protection, much to the despair of +Mrs. Benn--but those were only small troubles. Thieves found their way +into the rooms, and even succeeded in stealing Mrs. Benn's jewellery. +There was no protection whatever against an attack in force, and the +natives were at first most impudent in their curiosity. + +[Illustration: The Sistan Consulate on Christmas Day, 1901.] + +Being a Mussulman country, things were at first very uncomfortable for +Mrs. Benn until the natives got accustomed to the sight of an English +lady, she being the first they had ever seen, or who had ever travelled +so far. + +The temporary mud-rooms were gradually furnished and decorated with so +much taste that they became simply charming, but a new Consulate is now +being built, which, by comparison in size and style, seems quite +palatial. It is being constructed of real baked bricks, Major Benn having +put up a serviceable kiln for the purpose, and the handsome structure is +so sensibly built after a design by the versatile Consul, that when +finished it will fully combine English comfort with the exigencies of +the climate, the incessant northerly winds of the summer months--from +June to the end of August--rendering life unbearable unless suitable +arrangements to mitigate their effects are provided. + +Into the northern wall _ka khanas_ or "camel thorn compartments" are +being built some four feet deep, filled with camel thorn. To make them +effective two coolies are employed all day long to swish buckets of water +on to them. The wind forcing its way through causes rapid evaporation and +consequent cooling of the air in the rooms. When the wind stops the heat +is, however, unbearable. The rooms are also provided with _badjirs_, or +wind-catchers, on the domed roof, but these can only be used before the +heat becomes too great. + +An attempt had been made to start a garden, both for vegetables and +flowers, but the hot winds burnt up everything. Only four cabbages out of +hundreds that were planted had survived, and these were carefully nursed +by Mrs. Benn for our Christmas dinner. Unluckily, on Christmas Eve a cow +entered the enclosure and made a meal of the lot! + +Another garden is being started, but great difficulty is experienced in +making anything grow owing to the quantity of salt in the ground and the +terrific winds. Poplars have come up fairly well under shelter of a wall, +but no tree can hope to stand upright when it attains a height where the +wind can reach it. In fact, what few trees one sees about near +Sher-i-Nasrya are stooping southward in a pitiful manner. + +The Consul's horses and those of the escort are kept out in the open. +They are tethered and left well wrapped up, wearing nearly double the +amount of covering to protect them from the heat during the hot summer +months that they do in winter, on the principle explained in previous +chapters. It is not possible to keep them in stables, owing to the +terrible white fly, which has a poisonous sting. When out in the open the +flies and mosquitoes are blown away by the wind. + +It was satisfactory to find that, although the Government did not see its +way to furnish the Consulate with a wall for the protection of the Consul +and his wife, whose personal property was constantly being stolen, an +allowance was at once granted with instructions to build at once a high +wall all round the Consulate when one of the Government horses was +stolen! + +This wall, a wonderful bit of work, was put up in a fortnight, while I +was in bed with fever, and on my getting up from bed I had the surprise +of finding the Consulate, which, when I had arrived, stood--a few lonely +buildings--in the middle of a sandy plain, now surrounded by a handsome +mud wall with a most elaborate castellated, fortress-like gate of Major +Benn's own design. The wall encloses a good many acres of land; it would +be rash to say how many! This has given rise among the natives to the +report that a new city is rising near Sher-i-Nasrya, called Trenchabad, +or Trench's city. + +Major Benn is to be complimented on the wonderful work he succeeds in +getting done with comparatively little expenditure for the Government, +and there is no doubt that he manages to impress the natives and to keep +England's prestige high. He imported from Quetta a flagstaff, in pieces, +which when erected measured no less than 45 feet, and on this, the +highest flagstaff in Persia, flies from sunrise to sunset the Union Jack. +Except on grand occasions only a small flag can be used in summer, owing +to the fierce winds which tear the larger flags to pieces the moment they +are put up. + +Major Benn scored heavily in the esteem of Sistanis when he had the +bright idea of erecting a handsome little mosque within the Consulate +boundary, wherein any traveller, whether Persian or Beluch or Afghan or +any other Mussulman, can find shelter and a meal at the private expense +of the Consul. People devoid of a house, too, or beggars when in real +need are always helped. + +The erection of this mosque has greatly impressed the Persians with the +respect of England for the Mahommedan religion. On the religious festival +day of the "sheep eat" the place is crowded with Beluch and Persians +alike, the Mahommedan members of the British Consulate having raised a +fund to feed all worshippers at the mosque during the day. + +Major Benn, who has really the energy of half-a-dozen men taken together, +has organised some weekly gymkhanas, with the double object of giving +his Indian escort of fourteen men of the 7th Bombay Lancers and a +Duffadar (non-commissioned native officer) a little recreation, and of +providing some amusement to the town folks; exhibitions of horsemanship, +tent-pegging and sword exercises are given, in which some of the Persian +gentlemen occasionally also take part. + +The Sistanis of all classes turn out in great force to witness these +displays, and--for a Persian crowd--I was really amazed at their +extraordinarily quiet and respectful demeanour. Each man who entered the +grounds courteously salaamed the Consul before sitting down, and there +was unstinted clapping of hands--a way of applauding which they have +learnt from Benn--and great enthusiasm as the Lancers displayed their +skill at the various feats. + +The phonograph was also invariably brought out on these occasions, and +set working near the flagstaff, much to the delight and astonishment of +the Sistanis, who, I believe, are still at a loss to discover where the +voices they hear come from. To study the puzzled expressions on the +awe-stricken faces of the natives, as they intently listened to the +music, was intensely amusing, especially when the machine called out such +words as "mamma," which they understood, or when it reproduced the +whistling of a nightingale, which sent them raving with delight. + +Perhaps the most touching part of these performances was when loyal Major +Benn wound up with "God save the King," scraped on the record by a tired +and blunted needle--phonograph needles are scarce in Sistan and could not +be renewed for the sake of only one and last tune--and we Britishers +removed our hats. Now, to the natives of Persia removing one's hat seems +as ludicrous a thing as can be done, just as their equivalent discarding +of shoes seems very ridiculous to us; but the natives, to whom the +meaning we attach to our National Anthem had been explained, behaved with +the utmost reverence notwithstanding the trying circumstances, and many +actually placed their right hands to their foreheads in sign of salaam +until the anthem was over. + +Another department in the Consulate of great interest is the spacious +hospital containing a well-supplied dispensary, where an average of forty +daily patients are treated gratis by Dr. Golam Jelami and a compounder. + +Patients came on in their turn with various complaints, and they were +disposed of with due speed, undergoing the necessary treatment with +various degrees of grace. + +The hospital contains besides the dispensary, an in-patients' and an +accident ward, office, operating room and doctor's quarters, the whole +place being kept beautifully clean by Indian attendants--Dr. Golam Jelami +taking great pride in his work and in the success and efficacy of the +establishment. + +Being himself a Mussulman Dr. Golam Jelami has a great advantage over a +Christian doctor in attending the natives, and, in fact, he has become +the medical adviser to the Amir and his entire family, and a favourite +with all the _Darbaris_ or people at the Amir's court owing to his +extreme tact, skill and charm of manner. + +He has performed some quite extraordinary operations. One day when the +Consul and Mrs. Benn were about to sit down to lunch, a huge tumour, +which had just been excised from the back of a man's neck, was sent round +on a tray for the Consul's inspection; and lenses of the eye from +successful cataract operations are frequently sent in for the Consul's +approval. + +The climate of Sistan is very healthy generally, and the Halmund water +delicious--by some it is said to be an actual tonic--but the hot winds of +the summer and the salt sand cause severe injury to the eyes. Cataract is +a most common complaint, even in comparatively young persons. Also +ophthalmia in its two forms. Confusion of vision is frequent even among +children, and myopia, but not so common as the opacity of the cornea. + +The most common complaint is the "Sistan Sore," which affects people on +the face or any other part of the body. It is known by the local name of +_Dana-i-daghi_. It begins with irregularly-shaped pustules--very seldom +circular--that come to suppuration and burst, and if not checked in time +last for several months, extending on the skin surface, above which they +hardly rise. + +The digestion of Sistanis, although naturally good, is interfered with by +the abuse of bad food, such as _krut_, or dried curd--most rancid, +indigestible stuff. + +Venereal complaints are also most common, the most terrible form of all, +curiously enough, being treated even by Persian doctors with mercury--a +treatment called the _Kalyan Shingrif_--but administered in such +quantities that its effects are often worse than the ailment itself. + +Partly owing to this complaint and stomach troubles and the chewing of +tobacco, the teeth are usually bad, black and decayed even in young +people, nor have the Sistanis themselves any way of saving the teeth. + +Siphylitic tonsilitis is almost the only throat complaint noticeable in +Sistan, but inflammation of the palate is not rare. Heart disease is +practically unknown in Sistan, and there are but very few lung +affections. + +The bones of the skeleton are extremely hard and possess abnormal +elasticity of texture, and are, therefore, not easily fractured. + +There are several kinds of hair diseases caused by climatic conditions +and dirt, as well as cutaneous affections of the scalp. + +The nails both of fingers and toes are healthy, not brittle, with +well-marked fibre showing through their smooth surface, and of good +shape. + +The tape worm, so common in many other parts of Persia, is absolutely +unknown in Sistan, and this is probably due to the excellent water +obtainable. + +Lunacy is also scarcely ever met with in Sistan in any violent form, but +cases of hypochondria are not unusual, produced principally by +indigestion--at least, judging by the symptoms shown. + +The women are much healthier than the men, as they lead a more rational +life, but neither possess the power of producing large families. One or +two is the average number of children in healthy families. Twins and +triplets are unknown in Sistan, or so I was assured. + +The mode of life of Sistan men of the better classes is not conducive to +large families, the men not returning to their wives till midnight or +later, having spent the greater part of the day in orgies with their +friends, when, what with opium smoking and what with being stuffed with +food and saturated with gallons of tea, they are dead tired. + +Abortion seldom occurs naturally, and is never artificially procured, +owing to the local laws. Women do not experience any difficulty during +labour and operations are unheard of. + +The umbilicus of children, here, too, as in Western Persia, is tied at +birth in two or three places with a common string, and the remainder cut +with a pair of scissors or a knife. A mid-wife, called _daya_, is +requested to perform this operation. Abnormalities of any kind are +extremely uncommon. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + + Laid up with fever--Christmas Day--A visit to the + Amir--Hashmat-ul-Mulk--An ancient city over eighty miles + long--Extreme civility of Persian officials--An unusual + compliment--Prisoners--Personal revenge--"An eye for an eye, a + tooth for a tooth"--Punishments and + crime--Fines--Bastinado--Disfigurement--Imprisonment--Blowing + criminals from a gun--Strangling and decapitation. + + +It was my intention to remain in Sistan only four or five days, but +unluckily my fever got so bad--temperature above 104 deg.--that, +notwithstanding my desire to continue the journey, Major Benn most kindly +would not allow me. I was placed in bed where, covered up with every +available blanket, I remained close upon three weeks. The tender care of +Major and Mrs. Benn, to whom my gratitude cannot be expressed in words, +the skilful treatment of Dr. Golam Jelami, the Consulate doctor,--not to +speak of the unstinted doses of quinine, phenacetin, castor-oil, and +other such delightful fare, to which may also be added some gallons of +the really delicious water of the Halmund river,--at last told upon me +and eventually, after twenty-one days of sweating I began to pull up +again and was able to get up. + +The fever was shaken off altogether, but strange to say, whether it was +that I was unaccustomed to medicine, or whether it was due to the +counter-effects of the violent fever, my temperature suddenly went down +and remained for several months varying from two to three degrees below +normal. Medical men tell me that this should mean physical collapse, but +on this point I can only say that I have never in my life felt stronger +nor better. + +I was just out of bed on Christmas Day, when the Consulate was decorated +with flags, and Major Benn in his uniform had his escort of Bombay +Lancers on parade. There was an official Christmas dinner in good old +English style, with a fine plum pudding and real sixpences in it, +followed by fire-crackers; while illuminations were burning bright on the +Consulate wall and roofs. Official visitors were received, the doctor of +the Russian Vice-Consulate and the Belgian Customs Officer forming the +whole European community of Sher-i-Nasrya. + +Sadek, who was great on charity, especially when it went to my account, +in order to thank Providence for my recovery sacrificed two sheep, and +their meat was distributed to the clamouring poor. Such an expedient was +necessary, Sadek said, or I should certainly get fever again! + +Owing to the Russian calendar being in disagreement with ours, the +Consul, Mrs. Benn and I were most cordially entertained to a second +Christmas dinner by the Russian Consul, who had just returned from +Meshed, and we had a most delightful evening. For a convalescent, I could +not help thinking so many Christmas dinners coming together might have +been fatal, but fortunately, owing entirely to the charming and +thoughtful kindness of my hosts, both English and Russian, I managed to +pull through with no very ill effects. The Consular escort of Cossacks +looked very business-like and smart as they paraded in the yard which had +been duly illuminated for the occasion. + +The Amir expressed a wish to see me, and as I was just able to get on a +horse the Consul and I paid an official visit to the Governor in the +citadel. We rode in full state with the escort of Lancers, and traversed +the town along the main street, entering from the South gate. + +I was again much struck by the intense respect shown by the natives +towards Major Benn, all rising as we passed and making a profound salaam. +We traversed the greater portion of the city by the main street, and then +arrived at the gate of the citadel in the north-west part of +Sher-i-Nasrya. + +The door was so low that we had some difficulty in entering without +dismounting, and just as we were squeezing in, as it were, through this +low passage, one of the disreputable-looking soldiers on guard fired his +gun--in sign of salute--which somewhat startled our horses and set them +a-kicking. + +In the small court where we dismounted was a crowd of soldiers and +servants, and here another salute was fired by the sentry. Through +winding, dilapidated passages and broken-down courts we were conveyed to +the Amir's room--a very modest chamber, whitewashed, and with humble +carpets on the floor. A huge wood fire was burning in the chimney, and +the furniture consisted of a table and six chairs, three folding ones and +three Vienna cane ones, arranged symmetrically on either side of the +table. + +[Illustration: Major R. E. Benn, British Consul for Sistan, and his +Escort of 7th Bombay Lancers.] + +The Amir sat on a folding chair on one side of the table, and the Consul, +Ghul Khan and myself in a row on the opposite side. We were most +cordially received by Hashmat-ul-Mulk, the Amir, who--this being Ramzam +or fasting time--showed ample evidence of mis-spent nights. He had all +the semblance of a person addicted to opium smoking. His Excellency was +unshaven and unwashed, and seemed somewhat dazed, as if still under the +effects of opium. His discoloured eyes stared vaguely, now at the Consul, +now at Ghul Khan, now at me, and he occasionally muttered some compliment +or other at which we all bowed. + +Presently, however, his conversation became most interesting, when, +having gone through all these tedious preliminary formalities, he began +to describe to me the many ruined cities of Sistan. He told me how at one +time, centuries and centuries gone by, Sistan was the centre of the +world, and that a city existed some twenty miles off, named Zaidan, the +length of which was uninterrupted for some eighty or ninety miles. + +"The remains of this city," he said, "are still to be seen, and if you do +not believe my words you can go and see for yourself. In fact," added the +Amir, "you should not leave Sistan without going to inspect the ruins. +The city had flat roofs in a continuous line, the houses being built on +both sides of a main road. A goat or a sheep could practically have gone +along the whole length of the city," went on the Amir, to enforce proof +of the continuity of buildings of Zaidan. "But the city had no great +breadth. It was long and narrow, the dwellings being along the course of +an arm of the Halmund river, which in those days, before its course was +shifted by moving sands, flowed there. The ruined city lies partly in +Afghan, partly in Sistan territory. In many parts it is covered +altogether by sand, but, by digging, houses, and in them jewellery and +implements, are to be found all along." + +I promised the Amir that I would go and visit Zaidan city the very next +day. + +When we had once begun talking, the Amir spoke most interestingly, and I +was glad to obtain from him very valuable and instructive information. +One hears accounts in some quarters of the Persian officials being +absolutely pro-Russian and showing incivility to British subjects, but on +the contrary the Amir positively went out of his way to show extreme +civility. He repeatedly inquired after my health and expressed his +fervent wishes that fever should no more attack me. + +"What do you think of my beloved city, Sher-i-Nasrya?" he exclaimed. I +prudently answered that in my travels all over the world I had never seen +a city like it, which was quite true. + +"But you look very young to have travelled so much?" queried the Amir. + +"It is merely the great pleasure of coming to pay your Excellency a visit +that makes me look young!" I replied with my very best, temporarily +adopted, Persian manner, at which the Amir made a deep bow and placed his +hand upon his heart to show the full appreciation of the compliment. + +He, too, like all Persian officials, displayed the keenest interest in +the Chinese war of 1900 and the eventual end of China. He spoke bitterly +of the recluse Buddhists of Tibet, and I fully endorsed his views. Then +again, he told me more of historical interest about his province, and of +the medical qualities of the Halmund water--which cures all evils. More +elaborate compliments flowed on all sides, and numberless cups of +steaming tea were gradually sipped. + +Then we took our leave. As a most unusual courtesy, the Consul told me, +and one meant as a great honour, the Amir came to escort us and bid us +good-bye right up to the door,--the usual custom being that he rises, but +does not go beyond the table at which he sits. + +Out we went again through the same narrow passages, stooping so as not to +knock our heads against the low door-way, and came to our horses. The +soldier on guard fired another salute with his gun, and Ghul-Khan, who +happened to be near at the time, nearly had his eye put out by it. + +As we rode through the gate a number of prisoners--seven or eight--laden +with chains round the neck and wrists and all bound together, were being +led in. They salaamed us and implored for our protection, but we could do +nothing. I could not help feeling very sorry for the poor devils, for the +way justice is administered in Sistan, as in most parts of Persia, is not +particularly attractive. The tendons of the hands or feet are cut even +for small offences, hot irons are thrust into the criminal's limbs, and +other such trifling punishments are inflicted if sufficient money is not +forthcoming from the accused or their relations to buy them out. + +Here is an example of Persian justice. While I was in bed with fever, one +day Major and Mrs. Benn went for a ride along the wall of the city, with +their usual escort. On reaching the city gate they saw several people +come out, and they were startled by a shot being fired close by them, and +a dead body was laid flat across the road. The dead man, it appeared, had +been himself a murderer and had been kept in chains in the Amir's +custody, pending trial. The verdict might have possibly turned in his +favour had he been willing to grease the palms of the jailors, in +accordance with old Persian custom; but although the man was very well +off, he refused to disburse a single shai. He was therefore there and +then handed over to the relations of the murdered man so that they should +mete out to him what punishment they thought fit. + +The man was instantly dragged through the streets of the city, and on +arriving outside the city gate they shot him in the back. The body was +then left in the road, the Persian crowd which had assembled round +looking upon the occurrence as a great joke, and informing Major Benn +that the corpse would remain there until some of his relations came to +fetch it away. On referring the matter to the Governor the following day, +he smilingly exclaimed: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth!"--a +quotation from the Koran that quite cleared his conscience. + +This is a very common way of disposing of criminals in Persia by allowing +personal revenge to take its course. Although such ways of administering +justice may not commend themselves to one, the moral of it as looked upon +by Persian eyes is not as bad as it might at first appear. The honest, +the well-to-do man, they reason, has nothing whatever to fear from +anybody, and if a man chooses to be a criminal, he must take the +consequences of it. The more severe the punishment the less crime there +will be in the country. Persian law prevents crime. + +In a province like Sistan, where the people are not quite up-to-date as +in other parts of Persia, naturally, ways which to us may seem very +cruel have to be applied by the Amir to impress the people. If fines to +the maximum of the prisoner's purse are excepted, the usual way of +satisfying the law for almost any offence, the next most common +punishment is the bastinado applied on the bare soles of the feet. When +an option is left to the prisoner of undergoing the bastinado or paying a +fine, he generally selects the sticks, which he feels much less than the +anguish of disbursing the smallest sum in cash. Minor crimes only are so +punished--it is considered the lightest punishment. Occasionally it is +used to obtain confessions. People are seldom known to die under it. + +Disfigurement, or deprivation of essential limbs, such as one or more +phalanges of fingers, or the ears or nose, is also much in vogue for +thieves, house-breakers and highwaymen. For second offences of criminals +so branded the whole hand or foot is cut off. Blinding, or rather, +atrophizing the eyes by the application of a hot iron in front, but not +touching them, such as is common all over Central Asia, is occasionally +resorted to in the less civilised parts of Persia, but is not frequent +now. I only saw one case of a man who had been so punished, but many are +those who have the tendons of arms and legs cut--a favourite punishment +which gives the most dreadfully painful appearance to those who have +undergone it. + +Imprisonment is considered too expensive for the Government, and is +generally avoided except in the bigger cities. The prisoners have a very +poor time of it, a number of them being chained close together. + +To burn people or to bury them alive are severe punishments which are +very seldom heard of now-a-days, but which occasionally take place in +some remote districts and unknown to his Majesty the Shah, who has ever +shown a tender heart and has done all in his power to suppress barbarous +ways in his country; but cases or crucifixion and stoning to death have +been known to have occurred not many years ago--if not as a direct +punishment from officials, yet with their indirect sanction. + +Strangling and decapitation are still in use, and I am told--but cannot +guarantee its accuracy--that blowing criminals from guns is rarely +practised now, although at one time this was a favourite Persian way of +disposing of violent criminals. + +A Persian official was telling me that, since these terrible punishments +have been to a great extent abolished, crimes are more frequent in Persia +than they were before. The same man--a very enlightened person, who had +travelled in Europe--also remarked to me that had we to-day similar +punishments in Europe instead of keeping criminals on the fat of the +land--(I am only repeating his words)--we should not have so much crime +in the country. "Your laws," he added, "protect criminals; our ways deter +men and women from crime. To prevent crime, no matter in how cruel a way +it is done, is surely less cruel than to show leniency and kindness to +the persons who do commit crimes!" + +That was one way of looking at it. Taking things all round, if blood +feuds and cases of personal revenge are excepted, there is certainly less +crime in Persia than in many European countries. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + + The London of the East--A city eighty-six miles long--The village + of Bunjar--An ancient tower--Iskil--The _Kalantar_ of + Sistan--Collection of ancient jewellery from the buried + city--Interesting objects--A romantic life and tragic death--A + treacherous Afghan--Strained relations between the Sistan and + Afghan Governors--Sand-barchans--Flat roofs and gable roofs--The + pillar of Mil-i-Zaidan--A conical ice-house--The imposing fort of + Zaidan--A neighbouring modern village. + + +The Consul, Mrs. Benn and I, started off early one morning on horseback +to inspect the ruins of the ancient London of the East, the great city of +Zaidan, which in the days of its glory measured no less than eighty-six +miles--from Lash Yuwain on the north to Kala-i-Fath on the South--ruins +of the city being traceable the whole distance to this day, except in the +portion which has been covered by the waters of the Hamun Halmund. + +On the way there was little to be seen for the first four miles until we +reached the village of Bunjar, the biggest trading village in Sistan and +the residence of the Iman Jumeh, the next holiest man to the head priest +of Sher-i-Nasrya. This village and neighbourhood supply Sher-i-Nasrya +entirely with wood and very largely with food. There are many stunted +trees about, all curved southwards by the wind, and much cultivated +land, the ground being intersected by numerous natural and artificial +water channels. + +A very curious ancient tower, split in two, and the portion of another +very much corroded at its base, and looking like a big mushroom, are to +be seen on the south near this village. We cut across, almost due east, +to Iskil, wading through several canals and channels into which our +horses dived up to their saddles. + +On approaching Iskil from the west one was impressed by the unusual +height of some of its buildings, most of which were two-storied and had +domed roofs, the domes being of much larger proportions than usual. A +quadrangular tower of considerable loftiness stood prominent above the +height of all the other buildings. For a Persian village Iskil had quite +a clean, fresh appearance, even from a short distance. On getting near we +entered the main road--one might more accurately call it a canal--walled +in on both sides and filled with water some eight or ten inches deep. Our +horses waded through, and having rounded another large pond of dirty +green water--such as is always found in the more prosperous villages of +Persia--we came to a high wall enclosing a garden and an Andarun near the +residence of the Kalantar of Sistan (Kalantar means the "bigger one"), +the title taken by the head of the tribe who in by-gone days were the +masters of the whole of Sistan. + +The Kalantar is a large landowner, and has the contract for all the +grazing tax of East Sistan. Among the villages owned by him are Iskil, +Bunjar, and Kas-im-abad, the three richest in Sistan. The name of +Kalantar is taken by each of the family as he succeeds to the possession +of these villages, lands, and rights. + +The Kalantar, previous to the one now in possession, was a man of most +commanding presence, very tall and very stout--the biggest man in +Sistan--and much respected by everybody. He was extremely friendly +towards the English. He had planted an entire garden of English flowers +and fruit at Iskil, and took the keenest interest in horticulture and +agriculture. Above all, however, he was renowned for a magnificent +collection of ancient seals, coins, jewellery, implements, beads, and +other curiosities, of which he had amassed chests and chests full that +had been dug up from the great city of Zaidan and neighbourhood. Some of +the cameos were very delicately cut in hard stone, and reminded one of +ancient Greek work. Symbolic representations in a circle, probably to +suggest eternity, were favourite subjects of these ornamentations, such +designs as a serpent biting its own tail, or three fishes biting one +another's tails and forming a circle, being of frequent occurrence. So +also were series of triangles and simple circles. The gold rings were +most beautifully delicate and simple in design, and so were all the other +ornaments, showing that the people of Zaidan had a most refined +civilisation which is not to be found in Persian art of to-day. +Personally, I have certainly never seen modern Persian work which in any +way approached in beauty of line and execution to the articles excavated +from the great city of Zaidan. + +A great profusion of beads of amber, jasper, crystal, turquoise, +malachite, agate, had been found in Zaidan and some that we saw were +handsomely polished and cut, some were ornamented, others were made of +some composition like very hard enamel. All--even the hardest crystal +ones--had clean holes drilled through them. + +The Kalantar had built himself a fine residence at Iskil, with huge rooms +and lofty domes, and here he kept these collections. His generous nature +had caused him to build a handsome guest house in front of his dwelling +in order to put up and entertain his friends, native or foreign. + +It was on the steps of his guest house that the last act of a terrible +tragedy took place only a short time before we visited Iskil. About ten +years ago, in 1891, a man called Mahommed Hussein Khan, an Afghan +refugee, came to live in Bunjar, bringing with him a _sigah_ wife +(concubine), her mother and a child. Shortly after his arrival he left +his family in Bunjar and went on a pilgrimage to Meshed. No news was +received of him for a very long time, and the wife wrote to him--when her +money and patience were exhausted--that if he did not return on a certain +date or answer her letter she should consider herself divorced from him. +He replied that she might consider herself free from the date of receipt +of his letter, and requested her to send her mother in charge of his +child to Meshed. + +During Mahommed Hussein's absence rumour says that Kalantar Mir-Abbas had +an intrigue with the lady, and on receipt of her husband's letter from +Meshed he forcibly removed her from Bunjar and compelled her to marry +him, Mir-Abbas, at Iskil. + +Unluckily, the lady was a Suni and Kalantar Mir-Abbas was a Shia, which +made it difficult to overcome certain religious obstacles. Such a union +would anyhow be greatly resented by relations on both sides. In fact, +about a year ago, 1900, the lady's brother, a native of Girisk, near +Kandahar, enraged at his sister marrying a man who was not an Afghan, and +of a different persuasion, came to Iskil with characteristically +treacherous Afghan ways and sought service with the Kalantar, assuring +him of the great affection and devotion he entertained towards him. The +good-hearted Kalantar immediately gave him employment and treated him +most generously. + +On the night of September 19th, 1901, the Kalantar had been entertaining +some friends in the Durbar building opposite his residence, among whom +was the Afghan, who left the room before Mir-Abbas and went to conceal +himself in the darkness at the entrance. When the Kalantar was joyfully +descending the steps after the pleasant night assembly, the treacherous +Afghan attacked him and, placing his rifle to Mir-Abbas' head, shot him +dead. The assassin then endeavoured to enter the Andarun to kill his +sister, but the lady, having her suspicions, had barricaded herself in, +and an alarm being given he had to make his escape across the Afghan +frontier only a few miles distant from Iskil. + +It was rumoured that the murderer had been sheltered by the Afghan +Governor of the Chikansur district, who goes by the grand name of +_Akhunzada_, or "The great man of a high family." The Governor of Sistan, +angered at the infamous deed, demanded the extradition of the assassin, +but it was refused, with the result that the Afghan official was next +accused of screening the murderer. There was much interchange of furious +correspondence and threats between the Persian and Afghan Governors, and +their relations became so strained that a fight seemed imminent. + +The shrewd Afghan then offered to allow five Persian soldiers, +accompanied by twenty Afghans, to search his district--an offer which was +very prudently declined. Persian and Afghan soldiers were posted in some +force on both sides of the river--forming the frontier--and devoted their +time to insulting one another; but when I left Sistan in January, 1902, +although the relations were still much strained, the affair of the +Kalantar, which seemed at one time likely to turn into a national +quarrel, was gradually being settled on somewhat less martial lines. + +The death of such a good, honest man has been much regretted in Sistan, +and great hopes are now built on his son and successor, a young fellow +much resembling his father both in personal appearance and kindliness +towards his neighbours. + +We next came to a second and smaller village four miles further on--after +having waded through numberless water-channels, ponds and pools and our +horses having performed some feats of balancing on bridges two feet wide +or even less. Some of these structures were so shaky that the horses were +not inclined to go over them except after considerable urging. + +The country between was flat and uninteresting, except that here and +there some low mounds had formed where the sand blown by the N.N.W. wind +had been arrested by some obstacle, such as a shrub of camel-thorn or +tamarisk. Most of these sand-barchans had a striking peculiarity. They +were semi-spherical except to the S.S.E., where a section of the sphere +was missing, which left a vacuum in the shape of a perfect crescent. + +By the numberless waves on the sand surface it seemed evident that the +sand had accumulated from the N.N.W. side. + +The village was small and miserable, with a few scraggy trees bowing low, +like all trees of Sistan, towards the S.S.E., owing to the severe, N.N.W. +winds. Here instead of the everlasting domes, flat roofs were again +visible--wood being, no doubt, available close at hand. More curious, +however, were actual gable roofs, the first I had noticed in Persia in +purely native houses. The ventilating apertures were not in the roof +itself, as in the domed houses, but in the walls, which were of a much +greater height than in the domed habitations. The doors and windows were +invariably on the south wall, but to the north at the lower portion of +the roof in each house one could observe a triangular, projecting +structure, usually in the centre of the upper wall. This was a different +type of wind-catcher, but in winter blocked up with sun-dried bricks and +mud. + +Between this village and Zaidan there was again a good deal of water to +be crossed, and in some spots it was so deep that our horses sank into it +up to their chests and we had to lie flat, with our legs resting on the +animals' backs, to escape a ducking. + +To our left--to the north--could be seen in the distance a high tower, +which is said to have a spiral staircase inside, and must be of very +great height, as even from where we were--eight miles away--it rose very +high above the horizon, some 70 feet, as we guessed, and looked very big. +This tower stood alone several miles to the North of the principal Zaidan +ruins for which we were steering, and I had not therefore time to visit +it. + +The pillar is locally called Mil-i-Zaidan, and is circular in shape, made +of kiln-baked bricks cemented together by clay. On the summit, above a +broad band with ornamentations and a much worn inscription can be seen +the fragments of two smaller structures, also cylindrical, which may have +been the supports of the dome of the minaret. There is said to be +another illegible inscription about thirty feet from the ground. + +According to Goldsmid, who visited this place in 1872, the tower then +stood on a square foundation, and its circumference was 55 feet at the +base and only 28 feet at the summit. The lower portion of the tower, as +seen through powerful glasses, seemed very much corroded, and it will not +be long before it collapses. There are various theories regarding this +tower, which now rises directly above the flat desert. It is said by some +to be one of a number of isolated watch towers, but this, I think, is +incorrect. + +[Illustration: The Citadel of Zaidan, the Great City.] + +According to Major Sykes, who quotes from the Seljuk history: "Every +three hundred paces a pillar twice the height of a man was built and two +_minars_ between Gurz and Fahraj, one forty _gaz_ high, the other +twenty-five, and _under_ each _minar_ a caravanserai and a tank." By the +word "under" the historian evidently meant directly underneath the +tower--which was the customary way of constructing such buildings. The +_minars_ seldom rose from the ground, but were and are generally +constructed on the roofs of buildings. A proof that this was the case in +this particular instance was that when Goldsmid visited it in 1872, he +stated that it "was built on a square foundation." + +The caravanserai underneath this tower and the tank are evidently buried +by the sand, as is the case with a great portion of the City of Zaidan. +That there is underneath the sand a city connecting the southern portion +of Zaidan--still partly above ground--with the northern portion of +Zaidan, and that this _minar_ rises above buried habitations, there can +be little doubt, for all along the several miles of intervening sandy +stretch the earth is covered with debris, ruins and fragments of tiles, +bricks, &c., &c., showing the remains of a great city. + +As we went along, leaving the pillar to the north and steering south-east +for the main ruins of Zaidan, we saw close by on the north a very large +structure forming the section of a cone--the lower portion buried in sand +and the upper portion having collapsed,--which a Sistani who accompanied +us said was an ancient ice-house. This theory may be correct, for it is +probable that the climate of Sistan may have greatly changed; but it is +also possible that the structure may have been a large flour-mill, for to +this day mills are built in Persia on similar exterior lines to the +ice-houses. Structures of the same kind are also to be observed as far +south as Kala-i-Fath, the southern terminus of the great city. + +No ice to speak of can be collected nowadays, either in Sistan or within +a very large radius of country, and snow is seldom, almost never seen. + +Near this mill or ice-house, whichever it was, another high building in +ruins was to be observed, but I could not afford the time to deviate from +my route and inspect it. It appeared like a watch-tower, and was not +dissimilar to two other round towers we had seen before on the +south,--very likely they were all outer fire-signalling stations, so +common all over Asia. + +[Illustration: The Zaidan West Towers and Modern Village.] + +After a brisk ride of some four hours we arrived at the main portion of +the ruins of Zaidan--an imposing fort on a clay hill, which must have +formed the citadel. At the foot of the hill was the modern village of +Zaidan--about fifty houses, some with flat, others with gabled, roofs, +such as we had seen at the previous villages, and a few with domed roofs. +There were a few cultivated fields in which wheat was raised. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + + An ancient city as big as London--The citadel--Towers--Small + rooms--The walls--Immensity of the city--Sand drifts--Why some + parts are buried and some are not--An extensive wall--Great + length of the city--Evidence that the habitations were + continuous--The so-called Rud-i-Nasru--Its position--A double + outer wall--A protected road--Interesting structures--An immense + graveyard--Tombs--Sand drifts explained--A former gate of the + city--The _Chil-pir_ or tomb of forty saints--Interesting objects + found--Beautiful inscriptions on marble and slate--Marble + columns--Graceful lamps--Exciting digging--A tablet--Heptagonal + tower--A ghastly figure. + + +As we approached the ruins we could not help being impressed by their +grandeur. They were certainly the most imposing I had so far come across +in Persia. The high walls and towers of the fort could be seen from a +great distance, and for the benefit of my readers a photograph is +reproduced in this book to show how the citadel of this great city +appeared as one drew near it from the west. The photograph was taken half +a mile away from the fortress. + +We entered the citadel by a short incline on the northern side of the +main fort and found ourselves in a huge court, the sides of which were +much blocked towards the wall by sand drifts. Contrary to what has been +stated by others, the citadel is not inhabited to-day, nor are there any +signs of its having been inhabited probably for a great many years. There +is nothing whatever to be seen in the centre of this yard, which is +covered with accumulated sand far above its original level, and at the +sides, too, of the court, where buildings would have very likely been, +everything is smothered in sand up to a great height of the wall. In +other places the wall has collapsed altogether. + +[Illustration: Towers of the Citadel, Zaidan.] + +Remains of small rooms high up near the top of the wall can be seen. The +inside of the inner fort enclosed by the highest wall is quadrangular, +and has ten towers round it, eight of which are still in wonderful +preservation considering their age. Those at the angles of the quadrangle +had large, somewhat elongated, windows ending in a point cut into them in +two tiers, as may be seen in the illustration. Curiously enough, while +the windows were six feet in height, the doors were never more than five +feet. There were rooms in all the towers, but all were extremely small. +The largest averaged eight feet square. The walls of the towers were of +mud bricks with layers of kiln-baked bricks, and were three to four feet +deep and of very great strength. + +As can be seen by the illustration, a fragment of an archway was to be +found on the summit of the wall and there were often signs that a covered +passage, such as may be found in other northern forts of this great city, +must have been in existence when the place was in all its glory. + +As one stood on the highest point of the wall and looked around one +got a fair idea of the former immensity of the city. It evidently +stretched from south-east to north, forming an obtuse angle at the +citadel on which I stood. To the south-east of the fortress, where +sheltered from the terrific north winds and from the sand drifts, the +ruins were in better preservation and less covered with sand, which here +indeed made quite a depression, while the northern aspect now displays a +continuous mass of fine sand interrupted only by some of the higher +buildings projecting above it. + +One could distinguish quite plainly where the wall of the city continued +for a long distance to the south-east with occasional towers, but this +portion of the wall, as seen in the illustration facing page 208, is now +in a sad state of decay and fast being covered with sand. The first three +hundred yards of it, which are the best preserved, however, will show +what a place of great strength Zaidan must have been. The towers appear +to have been enormous, as shown by the base of the nearer one in the +foreground of the photograph, and also by the second one, a portion of +which still remained standing. + +The city boundary made a detour to the south-east at the third tower, all +the buildings visible being on the east of the wall and none to the west. +The modern village of Zaidan should, of course, be excepted. + +There seems to have been a great space intervening between this wall and +the nearest habitations, but why that was would now be difficult to +ascertain except by digging to a considerable depth. It seems hardly +likely that a moat with water should have been constructed on the inside +of the fortress, although at first sight one might be led to conclude +that this was the case. + +[Illustration: S.E. Portion of Zaidan City, showing how it disappears +under distant sand accumulations.] + +[Illustration: Double Wall and Circular Unroofed Structures, Zaidan. In +the distance high sand accumulations above City.] + +The city does not seem to have had a great general breadth, and is mostly +remarkable for its enormous length, although at several of the most +important points it has indeed considerable width. It extended mostly +like a long line, and one could still perceive, as far as the eye could +see, partially destroyed domed roofs, fragments of walls, and in some +cases entire structures still standing and bearing roofs. The ice-house, +which we had passed on the way, stood prominent to the north by +north-west and also the pillar, the _minar_ of Mil-i-Zaidan. + +Major Sykes makes a very quaint statement in the _Geographical Journal_ +for February, 1902. He says: "I have seen it stated by previous +travellers" (presumably Sir F. Goldsmid and Bellew) "that the ruins of +Zaidan extend for fourteen miles, but the fact is that _there were +villages lining the Rud-i-Nasru throughout its length_ (a length of 30 +miles according to Major Sykes's maps), and these have been mistaken for +suburbs of the capital of Sistan." + +It seems to me that Major Sykes has only strengthened the contention of +previous travellers and that, whether one calls them suburbs or a +continuity of habitations, villages, or by any other name, the fact is +that continuous miles of buildings can be traced. The Rud-i-Nasru +canal, according to Major Sykes's own maps as given in the _Geographical +Society's Journal_, is over 30 miles in length, and if the 30 miles are +lined _throughout_ by villages surely that fact further establishes the +continuity of the city. + +Personally, however, I have my doubts whether Major Sykes is correct in +placing the Rud-i-Nasru to the west of the city in Zaidan's days of +glory. There are signs of a canal, but to the east of the city. The +Hamun, too, I think, no more stretched across from east to west in the +northern portion than it does to-day, but rather formed two separate +lakes--the eastern one fed by the surplus water of the Halmund; the +western filled by the Farah Rud. The space between is liable to be +occasionally flooded by the excess of water in these two lakes, but that +is all. + +All the evidence goes to show that the great city, under different local +names, extended continuously northwards as far as Lash Yuwain, passing +between the two marshy lakes. In the next chapter I have brought +undoubted evidence pointing to that conclusion, and if any one is still +sceptical about it, all he has to do is to go there and see for himself. +In such a dry climate the ruins, although gradually being covered over +with sand, will remain long enough for any one wishing to spend some time +there and to make a thorough study of them. + +To the east of the Zaidan fort, about 100 yards and 200 yards +respectively, are the remains, still fairly well preserved, of a high +double wall, castellated and with loop-holes half-way up the wall. These +two walls, where free from sand, stand some 40 feet high, but in most +portions the sand has accumulated to a height of 15 to 20 feet. + +These parallel walls were somewhat puzzling. They were only a few feet +apart and protected a road between them which went from north-west to +south-east. Each wall was constructed very strongly of two brick walls +filled between with beaten earth. The lower portion of the wall was much +corroded by the wind and sand, but the upper part where it had not +collapsed, was in good preservation. There were rows of holes at the +bottom on the east side, where there appeared to have been extensive +stables with mangers for horses. The lower portion of the wall was of +kiln-baked bricks, and the upper part in horizontal layers of baked +bricks every four feet and mud bricks between. + +Of the two parallel walls the eastern one was not castellated, but the +western or inner had a castellated summit. There was an outer moat or +canal. + +Only a comparatively small portion of this double wall stood up to its +former height--merely a few hundred feet of it--but traces could be seen +that it must have extended for a very long distance. It appeared to be +tortuous and not in a straight line, its direction being plainly +traceable even in the photograph reproduced in the illustration facing +page 208. Only one tower of a quadrangular shape could be seen along +this wall, and the apertures in the wall were at regular intervals of +four feet. The doorway in these walls appeared to have been next to the +quadrangular tower, which was very likely constructed in order to guard +the gate. + +There were small circular unroofed structures between the fort itself and +this double wall, but they appeared more like the upper sections of +towers than actual habitations. Though much smaller and lower they bore +all the architectural characteristics of the towers of the greater fort, +and possessed windows, one above the other, similar to those we had found +in the larger towers of the main fort. In the illustration the reader can +see for himself. That a considerable portion of this structure is buried +is shown by the fact that the upper portion of a window is just visible +above the sand in the circular building to the left of the observer. +These structures had in the interior some elaborately moulded recesses, +and ornamented windows in pointed arches. The circular building had three +rooms on the floor still above ground and six small recesses. One window +was in most excellent preservation. + +Further on, beyond the double wall to the south-east, was a most +extensive graveyard, a portion of which had been freed from sand by the +natives of the modern village of Zaidan. There were hundreds and hundreds +of tombs, some in quite good preservation, as can be seen by the two +photographs facing pages 212 and 214. + +The photograph facing page 212 shows the eastern portion of the graveyard +where some of the tombs were altogether free from sand, and in a splendid +state of preservation. They were made of kiln-burnt bricks plastered over +with mud, the body, it may be remarked, being enclosed in these +rectangular brick cases and entirely above ground. They were mostly +single tombs, not compound graves, like some which we shall inspect later +on (Mount) Kuh-i-Kwajah. Their measurements were about 7 feet by 4 feet +by 31/2 feet, and they were extremely simple, except that the upper face +was ornamented by a series of superposed rectangles diminishing in size +upwards and each of the thickness of one brick, and the last surmounted +generally by a prism. + +[Illustration: Interior of Zaidan Fortress.] + +[Illustration: Graveyard of Zaidan City.] + +The photograph facing page 214 shows the north-western portion of the +graveyard, with the entire eastern aspect of the Zaidan fortress. I took +this photograph for the special purpose of proving how high the sand has +accumulated over many portions of the graveyard, as well as over a great +portion of the city. The particular spot where I took the photograph was +somewhat protected from the north, hence the low depression, slightly +more free from sand than further back where the sand, as can be seen, was +able to settle down to a great height. The upper portions of several +graves can be noticed mostly buried in sand, and by the ripples on the +sand and the casting of the shadows (the photograph was taken in the +afternoon when the sun was west) it can be seen plainly that the sand +has accumulated from the north. + +Under the immediate lee of the fortress and of the outer walls, similar +depressions in the sand were found, and it is owing to these that some +portion of the city was still uncovered by sand. + +In the photograph facing page 214 it may be noticed that where the lee of +the high fortress no longer protects the buildings from the drifting +sand, the city gradually disappears, as it were, under fairly high +accumulations. + +We shall find later, on our journey to the Beluchistan frontier, how +these sand accumulations, in their turn, forming themselves into barriers +against the sands which came from the north, allowed further southerly +portions of the city to escape unburied, which portions can be seen +extending in and out of these transverse sand ridges as far south as +Kala-i-Fath. North of the Zaidan fortress the sand, finding no high +obstacles, has accumulated to a much greater height, only very lofty +buildings remaining visible above the surface. + +In the photograph facing page 206 this high cushion, as it were, of sand +can plainly be seen over the north of the city beyond the tower of the +castle; also a portion of the small canal at the foot of the tower, which +some will have it was the Rud-i-Nasru. + +In the distance towards the south-east, two quadrangular towers could be +seen, which the Katkhuda of Zaidan village told us formed part of one of +the former gates of the city. These two towers can be seen in the +background of the photograph facing page 212. + +Some distance beyond the graveyard we came to a section of a tower, +heptagonal in form, which had just been dug out to a depth of 4 feet by +the natives of the village of Zaidan. The Katkhuda--who could have given +points to an Irishman--told us that this was the tomb of the renowned +legendary "Forty Saints of Zaidan," and added, that they numbered +forty-four! On being asked why it was called the tomb of the forty saints +if their number was forty-four, he did not lose his presence of mind, but +explained that four had been added afterwards when this sacred spot had +already received its legendary name. + +[Illustration: East View of the Zaidan Citadel.] + +For a very long time the Zaidan people had searched for this sacred spot, +and they seemed very proud to have discovered it. It is called by them +_Chil-pir_, or the "forty saints." As the tower is not large enough to +contain them all, a number of them are said to be buried in the immediate +neighbourhood to the south and west of the structure, and the Katkhuda, +to prove his words, showed us some three graves, more elaborate than the +rest. There were also others that were anxiously searched for, but had +not been located yet. + +The graves which I was shown were entirely of kiln-burnt bricks, and so +was the wall of the tower itself, as can be seen by a portion of it +showing in the illustration facing page 218, behind the marble +inscription and columns. + +Since its discovery the natives had made this into a _Ziarat_ or shrine, +and on its western side (towards Mecca) had adorned it with a bundle of +sticks, horns, and a number of rags, or pieces of ribbon, white, red or +blue. Every Mussulman visiting it leaves an offering of a piece of cloth +generally from his coat or turban, if a man, or from the chudder or other +feminine wearing apparel if a woman. + +The Katkhuda told us that a great many things had been found in digging +near here, but the more valuable ones had disappeared, sold to officials +or rich people of Sistan. A great many seals, coins, stone weapons, lamps +and pottery had been found, the latter often glazed. Innumerable +fragments of earthenware were strewn everywhere round about these ruins, +some with interesting ornamentations, generally blue on white ground. The +"parallel lines" and "heart pattern" were common, while on some fragments +of tiles could be seen quotations from the Koran in ancient Arabic. Some +pieces of tiles exhibited a very handsome blue glaze, and on some plates +the three leaf pattern, almost like a fleur-de-lis, was attempted, in +company with the two-leaf and some unidentified flower. + +Most interesting of all were the beautiful inscriptions on stone and +marble, recently been found in the tomb of the Forty Saints. Some had +already been covered again by the sand, but we dug them out afresh and I +photographed them. They were in fair preservation. They bore Arabic +characters, and were apparently dedicated in most laudatory terms, one +to "the Pomp of the country, Sun of righteousness and religion, and the +founder of a mosque"; the other commemorated the death of a great Amir. +As, however, there appears to be some difficulty in deciphering some of +the very ancient characters I will refrain from giving any translation of +them for fear of being inaccurate. The photographs given of them facing +pages 218, 220, 222, are, however, quite clear enough for any one +interested in the matter to decipher them for himself. + +These tablets were most artistic and beautifully carved, and one had a +most charming ornamentation of two sprays of flowers in each of the two +upper corners. The second inscription had much more minute writing on it, +and was of a finer design and cut, but was, unfortunately, rather worn. +It had evidently been subjected to a long period of friction--apparently +by sand. The natives had made a sort of altar with this last inscription +and some cylindrical sections of columns carved out of beautiful marble, +white or most delicately variegated. + +There were also various other large pieces of marble and stone, which had +evidently formed part of a very fine and rich building, as well as a very +ancient fragment of a red baked earthenware water-pipe. Many of the +pieces of marble in the heap contained ornamentations such as successions +of the heart pattern, graceful curve scrolls suggesting leaves, and also +regular leaf patterns. One stone was absolutely spherical, like a cannon +ball, and quite smooth; and some stone implements, such as a conical +brown hammer and a pestle, were very interesting. + +On the white marble columns stood two charming little oil lamps, of a +most graceful shape, in green earthenware, and in digging we were +fortunate enough to find a third, which is now in my possession. They can +be seen in the illustration (facing page 218), although I fear not at +their best, being so small. They were not unlike the old Pompeian lamps +in shape, and certainly quite as graceful. The wick used to be lighted at +the spout. + +Among other fragments was the capital of a pillar, and portions of Koran +inscriptions. As we dug excitedly with our hands in the sand we found +other inscriptions on slate and on grey-stone, of one of which I took an +impression on paper. It seemed much more ancient than the others and had +a most beautiful design on it of curves and flowers. + +A tablet at the entrance of the tomb of the Forty Saints was not of +marble but of slate carved. It bore the following date: [Arabic: 1282] +which I believe corresponds to 1282. The heptagonal tower had two +entrances, one to the north, the other to the south, but was, +unfortunately, getting smothered in sand again. + +We became greatly excited on discovering the inscriptions, and pulled up +our sleeves and proceeded in due haste to dig again in the sand--a +process which, although much dryer, reminded one very forcibly of one's +younger days at the seaside. Our efforts were somewhat cooled by a +ghastly white marble figure which we dug up, and which had such a +sneering expression on its countenance that it set the natives all round +shrieking with laughter. + +[Illustration: The Figure we dug out at Zaidan.] + +[Illustration: Arabic Inscription and marble columns with earthenware +lamps upon them. Fragment of water-pipe. Stone implements. Brick wall of +the "Tombs of Forty Saints" showing in top corners of photograph.] + +We thought we had better leave off. Moreover, the natives who had +accompanied us seemed rather upset at my photographing and digging, and +now that I had got what I wanted I did not care to make them feel more +uneasy than was necessary. I had exhausted all the photographic plates I +had brought out with me, night was coming on fast, and we had twenty +miles to ride back. On my last plate I photographed our last find, which +is reproduced for the benefit of my readers facing page 218. + +This ugly head, with a very elongated and much expanded nose and a +vicious mouth full of teeth, had been carved at the end of a piece of +marble one and a half feet high. The head, with its oblique eyes, was +well polished, but the remainder of the marble beyond the ears, which +were just indicated by the artist, was roughly cut and appeared to have +been made with the intention of being inserted into a wall, leaving the +head to project outside. Its flat forehead, too, would lead to the +conclusion that it had been so shaped to act as a support, very likely to +some tablet, or moulding of the mosque. + +The Katkhuda said that it was a very ancient god, but its age was not +easy to ascertain on so short an acquaintance. It certainly seemed very +much more ancient than anything else we had found and inspected at +Zaidan. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + + A short historical sketch of Zaidan city--How it was pillaged and + destroyed--Fortresses and citadels--Taimur Lang--Shah + Rukh--Revolutions--The Safavi dynasty--Peshawaran, Pulki, + Deshtak--Sir F. Goldsmid's and Bellew's impressions--The extent + of the Peshawaran ruins--Arabic inscriptions--A curious + ornamentation--Mosques and _mihrab_--Tomb of Saiyid Ikbal--The + Farah Rud and Harut Rud--The "Band" of the Halmund--Canals and + channels old and new of the Halmund delta--The Rud-i-Nasru and + the Rud-i-Perian--Strange temporary graves--Ancient prosperity of + Eastern Persia. + + +It is not for me to go fully into the history of this great city of +Zaidan, for so much of it rests on speculation and confused traditions +that I would rather leave this work to some scientist of a more gambling +disposition than my own; but now that I have described what I myself saw +I will add a few historical details which seem correct, and the opinions +of one or two other travellers in that region which add interest to the +place as well as strengthen my statements. With the many photographs +which I took and which are reproduced in this book, I hope that a fair +idea of the place will be conveyed to the reader. + +The following short historical notes were furnished to me by the +Katkhuda (or head village man) of the present village near the Zaidan +ruins. I reproduce them verbatim, without assuming any responsibility for +the accuracy of the historical dates, but the information about the great +city itself I found to be correct. + +[Illustration: Arabic Inscription on Marble dug by Author at the City of +Zaidan.] + +When Shah Rukh Shah was ruler of Turkistan, and one Malek Kutuh-ud-din +was ruler of Sistan and Kain, Shah Rukh Shah was engaged in settling +disturbances in the northern part of his dominions, and Malek +Kutuh-ud-din, taking advantage of it, attacked Herat and plundered it. +Shah Rukh Shah, hearing of this, collected an army and marched on Sistan. +During this march he devastated the country, which was then very fertile +and wealthy, and captured and dispersed the inhabitants of the endless +city of Zaidan--which extended from Kala-i-Fath, to the south (now in +Afghan territory on the present bank of the Halmund), to Lash Yuwain on +the north (also in Afghan territory on the bank of the Farah Rud), a +distance, according to the Trigonometrical Survey Maps, of 86 miles as +the crow flies. This would agree with the account given me by the Amir of +the extent of the city. + +The city of Zaidan was protected by a large fortress at every six +farsakhs (24 miles). Each fortress was said to be strongly garrisoned +with troops, and had a high watch tower in the centre similar to that +which I saw at a distance on the north-east of Iskil, and which has been +described in previous pages. + +Another historical version attributes the destruction of Zaidan and +adjoining cities to Taimur Lang (Tamerlane) or Taimur the lame (a.h. +736-785), father of Shah Rukh whose barbarous soldiery, as some +traditions will have it, were alone responsible for the pillage of Zaidan +city and the devastation of all Sistan. The name of Taimur Lang is to +this day held in terror by the natives of Sistan. + +But whether Zaidan was devastated twice, or whether the two accounts +apply to the same disaster, it is not easy to ascertain at so distant a +date. There are obvious signs all over Eastern Sistan that the country +must have undergone great trouble and changes--probably under the rule of +Shah Rukh and his successors (a.h. 853-873), after which revolutions seem +to have been rampant for some sixty years, until Shah Ismail Safavi +conquered Khorassan and the neighbouring countries, founding a powerful +dynasty which reigned up to the year a.h. 1135. + +Under the Safavi dynasty Sistan seems to have been vested in the Kayani +Maliks, who are believed to be descendants of the royal house of Kai. (I +came across a village chief claiming to be the descendant of these Kayani +rulers.) + +To return to the Zaidan ruins, as seen to-day from the highest point of +the citadel wall, the ruined city stretches in a curve from north to +south-east. It is to the south-east that the ruins are less covered with +sand and in better preservation, the citadel standing about half way +between its former north and southern termini. There is every evidence +to show that the present extensive ruins of Peshawaran to the north, +Pulki, Deshtak (Doshak described by Bellew) and Nad-i-Ali were at one +epoch merely a continuation of Zaidan the great city, just as +Westminster, South Kensington, Hammersmith, &c., are the continuation of +London, and make it to-day the largest conglomeration of houses in the +world. It was evidently necessary to subdivide such an enormous place +into districts. + +[Illustration: Transfer of Inscription dated 1282, found in the "Tomb of +Forty Saints," Zaidan.] + +[Illustration: Transfer of Ornament above four lines of Koran on Grave +Stone.] + +[Illustration: Transfer of Ornamentations on Marble Grave.] + +[Illustration: Presumed Summits of Towers buried in Sand, Zaidan. + +Notice top of Castellated Wall behind.] + +Bellew, who visited the ruins in 1872, speaks of Zaidan as "extending as +far as the eye can reach to the north-east, and said to be continuous +with the ruins of Doshak (Deshtak), about nine miles from the Helmund. +These ruins, with those of Pulki, Nadali and Peshawaran, are the most +extensive in Sistan, and mark the sites of populous cities, the like of +which are not to be found at this present day in all this region between +the Indus and the Tigris." + +Doshak or Deshtak is situated about fourteen miles south by south-east of +Sher-i-Nasrya, on the right bank of the main canal which extended from +the Halmund towards the west. It was a large walled town, with towers and +a square fort in the centre. Deshtak is said to have been the residence +and capital of the first member of the Safavi dynasty in Sistan, which, +like all other cities of Sistan, was pillaged and razed to the ground by +the terrible Taimur Lang. On its ruins rose the smaller city of some 500 +houses which we have mentioned--also called Jalalabad--and which +eventually became the seat of Bahram Khan, the last of the Kayani +chiefs. The city was built by him for his son Jalaludin, after whom it +was named. Jalaludin, however, was expelled from the throne, and from +that date the Kayani family ceased to reign in Sistan. + +Pulki was also located on this main canal, east of Deshtak, and +Peshawaran was situated due north of Zaidan. They consist of an immense +extent of ruins. Both Sir F. Goldsmid and Bellew, who travelled in that +part testify to the whole country between Jalalabad, Buri-i-Afghan and +Peshawaran being covered with ruins. + +The ruins at Peshawaran I was not able to visit, they being in Afghan +territory--now forbidden to Englishmen--and, being the guest of the +British Consul, I did not wish to cause trouble. Sir F. Goldsmid, who +visited them during the Perso-Afghan Frontier Mission, describes them as +covering a great area and being strongly built of alternate layers of +sun-burnt and baked brick. The ruins of a madrassah, with a mosque and a +_mihrab_, were most extensive, and had traces of ornamentations, and an +inscription, said to be Kufic. The walls of the citadel were (in 1872) in +fairly good repair. "The citadel," Sir F. Goldsmid relates, "was of a +circular form, somewhat irregular in shape, with a diameter of from two +to three hundred yards. The walls are about fifty feet high, built +strongly of baked brick, with a species of arched covered gallery, five +feet high and five feet wide, running round the summit of the ramparts." + +A very similar arrangement was to be seen on the Zaidan fort, as can be +noticed in the photograph which I took and which is reproduced in the +full page illustration (facing page 206). + +"Two massive round towers guard the gateway approached by a narrow steep +ascent. In the centre of the fort on a mound stood a superior house, +probably the residence of the Governor. To the south,[6] dense drifts of +sand run to the summits of the ramparts." + +If these drifts can rise so high on the high wall of the citadel, it is +certain that a great many of the smaller buildings must be rather deep +under the sand level by now, but that they are there, there can be little +doubt, for fragments of tiles, bricks, vases, &c., strew the ground. No +doubt the usual critic will wonder how it is that, if the houses are +buried, these fragments are not buried also. The wind principally is +responsible for their keeping on the surface of the sand. They are +constantly shifted and are blown from place to place, until arrested by +some obstacle such as a wall, where a great number of these fragments can +generally be found collected by the wind. + +"The great characteristic of these ruins"--continues Sir F. Goldsmid--"is +the number of accurately constructed arches which still remain, and which +are seen in almost every house, and the remains of strongly built +windmills, with a vertical axis, as is usually the case in Sistan." + +This again, as we have seen, is also one of the characteristics of the +Zaidan buildings. + +The ruins of Peshawaran are subdivided into several groups, such as the +Kol Marut, Saliyan, three miles east of the fort, Khushabad, +Kalah-i-Mallahun, Nikara-Khanah, &c. + +Bellew, who camped at Saliyan, describes this section of the ruins "which +cover many square miles of country, with readily distinguishable mosques +and colleges (madrassahs), and the Arabic inscriptions traceable on the +facades of some of the principal buildings clearly refer their date to +the period of the Arab conquest, and further, as is evidenced by the +domes and arches forming the roofs of the houses, that then, as now, the +country was devoid of timber fit for building purposes. The most +remarkable characteristic of these ruins is their vast extent and +excellent preservation." + +I, too, am of Bellew's opinion about these points. The several +inscriptions I found at Zaidan, photographs of which I have given in this +book, were, as we have seen, in Arabic; the ornamentations of which I +took tracings were Arabic in character. + +Bellew reckons the great extent of the Peshawaran section of the ruins as +covering an area of about six miles by eight. He states that they were +the outgrowths of successive cities rising on the ruins of their +predecessors upon the same spot, and, like the other few travellers who +have intelligently examined the ruins, came to the conclusion that in +point of architecture and age the whole length from Lash Yuwain to the +north to Kala-i-Fath to the south, and including Peshawaran, Zaidan and +Kali-i-Fath were absolutely identical. + +Goldsmid supplies information similar to Bellew's regarding the +Peshawaran ruins, and he writes that on his march north to Lash Yuwain he +had to go three or four miles to the west on account of the ruins. He +speaks of seeing a place of worship with a _mihrab_, and, curiously +enough, on the wall above it he found "the masonic star of five points +surrounded by a circle and with a round cup between each of the points +and another in the centre." He also saw the tomb of Saiyid Ikbal, also +mentioned by another traveller, Christie. + +Eight miles west by north-west from the ruins rises a flat-topped +plateau-like hill, called the Kuh-i-Kuchah, not dissimilar in shape to +the Kuh-i-Kwajah to the south-west of Sher-i-Nasrya. Four villages are +found near it. To the east of it is found the Farah Rud, and to its west +the Harut Rud,--two rivers losing themselves (when they have any water in +them) into the lagoon. The Harut is not always flowing. To the south is +the Naizar lagoon forming part of the Hamun-Halmund. (This lagoon was +mostly dry when I went through.) It has formed a huge lake at various +epochs, but now only the northern portion, skirting the southern edge of +the Peshawaran ruins, has any permanent water in it, and is principally +fed by the delta of canals and by the overflow of the Halmund, over the +Band, a kind of barrage. + +Some explanation is necessary to make things clear. + +On the present Afghan-Perso boundary, at a place called the +"Band-i-Sistan," is the great dam across the Halmund, completely turning +the waters of the stream, by means of semi-artificial canals, for the +irrigation of Sistan. Hence the fertility of that district. The dam, "the +Band," as it is called by the natives, is a barrier slightly over 700 +feet long, constructed of upright wooden stakes holding in position +horizontal fascines of tamarisk interwoven, strengthened by stones and +plastered with mud to form a semi-solid wall. In olden days the Band was +so feebly constructed that it was generally carried away every year at +the spring floods, but now greater attention is given to its construction +and it is kept in fairly good repair, although portions of it usually +collapse or are carried away by the force of the current during the +floods. The height of the Band is not more than eighteen or twenty feet. +Practically the actual river course comes to an end at this Band, and +from this point its waters are spread into a delta of canals, large and +small, subdivided into hundreds other tortuous channels. The Hussein Ki +Canal is one of the most important, and feeds Zaidan, Iskil, Bunjar and +Sher-i-Nasrya, Husseinabad, and other places, and is subdivided into +minor channels during its course. It flows roughly in a north-west +direction. + +In 1896, according to Major Sykes (_Royal Geographical Society's +Journal_), a new canal, known as the Rud-i-Perian, was formed, and +destroyed Jahanabad, Ibrahimabad and Jalalabad. This canal, he says, is +not far from the Rud-i-Nasru, which he seems to think was at one time the +main stream and flowed in a natural bed past Zaidan to the west of it, +but personally I have my doubts about the accuracy of this statement. I +believe that the Rud-i-Nasru was merely a shallow canal that passed to +the west of Zaidan, but that the river course of the Halmund itself was +always to the east of Zaidan as well as of the other adjoining cities +north of Zaidan. The Canal to the east of Nad-i-Ali is no doubt a +naturally cut channel, the obvious continuation under natural +circumstances of the river course. The same remark might apply to the +small channel self-cut to the west of that place. There are other +important channels, such as the Madar-Ab, which supplies water to +Chiling, Pulki and Sekhuka; the Kimak canal and the Kasimabad. Before the +present dam was constructed some eighty years ago, a previous "Band" +existed, as we shall see, further up the course of the Halmund to the +south, and secured the irrigation of the southern portion of Sistan, +which is now absolutely dry and barren. Dried up canal beds of great +length are still to be found in southern Sistan. + +[Illustration: Sketch Plan of "Zaidan Citadel" + +by A. Henry Savage Landor.] + +It would be a great undertaking to describe accurately all these canals +and the various positions they have occupied at different epochs, and +the task would at best be most thankless and useless, for, with the +exception of the larger ones, the minor ones keep constantly changing +their course by cutting themselves new beds in the soft soil. Anybody who +has visited eastern Sistan, even in a very dry season, as I did, knows +too well how the ground is intersected in all directions by myriads of +natural water channels, all fed by the Halmund, so that, unless one had +months of time at one's disposal, it would hardly be possible to map them +all out exactly. + +During flood time the water flows over the Band and into its natural +channel due north up into the Hamun, where it loses itself. + +There is a good deal of verdure, trees, and high reeds near the banks of +the river at the Band, with many snakes, while fish is plentiful in the +water and myriads of wild fowl are to be seen. + +Curious conical temporary graves of mud can occasionally be seen, some +six feet high, the body being, it is said, buried standing within these +cones previous to proper interment with due ceremony. On the outside, +clear imprints made while the mud was still soft of several sized +hands--presumably of the deceased's relations or friends--were left on +the surface of the cone, the imprints being one above the other in a +line. + +Among the ruins of Peshawaran, Bellew found traces of several canals, now +dry, one of which, however, had been restored by the chief of Hokat and +brought a stream of good water up to the Silyan ruins for irrigation +purposes. + +As for the southern end of the great city at Kala-i-Fath, we have very +good accounts from Ferrier, Goldsmid, and Bellew, all testifying to its +great extent. Here, too, there is a strong citadel standing on an +artificial mound, and seeming to have been repaired some twenty-five or +thirty years ago. Bellew says that the ruins extend over several miles of +country, and Goldsmid speaks of a circumference of ruins of some two and +a half miles at Kala-i-Fath, with a large citadel and fine arched +buildings within. He mentions spacious courtyards and the remains of +reservoirs, caravanserais, and large buildings in abundance, but no +vestige of anything approaching magnificence. + +This, however, is the case with everything Persian, whether ancient or +modern, especially in regard to architecture, and a great deal of the +humbleness of the buildings is, I think, due to the facts that the +inhabitants of Persia are nomads by nature; that the shifting sands drive +people from their homes; that rivers constantly alter their courses, and +that the water supply is a constant source of difficulty in most parts of +Iran; moreover the terrible wars and invasions made the natives +disinclined to construct themselves very elaborate houses which they +might at any moment have to abandon. + +These reasons account for the extraordinary number of abandoned villages, +towns, fortresses, and whole ruined suburbs of towns all over Persia, a +sight which I think cannot be seen on such a large scale in any other +country in the world. + +At Kala-i-Fath the question of the water may not have been the principal +one, but the fear of constant attacks must have deterred the natives from +erecting magnificent buildings. Or else how could we account for these +enormous fortresses which are found all along to protect the great city? + +Goldsmid describes a fine caravanserai at Kala-i-Fath, built of large +baked bricks, each brick eleven inches square, and displaying a nicety of +design foreign to Sistan. The caravanserai seems to have been domed over +a large central courtyard, with wings for rooms and stabling; and an +adjoining ice-house of mud bricks. In the graveyard fragments of +alabaster and tiles were found. + +The wall round the city which Goldsmid describes--six feet at the base +tapering to one foot at the summit--is somewhat different in character +from that of Zaidan, and is, to my mind, of much later construction, as +are many of the buildings. + +"Some of the streets," he says, "which all run from east to west, are in +excellent preservation and as if they were of recent construction." + +It is quite possible, in fact, very probable, that this portion of the +great city--which, by the bye, is said to have been the last capital of +the Kayani Kings, and was deserted by them when attacked by Nadir +Shah--has, owing to its favourable geographical position on the east +bank of the Halmund, been inhabited to a certain extent until a much +later date. The local accounts, at least, would point to that conclusion. + +A dry canal exists, which we shall cross on our way to the Beluchistan +frontier; it is fed by the Halmund, north of Kala-i-Fath, and strikes +across the plain in a westerly direction. + +If all the accounts given by people who have been there are taken into +consideration, together with the photographs here given, which seem to me +to show that the place was one of unusual grandeur; if the fact is +grasped that, whether considered as a single city or a conglomeration of +adjoining successive cities, Zaidan was undoubtedly a continuous and +uninterrupted row of houses of no less than eighty-six miles; I think +that whatever theories may be expounded by the usual scientific +speculator at home, the fact must remain that this ancient London of Asia +marks a period of astounding prosperity in the history of Eastern +Persia. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[6] I think this must be a mistake; it should be to the north.--A.H.S.L. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + + Departure from Sistan--Dadi--Not one's idea of a pasture--The + Kuh-i-Kwajah--Its altitude--The "City of roars of + laughter"--Interesting ascent to the summit--A water + reservoir--Family graves--Dead-houses--A grave with thirty-eight + compartments--The Gandun Piran Ziarat--Scrolls and + inscriptions--Priest's house--Modern graves--Skulls and their + characteristics--A smaller Ziarat--The Kuk fort--A bird's-eye + view of Kala-i-Kakaha city--Strange legends about the city--Why + Kala-i-Kakaha is famous. + + +Owing to the tender care of Major and Mrs. Benn I was, at the beginning +of 1902, in a fair condition of strength to undertake the journey of 600 +miles on camels across Northern Beluchistan to Quetta. With the help of +Major Benn I made up a fresh caravan entirely of running camels, and +expected therefore to be able to travel very fast. The camels selected +were excellent, and the two Beluch drivers who came with me most +faithful, considerate and excellent servants. Sadek also accompanied me. + +Everything was made ready to start by January 2nd, but some hitch or +other occurred daily, and it was not till January 10th that I was able to +take my departure--sorry indeed to say good-bye to my new good friends, +Major and Mrs. Benn, to whose charmingly thoughtful care I altogether +owed it that I was now able to proceed in good health. + +The hour of our departure was fixed for 5 o'clock a.m., but my three +cats, suspecting that we were going to move from our comfortable +quarters, disappeared during the night, and some hours were wasted by +Sadek and all the servants of the Consulate in trying to find them again. +I was determined not to start without them. Sadek was furious, the camel +men impatient, the guard of Lancers sent by the Consul to accompany me +for some distance had been ready on their horses for a long time, and +everybody at hand was calling out "Puss, puss, puss!" in the most +endearing tones of voice, and searching every possible nook. + +After four hours of expressive language in Persian, Hindustani, Beluchi +and English, at nine o'clock the cats were eventually discovered. One had +hidden under a huge pile of wood, all of which we had to remove to get +him out; the second had found a most comfortable sanctum in Mrs. Benn's +room, and the third, having ascertained that his companions had been +discovered, walked out unconcerned and entered the travelling box of his +own accord. + +I was sorry to leave Sistan too, with its ancient ruins, its peculiar +inhabitants, a mixture of all kinds, its quaint city, so strikingly +picturesque especially at sunset, when, owing to the moisture in the air, +beautiful warm colours appeared in the sky, and the thousands of camels, +and sheep, moving like so many phantoms in clouds of dust, returned to +their homes. The sad dingling of their bells sounded musical enough in +the distance, and one saw horsemen dashing full gallop towards the city +before the gates were closed, every man carrying a gun. Far to the west +in the background stood the Kuh-i-Kwajah mountain, so famous in the +history of Sistan. All this after the dreary, long Salt Desert journey +had seemed heavenly to me, and I was more than sorry to leave the place. + +Had I been a Russian instead of an Englishman I would not have continued +my journey on the morning of my departure, for on coming out of the +Consulate gate the first thing I saw was a dead body being washed and +prepared for interment by relatives in the dead-house adjoining the +Consulate wall. The Russians believe the sight of a dead body an ill-omen +at the beginning of a journey. + +Gul Khan, the Consul's assistant, accompanied me as far as the +Kuh-i-Kwajah mountain, to inspect which I had to make a detour. + +We passed south of Sher-i-Nasrya, and, after wading through numberless +water channels and skirting large pools of water, crossed a tiny +anonymous village of six domed huts, and then came to a very large one +rejoicing in the name of Dadi. My fast camels carrying loads had gone +ahead, and we, who had started later on horses, caught them up some +sixteen miles onward, where there was a third little village, the +inhabitants of which were wild-looking and unkempt. The women and +children stampeded at our approach. The houses were flat-topped and were +no taller than seven feet, except the house of the head village man which +was two-storeyed and had a domed roof. + +When the Hamun Halmund extended as far south as Kandak the Kuh-i-Kwajah +mountain was an island, but now the whole country around it is dry except +some small swamps and pools, on the edges of which thousands of sheep +could be seen grazing. It took a very powerful sight indeed to see what +the animals were grazing on. One's idea of a pasture--we always picture a +pasture for sheep as green--was certainly not fulfilled, and after a +minute inspection one saw the poor brutes feeding on tiny stumps of dried +grass, yellowish in colour and hardly distinguishable from the sand on +which it grew in clusters not more than half an inch high. + +Where the Hamun had been its bed was now of a whitish colour from salt +deposits. + +The Kuh-i-Kwajah (mountain), occasionally also called Kuh-i-Rustam, +rising as it does directly from the flat, is most attractive and +interesting, more particularly because of its elongated shape and its +flat top, which gives it quite a unique appearance. Seen from the east, +it stretches for about three miles and a half or even four at its base, +is 900 feet high, and about three miles on top of the plateau. The +summit, even when the beholder is only half a mile away from it, appears +like a flat straight line against the sky-line, a great boulder that +stands up higher on the south-west being the only interruption to this +uniformity. The black rocky sides of the mountain are very +precipitous--in fact, almost perpendicular at the upper portion, but the +lower part has accumulations of clay, mud and sand extending in a gentle +slope. In fact, roughly speaking, the silhouette of the mountain has the +appearance of the section of an inverted soup-plate. + +[Illustration: silhouette of kuh-i-kwajah.] + +Major Sykes, in the _Royal Geographical Society's Journal_, describes +this mountain as resembling in shape "an apple," but surely if there ever +was anything in the world that had no resemblance whatever to "an apple" +it was this mountain. It would be curious to know what Major Sykes calls +"an apple." + +The diagram here appended of the outline of the mountain, and indeed the +photograph given by Major Sykes in the _Royal Geographical Society's +Journal_, February, 1902, page 143, will, I think, be sufficient to +convince the least observant on this point. Major Sykes is also no less +than 500 feet out in his estimate of the height of the hill. The summit +is 900 feet above the plain--not 400 feet as stated by him. + +The altitude at the base is 2,050 feet, and at the summit 2,950 feet. As +we rounded the mountain to the southward to find a place at which we +could climb to the top, we saw a very ancient fort perched on the summit +of the mountain commanding the ruins of Kala-i-Kakaha, or the "city of +roars of laughter,"--a quaint and picturesque city built on the steep +slope of the south escarpment of the mountain. + +[Illustration: Sketch Map of Summit of Kuh-i-Kwajah + +by A. Henry Savage Landor.] + +In the centre of this city was a large and high quadrangular wall like a +citadel, and it had houses all round it, as can be seen by the bird's-eye +view photograph I took of it from the fort above, a view from which high +point of vantage will be described at the end of this chapter. + +We went along the outer wall of the city on a level with the plain at the +hill's base, but we abandoned it as this wall went up the mountain side +to the north. Some high columns could be seen, which appeared to have +formed part of a high tower. The sides of the hill on which the city was +built were very precipitous, but a steep tortuous track existed, leading +to the city on the east side, the two gates of the city being +situated--one north-east, the other north-west--in the rear of the city, +and, as it were, facing the mountain side behind. On the south-west side +high accumulations of sand formed an extensive tongue projecting very far +out into the plain. + +The rocky upper portion of the Kuh-i-Kwajah mountain was black towards +the east, but getting yellowish in the southern part, where there were +high sand accumulations up to about three-quarters of the height of the +mountain, with deep channels cut into them by water. + +We came to a narrow gorge which divides the mountain in two, and by which +along a very stony path between high vertical rocks the summit of the +table mountain could be reached. We left our horses in charge of a lancer +and Mahommed Azin, the head village man of Deh-i-Husena--a man who said +he was a descendant of the Kayani family, and who professed to know +everything about everything,--Gul Khan and I gradually climbed to the +higher part of the mountain. I say "gradually" because there was a great +deal to interest and puzzle one on the way up. + +This path to the summit had been formerly strongly fortified. Shortly +after entering the gorge, where we had dismounted, was a strange wall cut +in the hard, flint-like rock by a very sharp, pointed instrument. One +could still distinctly see the narrow grooves made by it. Then there were +curious heads of the same rock with side hollows that looked as if caused +by the constant friction or some horizontal wooden or stone implement. I +was much puzzled by these and could not come to a definite conclusion of +what could have been their use. Even our guide's universal knowledge ran +short; he offered no explanation beyond telling me that they had been +made by man, which I had long before discovered for myself. + +A small reservoir for rain-water was found near this spot, and nearly at +the top of the hillock a ditch had been excavated near the easiest point +of access, and another ditch could be seen all round. The low land round +the mountain has most certainly been inundated at various epochs, forming +a shallow, temporary swamp, but not a permanent lake as has been asserted +by some, and from what one saw one was tempted to believe that the plain +around Kuh-i-Kwajah must have been dryer in the days of its glory than it +has been in this century. + +[Illustration: Dead Houses and Ziarat on Kuh-i-Kwajah.] + +[Illustration: A Family Tomb (Eight Compartments) on Kuh-i-Kwajah.] + +On reaching the summit we found ourselves on an undulating plateau +covered with graves, but these graves, unlike all others which I had seen +in Persia, had not only the characteristic points of the Zaidan ones in +which the body was encased in the tomb above the level of the ground, but +were in compartments and contained whole families. The first grave we +examined was made of huge boulders and was six yards long, four yards +wide and had four sections, each occupied by a skeleton and covered over +with flat slabs of stone. Each compartment was about 11/2 feet high, 21/2 +feet broad, and 6 feet long. Near this family grave was a quarry of good +stone from which stones for grinding wheat, hand-mortars, &c., had been +cut. At the foot was a reservoir for rain-water. + +One was rather surprised on reaching the summit of Kuh-i-Kwajah to find +it so undulating, for on approaching the mountain from the plain one +was specially impressed by its straight upper outlines against the sky. +The summit is actually concave, like a basin, with numerous hillocks all +round, and one portion, judging by sediments left, would appear to have +contained a lake. In the centre of the plateau are two extensive +artificial camps dug into the earth and rock, and having stone sides. On +a hillock to the west of one of these ponds stands a tomb with no less +than ten graves side by side. + +From this point eastwards, however, is the most interesting portion of +this curious plateau. Numerous groups of graves are to be seen at every +few yards, and two dead-houses, one with a large dome partly collapsed on +the north side, the other still in the most perfect state of +preservation. The photograph facing page 240 gives a good idea of them. +The larger and more important dead-house had a central hall 41/2 yards +square, and each side of the square had an outer wing, each with one door +and one window above it. Each wing projected three yards from the central +hall. To the east in the central hall there was a very greasy stone, that +looked as if some oily substance had been deposited on it, possibly +something used in preparing the dead. Next to it was a vessel for water. + +Outside, all round the walls of this dead-house, and radiating in all +directions, were graves, all above ground and as close together as was +possible to construct them, while on the hillocks to the south of the +dead-houses were hundreds of compartments for the dead, some in perfect +condition, others fallen through; some showing evident signs of having +been broken through by sacrilegious hands--very likely in search of +treasure. + +[Illustration: Kala-i-Kakaha, the "City of Roars of Laughter."] + +[Illustration: The "Gandun Piran" Ziarat on Kuh-i-Kwajah.] + +On the top of a hillock higher than the others was a tomb of thirty-eight +sections, all occupied. A lot of large stones were heaped on the top of +this important spot, and surmounting all and planted firmly in them was a +slender upright stone pillar 61/2 feet high. It had no inscription upon it +nor any sign of any kind, and had been roughly chipped off into an +elongated shape. Near this grave, which was the most extensive of its +kind that I had observed on the plateau, was a very peculiar ruined house +with four rooms, each four yards square, and each room with two doors, +and all the rooms communicating. It was badly damaged. Its shape was most +unusual. + +We then proceeded to the Ziarat, a pilgrimage place famous all over +Persia and south-western Afghanistan. I was fortunate enough to take a +good photograph of its exterior (see opposite), which will represent its +appearance to the reader better than a description. A high rectangular +building plastered all over with mud, a front arch or alcove giving +access to a small door, and two domed low stone buildings, one on either +side, and another ruined building with a wall around it behind the +Ziarat. A few yards to the left of the entrance as one looked at it was a +coarse upright stone pillar. + +The inside of the Ziarat was more interesting than the outside. It was a +very large whitewashed single room, with high vaulted ceiling, and in the +centre rose from the floor to a height of three feet a gigantic tomb, six +yards in length, with a gabled top. It measured one yard and a half +across at the head, and one yard at its foot, and had two stone pillars +some five feet high standing one at each extremity. To these two end +pillars was tied a rope, from which hung numberless rags, strips of cloth +and hair. Behind the head of the tomb along the wall stretched a platform +four and a half feet wide, on which rested two brass candlesticks of +primitive shape, a much-used kalyan, and a great number of rags of all +sizes, ages, and degrees of dirt. + +The scrolls and inscriptions on the wall were very quaint, primitive +representations of animals in couples, male and female, being the most +indulged in by the pilgrims. Goats and dogs seemed favourite subjects for +portrayal. + +[Illustration: Male and Female Goats. Dog.] + +A lock of human hair and another of goat's hair hung on the wall to the +right of the entrance, and on two sticks laid across, another mass of +rags, white, blue, yellow and red. Hundreds more were strewn upon the +ground, and the cross bars of the four windows of the Ziarat were also +choke-full of these cloth offerings. Among other curious things +noticeable on the altar platform were a number of stones scooped into +water-vessels. + +This Ziarat goes by the name of Gandun Piran, and is said to be some +centuries old. In the spring equinox pilgrimages are made to this Ziarat +from the neighbouring city and villages, when offerings of wheat are +contributed that the donor may be at peace with the gods and expect +plentiful crops. These pilgrimages take very much the form of our "day's +outing on a Bank Holiday," and sports of various kinds are indulged in by +the horsemen. It is the custom of devout people when visiting these +Ziarats to place a stone on the tomb, a white one, if obtainable, and we +shall find this curious custom extending all over Beluchistan and, I +believe, into a great portion of Afghanistan. + +Directly in front of the Ziarat was the priests' house, with massive, +broad stone walls and nine rooms. The ceilings, fallen through in most +rooms, were not semi-spherical as usual but semi-cylindrical, as could +still be seen very plainly in the better-preserved one of the central +room. This house had a separate building behind for stables and an outer +oven for baking bread. The dwelling was secluded by a wall. + +The top of Kuh-i-Kwajah is even now a favourite spot for people to be +laid to their eternal rest, and near this Ziarat were to be found a great +many graves which were quite modern. These modern tombs, more elaborate +than the old ones, rose to about five feet above the ground, had a mud +and stone perforated balustrade above them all round, and three steps by +which the upper part could be reached. They seldom, however, had more +than three bodies in each tomb. + +We found on the ground a very curious large hollowed stone like a big +mortar, which seemed very ancient. Then further were more old graves in +rows of five, six, eight, and more. When one peeped into the broken ones, +the temptation to take home some of the bleached skulls to add to the +collection of one's national museum, and to let scientists speculate on +their exact age, was great. But I have a horror of desecrating graves. I +took one out--a most beautifully preserved specimen--meaning to overcome +my scruples, but after going some distance with it wrapped up in my +handkerchief I was seized with remorse, and I had to go and lay it back +again in the same spot where it had for centuries lain undisturbed. + +I examined several skulls that were in good condition, and the following +were their principal characteristics. They possessed abnormally broad +cheek-bones, and the forehead was very slanting backwards and was +extremely narrow across the temples and broad at its highest portion. The +back portion of the skull, in which the animal qualities of the brain are +said by phrenologists to reside, was also abnormally developed, when +compared to European skulls. The top section (above an imaginary plane +intersecting it horizontally above the ear) was well formed, except that +in the back part there was a strange deep depression on the right side of +the skull, and an abnormal development on the left side. This peculiarity +was common to a great many skulls, and was their most marked +characteristic. Evidently the brains of the people who owned them must +have constantly been working on a particular line which caused this +development more than that of other portions of the skull. + +[Illustration: A Bird's Eye View of Kala-i-Kakaha, the "City of Roars of +Laughter."] + +The upper jaw was rather contracted and mean as compared to the remaining +characteristics of the skull, slanting very far forwards where it ended +into quite a small curve in which the front teeth were set. The teeth +themselves were extremely powerful and healthy. The bumps behind the ear +channels were well marked. + +The whole skull, however, as seen from above, was more fully developed on +its right side than on the left; also the same abnormal development on +the right side could be noticed under the skull at the sides, where it +joins the spinal column. In a general way these skulls reminded one of +the formation of the skulls of the present Beluch. + +Another smaller Ziarat partly ruined was to be found south of the one we +had inspected, the tomb itself being of less gigantic proportions, and +now almost entirely buried in sand. The two end pillars, however, +remained standing upright, the northern one being, nevertheless, broken +in half. The door of this Ziarat was to the south of the building, and +had a window above it. The walls had a stone foundation, some 2 feet +high, above which the remainder of the wall was entirely of mud, with a +perforated window to the west. The tomb itself was 8 feet long by 4 feet +wide. A small square receptacle was cut in the northern wall. + +We had now come to the Kuk fort above the city of Kala-i-Kakaha on the +south of the mountain. With the exception of a large round tower, 40 feet +in diameter at the base, there remained very little to be seen of this +strong-hold. Sections of other minor towers and a wall existed, but all +was a confused mass of debris, sand and mud. + +From this point a splendid view was obtained of the city of Kala-i-Kakaha +just below, of which a photograph from this bird's eye aspect will be +found facing p. 246 of this volume. There was an extensive courtyard in +the centre enclosed by a high wall, and having a tower in the centre of +each of the two sides of the quadrangle. A belt of buildings was enclosed +between this high wall and a second wall, which had two towers, one at +each angle looking north towards the cliff of the mountain from which we +observed. Outside this wall two rows of what, from our high point of +vantage, appeared to be graves could be seen, while to the east were +other buildings and cliff dwellings extending almost to the bottom of the +hill, where a tower marked the limit of the city. + +From this point a tortuous track could be seen along the gorge winding +its way to the city gate, the only opening in the high third wall, most +irregularly built along the precipice of the ravine. At the foot of the +mountain this wall turned a sharp corner, and describing roughly a +semicircle protected the city also to the west. + +At the most north-westerly point there seemed to be the principal gate of +the city, with a massive high tower and with a road encased between two +high walls leading to it. The semicircle formed by the mountain behind, +which was of a most precipitous nature, was enclosed at its mouth by a +fourth outer wall, with an inner ditch, making the fortress of +Kala-i-Kakaha practically impregnable. + +The legend about Kala-i-Kakaha city furnished me by the Sar-tip, through +Gul Khan, was very interesting. + +In ancient days there was in that city a deep well, the abode of certain +godly virgins, to whom people went from far and near for blessings. +Visitors used to stand listening near the well, and if their prayers were +accepted the virgins laughed heartily, whereby the city gained the name +of Kaka-ha (roar of laughter). Silence on the part of the sanctimonious +maidens was a sign that the prayers were not granted. + +The Sistan historical authorities seem to think this origin of the name +plausible. There were, however, other amusing, if less reliable legends, +such as the one our friend Mahommed Azin gave me, which is too quaint to +be omitted. + +"In the time of Alexander the Great," he told us, "Aristotles the famous +had produced an animal which he had placed in _a_ fort" (_which_ fort +Mahommed Azin seemed rather vague about). "Whoever gazed upon the animal +was seized with such convulsions of laughter that he could not stop until +he died. + +"When Alexander was 'in the West' (_i.e._ _maghreb zemin_)" continued +Mahommed Azin, "he had seen this wonderful 'animal of laughter' produced +by Aristotles, and some seventy or eighty thousand soldiers had actually +died of laughter which they could not repress on seeing it. Plato only, +who was a wise man, devised a ruse to overcome the terrible effects of +looking at the animal. He brought with him a looking-glass which he +placed in front of the brute, and, sure enough, the demon, which had +caused the hilarious death of many others, in its turn was seized by +hysterical laughing at itself, and of course could not stop and died +too." + +Mahommed Azin was somewhat uncertain whether the animal itself had +resided in the fortress of the Kuh-i-Kwajah mountain, or whether the +owner of the animal had visited the place, or whether the place had been +named merely in honour of the legend of the "animal of laughter." All I +can say is that when Mahommed, with a grave face, had finished his +inimitable story, Gul Khan and I were also seized with such +uncontrollable fits of hilarity that, notwithstanding our mournful +surroundings of graves and dead-houses, we, too, very nearly went to +swell the number of victims of Mahommed Azin's "animal of laughter," +although without the pleasure of having made its personal acquaintance. + +Mahommed Azin positively finished us up when he gravely added that it was +most dangerous to recount the legend he had told us for he had known +people die of laughter by merely listening to it. There was some truth in +that. We nearly did, not only at the story but at the story-teller +himself! + +Kala-i-Kakaha is a famous spot in Persian history, for it is said that +the great Persian hero Rustam's first exploit was to capture this city +and slay its king _Kuk_, after whom the fort standing above Kakaha is +named. In more modern days Kakaha, which, from ancient times, had been a +place of shelter for retreating princes hard driven by the enemy, has +become noteworthy for its seven years' resistance to the attacks of +Nadir's troops, when the Kayani King Malik-Fath, having abandoned his +capital, Kala-i-Fath had taken refuge in the impregnable city of +Kala-i-Kakaha. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + + Villages between Sher-i-Nasrya and Kuh-i-Kwajah--The last of the + Kayani--Husena Baba--Thousands of sheep--The Patang + Kuh--Protecting black walls--A marsh--Sand dunes--Warmal--Quaint + terraces--How roofs are built--A spacious residence built for + nine shillings--Facial characteristics of natives--Bread + making--Semi-spherical sand mounts--Natural protections against + the northerly winds. + + +We were benighted on the mountain and did not reach the village of +Deh-i-Husena till nearly nine o'clock, our friend and guide having lost +his way in the dark and having taken us round the country for a good many +more miles than was necessary. It is true the night was rather black and +it was not easy to see where the low mud-houses of his village were. + +The distance in a direct line from Deh-i-Husena to the foot of the +Kuh-i-Kwajah mountain was 4 miles, and the village of Deh-i-Husena was +about 15 miles from Sher-i-Nasrya, the village of Dadi we had passed +being 9 miles off, and Sanchuli 143/4 miles from the city and only a +quarter of a mile from Deh-i-Husena. To the south of the latter village +was Deh-i-Ali-Akabar. + +We spent the night at Deh-i-Husena, Mahommed Azin, the head village man +and guide, being so entertaining in his conversation that he kept us up +till all hours of the morning. He professed to be one of the only two +surviving members of the Kayani family which formerly reigned over +Sistan, his cousin being the other. According to his words--which, +however, could not always claim to be models of accuracy--his family had +a good deal of power in Sistan up to about forty years ago (1860). They +were now very poor. + +Mahommed Azin had well-cut features and bore himself like a man of +superior birth, but he was very bitter in his speech against fate and +things in general. It was, nevertheless, wonderful how a man, living in a +small village secluded from everybody and everywhere, had heard of flying +machines, of submarine boats, of balloons that _ferenghis_ made. His +ideas of them were rather amusing, but he was very intelligent and quick +at grasping how they worked when I explained to him. Surgery interested +him intensely, and after that politics. The Ruski and Inglis he was sure +would have a great deal of trouble over Sistan. He could not quite make +up his mind as to which was the bigger nation. When he heard Ruski's +accounts of themselves he certainly thought the Ruski were the greater +people, but when he listened to the Inglis and what they could do he +really believed they must be stronger. + +"Who do you think is the most powerful?" he inquired of me. + +"Of course, the Inglis, without doubt." + +"Then do you think that your king will grant me a pension, so that I can +live in luxury and without working to the end of my days?" + +"The king does not usually grant pensions to lazy people. Pensions are +granted to people who have done work for the country." + +"Well then, you see," exclaimed Mahommed Azin, in thorough unreasonable +Persian fashion, "you say your king is greater than the Ruski king, and +he would not grant me a pension, I the last of the Kayanis!" He was sure +the Ruski potentate would at once if he knew! + +I left Husena at 9.30 a.m. on January 11th, striking south for Warmal. +There were a good many wretched villages in succession half a mile or so +apart from one another, such as Dubna, Hasan-Jafa, Luftulla and Husena +Baba. The ground was covered with white salt which resembled snow. + +Husena Baba was quite a large and important village. The inhabitants came +out in great force to greet us. Although wood was extremely scarce at +this village, nearly all the houses had flat roofs supported on rough +rafters. Matting on a layer of reeds prevented the upper coating of mud +from falling through. I came across several horses laden with bundles of +long reeds which they dragged behind them, and which they had carried, +probably from the Naizar, where they were plentiful. + +We had altered our course from south to east, and here I parted with +useful Gul Khan and the escort, who had to return to the Consulate. I +mounted my riding camel and started off, this time south-east, on my way +to Warmal. + +Again we saw thousands of sheep grazing on the flat desert of dried mud +and salt cracked in innumerable places by the sun. Here and there a close +examination showed tiny tufts of dried grass, some two inches in +circumference, and not more than half an inch tall, and at an average +distance of about ten feet from one another. It was astounding to me that +so many animals could find sufficient nourishment for subsistence on so +scanty a diet, but although not very fat the sheep seemed to be in pretty +good condition. + +To the west we had a high ridge of mountains--the Patang Kuh--and between +these mountains and our track in the distance an extensive marsh could be +distinguished, with high reeds in profusion near its humid banks. + +To the east some miles off were Dolehtabad (village), then Tuti and +Sakawa, near Lutok. + +South-east before us, and stretching for several miles, a flat-topped +plateau rose to no very great height above the horizon, otherwise +everything was flat and uninteresting all around us. Some very curious +walls of black mud mixed with organic matter, built to shelter sheep from +the fierce north winds while proceeding from one village to another, can +be seen in the _lut_. These black dashes on the white expanse of salt and +sand have about the same effect on the picturesqueness of the scenery as +coarse scrawls with a blunt pen on a fine page of calligraphy. You see +them here and there, scattered about, all facing north, like so many +black dashes in the otherwise delicate tones of grey and white of the +soil. + +When we had gone some miles on this flat, hard stretch of ground, where +the heat was terrible, we had to make a detour round a large marsh. Then +beyond it stood five parallel banks of sand, 25 feet high, with +horizontal layers of half-formed stone up to half the height of the +dunes. The dunes were about 200 yards apart. + +In the afternoon we arrived at Warmal, where water seemed plentiful and +good. Here too, as in the centre of most villages and towns of Persia, a +pond of stagnant filthy water could be seen. The pond at Warmal was of +unusually ample proportions and extended through the whole length of the +village, which was built on both sides of this dirty pond. Numerous +canals branched off from this main reservoir, and in fact, had one had a +little imagination, one might have named this place the Venice of Sistan. +At sunset swarms of mosquitoes rose buzzing from the putrid water, but +from a picturesque point of view the effect of the buildings reflected in +the yellow-greenish water was quite pretty. + +To facilitate transit from one side of the village to the other, a +primitive bridge of earth had been constructed across the pond, but as +the central portion of it was under water it was necessary to remove +one's foot-gear in order to make use of the convenience. + +Characteristic of Warmal were the quaint balconies or terraces, in shape +either quadrangular or rectangular, that were attached to or in close +proximity of each house. They were raised platforms of mud from 2 to 4 +feet above the ground, with a balustrade of sun-burnt bricks. On these +terraces the natives seek refuge during the summer nights to avoid being +suffocated by the stifling heat inside their houses. + +A difference in the construction and architecture of some of the roofs of +the houses could be noted here. The roofs were oblong instead of +perfectly circular, and when one examined how the bricks were laid it +seemed extraordinary that the vaults stood up at all. These were the only +roofs in Persia I had seen constructed on this particular principle. + +The bricks were laid round the vaults for two-thirds of the roof at an +angle of 45 deg. and the other third in a vertical position. There was the +usual upper central aperture and occasionally one or two side ones. + +The natives were very civil and obliging, and as usual they all crowded +round to converse. + +"Sahib," said one old man, "you must come to settle here." + +"Why should I settle here?" + +"It is very cheap to build houses at Warmal." + +"How much does it cost to build a house?" + +"Come and see and you will tell me whether you can build a house cheaper +in your country." + +He took me to a spacious new residence, 14 feet by 14 feet inside, and 18 +feet high. + +"It is a fine house, is it not, Sahib?" + +"Yes, very fine." + +"It cost me exactly two tomans, four krans (about nine shillings) to +build it, as it stands." + +Enumerating the various items of expenditure on the tips of his +fingers:--"Sun-baked bricks 1 kran (5_d._) per thousand," he continued; +"carpenter 1 kran a day for 5 days, and mason 1 kran a day. The people +who helped were not paid as they were relations!" + +The dome of this house was very scientifically constructed, as can be +seen by the diagram, and formed a very strong vault. To make these +vaults, four workmen begin at the four corners of the quadrangular base +to lay bricks in successively enlarging concentric arcs of a circle, each +higher than the previous one, till each section meets the two side ones. +The small portion that remains above is filled in with bricks, laid +transversely, and these vaults are really of remarkable strength. + +[Illustration: Vault, shewing how Bricks are laid.] + +[Illustration: Semi-Spherical Roof, shewing how Bricks are laid.] + +I have seen some built on this principle, and several centuries old, +standing in good preservation and as good as new. + +The type of natives was quite different again from that in other places +already visited, and was most interesting. The men, like most men of the +desert, had elongated faces, with long, regular noses, slightly convex +and somewhat drooping. The nostrils were rather swollen and lacking +character, and not sharply cut. At the bridge the nose was very narrow, +but broad in its lower portion and quite rounded, which looked better in +profile than full face. The nostrils drooped considerably towards the +point of the nose and were high up where joining the cheek. The faces of +these fellows formed a long smooth oval with no marked cheek-bones and +vivid, dark, intelligent eyes, small but well-open, showing the entire +iris. The lips were the most defective part of their faces, being unduly +prominent, thick and coarsely-shaped. + +The hair grew in a very normal way on their faces, and they possessed +very good arched eyebrows, slightly coarse but well-defined, and in most +cases meeting at the root of the nose. In fully-formed men the beard was +thick and curly, but did not grow to any great length. On the skull the +hair was jet-black and was soaked in oil, so that it had the appearance +or being perfectly straight. + +Ample trousers, the usual long shirt and Afghan boots (which are not +unlike European military boots), made up the attire of the masculine +members of the community. + +The women had, on a smaller scale, very similar features to those of the +men, and at a distance their oval faces appeared quite handsome, but on a +closer inspection the lineaments were much too elongated to be +attractive. They had a somewhat pulled appearance. Both men and women +were tall, slender and of very wiry build. + +After sunset the women, with their heads wrapped up in a sort of white +chudder, thrown gracefully behind the shoulders and reaching down to the +feet, began to prowl about in a great state of excitement, carrying big +balls of flour paste and small wicker work plates, like shields, covered +over by a cloth. They lighted a big fire in one of the small domed ovens, +and after beating the paste on the wicker shields till it had spread into +a thin layer, they quickly took it up with their hands and, kneeling over +the blazing furnace, stuck the paste against the roof of the oven. They +used long leather gloves for the purpose. While being baked the bread was +constantly sprinkled with water from a bowl close at hand. + +Nearly each house has its own outer oven, but the one I was near seemed +to be used by several families, judging by a string of clamouring women +who impatiently--and did they not let the others know how +impatiently!--waited with all necessaries in hand to bake bread for their +men. The respective husbands and sons squatted around on their heels, +languidly smoking their pipes and urging their women to be quick. A deal +of good-natured chaff seemed to take place during this daily operation, +but the women were quite in earnest and took themselves and the process +very seriously. They seemed much concerned if one piece got too much +burnt or another not enough. + +To the east by south-east of Warmal, about a mile and a half off, were +four semi-spherical sand mounts standing prominent against the sky-line, +and a great number of sand hills of confused formation. The several +sand-banks which I had observed in the morning on our march to this place +extended to a great length towards the east, and were a great protection +to Warmal against the periodic northerly winds of the summer. Hence the +lack here of the familiar wind-catchers and wind-protectors, found +further north, the sight of which one missed on the roof tops after +having become accustomed to Sher-i-Nasrya and adjoining villages where no +roof was without one. Here there were only one or two wind-catchers +visible on the roofs of the few two-storeyed houses of the richer folks. + +[Illustration: Sher-i-Rustam. (Rustam's City.)] + +[Illustration: The Stable of Rustam's Legendary Horse.] + +Another characteristic of dwellings in Warmal was that over each front +door there was a neat little fowl-house, subdivided into a number of +square compartments. The place was simply swarming with chickens. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + + Sand accumulations--A round tower--Mahommed Raza Chah--A burial + ground--Rustam's city--An ancient canal--Rustam's house--The + Persian hero's favourite room--A store room--Reception hall--The + city wall--Where Rustam's son was impaled--The stable of Rustam's + gigantic horse--More dry canals--An immense graveyard--Sand and + its ways--A probable buried city--A land-mark--Sadek's ways--A + glorious sunset--Girdi--Beluch greeting. + + +Warmal (altitude 2,100 feet) was left at 8 a.m. on the 12th. We skirted +extensive sand accumulations, high to the north, lower towards the south. +The under portion of these deposits had become semi-petrified up to a +height varying from 20 feet to 50 feet in proportion to the loftiness of +the hills themselves. We were travelling in a south-east direction along +these sand banks cut abruptly vertically, and when we left them and +turned due south across a flat bay in the desert there were sand-hills to +the east and west about one mile apart. + +At the most northern end of the western range a round tower could be seen +on the summit of a hillock. Having crossed over the low hill range before +us we descended into a long, flat, sandy stretch with tamarisk shrubs in +abundance. In an arc of a circle from north to south there extended sand +accumulations in various guises, the highest being some lofty conical +hills due east of our course. To the west in the distance we were +encircled by the Patang Kuh and the Mukh Surk ranges, which also extended +from north to south. + +[Illustration: The Gate of Rustam's City, as seen from Rustam's House.] + +Two farsakhs (eight miles) brought us to the British Consular Postal +Station of Mahommed Raza Chah, a mud structure of two rooms and an +ante-room between. One room was full of provisions, the other +accommodated the three postal _sawars_ (riders). Twelve holes had been +dug in search of water, but only two had been successful. One of the +sawars, a Beluch, on a _jumbaz_ camel, was just coming in with the post, +and he was a very picturesque figure in his white flowing robes and +turban over the curly long hair hanging upon his shoulders. One mile off, +six or seven more deep holes had been bored for water, but with no +success. Tamarisk was plentiful. + +We were now getting near the ruins of Sher-i-Rustam or Sher-i-Sukhta, the +city of Rustam, the Persian hero. North-east of it one came first to a +ruined tower, then to a burial ground with single graves and graves in +sets of two and three, very similar in shape to those we had seen on the +Kuh-i-Kwajah. These, too, were above ground, but were made of mud instead +of stone. Most of the graves had been broken through. The graveyard was +situated on a sand hillock. + +In the distance, to the east and south-east of Rustam's city, there +spread from the north a long stretch of ruins, which probably were part +of the continuation of the great Zaidan. A number of towers--as many as +six being counted in a line--and a high wall could be perceived still +standing. This must evidently have been a fort, and had what appeared to +be the wall of a tower at its north-west end. Other extensive ruins could +just be observed further south-east, and also to the south-west, where a +high tower stood prominent against the sky. + +When close to Rustam's city we went through a walled oblique-angled +parallelogram enclosing a tower. A great portion of the wall had +collapsed, but it appeared to have been an outpost north of the city. + +The next thing was an ancient dry canal which came from the east by +south-east, and we then found ourselves before Rustam's abode. The +photograph given in the illustration was taken as we approached the city +and gives a good idea of the place as it appeared beyond the foreground +of sand and salt. The place was in most wonderful preservation +considering its age. There were four high towers to the north, the two +central towers which protected the city gate being close together and +more massive than the corner ones, which were circular and tapering +towards the summit. The wall of the city was castellated and stood some +30 feet high. The city gate, protected by an outer screen, was to the +east, and was two-storeyed. It led directly into the main street of the +city. + +I cannot do better than enumerate the characteristics of the city in the +order in which I noticed them on my visit to it. A path, like a narrow +platform, was visible all round half-way up inside the wall, as well as +another on the top which gave access from one tower to another. There +were no steps to reach the summit of the towers, but merely inclined +planes. + +On entering the city gate--the only one--one came at once upon Rustam's +palace--a three-tiered domed structure with a great many lower annexes on +its western and southern sides. A wall adjoining the city gate enclosed +Rustam's quarters, and had a large entrance cut into it leading to the +dwelling. The various floors were reached by a series of tunnelled +passages on inclined planes. Rustam's favourite room was said to have +been the top one, represented in the photograph facing page 266, where +the outside of the two top storeys of the building can be seen. + +The domed room was well preserved, and had a sort of raised portion to +sit upon. The ceiling was nicely ornamented with a frieze and a design of +inverted angles. The room had four windows, and a number of slits in the +north wall for ventilating purposes. It was a regular look-out house, +commanding a fine view all round above the city wall of the great expanse +of desert with its ancient cities to the east, and distant blue mountains +to the west. There were a number of receptacles, some of which had been +used for burning lights, and five doors leading into other rooms. These +rooms, however, were not so well preserved--in fact, they had mostly +collapsed, their side walls alone remaining. No wood had been used in the +construction of the building and all the ceilings were vaulted. + +Rustam's "compound," to use the handy word of the east, occupied about +one-quarter of the area of the town and filled the entire south-east +corner. Besides the higher building it contained a great many side +structures, with domes, unfortunately, only half-standing, and showing +the same peculiarity as all the other domes in the city, _i.e._, they had +all collapsed on the north side while the southern part was preserved. In +the photograph facing page 268 this is shown very clearly. This was, of +course, due to the potent northerly winds. Rustam's tall house and high +walled enclosures can be seen in this photograph, some semi-collapsed +domes of great proportions showing just above the high enclosing wall. + +A spacious court commanded by a raised passage from north to +south--evidently for soldiers to patrol upon--was within the enclosure, +and, in fact, Rustam's premises formed a regular strong citadel within +the city. + +On the ground floor, now considerably below the level of the street +outside, was a long room, like a store-room. In the north wall it had a +most wonderful arrangement of ventilating chambers, which made the room +deliciously cool. These contrivances were like slits in the wall, with +boxed-in channels, where a great draught was set up by the natural inflow +and outflow of cooler and hotter air from above and under ground, and +from in and out of the sun. A great many receptacles could be noticed in +the lower portion of the wall, and also some low mangers, as if sheep had +been kept here to supply meat for the inmates of the citadel in time of +siege. + +Next to this, with an entrance on the main street, was Rustam's reception +hall--a great big room with domes no less than 18 feet high inside, but +now fallen through in two places. There were doors on the south and +north, and eleven receptacles specially constructed for lamps. These +receptacles were rather quaint in their simple design. + +[Illustration: receptacle for light.] + +All round Rustam's palace the city wall was double, and strengthened with +outside battlements. The same thing was noticeable in two portions of the +city wall to the west and south sides. The city wall was irregular in +shape, and impressed one as having been built at various epochs, and the +city had the appearance of having been enlarged in comparatively recent +times. There was a moat outside the wall, but in many places it had got +filled up with sand. A glance at the plan which I drew of the city will +give an idea of its shape. + +[Illustration: The Remains of the Two Upper Storeys of Rustam's House.] + +On the north side of the main street, opposite Rustam's house, was a +large stable, unroofed, and showing in the wall a number of mangers, +which appeared as if a large number of horses had been kept. + +Besides these there were in the western portion of the city quantities of +domed roofs, very small, a few still perfect, but mostly fallen in on the +northern side. The houses directly under the shelter of the northern wall +were in the best preservation, and many of them were still almost +entirely above ground. They were quadrangular or rectangular in shape, +made of mud, and with a low door on the south side. The larger ones had +ventilating channels with perforated slits in the north wall, like those +in Rustam's store-room, but all the houses were extremely small--an +average of 12 feet by 12 feet. + +In the southern portion of the city, where exposed to the wind, the +dwellings were deep-buried in sand, and hardly more than the domes +remained above ground. There were, however, one or two higher buildings, +presumably some of the better dwellings inhabited by Rustam's officers. A +portion of the south walls, which, curiously enough, had quadrangular +towers instead of tapering circular ones, had collapsed, and so had the +corresponding portion of the north wall. + +The city wall was of great interest, and even on the west side, where it +was of less strength, was constructed in successive tiers, each of less +than a man's height, and each with a path extending all along so that it +could be remanned continuously in time of attack. When one man of the +higher platform fell another could replace him immediately from the +platform directly below. The towers were much higher than the wall. + +The city gate was of great strength, the two front towers being +strengthened inwardly by a third quadrangular tower. A raised block under +the gateway was said to be the execution place. + +This city, historians declare, was destroyed by Bahram, who caused it to +be burnt, but there is no evidence whatever in the buildings to show that +a conflagration ever occurred in this place at all. In fact, it is rather +difficult to understand how buildings entirely of mud could be burned. +The city, it is said, was abandoned only about a century ago, when the +Sarbandi entered it by treachery and drove out the Rais tribe. + +[Illustration: Rustam's City, showing Rustam's House in Citadel, also +domed roofs blown in from the North.] + +A few hundred feet to the south outside the city wall are the remains of +the stable of Rustam's legendary gigantic horse. Part of the high wall +still stands up on the top of the section of a vault, but the greater +portion of the building, which was evidently of great proportions, is now +buried in sand. The exact spot is pointed out where the manger stood, and +so is the point where the heel ropes of this famous horse were tied. This +circumstance misled one traveller into stating in 1872 that "two hills, +one mile apart to the south-west, denoted the places where the manger and +the spot where the head of this famous horse were tied." This error has +been copied faithfully by subsequent travellers, including very recent +ones (see _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, February, 1902, +page 142). + +There seemed little doubt that the huge building, of which the wall +reproduced in the illustration made part, was a stable, and that it must +have been of special importance could be seen by the elaborate cross +pattern decorations on its outer face. The fragment of the wall stands +over 50 feet high, and to all appearance some twenty more feet of it are +underground, buried by the sand. It had strong supports at its base. + +[Illustration] + +The stable was most peculiarly shaped, ending in a sharp point at one +end. + +Another dry canal was noticeable to the west of the ruins which went from +south to north, with a branch canal going due west. North-west and west +were to be seen other ruined cities, one of which, with two high +quadrangular towers, was approximately three miles distant. To the west +on two hills were fortresses, but between these and Rustam's city lay an +immense graveyard (about one mile from Sher-i-Rustam), with graves above +ground--mainly single ones, but also a few family ones in adjoining +compartments. + +As we went along due west another ruined city was pointed out, Zorap, a +very ancient place, where Bahram is said to have impaled the body of +Firamurz, Rustam's son. + +We crossed two more dry canals of some magnitude, running parallel, which +showed that in former days this now barren part of Sistan must have been +under flourishing cultivation. In fact, further on we came upon traces of +houses and of extensive irrigation, the soil having quite a different +appearance to the usual _lut_ where left untouched by human tools. + +[Illustration: Plan of Sher-i-Rustam.] + +We then came across what at first seemed a confused commotion of sand and +mud, but its formation was very curious, and looked as if it covered an +underlying city of great size. The surface sand seemed to reproduce to a +certain extent the form of the structures that were down below, such as +quadrangular buildings, walls, domes, etc. It was not the natural +formation of sand on a natural ground. In one particular place a whole +city wall with towers could be traced, just showing above ground, so +perfectly rectangular that although covered by sand it would seem certain +that a fortress must be buried under this spot. + +All around these particular suspected buried cities the sand is +absolutely flat, and there would be no other plausible reason for this +most extraordinary irregular accumulation of sand reproducing forms of +walls, domes and towers against all the general rules of local sand +accumulations, unless such obstacles existed below to compel the sand to +accumulate in resemblance to them. This theory is strengthened too by +the fact that, here and there, some of the higher buildings actually may +be seen to project above ground. The sand mixed with salt had, on getting +wet, become solid mud, baked hard by the sun. + +Anybody interested in sand and its movements, its ways and process of +accumulation, could not do better than take a trip to this part of +Sistan. Little as one may care about sand, one is bound to get interested +in its ways, and one point in its favour is that with a certain amount of +logic and observation one can always understand why it has assumed a +certain formation rather than another--a pleasing feature not always +existing in all geological formations of the scenery one goes through. + +The great expanse of irregular surface soil, with its innumerable +obstacles and undulations, was, of course, bound to give curious results +in the sand accumulations south of it, where the sand could deposit +itself in a more undisturbed fashion and was affected by purely natural +causes. Of course, sand hills do not accumulate in the flat desert unless +some obstacle--a mere pebble, a tamarisk shrub, a ridge, or a stone, is +the primary cause of the accumulation. In the present case, I think the +greater number of sand hills had been caused by tamarisk shrubs arresting +the sand along its flight southwards. + +To enumerate and analyse each sand hill--there were thousands and +thousands--would take volumes. I will limit myself to the various most +characteristic types of which I give diagrams. The absolutely conical +type was here less noticeable, being too much exposed to the wind, which +gradually corroded one side of each hill more than the other. + +Whatever their shape, the highest point of the sand hills was in any case +always to the north-east, the lower to the south-west. As can be seen by +the diagram there were single hills and composite ones; there were +well-rounded hills, semi-spherical hills, and then came the sand dunes, +such as those on the right of our track, like long parallel walls of sand +extending for great distances from east to west. + +[Illustration: View of Sher-i-Rustam from Rustam's House. (West portion +of City under the lee of wall.)] + +One sand hill, 80 feet high, quite semi-spherical, and with a solitary +tamarisk tree on its top, rising some 40 feet above all the others, was +quite a landmark along this route. It marked a point from which to the +east of our track we found more uniformity in the shape of the sand +mounds, which were lower and all semi-spherical. To the west of the +track, curiously enough, there were hardly any sand hills at all,--but +this was due, I think, to the fact that tamarisk shrubs did not seem to +flourish on the latter side, and therefore did not cause the sand to +accumulate. + +Several miles further, however, at a spot protected by high sand dunes, +tamarisk trees were found growing, some being 4 to 6 feet high, and +seeming quite luxuriant after the usual desert shrubs which hardly ever +rise above two to three feet. + +Sadek had purchased at Warmal two big bottles of milk for my use, but as +we had found no good water on the way and the heat of the sun was +great, he could not resist the temptation, and had drunk it all. When I +claimed it he professed that my cats had stolen it. A long jolting ride +on the jumbaz camel produced the marvellous result that, although the +cats had drunk the milk, Sadek himself was attacked by indigestion caused +by it. He seemed to suffer internal agony, and lay on his camel's hump +doubled up with pain. He felt so very ill that he requested me to take +him on my camel, and to let him exchange places with my driver. To my +sorrow I consented. + +In a moment of temporary relief from the aching of his digestive organs +he entered into one of his favourite geographical discussions. Having for +the twentieth time eradicated from his brain the notion that London and +Russia were not suburbs of Bombay, he now wanted to know whether +_Yanki-dunia_ (by which glorified name the Persians call the United +States of America) were inside the "walls" of London city or outside! + +He had an idea that the earth was flat, and that London, Bombay and +Russia were together on the extreme edge of it. The stars he believed to +be lighted up nightly, as one would candles or paraffin lamps. +Fortunately, while explaining to me his extraordinary theory of how it +was that the moon never appeared alike on two successive nights, he was +again seized with another fearful attack, and tumbled off the camel. + +Sadek was most unfortunate with animals. He was hated by them all. When +he went near horses they would kick, buck and neigh as if a wolf had been +at hand; mules stampeded at his sight; cats bolted as if he were about to +beat them; and camels were restless and made most fearful noises of +disapproval and distress at his approach. When he tried to get on and +off, the kneeling camel would suddenly spring up again, causing him to +fall, and when he did get on the saddle the vicious brutes would assume a +most unusual and uncomfortable jerky motion, which bumped him to such an +extent that he could not stand it long, and had to get off. The animals +evidently did it purposely to get rid of him, for when I got on any of +them they went beautifully. Hence, whenever Sadek wished to ride +comfortably he always requested to change seats with my driver, who +occupied the front seat on the hump of my camel. + +[Illustration: View of Sher-i-Rustam from Rustam's House. (South-east +section of City.)] + +We had a glorious sunset on that evening, not unlike an aurora borealis, +in brilliant rays of light radiating from a central point. The sun had +already disappeared behind the blue mountain chain, and each bright +vermilion ray had like a fish bone or like a peacock's feather, myriads +of cross off-shoots in the shape of lighter sprays of light. There was a +brilliant yellow glow which tinted the blue sky and made it appear of +various gradations, from bright yellow at the lower portion to various +delicate shades of green in the centre, blending again into a pure deep +cobalt blue high up in the sky, and on this glorious background the +feathery vermilion sprays shot up to half way across the celestial vault. +Other smaller sprays of vivid yellow light flared up in a crescent nearer +the mountain edge. + +It was quite a glorious sight, unimpeded by the grand spread of sand in +the foreground and a patch or two of humble tamarisks. + +The rapidity with which night descends upon the desert, is, as we noticed +several times, quite amazing. There was hardly any twilight at all. In a +few seconds this beautiful spectacle vanished as by enchantment, and was +converted into a most mournful sight. The vermilion feathery sprays, now +deprived of the sun's light upon them, were converted into so many +gigantic black feathers--of rather funereal appearance--and the emerald +green sky became of a dead leaden white. The deep blue, fringed with red +and yellow, of the radiant mountains had now turned into a sombre, +blackish-grey. + +About four miles before reaching Girdi a track branches off, which avoids +that place altogether, and rejoins the track again one mile south of +Girdi, thus saving a considerable detour. + +Our march that day had been from Warmal to Mahommed Raza-Chah (altitude +2,100 feet), eight miles, and from that place to Girdi-chah, twenty-eight +miles. The track between the two latter stations was perfectly level, and +on _jumbaz_ camels going at a good pace the journey had occupied eight +hours and a half. + +On arriving at Girdi (altitude 2,200 feet), the Beluch _sawar_ whom I had +taken as guide from Mahommed Raza Chah, and my Beluch driver had a most +touching scene on meeting some Beluch of a caravan travelling in the +opposite direction to mine and camping at Girdi for the night. + +The men hastily dismounted from their camels, put their heads together +and pressed each the other's right hand, holding it on the heart. + +"It is my brother!" cried my camel man, and then followed another +outburst of effusion on the brother's part, who seized my hand in both +his and shook it heartily for a considerable time. The others followed +suit. + +There is nothing that an Afghan or a Beluch likes better than a good +hearty hand-shake. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + + Girdi-chah, a desolate spot--Its renowned water--Post-houses and + Persian Customs soldiers--Nawar-chah and its well--The salt river + Shela--Its course--Beautiful colours in salt + crystals--Tamarisks--The Kuh-i-Malek-Siah--The loftiest + mountain--Afghans--Hormak, a picturesquely situated post + station--A natural pyramid of rock--Natural fortresses--The + Malek-Siah Ziarat--Where three coveted countries meet--The + hermit--The evolution of a sand hill--Parallel sand dunes--In + Beluchistan--Robat, the most north-easterly British post. + + +Girdi-chah (altitude 2,200 feet), a desolate spot in a desolate region, +remains impressed in the minds of visitors merely and only for the +vileness of its water. Sadek brought me a glass of it for inspection, and +it was so thick with salt and dirt that it resembled in colour and +density a mixture of milk and coffee. In flavour I do not know what it +was like because I would not drink it, but I induced Sadek to try it and +let me know, and he said that it tasted like salt, sand, and bad eggs +mixed together. Unluckily, Sadek had omitted to fill the skins with good +water at Warmal, and after our long march of 36 miles we should have been +in a bad plight, had not the Beluch men in charge of the other caravan +offered us some good water from their supply to drink and cook with. + +The post station at Girdi has a high wall round it, with two rooms for +_sawars_, and one adjoining for their families, and grain shop. There are +four watch towers at the corners of the wall of sun-dried bricks, and a +path on the top to go from one tower to the other. A canal has been cut +to drain as much rain water (the only water obtainable here) as possible +into a small pond, but the pond was nearly dry and only had in it some +filthy salt water densely mixed with camel refuse. It was of a ghastly +green with patches of brown, and some spots of putrefaction in circular +crowns of a whitish colour. The surface was coated with a deposit of +sand, dirt and salt. + +A few yards from the British Consular post-house stood a small hut in +which two Persian Customs soldiers were stationed. They were +picturesquely attired in peaked white turbans, long yellow coats, leather +belts with powder and bullet pouches, and various other adjuncts. They +were armed with long, old-fashioned matchlocks. + +These men and the postal _sawars_ complained of the terrible water--and +no wonder!--but although they seemed painfully worn and thin it had not +actually caused them any special illness so far. They generally laid in a +small supply of better water from the well six miles off. + +On our way in that direction when we left the next morning we again saw +in the distance to the east and south-east four or five ruined cities. +Tamarisk was plentiful and grew to quite a good height. + +We passed the post-house of Nawar-chah with its well of fairly good +water. The well was some three feet in diameter and water had been struck +fifteen feet below the surface. The shelter, with a low mud enclosure +round it, was very similar to the one at Mahommed Raza-chah. + +At each post-house one was generally greeted by a Beluch cat with pointed +ears, who came out in the hopes of getting a meal, then by picturesque, +bronzed-faced Beluch _sawars_, with luxuriant black hair and beard, and +white turbans and cloaks. This being a minor station, there were only two +_sawars_ and no animals, whereas at stations like Girdi there were a +_duffadar_ in charge, four _sawars_, two attendants, two camels and two +horses. + +Some three miles south-east of Nawar more ruins could be seen, a small +tower and three large square towers with north and south walls in great +part blown down, but with eastern and western walls standing up to a +great height. A separate domed building could also be observed a little +way off. + +Perhaps one of the most interesting natural sights on the journey to the +Beluchistan frontier was the great salt river--the Shela--which we struck +on that march, six miles from Nawar. It was by far the largest river I +had seen in Persia, its channel being some 100 yards wide in places. It +came from the mountains to the south-west, where thick salt deposits are +said to exist, and at the point where we crossed it its course was +tortuous and the river made a sharp detour to the south-east. All along +the watercourse extensive sediments of salt lined the edge of the water, +and higher up, near the mountains, the water is said to be actually +bridged over by salt deposits several inches thick. + +Most interesting incrustations of salt were visible under the water, +especially at the side of the stream, where, with the reverberation of +the sun's rays, most beautiful effects of colour were obtained in the +salt crystals. The following were the colours as they appeared from the +edges of the stream downwards:--light brown, light green, emerald green, +dark green, yellow, warm yellow, deep yellow, then the deep green of the +limpid water. + +The river banks on which we travelled were about 60 feet high above the +actual stream, and owing to a huge diagonal crack across our track we had +to deviate nearly half a mile in order to find a way where my camels +could get across. The Shela proceeds along a tortuous channel in a +south-easterly direction, enters Afghan territory, and loses itself, as +we shall see, in the south-west Afghan desert. + +It is said that when, which is now but rarely, the Hamun-Halmund is +inundated, the overflow of water from the lake so formed finds its way by +a natural channel into the Shela, which it swells, and the joint waters +flow as far as and fill the Shela Hamun or Zirreh in Afghanistan, which +is at a lower level than the Hamun-Halmund. When I saw the lake in +Afghanistan, however, it was absolutely dry. + +The Shela river had very large pools of deep water almost all along that +part of it which is in Sistan territory, but there was hardly any water +flowing at all, so that nowadays in dry weather it loses itself in the +sand long before reaching the depression in Afghan territory, where, by +the great salt deposits, it is evident that a lake may have formerly +existed, but not now. + +After leaving the Shela we were travelling again on the sandy _lut_, and +not a blade of vegetation of any kind could be seen. We came to two +tracks, one going south-west, the other due south. We followed the +latter. As we got some miles further south a region of tamarisks began, +and they got bigger and bigger as we went along. Where some shelter +existed from the north winds, the shrubs had developed into quite big +trees, some measuring as much as 20 feet in height. For a desert, this +seemed to us quite a forest. Near the well of salt water, half way (12 +miles) between the two postal stations, the tamarisks were quite thick. + +Sixteen miles from Nawar, however, some great sand dunes, like waves of a +sea, extending from east to west, were again found, together with +undulations of sand and gravel, and here tamarisks again became scarce. +The track had been marked with cairns of stones at the sides. Where the +wind had full sway, the long sand banks, parallel to one another and very +regular in their formation, appeared exactly like the waves of a stormy +ocean. + +The track went towards the south-west, where one has to get round the +point of Afghanistan, which, projects west as far as the Kuh-i-Malek-Siah +(Mountains). We were steering into what appeared at first a double row of +mountains in a mountain mass generally called the Malek-Siah. To the +west, however, on getting nearer we could count as many as four different +ranges and two more to the east of us. The last range, beyond all of the +four western ones, had in its S.S.W. some very high peaks which I should +roughly estimate at about eight to ten thousand feet above the plain. Due +west there were also some high points rising approximately from six to +seven thousand feet, and in front of these and nearest to the observer, a +low hill range. A high even-topped range, like a whale's back, and not +above 3,000 feet above the plain, had a conical hill on the highest part +of its summit. The loftiest mountains were observed from south to +south-west, and they, too, had a low hill barrier before them. Many of +the peaks were very sharply pointed, and highest of all stood a strange +looking three-humped mountain (280 deg. W.) with a deep cut on its westerly +side, and a pointed peak standing by it. + +The sand under foot had given place here to gravel and large pebbles, +yellow, red, grey, white and green, all well rounded as if they had been +rolled by water for many a mile. The underlying sand was cut into many +channels by the action of water. We were some four miles off the +mountainous mass. Tamarisk was scarce and undersized. + +We were gradually rising on a slightly inclined plain, and on examining +the ground one could not help thinking with what terrific force the +torrents must come down--when they do come down--from the mountain sides +which they drain before losing themselves in the sand. During abnormally +rainy weather, no doubt, a good deal of this drainage forms an actual +stream which goes to swell the river Shela. Its channel comes from Hormak +and flows first in a north-easterly then in an almost due easterly +direction. + +We had intended stopping at Hormak, thirty-two miles from Girdi, our +previous halting place, and we had been on the saddle from 9 in the +morning till 8.30 p.m., when we came across a lot of Afghans with their +camels, and they told us that we were on the wrong track for the +post-house and well. It was very dark and we could not see where we were +going, as the sand had covered up the track. We were among a lot of +confused sand hills, and the high mountains stood directly in front like +a formidable black barrier, their contour line just distinguishable +against the sky. + +The camel driver, who had made me discharge the postal _sawar_ guide, +because he was certain he knew the road well himself, was now at a loss. +The Afghans collected round us and yelled at the top of their voices +that Hormak was to the west of us, and the camel man insisted that the +post house must surely be on the high track, on which we certainly seemed +to have got again. + +I had ridden ahead, and after an anxious hour Sadek, with all the +luggage, and the second camel man arrived, and we decided to leave the +track and try our luck among the mountains to the west. + +Now, to find a little mud house, hidden in some sheltered spot among +rocks and hills, on a dark night is not the easiest of matters. The +camels stumbled among the big boulders when once we had got off the +track, and we had to dismount and walk. As luck would have it, after +going about half an hour we came to a nice spring of water, of which in +the stillness of the night we could plainly hear the gurgling. Guided by +it, and a few feet above it in a sheltered position, we struck the +post-house. + +The post-house has, of course, been built here (one mile away from the +high track) because of this spring. There is a direct track to it which +branches off the main track, about 3 miles north, but we had missed this. + +The night was a very cold one--we were at 3,380 feet above sea level--and +we lighted a big fire in the middle of the small mud room. As there was +no outlet for the smoke except the door, in a few minutes the place got +unbearably hot, and I had to clear out, but Sadek and my camel men, who +were regular salamanders, seemed to enjoy it and found it quite +comfortable. + +There were two rooms, one occupied by the four postal _sawars_, the other +by five Persian Customs employees. The two camels and two horses for the +postal service were kept in the mud walled enclosure. + +Hormak, when the sun rose, proved to be one of the most picturesquely +situated stations on the entire route between Sher-i-Nasrya and Nushki. +It stood on a hill of sand and gravel in the centre of a basin of high +reddish-brown mountains which screened it all round. There was an opening +to the east which gave a glimpse of the desert extending into +Afghanistan, this station being not far from the border. + +Our track was to the south-west, and wound round between handsome +mountains. A strange high pyramid of rock stood on our way, and the sides +of the mountains, where cut by the water, showed the interesting process +of petrification in its various stages in the strata of the mountains. In +hills of conical formation the centre was the first to become solidified, +and where subsequent rain storms had washed away the coating around that +had not yet become petrified curious rocky pillars were left standing +bare on the landscape. + +We altered our course to due south along a river bed, and had high sand +hills to our right. Now that we were approaching Beluchistan the track +was well defined, and about 16 feet broad, with sides marked by a row of +stones. To the west of the track were a series of high sand walls (facing +west) 300 feet high, and some most peculiar red, pointed, conical hills +rose above them on the east side of these walls. It was after reaching +these peculiarly coloured hills that the track began a gradual descent. +The highest point on the track was 3,670 feet. + +We passed a strange mount shaped like a mushroom, and the same formation +could be noticed on a smaller scale in many other smaller hills, the +lower portion of which had been corroded by wind or water or both, until +the petrified centre of the hill remained like a stem supporting a +rounded cap of semi-petrified earth above it. + +From the west there descended another water channel, quite dry. We next +found ourselves in a large basin one mile across and with an outlet to +the north-east, at which spot a square castle-shaped mountain stared us +in the face. A similar fortress, also of natural formation, was to the +south-south-west, and between these two the Robat track was traced. +Another outlet existed to the south-east. To the west, north, east and +south-east there were a great many sand-hills, and to the +south-south-west high rugged mountains. + +A strong south-westerly gale was blowing and the sky was black and leaden +with heavy clouds. We were caught in several heavy showers as we +proceeded along a broad flat valley amid high and much broken-up black +mountains (north-west) the innumerable sharp pointed peaks of which +resembled the teeth of a saw. At their foot between them and our track +stretched a long screen of sand accumulations--in this case facing +north-west instead of west, the alteration in the direction being +undoubtedly due to the effect of the mountains on the direction of the +wind. + +To the east there were rocks of a bright cadmium yellow colour, some 45 +feet high, with deposits of sand and gravel on them as thick again (45 +feet). The mountains behind these rocks showed a similar formation, the +yellow rock, however, rising to 120 feet with rock above it of a +blackish-violet colour, getting greenish towards the top where more +exposed to the wind. + +The valley along which we were travelling averaged about 200 yards wide, +from the sand hills on one side to those on the other, and was at an +incline, the eastern portion being much lower than the western. The +yellow rocks at the side bore marks of having been subjected to the +corrosive action of water, which must occasionally fill this gully to a +great height during torrential rains. + +We came to a most interesting point--the Malek Siah Ziarat, which in +theory marks the point where the three coveted countries, _i.e._, Persia, +Afghanistan and Beluchistan, meet. The actual frontier, however, is on +the summit of the watershed, a short distance to the east of the Ziarat. + +This Ziarat was a fine one, of the Beluch pattern, not covered over by a +building such as those, for instance, that we had found on Kuh-i-Kwajah. +There seemed to be a fate against photographing these Ziarats. It was +only under the greatest disadvantages that I was ever able to photograph +them. On this particular occasion I had hardly time to produce my camera +before a downpour, such as I had seldom experienced, made it impossible +to take a decent picture of it. + +There was a central tomb 15 feet long, of big round white stones, +supported on upright pillars of brown and green stone, and a white marble +pillar at each end. Circular white marble slabs were resting on the tomb +itself, and a few feet from this tomb all round was a wall, 3 feet high, +of upright pillars, of brown and green stone, forming an oblong that +measured 20 feet by 8 feet, with a walled entrance at its south-eastern +extremity. An additional wall like a crescent protected the south-eastern +end of the oblong, and due east in a line were three stone cairns with +bundles of upright sticks fixed into them, on which hung rags of all +colours. + +[Illustration: Plan of Kuh-i-Malek Siah Ziarat.] + +To the west of the tomb, between it and the enclosing wall, was a great +collection of long sticks and tree branches--which must have been brought +here from a great distance--and at their foot offerings of all sorts, +such as goat-horns, ropes, leather bags, hair, stones, marble vessels, +and numberless pieces of cloth. + +In the spring of each year, I am told, the Beluch make a pilgrimage to +this Ziarat, and deposit some very quaint little dolls made with much +symbolic anatomical detail. + +Extending west, in the direction of Mecca, from the main Ziarat, were +nine more stone cairns, most of them having a _panache_ of sticks and +being divided into sets of three each, with a higher wall in the shape of +crescents between. A second wall of round stones protected the north-west +side of the Ziarat. Where it met the entrance way into the inner wall +there was a much used sacrificial slab where sheep were beheaded. + +To the north-east of the Ziarat were a number of cairns, and a small +stone shelter in which lived a hermit. This old fanatic came out to greet +us with unintelligible howls, carrying his vessel for alms, and a long +stick to which a rag was attached. He touched us all on the head with it, +which was meant as a blessing, and we gave him some silver pieces, which +he said he did not want for himself, but for the Ziarat. He wore chains +like a prisoner. He appeared to be in an advanced stage of idiocy and +_abrutissement_, caused by his lonely life in his 5 feet cubic stone +cabin among the desolate Malek-Siah mountains. + +Having at this place rounded the most westerly point of the Afghan +frontier we turned due east on a tortuous but well defined track. At +this point began the actual British road, and being from this point +under British supervision it was well kept, and made extremely easy for +camel and horse traffic. + +Three miles from the Ziarat the sand hills began to get smaller and +smaller to the west, but still remained high to the east. One was +particularly struck by the peculiar formation of the mountains. To the +west they formed a continuous rugged, irregularly topped chain, with +sharp pointed peaks, whereas to the east we had isolated, single domed +hills all well rounded and smooth. + +Where the track turns sharply south-east we entered a vast basin with +picturesque high mountains to the south and north, and a series of single +well-rounded mounds in front of them, rising from one to two thousand +feet above the plain. + +On nearing Robat one finds the scenery plainly illustrating the entire +evolution of a small sand hill into a high mountain. We have the tiny +mounds of sand, only a few inches high, clogged round tamarisk shrubs, +then further higher and higher mounds, until they spread out so far that +two, three, or more blend together, forming a low bank, and then banks +increase to high dunes 40 feet, 50 feet, 100 feet high. These grow higher +and higher still; the sand below is compressed by the weight above; water +exercises its petrifying influence from the base upward, and from the +centre outward, and more sand accumulates on the upper surface until they +become actual hill ranges of a compact shale-like formation in +horizontal strata, each stratum being slightly less hardened than the +underlying, and each showing plainly defined the actions of water and sun +to which they were exposed when uppermost. Then, above these hills, +further accumulations have formed, which solidifying in turn have in the +course of centuries become high mountains. They have, however, never lost +the characteristics of the little primary accumulation against the humble +tamarisk, to which they still bear, on a large scale, the closest +resemblance. + +We passed a great many parallel sand dunes, 100 feet high, east and west +of our track, and went through a cut in one of these sand banks, beyond +which the sand hills had accumulated in a somewhat confused fashion upon +a crescent-shaped area. They seemed of a more ancient formation than +those to the west of the track, and had a great quantity of shingle upon +them, which gave them a black and greenish appearance, while those to the +west were of a light brown colour. The shingle in this case, I think, had +not formed on the hillocks themselves, but had been washed and blown down +from the high mountains to the east. + +We were now in the territory of Beluchistan, and with a bounding +heart--after the experience of Persian rest-houses--we saw a nice clean +square whitewashed bungalow standing on a high prominence under the +shelter of a rugged mountain. This was Robat, the furthermost British +post in West Beluchistan. + +Although still some 463 miles from the nearest railway I looked upon this +spot as the end of my difficult travelling, and, taking into +consideration the fact that most of that distance had to be performed +across barren and practically uninhabited country, I found that I was not +far wrong in my opinion. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + + The Lahr Kuh--Robat _thana_ and bungalow--Said Khan--Persian and + Beluch music, songs and dancing--Beluch musical + instruments--Beluch melodies, love and war songs--Comic + songs--Beluch voices--Persian melodies--Solo + songs--Ululations--Persian instruments--Castanets--Persian and + Beluch dancing--The _chap_. + + +South-west of Robat (at 210 deg. bearings magnetic) stands a fine mountain, +the Lahr Kuh, and from it descends a little stream flowing towards the +north-east. There is a large _thana_ (fortified post-house) at Robat of +eight rooms and a spacious court for horses. A shop with grain and +provisions is found here, and a post office with the familiar black board +outside on which one was rather amused to read the usual postal notices +in the English language stuck upon it--announcing Queen Victoria's death, +notifying that the office would be closed on such and such bank holidays, +and other public news. + +The quarters of the _Jemadar_ and his seven levies, of the _Duffadar_ and +the postmaster, were enclosed in the high-walled _thana_ with its +imposing entrance gate and four towers at the corners. Beyond the _thana_ +was the old resting place built of stone, with six rooms, but now rather +in a tumbling-down condition. + +Then last, but not least, of the buildings was the new bungalow, with a +nice portico all round. It contained four spacious, lofty rooms with +well-drawing chimneys. There were windows, but not yet with glass in +them, and this was rather an advantage, because the air of the mountains +was pure and better than would have been the shut-in atmosphere of a +room. Each room had a bathroom attached to it--but of course the bath had +to be brought by the traveller himself. + +[Illustration: Said Khan, Duffadar and Levies at the Perso-Beluch +Frontier Port of Robat.] + +This was one of two types of rest-houses which are being built by the +British Government for travellers on the Nushki-Robat route. The other +kind was of similar architecture but with only two rooms instead of four. +These bungalows were solidly built, well ventilated and excellent in +every way--of course in relation to the country they were in. It was not +proposed when they were put up to compete in comfort and _cuisine_ with +the Carlton Hotel in London, that of Ritz in Paris, or the +Waldorf-Astoria of New York. They were mere rest-houses for traders and +travellers accustomed to that particular kind of travelling, and the +British Government ought to be greatly thanked for building these +shelters at the principal halting-places on the route. Only a few are +completed yet between Robat and Nushki, but their construction is going +ahead fast, and within the next year or so, if I understood right, they +would all be ready to accommodate travellers. They were a great +improvement on the old _thanas_, which, although comfortable enough, were +not always quite so clean on account of natives using them. + +After travelling in Persia, where one climbs down a good deal in one's +ideas of luxury and comfort and is glad to put up even in the most modest +hovels, it seemed to me quite the zenith of luxury and comfort to set +foot inside a real whitewashed rest-house, with mats on the floor and a +fire blazing in a real chimney. News had come that I should arrive that +afternoon, and the levies with the _Jemadar_ in their best clothes all +turned out to receive me, which involved considerable hand-shaking and +elaborate compliments, after which I was led into the room that had been +prepared for me. + +Said Khan, who has been employed by the Government to look after the +postal arrangements and other political work on the Persian side of the +frontier, was also here parading with the others, as can be seen in the +illustration. + +Said Khan was a tall, intelligent, black-bearded, fearless person, +wearing a handsome black frock-coat, a mass of gold embroidery on the +chest, and a beautiful silver-mounted sword--which, by the way, he wore +in a sensible fashion slung across his shoulder; with his well-cut +features, strong, almost fierce mouth, finely chiselled nostrils and +eagle eyes he was quite a striking figure. + +The _Duffadar_, who stood on his right hand, had a most honest and +good-natured face, and he, too, looked very smart in his uniform, +cartridge bandolier, silver-handled sword and Enfield rifle. His men +were also armed with this rifle which, although of old pattern, is very +serviceable. + +With the exception of Said Khan, the people represented in the +illustration formed the entire stationary male population of Robat, but +some small black tents could be seen in a gully a little way off +inhabited by nomad Beluch. + +On hearing that I was much interested in music, the _Duffadar_, who was a +bit of a musician himself, arranged a concert in which all the local +talent took part. On this and many other later occasions I heard Beluch +music and singing and saw their dancing, and as I also heard a good deal +of Persian music while in Persia I daresay a few words upon the music and +dancing of the two countries will not be out of place. In many ways they +are akin. + +A large instrument called the _Dumbirah_ or _Dambura_--something like an +Italian mandola--was produced which was handsomely carved and inlaid in +silver. It had three strings, two of which were played as bass; on the +third the air was twanged in double notes, as the thumb and first finger +are held together, the first finger slightly forward, and an oscillation +is given from the wrist to the hand in order to sound the note twice as +it catches first in the thumb then in the first finger. The effect +obtained is similar to that of the _Occalilli_ of Honolulu, or not unlike +a mandoline, only with the Beluch instrument the oscillations are slower. + +The movement of the favourite Beluch melodies resembles that of a +Neapolitan tarantella, and these airs are generally more lively than +melodies of most other Asiatic people. Endless variations are made on the +same air according to the ability and temperament of the musician. The +notes of the two bass strings of the instrument are never altered, but +always give the same accompaniment on being twanged together with the +violin string on which only the actual melody is picked out. + +There is then the _Soroz_, a kind of violin made of a half pumpkin, which +forms the sounding board, and a handle to it with four keys and four +strings. It is played with a bow of horsehair. + +The other instruments in use are the _Seranghi_, a kind of superior +violin such as the two central ones represented in the full page +illustration. It has no less than fourteen keys, is hollow and uncovered +in its upper portion, but has a skin stretched in the lower half of its +sounding case. It is also perforated underneath and is played with a bow +called _gazer_. + +The _Rabab_ is a larger wooden instrument of a somewhat elongated shape, +and its lower portion is also covered by a tight sheepskin--the remainder +of the uncovered wood being prettily inlaid with silver and bone. This +instrument is twanged with the fingers and has eighteen _killi_ or keys, +twelve with metal strings and six with gut strings. + +The _Surna_, or flute, is made of bamboo with a brass funnel. The +mouthpiece is very ingenious, made of crushed cane fastened into a cup +which is firmly applied to the lips, thus preventing any wind escaping at +the sides. It certainly gives a very piercing sound when played loud. + +The _Dohl_, or drum, was also of wood with sheepskins drawn tight at the +two ends while wet, rolled up all round the rims of the apertures, and +kept in position by leather strips. + +[Illustration: Beluch Musicians (at Sibi.)] + +Besides these the Beluch shows much ingenuity in improvising musical +instruments to accompany his songs, out of any article which will give +some sound, such as his rifle rod, which he balances on a bit of string +and taps upon with the blade of his knife, or two pieces of wood which he +uses as castanets, and, failing all these, snapping his fingers and +keeping time with the melody. + +There is a certain weird, barbaric charm in Beluch melodies, and, unlike +the Persian, the Beluch possesses a very keen ear, in fact, a thorough +musical ear, even according to our rules of harmony. To an unthoughtful +European there may indeed be a certain monotony in Beluch melodies, but +never a grating discord which will set one's teeth on edge. + +Monotony in music, or rather, a repetition of the same melody until it +becomes monotonous, is, rather than otherwise--if one comes to think of +it--a fault on the right side, for if a melody is repeated time after +time it means that the people themselves like it and appreciate it. There +is no doubt that anybody with an unspoilt musical ear rather fancies +listening over and over again to a melody which appeals to him--and we +need not go as far as Beluchistan to be convinced of this--for we +ourselves have been known to take fancies to songs of so high a standard +as _Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay_, _The Honeysuckle and the Bee_, &c., and we hum +them while soaking in our morning tub, we whistle them as we go down to +breakfast, we strum them on the piano after breakfast, we hear them +rattled outside by a barrel organ, as many times as there are forthcoming +pennies from windows, while we are having lunch, we hear them +pathetically sung at afternoon parties by hired entertainers, bands play +them in the restaurants during dinner, and we hear them in the theatres, +in music halls, and everywhere,--so that we cannot very well blame others +for the monotony of their melodies since we largely follow the same +course as theirs. + +The Beluch plays and sings because it gives him real pleasure, and he is +quite carried away by his music. Certain notes and combinations of notes, +especially such as are very high and shrill, but in good tune, seem to go +straight to his heart, and he revels in them. When singing, therefore, he +prefers to sing in falsetto--as high as the furthest strain of his voice +permits--and having worked himself into a semi-dazed state gradually +descends to low deep notes, which by contrast appeal to him and not only +give balance and character to his melody but produce quite a good +harmonious effect. The low notes, however, are never ejaculated, but +hummed, almost buzzed, with a vibration in the voice which is most +melodious. The sound is like an indefinite letter U. + +The beginning of a song is somewhat sudden and startling, and usually too +loud, as if the singer had not properly gauged the extent of his voice in +relation to the instrumental accompaniment, but he soon manages to get in +most perfect unison with the melody of the dambura and the violin or +other instruments, except in cases of singers endowed with extra musical +genius, when they will go on improvising by the hour, using the theme as +a guide. They generally sing in a minor key, with pretty refrains at the +end of each bar. + +[Illustration] + +The most common and favourite air is the above on which elaborate +variations are added. + +The Beluch singer seldom changes from minor into major or from one key +into another, but he is very fond of repeating the same melody in all the +octaves within the utmost limits of the compass of his voice. It is +considered a feat in singing to hold a note for an interminable time, as +also to go through the greater portion of the melody without taking +breath, and it really seemed extraordinary that some of the singers did +not break a blood vessel in the process. The eyes of the performers got +so swollen and almost shooting out of the head with holding the notes so +long, and the veins of the temples and arteries in the neck swelled to +such an extent as to cause serious apprehension. + +On one occasion I heard an improvised song with the accompaniment of the +_soroz_ (violin) only. This time--an exception in my experience--the song +was given in a deep, low, nasal voice, each note being tremulous and held +on for several minutes in a most plaintive manner. + +Some of the love songs were quite pathetic and touching, and in the war +songs, the grievances were poured forth very plaintively with an +accompaniment of strings and drums and burst out suddenly into fire and +anger. At this point, when the musicians were carried away by the martial +words of the song, the instrumental accompaniment became next to +diabolical. It was very inspiriting, no doubt, and made them feel very +war-like. The din was certainly such as might have turned any man into a +fighter. + +Love songs, in which the singer imitated women's voices to perfection, +were really most graceful and sad, and quite interesting were the musical +recitatives with violin accompaniments which the Beluch render in quite a +masterly way. + +Then there was the comic song--quick-timed and full of life--much too +full and too comic to appeal to a European, and so fully illustrated that +personally, I infinitely preferred the more melancholic ones which had +more music in them. + +Duets and trios were occasionally attempted with quite good results, +except that there always seemed to be a competition as to who should +start highest, and this had occasionally a grating effect. + +The Beluch possess most soft musical voices, well-rounded and graceful, +quite a contrast even in mere conversation to those of their neighbours +the Persians or the Afghans; but the character of the Beluch songs and +music is not dissimilar from the Persian, and both betray a markedly Arab +origin. In Persian songs, too, an _andante_ movement with chorus joining +in every few bars frequently occurs, but in the Persian chorus we +generally find a liking for chromatic diminuendos and crescendos, which +are not so frequent in Beluch music. + +Persian music is inspiriting. There are certain musical notes the +vibrations of which seem to go to the heart more than others, and on +these notes the Persian musician will work his melody. Sad love songs in +a falsetto voice are prevalent, and are sung so high that, as with the +Beluch, it makes one really quite anxious for the safety of the singer. +The notes are kept on so long and the melody repeated so often, that the +artery and veins in the singer's neck and temples bulge out in a most +abnormal manner. + +There is no actual end to a Persian melody, which terminates with the +exhaustion of the singer, or abruptly by the sign of the hearers who get +tired of it. The musicians every now and then join in the chorus and +repeat the refrain. + +Tenor solo songs by boys are much appreciated, and these, too, are very +plaintive with frequent scales in them and certain notes held long at the +end of each bar where the chorus join in. These sustained notes have +modulations in them with infinitesimal fractions of tones. Ululations +with long, nasal, interminable notes and capricious variations at the +fancy of the singer, but based on some popular theme are also much liked +by Persians. + +More than in anything else, however, the Persian, like the Beluch, +delights in tremulous notes, of which he makes ample use in his melodies. + +The rhythm of Persian and Beluch music is much alike, although as far as +instrumental execution goes the Persian surpasses the Beluch, having a +greater variety in his orchestra and the instruments being more perfectly +constructed. + +The _Santurie_, for instance, a kind of zither, with eighteen sets of +three strings each, is a most harmonious instrument from which beautiful +effects can be obtained by the player. + +The _thar_> a sort of guitar, has four keys and is played with a +plectrum, and the _Kermanche_, _Cynthour_, _Tchogor_, _the +Tchaminioho_--the latter, a circular instrument covered by a skin, with +one metal and two gut strings, on a long metal stand, is played with a +bow;--the _dumbuk_ (drum), with only one skin pasted round its single +aperture, the lower part being solid; the flute pure and proper, with +five apertures on one side and one on the other, on which very low clear +notes are obtained, and a pretty tremolo,--and other instruments of minor +importance, are all employed in Persia. + +The Persians are masters at playing the drum. Most marvellous effects are +obtained by them. They hold the drum on the left leg with the left arm +resting on it, and tap it with the tips of their fingers round its edge. +For broader notes it is struck with the palm of the hand. Soft, gentle +notes as well as the rumbling sound in good time with the air they +accompany, are extracted from the instrument, so fast in its vibrations +as to produce a continuous sound that one would never believe came from a +drum. + +[Illustration: Beluch Dance (at Sibi.)] + +Metallic castanets are used both by the Persian and Beluch in the +dancing, and it is usually the dancers--one or more boys--who play them. + +Many of the songs and melodies I heard in Persia reminded me very +forcibly of Spanish melodies, which, like these, are undoubtedly of Arab +origin. + +Whatever fault one may find with Persian or Beluch music, one cannot say +that the performers do not play with an immense deal of feeling and +_entrain_--a quality (the primary one, to my mind,) in music often +lacking in musicians nearer home, but never in Orientals. + +The dancing, both Persian and Beluch, is not so interesting. It is +usually executed by effeminate long-haired boys generally dressed in a +long pleated coat with a tight belt, and wearing a number of metal bells +attached to the ankles. The Persian is probably the more lascivious of +the two in his movements, and, having begun by throwing his long shock of +hair backwards twirls round gracefully enough, keeping good time with the +music. This is merely a feat of endurance, resembling the dancing or +spinning dervishes of Egypt, and generally ends by the dancer suddenly +squatting down upon the floor with his flowing gown fully expanded in a +circle around him. The skill of the dancer is shown most in successive +dances, such as the slow progression by merely twisting the feet to right +and left, occasionally varied by raising one foot directly above the +other, then throwing the head far back and the body in a strained curve, +with arms raised fluttering like a flying bird, while the song to which +he dances imitates a nightingale. + +Contortions and suggestive waist movements are much indulged in Persian +dancing, as well as throwing the body backwards with the hands almost +touching the ground behind and walking while in this position--not unlike +an exaggerated form of the "cake-walk" of our American cousins. + +Each dance is closed by the dancer throwing himself down upon his knees +in front of the musicians, or in turn before each of the spectators. + +Beluch dancing was very similar, although much simpler. The two +photographs, reproduced in the illustrations, which I took at Sibi, show +one a row of Beluch musicians, the other a Beluch boy in the act of +dancing a sort of toe-and-heel dance, in which with extended arms he +gradually fluttered round, keeping time with the music. In some of the +quicker movements he either snapped his fingers or used wooden castanets, +or held the pleated skirt of his coat fully extended like butterfly +wings. There was very little variation to his dancing which, like the +Persian was more a feat of endurance and speed than a graceful +performance. The ankle did most of the work. + +[Illustration: The Beluch-Afghan Boundary Cairn and Malek-Siah Mountains +in Background.] + +Somewhat more wild and primitive was the _chap_ which I witnessed at a +camp in north-west Beluchistan. It consisted in swinging the body from +right to left, lifting up now one leg and then the other, and waving the +head to and fro in a most violent manner. The Beluch get much excited +over this dance, which requires some degree of stubborn tenacity, and the +spectators urge the dancer to continue when he shows signs of getting +tired. All superfluous clothing is discarded in a most alarming manner at +various stages of this performance, and the arms are flapped vigorously +against the naked body which is made to sound like a drum. The +performance is not allowed to stop until the dancer is quite exhausted, +when he simply collapses in the arms of one of his friends. The musical +accompaniment to this dance verges on the diabolical, the rhythm of what +melody there is being interspersed with abundant howls, yells and +snapping of fingers from the enthusiastic crowd all round. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + + An excellent track--A quaint rock--A salt + rivulet--Laskerisha--Mahommed Raza-chah--Beluch encampment--The + horrors of photography--Maternal love--A track to + Mirjawa--Kirtaka--Direct track to Sher-i-Nasrya--Track to + Cabul--Sand-hills--A wide river bed--A high yellow + pillar--Undulating track--Ten sharp-pointed peaks. + + +From Robat (altitude 3,480 feet) we took the capital road which followed +a dry river bed until we got quite away from the hills. When the track +turned south-east a beautiful view of the Afghan desert south of the +Halmund, was obtained to the north-east, while south-south-east (180 deg., +bearings magnetic) stood a high peak, the Saindak Mount. We first skirted +very rugged mountains to the south-west which were brilliant in colour +and had many peaks fluted by water erosion. Sand-hills gradually dwindled +away, leaving long, flat-topped sand-banks invariably facing north. To +the south was quite a high sand mountain. + +A quaint rock resembling a huge camel's head could be seen to our left +above a hill. Then, six miles from Robat, sand-hills began again. The +track here lay only a few yards from the Afghan boundary which was marked +by stone cairns, six feet high, painted white. To the south was a rugged +chain of mountains with low sand-hills before it, and to the north across +the Afghan border could now be plainly seen the interesting salt deposit +of God-i-Zirreh, and another whose name I do not know. I crossed into +Afghan territory with the object of visiting them, and a description will +be found in the next chapter. + +I returned into Beluchistan to the spot, 14 miles from Robat, where a +small salt rivulet swelled by tributaries, descends from the mountains to +the south and west. When in flood this stream, which must be enormously +enlarged, carries down a great quantity of tamarisk wood, much of which +could be seen deposited a long distance from the water's normal banks. + +The road stretched in front of us in a perfectly straight line, with neat +stone borders on either side, and one got so tired of seeing that line in +front of one's nose that one welcomed the smallest change--even a slight +ascent or a curve--in its endless, monotonous straightness. We came by +and by to a little ascent--quite steep enough for camels. We could have +easily avoided it by leaving the road and making a detour at the foot of +the hill close to the Afghan boundary. Some caravans do. + +From the highest point of the road as we looked back to the +north-north-west we saw behind us sand hills, that showed traces of being +still much at the mercy of the wind. Further behind, still +north-north-west, was a high pointed peak, and then a long blue chain +extending from south-west to north-east just rising out of the sand mist. +The highest peaks were at the most extreme north-east point. Then the +mountains became lower and lower, and the horizon met the flat long line +of the desert. + +A fine view of the Afghan desert, with its two extensive salt deposits, +can be obtained from Laskerisha, a name given to a brackish well on the +hill side (3,590 feet) with a ditch and hollow next to it for the +convenience of camels. A triangular unroofed shelter has been erected +some 80 feet below the well on the hill slope, and other wells have been +bored close by, the water of which is undrinkable. This was the highest +point of the road 3,590 feet, on that march. Before reaching it we saw a +castle-like structure surmounting a peak of the mountain that we had been +following to the south; there appeared to be actual windows in it, +showing the light through, and a track leading up to it. Unfortunately, +the sun--quite blinding--was just behind it when I passed it, and I could +not well ascertain with my telescope whether it was a natural formation +of rock or a real ancient fortress, nor could I get any information on +the subject from the natives, and it was too far out of my track for me +to go and visit it. + +On our descent on the south-east side of the hill we came across +semi-spherical sand mounds in great numbers; the mountains on our right +were apparently of volcanic formation. They were very highly coloured, +generally bright red with green summits; then there were mountains deep +red all over, and further on stood one green from top to bottom, although +there was not a thread of vegetation upon it. At the foot of the +mountains on the edge of the desert were a few dried up tamarisks. + +We stopped at Mahommed Raza-chah, where there are five wells, three of +good water and two brackish ones. There was a mere mud _thana_ at this +place, but wood and bricks were being brought up to construct a bungalow. + +[Illustration: Rest House at Mahommed Raza Chah overlooking Afghan +Desert.] + +A number of Beluch were encamped here in their little black tents, hardly +five feet high, and with one side of the tent raised up on two sticks. +The interior of the tents seemed to be a mass of rags and dirt, among +which some primitive implements, such as a wooden pestle and mortar, for +pounding wheat, and a bowl or two, could be detected. Otherwise they were +most miserable. The tents seemed mostly in the possession of women, +children and decrepit old men, the younger folks seeking a livelier life +further afield. It is often in the most humble places, however, that one +finds unexpected charms. + +On the alarm being given that an intruding stranger was at hand the women +hastily shut up all the tents, and a picturesque old fellow stalked me +about, seeming to become extremely anxious when I was photographing, a +proceeding which he did not quite understand. A young man on a camel was +coming towards us singing, and inside one of the tents I heard a great +commotion evidently caused by the approaching voice. An old woman, in +fact, peeped out from a fissure and gave a powerful squeak. She leapt out +excitedly, nearly tearing down the whole tent in the process, and, crying +bitter tears, rushed with extended arms towards the camel man. + +The young fellow having hastily dismounted, a most touching scene of +motherly affection ensued, for, as the old man explained to me, he was +her son. The poor shrivelled creature threw her arms around his neck and +kissed him fondly, first on one cheek and then upon the other, after +which, having affectionately taken his face between her hands, she +impressed another long, long kiss in the middle of his forehead. She +caressed him to her heart's content, the boy looking quite pathetically +graceful and reverent under the circumstances. A similar treatment was +meted out to him by his sisters, and they all shed tears of delight at +seeing one another. Family affection, as well as affection among +tribesmen, is indeed extraordinarily effusive and genuine among Beluch of +all classes. + +The women I saw at this camp wore a sort of long shirt with a sash, and +had broad bead and shell bracelets round their wrists. + +Mahommed Raza-chah was 3,820 feet above sea level, and the track from +this point went south east (to 110 deg. bearings magnetic). There was a +_duffadar_ in charge of two stations with four _sawars_ and four camels. +It was all one could do upon this road to find anything of some interest, +barring the geological formation of the country and the movement of the +sand, which rather began to pall upon one after months of nothing else, +and when one came across a patch of tamarisk trees a little taller than +usual one could not take one's eyes off them, they seemed such +interesting objects in the monotonous marches. + +Twelve miles from Mahommed Raza, tamarisks seemed to flourish, for water +was to be found some twenty feet below the surface. A well had been bored +for the use of caravans, and the water was quite good. The track was +somewhat undulating in this portion of the journey, rising, however, to +no greater elevation than 100 feet, but quite steep enough for camels. + +About eleven miles from Mahommed Raza-chah, a track diverged to Mirjawa. +One noticed on the mountains to our right (south-west) a superabundance +of tamarisk, the cause of this abnormal vegetation being undoubtedly long +streaks of moisture filtering through the sand. No actual water, however, +was visible flowing, not even along a deep channel which bore the marks +of having been cut by it, and in which salt deposits were to be seen on +the surface soil. + +Kirtaka, the next rest-house, was by no means an attractive place, but +was interesting, inasmuch as, besides the track over the mountains +leading to Mirjawa, a direct route went from this point to Sher-i-Nasrya +in Sistan, which city could be reached in three days, by crossing Afghan +territory, and cutting off the long westerly detour via Robat--the +Malek-Siah; and yet another track to Cabul, the capital of Afghanistan, +which could be reached in twenty days. The latter track was said to be +absolutely waterless for the first three days' march, no wells and +therefore no villages being found, but after three days, on striking the +Halmund, plenty of water, fuel, and food could be obtained, and plenty of +people were to be met with. + +South-east of the old towered enclosure, which had five rooms, a new +bungalow of two rooms and bathrooms, with kitchen buildings apart behind, +was being built. It was sheltered by a rugged background of mountains of +no great height, but picturesque enough and highly coloured when the sun +shone upon them. Being, however, well rounded and looking like petrified +accumulations of sand, they did not quite compare in interest with the +fantastic cutting edges of the Malek-Siah and neighbouring ranges. They +formed the southern barrier to the Beluchistan extension of the Afghan +desert. + +The altitude of Kirtaka was 3,710 feet. + +There was a curious Beluch grave here made of white stones with an edge +of grey pebbles, and a circle round it, with a smaller outer kneeling +place, such as may be seen in the numerous Mesjids so common all over the +country, the various styles of which will be duly described in a +subsequent chapter. + +Innumerable sand hills and, in fact, a long hill range some 350 feet high +stood to the west in front of the rocky mountains behind. These caused a +great many ups and downs on the track, the principal heights I measured +being: 3,800 feet, 3,700 feet, 3,420 feet (8 miles from Kirtaka), this +latter altitude where the road lay close to the mountains. Beyond this +point the track was south-east (125 deg. bearings magnetic) with picturesque +mountains on the east-south-east and high red sand hills in the east, one +isolated high black hill lying in the desert beyond. A very pointed +conical hill was noticeable, and another like a small replica of Fujisan +of Japan fame. This latter hill was in Afghan territory. A number of +great rocky pillars stood upright above the hill tops. Twelve miles from +Kirtaka we crossed a river bed 150 feet wide, which lost itself in the +Afghan desert. Then a mile further we came to another river bed. + +[Illustration: Beluch Black Tents at Mahommed Raza Chah.] + +[Illustration: Rock Pillar between Kirtaka and Saindak.] + +The track here (about 13 miles from Kirtaka) turned south-west following +the river bed, then due south, where among the mountains we saw a huge +pillar of a brilliant yellow colour and over 50 feet high, standing up by +the roadside. The illustration gives a fair idea of it. To the south-east +in the direction of our track, which for a change was quite tortuous, +were mounds of sand and debris. The red rock of the mountains seemed +crumbling towards the east, whereas the hills to the west were well +rounded and padded with sand and gravel. + +We went over a low pass 3,810 feet, and then along a flat basin with +hills to the south-east, and outlets both to the south-east and east. We +had descended to 3,680 feet, but had to go up another pass 4,060 feet, +the highest we had so far encountered. Innumerable yellow sand hills were +before us to the north-north-east, and here we were on a sort of flat +sandy plateau, three-quarters of a mile wide and a mile and a half long. +Ten sharp-pointed peaks could be counted to the south-south-east, high +mountains were before us to the south-east, and a long range beyond them +east-south-east. Sand dunes, shaped like the back of a whale were to the +east, and a remarkable spherical mount south-south-east directly in front +of the ten peaks. We arrived at Saindak. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + + An excursion into Afghanistan--The salt deposits of + God-i-Zirreh--Sand hills--Curious formation of hill + range--Barchans and how they are formed--Alexander's march + through the country--The water of Godar-i-Chah--Afghans and their + looks. + + +The excursion which I made into Afghan territory to the salt deposit of +Gaud- or God-i-Zirreh, and a lower depression to the east of it, was of +great interest to me. + +There are a great many theories regarding these former salt lakes, and it +is not easy to say which is right and which is wrong. The general belief +is that these lakes were formed by the overflow of the Halmund swamp into +the Shela (river) which carried sufficient water not only to fill up the +God-i-Zirreh, but to overflow when this was full into the next depression +east of the Zirreh. + +There is no doubt that to a great extent this was the case, but these +lakes were, I think, also fed more directly by several small streams +descending from the mountains to the south and west of the Zirreh, which +form the watershed--and very probably also from the north by the Halmund +River itself. Both lakes were dry and seemed to have been so for some +time. The God-i-Zirreh, forming now a great expanse of solid salt some 26 +miles long by 5 or 6 wide, extends in a long oval from west to east. The +other lake was somewhat smaller. + +To the south of these salt deposits in the zones between them and the +present Afghan boundary, and forming the southern fringe of the Afghan +desert, the soil is covered with gravel and stones washed down from the +mountain sides. Very stony indeed is the desert towards the Malek-Siah +end, then further north-east appear brown earth, shale, and sand. To the +north of the lakes was a long line of bright yellow sand extending from +west to east and broad enough towards the north to reach the bank of the +river Halmund. Another shiny patch, which at first, from a distance, I +had mistaken for another smaller lake, turned out on examination to be a +stretch of polished shale which shone in the sun, and appeared like +bluish water. + +Stunted tamarisk grows in some parts but not in the immediate +neighbourhood of the salt deposits. We have here instead a belt of +myriads of small conical sand-hills, also spreading from west to east, +quite low to the west and getting higher for several miles towards the +east. In the south-west part of the desert, curiously enough, between the +zone of conical hills and the salt deposits, and parallel to both, lies a +row of semi-spherical sand and salt mounds of a whitish colour. + +To the east-south-east of the lakes the sand-hills rise to a great height +and eventually form a high ridge, which for some reason or other is cut +perpendicularly on its western side, possibly as the result of a volcanic +commotion. Of similar origin probably was the gigantic crack caused by an +earthquake which we shall examine later on near Nushki. In fact, both the +crack at Nushki and the collapse of the west side of this hill range, as +well as a great portion of that deep crack in the earth's crest in which +the Shela flows, have very likely been formed by the same cause. They are +within the same zone of volcanic formation. In the particular case of +this hill range in Afghanistan the collapse did not appear to me to be +due to the action of water, but to a sudden crumbling which had caused a +very sharp vertical cut. + +[Illustration: Sand Hills.] + +To the north of the salt wastes was another long belt of yellow sand +extending for some 40 miles, upon which there was absolutely no +vegetation, while intervening between the salt and this sand flat were +numerous sand barchans, like horseshoes, with a gradual slope on the +windward side (north) and a crescent hollow with a steep but not quite +vertical bank on the lee side. + +I noticed all over Persia, and in Beluchistan as well as here, that these +sand barchans, or barchanes, will only form on level ground--generally on +extensive plains. All single sand hills, however, whether barchans, +conical, semi-spherical, or of more irregular shapes, are invariably +caused by a primary obstacle, however small, arresting the sand. +Various are the theories with regard to the formation of these barchans, +and especially with regard to the formation of the hollow on the lee +side. + +[Illustration] + +The explanation from my own observation has--if no other--at least the +merit of simplicity. The wind, on meeting the semi-circular back of the +barchan, is diverted on the two sides of it; these two currents come into +violent collision again on the lee-side, where, the air being more or +less still, a considerable portion of the wind is forcibly driven back +towards the barchan, corroding its side in a double rotatory way, each +such circle having for a diameter the radius of the barchan crescent +containing them. In fact in many barchans the sand ripples on the +windward slopes cross the direction of the wind at right angles. A line +of sand formed in the centre of the barchan crescent in the opposite +direction to the wind is often to be seen during wind storms or soon +after. I have also seen barchans, the inner crescent of which showed +beyond doubt that when there is a prevalent wind from one side only, the +above explanation, although less scientifically obscure and elaborate +than most, applies, and, I think, it may eventually be found quite the +most probable. + +The diagram here given will illustrate and, I hope, make quite clear the +meaning of my words. In the centre of the crescent can be noticed the +action of the parting wind currents. + +[Illustration: A Caravan of Donkeys in Afghanistan.] + +North of Kirtaka was a very pointed high conical hill, and not far from +it a small replica of Fujisan in Japan, so much were the lines like those +of the Japanese mountain. A great many of the drain channels from the +mountains to the south extended very far into the desert and some as far +as the God-i-Zirreh. + +It is also very probable that in the days when Sistan was a most populous +region, with uninterrupted towns and villages along and near the Halmund, +numerous canals may have intersected the Zirreh region and rendered it a +very fertile plain. History would indeed point forcibly towards such a +hypothesis. Ample proof that the plain was inhabited still remains in the +ruins of Godar-i-Chah, situated at the western limit of the Zirreh salt +deposits, Chah-i-Mardan, where a ruined fort and a Ziarat are said to +exist, Gumbaz-i-Chah, and others. All these places are now deserted and +are being fast buried by the sand. They are mostly along the Shela +(river) banks, and the natives of Sistan say that they have heard from +their ancestors that when the Shela did flow freely its water was quite +drinkable. + +There was a well at Godar-i-Chah--hence its name, "the well of +Godar"--almost entirely dried up and of water so foul that it was not +possible to drink it, and another just as bad was said to exist at +Gumbaz. + +It would be most interesting if one could get at the actual history of +this part of the world and gain an insight into its former prosperity and +civilisation. It is quite probable that Alexander, in his progress +through Beluchistan and Sistan, must have come through this country. No +army--not even with a new Craterus at its head--could, of course, march +elephants, camels and horses through that country to-day, and this has +led some critics to doubt that Alexander could have done so, or to +believe that, if he did so, he must have been deceived by his guides who +tried to bring him as far as possible from water. But those critics +forget that in Alexander's days this portion of country was extremely +civilised, fertile, and supplied with plenty of water--or else how can we +account for the innumerable ruins we find there, and for the many canals +for irrigation? + +Sir Charles McGregor, Goldsmid, Bellew, Major MacMahon, Napier, and one +or two others who have visited the country north of the Zirreh, can fully +testify to the amazing remains of former prosperity in Sistan and +south-west Afghanistan. + +Sir Charles McGregor gives an amusing receipt for those who wish to know +what the water at Godar-i-Chah is like without having the trouble of +going there. "Take the first nasty-looking water you can find. Mix salt +with it until it tastes as nasty as it looks, then impregnate it with gas +from a London street lamp, and add a little bilge-water, shake vigorously +and it is ready for use." Major McMahon also testifies to the accuracy of +the above receipt, but, he adds, "it was not nearly so bad as much we +found elsewhere." + +[Illustration: In Afghanistan. Who are you?] + +[Illustration: In the Afghan Desert. Afghan Caravan Men.] + +The Zirreh seemed just like a great stretch of country under snow, the +thick salt sediment was so beautifully white. It formed a deep depression +in the centre. The second deposits to the east of the Zirreh were of a +similar shape, with salt extremely thick, but not quite so extensive as +in the Zirreh. Near the edge of both dry lakes there was absolutely no +vegetation, but most beautifully coloured stones could be found, such as +red and brown jasper and agatescent quartz, chalcedony, white and brown +limestone. + +As I was returning towards the Beluchistan boundary among the sand hills +I came upon about a dozen Afghans, who looked as suspiciously at me as I +did at them. At first I thought they were soldiers, and as I did not much +care to be caught by them and have my goods confiscated--no Englishmen +being allowed in their territory--I requested them to stop some way off +and explain what they wanted, while I was snapshotting them. They had a +great big white fluffy dog with them who seemed very anxious to have a go +at the Sahib. One man was asked to come forward alone, which he did with +his turban right over his eyes, while the others formed a line behind +and appeared most puzzled as to what was going to happen. He said they +were glad to see me in their country and that they were "good people," +and would not injure nor trouble me in any way; so I gave them a small +present, which seemed to please them much, and they became quite +friendly. They seemed to have some coarse humour about them and were +rather boisterous. Their faces, however, did not quite appeal to me. + +The Afghan invariably has a slippery, treacherous look about his +countenance which he cannot disguise, and which, personally, I do not +much admire. He seldom looks at one straight in the face, can be very +sullen when he is not boisterous, and I should think would easily seek +cause of offence and pick a quarrel with any one weaker than himself in +order to have a fight. These fellows were, for instance, most unlike the +gentlemanly Beluch. They shouted at the top of their voices when they +spoke, and were uncouth in speech and manner. I was rather glad when they +departed. + +Further on I came upon more people and animals, but they, too, were quite +peaceful. + +Having accomplished my object I again crossed over into Beluchistan. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + + Saindak--Beluch prisoners--Thana and Bungalow--Beluch bread--The + Saindak mountain and its mineral resources--The Daftan + volcano--_Surmah_ and lead--Mukak and its strong man--A sick + camel--Gypsum--_Regheth_--Where the track will deviate in + future--Difficulty in obtaining drinkable water--Wells made + attractive--Sahib chah--A well ventilated rest-house. + + +Saindak had an imposing _thana_, the elaborate gateway of which was +decorated with heads of wild sheep and _dumbahs_. There were nine +rooms--some boasting of wooden doors--at the end of the large court, but +all were occupied by the seven _sawars_, the postal _moonshee_, the three +_kassildars_ and the _havildar_, one _duffadar_, and one _jemadar_. + +[Illustration: The Thana and New Bungalow at Saindak. (Saindak Mt. in +background.)] + +On my arrival they proceeded to clear one of the chambers for me, and to +my astonishment out of it came four wretched men chained together by the +hands and feet and in a pitiable condition. Not that their countenances, +when one examined their faces, called for much pity. More palpably +criminal types could be found nowhere, but somehow or other to see these +poor devils stumbling along, with the iron rings round their bruised and +sore ankles showing through the torn rags which covered their skeleton +legs, and the agonized expressions on their worn, repulsively cruel +faces, was not an edifying sight. They had been brought down here to work +and, for prisoners, were treated considerately enough, I suppose. But +they seemed very ill and suffering. Two were robbers, the other +two--father and son--had murdered a man and stolen 400 sheep. They were +condemned to captivity for life. + +I declined to put up in that room, especially when I happened to peep in +and was nearly choked by the foul odour that emanated from inside, and +preferred--although it was very cold--to inhabit the unroofed new +two-roomed bungalow in course of construction, which I found really very +comfortable. + +As can be seen by the photograph the thana and bungalow of Saindak are +built on rather an attractive site under the shelter of the Saindak +Mountain. Whenever I see a mountain I cannot resist the temptation to go +up it, and now, after all the thousands of miles of flat country I had +traversed, I felt this desire more strongly than ever. The ascent of the +mountain presented no difficulty except that its rocky sides were +somewhat steep. I resolved to go up early the next morning before making +a start with my camels. + +In the meantime during the evening I was instructed by Mahommed Hussein, +my camel man, in the Beluch fashion of making bread--really a most +ingenious device. A stone of moderate size, say 4 inches in diameter and +as round as can be found, is made red hot on the fire, and upon it a +coating of paste--flour, water, and salt--is deposited evenly so as to +make an envelope of paste one inch thick all over. Three, four, five, or +as many of these balls as required being made, they are placed in a +circle near a blazing fire, so that the outside may get baked as well as +the inside. When ready for consumption the balls are split open and the +stones removed. The bread is really most excellent and resembles a +biscuit. + +[Illustration: Beluch Prisoners at Saindak.] + +At Saindak (altitude 3,810 feet) there are a number of wells, mostly very +salt, but one has quite fair water, only slightly brackish. The water, +however, had a peculiar taste of its own, as if it had gone through lead +deposits, and, on mentioning this to some Beluch they told me that lead +was, in fact, found on the mountains just above this camp. Having drunk +two glasses of this water I was taken with bad internal pains, but I must +in fairness own that I do not know whether to attribute this entirely to +the water or to indiscreet consumption of an irresistible, extra rich +plum-cake which the wonderful Sadek now produced, much to my surprise and +delight, from among my provisions. + +Travellers, however, would do well to bring their own supply of water +from Kirtaka, if they are coming from Robat, or from Mukak, if travelling +from Quetta. + +The ascent to the summit of the Saindak mountain well repays the +traveller for the exertion of getting there, and that not only on +account of its geological formation. Looking over the lower mountains one +obtained a magnificent view of the Afghan desert as far as the eye could +see, to the north-west and north-east, while to the west lay a mountain +mass, the Mirjawa mountains, and innumerable sand hills. To the +south-south-west towered above everything the double-humped active +volcano of Kuh-i-Daftan, with its snow-capped crater. It was smoking, +notwithstanding the ridiculous theory entertained by some F.R.G.S. that +volcanoes cannot exist so far south in the Northern Hemisphere! We saw +this volcano for several days and it threw up considerable volumes of +smoke. At night it occasionally had quite a glow above its crater. + +The volcano, I need not say, is in Persian territory, and is some 60 +miles distant, as the crow flies, from Saindak, although in the clear +atmosphere it does not appear more than a few miles off. It is a most +impressive mountain. + +Parallel ridges of sand hills, facing east, were to be seen to the +south-west of the Saindak mountain, and then a wide flat plain, beyond +which four successive mountain ranges, formed a powerful barrier. To the +south-east also were high mountains. + +On the top of the mountain we came upon some of the holes that contain +lead and _Surmah_ or _Surf_--a substance much used by women in Persia, +Afghanistan, Beluchistan and India for blackening the lashes and lower +eyelids. Surmah was plentiful enough, especially between two layers of +perpendicular rock, and also in surface pebbles when split open. +Calcareous rock with galena was to be found, besides fragments of +calcite, gypsum, and slag. + +It appeared that the natives must at some time have tried to exploit +these mines in a primitive manner, for there were many holes bored all +over the top of the mountain, and near them bits of coal embedded in +slag. These excavations were generally bored in mounds of yellow earth, +or, rather, the mounds were of that colour because of the earth which had +been extracted from the borings, the colour of the surrounding earth and +rock being grey and black. Lead filaments in brittle layers were also +noticeable mixed with the earth. Two inches below the ground one found, +on digging, a thick deposit of salt and gypsum. + +My camels with loads had made an early start, and on my returning to camp +some three hours after their departure I proceeded to catch them up on my +excellent _mari_. There was very little of interest on the march. We rose +over a gentle incline, travelling due south upon undulating ground to an +altitude of 3,870 feet, beyond which we descended into a flat basin with +a broad outlet to the south-south-east, and another south-west by a +narrow defile in the mountain range. We then crossed a broader plain, +about two miles broad, with good grazing for camels, and here again, +being well out in the open, we got a magnificent view of the Daftan +volcano (south-west) in all its splendour. + +We reached Mukak (3,580 feet) in the afternoon, the distance from +Saindak being 13 miles, 880 yards, and, owing to my camels being tired, +and the small beady plant called _regheth_--much cherished by +camels--plentiful, we halted for the remainder of the day. + +At this place we found the usual _jemadar_, a _duffadar_, and four men, +and were cordially received by the _palawan's_ moonshee, a nice fellow +who wore a peaked turban of gigantic size, and a brown coat beautifully +embroidered on the back and sleeves with violet-coloured silk. The +embroidery, he informed me, took six years to make--it was not fully +completed yet--and, on inquiring the cost of it, he said that it would +certainly fetch as much as 10 rupees (13_s._ 4_d._) when quite finished! +The pattern on it was most cleverly designed and produced a graceful +effect. On the middle of the sleeves were a number of superposed T's made +of ribbon bands and with delicate ornamentations round them, such as +little squares with radiating threads, a frieze going all round the arm, +and parallel lines. On the back was a large triangle upside down, the +base at the neck and the point downwards, joining at its lower end a +square the inside of which was most elaborately embroidered. + +The _palawan_, or strong man, in charge of this station, was a man with a +romantic history of his own, and perhaps the British Government were very +wise to employ him. He is said to possess enormous muscular strength, +being able to perform such amazing feats as reducing to dust between his +first finger and thumb a silver rupee by merely rubbing it once, or +breaking any coin in two in his hands with the same ease that one would a +biscuit. Aid Mahommed, that was his name, was unfortunately absent on the +day I passed through, so I was not able to witness his marvellous +feats--of strength or palming(?)--and the accounts of his native admirers +were not to be taken _au pied de la lettre_. + +Mukak had six mud rooms, three roofed over and the others unroofed. Water +was plentiful but slightly brackish, and a salt rivulet, a few inches +broad, irrigated a patch or two of cultivation below the rest house. + +Among low hills, we rode away first due east from Mukak, the track at a +mile's distance rising to 3,620 feet, and we remained at this altitude +for five miles. Again on this march we obtained a glorious view (at 200 deg. +b.m.) of the Daftan volcano, with its two imposing white domes on the +crater sides. We had then gone north-east for 61/2 miles, when, after +rounding some sand hills, our track proceeded again due east. + +We had crossed a plain one mile broad and four and a half miles long, +where there was good grazing (_regheth_) for camels, but no tamarisk. At +the termination of the plateau, which rose some 50 feet higher than the +remainder of it, we commenced to descend by a gentle incline, having high +hills to our left (north) and low hills to our right (south), the track +being due east. To the north-east we had another long, straight, +monotonous spread of fine sand and gravel in slight undulations, and to +the south-west very low ranges of sand hills varying in height from 20 +feet to 100 feet. Before us on our left to 100 bearings magnetic +(E.E.S.E.) stood above the plain a pillar-shaped mound of enormous height +resembling, from a distance, a semi-ruined tower, and south-south-east +(150 deg. b.m.) another isolated red mountain with a sharp, needle-like +point. Other smaller rocks, of sugar-loaf form, were scattered about on +our left. + +By the roadside an enormous boulder weighing several tons could be seen, +the presence of which could not easily be accounted for unless it had +been shot out by volcanic action. It was most unlike the formation of the +rock in the immediate neighbourhood of it, and had all the appearance of +having dropped at this place. + +The track again changed its course and now went to east-south-east, (120 deg. +b.m.). My riding camel was taken very ill, and even Mahommed's most +affectionate language, and the caresses he bestowed on him as if the +animal had been his dearest relation, had no appreciable effect upon his +health. The animal evidently had a colic, caused, no doubt, by excessive +eating of _regheth_ the previous day. He seemed to have the greatest +trouble in dragging his legs along, and every now and then he languidly +swung his head round and gave me a reproachful look, which undoubtedly +meant "Can't you see I am ill? I wish you would get off." + +Well, I did get off, although walking in the desert is not a pleasure at +any time, and when we arrived at the next well, after a dreadfully slow +march, we proceeded to doctor up our long-necked patient. + +Now, doctoring a camel is not an easy matter, for one cannot work on his +imagination as doctors do on human beings. When a camel is ill, he is +really ill. There was no mistake about the symptoms of his complaint, and +after a consultation Sadek, Mahommed and I agreed that a strong solution +of salt and water should be administered, which was easier said than +done. While the poor brute lay with his long neck stretched upon the +sand, moaning, groaning and breathing heavily, we mixed a bag of +salt--all we had--with half a bucket of water, and after endless +trouble--for our patient was most recalcitrant--poured the contents down +his throat. + +[Illustration: Interior of Rest House, Mukak.] + +[Illustration: The Rest House at Sahib Chah.] + +We had some moments of great anxiety, for the animal was taken with a +fit. He fell on his side, his legs quivered three or four times, and for +one moment we really thought our remedy had killed him. The medicine, +however, had the desired effect, and about an hour later the camel was +again as lively as a cricket, and we were able to continue. + +The reader may perhaps gauge what the loss of a camel would have been +when he is told that between Sher-i-Nasrya, Sistan, and Nushki--a journey +of some 500 miles--neither camels nor any other mode of conveyance are, +under ordinary circumstances, to be procured. + +We passed a conical hill, by the roadside, which had thick deposits of +gypsum on the south-east side of its base, while on the north-west +side the process of petrification of the sand was fully illustrated. The +thin surface layer when moist gets baked by the sun, and thus begins its +process of solidification; then another layer of sand is deposited on it +by the wind and undergoes the same process, forming the thin, horizontal +strata so common in the section of all these hills. The lower strata get +gradually harder and harder, but those nearer the surface can be easily +crumbled into sand again by pressure between one's fingers. + +These were the main altitudes registered on the day's march: Plain, 3,220 +feet; 16 miles from Mukak, 3,200 feet; while a mile and a half further we +had gone as low as 2,500 feet on a wide plain with undulations. The rocky +mountain, when seen edgewise from a distance, had appeared like a tower; +now, on approaching it on its broad side, its silhouette altered its +semblance into that of an elongated crouching lion. + +Great quantities of gypsum could be seen in layers under the sand and +fragments that covered the surface. In places the ground was quite white +as if with snow. The track, until we had passed the isolated "lion" +mountain (about 20 miles from Mukak), maintained a direction of east, +east-south-east, and south-east, but about a mile further, it turned +sharply northwards in a bed of soft sand, between sand mounds to the +north-east and a sand bank facing north, the top of which, full of humps, +was not unlike a crocodile's back. + +To the right we had an open space where one got a view of the desert and +mountains to the south, and then we wended our way, in zig-zag, among +sand hills bearing no unusual characteristics, and travelled across a +very sandy plain with clusters of _regheth_ here and there. + +This was one of the worst bits of the Robat-Nushki road. The sand was +troublesome and the track absolutely obliterated by it in this portion. +Twenty-three miles, 660 yards from Mukak we arrived at Sahib Chah, a spot +which no traveller is ever likely to forget, especially if a few drops of +water from one of the wells are tasted. When the road was made it was +very difficult to find drinkable water in this part, and this +well--renowned all over Beluchistan and Sistan for its magic powers--has +up to the present time been the only successful attempt; but I understand +from Captain Webb-Ware, who is in charge of the road, that he hopes to +find or has found water further north, on the other side of the hill +range, and that in future the traveller will be spared the good fortune +of visiting this heavenly spot. + +Most attractive iron troughs had been brought here and placed near the +four wells, and up-to-date wooden windlasses had been erected on the edge +of each well--conveniences that were not quite so common at the stations +we had already passed. This may lead the unwary traveller to believe that +the water of these wells must have some special charm. + +One well was, fortunately, absolutely dry. The water of two was so +powerful in its lightning effects that unfortunate was the wretch who +succumbed to the temptation of tasting it; while the water of the fourth +well, one was told, was of a quite good drinking kind. I had been warned +not to touch it, but my men and camels drank some and it had equally +disastrous effects on men and beasts. Sadek, who was requested to +experiment and report on such occasions, thought his last hour had come, +and he and the camel men moaned and groaned the greater part of the +night. The water seemed not only saturated with salt, but tasted of lead +and phosphorus, and was a most violent purgative. + +The rest-house could not be called luxurious; the reader is referred to +the photograph I took of it facing page 332. It was roofless--which, +personally, I did not mind--and the walls just high enough to screen one +from the wind and sand. It was in two compartments, the wall of one being +41/2 feet high, and of the other about 7 feet high, while 15 feet by 8 +feet, and 10 feet by 8 feet were the respective dimensions of each +section. + +The place lies in the middle of a valley amid hills of chalk or gypsum +and deep soft sand, and is screened by a low hill range to the north-east +and north, while a low flat-topped sand dune protects it on the +south-west. The new track, I believe, will go north of the north-east +range. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + + Sick men and camels--What came of photographing Sahib + Chah--Losing the track--Divided opinions--Allah _versus_ the + compass--Sadek's way of locating positions--Picked up hungry and + thirsty by sensible Mahommed who had come in search--Curious + scenery--Trouble at Mirjawa--Mythical Perso-Beluch + frontier--Gypsum and limestone--Mushki Chah. + + +As all my camels as well as my men had been very sick during the night; +as we had a long march before us the following day, and as I wished to +take a photograph of the place, I resolved not to leave until the sun had +risen, and in order to avoid delay I despatched all the camels and loads, +except my camera, at four o'clock in the morning, meaning to walk some +ten or fifteen miles, and thus give my own camel a rest. Sadek, who said +it was not right for a servant to ride when his master walked, refused to +go on with the caravan and insisted on remaining with me. + +When the camels left--there was a cutting northerly wind blowing raising +clouds of sand--I retreated to the shelter to wait for the sun to rise, +and had a few hours' sleep in a solitary blanket I had retained. The +track had so far been so well defined that I never thought of asking +Mahommed which way it led out of these hills. + +The sun having risen, and the photograph of Sahib Chah shelter duly +taken, we proceeded to catch up the camels, but a few yards from the +shelter all signs of the track ceased, and even the footprints of my +camels had been absolutely obliterated by the high wind of the morning. +To the east-south-east were rather high rocky hills and two passes, one +going round to the north-north-east (which apparently would take us away +from our direction), and another east-south-east, which seemed more +likely to be the right one. To mislead us more we saw what we believed to +be faint camel tracks smothered in sand in this direction, so on we went, +sinking in fine sand, which kept filling our shoes and made walking most +uncomfortable. + +I climbed to the top of the rocky hill to reconnoitre, but higher hills +stood all round barring the view, and I was none the wiser. On we +went--certain that we were going wrong, but unable to find where the +track was. Among hundreds of sand hills, dunes, and high parallel hill +ranges it was not easy to discover it. + +There were flat stretches of sand and parallel dunes several hundred feet +high stretching from north by north-west to south by south-east, and as I +knew the way must be east we had to go over them, down on the other side, +only to be confronted with others before us like the waves of a stormy +sea. + +The sun was scorching, and when the sand got hot, too, walking was most +unpleasant. When we were not on sand while ascending the hill slopes and +tops we were on cutting shale. Sadek, who had not yet recovered from his +previous night's experience at Sahib Chah, was still sick, and with the +extra exertion somehow or other lost his head altogether. + +After having gone up and down, I should not like to say how many times, +we were confronted by a flat valley to the south-west and more mountains +to be crossed in the direction we were going, to the north-east. Sadek +thereupon maintained that the track must perforce be along the valley, to +which I would not agree, and I insisted on keeping east, which I knew +would bring us right in the end. As we climbed hill after hill, Sadek +dragged himself behind me with a discontented face, every few minutes +glancing back at the distant flat valley to the south-west, to which he +pointed, sighing: "Good master, that's road!" + +But up and down we continued, away from it, eastwards, range after range +of hills being left behind and more ranges standing in front of us. +Sadek, who was sweating under the weight of the rifle and camera, +grumbled that he was ill and tired, hungry and thirsty, and it was very +little consolation to think that from this spot, the two nearest wells of +drinkable water were distant one about twenty-eight miles, the other over +forty miles. We had nothing whatever with us to eat or drink. + +After some three hours of uncertainty--and I must confess that it was +somewhat trying each time we had reached the top of a range, which we +climbed with anxious enthusiasm, expecting to get a glimpse of the track, +to find our view obstructed by yet another range, generally higher than +the one on which we stood,--after hours of toiling, as I was saying, we +now came to a rocky range about double the height of any we had climbed +so far. + +Sadek, on looking at it, declined to climb any more. He said he knew the +track must be in the opposite direction and we should only have to climb +all these hills back again. He sat down and puffed away at cigarettes to +allay his hunger and thirst and soothe his temper, while I climbed to the +highest point, some 480 feet, above the point where I had left Sadek. +Behold! on reaching the summit, beyond another range lower to the north, +along a wide undulating plain I did discern a whitish streak like a chalk +line stretching from west to east,--unmistakably the road. + +I signalled the news to Sadek, and shouted to him to come up, which he +most reluctantly did. When panting half-way up the hill, he still turned +round to the south-west and disconsolately exclaimed, "No can be road, my +good master. That is road!" (to the south-west). I ordered him to hurry +up to my point of vantage and see for himself. + +"May be road, may be not road," was his obstinate verdict, when the white +streak across the plain was triumphantly pointed out to him. + +"But, Sadek, can you not see the white perfectly straight line +stretching along, straighter than anything else around you?" + +"I can see plenty white lines, master. _Up-stairs_ mountains, +_down-stairs_ mountains"--(by which he meant gypsum strata on the top and +foot of hills). "May be," he added, sarcastically, "all roads to Shalkot +(Quetta)!" + +"Can you not see that the white track leads exactly in the direction +where my compass says we must go?" + +"Pfff! Compass no good!" he exclaimed with an air of amusing superiority, +and he stooped to pick two pebbles of different colours. "Take one of +these in one hand, and one in the other," he asked of me. "Now throw one +towards the east and one towards the west." + +I having for curiosity's sake complied with his request, he gravely +examined the discarded stones. + +"Yes, Sahib, your compass speaks truth! Allah says yours is the right +road!" + +On requesting an explanation of this novel method of locating positions, +Sadek looked very solemn, and with a pause, as if he were about to pour +forth words of great wisdom, and disregarding altogether the fact that my +efforts solely and simply were responsible for discovering the track, +"You see, my master," he said, "one stone I called _good road_, the other +I called _no road_. Whichever stone you throw first is Allah's wish. +Allah is more right than compass." + +At any rate the method was simple enough, and it fortunately happened +that Allah and my compass seemed in agreement on that occasion; so +adding these circumstances to the more substantial fact that we could see +the track plainly before us, we gaily descended from our lofty pinnacle, +and with renewed vigour climbed the lower and last hill range, the last +obstacle before us. + +In the trough between the two ranges, however, the fine sand was +extremely nasty, almost as bad as quicksand, and we had some trouble in +extricating ourselves. We sank into it almost up to the waist. We then +crossed the broad plain in a diagonal for nearly four miles, and at last, +after some seven hours of anxiety, not to speak of hunger and thirst, we +struck the road again. + +Sadek, who, notwithstanding Allah's patent method, my compass bearings, +and our combined eyesight, was not at all certain in his own heart that +we should find the road that day, was so overcome with joy when he +actually recognised my camel's footprints upon the sand, where not +obliterated by the wind, that he collapsed upon the ground from fatigue +and strain, and slept snoring sonorously for nearly two hours. + +As luck would have it, a Beluch horseman travelling towards Mushki-Chah +had overtaken my camels, and much to Mahommed's astonishment, informed +him that he had not seen the Sahib on the road, so Mahommed, fearing that +something had happened, had the sense to turn back with two camels to try +and find us. We were very glad of a lift when he arrived, and even more +glad to partake of a hearty lunch, and a long, long drink of water, which +although brackish tasted quite delicious, from one of the skins. + +The track was like a whitish streak on a sombre grey valley, with black +hills scattered here and there, and a most peculiar dome-like hill on our +left (10 deg. b.m.) towards the north. Eastwards we could see a long flat +high table mountain, not unlike Kuh-i-Kwajah of Sistan. On our right were +low, much broken-up hills; to the west, low sand hillocks, and facing us, +north-east-east (80 deg. b.m.) a low black hill range standing in front of +some high and very pointed peaks. To the south-east there was an open +space. + +We made a diagonal crossing over several sand dunes that stood from 50 to +80 feet high, and extended to a great length southwards. Then we +approached the curious-domed hill. It was of a warm reddish-brown colour, +with a yellow belt of sand at its base, and half-a-dozen sugar-loaf sand +hills to the west of it. To the east of it rose the flat-topped plateau, +yellowish at the two extremities, as one looked at it from this point, +and black in the centre. On the north-east (at 70 deg. b.m.) was a pointed +peak, perfectly conical. + +It was a very long march to Mushki-Chah, and we had a few mild +excitements on the road. We came across some picturesque Beluch, clothed +in flowing white robes, and carrying long matchlocks with a fuse wound +round the stock. They were extremely civil, all insisting on shaking +hands in a most hearty fashion, and seeming very jolly after they had +gravely gone through the elaborate salutation which always occupies a +considerable time. + +Further on we met a cavalcade, which included the Naib Tashildar of +Mirjawa, an Afghan in British employ, and the _duffadar_ of Dalbandin, +the latter a most striking figure with long curly hair hanging over his +shoulders. They were with some levies hastening to Mirjawa, an important +place, which, owing to the ridiculous fashion in which the Perso-Beluch +Commission under Sir T. Holdich had marked out the frontier, was now +claimed both by Persia and Beluchistan as making part of their respective +territories. + +When I was at the Perso-Beluch frontier there was much ado about this +matter, and some trouble may be expected sooner or later. Anybody who +happens to know a few facts about the way in which the frontier line was +drawn must regret that England should not employ upon such important +missions sensible and capable men whose knowledge of the country is +thorough. + +It would, no doubt, be very interesting to the public to be told in +detail _exactly how_ the frontier was fixed, and whether Sir T. Holdich, +who was in charge, _ever_ visited the whole frontier line. The Government +maps which existed at the time of the frontier demarcation were too +inaccurate to be of any use, as has been proved over and over again to +our sorrow. It would also be interesting to know whether the +astronomical positions of some of the supposed principal points of the +boundary have been accurately tested, and whether some points which had +been corrected by really efficient officers have been omitted, if not +suppressed, in order to cover certain discrepancies. And if so whether it +was an expedient to avoid showing the weakness of the maps (on which +certain names figure prominently) which were taken as a basis for the +delineation? + +The facts are too commonly known by all the officers in Beluchistan and +by the Foreign Office in Calcutta, as well as by Persians, to be kept a +secret. It is painful to have to register facts of this kind, but I most +certainly think it is the duty of any Englishman to expose the deeds of +men who obtain high sounding posts and can only manage to keep them by +intrigue and by suppressing the straightforward work of really able +officers (which does not agree with theirs) to the eventual expense and +loss of the country at large. + +As we went along, leaving the plain which we had crossed for some fifteen +miles, we saw to the south-west large white patches like snow. These were +made of gypsum and white limestone covering the ground. A curious long, +low, flat hill, with hundreds of vertical black streaks at its base and a +black summit, resembled a gigantic centipede crawling on the flat desert. +At the eastern end of the long plain were mud-hills on the left side of +the track, and black, isolated, rounded mounds on the right. To the +south-east a very curious mountain could be seen, one side of which was +of beautiful white and yellow marble, and from this spot we crossed hills +of sand and gravel, and the track was more tortuous, but still travelling +in a general direction of east-south-east (110 deg. b.m.) + +Other mountains there were, entirely of white marble, and a great many +beautifully tinted fragments of marble, as well as yellow alabaster, were +strewn about abundantly upon the ground. We travelled among hillocks for +about seven and a half miles, then emerged again into a plain with a hill +range to our left, but nothing near us on the south. At the entrance of +the valley on our left stood a curious high natural stone pillar. + +By moonlight, but with clouds fast gathering and threatening rain, we +eventually reached Mushki-Chah at about ten in the evening, having +travelled some 36 miles. The distance by road from Sahib Chah would have +been 28 miles 660 yards. Here we found the remainder of my caravan which +had arrived some hours previously. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + + Mushki-Chah--A Ziarat--Beluch dwellings--The Beluch and the + camera--Characteristics of Beluch--Three wells of good water at + Kundi--The Kuh-i-Sultan and the "Spear of the Sultan"--A big + Ziarat at Kundi--Nineteen hours on the saddle--Tretoh--Cold + wind--Parallel rows of sand barchans--Startling effect of + mirage--Chah Sandan--Brahui salutation--Belind Khan and his good + points--A respected officer--Praying at the Ziarat. + + +Mushki-Chah (3,570 feet) is rather more interesting than other stations +we had passed, because of the greater number of Beluch one saw about. +Here, too, however, one's sojourning had to be curtailed, for unluckily +the water was not only brackish--to which one does not object so +much--but had a sulphurous taste, with a sickening smell--not dissimilar +from that of an old-fashioned hospital ward, when the windows have not +been opened for several days. Otherwise it had no drawback. + +There were four filthy pools from which water was obtainable and which +reminded us of a previous experience at Girdi in Sistan. The water of one +well had a nasty green coating on the surface; the second was of a deep +yellow colour. The other two wells were slightly cleaner but they, too, +were of a suspicious colour--that of strong tea. A cluster of a dozen +palm trees or so had grown near this water, and a little way beyond on a +sand and gravel bank was a Ziarat with a low surrounding wall of black +stones. + +The Ziarat was of an ovoid shape, it just missed being circular, about 18 +feet long and 16 feet broad. An entrance had been made to the east and a +sort of altar constructed to the west by north west--which is about the +accurate direction of Mecca from this spot. A high pole on which flew +red, white, and blue rags was fixed into the altar. The altar--if one may +call it so--was a mass of blocks of beautifully coloured marble. Some +pieces resembled the best Sienna marble, others were capriciously +streaked in white and dark brown; other large pieces were quite +transparent and resembled large blocks of camphor or ice. Others were +more granular, like lumps of frozen snow. Then there were some lovely +bits of a greenish yellow marble and some brown. These beautiful stones +and pieces of marble were brought to these Ziarats from great distances +by devotees. Stones reduced by nature into queer shapes, hollowed for +instance by the action of sand or water, perfectly spherical, or +strikingly coloured were favourite offerings. + +At this particular Ziarat, a small marble mortar with pestle and a marble +hammer, occupied the most prominent place. A flint arrow head was also in +evidence. Further was perched a curious doll with a string and charm +round its neck, and some chips of beautiful transparent streaked yellow +marble like bits of lemon. From the pole hung a circle of wood and horns, +as well as coarse wooden imitations of horned animals' skulls. Offerings +of palm leaves had also been deposited. + +West of the Ziarat was a small semicircular Mesjid of brown stone, with a +few white marble pieces to the north by north-west, and, further, long +heaps of stones extending in a north by north-west direction. The last +one was in the shape of a grave with a high white stone pillar to the +south. + +The new bungalow, of which the foundations were just being laid, will be +erected near this Ziarat. + +Quite a number of Beluch were settled at Mushki-Chah, and some lived in +small quadrangular mud houses, with a black tent stretched over the walls +to act as roof; or else they had put up coarse huts made of branches of +tamarisk and thatched with palm tree leaves and tamarisk, in which they +lived--apparently in the most abject poverty. Yet, although these +residences were often not higher than five or six feet, their owners did +not lack pride. In Beluchistan as in England, the home of a man is his +castle. The Beluch, however--most unlike the English--would not let +anybody who did not belong to his creed go into it. + +The occupations of the stay-at-home people did not seem to have an excess +of variety, and consisted mainly of plaiting fuses for their matchlocks, +keeping the threads tightly stretched by means of a wooden bow. There +were but few coarse implements inside their huts, and a bag or two with +grain. A long matchlock and a sword or two lay in a corner in most +dwellings, and that was about all. + +The house of the chief was somewhat more elaborate, having trunks of palm +trees inserted vertically into the stone wall to strengthen it. It had a +mud and stone enclosing wall, and trophies of heads of _dumbahs_ near the +flat roof. In one room of this dwelling lived the family, in the other +the animals. An out-of-door enclosure for horses was also noticeable. Two +mud huts were next to it. + +The thatched semispherical huts of palm tree leaves and tamarisk were +also interesting, as was the windmill, identical with those already seen +in Sistan. + +On my arrival at Mushki-Chah two large tents had been placed at my +disposal--the first time I had been under a tent on this journey--and I +received a great many callers. A very amusing incident occurred when I +asked an old Beluch and his two sons to sit for their photographs. They +put on a sarcastic smile and said they would rather die a natural death +than be taken. The old man, who said he had heard all about "the black +boxes," as he styled cameras, and all the mischief they could do, +complained that since one or two sahibs had passed along the route +carrying "black boxes" a great many Beluch had been taken ill, had +misfortunes of all kinds, and those who actually had the camera pointed +at them had died from the effects. One sahib had offered him, personally, +a bag of silver if he would only sit for his picture, but "No, sir, not +I!" said the father, as he shook his head and scratched his beard; and +"No, sir, not we!" echoed the grinning youths, "never shall we be taken!" + +Before they knew where they were, and without any suspicion on their +part, I had, by a dodge of my own, taken three photographs of them, the +best of which is reproduced facing page 350. + +They were rather characteristic types of the lower class Beluch of +northern Beluchistan. They possessed very quick, bright, shining eyes, +dark complexions and long noses, very broad at the base. The mouth was +generally the worst feature in their faces, the upper lip being drawn +very tight over the teeth and giving rather a brutal expression to their +countenances. The men were very powerfully built, thick-set, with ribs +well covered with muscle and fat, powerful, coarse wrists and ankles, and +square-shaped hands with short stumpy thumbs. + +[Illustration: Windmill at Mushki Chah.] + +[Illustration: Three Beluch who would not be Photographed!] + +Their attire was simple; a sort of long white cotton blouse buttoned over +the right shoulder and ample trousers of the same material. Many, +however, wore a felt "overcoat"--or rather, "overskin," for there was no +other garment underneath. A white turban was worn wound round the head. + +A _duffadar_, six _sawars_ and six camels were stationed at +Mushki-Chah. + +I left Mushki-Chah on January 21st at 3.30 a.m., my camels with loads +having started some hours previously, and our way lay for eight miles due +east, first over sand hills and undulations, then on a perfectly straight +and level track. To the south we had a barren waste of flat desert. We +then veered east-south-east (110 deg. b.m.), and fifteen miles off turned +slightly further to the south-east (120 deg. b.m.). To the north-north-east +we had a mountain range. + +On nearing Kundi we found tamarisk plentiful and good grazing for camels. +Some of the tamarisk trees were 10 feet high. The march was a very cold +one, a north-north-west gale blowing fiercely and penetrating right +through our clothes and flesh to the marrow of our bones. + +Three wells of good water were found 11/4 miles before reaching Kundi. The +rest-house was uninhabited and fast tumbling down. In 21 miles 1,100 +yards we had slightly risen to 3,660 feet, and this point is one which +remains well impressed on one's mind, partly on account of the splendid +view obtained of the Sultan Mountains to the north-east--a gloomy black +mass with the highest peak of a light red colour. The Kuh-i-Sultan is a +most weirdly fantastic mountain range. Sir Charles McGregor, who saw +these mountains from a distance, speaks of them as the "oddest-looking +mountains he had ever seen." + +But the best description is that given by Major A. H. MacMahon, who was, +I believe, the first European to explore the range. Approaching it from +the north he, too, was struck by the grotesque shape of its numerous +sharp peaks; above all by the Neza-i-Sultan--"the spear of the +Sultan"--an enormous rocky pillar of hard conglomerate, roughly +resembling a slender sugar-loaf with tapering summit, and precipitous +sides, that rise on the crest line of the range. + +"The fissures," MacMahon says, "made by rain and weather action down its +sides give it a fluted appearance from a distance. We expected to find a +high natural pillar, but were not prepared for the stupendous size of the +reality. Judging from its width at the base, which is over 100 yards in +diameter, the height must be no less than from 500 to 800 feet. The +Sultan, in whose honour this range is named, is an ancient mythical +celebrity, who is said to be buried in the vicinity of the mountains. His +full name is Sultan-i-Pir-Khaisar, and he is the patron saint of Beluch +robbers. Hence these mountains have a reputation as a robber resort. The +Sultan Mountains abound in the assafoetida plant, and in the summer +months traders come in numbers from Afghanistan to collect it." + +I was in a great hurry to return to England, and could not afford the +detour entailed by going near enough to photograph the "Spear." Besides, +Major MacMahon gives a capital photograph of it in the _Royal +Geographical Society's Journal_. + +At Kundi, a big Ziarat, with many trunks of tamarisk trees, some 10 feet +high, supporting bleached horns, has been erected to the Kuh-i-Sultan. +Hundreds of beautiful pieces of marble and alabaster of all sizes, +colours and shapes have been deposited here, as usual, but the sand is +fast covering the whole Ziarat. + +From Kundi the track, which has come in a south-east-east (120 deg. b.m.) +direction, now turned sharply to north-east (60 deg. b.m.). Ten high mud and +stone _neshans_--or _Tejia_ (cairns) as they are called by the +Beluch--have been erected to warn the traveller. Four curious mounds with +tufts of high tamarisk trees upon them are to be seen at Kundi. There is +fair grazing for camels all along. One is specially attracted by the +peculiar stones corroded into all sorts of shapes, strewn all over the +ground. + +We made a double march on that day, and--barring the quaint Sultan +Mountains which we saw all along--had but a very flat uninteresting +country all round. + +We arrived during the evening at Tretoh, having been nineteen hours on +the saddle. It was bitterly cold at night, the drop in the temperature +being very great immediately after the sun went down. At this station, +too, the water tasted very bad--almost undrinkable--but was not +necessarily unwholesome. We were glad to get into the thana and light up +a big fire in the centre of one of the mud rooms, but no sooner had we +done this than it got so hot that I had to find a cooler abode in the new +bungalow in course of construction, which had not yet a roof. + +It was always a marvel to me how the natives could stand the great heat +in the rooms with no draught for the smoke and heat to get away. It +positively roasted one alive, but my men seemed to revel in it. On the +other hand they suffered from the cold to a degree that was also +unaccountable to me. On many occasions I have heard my camel-driver moan +from pain in his frozen toes and fingers, but, true enough, when out in +the open desert the wind was rather penetrating, and his clothes, barring +a waistcoat, consisted of thin white cotton garments. Personally, I never +had occasion to make a change in my tropical clothing (I could not if I +had wanted to), nor did I ever once have to use an overcoat. But--I +seldom know what it is to feel cold. + +We delayed our departure the next morning to see if the gale would abate, +but at 10 a.m. we had to venture out. One was rather at the mercy of the +wind on the hump of the camel. It did blow! The wind hampered the camels +greatly and was a nuisance all round, as one could only by an effort +remain on the saddle. The flying sand filled one's eyes and ears, and the +wind catching the brim of one's hat made such a hissing noise that one +had to find a more comfortable headgear by wrapping up one's head in a +blanket. + +The desert was here absolutely flat, with some grazing for camels +(_kirri_). We were going north-east-east (70 deg. b.m.) amid low sand +hillocks and sand banks, and the Sultan Mountain still on our left in all +its glory. To the north-east (55 deg. b.m.) we had another mountain mass +lower than the Sultan and not nearly so picturesque, and before us, on +going over a gentle incline some 35 ft. above the level of the plain +(about 13 miles from Tretoh), three long rows of bright yellow, +flat-topped, crescent-shaped sand-hills stretching for several miles from +north to south were disclosed. These three rows of barchans were +parallel, and at intervals of about from 300 yards to 500 yards from one +another. The barchans averaged from 50 ft. to 100 ft. in height. Another +row of them stretched along the foot of the mountain range to the north +and extended from north-west to south-east. + +The cause of these extensive parallel rows of barchans was to be found in +gaps in the hills to the north between the Sultan, the next range, and +two intervening obstacles in the shape of a low mound and a great rock, +the sand being blown through the interstices and gradually accumulating +in the plain on the south. + +On that march we saw a most extraordinary effect of mirage. To the east +(100 deg. b.m.) the peculiar flat-topped Gat (or Gut) Mountain, which looked +like a gigantic lamp-shade, could be seen apparently suspended in the +air. The illusion was perfect, and most startling to any one with +teetotal habits. Of course the optical illusion was caused by the +different temperatures in the layers of air directly over the earth's +surface and the one above it. Where the two layers met they deviated at +an angle, or practically interrupted what would, under ordinary +circumstances, be direct rays of vision. (The same effect, in other +words, as produced by placing a stick vertically in water.) The real +horizon was obliterated, as well as the lower part of the mountain, by +the white haze caused by the warm lower layer of air. + +Some nineteen miles from Tretoh, where the hill range to the north became +low, a few sand hills were to be seen, then where another gap existed in +the range yet another long row of barchans stretched southwards. A mile +or so beyond this spot a long sand and gravel bank stretched across the +plain from north-north-east to south-south-west and near Chah Sandan +another similar bank existed, fifty feet high, parallel to the first. + +At Chah Sandan (altitude 3,380 ft.) we were most enthusiastically +received by the _duffadar_, who was politeness itself. The Beluch +salutation is somewhat lengthy. In the Ba-roh-iya or Brahui language, as +spoken in north Beluchistan where I was travelling, it sounds +thus:--"_Shar joroz druakha joroz haire meretus me murev huaja khana_," +after which the persons greeting seize each other's hands and raise them +to the forehead, bowing low. Inquiries follow about the _mulk_ or +countries one has crossed on one's journey, and whether the people have +treated one kindly. + +The _duffadar_ at Chah Sandan was an Afghan, Belind Khan by name, and had +the following good points about him. He was a most sportsmanlike fellow; +was very bright, civil and intelligent, and owned chickens that laid +delicious eggs. He possessed a beautiful dog to which he was passionately +attached, and he and his brother had a greater capacity for tea than +almost any men I have known. Above all, Belind Khan had intense +admiration for the British and what they did, and as for Captain +Webb-Ware, his superior officer, he pronounced him to be the greatest +"Bahadur" that ever lived. "Even in my own country (Afghanistan)," he +exclaimed, raising his right hand in the air, "there is no 'Bahadur' like +him!" + +This was not pure flattery but it was truly meant, and it was most +pleasant to find that such was the opinion, not only of Belind Khan, but +of every one of Captain Webb-Ware's subordinates on the entire length of +the road from the frontier to Quetta. + +There is a _thana_ of three rooms at Chah Sandan and a Ziarat to the +Sultan Mountain. I took a photograph of Belind Khan making his salaams in +the Ziarat, the altar of which was made of a pile of white marble pieces +and rounded stones with sticks on which horns and a red rag had been +fixed. + +Chah Sandan possessed three wells of excellent water. The distance from +Tretoh to Chah Sandan was 23 miles 760 yards. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + + The picturesque Gat mountain--Strange-looking + mountains--Mirui--White covered country--Sotag--Desolate shed at + Chakal--The _Karenghi rirri_ deadly plant--The Mesjid or + Masit--Their characteristics--The religion of + Beluch--Sects--Superstitions--The symbol of evil--A knife + "possessed"--A Beluch's idea of a filter. + + +Due east of Chah Sandan was the Gat mountain, this time, as there was no +mirage, duly resting upon the desert. It was a most attractive looking +mountain, and quite one of the most striking sights in the scenery upon +the Nushki-Robat road. + +Five miles from Chah Sandan we again struck high, flat-topped sandbanks, +and a great many conical sand hills. Ten miles off we went through a cut +in the hills near which are to be found a well of brackish water and a +great many palm trees, of two kinds (_Pish_ and _Metah_). Big tamarisks +(_kirri_) were also abundant, and there was good grazing for camels, +_regheth_ being plentiful. Near the salt well stood a gigantic palm tree. + +We had come east-north-east (70 deg. b.m.) from Chah Sandan, and from this, +our nearest point to the Gat mountain, the track turned east-south-east +(110 deg. b.m.). One really had to halt to look at the Gat, it was so +impressive. Two enormous blocks of rock several hundred feet high, one, +roughly speaking, of a quadrangular shape (to the north) and one +rectangular (to the south), were joined on the east side by a +perpendicular wall of solid rock. Up to about two-thirds of the height of +the mountain these huge blocks had accumulations of debris and sand, +forming a slanting pad all round except on the west side, where there was +a sort of hollow recess. + +There was a large plain with good camel grazing to the east-south-east, +bounded from east to south by a semicircle of low hills. + +After leaving Gat there was nothing of interest on the march. Another +extensive sand bank, 50 feet high, forming the eastern part of the hilly +semicircle above mentioned, was crossed, then we were in a barren valley. +Further on, however, after going over yet another sand dune (extending +from north to south) we entered one more plain, this time absolutely +covered with low palm trees. From this plain we began to rise in order to +cross the hill range that stood before us, and here there were +innumerable sand hills and sand banks, the latter facing north. + +Near Mirui one found one's self among strange-looking mountains, some +like huge waves of sand, debris, and shale; one to the left, a huge +flat-topped mass in horizontal well-marked strata, while further on was a +third, a most perfect cone. Behind this to the south lay a mass of lower +pointed conical sand hills. + +Mirui being one of the more important stages on the road, a most +comfortable large bungalow has been erected here, like the one at Robat, +with four rooms and four bath rooms, kitchens, etc. The water is very +good at this place; there is a shop with the usual supplies for caravans, +and a staff consisting of a _jemadar_, a _duffadar_, one postal moonshee, +seven _sawars_, four _hasildars_, one _havildar_. The bungalow at Mirui +is most picturesquely situated among the quaint mountains, and the +six-roomed _thana_ some little distance below, against the mountain side, +looks quite formidable. It not only has high towers at the corners of the +wall, but possesses an additional watch tower erected on the top of the +mountain, commanding a fine view of the country around. Before it, +surrounded by hills, spreads a valley from north to south, which the +track crosses in a south-south-west direction among palms and plentiful +high tamarisks. + +The bungalow stood at an altitude of 3,500 feet, the valley where the +_thana_ was situated was one hundred feet lower (3,400 feet), and the +steep although not high pass by which we left the valley 3,550 feet. + +A short zig-zag led us into a second valley with a sand bank barring our +way directly in front to the south-east (125 deg. b.m.), the direction of the +track. For a change we had high precipitous cliffs on the north and a low +range of sand hills extending from north-north-east to south-south-west. +Two very lofty isolated peaks broke the monotony of the horizon line to +the north-east (to 70 deg. and 80 deg. respectively). Having crossed a third and +a fourth plain, two barren, the other at the foot of a sandbank with +plenty of tamarisk, the track, which for a short distance went east, +turned suddenly to the north-east (70 deg. b.m.). + +We had now a great expanse of open country before us with abundant +tamarisk, palm trees, and _eshwark_, which made capital grazing for +camels. Three high red mounds stood respectively to the south-east, +south, and south-west, while almost north (350 deg.) the two high pointed +conical peaks we had observed on the previous march were again visible. +On the south-east there was quite a high mountain range. + +This was a region of sand banks, all facing north, only one out of the +lot spreading in a south-south-west direction, and of semi-spherical sand +hills which were also numerous. + +On getting near Sotag the sandy ground was so covered with gypsum that +for some distance it looked just as if it had snowed. The photograph +reproduced in the illustration gives a good idea of the scenery in that +part. + +Some three and a half miles from Sotag a gap in the hills afforded a view +of an extensive plain to the south, with innumerable reddish-yellow sand +hills, and a range of high mountains far away beyond. From this point the +track rises gently over an undulation about 88 feet higher than the +plain, and on the other side undulations continue, and nothing whatever +is to be seen except the same range of hills to the south, with its +peaks assuming pyramidical shapes toward the eastern portion. + +[Illustration: Ziarat at Chah Sandan. (Belind Khan Salaaming.)] + +[Illustration: Desert covered with Gypsum, near Sotag.] + +We passed the salt well of Jujiki about half way between the two +stations, and arrived at the desolate shed of Chakal at nine in the +evening, where the thatched roofs of two out of three of the rooms had +been torn down to supply fuel to travellers. There is only a salt well at +this place, but some two miles off the road a well of good water has been +dug, near which a new bungalow has been erected. + +But as we arrived late, having done a double march-- + +Mirui to Sotag 12 miles 1,320 yards +Sotag to Chakal 14 " 220 " + -------------------- + Total 26 miles 1,540 yards + +--and as I intended moreover continuing to Dalbandin after three hours' +rest, I did not avail myself of the convenience. We had carried a supply +of good water with us. There was no wood here nor grazing for camels, but +both fuel and food for the animals can be obtained at the Bungalow. + +Chakal was at the identical altitude of Mirui, 3,600 feet. + +My camels with loads left at midnight, and some two hours later I +followed. This was a most uninteresting march in a north-east by east +(70 deg.) direction with sand hills on either side of the track, and high +distant mountains to the south--a red stretch of flat sand between +extending all along from north-east to south-west. When there were no +more sand hills we came to sand banks, which made the track undulating +like a switchback railway. + +Our attention was drawn to a curious plant with a fruit resembling small +oranges lying upon the ground and called by the natives _karenghi rirri_. +There were hundreds of these fruit about, but Mahommed, who had great +local botanical knowledge, advised me not to eat them because their +poison was deadly, and we did not care to experiment in order to test the +accuracy of his statement. + +All along this Robat-Nushki route one finds a great many _Mesjids_ (or +_Masit_, as the word is pronounced by the Beluch). The Mesjid or Masit is +a sort of temporary praying spot where good Mussulmans say their prayers +at sunrise or sunset, and answers the purpose--if one may be allowed the +expression--of an open-air mosque! The Mesjid may be simple or elaborate, +small or big, according to devoutness, patience and materials at hand, +but its most frequent shape is circular, or at least more or less +regularly curved, and its material, stones, or if stones are not +obtainable, sand or mud banked up. Looking to the west towards Mecca is a +stone higher than the others, and in the more elaborate Mesjids, such as +the one shown in the illustration, a proper kneeling-place to fit the +knees is made on the western side, with a stone in the centre to mark the +exact direction of Mecca. A "revered tomb" is duly placed in the centre +of the larger Mesjids, and an entrance way into them bordered with stones +is always present. To enter the Mesjid by stepping over the ledge from +any other side would be considered irreverent. The interior is always +cleared of all stones and made as smooth as practicable. + +There are Mesjids just big enough for one man, these being frequently +made by caravan men to say their prayers; and there are large ones for +the use of several people. The praying spot to the west is, however, +generally only big enough for one at a time. + +[Illustration: Circular Mesjid, with Tomb and Outer Kneeling Place.] + +[Illustration: Mesjid on the Site where a Man had been Killed. + +(Between Kishingi and Morad Khan Kella.)] + +Then there are the more ornamental constructions which had a neatly made +wall of white marble enclosed in a case of black stones, a high black +pillar to the west and two small white marble ones by its side. The +entrance in this case was to the east with a stone slab across it which +was raised when entering the Mesjid. + +One Mesjid, or more, are generally to be found near burial places. +Occasionally I have seen large square or rectangular ones, but they are +not quite so common as those of a rounded shape. In some cases the Mesjid +consists of a mere semicircle facing towards the west. + +The Beluch, as every one knows, is a Suni Mussulman and nourishes a +hatred for the Shia sect, but although very observant of certain rites +pertaining to the religion of Mahommed, the Beluch is not bigoted in +religious matters, and this is probably due to the fact that _mullahs_, +_saiyads_, _fakirs_ or other such religious officials and fanatics are +seldom to be encountered among the Beluch in Northern Beluchistan. + +Far south in Makran matters are different; the people are more fanatical, +and several religious sects, such as the _Rafais_--a sect which proves +its faith in the prophet by self-inflicted tortures--the _Khwajah_ and +the _Zikris_ are found, as well as the "_Biadhiah_," who are despised as +heretics by both Suni and Shia Mussulmans, and who fully reciprocate the +hatred. Unlike other true Mussulmans, these Biadhiahs indulge in +intoxicants and are very slack in religious observances. + +But the Brahuis--with whom I mostly came in contact in the +North--although not very strict, are certainly most reverent and +generally not intemperate. They have no actual mosques wherein to go and +pray, but worship in the improvised Mesjids which I have described. In +fact, the word _Mesjid_ merely means "a place of worship." + +Superstition is generally rampant in people leading a somewhat wild life +of adventure. Some of the legends of the good and evil _gins_, or spirits +and _peris_, fairies, are very quaint. The belief in the magic power of +spells and charms is also deeply rooted. + +Captain Webb-Ware told me two rather amusing instances of superstition. +One day he was out stalking in the hills near Dalbandin, when he came +across a snake (_ekis carinata_). The Beluch shikars who were with him +refused to go on and sat down for half an hour waiting for the evil +influences--of which the snake was a palpable symbol--to vanish. + +On another occasion one of his men dropped his knife--a knife which, by +the way, he had found on the road. The Beluch got off his camel and +stalked the knife as it lay on the ground, and when within a few feet of +it he let fly a stone at it--or as near it as he could. This was, he +explained, to hit and hurt the "pal" which was in the knife, by which he +meant that the knife was "possessed," and a positive proof of it lay in +the fact that he had dropped it on no less than three separate occasions. + +There was a certain humour in the remark made by a Beluch at Isa Tahir to +Captain Webb-Ware when he saw the captain's servant, with an efficient +filter, reduce the filthily slimy water of the only local pool into water +as clear as crystal. He rushed to the captain in a state of great concern +and anxiety. + +"Sahib," he said, "do you know what your servant is doing? He is taking +_all_ the colour, _all_ the strength, and _all_ the smell out of the +water that you are going to drink!" + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + + Captain Webb-Ware, C.I.E.--The Nushki route--An excellent + track--Bungalows built and in course of construction--The + water--Postal service--Important Government concession--The + Nushki route and the railways--Hints to traders--Quaint official + formalities--Pilgrims and their ways--An amusing incident. + + +We arrived very early at Dalbandin, the march from Chakal being very +short (18 miles, 190 yards) and easy. Here I had the pleasure of meeting +Captain F. C. Webb-Ware, C.I.E., Political Assistant at Chagai, and +officer in charge of the Nushki-Robat road. Not only has this officer +devoted all his time and energy to making the road, but, being a man of +means, he has personally gone to considerable expense to "push" the road +and make it a success. It would not have been easy to find a more +practical and sensible man to do the work, and, considering the +difficulties he had to encounter, it is marvellous with what little +expenditure he has obtained such excellent results. + +It is all very well for the usual newspaper critic--who generally does +not know what he is writing about--to complain of this and complain of +that, and declare that something should have been done in exactly the +contrary way to the way in which it is done. In regard to this road, any +one with any common sense must see that all that could have been done has +been, or is being, done--and done well. + +[Illustration: The Type of Thana and New Bungalow between Nushki and +Robat.] + +The road itself--for a desert road--is excellent in every way as far as +the frontier, and some sort of shelter is to be found at every stage. Of +course the road has only just been opened and all the arrangements for +the accommodation of travellers are not quite completed, but large +comfortable bungalows had already been erected--as we have seen--at +Robat, Mirui, and Dalbandin, while smaller buildings of the same type +will shortly be completed at Mall, Kuchaki Chah, Yadgar Chah, Sotag, and +Chah Sandan. In addition to these, the erection of bungalows has been +taken in hand at Chakal, Tretoh, Mushki-Chah, Saindak, Kirtaka, and +Mahommed Raza Chah, and it was anticipated that all these rest houses +would be finished before the close of 1902. + +Owing to the great increase in the traffic upon the route, the +accommodation at Mall, Yadgar Chah, and Karodak, has been nearly doubled, +and two rooms added to the already extensive _thana_ at Dalbandin, while +the Tretoh, Mushki-Chah, and Mukak posts have been much enlarged and +strengthened. + +On the Persian territory the Vice-Consul in Sistan has erected small +shelters, which, although necessarily not quite so luxurious as those +under the direct control of the British authorities, are yet quite +good enough for any one to spend a a night in. We have thus a complete +belt of rest-houses extending from Quetta to Sher-i-Nasrya in Sistan. + +Every effort has been made to improve the water supply upon the road, and +new wells are constantly being sunk. True, the water, all along the +route, is not of the best, but one does not generally expect to find +delicious sweet spring water in a desert. One thing is, nevertheless, +certain, that the best has been made of given circumstances. Barring the +most trying section of the route (in Beluchistan territory) between Mukak +and Mushki-Chah, where the water is really foul, the majority of wells +may be more or less brackish, but, as I have said before, not necessarily +unwholesome. In fact, I have a firm belief that brackish water is the +water one should drink in the desert to keep healthy, and is the remedy +provided by nature for the purpose of balancing other ill-effects +produced by travelling over hot, sandy, dry, barren land. Brackish water, +however, should not be confounded nor classified with dirty water. + +There are post offices at the principal stations, such as Robat, Saindak, +Mirui, Dalbandin and Nushki, and a bi-weekly service links Robat with +Quetta, the time taken to convey letters being now reduced to 100 hours. +A Consular postal service in connection with this continues from Robat, +_via_ Sher-i-Nasrya, Birjand to Meshed. There is a parcel-post service, +on the very convenient "Value payable parcel system," as far as Robat +and Sistan; but from England the Post Office will not take the +responsibility of insured parcels beyond Robat. + +The Government has granted a most important concession--of great value to +traders--by which money can be remitted to or received from either +Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan) or Birjand, through the Consular Treasury, under +the charge of the Vice-Consul for Sistan. + +Messrs. McIver, Mackenzie, & Co., of Karachi, and Mr. Duncan MacBean, of +the Punjab Bank, Quetta, are prepared to act as forwarding agents for +Indian and Persian firms, and the Quetta Branch of the Punjab Bank is +further in business communication with the Imperial Bank of Persia, +which, as we have seen, has agencies in the principal cities of West +Persia and also in Meshed. + +Another concession, most important to the stimulation of trade by this +overland route, has been granted by the North Western Railway in regard +to goods despatched from Karachi to Quetta for export to Persia by the +Nushki-Robat route. From the 1st of April, 1901, a rebate, equal to +one-third of the freight paid, was given on all goods, such as tea, +spices, piece-goods, iron, kerosene oil, sugar, brass and copper, etc., +booked and carried from Karachi to Quetta for export to Persia by the +Sistan route. The usual charges are to be paid on forwarding the goods, +but on producing a certificate from the Agency Office at Quetta that the +goods have actually been despatched to Persia, _via_ Sistan, the amount +of the rebate is refunded. + +From the 1st of May, 1901, another concession came into effect, allowing +a similar rebate of one-third of the actual freight paid on all goods +received at Quetta from Persia by the Sistan route (a certificate from +the Agency Office at Quetta being required to prove the fact), and +despatched thence to Karachi or Kiamari, or to North-western Railway +stations in the Punjab and North-west Province, or to stations on +connected lines. + +Merchants despatching goods to Persia by the Nushki-route should be +careful to have each of the original invoices of their goods attested by +some qualified officer at the place from which the goods are despatched. +By doing this they will find that their goods will be passed through the +Persian Customs at the frontier with no trouble and no delay. The +invoices should be clearly written in the English or French languages. + +The number of travellers along the Nushki-Sistan route is gradually +increasing, several officers returning to England travelling by it; but I +was assured that I was the first European who had travelled on that route +in the opposite direction, viz, from England to Quetta. + +Only British subjects and Persians, it is stated, are allowed to travel +on this route, and some quaint instances of inconceivable official +formality on the part of the Government of India are cited. For instance, +a German was allowed to travel by the route from Quetta to Sistan, but +another German who wished at the same time to travel from Sistan to +Quetta was arrested at the frontier, detained some two months in Sistan, +and permission refused. + +I myself had quite an amusing experience at a certain station with a +travelling police officer, who was not aware of my coming, and seemed in +a great state of mind, fearing that I should prove to be a Russian spy! + +[Illustration: The Nushki-Robat Track.] + +The only thing to be regretted along this route, and one which I think +will be a perpetual cause of friction and annoyance with the Persians and +Russians--as I am sure it would be to us were we in their case--is that +we should allow pilgrims to use this trade route in order to visit the +sacred shrine of Imam Raza in Meshed. The number is so fast increasing +that it is proposed, I believe, to provide special accommodation for +pilgrims at every stage between Quetta and Robat. + +Now, there are pilgrims and pilgrims. Some are no doubt well-to-do people +and deserve to be looked after; but the greater number are decrepit, +sickly fanatics, burdened with all sorts of ailments, whose wish it is to +go and die and be buried in the vicinity of the sacred shrine. +Furthermore, not only do the living ones go and breathe their last in +Meshed (or more frequently upon the road), but among their personal +luggage they try to bring over corpses of relations for interment in the +holy burial place. The passage of corpses to Persia through Beluchistan +is not permitted by the local government, but occasional attempts are +made to smuggle them through, and it is not a very easy matter to detect +them, not even by the smell of the corpses, which can be no worse than +that of the living pilgrims. Even at best these parties of pilgrims are a +miserable, half-decomposed lot, with bundles of filthy rags. When anybody +dies on the road, attempts--generally successful--are invariably made to +bring the bodies along. + +That we have had, and still have, the plague in India is a matter we +cannot very well hide; that the passage across the Beluchistan and +Persian deserts should be a sufficient disinfectant as far as individuals +go is also theoretically probable; but I am not certain that the theory +would apply to the filthy rags and bedding. I would not speak so +feelingly had I not seen these pilgrims myself. + +Now, if we choose to allow these creatures to bring infection into other +countries--and it must be remembered that if they do go to the shrine it +is generally because they are infected with some complaint or other, or +actually for the purpose of dying there--we ought not to grumble if the +Russians, who see their thickly populated territories of Transcaspia +threatened, enforce upon the Persian officials the necessity of hampering +the progress of such parties towards Meshed. Nor can we blame them if, +when the Persian authorities are unable to enforce stringent measures, +they take matters into their own hands, whether in a strictly legal way +or otherwise, in order to prevent these sickly hordes from coming +towards their frontier. + +I am sure that if the sacred shrine were in British territory, and ailing +Russian pilgrims came over bringing bundles of badly-packed dead +relations with them, the outcry in this country would be general, and we +should soon put a stop to it. + +As it is, the provocation to hinder them is very great, while the benefit +that we reap by letting these wretches through is rather difficult to +detect; they are an expense to the Government rather than otherwise, not +to speak of the endless bother and annoyance they give our various +officials on the road, for indeed, religious people, whether Mussulman or +Christian or Buddhist, can make themselves a nuisance for religion's +sake. Moreover, our caravans, following directly after these funereal +parties, have occasionally fared badly at the hands of the alarmed +natives. + +In Sistan, Major Benn was telling me an amusing incident: one or two +members of one of these fanatical parties died at the Consulate; the +local Persian doctor pronounced it--or them--cases of plague, and the +natives were scared to death for fear that the infection should spread; +and one day when Major and Mrs. Benn were peacefully riding along the +city wall, a number of people with rifles collected upon the ramparts and +fired a volley with actual bullets over their heads. It was explained +afterwards that the intention was not to cause the riders any harm but +merely to drive away the "spirits of infection" which hung over the +Consul, who had been with the pilgrims. + +There seems to be a belief that the intense cold of the winter, the +terrific heat of the summer, and the torrential rains of the autumn, make +the Nushki route impracticable during the greater part of the year, but +nothing could be further from the truth. One can travel on this route +comfortably at almost any time of the year, except during the heavy +rains, when the desert becomes a swamp and makes it impossible for camels +to go on. In summer, of course, one has to travel at night, and in winter +it is pleasanter travelling during the day. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + + The Beluch-Afghan boundary--Substantial advantages obtained--The + Afghans driven from Chagai--Who owns Beluchistan?--How + Beluchistan is subdivided--Treaties and engagements with the Kahn + of Kelat--The _Brahui_ and _Nhauri_--When British political + connection with Kelat began--Intrigue--The treaty of 1839--The + treaty stolen--Kelat stormed by the British--A + revolution--Protection of caravans--Treaty of 1841--At the death + of Nasir Khan--Boundary matters settled in 1887--A Brahui + rebellion--British mediation--A state of chaos--The Marris and + Bugtis--Reconciliation of the Sardars with the Khan of + Kelat--Treaty of 1876--British agents at the Khan's + court--Railways and telegraphs--Subsidies--British troops + stationed in the country--Major Sandeman, agent to the + Governor-General--The agreement of 1883--Transfer of dues and + tolls--The chiefship of Kharan--The chief of Las + Bela--Troublesome Marris--British Beluchistan--The occupants of + Zhob. + + +A few details of how the British Government came to make the Nushki-Robat +road may interest the reader. + +After the Afghan war was over, it was supposed that our boundary extended +as far north as the river Halmund, but we let things slide for many years +and took no steps to extend our influence so far, and the result was that +the Amir of Afghanistan--who very rightly regarded Chagai as a most +important strategical position, in fact, almost the key to the +Halmund--took possession of the place. In 1896 a commission was sent out +to define the Perso-Beluch frontier properly, and Major MacMahon, a most +thorough and conscientious officer, was placed in charge of the mission. + +On looking at the map, one might, if unaware of certain important +circumstances, be led rashly to believe that the natural geographical +boundary between Beluchistan and Afghanistan is along the course of the +river Halmund, or else that it should follow the watershed of the chain +of mountains extending, from west to east, from the Malek Siah, the Lahr +Kuh, the Kacha Kuh, Mirjawa or Saindak Mountains, to the mountain mass +extending as far as the Sultan Mountain. One cannot at first grasp why, +when two such excellent natural boundaries exist, the boundary has been +drawn right across the desert between the Halmund and these ranges--where +there is nothing to mark a division except the whitewashed pillar-posts +put up by the boundary commission. + +This is what would appear, but here is what really happened. While we +were taking no trouble to spread our influence in that portion of the +country, the Afghans claimed as theirs a considerable portion of what +to-day makes part of N. Beluchistan. A point which it is well not to lose +sight of is that, after the Sistan Mission of 1872, when General Sir +Frederick Goldsmid, assisted by General Sir Richard Pollock, acted as +arbitrators between the Persian and Afghan Governments, it was agreed +that the Kuh-i-Malek-Siah (mountains), close to where the Ziarat has been +erected, should mark the most south-westerly point common to the two +countries. This point being given, when the Beluch-Afghan Boundary +Commission began its work in March, 1894, they found that the Afghans +claimed a great deal more land as theirs than was expected. + +The line of boundary to be defined from Gomal to the Persian frontier was +some 800 miles, and during the two years which it took to complete the +laying down of the boundary line the Mission is said to have had very +great trouble with the Afghan Commissioners. + +And here one can hardly forbear comparing the magnificently thorough +manner in which this frontier was fixed, with the shoddy, confused method +in which the Perso-Beluch frontier was "demarcated"--if the word can be +used in this case--by Sir Thomas Holdich at the same epoch. + +In the case of the Afghan-Beluch frontier, 800 miles of frontier line was +carefully laid down under the direction of Captain (now Major) A. H. +MacMahon, to whom Great Britain may be grateful for possessing to-day +several hundred square miles of land more than she would have done; and, +mark you, these additional square miles are--in a way--strategically the +most important portion to us of Beluchistan. I am referring to that zone +of flat territory, north of the Mirjawa, Saindak and Sultan Mountains, +which forms a southern barrier to the Afghan desert, and along a portion +of which we have now built the Nushki-Robat route. + +Strategically, more particularly if a railway is to be constructed, the +advantages in gaining that strip of land on the north side of the +mountainous region cannot be over-estimated, and only a fearless, but +extremely tactful, well-informed and, above all, able officer like +MacMahon could have scored such an unexpected success against the very +shrewd Afghan Commissioners. The latter well knew the political value of +the concession, and so did the Amir at Cabul--who, angered at hearing of +the advantages gained by the British Commissioners for their own country, +is said to have treated his representatives in a summary way on their +return to the Afghan capital. + +But the line of boundary was laid in an unmistakable manner. The final +agreements and really _accurately_ drawn maps were signed on May 14th, +1896, by both the Afghan and British Commissioners, and there was no +going back on what had been done. + +One of the important results of this Boundary Commission was that we +definitely drove the Afghans out of Chagai, north of which place the +frontier now extends eastwards to the Sarlat Mountains. The first thing +that directed attention to these remote regions was Nushki, a little +district some 90 miles from Quetta--a place most conveniently situated +for strategical and trade purposes. This was an outlying portion of the +Khan of Kelat's territory. + +As a matter of fact these people were always fighting among themselves; +they had a bitter enmity with one another, and their feuds had +accumulated on an ever increasing scale for centuries. They merely +acknowledged the Khan's authority when it suited their ends. + +The Government first requested the Khan or Kelat to keep the district in +order, being a frontier district, not far from the Afghan boundary, and +notified him that trouble there might involve trouble with the British +Government. The Khan, however, was helpless, and the ultimate result was +that the Government came to terms with the Khan and agreed to give him a +quit rent of 9,000 rupees a year--a sum much larger than he ever got out +of it for himself--and took over Nushki from him. + +One question frequently asked is: "Who owns Beluchistan?" To which one +might almost answer: "Yes, who does?" + +Like Afghanistan, Nepal, and other such buffer states, Beluchistan is +going through a somewhat slow but sure process of absorption. Beluchistan +is a mere expression of political geography, and the country called by +that name has on the west a semi-mythical boundary with Persia; on the +north a real boundary with Afghanistan; to the south the Arabian Sea, and +to the west, the Brahuic and Lukhi Mountains, bordering with Sindh and +the lower Dejarath. + +Beluchistan may be subdivided as follows:-- + + British Beluchistan, with the assigned districts of Quetta and + the Bolan; territories under the immediate rule of the Khan of + Kelat. + + Sarawan and Thalawan, the lands belonging to the two leading + Brahui clans. + + The Chiefship of Las Bela. + + Makran, Kharan, and the country of the Beluch tribes, such as the + Marris and Bugtis, along the Punjab and Sind borders. + + Bori and Zhob. + +We have certain treaties, engagements and Sanads with the Khan of Kelat +and the other chiefs, and the country--again I have to use a paradoxical +expression--may be regarded as a sort of "dependent independent" state. I +can find no better way of describing it. We have bought up all the rights +held by the chiefs that were worth buying for our purposes, and while, +theoretically, the country is supposed to be merely under our "sphere of +influence," we might with our fast-absorbing qualities practically +consider it absolutely our own. + +The Brahui Khan of Kelat is the most powerful ruler in Beluchistan, and +the city of Kelat may be looked upon as the Beluch capital of +Beluchistan. Quetta, of course, is the capital of British Beluchistan. + +The Beluch may be roughly divided into two great classes, the _Brahui_ +and the _Nharui_, the latter to be subdivided again into the _Rinds_ and +the _Numris_. These classes, however, are again to be split up into a +great many tribes of different names. + +[Illustration: A Beluch Family.] + +The meaning of the word _Brahui_ is said to be "inhabitants of the +desert," and of _Nharui_ "men of the plains." The Nharui profess to be of +Arab origin, and to have come from the west; and they despise the idea +that they are akin to the Afghans or the Turkomans. Their features and +habits would support this view, and their language undoubtedly bears +traces of strong western influence if not of actual western origin. Their +being such much finer specimens of men than the average Persians, may be +accounted for by the fact that during the Arab invasion only the fittest +and finest survived to get as far as this, and that of these men the +Beluch are the present descendants. + +Like all nomads the Beluch are most wonderful linguists. I met a great +many men who knew three, four or five languages, such as Brahui, Nharui, +Persian, Afghan, and even Hindustani, and on experiment they showed +remarkable facility for picking up and correctly retaining words of any +foreign language. + +The theory that the Brahui--the most numerous class in Beluchistan--are +Tartar mountaineers is, to my mind, incorrect. They believe themselves to +be the aboriginal people of Beluchistan, and this, I think, is more +likely the case. Their language is quite different from any of the Nharui +dialects. The Nharui tribes are much given to raids and warfare, and +even last year, when I was going through Beluchistan, a small war had +just been settled by a British force, sent to suppress the rebels, in +conjunction with a Persian force from Kerman on the other side. + +I cannot speak of the southern tribes as I did not visit them, but the +Brahui with whom I came in contact, although very fond of a life of +adventure, I invariably found extremely gentlemanly, hospitable and +dignified in every way. They were men of a splendid type who, combined +determined bravery with the quietest, softest, most considerate and +graceful manner. + +The Khan of Kelat is the most powerful ruler, and with him we have +several important treaties. From the time of Abdullah Khan, in the +eighteenth century, Kelat had been a state independent of the Delhi +Empire, and had incorporated several provinces. To understand fully the +evolution of Beluchistan into its present condition I will give a hasty +historical review of the most important occurrences. + +The political connection of the British Government with Kelat commenced +during the time of the grandson of Nasir Khan, Mehrab Khan, a weak ruler +who became Khan in 1819. He was disliked by the chiefs of the various +tribes for being under the influence of a man of low extraction called +Daud Mahommed, for whom Fateh Mahommed, the hereditary Minister, was +sacrificed. Fateh's son, Naib Mulla Mahommed Hasan, however, murdered +the intruder and was himself placed in the position his father should +have occupied, but his hatred for the Khan never ceased to crave for +revenge. In 1838 this treacherous Minister, in the Khan's name, but +without his knowledge, incited the tribes to rise and harm the British +troops in their march to restore Shah Shujia to his dominions. + +Sir Alexander Burns had to be deputed to Kalat to prevent hostility and +attempt to negotiate a treaty. The treaty contained the following +stipulations.[7] + +"(Art. 1.) The descendants of Nasir Khan, as well as his tribe and sons, +shall continue in future to be masters of the country of Kelat, Kachki, +Khorstan, Makran, Kej, Bela and the port of Soumiani, as in the time of +the lamented Ahmad Shah Durani. + +"(Art. 2.) The English Government will never interfere between the Khan, +his dependants and subjects, and particularly lend no assistance to Shah +Nawaz Fateh Khan, and the descendants of the Mahabbatzai branch of the +family, but always exert itself to put away evil from his house. In case +of H. M. the Shah's displeasure with the Khan of Kelat, the English +Government will exert itself to the utmost to remove the same in a manner +which may be agreeable to the Shah and according to the rights of the +Khan. + +"(Art. 3.) As long as the British Army continues in the country of +Khorasan, the British Government agrees to pay to Mehrab Khan the sum of +150,000 of Company's rupees from the date of this engagement by half +yearly instalments. + +"(Art. 4.) In return for this sum the Khan, while he pays homage to the +Shah and continues in friendship with the British nation, agrees to use +his best endeavours to procure supplies, carriage and guards to protect +provisions and stores going and coming from Shikarpur by the route of +Rozan Dadar, the Bolan pass, through Shal to Kuchlak from one frontier to +another." + +With assurances of fidelity to the Saddozai family and friendship to the +British Government--and stipulation that all supplies and carriage +obtained from the Khan must be paid for "without hesitation"--the treaty +was duly concluded on March 28th, 1839. + +Everything seemed satisfactory and the Khan promised to visit Quetta to +pay his salaams to Shah Shujia. Sir Alexander Burnes, who had preceded +him, was robbed on the way of the draft of the treaty signed by the Khan. +Treacherous Mulla Mahommed Hasan did not fail to impress upon the British +that the Khan had given directions to have the treaty stolen, and had, +furthermore, prevented Mehrab from proceeding to Quetta. The hostility of +the Khan being evident, it was resolved to send a punitive expedition to +Kelat to give the Khan a lesson. + +On the 13th of November, 1839, the town was stormed and taken by a +detachment of General Wiltshire's brigade, Mehrab Khan was killed and his +son fled, while the Khan's Minister was made prisoner and his treachery +proved. + +Shah Nawaz Khan--a youth of fourteen, a direct descendant in the male +line from Mahabat Khan--was set up by the British as the future Khan of +Kelat. The provinces of Sarawan and Kach Gandava were annexed to the +dominions of the Amir of Afghanistan. + +Mehrab's son, Nasir Khan, the rightful successor to the rule of Kelat, +headed a revolution; Shah Nawaz was deposed, the British representative +at Kelat was killed, and Nasir Khan was eventually established in power +by the British, the two provinces restored to him, and a new treaty +concluded with him on October 6th, 1841. + +This treaty acknowledged Nasir Khan and his descendants the vassals of +the King of Cabul; allowed if necessary, the Honourable Company's or Shah +Shujia's troops to be stationed in any positions they deemed advisable in +any part of his territory; and declared that a British resident officer's +advice should always be followed. Caravans into Afghanistan from the +Indus as well as from Soumiani port were to be protected from attacks, +and no undue exactions imposed on them; the British Government undertook +to afford Nasir Khan protection in case of attack; while Nasir Khan bound +himself to provide for the support of Shah Nawaz whom he had deposed. + +This treaty became useless after the retirement from Cabul, and it was +found necessary to negotiate a new agreement dated 4th of May, 1854, +which annulled the treaty of October 6th, 1841, enjoined perpetual +friendship between the British Government and the Khan of Kelat, his +heirs and successors, and bound Nasir Khan and successive Khans "to +oppose to their utmost all enemies of the British Government with whom he +must act in subordinate co-operation, and not enter, without consent, +into negotiations with foreign States." + +British troops might occupy, if necessary, any position they thought +advisable in the Kelat territory, and British subjects and merchants from +Sindh or the coast to Afghanistan were to be protected against outrage, +plunder and exactions. A transit duty, however, was to be imposed at the +rate of six rupees on each camel-load from the coast to the northern +frontier, and 5 rupees from Shikarpur to the same frontier. + +To aid Nasir Khan, his heirs and successors, in the fulfilment of these +obligations, and on condition of faithful performance of them, the +British Government bound itself to pay to Mir Nasir Khan, his heirs and +successors, an annual subsidy of 50,000 Company's rupees. If, however, +the conditions required were not fulfilled year by year the Government +would stop the payment of the annual subsidy. + +When Nasir Khan died in 1857, his brother, his son, and his half-brother +claimed the succession, and the latter, Khudadad Khan, a boy of ten, was +elected by the chiefs; but had it not been for the support given him by +the British Government, who for four successive years paid him an +additional 50,000 rupees besides the 50,000 stipulated in the agreement, +in order to help him to suppress the rebellious Marris tribe, he could +not have maintained his position. + +The leading Kelat chiefs, dissatisfied with their ruler, elected Sherdil +Khan, Khudadad's cousin, as Khan of Kelat, but he was murdered the +following year, 1864, and the banished ruler reinstated in his former +position. Previous to his banishment, in 1862, a proper agreement was +signed defining the boundary line between British India and the Khan's +territory, but it was not till 1887 that matters regarding it were +absolutely settled. + +One thing may be said for the Beluch, and that is that, barring a few +squabbles, they have in the main been friendly and faithful towards the +British. + +On February 20th and March 23rd, 1863, a convention was entered into with +the Khan containing an additional clause for the extension of a telegraph +line through such of his dominions as lie between the western boundary of +the province of Mekran under the feudatory rule of the Jam of Beyla and +the eastern boundary of the territory of Gwadur, for the protection +(only) of which line, and those employed upon it, the Khan was to receive +an annual payment of 5,000 rupees, the whole sum to be expended among the +chiefs and people through whose country the line passed. It was +particularly stipulated that the sites on which British Government +buildings were to be erected should remain the property of the Khan. + +Constant risings took place during the rule of Khudadad, and the Brahui +chiefs combined in an open rebellion in 1871. The Khan, being unable to +suppress the rising, demanded aid of the British. A mediation took place +in Jacobabad, their confiscated lands were restored to the Sardars, the +allowances which they customarily received in the time of Mir Nasir Khan +the younger were again granted, and the Sardars on their side had to +return all the property plundered. + +A state of chaos followed this arrangement, the Khan ceased to take an +interest in the administration of his country, caravans were constantly +attacked and robbed, raids were frequent, and no compensation was ever +paid for losses sustained. The Political Agent had to withdraw from +Kelat, and in 1854 the payment of the subsidy was withheld until the Khan +should stand by his agreement and restore order. + +An attempt was made to keep quiet the Marris and Bugtis frontier tribes +by additional payments to the chiefs in the name of the Khan, but their +attitude was uncertain. Constant attacks occurred on the frontier and a +state or absolute anarchy reigned in the Khan's country, when Captain +Sandeman was despatched in 1875 as a special Agent for the Government to +attempt to bring about a reconciliation between the Khan and the +Sardars. At a Darbar held at Mastung in July, 1876, an official +reconciliation actually took place between the Khan and the leading +Brahui chiefs. On the 8th of December of that same year the Khan was +received by the Viceroy of India at Jacobabad, and a new treaty was +concluded, which was the actual foundation of the Beluchistan Agency. + +The new treaty renewed and reaffirmed the treaty of 1854, and while the +Khan of Kelat and his successors and Sardars bound themselves faithfully +to observe the provisions of Article 3 of that treaty, viz., "to oppose +all enemies of the British Government, and in all cases to act in +subordinate co-operation with the British Government; the British +Government on its part engaged to respect the independence of Kelat and +to aid the Khan, in case of need, in the maintenance of a just authority +and the protection of his territories from external attacks." + +British Agents with suitable escorts were in future to reside permanently +at the Court of the Khan and elsewhere in the Khan's dominions, and a +representative of the Khan would in future be accredited to the +Government of India. + +The British Agent at the Court of the Khan would, in case of dispute with +the Sardars, use his influence to bring about an amicable settlement, and +if unsuccessful, the dispute was to be submitted to arbitration. At the +request of the Khan and of the Sardars, and "in recognition of the +intimate relations existing between the two countries, the British +Government (by Article 6 of Treaty) assented to the request of H.H. the +Khan for the presence of a detachment of British troops in his country, +on condition that the troops should be stationed in such positions as the +British Government might deem expedient and be withdrawn at the pleasure +of the Government." + +The agreement further provided for the construction of railways and +telegraphs through the territories of the Khan, and for free trade +between the State of Kelat and British territory, subject to certain +conditions for the mutual protection of fiscal interests. + +The annual subsidy of the Khan's successor was increased by this treaty +to 100,000 rupees, plus 20,500 rupees annually for the establishment of +posts and development of traffic along the trade routes in a manner +agreeable to the British Government. + +In compliance with the agreement, British troops were stationed at +Shalkot (Quetta) and Mittri, and on February 21st, 1877, Major Sandeman +was appointed Agent to the Governor-General, with three assistants, the +headquarters to be in Quetta. Afterwards the territories, under the +political control of the Agent, were subdivided into distinct Agencies of +which Kelat was one. During the Afghan war the Khan behaved most loyally +towards the British. + +Further developments necessitated a fresh agreement signed on June 8th, +1883, by which the Khan of Kelat made over the entire management of the +Quetta district and Niabat absolutely, and with all the rights and +privileges, as well as full revenue, civil and criminal jurisdiction, and +all other powers of administration, to the British Government, the +agreement to take effect from April 1st, 1883, on condition that, in lieu +of the annual surplus of revenue hitherto paid to the Khan, the British +Government should from March 31st, 1884, pay a fixed annual rent of +Rs.25,000, without deductions for cost of administration. + +The Khan transferred all his rights to levy dues or tolls on the trade in +either direction through the Bolan Pass, as well as from Kachi to +Khorassan, and to and from British India and the districts of Sibi, +Quetta and Pishin. + +For the latter concession the British Government paid the Khan the annual +sum of Rs.30,000 net, plus a fixed yearly sum to be paid by the Viceroy +of India to the Sarawan and Kurd Sardars for their services in the Pass. +The full civil, criminal jurisdiction, and all other powers of +administration within the limits of the said Pass, and within the land +purchased by the British, were also ceded to the British Government. + +The population of the State of Kelat, including Kharan and Makran, was +estimated by Aitchison at about 220,500 souls--the area at 106,000 square +miles. + +The Chiefship of Kharan lies along the northern border of the State of +Kelat, roughly from near Nushki, west-south-west to Panjur. The principal +tribes are the Naushirwanis, and their Chiefs have at various epochs +acknowledged the suzerainty of the Khan of Kelat, and the rulers of +Persia and Afghanistan respectively. In 1884 Sardar Azad Khan +acknowledged allegiance to the Khan of Kelat, and in 1885 a settlement +was made with him by which he undertook to do certain tribal services in +consideration of an annual payment of Rs.6,000. Besides Kharan the Sardar +holds lands in Panjgur, and lays claim to Jalk, Dizak, and Kohak, the two +first being within the Persian boundary. + +We have other important agreements, such as the one (1861) with the Chief +of Las Bela for the protection of the telegraph, for which he receives a +subsidy of Rs.8,400 a year; and a number of agreements with the various +chiefs of Makran, mostly relating also to the protection of the telegraph +line with subsidies or allowances to each chief. + +To the troublesome Marris, a tribe occupying the country from the Nari +river and the outskirts of the Bolan as far as the plain of Sham near the +Punjab boundary to the east, allowances are paid directly for tribal +services and for good behaviour. These people have given considerable +trouble on several occasions, but are now friendly. + +A petroleum concession was ceded by Sardar Mehrulla Khan to the British +Government for an annual cash payment. + +The affairs of British Beluchistan (Pishin, Sibi and dependencies) are +too well known for me to refer to them again beyond what I have already +mentioned in these pages. Till 1878 British Beluchistan formed part of +the territories of Afghanistan, and was occupied by British troops +during the Afghan war. By the treaty of Gandamak its administration was +put into the hands of British officers, but the surplus revenue was paid +to the Amir at Cabul. The control of the Khyber and Michui Passes was +also retained. In 1887, however, the district was incorporated with +British India, and is now known as the province of British Beluchistan. + +[Illustration: Beluch Huts thatched with Palm Leaves and Tamarisk.] + +An agreement of submission and allegiance was made by the Maliks of Zhob, +Bori and the Muza Khal, and Sardar Shahbaz Khan, on November 22nd, 1884, +and they further undertook to pay a fine of Rs.22,000, to put a stop to +further raiding in British territory, and raise no opposition to British +troops being stationed in Zhob and Bori. The occupation of Zhob took +place in 1889-90, when the Somal Pass was opened up, and the tribes +intervening between the Zhob and the Punjab in the Suliman range were +subsequently added to the district. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[7] See Treaties, Engagements and Sanads. Aitchison, Office + Superintendent Government Printing, Calcutta. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + + The evolution of Nushki--The Zagar Mengal tribe--Tribal + feuds--Competition in trade--Venturesome caravans--Pasand + Khan--Dalbandin and its geographical situation--Game big and + small--Dates--A famous Ziarat--A Beluch burial ground--Preparing + corpses for interment--How graves are cut into the ground--Beluch + marriages--Beluch thoughtfulness towards newly married couples--A + mark of respect. + + +Having given a general sketch of the agreements with the principal chiefs +we will now return to matters relating to the most important point, the +pivot, as it were, of our route--Nushki. + +When Nushki was taken over by the British Government, the leading tribe +in the district was the Zagar Mengal, a Brahui tribe. They had settled in +Nushki approximately a century or 150 years ago, and were a most powerful +tribe, supposed to number about 9,000, a large proportion of whom lived +in Registan (country of sand), to the north and mostly north-east of +Nushki across the Afghan frontier. The Zagar Mengal Sardar was in Nushki +itself, and he had a right of levying what is termed in Beluch, _Sunge_ +(a transit due) on all merchandise passing through Nushki. Foreseeing how +such a right would interfere with trade, the British Government came to +terms with the Sardar, by which, instead of his transit dues, he +undertook what is called in Beluchistan a _noukri_ or service (old custom +by which a man supplies a number of _sawars_ and is responsible for +them). + +The next thing was to settle all the tribal feuds. Three or four tribes +were at war. Cases were carefully inquired into and settled according to +Beluch law, through the medium of a tribal _jirga_, a council of elders. +One case led to another and eventually all were settled up to everybody's +satisfaction. + +In the meantime traders from Shikarpur, from Quetta, and Kelat, began to +be attracted to Nushki; a bazaar was started and is fast growing from +year to year. One hundred thousand rupees have already been spent on it, +with the result that a number of competing traders came in. Competition +resulted in good prices, which further attracted trade, first from the +districts to the north in the immediate vicinity of Nushki, and later +from further and further afield. + +The name of Nushki--practically unknown a few years ago--is at present +well known everywhere, and the place has, indeed, become quite an +important trade centre. From Nushki, as we have seen, a chain of posts, +manned by local Beluch levies, was pushed west as far as Robat on the +Persian frontier. Even as late as 1897 trade in these parts was limited +to a few articles of local consumption, and Persian trade was represented +by a stray caravan from Sistan that had forced its way to Nushki and +frequently lost men, camels and goods on the way. The venturesome +caravans seldom numbered more than one or two a year, and were at the +mercy of a Mamasani Beluch called Pasand Khan, who lived in Sistan and +levied blackmail on such caravans as came through. This man was well +acquainted with all the marauders who haunted the stretch of country +south of the Halmund between Sistan and Chagai. Pasand Khan levied at the +rate of twenty krans (about 8s. 4d.) per camel, and saw the caravans in +comparative safety as far as Chagai, from which point they were left to +their own devices and had to force their way through to Quetta as best +they could. + +Next to Nushki along the route, Dalbandin--owing to its geographical +situation, its ample supply of good water and good grazing--is probably +the most important spot, and may one day become quite a big place. There +is direct communication from this spot to Chagai (and Afghanistan), +Robat, Ladis, Bampur, Kharan, the Arabian Sea, Charbar, Gwadur, Ormarah, +Soumiani and Quetta. Even as things are now, Dalbandin is a somewhat more +important place than any we had met on coming from Robat, with a very +large _thana_ and a couple of well-provided shops. Captain Webb-Ware's +large camp made it appear to us men of the desert quite a populous +district. There was excellent water here and good grazing for camels, +while on the hills close by ibex shooting was said to be good. Gazelles +(_Chinkara_ and Persian gazelle), both called _ask_ in Beluch, are to be +found in the neighbourhood of this place, and wild asses (_ghorkhar_) +nearer Sahib Chah. _Katunga_ (sand grouse), _sisi_, _chickor_, a few +small bustards (_habara_), and occasionally ducks are to be seen near the +water, but taking things all round there is little on the road to repay +the sportsman who is merely in search of game. + +[Illustration: Circular Ziarat With Stone, Marble and Horn Offerings.] + +[Illustration: Ziarat with Tomb showing Stone Vessels.] + +The spacious rest-house at Dalbandin was quite palatial, with actual +panes of glass in all the windows, mats on the floor, folding chairs to +sit upon, tables and Indian bedsteads. Thanks to the kind hospitality of +Captain Webb-Ware, I had a most pleasant and instructive day's rest here, +and nearly made myself sick by greedily eating irresistible Beluch dates, +the most delicious it has ever been my luck to taste. These dates are +very carefully prepared in earthen jars with honey, and they say that +only one date--the best--is picked from each tree. No description could +ever come up to their delicate flavour. + +There is a famous Ziarat a couple of miles from Dalbandin which well +repays a visit. The larger Ziarat itself is circular, 25 feet in +diameter, with a mud and stone wall 4 feet high round it. It has a door +to the east and a tomb to the west. A bundle of sticks is laid outside +the wall, and another much larger, with red and white rags upon it, at +the head of the tomb, the latter being covered as usual with pieces of +white marble and round stones. At the head of the grave near the upright +sticks was a large stone with holes in the centre, and also a number of +wooden drinking cups, masses of horns, sticks, whips, ends of broken +bottles, bits of rope, etc. These fragments of civilization hardly added +to its picturesqueness. The tomb lay from north to south--a very curious +fact, for, as a rule, the head of the tomb in other Ziarats was to the +west. The tomb, however, lay in the western portion of the Ziarat circle. +The enclosing wall was adorned with horns of sacrificed goats, and, in +fact, outside to the south was the sacrificial spot with some large slabs +of stone smeared with blood, and the usual upright sticks, but no rags +appended to them. It had, nevertheless, some decoration of horns. + +A second Ziarat was to be found on the top of the hill--generally these +Ziarats go in couples, the principal one on the summit of a hill, the +other at the foot, the latter for the convenience of travellers who have +not the time or the energy to climb to the higher sacred spot,--and this +Ziarat was 45 feet long also with a tomb--this time of black rounded +stones--with an upright white slab of marble. The wall of black stones +was 11/2 feet high. Below this, to the south, was a third smaller oval +Ziarat, 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, with many offerings of horns perched +on poles to the west, and a heap of fancy stones, together with some +implements such as a mortar, pestle, and cups. A fourth Ziarat, very +small, with a mud tomb on which two mill stones had been deposited, was a +little further on and had a solitary rag flying. + +Near these Ziarats was an extensive Beluch burial-ground, to which +bodies were brought from very great distances for interment. There was a +large rectangular Mesjid, the first I had seen of that shape, at the +western point of the graveyard, and three smaller ones at the other +corners, and the graves were very nice and tidy, formed generally of +fragments of yellow marble, a high stone pillar at the head and one at +the foot, and little chips of marble along the upper centre of the grave. +Others more elaborate had a neat edge and centre line of black stones and +coloured end pillars, while some consisted of a pile of horizontal sticks +with an upright one at each end. + +The bodies of more important people, such as chiefs, were given larger +tombs, often very gaudy and of a prismatic shape, made of myriads of bits +of crystal within a black border of stones. Occasionally a trench was dug +round the graves. + +It was interesting to note that here, too, as on the Kuh-i-Kwajah, one +saw "family graves" which, although not in actual compartments like those +on the Sistan mountain, were, nevertheless, secluded from the others +within a low boundary stone wall. The prismatic graves seldom rose more +than 11/2 feet above ground, but the semi-spherical tumuli which marked +some of the more important burial places were from 31/2 to 4 feet high. +These tumuli were either of mud or of large smooth pebbles, and generally +had no pillars. One or two, however, had a pillar to the west. + +To the east of the graveyard the graves which seemed of a more recent +date had sticks at each end instead of stone pillars, and these were +connected by a string to which, halfway between the sticks, hung a piece +of wood, a ribbon, or a rag. The meaning of this I could not well +ascertain, and the versions I heard were many and conflicting. Some said +these were graves of people who had been recently buried, it being +customary to erect the stone pillars some months after burial, and that +the string with dangling rag or piece of wood was merely to keep wolves +from digging up dead bodies. Others said it was to keep evil spirits +away, but each man gave a different explanation, and I really could not +say which was the true origin of the custom. The pillars over a man's +grave, some say, signify that the man died without leaving issue, but I +think this is incorrect, for it would then appear by most graves that the +Beluch are the most unprolific people on earth, which I believe is not +the case. + +Children's graves were usually covered with pieces of white marble or +light coloured stone, and those of women were generally smaller and less +elaborate and with lower pillars than men's graves. + +The preparing of corpses for interment is rather interesting. With men, +the lower jaw is set so that the mouth is closed tight, and is kept in +this position by the man's own turban which is wound round the chin and +over the head. The eyes are also gently closed by some relative, and the +hands placed straight by the sides. As soon as life is pronounced +extinct the body is covered over with a sheet and the dead man's +relations go and procure new clothes, after which the body is removed +from the tent or house and is taken towards a well or a stream, according +to circumstances. Here the body is laid down and carefully washed, after +which it is wrapped up quite tight in sheets--so tight that the outline +can plainly be distinguished. In most cases, a pillar is put up, a few +stones laid round, or the outline of a grave drawn on the spot where the +body has lain to undergo this operation. The body is then removed to the +burial ground and laid most reverently in the grave. + +[Illustration: Beluch Mesjid and Graveyard at Dalbandin.] + +Beluch graves are most peculiarly cut into the ground. Instead of being +vertical, like ours, they are in three sections. The higher is vertical, +and leads to an inclined side channel giving access to a lower last +chamber, in which the body is actually deposited. The origin of this, I +was told, is to prevent hyenas and wolves digging up the bodies. + +[Illustration: Section of Beluch Grave.] + +When once the body is laid in its place of rest, dried sweet-scented rose +leaves are spread over it in profusion, and then the grave is filled up +with stones and plastered with mud. The channel between the two chambers +is filled entirely with stones, and the upper chamber entirely with +earth. + +Some few of the graves I saw had fallen through, but most were in +excellent preservation and appeared to be well looked after by the +people. That the Beluch are provident people we had palpable proof in +this cemetery, where one saw several graves ready for likely future +occupants. + +Another Mesjid, a circular one seven feet in diameter, was further to be +noticed to the north-east of the graveyard. It had yellow marble pillars +of sugar-loaf and cylindrical shapes and was enclosed by a neat stone +wall. + +A Beluch marriage is a practical business transaction by which a girl +fetches more or less money, camels or horses, according to her personal +charms, beauty, and social position. Beluch women, when young, are not at +all bad-looking with well-cut features and languid eyes full of animal +magnetism like the Persian, and they seem shy and modest enough. The +Beluch men have great respect for them, and treat them with +consideration, although--like all Orientals--they let women do all the +hard work, which keeps the women happy. + +A marriage ceremony in Beluchistan bears, of course, much resemblance to +the usual Mussulman form, such as we have seen in Persia, with variations +and adaptations to suit the customs and circumstances of the people. + +A good wife costs a lot of money in Beluchistan, although occasionally, +in such cases as when a man has been murdered, a wife can be obtained on +the cheap. The murderer, instead of paying a lump sum in cash, settles +his account by handing over his daughter as a wife to the murdered man's +son. Bad debts and no assets can also be settled in a similar manner if +the debtor has sufficient daughters to make the balance right. + +Under normal circumstances, however, the girl is actually bought up, the +sum becoming her property in case of divorce. When the marriage ceremony +takes place and the relations and friends have collected, the first step +is for the bridegroom to hand over the purchase sum, either in cash, +camels, or sheep. A great meal is then prepared, when the men sit in a +semicircle with the bridegroom in the centre. Enormous quantities of food +are consumed, such as rice saturated with _ghi_ (butter), piles of +_chapatis_ (bread) and sheep meat. A man who pays four or five hundred +rupees for a wife is expected to kill at least twenty or thirty sheep for +his guests at this entertainment, and there is a prevailing custom that +the bridegroom on this occasion makes a gift to the _lori_ or blacksmith +of the clothes he has been wearing since his betrothal to the girl. + +The women on their side have a similar sort of entertainment by +themselves, stuff themselves with food to their hearts' content, and wash +it down with water or tea. At the end of the meal a bowl is passed round +and each man and woman rinses mouth and hands. + +The _Sung_, or betrothal, is regarded as most sacred, and much rejoicing +is gone through for several days with music and dancing and firing of +guns, and this is called the _nikkar_, just preceding the _urus_, or +actual marriage ceremony, which is performed by a Mullah. The bridegroom, +having ridden with his friends to a neighbouring Ziarat to implore +Allah's protection, returns and sits down in the centre of the circle +formed by the men. Two of his friends are sent to fetch the girl's +father, who is led down to the assembly. + +The bridegroom again assures him in front of all these witnesses that +should he from any fault of his own divorce his wife he will forfeit the +premium paid for her, whereupon the father replies that he will settle a +sum on the girl as a "_mehr_" or dowry. The father then departs, and +returns, bringing the bride wrapped up in her best clothing and +_chudder_. + +A slightly modified Mussulman form of marriage is then gone through, and +the Mullah asks the woman three times if she agrees to marry the man. +Everything having passed off satisfactorily, the happy couple depart to a +hut or tent placed at their disposal, and very discreetly, nobody goes +near them for some considerable length of time. + +It is said that the thoughtfulness of the Beluch towards a newly-married +couple will go so far that, even if the tribe were stalked by the enemy, +no one would go and warn the happy couple for fear of disturbing them! + +The bridegroom stays with his bride for several days, and if he belongs +to some other village or encampment, will then return to his home, and +leave his wife behind for months at a time. + +Beluch wives are said to be quite faithful, and at the death of the +husband go for a considerable time without washing. This mark of respect +for the husband is, however, extensively indulged in even before the wife +becomes a widow--at least, judging by appearances. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + + A long march--Karodak--Sandstorm--A salt + plain--Yadgar--Padag--Beluch huts--Fierce wind--Plants--Kuchaki + chah--Another double march--Mall--Two tracks--Peculiar cracks--A + gigantic geological fault--An old Beluch fort--Nushki. + + +Captain Webb-Ware having most kindly arranged to "dak" camels for me, I +was enabled to remain here one day by sending my own camels with loads +ahead, I proposing to catch them up by going three marches on January +27th. The distance was 54 miles 980 yards, and I covered it in nine +hours, which was quite good going. + +"Sand mounts and high hill ranges were to the north and south, and the +track lay east-north-east (70 deg. b.m.) with parallel sand ridges to the +north. Three long sand banks from 30 to 50 feet high, facing north, +accumulated by wind coming through gaps in the hills. To south, high +mountains as one approaches Karodak." + +That is the only entry I find in my note-book for the march between +Dalbandin and Karodak (16 miles 380 yards). Here the camel that had been +sent ahead for me to ride to the next post-house had unluckily bolted, +and after wasting nearly an hour the Beluch were unable to capture him. I +bade good-bye to the _jemadar_ and his men, who had politely escorted me +thus far, and had to continue upon the same camel. + +At Karodak (3,220 feet) there was a small _thana_ surrounded by sand +hills, with high tamarisks and good grazing for camels, but the water of +the wells was salt. + +We trotted along in a terrific wind storm, with yellowish dust obscuring +everything like a fog, and went over numerous big stretches of mud and +salt, cracked by the sun in semicircles like the scales of a fish. Low +hills could now be perceived to north, south and east, when the wind +slightly abated and the dust settled down. + +After crossing a sand ridge extending from north to south, we still going +east-north-east (70 deg. b.m.), another large salt plain disclosed itself +before us. The old track went from this point towards the south, but the +new one was in a perfectly straight line. For the first time since +entering Beluchistan one began to see some little vegetation on the hill +sides, and a few high tamarisks could be noticed in the plain itself. + +At Yadgar (altitude 3,100 feet) we found a four-towered _thana_, with one +_duffadar_, four sepoys, five _mari_ camels, and three wells of good +water, as well as a new bungalow, but I only remained just a few minutes +to change my belongings from Captain Webb-Ware's camel to mine, which +was waiting here for me, and speedily proceeded for Padag where, in a +terrible wind which had risen again after sunset, I arrived at eight +o'clock in the evening. + +At Padag (3,080 feet) a number of semi-spherical Beluch huts, 4 to 5 feet +high, with domes thatched with tamarisk and palm leaves, were to be seen. +Most dwellings were in couples, enclosed in a circular wall for +protection against the wind as well as from the observation of intruders. +Although a cold wind was blowing fiercely at the time, and the +thermometer was only four degrees above freezing point, there were some +twenty children playing about perfectly naked, and they seemed quite +happy and comfortable. + +From Padag we went across another plain of salt and mud, with _sorag_ +grass and _drog_, two plants much cherished by camels. To the north of +our track was an extensive surface of salt deposits, extending from west +to east, which looked just as if the country were covered by snow. +Quantities of _eshwerk_--very pretty to look at when in flower, but most +poisonous--were now found, and _brug_, good for horses. There were three +parallel ranges of broken-up mountains on our south, and lots of +tamarisks on the south edge of the salt deposits. It was rather curious +that to the north of our track the vegetation consisted entirely of +_drog_ grass, whereas to the south there was only _eshwerk_. + +A few yards from the track to the south we came upon a graveyard (a +Kabistan) with some fifteen or twenty graves. Water we had seen flowing +in two or three channels from the mountain to supply villages and forming +pools here and there. We passed between two mountains into another plain +with dried up _karankosh_ bushes, much liked by camels. Good grazing for +horses was to be found north, and extended as far as the foot of the +mountains. + +[Illustration: Kuchaki Chah Rest House.] + +[Illustration: Old Beluch Mud Fort near Nushki.] + +Kuchaki Chah, an unroofed rest-house a few feet square--a photograph of +which can be seen in the illustration here appended--lies between two +high ranges of rocky mountains with high accumulations of sand to the +south-west and north-east respectively. The rugged mountains to the south +were called Bajin. Another shrub, _trat_, also much cherished by camels, +was plentiful here. Black precipitous rocks in vertical strata, splitting +into long slabs and blocks, were to be seen along the mountain range to +the South. + +We had made another double march on that day, and reached Mall in the +middle of the night. Padag to Kuchaki Chah, 13 miles, 756 yards; Kuchaki +Chah to Mall, 15 miles, 1,154 yards. Total, 29 miles, 150 yards. + +It was freezing hard, thermometer 28 deg. Fahrenheit, and the wind bitterly +cold. My men felt it very much and so did my camels, which all became +ill. + +We left Mall again very early the following morning, as I intended to +proceed direct to Nushki. There were two tracks here to Nushki, the old +and the new. The old track went in a straight line and was in +consequence some miles shorter; the new track more or less follows the +foot of the mountain range, probably taking this course for the +convenience of the several Beluch villages to be found in the Nushki +plain. + +The rocky mountain range to the south got lower as we approached Nushki, +and was then crossed by another low range extending from north to south +while the longer and higher range stretched from north-north-east to +south-south-west. A few miles from Nushki we came across some most +peculiar and very deep cracks in the earth's crust. One could plainly see +that they were not caused by the erosion of water, but by a commotion +such as an earthquake. In fact, we came, soon after, to a place where the +whole sandy plateau had actually collapsed, and when we stood on the edge +of the portion which still remained unchanged, we could see it end +abruptly in perpendicular cliffs. What was the evident continuation of +the valley lay now some hundred or more feet below its former level. In +this lower valley there were a number of Beluch villages. + +This crack and depression extends for no less than 120 miles, according +to Major MacMahon, who in 1896 went, I believe, along its entire length +into Afghan territory, and he describes it as "a well-defined, broad line +of deep indentations, in places as clearly defined as a deep railway +cutting. Springs of water are to be found along its course. The crack +extends north from Nushki along the foot of the Sarlat range, and then +diagonally across the Khwajah Amran range, cutting the crest of the main +range near its highest peak and crossing the Lora River. A well-marked +indentation was traceable at the edge of the plain near Murghachaman, +some 18 miles north of Chaman." + +MacMahon states that the Beluch themselves attribute it to three +different earthquakes, of which accounts have been handed down by their +fathers, and at the time of which deep fissures appeared that have +subsequently extended. Major MacMahon adds that this crack marks the line +of a gigantic geological fault, with sedimentary rocks to the east of it +and igneous rocks to the west, and he believes, rightly, I think, that +the length of this fault line exceeds that of any other fault line yet +discovered. + +On the upper plateau on which we travelled tamarisks altogether +disappeared for the last twenty miles or so, and _tagaz_ shrubs, varying +from one to six feet high, were practically the only plant we saw. In the +underlying plain tamarisk was most plentiful. Facing us on the mountain +side a white cliff could be seen from a a long distance, with a most +regular row of double black marks which looked exactly like windows. + +On approaching Nushki we saw some patches of cultivation (wheat)--quite a +novelty to us, being the first crops of any extent we had seen since +leaving Sistan--and near at hand an old Beluch fort, of which a +photograph is given in the illustration. The fort possessed a picturesque +composite old tower, partly quadrangular, partly cylindrical. + +We reached Nushki at night (31 miles, 1,320 yards from Mall). + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + + A new city--The Bungalow--Numerous Beluch + villages--Nomads--Beluch architecture--Weaving + looms--Implements--Beluch diet--Cave dwellers of Nushki--Beluch + dress--Children--The salaam of the chiefs--An impressive + sight--The Kwajah Mahommed Ziarat--Shah Hussein's Ziarat and its + legend--A convenient geographical site. + + +On arriving at this new city, with actual streets and people moving about +in them, shops, etc., it seemed to me at first almost as good as if I had +arrived back in London again. The Bungalow, on a prominent hill 75 feet +above the plain, was simply and nicely furnished, and was most +comfortable in every way. From it one obtained a fine panoramic view of +the small town and the neighbouring country with the many Beluch villages +scattered about. + +North, two miles off, was Mengal, a village of about 300 houses and 1,500 +people; west lay Jumaldini (21/2 miles distant), 200 houses, 6-700 +inhabitants; north-west, Badini in two blocks, one belonging to Alun +Khan, the other jointly to Khaian Khan and Adal Khan: 200 houses +collectively, 400 to 500 people. Little Badal Khan Karez, with only 30 +houses, stood to the south-west. The population of these villages is +formed of the tribes called _Barechis_ and _Rashkhanis_, the people of +Badini and Jumaldini being entirely Rashkhanis. The Barechis formerly +inhabited Afghanistan, but migrated to the Nushki district three +generations ago. Bagag (south-west) is a village generally inhabited by +Mandais, a branch of the Jumaldini Rashkhanis. + +Two big villages are to be found south, and they are called _Batto_, +which means "mixture," owing to the populations being composed of +Rashkhanis, Mingals, Samalaris, Kharanis, and other minor tribes; and +south of Batto are two more villages (east and west respectively of each +other). The one east is Harunis, a separate tribe from either the +Rashkhanis and the Mingals, who follow the head chief Rind. The second +village (west) is Ahmed Val, inhabited by Ahmed Zai Mingals. Besides +these villages, the remainder of the population is of nomads. + +It may have been noticed that regarding the village of Bagag I said that +"generally" it was inhabited by Mandais. Certain villages are inhabited +by certain tribes during the summer, the people migrating for the winter +months, and other tribes come in for the winter and vacate their quarters +in the summer. The Beluch is not much burdened with furniture and can do +this without inconvenience. + +The crops grown consist of wheat, barley and _jowari_ (millet). Where +good grazing is obtainable the younger folks are sent out with sheep, +horses and camels. + +Almost each tribe has a different style of architecture for its +dwellings. Those near Nushki are usually rectangular in shape, domed over +with matting covered with plaster. The only opening is the door, with a +small porch over it. Wooden pillars are necessary to support the central +portion of the dome (semi-cylindrical), which is never higher than from +five to eight feet. The mangers for the horses, which form an annexe to +each dwelling--in fact, these mangers are more prominent than the +dwellings themselves--are cylindrical mud structures eight or nine feet +high, with a hole cut into them on one side to allow the horse's head to +get at the barley contained in the hollowed lower portion. + +[Illustration: Beluch Huts and Weaving Loom.] + +[Illustration: Cave Dwellers, Nushki.] + +The weaving looms are the largest and principal articles of furniture one +notices--not inside, but outside the houses. The illustration shows how +the cloth and threads are kept in tension, from every side, in a +primitive but most effective manner. The women work with extraordinary +rapidity and with no pattern before them, beating each transverse thread +home by means of an iron comb held in the hand. The pattern on the cloths +is of a primitive kind, generally sets of parallel lines crossing one +another at right angles. + +In the same photograph two Beluch dwellings can be seen, with matting +showing through the thatch. In many villages, however, the walls of the +houses are made of sun-dried bricks, and only the roof is made of a mat +plastered over with mud. In either case the Beluch seems to have a liking +for crawling rather than walking into his house, for the doorway is +invariably very low--41/2 to 5 feet high. + +One is generally sorry to peep into a Beluch dwelling, but I felt it a +sort of duty to see what there was to be seen. Nothing! or almost +nothing. A large wooden bowl, a stone grinding wheel with a wooden handle +to grind wheat into flour, a wooden drinking cup or an occasional tin +enamelled one, of foreign importation, a matchlock, and that was all. In +some of the smarter dwellings, such as the houses of chiefs, a few +additional articles were to be found, such as a _badni_--a sort of jar +for taking water--flat stones which are made red hot for baking bread, +some occasional big brass dishes--_tash_--used on grand occasions--such +as wedding dinners; and a _deg_ or two or large brass pots. + +Nearly every household, however, possesses one or more _khwa_ or skins +for water, and a large _kasa_, made either of metal or wood, into which +broth is poured during meals. Occasionally in a corner of the hut a small +table is to be seen, on which are placed all the family's clothing, +blankets, _darris_ or carpets, and _lihaf_ or mattresses. These carpets, +or rather rugs, are generally spread when receiving an honoured guest. + +The Beluch diet is wholesome but simple. They are fond of plenty of meat +when they can get it, which is not often, and they generally have to be +satisfied with dry bread. The woman who can make the largest and thinnest +bread is much honoured among the Beluch. When they do obtain meat it is +generally boiled and made into a soup called _be-dir_, which in the +Brahui language really means "salt water," to express "flavoured water." +Milk and _ghi_ are dainties seldom indulged in and, being Mussulmans, the +Beluch imbibe no intoxicants, but are smokers of strong bitter tobacco. + +It is not uncommon for lambs, sheep and calves to share the homes and +some of the meals of their masters. + +Perhaps the most peculiar folks at Nushki are the cave dwellers, who live +in abject misery in holes eroded by water in the cliffs near the river. +When I visited them most were half-naked and trembling with cold. A few +rags answered the purpose of blankets. The only articles of furniture and +comfort were a primitive pipe moulded out of mud--the _chilam_ or the +_gaddu_ as it is called by the Kakars--which occupied a prominent place +in the dwelling, and a musical instrument placed in a receptacle in the +wall of the cave. At the entrance of the cave a wall had been built for +protection against the wind and water. + +In another dwelling an _assah_ or long iron rod, like a crutch, the +emblem of fakirs, was noticeable, and by its side an empty +"potted-tongue" tin with a wire attached to it--an article which was made +to answer to a great many uses. This cave had a small store place for +food, a drinking cup, and the wooden vessel--another emblem of fakirs--in +which charitable people deposit money for the support of these poor +wretches. + +The dress of the better class Beluch men consists of a _khuss_, or sort +of loose shirt reaching below the knees, and the enormous trousers +falling in ample folds, but fitting tight at the ankle. At an angle on +the head they wear a conical padded cap, embroidered in gold or silver, +inside a great turban of white muslin. They also wear shawls or long +scarves thrown over the shoulders in a fashion not unlike our +Highlanders. Either shoes with turned-up toes are worn or else sandals. +Felt coats or sheep-skins are donned in winter, while the richer people +wear handsome coats and waistcoats of cloth embroidered in gold or +silver. The chiefs possess most beautiful and expensive clothes. + +The women of the poorer classes are garbed in a short petticoat, usually +red or blue, and a loose shirt. A long cloth, not unlike a chudder, is +thrown over the head, and is kept tight round the forehead by a band. It +is fashionable to let it drag on the ground behind. Women generally go +about barefooted. Better class ladies wear similar clothes but of better +material, and often richly embroidered. Occasionally they put on large +trousers like Persian women. The hair is either left to flow loose at the +sides of the head, or is tied into a knot behind. + +Necklaces, ear-rings, nose-rings, bracelets and armlets are worn; white +shells of all sizes from the Persian Gulf, as well as glass beads, +playing a very important part in women's ornaments. Bracelets cut out of +a large white sea-shell are common. + +Beluch children are rather quaint, with little skull caps, much +decorated with silver coins, one of which larger than the others hangs +directly over the forehead. The poor little mites are further burdened +with ear-rings, bracelets and heavy necklaces of glass beads. Mothers +seem tenderly fond of their children. + +I was much delighted on the morning of January 29th to find that all the +chiefs of the neighbouring tribes, garbed in their gaudy robes, had come +with their retinues to pay their salaams to me. I heard the buzzing noise +of a crowd approaching up the hill, and on looking out of the bungalow +window beheld a most picturesque sight. A tall, long-haired figure in a +brilliant long gown of red velvet, with gold embroideries in front and +back, walked slowly a-head, followed by a cluster of venerable old men, +some in long yellow skin _poshteens_, others in smart waistcoats covered +with gold and silver embroidery. All wore huge turbans with gold +embroidered conical caps inside. Behind them came a mass of armed men +with swords and rifles. + +On reaching the bungalow, fearing that I should still be asleep, they +became silent, and as I watched them unseen from behind the blinds I do +not believe that I have ever in my life gazed upon such a fine, +dignified, manly lot of fellows anywhere. They seated themselves in a +perfect circle, some twenty yards in diameter, directly outside the +bungalow, carpets having been spread where the chiefs were to be +accommodated. The chiefs sat together, and the soldiers and +followers--over 150--with guns, matchlocks and Snider rifles, squatted +down in two semicircles at their sides. + +An opening was left large enough for me to enter the ring, and when I +approached all respectfully rose and salaamed, and the chiefs, coming +forward in turn, shook me heartily by the hand with the usual long Beluch +salutation, each bowing low as he did so. Sitting in the centre of the +circle on a carpet, which had been spread for me, I addressed them in a +few words, which they seemed to appreciate, and each chief answered back +in a simple, straightforward and most thoughtful, gentlemanly manner. + +Mahommed Ali, the leading chief, in a red velvet coat, was the Mingal +Sardar of the three powerful tribes, Jumaldini, Badini, and Mingal, and +by his side sat Kaim Khan with his shield and sword, the second Sardar of +the neighbourhood and brother of the Jumaldini Sardar. Jan Beg, who sat +on the left hand side of the chief Sardar, was a thin tall man, and Alam +Khan, a splendid old fellow with a fine inlaid sword, can be seen +standing in the photograph reproduced in the illustration. + +The last of the principal five Badini chiefs was a comparatively young +man of black complexion, long jet black curly hair, and garbed in a gaudy +poshteen, sword and belt. His name was Kasin Khan. + +Then there was Kadar Bakhsh, uncle of the present Mingal Sardar, a man +most useful to the British Government, and beside him his brother, Attar +Khan. + +Gauher Khan, nephew of the Mingal Sardar, was a picturesque young man +with heavily embroidered black coat and a black turban. He carried his +sword in his hand. + +As one looked round the circle it was really a most impressive and +picturesque sight--colours of all sorts dazzling in the sunlight. Among +the other most important men were Adal Khan (cousin of the Badini chief), +a very old fellow, curved from age; and Bai Khan, his cousin, who looked +somewhat stronger; Kaiser Khan, a smart young fellow with curly hair, +black coat and trousers, was the son of the Jumaldini chief, and a young +fellow of weak constitution, by name Abdullah Aziz, was son and heir of +the Badini Sardar. + +[Illustration: A Badini Sardar.] + +[Illustration: The Salaam of the Beluch Sardars at Nushki. + +(Sardar Alam Khan standing.)] + +Sherdil and Mehrullah Khan, with elaborately embroidered coats and Snider +rifles, sat among the elect, and the others were soldiers and followers, +but a fine lot of fellows indeed, all the same. + +When the formal reception broke up I showed them my repeating rifles, +revolvers and various instruments, which interested them greatly; and the +leading chiefs having been entertained to tea, they eventually departed +after repeated salaams. + +Although the Beluch and the Afghan shake hands on arrival, they seldom do +so on departing, the handshake being for them an outward sign to express +the joy of seeing a friend. + +On surveying the neighbourhood from our high point of vantage at the +bungalow, we found plenty to interest the observer. To the north and +north-west directly below the hill could be seen a graveyard in two +sections, the tombs being very high above ground, with prismatic tops of +white stones, whereas the bases were of black pebbles. The tombs in the +graveyard to the north-west were in bad preservation. There was at this +spot a well known Ziarat called Kwajah Mahommed, and the British +Government has given much pleasure to the natives by sanctioning a "mufi" +or remission of revenue for ever of all the land belonging to this Ziarat +in order to provide for the support of it. + +The people of the district are extremely religious, and they have erected +Mesjids and Ziarats on every possible hill in the neighbourhood. The most +interesting is the Shah-Hussein Ziarat, which has a curious legend of its +own. They say, that when the Arabs attacked Shah-Hussein, he killed all +his enemies by merely praying to God. With their heads, which suddenly +turned into solid stone, he built the Ziarat. The tomb is made, in fact, +of round stones, some of enormous size, evidently worn into that shape by +water, but the natives firmly believe that they are petrified heads of +Arabs! + +Nushki is most conveniently situated in a large valley with mountains +sheltering it from the north, north-east, east, south-east, south, +south-south-west, but from south-south-west to north there is a stretch +of open flat desert (the _Registan_, or "country of sand") as far as the +eye can see. To the south of the bungalow is a hill range stretching from +north-north-east to south-south-west, and suddenly broken by the valley, +through which runs the stream which, then proceeding along the Nushki +plain from east to west, turns in a graceful curve round the western side +of the hill on which the bungalow is situated, and proceeds across the +desert in a north-north-west direction, where, having supplied several +villages and irrigated their fields, it eventually exhausts itself in the +desert. A broad river bed can be noticed on the east side of and parallel +with the above hill range. The east side of these hills has been much +worn by water action; so much so that actual holes and caves in the soft +strata of sand and gravel have been corroded by the water, and these +holes, as we have seen, are now inhabited by destitute Beluch. + + + + +CHAPTER XL + + The fast growing city of Nushki--The Tashil--the + Tashildar--Beluch law--Hospital--Pneumonia and consumption--Lawn + tennis--The Nushki Bazaar--Satisfactory trade returns--The + projected Quetta-Nushki Railway--A great future for Nushki--An + extension to Sistan necessary--Also a telegraph--Preferable + routes for a railway to Sistan--From Nushki to Kishingi--A + curious Mesjid--Mudonek Ateng Mountain--A fast of twenty-five + days--The Chiltan and Takatu Mts.--The Gurghena tribe--Huts and + tents--Beluch hospitality--Villages. + + +Let us take a walk through the fast growing city of Nushki. Half a dozen +years ago there was next to nothing here, but now we have a beautiful +_Tashil_--a large walled enclosure, with a portico all round inside and +circular towers at the four corners. The actual Tashil office, occupying +the north-east corner, has a most business-like appearance, with handsome +iron despatch-boxes, clocks that mark each a different time, but look +most imposing all the same, and folio-documents folded in two and +carefully arranged in piles upon the floor by the side of wise-looking +clerks squatting in their midst. The Tashildar himself, Sardar Mahommed +Yuzaf Khan Popalzai, is a much respected man of Afghan birth, of the +Bamezi Popalzai Durranis, or descendants of the tribe reigning in Cabul +before Mahommed Zeis took the throne, when his ancestors and the Saddo +Zeis were forcibly banished from the country. + +[Illustration: The New City of Nushki. (overlooking the Tashil +Buildings.)] + +The Tashildar, a most intelligent officer, seems to understand the Beluch +chiefs thoroughly, treats them with extreme consideration--in private +life dealing with them as honoured guests, and politically as Government +subjects who must adhere to their loyalty to the King. + +There are also within the Tashil wall a post and telegraph office and a +treasury, a neat little red brick building, with strong iron gates and +huge padlocks. Prisons are on either side of the treasury, so that one +single sentry may keep an eye on both the prisoners and the local +Government funds. + +When I visited the place an old man in chains was squatting in the sun +outside his cell. I inquired what crime he had committed. His daughter, +they said, was betrothed to a young man, and at the time appointed for +the marriage the old man did not bring the girl to the bridegroom as +stipulated. He had consequently already been here in prison for two +months to pay for his folly, and would possibly have to remain some +months longer, for, according to Beluch law--which is in force here--such +a crime deserves severe punishment. + +Another prisoner--a cattle lifter--had a most hideously criminal head. +Prisoners were very well cared for, had nice clean cells given them, and +were provided with plenty of food and blankets. + +The Tashil establishment consisted of one Tashildar, one _Sarishtedar_ +(clerk who reads papers), one Judicial _Moharrir_, one _Kanungo_ (revenue +clerk), three _patwaris_, one accountant in treasury and one treasurer, +one _chaprassi_, one petition writer, one levy moonshee, one post and +telegraph master, one postman, one hospital assistant, one compounder, +three servants. + +Next to the Tashil was the _thana_ and Police-station, with a police +thanedar, one sergeant and nine (Punjab) constables, as well as a levy +_jemadar_ with one _duffadar_ and ten _sawars_. + +There is a practical little hospital at Nushki, with eight beds and a +dispensary, but the health of the place seemed very good, and there were +no patients when I visited it. Moreover, it seems that the Beluch prefer +to be given medicine and remain in their dwellings, except in cases of +very severe illness. The principal ailments from which they suffer are +small-pox, measles, and scurvy, which in various stages is most prevalent +among the Beluch. Chest complaints are unknown among them while they live +out in the open air, but when they are forcibly confined to rooms, for +instance as prisoners, they generally die of pneumonia or develop +consumption. + +Two caravanserais are found at Nushki, one for traders from Sistan, and +one for caravans from Quetta, and a mosque, so that the place is quite a +self-contained little town. + +In front of the hospital one is rather staggered by finding an actual +tennis court laid down according to the most precise rules, and no doubt +in course of time we may expect golf links and ping-pong tournaments +which will mark further steps towards the Anglicisation of that district. +But personally I was more interested in the local bazaar, counting +already 150 shops. + +The Nushki bazaar is along a wide road kept tidy and clean, and the place +boasts of butcher-shops, a washerman, one tailor marked by smallpox and +one who is not; _ghi_ merchants with large round casks outside their +doors; cloth merchants; blacksmiths and grain shops. In a back +street--for, indeed, Nushki boasts already of two streets parallel with +the main thoroughfare--under a red flag hoisted over the premises is an +eating house--a restaurant for natives. The merchants are mostly Hindoos +from Sind. + +[Illustration: Jemadar and Levies, Nushki.] + +[Illustration: A Giant Beluch Recruit. (Chaman.)] + +The land on which the shops have been built has practically been given +free by the Government on condition that, if required back again at a +future date, the builder of the house upon the land reclaimed is +entitled, as an indemnity, only to the restitution of the wood employed +in the construction of the house--the chief item of expense in Nushki +constructions. + +Cotton goods, blue, red and white, seem to command the greatest sale of +any articles in Nushki, after which the local trade consists of wheat, +almonds, barley, carpets (from Sistan), wool, _kanawes_ (cloth from +Meshed), and cloths imported from England, mostly cheap cottons; camels, +dates, etc. + +The transit trade of Nushki is, however, very considerable. The +Government returns of the trade that passed through Nushki during the +year from April, 1900, to April, 1901, showed an aggregate of +Rs.1,534,452, against Rs.1,235,411 for the preceding twelve months, while +two years before (1898-1899) the returns barely amounted to Rs.728,082. +Last year, 1901, the trade returns made a further jump upwards in the +nine months from April to the end of December, 1901, the imports +amounting to Rs.680,615, and the exports Rs.925,190, or an aggregate of +Rs.1,605,805, which is very satisfactory indeed. + +So much has been written of late about Nushki, especially in connection +with the new railway, that I have very little to add. I most certainly +think that, strategically and commercially, Nushki is bound to become a +very important centre, and, as far as trade goes, eventually to supplant +Quetta altogether, owing to its more convenient position. The projected +railway from Quetta to Nushki will be a great boon to caravans, both from +Afghanistan and Persia, because the severe cold of Quetta makes it very +difficult for camels to proceed there in winter, and camel drivers have a +great objection to taking their animals there. + +For any one looking ahead at the future and not so much at the present, +it seems, however, almost a pity that the newly sanctioned railway should +not join Nushki with Shikarpur or Sibi instead of Quetta, which would +have avoided a great and apparently almost useless detour. Nushki will be +found to develop so fast and so greatly that, sooner or later, it will +have to be connected in a more direct line with more important trading +centres than Quetta. Quetta is not a trading centre of any importance, +and is merely a military station leading nowhere into British territory +in a direct line. + +However, even the Quetta-Nushki railway is better than nothing, and will +certainly have a beneficial effect upon the country it will pass through. +From a military point of view the railway as far as Nushki only is +practically useless. It is only a distance of some ninety odd miles, +through good country with plenty of water and some grazing. + +In England one reads in the papers and hears people talk of this railway +as the Quetta-Sistan Railway, and people seem to be under the impression +that Nushki is on the Persian border. It should be clearly understood +that from Nushki to Sistan (Sher-i-Nasrya) the distance, through +practically desert country and scanty water, is over 500 miles. To my +mind it is in the Robat-Nushki portion of that distance, where travelling +is difficult, and for troops almost impossible, that a railway is mostly +needed. I have gone to much trouble, and risked boring the reader, to +give all the differential altitudes upon the portion of the road between +Robat and Nushki, and it will be seen that hardly anywhere does the track +rise suddenly to more than 50 or 100 feet at most. The ground could +easily be made solid enough to lay a line upon; tanks for the water +supply might be established at various stations, and a railway could be +built with no trouble and comparatively small expense. + +Again, for the trade of Southern Persia, Robat would, I think, be a +fairly good terminus on the Perso-Beluch frontier; but, in order to +compete with Russia in Sistan and Khorassan, it would be a very good +thing if the Government could enter into an arrangement with Afghanistan, +so that if such a railway were built it should strike from Dalbandin +across the desert up to the Southern bank of the Halmund, and have +Sher-i-Nasrya in Sistan for its terminus. This would do away almost +altogether--except in a small section--with the difficulty of the water, +and would shorten the distance by at least one quarter. + +The idea one often hears that it would be dangerous to construct such a +railway, because it would be to open a passage for Russia into India, is +too ridiculous to be argued about. It might be pointed out that the +Russians on their side seem not to reciprocate the fear of our invading +their country, for they are pushing their railways from the north as far +as they can towards the Persian frontier, and it is stated that a +concession has been obtained by them for a railway line to Meshed. + +But, either _via_ Robat or the Halmund, the principal point is that if we +do not wish to lose Southern Persia we must push the railway with the +utmost speed, at least as far as the frontier. Anything, in such a case, +is better than nothing, and most undoubtedly a telegraph line should be +established without delay--possibly as far as the Sher-i-Nasrya +Consulate. Matters are much more urgent than we in England think, and if +warning is not taken we shall only have ourselves to blame for the +consequences. + +From Nushki I went to a great extent along the line which is to be +followed by the future railway. It seemed very sensibly traced, avoiding +expensive difficulties, such as tunnels, as much as possible, but of +course this railway has to go over a good portion of mountainous country +and cannot be built on the cheap. + +[Illustration: The Track between Nushki and Kishingi.] + +I left Nushki on the 31st, following a limpid stream of water, and we +began a zig-zag ascent of the mountains before us to the east, leaving +behind to the north-east in a valley a large camp of railway engineers +and surveyors. After some two miles we reached a broad valley, and we +continued to rise until we had reached the pass, 4,820 feet. On the other +side we descended only 75 feet to a plain--a plateau, with hill ranges +rising on it, and a barrier of higher mountains behind. The vegetation +here was quite different from anything we had met in the desert, and +_kotor_ was plentiful--a plant, the Beluch say, eaten by no animal. +Tamarisk seemed to flourish--it is a wonderful plant that flourishes +almost everywhere. + +The plain was subdivided into three. In the first portion, four miles +wide, and one broad, the _monguli_ shrub was abundant, and, like the +_kotor_, was pronounced a useless plant, despised by all beasts. In the +second plain we found more _kotor_, and in the last--very sandy--a lot of +tamarisk. The ground was cut about by numerous dry water-channels, and +after a very easy march of some eleven miles we came to the bungalow of +Kishingi, having ascended from 3,745 feet at the Nushki Tashil to 4,720 +feet at the Kishingi rest-house. We had seen a great many white pillar +posts indicating the line of the future railroad. + +We had now quite a different type of rest-houses--two-storied, and very +nice too, the two rooms being comfortably enough furnished. A +caravanserai was attached to the bungalow. + +Still going east we crossed another narrow valley, through which the +railway was traced, and after going over a pass 5,250 feet we were in a +valley with a lot of _johr_ growing upon it--a plant which the Beluch say +is deadly to man and beast alike. On the top of the pass we saw a Mesjid, +and several more were found on descending on the other side as well as a +graveyard. + +A curious white Mesjid was to be seen here shaped like an 8, and erected +on the site where a Beluch had been killed. A conical mountain to the +south, the Mudonek Ateng, was famous, my camel driver told me, because a +Beluch fakir is said to have remained on the top of it for 25 days +without food or water. A small stone shelter could be seen on the top of +the mountain, which, they say, had been the fakir's abode during his long +fast. + +There is very little of special interest on this well-known part of the +route near Quetta. We rose for several miles to a higher pass (5,700 +feet), and were then on a higher flat plateau with a high range +stretching half-way across it from south-south-east to north-north-west. +One's attention was at once drawn to the north-east by two renowned peaks +in British Beluchistan, the Chiltan, and further off the Takatu Mount. At +their foot on the other side lay Quetta. In front of these we had the +Hilti range stretching north-west to south-east, ending in Mount Barag on +the north, and the two Askhan hills. + +This part seemed more populated, and we left to the east the tribe of +Gurghena, comprising four villages at intervals of about one mile from +one another. The last was situated in the wide valley to the west of the +Hilti range. Other villages could be seen further in the valley extending +towards the south, which were supplied with water by a river flowing +along the valley. A few _ghedan_, or low grass huts, were scattered about +the valley, and some black tents 51/2 feet high, with one side raised like +an awning by means of sticks. A pen for sheep was erected near them with +tamarisk branches and sticks. + +We were very thirsty and went to one of these tents. The woman who +occupied it gave us some water, but, although in abject poverty, angrily +refused to accept a silver coin in payment, saying that Beluch cannot be +paid for hospitality. Water costs nothing. God gives water for all the +people alike, and, if they were to accept payment, misfortune would fall +upon them. + +Further on we passed the village of Paden, with cultivation all round and +plenty of water. The chief had quite an imposing residence, with a tower +and castellated entrance gate, and the characteristic cylindrical mangers +for horses in front of his dwelling. But although more elaborate, even +this house--the largest I had seen--was absolutely devoid of windows, +except for a loop-hole to the east of the tower, which I think was more +for defensive purposes than for ventilation's sake. + +The village of Kardegap was seen next, and we arrived at Morad Khan Kella +(5,500 feet) twenty-four miles from our last camp. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + + Morad Khan Kella--The horrors of a camera--Seven high + dunes--Three tracks--Where the railway will be laid--A fine old + tamarisk turned into a Ziarat--Pagoda-like rest-houses--Science + _versus_ comfort--Kanak--Afghan women--The Kandahar road--How we + butcher foreign names--Quetta and Chaman--The horse fair and + Durbar at Sibi--Arrival in Calcutta--The first mishap--The death + of faithful Lawah--The end. + + +There was a ruined fort at Morad Khan Kella, and half a mile off a Beluch +village with two towers. Each house had a separating wall extending +outwardly. The Beluch is wretched if he is not secluded. The first thing +he ever wants to know is the exact extent of his property, then he is +quite happy and can live at peace with his neighbours. As folks live more +outside their houses than indoors, I suppose such a demarcation of +property is necessary. Moreover, people and beasts live in friendly +intercourse, and no doubt the beasts, which may be the cherished pets of +one man, may be just the reverse to his neighbours. The houses were +rectangular and plastered over with mud. + +The people here were not quite so friendly as in other villages, and one +began to feel the effects of nearing civilisation. Somebody, too, had +been at this people with a camera before, for I hardly had time to take +mine out of its case before the whole population, which had collected +around, stampeded in all directions in the utmost confusion. Only a +little child--whom the mother dropped in the hurry-scurry--was left +behind, and he was a quaint little fellow clad in a long coloured gown +and a picturesque red hood. + +We left Morad Khan Kella (5,430 feet) again on February 2nd, along the +vast plain which is to be crossed by the future railway from north to +south (190 deg.). On nearing the Killi range we came again to some high sand +dunes rising in a gentle gradient to 250 feet, their lowest point being +to the north, the highest to the south. The plain itself on which we were +travelling (stretching from south-west to north-east) rose gradually to +5,650 feet on undulating ground with a number of sand hills, seven high +long dunes, and some minor ones. + +We then came to a flat plain slanting northwards and with high sand +accumulations to the south near the hill range. A rivulet of salt water +losing itself in the sand was found next, and then we had to cross a pass +6,020 feet. One obtained a beautiful view of the Mustang Mountains to the +south-east with two plains, intersected by a high mountain range between +us and them. There were three tracks from this pass. One south-east, +called the Mustang track, the other (north-east) the Tiri Road, and one, +on which we were travelling, north-north-east (50 deg.) to Kanak. The very +high Kuh-i-Maran peak could be seen in the distance to the south-east. + +The railway will here follow the river which, coming from Mustang, flows +south-west to Panchepoy. Then the line will proceed through the gorge in +the mountains to the west. Some few miles from Kanak at the entrance of +this gorge were curious cuts in the sand, evidently caused by water. +Tamarisk was most luxuriant here. + +[Illustration: Taleri (Kanak). The new type of Rest House between Nushki +and Quetta.] + +A small graveyard and a semi-natural Ziarat, formed by a much contorted +centenarian tamarisk tree of abnormal proportions, were also to be seen +here. The branches had been twisted to form a low doorway leading to a +huge grave in the centre of the enclosing oval formed by the old tree and +some other smaller ones. Large round stones, as well as palm leaves, +brooms, and various implements had been deposited on the grave; while +suspended to the tree branches over the doorway hung brass camel-bells +and tassels from camel collars. + +During that day we had come across a great many Mesjids, either single or +in sets of three, and several other Ziarats of no special importance. In +the valley of Kanak there were a number of Beluch towns and villages, two +at the foot of the Shalkot Mountain and one in each valley to the south +of the track. + +We made our last halt at the pagoda-like Bungalow of Kanak, a comfortable +large, black wood verandah with a tiny dwelling in the centre, +whitewashed walls, and a corrugated iron roof. The man who built it was +apparently more of a mechanical engineer than an architect, and every +detail is carried out on some highly scientific principle which impressed +one much after the less elaborate but very practical abodes we had +inhabited further east. + +Here there was a gate suspended on long iron rods besides the usual +hinges, each screw had a bolt at the end, and on proceeding inside, the +ceiling was supported on very neat but most insecure-looking wooden bars +no thicker than three inches. A most ingenious theory of angles kept up +the heavy roof--why it did, Heaven only knows! In contrast to the other +bungalows, where we had no glass at all, here we had glass everywhere. +One's bedroom door was two-thirds made of the most transparent panes of +glass that could be got, and so were the two doors of the bath-room--one +leading directly on to the outside verandah. The boards of the floor had +shrunk, and between the interstices one got a bird's-eye view of what +went on in the underlying room. + +A great deal of space and expense has been devoted to outer show and +scientific detail, whereas the rooms were small, and unfortunate was the +man who tried to occupy the upper room when a fire had been lighted in +the chimney of the room below. The bungalow was, however, comfortably +furnished, and from its spacious verandah afforded a most magnificent +view all round. + +The high Chiltan Mountains above Shalkot were on one side, and various +picturesque hill ranges stretched across the large plane dotted with a +Beluch village here and there. + +In front of the entrance gate at the bungalow a nice pool of water +reflected in its more or less limpid waters the images of over-leaning +leafless trees. + +[Illustration: The Horse Fair at Sibi, Beluchistan.] + +Whatever remarks one may make about the construction of the bungalow it +must be confessed that it photographed well. (See illustration facing +page 438). + +The altitude of Kanak was 5,730 feet. + +We made an early start on this our last march, steering between the +handsome Takatu Mountain and the Chiltan, between which Quetta lies. We +met a number of Afghan women in long, loose black gowns from neck to +foot, and silver ornaments round the neck and arms. They had austere but +handsome features with expressive eyes. + +About six miles from Quetta we struck the wide Kandahar Road at the foot +of the Takatu Mountain. From this point we got the first glimpse of +Shalkot or Quetta. "Quetta" is the English corruption, abbreviation, or +adaptation, if you please, of the word "Shalkot!" One almost wished one +could have trembled when one stopped for a moment to read the first +notice in English on approaching the town, warning new-comers of the +dreadful things that would happen to any one entering the town carrying a +camera or found sketching or taking notes! + +It came on to snow as we approached the place, and shortly after sunset +my caravan entered the neat, beautifully-kept roads of Quetta, and +behold, joy!--I heard for the first time since August last the whistle of +a railway engine. This was on February 3rd, 1902. + +I met with unbounded civility and hospitality from everybody in Quetta as +well as at Chaman, our most north-westerly point on the Afghan boundary. +For those who believe in the unpreparedness of England, it may be stated +that, from this point, we could with ease lay a railroad to Kandahar in +less than three weeks. + +A most charming invitation from the Honourable the Agent to the +Governor-General and Chief Commissioner in Beluchistan, Col. C. E. Yate, +C.S.I., C.M.G., etc., took me almost directly to Sibi, where the annual +horse show and Beluch Durbar were to take place. A great many +locally-bred animals were exhibited, some very good indeed. Camel, horse, +and cow races enlivened the show, and a very weird representation of a +Beluch raid was performed with much _entrain_. At the Durbar, the leading +Chiefs were presented by Col. Yate with handsome gold and silver +embroidered coats, waistcoats, scarves and turbans, and the scene was +very impressive. + +One could not help again being struck by the dignified, manly behaviour +of the Beluch on one side, and their frank respect for the British +officers,--a respect indeed well-deserved, for a finer set of men in +every way than our Political Service Officers can be found nowhere. It +is a pity we have not similar men _all_ over India. + +From Sibi I travelled by rail across country to Calcutta, where I arrived +at the beginning of March, having completed my journey overland--if the +short crossing from Baku to Enzeli be excepted--from Flushing (Holland). + +[Illustration: Beluch Boys off to the Races--Horse Fair at Sibi.] + +It never does to boast. I was feeling somewhat proud to have travelled +such a long distance with no serious mishaps or accidents, when, much to +my sorrow, Sadek, my Persian servant, returned one evening to the hotel +dreadfully smashed up. He had been attacked in the bazaar by three +Englishmen of Calcutta, two of whom had held him down on the ground while +the third kicked him badly in the head, body and legs. It appears that +these three ruffians had a grievance against Persians in general, hence +their heroic deed against a man who had done them no harm. + +It was indeed too bad to have to register that, in a journey of over +10,000 miles, the only people who had shown any barbarity were--in a sort +of way--my own countrymen! + +Much as I love Beluchistan, I like India less and less each time I go +there. Maybe it is because I always have misfortunes while in the +country. Indeed, I received a last and severe blow while proceeding by +train from Calcutta to Bombay to catch a homeward steamer. My faithful +cat Lawah died, suffocated by the intense moist heat in the carriage. The +other two cats I just managed to keep alive by constant rubbing with +ice. + +From Bombay I despatched Sadek back to Teheran _via_ the Gulf and +Bushire, and the two surviving cats and I sailed by P. & O. for England, +where we all three arrived happy, safe, and sound. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +Tables Showing the Distance From Quetta To Meshed via Robat, +Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan), Birjand. + +_Distances from Quetta to Persian frontier._ + + _Name of Stage._ _Distance._ + _Miles._ _Yards._ +Quetta to Girdi Talab 16 -- +Girdi to Kanak (Taleri) 16 -- +Kanak to Morad Khan Kella 24 -- +Morad Khan Kella to Kishingi 24 -- +Kishingi to Nushki 12 -- +Nushki to Mall 31 1,320 +Mall to Kuchaki Chah 15 1,154 +Kuchaki Chah to Padag 13 756 +Padag to Yadgar 22 1,390 +Yadgar to Karodak 15 970 +Karodak to Dalbandin 16 380 +Dalbandin to Chakal 18 190 +Chakal to Sotag 14 220 +Sotag to Mirui 12 1,320 +Mirui to Chah Sandan 20 220 +Chah Sandan to Tretoh 23 760 +Tretoh to Noh Kundi 21 1,660 +Noh Kundi to Mashki Chah 21 1,100 +Mashki Chah to Sahib Chah 28 660 +Sahib Chah to Mukak 23 660 +Mukak to Saindak 13 880 +Saindak to Kirtaka 18 750 +Kirtaka to Chah Mahommed 16 1,107 +Chah Mahommed Raza to Raza Kuh-i-Malek-Siah 24 368 + + +Distances from Robat (Beluchistan) to Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan). + +Robat to Hormak 18 miles. +Hormak to Girdi-Chah 32 " +Girdi-Chah to Mahommed Raza Chah 28 " +Mahommed Raza Chah to Lutak 12 " +Lutak to Baghak 16 " +Baghak to Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan) 8 " + +Sher-i-Nasrya to Birjand, about 12 stages 210 miles. +Birjand to Meshed, _via_ Turbat-i-Haidari 277 " + + +Botanical Specimens Collected by Author in North Beluchistan. (Presented +to the British Museum of Natural History.) + + _Native Name._ +_Agat_ Lornia spinosa. Sch. Bip. +_Buju_ Stipa (grass). +_Eshwerk_ Rhazya stricta Dec. +_Jirri x Jerr_ Artemisia Herba-Alva Asso. +_Karkar_ Fagonia Aucheri Boiss. +_Kesankur_ Peganum Harmala L. +_Kanderi_ (?) Salsola. +_Kirri_ Tamarix articulata vahl. +_Kul_ } +_Drug_ } Phragmites communis Trin. (A reed.) +_Kulich' nell_ Cressa cretica L. + { Anabasis sp. +_Lara_ { Tamarix sp. +_Pish_ Nannorhops Ritchieana Wendl. (Palm.) +_Sachdonne_ Astragalus sp. + ---- Moricandia sp. + ---- Alyssum. + ---- Cichorium (?). + ---- Nerium Oleander L. + ---- Convolvulus sp. + ---- Salicornia fruticosa L. + ---- Suaeda monoica Forsk. + +[Illustration: Sketch Map of A. Henry Savage Landor's Journey from Kerman +(Persia) to Quetta (Beluchistan) giving detailed survey of Sistan-Nushki +Route by Author.] + + + + +INDEX + + +i. == Vol. I. + +ii. == Vol. II. + +Abal Kassem Khan, i. 40 +Abbas Ali, Camel man, ii. 117 +Abbas Ali Khan, British Agent in Birjand, ii. 104 +Abdulabad, i. 79 +Abid, ii. 19 +Accumulations of wealth, i. 120 +Across the Salt Desert, ii. 1-89 +Afghan-Beluch Boundary, the, ii. 377 +Afghan + Desert, ii. 309 + Invasion, i. 88 + Soldiers, ii. 101 + Women, ii. 440 +Afghanistan, ii. 316 +Afghans, ii. 283, 322 +African black, an, i. 80 +Agdah, i. 371 +Agha + Baba, i. 51, 73 + Mahommed, i. 88 +Agha Mahommed's invasion of Persia, i. 449, 450 +Ahwaz, i. 340 +Ahwaz-Isfahan track, i. 340 +Alabaster throne, i. 225 +Ala-el-Mulk, Governor of Kerman, i. 317, 433 +Alamut Mt., i. 69 +Alexandrovo, i. 3 +Aliabad, i. 250 +Ali Murat, ii. 24 +Alliance Francaise, i. 171 +Alliance Israelite, i. 172 +Ambition, i. 126 +American interests, i. 95 +Amir of + Birjand, ii. 94 + Sistan, ii. 157 + audience of the, ii. 185 +Anar, i. 419 +Ardakan Mts., i. 372 +Ardeshir Meheban Irani, i. 405 +Armenian + Archbishop, i. 282 + men, i. 283 + women, i. 283 +Armenians, i. 282 + emigration of, i. 284 +Artillery, ii. 92 +Assiabo Gordoneh, i. 374 +Astara, i. 27 +Astrabad, i. 29, 185 +Azerbaijan, i. 185 +Azizawad, i. 249 + +Backhtiaris, i. 341 +Badjirs, (Ventilating Shafts), i. 380, 408 +Baghih, i. 428 +Baku, i. 5, 21 + native city, i. 23 +Bambis, i. 365 +Bandan, ii. 136 +Bandan Mts., ii. 136 +Bandar Abbas, i. 332 + trade of, i. 334 +Band-i-Sistan, ii. 227 +Banking in Persia, i. 139 +Bank-notes, i. 129, 147 +Banks, i. 135 +Banque + d'Escompte et de Prets, i. 134 + Poliakoff, i. 134 +Barbers, i. 309; ii. 71 +Baths, i. 376 +Bazaar, i. 35, 245, 267, 296-312; ii. 27 +Beetroot Sugar Company, the, i. 118 +Beggars, ii. 30 +Behai sect, the, i. 391 +Belgian Customs Officers, i. 155, 337 +Bellew, ii. 321 +Bellows, i. 255 +Beluch, ii. 102, 120 +Beluch-Afghan Boundary, ii. 308 +Beluch + bread, ii. 325 + chiefs, ii. 420-422 + dancing, ii. 305 + diet, ii. 417 + dress, ii. 418 + Durbar, ii. 441 + dwellings, ii. 415 + fakir, ii. 433 + fort, ii. 413 + graves, ii. 313, 410, 422 + graves, section of, ii. 402 + graveyard, ii. 400, 438 + greeting, ii. 276 + hospitality, ii. 434 + huts, ii. 434 + implements, ii. 417 + love and war songs, ii. 301 + marriages, ii. 403 + maternal love, ii. 311 + Mesjids (or Mazit), ii. 363 + music, ii. 296 + ornaments, ii. 419 + prisoners, ii. 324 + religion, ii. 364, 423 + rugs, i. 318 + salutations, ii. 356 + tents, ii. 310 + types, ii. 350 + weaving looms, ii. 416 +Beluchistan, i. 98 + Persian, i. 191 + subdivisions of, ii. 381 +Benn, Major, R. E., British Consul, Sistan, ii. 145, 163, 168, 169, 172 +Benn, Bazaar, ii. 150 +Biddeh, i. 375 +Biddeshk, i. 277 +Birjand, ii. 90 + citadel, ii. 92 + city, ii. 91 + commercially, ii. 93 + exports, ii. 99 + imports, ii. 98 + industries of, ii. 97 + routes from, ii. 93 + ruined fortress at, ii. 90 +Biwarzin Yarak range, i. 69 +Blackmail, i. 93 +Bohemian glass, i. 307 +Bokhara, Amir of, i. 25 +Bombay Amelioration Society of the Parsees, i. 404 +Brahui, ii. 365, 382 +Bread, i. 310 + making, ii. 259 + of camel men, ii. 24 +British + Bazaar, ii. 151 + flag, difficulties of hoisting the, ii. 172 + goods, i. 36, 153, 166, 178; ii. 147 + India Navigation Company, the, i. 334 + Legation, i. 96, 98 + staff, i. 98 + protection, ii. 95, 153 + trade, i. 155, 161 + traders, ii. 152 +Britishers, i. 143 + in Persia, i. 84 +Bunjar, ii. 194 +Buried city, seemingly, ii. 270 +Bushire Company, i. 147 +Business principles, i. 120 + +Cairns, ii. 50, 353 +Camel + men, ii. 2, 56 + devoutness of, ii. 82 + riding, ii. 8 +Camels, ii. 70, 331, 336 +Canals, ii. 255, 320 +Capital, i. 120, 140 +Customs soldiers, ii. 278 +Caravan from Kerman to Quetta, ii. 159 +Caravan men, i. 334, 341 +Caravans, i. 71 +Caravanserais, i. 269, 310, 375; ii. 48, 91 +Carriage fares (Resht Teheran), i. 54 +Carpet factories, i. 313 +Carpets, i. 153, 314 + Birjand, ii. 97 + Kerman, i. 316, 437 + Herat, i. 318 + Sultanabad, i. 317 + Tabriz, i. 318 + Turcoman, i. 318 + Yezd, i. 318 +Caspian Sea, + navigation of, i. 50 + steamers, i. 21 +Catacombs, i. 14 +Cats, + intelligence of, ii. 40 +Cave dwellers of Nushki, ii. 418 +Chagai, ii. 379 +Chah-herizek, i. 246 +Chah-i-Mardan, ii. 320 +Chah Sandan, ii. 356 +Chakal, ii. 362 +Chaman, ii. 441 +Chaman Singh, ii. 150 +Chanoh, i. 370 +Chap, a Beluch dance, the, ii. 306 +Chappar or post-horses, i. 259 +Charity, i. 89 +Chel-Payeh, ii. 51 +Chiltan Mt., ii. 434, 440 +Chinese Turkestan, i. 129 +Chinese War, the, i. 107 +Christianisation, i. 391 +Church Missionary Society, i. 390 +Churches, i. 17 +Churchill, Mr., acting H.B.M. Consul, Resht, i. 61 +Civilising agents, i. 167 +Clemenson and Marsh, Messrs., ii. 132 +Clouds, ii. 112 + above the desert, ii. 80 +Coachmen, i. 57, 63 +Cocoon trade, i. 60 +Coin, old and new, i. 133 +Coins, i. 237 +Cold, ii. 77, 81, 410 +Colleges and schools, i. 294 +Communication, i. 139 + ways of, ii. 160 +Compagnie d'Assurance et de Transport en Perse, i. 48 +Company promoters, i. 122 +Compensating laws of nature, ii. 48 +Competition in + Birjand, ii. 97 + trade, i. 37 +Confidence in foreigners, i. 123 +Conical temporary graves, ii. 229 +Consular postal service, ii. 110 +Consulate + guard, ii. 178 + hospital, ii. 179 + mosque, ii. 177 +Consulates, i. 162 + British, i. 39 +Consuls, ii. 108 +Copper, i. 276 + coin, i. 130, 133 + work, i. 267, 305 +Cossacks, i. 6, 18, 349; ii. 108, 139 +Crater, ii. 134 +Credit, ii. 101 +Criminals, i. 89 +Currency, i. 127 +Customs caravanserai, Sistan, ii. 150 + officials, ii. 166 + +Dadi, ii. 235 +Dalbandin, ii. 367, 397 + routes from, ii. 397 +Damovend Mt., i. 243, 255 +Dancing, i. 198 +Darband, ii. 47 + Mt., ii. 42, 44 +Daria-i-Nimak (Salt Lake), i. 250 +Dearth of coins, i. 130 +Deawat, i. 374 +Deformities, i. 208, 245 +Deh-i-Husena, ii. 251 +Dentistry, i. 210 +Deschambe bazaar, i. 60 +Difficulties of traders, ii. 101 +Diseases, ii. 115 +Distances from Teheran to Isfahan, i. 280 +Drog, ii. 409 +Dry river beds, ii. 21, 44, 78, 125 +Dunes, i. 355, 373; ii. 255, 281 +Duties, i. 156 + +Ears of Persians, i. 208 +Education, i. 143, 386 + of Persians, i. 169 +Electricity of the Desert, ii. 55, 70, 134 +Elongating effects of the desert, ii. 66 +England and Russia, i. 162 +English + education, i. 174 + goods, i. 96 +Englishman as a linguist, the, i. 177 +Enzeli, i. 26, 29 + bay, i. 30 +Eshwark, ii. 361 +Eshwerk, ii. 409 +Eternal fires, i. 22 +Euphrates Valley Railway, i. 163 +European commercial houses, i. 152 +Europeans, i. 90 +European women, i. 298, 391 +Exchange, i. 138 + +Family graves, ii. 400 +Famine, i. 75 +Fanatic, ii. 289 +Farah Rud, ii. 209 +Farmitan, ruins of, i. 447 +Farming system, i. 155 +Fars Trading Company, i. 147 +Farsakh, the, i. 409 +Fatabad, i. 456 +Fedeshk, the village of, ii. 82 +Fever, ii. 32, 48, 53, 85, 115, 117, 135, 183 +Fever-stricken, ii. 95 + people, ii. 83 +Fezahbad, i. 360 +Fight between Afghans and Sistanis, ii. 162 +Fin Palace, i. 265 +Fire + temples, i. 399, 452 + destruction of, i. 396 + worshippers, i. 401 +Food for camels, ii. 40 +Foreign + education, i. 172 + exchange, i. 140 + speculations, i. 121 +Foreigners in Persian employ, i. 155 +Fort, ii. 28 +Fortress, ii. 135 + in ruins, ii. 113 +Fossils, ii. 43 +Foxes, ii. 71 +Fraud, i. 113, 116 +Friction, ii. 95 +Friday, the day of rest, i. 311 +Fruit trees, i. 76 +Fuel, i. 377 + +Garland, James Loraine, i. 286, 288 +Gas Company, the, i. 116 +Gat Mt., ii. 355, 358 +Geographical frauds, i. 332 +Geological fault, ii. 411 +Georgians, i. 20 +German + commercial training, i. 177 + goods, i. 19, 96, 180 + Minister, i. 95 +Germany, i. 95, 161, 163 +Ghiez, i. 279 +Ghilan, i. 184 + province, i. 36, 59, 77 +Ghilan's trade, i. 36 +Ghul Khan, ii. 235 +Gigantic rock inscription, i. 453 +Girdi, ii. 275, 277 +Glass, i. 255 +Godar-i-Chah, + ruins of, ii. 320 + water of, ii. 321 +Godar-Khorassunih Pass, ii. 12 +God-i-Zirreh, ii. 322 + salt deposits (Afghanistan), ii. 316 +Golahek, i. 99 +Golam Jelami, Dr., ii. 179 +Golandeh, ii. 115 +Gold, i. 127 + coins, i. 132 +Goldsmid, Sir F., ii. 321 +Goldsmiths, i. 122 +Government + guarantee, i. 341 + of India, i. 161 +Grapes, i. 35 +Graveyards, ii. 109 +Grube, Mr., i. 144 +Gullahbad, i. 354 +Gurghena tribe, ii. 434 +Gyabrabat, i. 269 +Gypsum, ii. 332, 333 + +Hallucination, i. 65 +Halmund water, ii. 150 +Hamadan, i. 188 +Hammam (baths), i. 386, 440 +Hamun-i-Halmund, ii. 138, 280 +Hand of prophet Nazareth Abbas, the, i. 264 +Haoz Panch Caravanserai, ii. 24 +Hardinge, Sir Arthur, i. 96, 221 +Head Mullah, death of, i. 115 +Heat, ii. 38, 39, 51 +Hindoo Caravanserai, Kerman, i. 442 +Hindoo merchants, i. 426 +Hoarding, i. 139 +Hodjatabad, i. 377 +Holy city, i. 253 +Horjins (saddle-bags), i. 303 +Hormak, ii. 283, 285 +Horse fair, i. 18 +Hotels, i. 38, 40, 80, 81, 112 +Hotz and Son, i. 135, 152, 154 +House of Commons, i. 161 +Houses, i. 93, 365; ii. 86, 145, 256 +Husena Baba, ii. 253 +Husseinabad, ii. 148 + +Ice store-houses, i. 266, 433 +Illuminations, i. 216 +Imperial Bank of Persia, i. 43, 90, 127, 135 +Importation of arms, i. 320 +Imprints, ii. 21 +Incorrect maps, i. 331; ii. 23, 140, 142 +India, the invasion of, i. 159 +Indian + pilgrims, ii. 110 + tea traders, ii. 153 + teas, ii. 156 +Indo-European Telegraphs, i. 73, 90, 254, 263, 284 +Infanticide, i. 208 +Infantry soldiers, i. 115 +Inscriptions and ornamentations on Chappar-Khana walls, i. 415 +Intermarriage, ii. 65 +Investments, i. 124 +Iron, i. 276 +Isfahan, i. 74, 285 + avenue, the, i. 321 + bridge, the, i. 285 + commercially, i. 330 + historical paintings, i. 324 + Jewish quarters, i. 286 + Madrassah, the, i. 285, 321 + palace, the, i. 285, 323 + square of, the, i. 296 +Iskil, ii. 195 +Isphandiar Khan, i. 343 +Itinerary of Journey, + London to Baku, i. 1-20 + Baku to Enzeli, i. 26-28 + Enzeli to Resht, i. 29-43 + Resht to Teheran, i. 57-80 + Teheran to Isfahan, i. 241-280 + Isfahan to Yezd, i. 351-380 + Yezd to Kerman, i. 408-430 + Kerman to Birjand, ii. 1-89 + Birjand to Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan) ii. 112-141 + Sher-i-Nasrya to Zaidan, ii. 194-232 + Zaidan to Kuh-i-Kwajah, ii. 233-250 + Kuh-i-Kwajah to Robat, ii. 251-292 + Robat to Saindak _via_ God-i-Zirreh (Afghanistan), ii. 307-323 + Saindak to Quetta, ii. 324-441 + Quetta to Calcutta, ii. 441-442 + Calcutta to London, ii. 442-443 + +Jaffarabad, i. 377 +Jamsetsji N. Tata, Mr., i. 407 +Janja Mt., i. 69 +"Jazia" tax, the, i. 403 +Jewellers, i. 319 +Jews, i. 116, 286, 290, 384 + of Isfahan, features of the, i. 292 +Jubareh, i. 286 +Julfa, i. 282 + Europeans at, i. 284 + Graveyard, i. 284 + +Kajar dynasty, i. 88 +Kajars, i. 221 +Kala Ardeshir (fort), i. 445 +Kala-i-Dukhtar or Virgin Fort, i. 443 +Kalantar of Sistan, the, ii. 195, 197 +Kalaoteh, ii. 10 +Kanak, ii. 438 +Kanats, i. 75, 353, 355, 371, 379; ii. 28 +Kandahar road, ii. 440 +Karenghi rirri, ii. 363 +Karodak, ii. 408 +Karun River, navigation of, i. 340 +Kashan, i. 262, 263 +Kasvin, i. 48, 51, 73 + Manufacturer of, i. 77 + rest house, i. 73 +Kavkas and Mercury Steam Navigation Company, i. 26 +Kawam-ed-douleh, i. 113 +Kayani, the, ii. 139 +Kehriz Natenz peak, i. 277 +_Kerbas_ cloth, i. 77 +Kerjawa (litters), i. 247 +Kerman, i. 431 + British Consulate, i. 432 + Cloths and felts, i. 437 + Europeans at, i. 432 + Garrison of, i. 435 + Madrassah, the, i. 439 + to Neh, route _via_ Khabis, ii. 1 +Keshk (cheese), ii. 119 +Kevir, the, i. 370 +Khafe-Khanas, i. 65 +Khale Mandelha, i. 250 +Khan of Kelat, ii. 380, 383-394 +Kharkoff, i. 18 +Kharzan Pass, i. 50 +Khorassan, i. 134, 185 +Khupah, i. 357 +Khuzistan, i. 190 +Kiafteh, i. 372 +Kiev, i. 12 +Kievo-Petcherskaya monastery, i. 14 +Killi range, ii. 437 +Kirtaka, ii. 312 + routes from, ii. 312 +Kishingi, ii. 433 +Kohrut, i. 271 + Dam, i. 270 +Kort, i. 72 +Kotor, ii. 432 +Kran, i. 134, 139 +Kuchaki Chah, ii. 410 +Kudum, i, 51, 63 +Kuh-Benan Mts., ii. 31 +Kuh Djupahr, i. 429 + peaks, i. 428 +Kuh-i-buhlan Pass, i. 272 +Kuh-i-Daftan (Volcano), ii. 327 +Kuh-i-Kwajah, ii. 235-250 + characteristic skulls, ii. 245 + Dead houses, ii. 241 + Gandun Piran Ziarat, ii. 242 + Graves in compartments, ii. 240 + Kala-i-Kakaha, city of roars of laughter, ii. 238, 247 + legends regarding, ii. 248 + Kuk fort, ii. 247 + Priests' house, ii. 244 + tomb of thirty-eight sections, ii. 242 +Kuh-i-Malek-Siah, ii. 282 +Kuh-i-Maran, ii. 438 +Kum, i. 89, 242, 252 +Kundi, ii. 351 +Kupayeh Mountains, ii. 7 +Kurdistan, i. 189 + rugs, i. 317 +Kurus peak, ii. 10 +Kushkuhyeh, i. 423 + +Lahr Kuh, ii. 293 +Lalun mines, i. 117, 119 +Langherut, i. 256 +Languages, i. 175 +Lascelles, Sir Frank, i. 151 +Laskerisha, ii. 309 +Lawah, ii. 27 + cat, ii. 442 +Lawah, tracks from, ii. 27 +Lawah's trade, ii. 28 +Lead, ii. 327 +Leather tanneries, i. 254 +Legation guards, i. 100 +Legations, i. 95 +Leker Kuh range, ii. 21 +Lenkoran, i. 27 +Levantines, i. 61 +Lingah, i. 337 +Loaf-sugar, i. 37 +Loan, six per cent., i. 152 +London + Society for promoting Christianity amongst the Jews of Isfahan, i. 286 + Stock Exchange, i. 137 +Luft-Ali-Khan, i. 450 +Luristan, i. 190 +Lynch Brothers, i. 342 + +Maclean incident, the, i. 156 +MacMahon, Major A. H., ii. 321, 351, 378, 412 +McGregor, Sir Charles, ii. 321, 351 +Mahala-Giabr, i. 449 +Mahommed + Ali Brothers, ii. 151 + Azim Khan Brothers, ii. 152 + Azin, a descendant of the Kayani, ii. 239, 252 +Mahommed + Hayab, ii. 152 + Raza Chah, ii. 262, 310 +Mahommerah, i. 339 + trade of, i. 344 +Maiden's Tower, Baku, i. 23 +Maladministration, i. 131 +Malayer and Borujird districts, i. 189 +Malcolm, Rev. Napier, i. 389 +Malek-Siah, Ziarat, (where three countries meet), ii. 287 +Mall, ii. 410 +Marble, ii. 345 +Market worth cultivating, ii. 157 +Massacre of Jews, i. 291 +Matsuma Fatima, i. 253 +Mazanderan, i. 185 +Meftah-el-Mulk, i. 103 +Meftah-es-Sultaneh, i. 102 +Meh-rab Shrine, i. 264 +Meiboh, i. 375 +Menzil, i. 68, 69 + bridge, i. 51 +Meshed horses for remounts, ii. 148 +Meshed-i-Sher, i. 29 +Meshed, + pilgrimage to the sacred shrine of, ii. 95 + track to, ii. 73 +Mesjids, ii. 403, 433, 438 +Miletor, Mr., Belgian Customs Officer, Sistan, ii. 166 +Military + Drill, i. 112 + officers, ii. 92, 103 + Political Service, ii. 168 +Miller, Mr., Russian Vice-Consul for Sistan, ii. 149 +Minerals, i. 188 +Mint, the, i. 128 +Mirage, i. 260, 355, 373; ii. 356 +Mirjawa, track to, ii. 312 +Mirui, ii. 359 +Mirza Hassan Ashtiani, i. 150 +Mirza-Taki-Khan, Assassination of, i. 265 +Missionaries, i. 85, 281 +Missionary work, i. 389 +Misstatements, ii. 166 +Model farm, i. 118 +Moisture, i. 59 +Mol-Ali, i. 70 +Money, i. 124 +Morad-Khan Kella, ii. 435, 436 +Mosques, i. 93, 253, 264, 266, 267, 285, 296 +Motor cars, i. 239 +Mount Sofia, i. 284 +Moving pictures, i. 233 +Mudir School, i. 387 +Mudonek Ateng Mt., ii. 433 +Muht, ii. 113 +Mukak, ii. 328 +Mullahs, i. 44, 89, 92, 124, 150, 170, 253, 285 +Murchikhar, i. 278 +Murd-ap, i. 31, 50 +Mushir-ed-Doulet, Minister of Foreign Affairs, i. 104, 106 +Mushki-Chah, ii. 345 +Mushroom-shaped Mount, ii. 286 +Music, i. 435 +Mustang track, ii. 437 +Muzaffer-ed-din Shah, i. 138 + +Naiband + Mt., ii. 56, 58, 78 + village of, the, ii. 57 + villagers, clothes of, ii. 68 +Nao Gombes, i. 369 +Naphtha, i. 190 +Napier, ii. 321 +Nasirabad, ii. 139 +Nassirabad, i. 261 +Native Merchants in Birjand, ii. 98 +Natives, troublesome, ii. 61 +Naus, Mr., i. 155 +Nawar-Chah, ii. 279 +New Consulate buildings, ii. 174 +Nharui, ii. 382 +Nickel coins, i. 131 +Nihilists, i. 18 +Northern Persia, i. 53, 145, 161 +Nose of Persians, i. 210 +Nushki, ii. 395, 414-432 + Bazaar, ii. 428 + Beluch durbar at, ii. 420 + Beluch tribes near, ii. 414 + Caravanserais, ii. 427 + health of, ii. 427 + hospital, ii. 427 + projected Railway, ii. 429 + Tashil, ii. 425 + Tashildar, ii. 425 + trade of, ii. 428 + Traders in, ii. 396 + route, ii. 96, 153, 367 + Advice to traders, ii. 371 + concession to traders by the, ii. 370 + evolutions of the, ii. 376 + first to travel from London to Quetta by the, ii. 371 + forwarding agents by the, ii. 370 + game on the, ii. 397 + pilgrims by the, ii. 372 + post offices on the, ii. 369 + railway rebate on freight for goods by the, ii. 370 + Rest houses on the, ii. 368 + trade of the, ii. 147 + traffic on the, ii. 368 + travellers by the, ii. 371 + water supply on the, ii. 369 + +Oasis, ii. 56 +Observation, i. 174 +Officials, i. 113; ii. 86 +Oil wells, i. 20, 22 +Opium, i. 435 + smoking, ii. 29, 83 + effects of, ii. 84 +Orphans, college for, i. 104 + +Padag, ii. 409 +Paichinar, i. 70 +Paintings, i. 229, 236 +Palawan (strong man), the, ii. 329 +Palm-trees, ii. 28, 136 +Parsee, + British Subjects in Yezd, i. 405 + ceremonies, i. 400 + generosity, i. 407 + national assembly, i. 405 + priests, i. 400 + school, i. 388 + traders, i. 404 +Parsees + of India, i. 173 + of Kerman, i. 443 + fire of the, i. 402 + or Guebre (Zoroastrians) of Yezd, i. 394-407 + Zoroastrians, i. 383, 449 +Pasand Khan, ii. 397 +Passangun, i. 257 +Passports, i. 31 +Patang Kuh, ii. 254 +Pearls, i. 237 +Persecution, i. 292-295 +Persian + Army, the, i. 111 + cats, ii. 6 + Cossack regiment, i. 115, 222 + crowds, ii. 110 + Customs duty, ii. 167 + dancing, ii. 304 + dinner, i. 456, 458 + expedition against Beluch, i. 435 + Gulf, i. 164 + Trading Company, i. 135 + Imperial Government, obligations of the, i. 138 + justice, ii. 189 + markets, i. 138, 167 + music, ii. 302 + musical instruments, ii. 303 + officials, i. 102 + Question, the, i. 98 + soldiers, i. 434 + tea market, ii. 154 + telegraphs, i. 352, 363, 371 + the, as a soldier, i. 111 + wedding, i. 193 + women's + dress, i. 211 + jewels, i. 213 + out-of-door dress, i. 213 +Persia's condition, i. 109 +Perso-Beluch frontier, ii. 343 +Petroleum express, i. 5 +Phillot, Major, H.B.M.'s Consul, Kerman, i. 432; ii. 169 +Phonograph, ii. 178 +Pigeon towers, i. 352 +Pilgrimage for sterile women, i. 455 +Pilgrims, i. 15; ii. 73 +Pilgrims, Indian, ii. 95 +Pipes, i. 308 +Piri + Bazaar, i. 32 + Road, ii. 437 +Pish, ii. 358 +Pits, ii. 118 +Plague, fears of the, ii. 374 +Plucky Englishwoman, ii. 173 +Policy of drift, i. 164, 340 +Political service, ii. 108 +Polygamy, i. 192 +Portraits of sovereigns, i. 235 +Post + horses, i. 267, 270, 409, 418 + offices, ii. 293 + stations, i. 63 +Practical Mission work, i. 289 +Praga, i. 7 +Preece, Mr., British Consul-General, Isfahan, i. 279, 286, 348 +Preparing bodies for interment, ii. 401 +Prime Minister, i. 223 +Princes, i. 67 +Prisoners, ii. 426 +Protection against heat, ii. 38 +Protest, a, i. 150 +Punctuality, i. 125, 242 +Pusht-i-Kuh, i. 190 + +Queen Victoria's portrait, i. 232, 235 +Quetta, ii. 440 +Quivering Minarets, the, i. 328 + +Rabino, Mr., i. 130, 136, 144 +Rafsenju, routes from, i. 425 +Rahdari tax, ii. 167 +Railway, i. 91 + to Kandahar, ii. 441 + travelling, i. 20, 55 +Railways needed, ii. 148, 169 +Rain, ii. 112, 286 +Redress, i. 277; ii. 153 +Regheth, ii. 330, 334, 358 +Registan, ii. 395 +Reliability of Sistanis, ii. 161 +Religious education, i. 172 +Removals, i. 100 +Resht, i. 35, 44 + Governor-General of, i. 62 +Respect of natives, ii. 145, 178 +Rest houses, i. 64 + in North Beluchistan, ii. 294 +Rice, i. 61, 77 +Road Concession, the, i. 242 +Robat (Beluchistan) + frontier post, ii. 291 + Garrison needed at, ii. 170 +Robbers, i. 270, 273, 277, 361, 410; ii. 73, 122, 135, 352 +Rock + habitations, ii. 15, 57 + sculpture at Shah Abdul Hazim, i. 244 +Rostoff, i. 18 +Routes, ii. 73 + across the Salt Desert, ii. 46 +Royal college, Teheran, i. 170 +Rudbar, i. 68 +Ruins, i. 351, 382; ii. 28 +Russia, i. 163 +Russian + Bank, i. 42, 137, 188 + competition, i. 48 + Custom House, i. 2 + goods, i. 53; ii. 147 + Government, i. 129 + grant, i. 346 + influence, i. 343 + line of steamers, i. 337 + loan, i. 127 + market, i. 167 + protective tariff, ii. 156 + railway travelling, i. 7 + road, the, i. 47, 50 + capital employed in construction of, i. 52 + tolls, i. 54 + roads in Persia, i. 162 + tariff, i. 161 + tea market, ii. 155 + the, i. 143 + Vice-Consul, ii. 172 + Vice-Consulate, ii. 149 +Russia's + aim in the Persian Gulf, i. 332 + commercial success, i. 182 + trade, i. 145, 155 +Rustamabad, i. 64 +Rustam's house, ii. 264 + +Sadek, i. 241, 243; ii. 442 +Sahib Chah, ii. 334, 337 +Sahlabad, ii. 120 +Said Khan, ii. 295 +Saigsi, i. 354 +Saindak Mt., ii. 307, 324, 326 +Salaam to Mecca, i. 257 +Salambar Mt., i. 69 +Salare Afkham, H. E., i. 40 +Salt + and Sand, i. 427 + deposits, ii. 24, 119, 124 + desert, ii. 36 + journey across, ii. 1-89 + incrustations, ii. 280 + sediments, ii. 21 + stream, ii. 75, 78, 129 +Sanctuaries, i. 89 +Sand + bar, i. 374 + barchans, ii. 355 + formation of, ii. 318 + deposits, i. 422 +Sand + dunes, ii. 408 + hills, i. 377; ii. 290, 315, 355, 407 + mounts, ii. 260 + movement and accumulations, ii. 271 + storm, ii. 24 +Sara Mountains, i. 361 +Sar-es-iap + (No. 1), ii. 9 + (No. 2), ii. 14 +Sar-i-Yezd, i. 410 +Sar-tip, the, ii. 162 +Sayids, i. 207, 368 +Sefid-Rud (River), i. 51, 63 +Serde-Kuh (Mts.), i. 414 +Servants, i. 86, 241, 420 +Shah-Abdul-Azim, i. 91, 118, 244 +Shah, an audience of the, i. 219 +Shah Rud (River), i. 70 +Shah's + Anderum or Harem, i. 238 + automobile, i. 218 + banqueting room, i. 229 + birthday, i. 216 + country residences, i, 238 + favourite apartments, i. 230 + Jewelled-Globe room, i. 232 + Museum, i. 227 + Palace, i, 225 + son, the, i. 239 + stables, i. 89 +Shai, i. 131, 133 +Shehrawat, i. 371 +Shela (the Salt River), ii. 279 +Shemsh, i. 418 +Sher-i-Nasrya (Sistan), ii. 140, 142 +Sher-i-Rustam (Rustam's city), ii. 263-269 +Shiraz wines, i. 191 +Shirkuh Mt., i. 373 +Shops, i. 35 +Siberia, i. 166 +Sibi horse fair, ii. 441 +Silk, i. 60, 77, 409 + carpets, i. 317 +Silver, i. 127 + coin, + drain of, i. 128 + purchasing power of, i. 128 + coins, i. 132 +Sin Sin, i. 260 +Sistan, i. 185 + Articles saleable in, ii. 158 + British influence in, ii. 161 + commercially, ii. 157 + exports from, ii. 159 + Vice-Consulate, history of, ii. 171 +Sistan's + health and prevalent diseases, ii. 180 + transition, ii. 161 +Small-pox, i. 70 +Societe de + Chemins de Fer et des Tramways de Perse, i. 91 + Prets de Perse, i. 143 +Soh, i. 276 +Soldiers, i. 222 +Sorag, ii. 409 +Sotag, ii. 361 +"Spear of the Sultan," the, ii. 352 +Speculators, i. 147 +Stable of Rustam's legendary horse, ii. 268 +Stars and planets, ii. 36, 114 +State Bank of St. Petersburg, i. 144 +Statistics, i. 62 +Stern, Dr., i. 287 +Stone pillar, ii. 314 +Stuart, Miss, i. 289 +Sugar, ii. 98 +Sultan Mts., ii. 351 +Summer + Residences, i. 99 + Terraces at Warmal, ii. 255 +Sunge (transit due), ii. 395 +Sunsets, i. 251; ii. 274 + in the Desert, ii. 79 +Superstition, ii. 365 +Surmah, i. 206; ii. 327 +Sweets, i. 302 +Sykes, Major, ii. 159, 208, 237 + +Tabriz, i. 186 +Tadji, i. 213 +Takatu Mts., ii. 434, 440 +Tamarisk (kirri), ii. 262, 312, 353, 359, 361, 438 +Teeth of Persians, i. 209 +Teheran, i. 79, 87, 184 + amusements in, i. 85 + etiquette in, i. 85 + European quarters in, i. 88 + foreigners in, i. 86 + "Place du Canon," the, i. 88 + social sets, i. 85 + "Top Meidan," in, i. 90 +Tejerish, i. 99 +Tek-chand, ii. 151 +Telegraph needed, ii. 169 +Telegraphs, i. 98, 139 +Temporary consulate, ii. 174 +Territorial rights, i. 168 +Thefts, ii. 166 +Theological college, i. 254, 264 +Thirst, ii. 54 +Time, i. 125, 142 +Tobacco, i. 37 +Tobacco Corporation, the, i. 148 +Tokrajie Mts., ii. 31 +Toman, i. 58, 134 +Tower, ii. 45 + of silence, i. 378 +Trade + caravanserais, i. 442; ii. 97 + increase in, i. 36 +Tramways, i. 91 +Transcaspia, i. 128 +Treasuring of capital, i. 121 +Treaties, sanads and engagements with the Khan of Khelat and other + Beluch chiefs, ii. 381-394 +Trench, Major G. Chevenix, ii. 144, 169, 172 +Tretoh, ii. 353 +Tribal feuds, ii. 396 +Twilight, i. 251; ii. 80, 275 +Types of natives, i. 354, 367; ii. 16, 63, 257 + +Umar-al-din Khan, a British trader, ii. 97-99 + +Vanity, i. 122 +Vegetation, i. 59, 62 +Veziroff Gazumbek, Russian agent, Birjand, ii. 107 +Volcanic + formation, i. 71; ii. 128 + region, ii. 13 +Votka, i. 19 + +Walton, M.P., Mr. Joseph, i. 161 +Warmal, ii. 255 +Warsaw, i. 5 +Water, i. 62, 258, 278, 355, 374, 382; ii. 48, 51, 59, 75, 77, 120, + 126, 277, 326, 334, 336, 353, 357, 362, 366, 369 +Water-melons, i. 260 +Water-skins, ii. 72 +Weapons, i. 236, 319 +Weaving-loom, i. 366 +Webb-Ware, C.I.E., Captain F. C., Political Assistant at Chagai, + ii. 147, 170, 357, 367 +Well for unfaithful women, i. 202 +Wheat from Arabistan, i. 342 +Whirlwinds, i. 361 +White, Captain, ii. 169 +White, Dr. Henry, i. 392 +Wife, price of a Beluch, ii. 404 +Wind, ii. 75, 81, 408 +Wind of 120 days, the, ii. 150 +Windmills, ii. 136, 149 +Witte, Mr. de, i. 144 +Wolves, ii. 15, 34, 71 +Woman's society, i. 84 +Women, i. 428, 429; ii. 66, 137 + anatomically, i. 205 + seclusion of, i. 193 +Work of Mission among Jews, i. 288 + +Yadgar, ii. 408 +Yate, C.S.I., C.M.G., Colonel C. E., + Agent to Governor-General of Beluchistan, ii. 441 +Yezd, i. 381 + citadel, i. 385 + European community, i. 391 + Government of, i. 385 + Governor of, i. 385 + health of, i. 390 + hospital, i. 390 + population of, i. 383 + trade, i. 383 + +Zagar Mengal tribe, ii. 395 +Zaidan, ii. 260 + history of, ii. 219-232 + architecture, ii. 226 + Bellew, ii. 222, 225, 230 + Canals, ii. 227 + Canals dry, ii. 232 + caravanserai at Kala-i-fath, ii. 231 + Deshtak, ii. 222 + devastation of, ii. 220, 221 + Goldsmid, Sir F., ii. 223, 230 + Jalalabad, ii. 222 + Kayani Kings, ii. 231 + Kayani Maliks, ii. 221 + Nad-i-Ali, ii. 222 + Nadir Shah, ii. 231 + Peshawaran, ii. 222, 223, 225 + Pulki, ii. 222 + Rud-i-Perian, ii. 228 + Safavi Dynasty, ii. 221 + Shah Rukh Shah, ii. 220 + Taimur Lang, ii. 221 + the great city, ii. 187, 194-232 + Arabic inscriptions, ii. 215-217, 223 + Chir-pir or tomb of 40 saints, ii. 214 + citadel, ii. 206 + covered passages, ii. 206 + curiosities found at, ii. 196 + extensive graveyard, ii. 211 + Goldsmid, Sir F., ii. 202 + graves, ii. 214 + high wall and towers, ii. 205 + ice store-houses, ii. 203 + imposing citadel, ii. 204 + Kala-i-fath, ii. 194, 213, 220, 226, 230, 231 + Lash Yuwain, ii. 194, 209, 226 + Length and breadth, ii. 208 + length of, ii. 209, 220, 232 + Mil-i-Zaidan pillar, ii. 201 + objects found at, ii. 215 + oil lamps excavated at, ii. 217 + outer towers, ii. 203 + protecting fortresses, ii. 220 + remains of double wall, ii. 210 + Rud-i-Nasru, ii. 213 + Canal, ii. 208 + Sand accumulations, ii. 213 + strange image excavated at, ii. 218 + Sykes, Major, ii. 202, 228 + Tablets, ii. 216 + Unroofed structures, ii. 211 + Wall, continuation of, ii. 207 +Zein-ed-din tower, i. 264 +Zemahlabad fort, ii. 155 +Zen-u-din, i. 413 +Ziarats, ii. 337, 352, 356, 398, 423, 438 +Ziegler & Co., i. 134, 152, 318 +Zil-es-Sultan, i. 323, 349 + an audience of, i. 350 +Zirreh, ii. 280 +Zorap, ii. 270 +Zoroaster, i. 396 +Zoroastrian religion, i. 398 + + +THE END. + + +RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. + +Transcriber's Notes: + +1. Obvious punctuation and printing errors repaired. + +2. Format of: "(altitude," "per cent.," "a.m.," "p.m.," +"a.d.," "b.c." and "s.s." +have been standardised. + +3. 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