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diff --git a/22525-h/22525-h.htm b/22525-h/22525-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ee514d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/22525-h/22525-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6363 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of John Lyly, by John Dover Wilson</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + body { margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + } + + h1, h2, h3 { text-align: center; + clear: both; + } + + h2 { margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em; line-height: 160%; } + + h3 { margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; font-weight: normal; font-size: 120%; } + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1.5em; + } + + blockquote p, + p.dropcap, + p.noindent { text-indent: 0; } + + p.dropcap:first-letter { font-size: 220%; float: left; margin: -0.1em 0.1em 0 0; } + + blockquote { margin-left: 4.5em; margin-right: 4.5em; } + + i, em, cite, q, abbr { font-weight: normal; font-style: italic; } + + ul#toc { list-style-type: none; margin: -2em auto 0 auto; padding: 0; width: 75%; position: relative; } + ul#toc li { padding: 0; margin: 0; } + ul#toc .chapter { text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; } + ul#toc .chap-desc { text-align: left; padding-top: 1em; } + ul#toc .desc { margin-left: 1.5em; padding: 0.5em 2.5em 0.5em 0; } + ul#toc .page { position: absolute; right: 0; } + + ul#toc ul.sections { list-style-type: none; padding: 0 0 0 1.5em; margin: 0; } + ul#toc ul.sections li { padding: 0.5em 2.5em 0 0; margin: 0; } + + ul#bibliography { width: 75%; list-style-type: none; margin: 0 auto 0 auto; padding: 0; } + ul#bibliography li { margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0.25em 0; text-indent: 0; } + + ul.index { width: 75%; list-style-type: none; margin: 0 auto 2em auto; padding: 0; } + ul.index li { margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0.25em 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em; } + + ul.index ul.index-sub { list-style-type: none; margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0 0; } + ul.index ul.index-sub li { margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0.25em 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em; } + + ul.index ul.index-sub ol.index-sub { list-style-type: lower-roman; margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0 1.5em; } + ul.index ul.index-sub ol.index-sub li { margin: 0; padding: 0.25em 0 0.25em 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em; } + + .pagenum { position: absolute; + left: 88%; + font-size: 0.9em; + text-align: right; + color: #808080; + text-indent: 0; + } + + .center { text-align: center; } + + .smcap { font-variant: small-caps; } + + .footnotes { border: 1px dashed #808080; margin-bottom: 80px; padding: 1em 0 1em 0; } + .footnote { margin: 0 10% 0 15%; } + .footnote .label { position: absolute; right: 77%; text-align: right; } + .footnote .label, + .fnanchor { vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none; } + .footnote p { margin: 0.25em 0 0.25em 0; text-indent: 0; } + + .poem { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: left; } + .poem br { display: none; } + .poem .stanza { margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; } + .poem span.i0 { display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + .poem span.i1 { display: block; margin-left: 0.4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + .poem span.i2 { display: block; margin-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of John Lyly, by John Dover Wilson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: John Lyly + +Author: John Dover Wilson + +Release Date: September 6, 2007 [EBook #22525] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN LYLY *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1 style="margin-top: 80px; margin-bottom: 40px;">JOHN LYLY</h1> + +<p class="center noindent">BY<br/><br/> +<span style="font-size: 150%;">JOHN DOVER WILSON,</span><br/><br/> + +B.A., Late Scholar of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.<br/> +Members' Prizeman, 1902. Harness Prizeman, 1904.<br/> +Honours in Historical Tripos.</p> + +<p class="center noindent" style="font-size: 115%; line-height: 150%; margin-top: 80px; margin-bottom: 120px;">Macmillan and Bowes<br/> +Cambridge<br/> +1905</p> + + + + +<p class="center noindent" style="margin-bottom: 120px; line-height: 150%; font-size: 125%;">A<br/> +MIA<br/> +DONNA.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="PREFACE">PREFACE.</a></h2> + + +<p class="dropcap">The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v">[v]</a></span> +following treatise was awarded the <em>Harness +Prize</em> at Cambridge in 1904. I have, however, +revised it since then, and in some matters considerably +enlarged it.</p> + +<p>A list of the chief authorities to whom I am indebted +will be found at the end of the book, but it is fitting +that I should here make particular mention of my +obligations to the exhaustive work of Mr Bond<a name="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. Not +only have his labours of research and collation lightened +the task for me, and for any future student of Lyly, to an +incalculable extent, but the various introductory essays +scattered up and down his volumes are full of invaluable +suggestions.</p> + +<p>This book was unfortunately nearing its completion +before I was able to avail myself of Mr Martin Hume's +<cite>Spanish Influence on English Literature</cite>. But, though +I might have added more had his book been accessible +earlier, I was glad to find that his conclusions left the +main theory of my chapter on Euphuism untouched.</p> + +<p>Much as has been written upon John Lyly, no +previous critic has attempted to cover the whole ground, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +and to sum up in a brief and convenient form the three +main literary problems which centre round his name. +My solution of these problems may be faulty in detail, +but it will I hope be of service to Elizabethan students +to have them presented in a single volume and from +a single point of view. Furthermore, when I undertook +this study, I found several points which seemed to +demand closer attention than they had hitherto received. +It appeared to me that the last word had not been said +even upon the subject of Euphuism, although that topic +has usurped the lion's share of critical treatment. And +again, while Lyly's claims as a novelist are acknowledged +on all hands, I felt that a clear statement of his exact +position in the history of our novel was still needed. +Finally, inasmuch as the personality of an author is +always more fascinating to me than his writings, +I determined to attempt to throw some light, however +fitful and uncertain, upon the man Lyly himself. The +attempt was not entirely fruitless, for it led to the +interesting discovery that the fully-developed euphuism +was not the creation of Lyly, or Pettie, or indeed of +any one individual, but of a circle of young Oxford men +which included Gosson, Watson, Hakluyt, and possibly +many others.</p> + +<p>I have to thank Mr J. R. Collins and Mr J. N. Frazer, +the one for help in revision, and the other for assistance +in Spanish. But my chief debt of gratitude is due to +Dr Ward, the Master of Peterhouse, who has twice read +through this book at different stages of its construction. +The readiness with which he has put his great learning +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> +at my disposal, his kindly interest, and frequent encouragement +have been of the very greatest help in a +task which was undertaken and completed under pressure +of other work.</p> + +<p>As the full titles of authorities used are to be found +in the list at the end, I have referred to works in the +footnotes simply by the name of their author, while in +quoting from <cite>Euphues</cite> I have throughout employed +Prof. Arber's reprint. Should errors be discovered in +the text I must plead in excuse that, owing to circumstances, +the book had to be passed very quickly through +the press.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right; margin-right: 3em;">JOHN DOVER WILSON.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Holmleigh, Shelford</span>, <i>August, 1905</i>.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</a></h2> + + +<ul id="toc"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a> + <div class="chap-desc">The problem stated—Sketch of Lyly's life <span class="page"> 1</span> + </div></li> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a> + <div class="chap-desc"><span class="smcap">Euphuism</span> <span class="page"> 10</span> + <ul class="sections"> + <li><a href="#Section_I_I">Section I.</a> The Anatomy of Euphuism <span class="page"> 13</span></li> + <li><a href="#Section_I_II">Section II.</a> The Origins of Euphuism <span class="page"> 21</span></li> + <li><a href="#Section_I_III">Section III.</a> Lyly's Legatees and the relation between Euphuism and the Renaissance <span class="page"> 43</span></li> + <li><a href="#Section_I_IV">Section IV.</a> The position of Euphuism in the history of English prose <span class="page"> 52</span></li> + </ul></div> + </li> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a> + <div class="chap-desc"><span class="smcap">The First English Novel</span> <span class="page"> 64</span> + <div class="desc">The rise of the Novel—the characteristics of <cite>The + Anatomy of Wit</cite> and <cite>Euphues and his England</cite>—the + Elizabethan Novel.</div> + </div> + </li> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a> + <div class="chap-desc"><span class="smcap">Lyly the Dramatist</span> <span class="page"> 85</span> + <ul class="sections"> + <li><a href="#Section_III_I">Section I.</a> English Comedy before 1580 <span class="page"> 89</span></li> + <li><a href="#Section_III_II">Section II.</a> The Eight Plays <span class="page"> 98</span></li> + <li><a href="#Section_III_III">Section III.</a> Lyly's advance and subsequent influence <span class="page"> 119</span></li> + </ul></div> + </li> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a> + <div class="chap-desc"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span> <span class="page"> 132</span><br/> + <div class="desc">Lyly's Character—Summary.</div> + <div style="white-space: nowrap; padding-top: 1em;"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span> <span class="page"> 143</span></div> + </div></li> +</ul> + + + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1">[1]</a></span> +Since the day when Taine established a scientific +basis for the historical study of Art, criticism has tended +gradually but naturally to fall into two divisions, as distinct +from each other as the functions they respectively +perform are distinct. The one, which we may call +aesthetic criticism, deals with the artist and his works +solely for the purpose of interpretation and appreciation, +judging them according to some artistic standard, which, +as often as not, derives its only sanction from the prejudices +of the critic himself. It is of course obvious that, +until all critics are agreed upon some common principles +of artistic valuation, aesthetic criticism can lay no claim +to scientific precision, but must be classed as a department +of Art itself. The other, an application of the +Darwinian hypothesis to literature, which owes its existence +almost entirely to the great French critic before +mentioned, but which has since rejected as unscientific +many of the laws he formulated, may be called historical +or sociological criticism. It judges a work of art, an +artist, or an artistic period, on its dynamic and not its +intrinsic merits. Its standard is influence, not power or +beauty. It is concerned with the artistic qualities of a +given artist only in so far as he exerts influence over his +successors by those qualities. It is essentially scientific, +for it treats the artist as science treats any other natural +phenomenon, that is, as the effect of previous causes and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +the cause of subsequent effects. Its function is one of +classification, and with interpretation or appreciation it +has nothing to do.</p> + +<p>Before undertaking the study of an artist, the critic +should carefully distinguish between these two critical +methods. A complete study must of course comprehend +both; and in the case of Shakespeare, shall we say, each +should be exhaustive. On the other hand, there are +artists whose dynamical value is far greater than their +intrinsic value, and <em lang="la" xml:lang="la">vice versa</em>; and in such instances the +critic must be guided in his action by the relative importance +of these values in any particular example. This +is so in the case of John Lyly. In the course of the +following treatise we shall have occasion to pass many +aesthetic judgments upon his work; but it will be from +the historical side that we shall view him in the main, +because his importance for the readers of the twentieth +century is almost entirely dynamical. His work is by +no means devoid of aesthetic merit. He was, like so +many of the Elizabethans, a writer of beautiful lyrics +which are well known to this day; but, though the rest +of his work is undoubtedly that of an artist of no mean +ability, the beauty it possesses is the beauty of a fossil in +which few but students would profess any interest. Moreover, +even could we claim more for John Lyly than this, +any aesthetic criticism would of necessity become a +secondary matter in comparison with his importance in +other directions, for to the scientific critic he is or should +be one of the most significant figures in English literature. +This claim I hope to justify in the following pages; but +it will be well, by way of obtaining a broad general view +of our subject, to call attention to a few points upon +which our justification must ultimately rest.</p> + +<p>In the first place John Lyly, inasmuch as he was one +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +of the earliest writers who considered prose as an artistic +end in itself, and not simply as a medium of expression, +may be justly described as a founder, if not <em>the</em> founder, +of English prose style.</p> + +<p>In the second place he was the author of the first +novel of manners in the language.</p> + +<p>And in the third place, and from the point of view of +Elizabethan literature most important of all, he was one +of our very earliest dramatists, and without doubt merits +the title of Father of English Comedy.</p> + +<p>It is almost impossible to over-estimate his historical +importance in these three departments, and this not +because he was a great genius or possessed of any +magnificent artistic gifts, but for the simple reason that +he happened to stand upon the threshold of modern +English literature and at the very entrance to its +splendid Elizabethan ante-room, and therefore all who +came after felt something of his influence. These are +the three chief points of interest about Lyly, but they do +not exhaust the problems he presents. We shall have to +notice also that as a pamphleteer he becomes entangled +in the famous <cite>Marprelate</cite> controversy, and that he was +one of the first, being perhaps even earlier than Marlowe, +to perceive the value of blank verse for dramatic purposes. +Finally, as we have seen, he was the reputed author of +some delightful lyrics.</p> + +<p>The man of whom one can say such things, the man +who showed such versatility and range of expression, the +man who took the world by storm and made euphuism +the fashion at court before he was well out of his nonage, +who for years provided the great Queen with food for +laughter, and who was connected with the first ominous +outburst of the Puritan spirit, surely possesses personal +attractions apart from any literary considerations. We +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +shall presently see reason to believe that his personality +was a brilliant and fascinating one. But such a reconstruction +of the artist<a name="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> is only possible after a thorough +analysis of his works. It would be as well here, however, +by way of obtaining an historical framework for our study, +to give a brief account of his life as it is known to us.</p> + +<p>"Eloquent and witty" John Lyly first saw light in +the year 1553 or 1554<a name="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. Anthony à Wood, the 17th +century author of <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenae Oxonienses</cite>, tells us that he +was, like his contemporary Stephen Gosson, a Kentish +man born<a name="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>; and with this clue to help them both +Mr Bond and Mr Baker are inclined to accept much +of the story of Fidus as autobiographical<a name="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. If their +inference be correct, our author would seem to have +been the son of middle-class, but well-to-do, parents. +But it is with his residence at Oxford that any authentic +account of his life must begin, and even then our information +is very meagre. Wood tells us that he "became a +student in Magdalen College in the beginning of 1569, +aged 16 or thereabouts." "And since," adds Mr Bond, +"in 1574 he describes himself as Burleigh's alumnus, and +owns obligations to him, it is possible that he owed his +university career to Burleigh's assistance<a name="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>." And yet, +limited as our knowledge is, it is possible, I think, to +form a fairly accurate conception of Lyly's manner of +life at Oxford, if we are bold enough to read between +the lines of the scraps of contemporary evidence that +have come down to us. Lyly himself tells us that he +left Oxford for three years not long after his arrival. +"Oxford," he says, "seemed to weane me before she +brought me forth, and to give me boanes to gnawe, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +before I could get the teate to suck. Wherein she played +the nice mother in sending me into the countrie to nurse, +where I tyred at a drie breast for three years and was at +last inforced to weane myself." Mr Bond, influenced by +the high moral tone of <cite>Euphues</cite>, which, as we shall see, +was merely a traditional literary prose borrowed from the +moral court treatise, is anxious to vindicate Lyly from +all charges of lawlessness, and refuses to admit that the +foregoing words refer to rustication<a name="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>. Lyly's enforced +absence he holds was due to the plague which broke out +at Oxford at this time. Such an interpretation seems +to me to be sufficiently disposed of by the fact that the +plague in question did not break out until 1571<a name="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>, while +Lyly's words must refer to a departure (at the very +latest) in 1570. Everything, in fact, goes to show that +he was out of favour with the University authorities. +In the first place he seems to have paid small attention +to his regular studies. To quote Wood again, he was +"always averse to the crabbed studies of Logic and +Philosophy. For so it was that his genie, being naturally +bent to the pleasant paths of poetry (as if Apollo had +given to him a wreath of his own Bays without snatching +or struggling), did in a manner neglect academical studies, +yet not so much but that he took the Degree in Arts, +that of Master being completed in 1575<a name="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>."</p> + +<p>Neglect of the recognised studies, however, was not +the only blot upon Lyly's Oxford life. From the hints +thrown out by his contemporaries, and from some +allusions, doubtless personal, in the <cite>Euphues</cite>, we learn +that, as an undergraduate, he was an irresponsible madcap. +"Esteemed in the University a noted wit," he +would very naturally become the centre of a pleasure-seeking +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +circle of friends, despising the persons and ideas +of their elders, eager to adopt the latest fashion whether +in dress or in thought, and intolerant alike of regulations +and of duty. Gabriel Harvey, who nursed a grudge +against Lyly, even speaks of "horning, gaming, fooling +and knaving," words which convey a distinct sense of +something discreditable, whatever may be their exact +significance. It is necessary to lay stress upon this +period of Lyly's life, because, as I hope to show, his +residence at Oxford, and the friends he made there, had +a profound influence upon his later development, and in +particular determined his literary bent. For our present +purpose, however, which is merely to give a brief sketch +of his life, it is sufficient to notice that our author's +conduct during his residence was not so exemplary as +it might have been. It must, therefore, have called +forth a sigh of relief from the authorities of Magdalen, +when they saw the last of John Lyly, M.A., in 1575. +He however, quite naturally, saw matters otherwise. It +would seem to him that the College was suffering wrong +in losing so excellent a wit, and accordingly he heroically +took steps to prevent such a catastrophe, for in 1576 we +find him writing to his patron Burleigh, requesting him +to procure mandatory letters from the Queen "that so +under your auspices I may be quietly admitted a Fellow +there." The petition was refused, Burleigh's sense of +propriety overcoming his sense of humour, and the +petitioner quitted Oxford, leaving his College the legacy +of an unpaid bill for battels, and probably already preparing +in his brain the revenge, which subsequently took +the form of an attack upon his University in <cite>Euphues</cite>, +which he published in 1578.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to learn that in 1579, according to +the common practice of that day, he proceeded to his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +degree of M.A. at Cambridge, though there is no +evidence of any residence there<a name="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>. Indeed we know +from other sources that in 1578, or perhaps earlier, Lyly +had taken up his position at the Savoy Hospital. It +seems probable that he became again indebted to Burleigh's +generosity for the rooms he occupied here—unless +they were hired for him by Burleigh's son-in-law +Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford. This person, though +few of his writings are now extant, is nevertheless an +interesting figure in Elizabethan literature. The second +part of <cite>Euphues</cite> published in 1580, and the <cite>Hekatompathia</cite> +of Thomas Watson, are both dedicated to him, and he +seems to have acted as patron to most of Lyly's literary +associates when they left Oxford for London. Lyly +became his private secretary; and as the Earl was +himself a dramatist, though his comedies are now lost, +his influence must have confirmed in our author those +dramatic aspirations, which were probably acquired at +Oxford; and we have every reason for believing that +Lyly was still his secretary when he was publishing his +two first plays, <cite>Campaspe</cite> and <cite>Sapho</cite>, in 1584. But this +point will require a fuller treatment at a later stage of +our study.</p> + +<p>Somewhere about 1585 Fate settled once and for all +the lines on which Lyly's genius was to develop, for at +that time he became an assistant master at the St Paul's +Choir School. Schools, and especially those for choristers, +at this time offered excellent opportunities for dramatic +production. Lyly in his new position made good use of +his chance, and wrote plays for his young scholars to act, +drilling them himself, and perhaps frequently appearing +personally on the stage. These chorister-actors were +connected in a very special way with royal entertainments; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +and therefore they and their instructor would be +constantly brought into touch with the Revels' Office. +As we know from his letters to Elizabeth and to Cecil, +the mastership of the Revels was the post Lyly coveted, +and coveted without success, as far as we can tell, until +the end of his life. But these letters also show us that +he was already connected with this office by his position +in the subordinate office of Tents and Toils. The latter, +originally instituted for the purpose of furnishing the +necessaries of royal hunting and campaigning<a name="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>, had apparently +become amalgamated under a female sovereign +with the Revels' Office, possibly owing to the fact that its +costumes and weapons provided useful material for entertainments +and interludes. Another position which, as +Mr Bond shows, was held at one time by Lyly, was that +of reader of new books to the Bishop of London. This +connexion with the censorship of the day is interesting, +as showing how Lyly was drawn into the whirlpool of +the <cite>Marprelate</cite> controversy. Finally we know that he +was elected a member of Parliament on four separate +occasions<a name="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>.</p> + +<p>These varied occupations are proof of the energy +and versatility of our author, but not one of them can +be described as lucrative. Nor can his publications have +brought him much profit; for, though both <cite>Euphues</cite> and +its sequel passed through ten editions before his death, +an author in those days received very little of the proceeds +of his work. Moreover the publication of his plays +is rather an indication of financial distress than a sign of +prosperity. The two dramas already mentioned were +printed before Lyly's connexion with the Choir School; +and, when in 1585 he became "vice-master of Poules +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +and Foolmaster of the Theater," he would be careful to +keep his plays out of the publisher's hands, in order to +preserve the acting monopoly. It is probable that the +tenure of this Actor-manager-schoolmastership marks +the height of Lyly's prosperity, and the inhibition of the +boys' acting rights in 1591 must have meant a severe +financial loss to him. Thus it is only after this date that +he is forced to make what he can by the publication of +his other plays. The fear of poverty was the more +urgent, because he had a wife and family on his hands. +And though Mr Bond believes that he found an occupation +after 1591 in writing royal entertainments, and +though the inhibition on the choristers' acting was removed +as early as 1599, yet the last years of Lyly's life +were probably full of disappointment. This indeed is +confirmed by the bitter tone of his letter to Elizabeth in +1598 in reference to the mastership of the Revels' Office, +which he had at last despaired of. The letter in question +is sad reading. Beginning with a euphuism and ending +in a jest, it tells of a man who still retains, despite all +adversity, a courtly mask and a merry tongue, but +beneath this brave surface there is visible a despair—almost +amounting to anguish—which the forced merriment +only renders more pitiable. And the gloom which +surrounded his last years was not only due to the distress +of poverty. Before his death in 1606 he had seen his +novel eclipsed by the new Arcadian fashion, and had +watched the rise of a host of rival dramatists, thrusting +him aside while they took advantage of his methods. +Greatest of them all, as he must have realised, was +Shakespeare, the sun of our drama before whom the +silver light of his little moon, which had first illumined +our darkness, waned and faded away and was to be for +centuries forgotten.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br/> +<span style="font-size: 80%;">EUPHUISM.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +It was as a novelist that Lyly first came before the +world of English letters. In 1578 he published a volume, +bearing the inscription, <cite>Euphues: the anatomy of wyt</cite>, +to which was subjoined the attractive advertisement, +<q>very pleasant for all gentlemen to reade, and most necessary +to remember</q>. This book, which was to work a revolution +in our literature, was completed in 1580 by a sequel, +entitled <cite>Euphues and his England</cite>. <cite>Euphues</cite>, to combine +the two parts under one name, the fruit of Lyly's nonage, +seems to have determined the form of his reputation +for the Elizabethans; and even to-day it attracts more +attention than any other of his works. This probably +implies a false estimate of Lyly's comparative merits as +a novelist and as a dramatist. But it is not surprising +that critics, living in the century of the novel, and +with their eyes towards the country pre-eminent in its +production, should think and write of Lyly chiefly as +the first of English novelists. The bias of the age is as +natural and as dangerous an element in criticism as the +bias of the individual. But it is not with the modern +appraisement of <cite>Euphues</cite> that we are here concerned. +Nor need we proceed immediately to a consideration +of its position in the history of the English novel. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +We have first to deal with its Elizabethan reputation. +Had <cite>Euphues</cite> been a still-born child of Lyly's genius, +had it produced no effect upon the literature of the age, +it would possess nothing but a purely archaeological +interest for us to-day. It would still be the first of +English novels: but this claim would lose half its +significance, did it not carry with it the implication that +the book was also the origin of English novel writing. +The importance, therefore, of <cite>Euphues</cite> is not so much +that it was primary, as that it was primordial; and, to +be such, it must have laid its spell in some way or other +upon succeeding writers. Our first task is therefore to +enquire what this spell was, and to discover whether the +attraction of <cite>Euphues</cite> must be ascribed to Lyly's own +invention or to artifices which he borrows from others.</p> + +<p>While, as I have said, Lyly's name is associated with +the novel by most modern critics, it has earned a more +widespread reputation among the laity for affectation +and mannerisms of style. Indeed, until fifty years ago, +Lyly spelt nothing but euphuism, and euphuism meant +simply nonsense, clothed in bombast. It was a blind +acceptance of these loose ideas which led Sir Walter +Scott to create (as a caricature of Lyly) his Sir Piercie +Shafton in <cite>The Monastery</cite>—an historical <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faux pas</em> for +which he has been since sufficiently called to account. +Nevertheless Lyly's reputation had a certain basis of +fact, and we may trace the tradition back to Elizabethan +days. It is perhaps worth pointing out that, had we +no other evidence upon the subject, the survival of this +tradition would lead us to suppose that it was Lyly's +style more than anything else which appealed to the +men of his day. A contemporary confirmation of this +may be found in the words of William Webbe. Writing +in 1586 of the "great good grace and sweet vogue which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +Eloquence hath attained in our Speeche," he declares +that the English language has thus progressed, "because +it hath had the helpe of such rare and singular wits, as +from time to time myght still adde some amendment to +the same. Among whom I think there is none that will +gainsay, but Master John Lyly hath deservedly moste +high commendations, as he hath stept one steppe further +therein than any either before or since he first began the +wyttie discourse of his <cite>Euphues</cite>, whose works, surely in +respect of his singular eloquence and brave composition +of apt words and sentences, let the learned examine and +make tryall thereof, through all the parts of Rethoricke, +in fitte phrases, in pithy sentences, in galant tropes, in +flowing speeche, in plaine sense, and surely in my +judgment, I think he wyll yeelde him that verdict which +Quintillian giveth of both the best orators Demosthenes +and Tully, that from the one, nothing may be taken +away, to the other nothing may be added<a name="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>." After such +eulogy, the description of Lyly by another writer as +"alter Tullius anglorum" will not seem strange. These +praises were not the extravagances of a few uncritical +admirers; they echo the verdict of the age. Lyly's +enthronement was of short duration—a matter of some +ten years—but, while it lasted, he reigned supreme. +Such literary idolatries are by no means uncommon, +and often hold their ground for a considerable period. +Beside the vogue of Waller, for example, the duration +of Lyly's reputation was comparatively brief. More +than a century after the publication of his poems, +Waller was hailed by the Sidney Lee of the day in the +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biographia Britannica</cite> of 1766, as "the most celebrated +Lyric Poet that England ever produced." Whence +comes this striking contrast between past glory and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +present neglect? How is it that a writer once known +as the greatest master of English prose, and a poet once +named the most conspicuous of English lyrists, are now +but names? They have not faded from memory owing +to a mere caprice of fashion. Great artists are subject +to an ebb and flow of popularity, for which as yet no +tidal theory has been offered as an explanation; but +like the sea they are ever permanent. The case of our +two writers is different. The wheel of time will never +bring <cite>Euphues</cite> and <cite>Sacharissa</cite> "to their own again." +They are as dead as the Jacobite cause. And for that +very reason they are all the more interesting for the +literary historian. All writers are conditioned by their +environment, but some concern themselves with the +essentials, others with the accidents, of that internally +constant, but externally unstable, phenomenon, known +as humanity. Waller and Lyly were of the latter class. +Like jewels suitable to one costume only, they remained +in favour just as long as the fashion that created them +lasted. Waller was probably inferior to Lyly as an +artist, but he happened to strike a vein which was not +exhausted until the end of the 18th century; while the +vogue of <cite>Euphues</cite>, though at first far-reaching, was soon +crossed by new artificialities such as arcadianism. The +secret of Waller's influence was that he stereotyped a +new poetic form, a form which, in its restraint and +precision, was exactly suited to the intellect of the +<em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ancien régime</em> with its craving for form and its contempt +for ideas. The mainspring of Lyly's popularity was +that he did in prose what Waller did in poetry.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_I_I">Section I.</a></span> <i>The Anatomy of Euphuism.</i></h3> + +<p>The books which have been written upon the characteristics +of Lyly's prose are numberless, and far outweigh +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +the attention given to his power as a novelist, to say +nothing of his dramas<a name="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>. Indeed the absorption of the +critics in the analysis of euphuism seems to have been, +up to a few years ago, definitely injurious to a true +appreciation of our author's position, by blocking the +path to a recognition of his importance in other directions. +And yet, in spite of all this, it cannot be said +that any adequate examination of the structure of Lyly's +style appeared until Mr Child took the matter in hand +in 1894<a name="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>. And Mr Child has performed his task so +scientifically and so exhaustively that he has killed the +topic by making any further treatment of it superfluous. +This being the case, a description of the euphuistic style +need not detain us for long. I shall content myself with +the briefest summary of its characteristics, drawing upon +Mr Child for my matter, and referring those who are +desirous of further details to Mr Child's work itself. +We shall then be in a position to proceed to the more +interesting, and as yet unsettled problem, of the origins +of euphuism. The great value of Mr Child's work lies +in the fact that he has at once simplified and amplified +the conclusions of previous investigators. Dr Weymouth<a name="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +was the first to discover that, beneath the "curtizan-like +painted affectation" of euphuism, there lay a definite +theory of style and a consistent method of procedure. +Dr Landmann carried the analysis still further in his +now famous paper published in the <cite>New Shakespeare +Society's Transactions</cite> (1880–82). But these two, and +those who have followed them, have erred, on the one +hand in implying that euphuism was much more complex +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +than it is in reality, and on the other by confining their +attention to single sentences, and so failing to perceive +that the euphuistic method was applicable to the paragraph, +as a whole, no less than to the sentence. And it +is upon these two points that Mr Child's essay is so +specially illuminating. We shall obtain a correct notion +of the "essential character" of the "euphuistic rhetoric," +he writes, "if we observe that it employs but one simple +principle in practice, and that it applies this, not only to +the ordering of the single sentence, but in every structural +relation<a name="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>": and this simple principle is "the inducement +of artificial emphasis through Antithesis and Repetition—Antithesis +to give pointed expression to the thought, +Repetition to enforce it<a name="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>." When Lyly set out to write +his novel, it seemed that his intention was to produce +a most elaborate essay in antithesis. The book as a +whole, "very pleasant for all gentlemen to read and +most necessary to remember," was itself an antithesis; +the discourses it contains were framed upon the same +plan; the sentences are grouped antithetically; while +the antithesis is pointed by an equally elaborate repetition +of ideas, of vowel sounds and of consonant sounds. +Letters, syllables, words, sentences, sentence groups, +paragraphs, all are employed for the purpose of producing +the antithetical style now known as euphuism. +An example will serve to make the matter clearer. +Philautus, upbraiding his treacherous friend Euphues +for robbing him of his lady's love, delivers himself of +the following speech: "Although hitherto Euphues +I have shrined thee in my heart for a trusty friend, +I will shunne thee hereafter as a trothless foe, and +although I cannot see in thee less wit than I was wont, +yet do I find less honesty. I perceive at the last +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +(although being deceived it be too late) that musk +though it be sweet in the smell is sour in the smack, +that the leaf of the cedar tree though it be fair to be +seen, yet the syrup depriveth sight—that friendship +though it be plighted by the shaking of the hand, yet +it is shaken by the fraud of the heart. But thou hast +not much to boast of, for as thou hast won a fickle lady, +so hast thou lost a faithful friend<a name="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>." It is impossible to +give an adequate idea of the euphuistic style save in +a lengthy quotation, such as the discourse of Eubulus +selected by Mr Child for that purpose<a name="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>; but, within the +narrow limits of the passage I have chosen, the main +characteristics of euphuism are sufficiently obvious. It +should be noticed how one part of a sentence is balanced +by another part, and how this balance or "parallelism" +is made more pointed by means of alliteration, e.g. +"shrined thee for a trusty friend," "shun thee as a trothless +foe"; musk "sweet in the smell," "sour in the +smack," and so on. The former of these antitheses is +an example of transverse alliteration, of which so much +is made by Dr Landmann, but which, as Mr Child shows, +plays a subordinate, and an entirely mechanical, part in +Lyly's style<a name="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>. Lyly's most natural and most usual +method of emphasizing is by means of simple alliteration. +On the other hand it must be noticed that he +employs alliteration for the sake of euphony alone +much more frequently than he uses it for the purpose +of emphasis. So that we may conclude by saying that +simple alliteration forms the basis of the euphuistic +diction, just as we have seen antithesis forms the basis +of the euphuistic construction. This brief survey of the +framework of euphuism is far from being an exhaustive +analysis. All that is here attempted is an enumeration +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +of the most obvious marks of euphuism, as a necessary +step to an investigation of its origin, and to a determination +of its place in the history of our literature.</p> + +<p>Before, however, leaving the subject entirely, we must +mention two more characteristics of Lyly's prose which +are very noticeable, but which come under the head +of ornamental, rather than constructional, devices. The +first of these is a peculiar use of the rhetorical interrogation. +Lyly makes use of it when he wishes to portray +his characters in distress or excitement, and it most frequently +occurs in soliloquies. Sometimes we find a string +of these interrogations, at others they are answered by +sentences beginning "ay but," and occasionally we have +the "ay but" sentence with the preceding interrogation +missing. I make a special mention of this point, as we +shall find it has a certain connexion with the subject of +the origins of euphuism.</p> + +<p>The other ornamental device is one which has +attracted a considerable quantity of attention from +critics, and has frequently been taken by itself as the +distinguishing mark of euphuism. In point of fact, however, +the euphuists shared it with many other writers of +their age, though it is doubtful whether anyone carried +it to such extravagant lengths as Lyly. It took the +form of illustrations and analogies, so excessive and overwhelming +that it is difficult to see how even the idlest +lady of Elizabeth's court found time or patience to wade +through them. They consist first of anecdotes and allusions +relating to historical or mythological persons of the +ancient world; some being drawn from Plutarch, Pliny, +Ovid, Virgil, and other sources, but many springing simply +from Lyly's exuberant fancy. In the second place <cite>Euphues</cite> +is a collection of similes borrowed from "a fantastical +natural history, a sort of mythology of plants and stones, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +to which the most extraordinary virtues are attributed<a name="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>." +"I have heard," says Camilla, bashfully excusing herself +for taking up the cudgels of argument with the learned +Surius, "that the Tortoise in India when the sunne +shineth, swimmeth above the water wyth hyr back, and +being delighted with the fine weather, forgetteth her +selfe until the heate of the sunne so harden her shell, +that she cannot sink when she woulde, whereby she is +caught. And so it may fare with me that in this good +companye displaying my minde, having more regard to +my delight in talking, than to the ears of the hearers, I +forget what I speake, and so be taken in something +I would not utter, which happilye the itchyng ears of +young gentlemen would so canvas that when I would +call it in, I cannot, and so be caught with the Tortoise, +when I would not<a name="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>." And, when she had finished her +discourse, Surius again employs the simile for the purpose +of turning a neat compliment, saying, "Lady, if the Tortoise +you spoke of in India were as cunning in swimming, +as you are in speaking, she would neither fear the heate +of the sunne nor the ginne of the Fisher." This is but a +mild example of the "unnatural natural philosophy" +which <cite>Euphues</cite> has made famous. An unending procession +of such similes, often of the most extravagant +nature, runs throughout the book, and sometimes the +development of the plot is made dependent on them. +Thus Lucilla hesitates to forsake Philautus for Euphues, +because she feels that her new lover will remember "that +the glasse once chased will with the least clappe be +cracked, that the cloth which stayneth with milke will +soon loose his coulour with Vinegar; that the eagle's +wing will waste the feather as well as of the Phoenix as +of the Pheasant: and that she that hath become faithlesse +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +to one, will never be faithfull to any<a name="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>." What proof +could be more exact, what better example could be given +of the methods of concomitant variations? It is precisely +the same logical process which induces the savage +to wreak his vengeance by melting a waxen image of his +enemy, and the farmer to predict a change of weather at +the new moon.</p> + +<p>Lyly, however, was not concerned with making +philosophical generalizations, or scientific laws, about +the world in general. His natural, or unnatural, phenomena +were simply saturated with moral significance: +not that he saw any connexion between the ethical process +and the cosmic process, but, like every one of his +contemporaries, he employed the facts of animal and +vegetable life to point a moral or to help out a sermon. +The arguments he used appear to us puerile in their old-world +dress, and yet similar ones are to be heard to-day +in every pulpit where a smattering of science is used to +eke out a poverty of theology. And, to be fair, such +reasoning is not confined to pulpits. Even so eminent +a writer as Mr Edward Carpenter has been known to +moralize on the habits of the wild mustard, irresistibly +reminding us of the "Camomill which the more it is +trodden and pressed down the more it speedeth<a name="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>." Moreover +the <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">soi-disant</em> founder of the inductive method, the +great Bacon himself, is, as Liebig<a name="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> shows in his amusing +and interesting study of the renowned "scientist's" +scientific methods, tarred with the same mediaeval +brush, and should be ranked with Lyly and the other +Elizabethan "scholastics" rather than with men like +Harvey and Newton.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +Lyly's natural history was at any rate the result of +learning; many of his "facts" were drawn from Pliny, +while others were to be found in the plentiful crop of +mediaeval bestiaries, which, as Professor Raleigh remarks, +"preceded the biological hand-books." Perhaps also we +must again allow something for Lyly's invention; for +lists of authorities, and footnotes indicative of sources, +were not demanded of the scientist of those days, and +one can thoroughly sympathise with an author who +found an added zest in inventing the facts upon which +his theories rested. Have not ethical philosophers of all +ages been guilty of it? Certainly Gabriel Harvey seems +to be hinting at Lyly when he slyly remarks: "I could +name a party, that in comparison of his own inventions, +termed Pliny a barren wombe<a name="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>."</p> + +<p>The affectations we have just enumerated are much +less conspicuous in the second part of <cite>Euphues</cite> than in +the first, and, though they find a place in his earlier +plays, Lyly gradually frees himself from their influence, +owing perhaps to the decline of the euphuistic fashion, +but more probably to the growth of his dramatic instinct, +which saw that such forms were a drag upon the action +of a play. And yet at times Lyly could use his clumsy +weapon with great precision and effect. How admirably, +for example, does he express in his antithetical fashion +the essence of coquetry. Iffida, speaking to Fidus of one +she loved but wished to test, is made to say, "I seem +straight-laced as one neither accustomed to such suites, +nor willing to entertain such a servant, yet so warily, as +putting him from me with my little finger, I drewe him +to me with my whole hand<a name="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>." Other little delicate turns +of phrase may be found in the mine of <cite>Euphues</cite>—for the +digging. Our author was no genius, but he had a full +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +measure of that indefinable quality known as wit; and, +though the stylist's mask he wears is uncouth and rigid, +it cannot always conceal the twinkle of his eyes. Moreover +a certain weariness of this sermonizing on the stilts +of antithesis is often visible; and we may suspect that +he half sympathises with the petulant exclamation of +the sea-sick Philautus to his interminable friend:</p> + +<p>"In fayth, Euphues, thou hast told a long tale, the +beginning I have forgotten, ye middle I understand not, +and the end hangeth not well together<a name="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>"; and with this +piece of self-criticism we may leave Lyly for the present +and turn to his predecessors.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_I_II">Section II.</a></span> <i>The Origins of Euphuism.</i></h3> + +<p>When we pass from an analytical to an historical +consideration of the style which Lyly made his own and +stamped for ever with the name of his hero, we come +upon a problem which is at once the most difficult and +the most fascinating with which we have to deal. The +search for a solution will lead us far afield; but, inasmuch +as the publication and success of <cite>Euphues</cite> have +given euphuism its importance in the history of our +literature, the digression, which an attempt to trace the +origin of euphuism will necessitate, can hardly be considered +outside the scope of this book. Critics have long +since decided that the peculiar style, which we have just +dissolved into its elements, was not the invention of +Lyly's genius; but on the other hand, no critic, in my +opinion, has as yet solved the problem of origins with +any claim to finality. Perhaps a tentative solution is all +that is possible in the present stage of our knowledge. +It is, of course, easy to point to the book or books from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +which Lyly borrowed, and to dismiss the question thus. +But this simply evades the whole issue; for, though it +explains <cite>Euphues</cite>, it by no means explains euphuism. +Equally unsatisfactory is the theory that euphuism was +of purely Spanish origin. Such a solution has all the +fascination, and all the dangers, which usually attend a +simple answer to a complex question. The idea that +euphuism was originally an article of foreign production +was first set on foot by Dr Landmann. The real father +of Lyly's style, he tells us, was Antonio de Guevara, +bishop of Guadix, who published in 1529 a book, the +title of which was as follows: <cite>The book of the emperor +Marcus Aurelius with a Diall for princes</cite>. This book +was translated into English in 1534 by Lord Berners, +and again in 1557 by Sir Thomas North; in both cases +from a French version. The two translations are conveniently +distinguished by their titles, that of Berners +being <cite>The Golden Boke</cite>, that of North being <cite>The Diall of +Princes</cite>. Dr Landmann is very positive with regard to +his theory, but the fact that both translations come from +the French and not from the Castilian, seems to me to +constitute a serious drawback to its acceptance. And +moreover this theory does not explain the really important +crux of the whole matter, namely the reason +why a style of this kind, whatever its origin, found a +ready acceptance in England: for fourteen editions of +<cite>The Golden Boke</cite> are known between 1534 and 1588, a +number for those days quite exceptional and showing +the existence of an eager public. Two answers are +possible to the last question; that there existed a large +body of men in the England of the Tudors who were +interested in Spanish literature of all kinds and in +Guevara among others; and that the euphuistic style +was already forming in England, and that this was the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +reason of Guevara's popularity. In both answers I think +there is truth; and I hope to show that they give us, +when combined, a fairly adequate explanation of the +vogue of euphuism in our country. Let us deal with +external influences first.</p> + +<p>The upholders of the Spanish theory have contented +themselves with stating that Lyly borrowed from +Guevara, and pointing out the parallels between the two +writers. But it is possible to give their case a greater +plausibility, by showing that Guevara was no isolated +instance of such Spanish influence, and by proving that +during the Tudor period there was a consistent and +far-reaching interest in Spanish literature among a +certain class of Englishmen. Intimacy with Spain dates +from Henry VIII.'s marriage with Katherine of Aragon, +though no Spanish book had actually been translated +into English before her divorce. But the period from +then onwards until the accession of James I., a period +when Spain looms as largely in English politics as does +France later, saw the publication in London of "some +hundred and seventy volumes written either by peninsular +authors, or in the peninsular tongues<a name="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>." At such a time +this number represents a very considerable influence; +and it is, therefore, no wonder that critics have fallen +victims to the allurements of a theory which would +ascribe Spanish origins for all the various prose epidemics +of Elizabethan literature. To pair Lyly with Guevara, +Sidney with Montemayor<a name="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>, and Nash with Mendoza, and +thus to point at Spain as the parent, not only of the +euphuistic, but also of the pastoral and picaresque romance, +is to furnish an explanation almost irresistible in its +symmetry. It must have been with the joy of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +mathematician, solving an intricate problem, that +Dr Landmann formulated this theory of literary equations. +But without going to such lengths, without +pressing the connexion between particular writers, one +may admit that in general Spanish literature must +have exercised an influence upon the Elizabethans. +Mr Underhill, our latest authority on the subject, allows +this, while at the same time cautioning us against the +dangers of over-estimating it. Any contact on the side +of the lyric and the drama was, he declares, very slight<a name="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>, +and the peninsular writings actually circulated in our +country at this time, in translations, he divides into three +classes; occasional literature, that is topical tracts and +pamphlets on contemporary Spanish affairs; didactic +literature, comprising scientific treatises, accounts of +voyages such as inspired Hakluyt, works on military +science, and, more important still, the religious writings +of mystics like Granada; and lastly artistic prose. The +last item, which alone concerns us, is by far the smallest +of the three, and by itself amounts to less than half the +translations from Italian literature; moreover most of +the Spanish translations under this head came into +England after 1580, and could not therefore have +influenced Lyly's novel. But of course the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite> +had been englished long before this, while the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Lazarillo +de Tórmes</cite>, Mendoza's<a name="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> picaresque romance, was given +an English garb by Rowland in 1576, and, though +Montemayor's <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Diana</cite> was not translated until 1596, +Spanish and French editions of it had existed in England +long previous to that date. Perhaps most important +of all was the famous realistic novel <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Celestina</cite>, which was +well known, in a French translation, to Englishmen at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +the beginning of the 16th century, and was denounced +by Vives at Oxford. It was actually translated into +English as early as 1530<a name="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>. There was on the whole, +therefore, quite an appreciable quantity of Spanish +artistic literature circulating in England before <cite>Euphues</cite> +saw the light.</p> + +<p>This literary invasion will seem perfectly natural +if we bear in mind the political conditions of the day. +Under Mary, England had been all but a Spanish +dependency, and, though in the next reign, she threw +off the yoke, the antagonism which existed probably +acted as an even greater literary stimulus than the +former alliance. Throughout the whole of Elizabeth's +rule, the English were continually coming into contact +with the Spaniards, either in trade, in ecclesiastical +matters, in politics, or in actual warfare; and again the +magnificence of the great Spanish empire, and the +glamour which surrounded its connexion with the new +world, were very attractive to the Englishmen of +Elizabeth's day, especially as they were desirous of +emulating the achievements of Spain. And lastly +it may be noticed that English and Spanish conditions +of intellectual life, if we shut our eyes to the religious +differences, were very similar at this time. Both countries +had replaced a shattered feudal system by an absolute +and united monarchy. Both countries owed an immense +debt to Italy, and, in both, the Italian influence took +a similar form, modified on the one hand by humanism, +and on the other by feelings of patriotism, if not of +imperialism. Spain and England took the Renaissance +fever more coldly, and at the same time more seriously, +than did Italy. And in both the new movement eventually +assumed the character of intellectual asceticism +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +moulded by the sombre hand of religious fanaticism; +for Spain was the cradle of the Counter-Reformation, +England of Puritanism.</p> + +<p>Leaving the general issue, let us now try to establish +a partial connexion between our author, or at least his +surroundings, and Spanish influences. And here I think +a suggestive, if not a strong case, can be made out. +Ever since the beginning of the 16th century a Spanish +tradition had existed at Oxford. Vives, the Spanish +humanist, and the friend of Erasmus, was in 1517 +admitted Fellow of Corpus Christi College, and in 1523 +became reader in rhetoric; and, though he was banished +in 1528, at the time of the divorce, it seems that he was +continually lecturing before the University during the +five years of his residence there. The circle of his friends, +though quite distinct from the contemporary Berners-Guevara +group, included many interesting men, and +among others the famous Sir John Cheke. Under Mary +we naturally find two Spanish professors at Oxford, +Pedro de Soto and Juan de Villa Garcia. But Elizabeth +maintained the tradition; and in 1559 she offered a +chair at Oxford to a Spanish Protestant, Guerrero. +The important name, however, in our connexion is +Antonio de Corro, who resided as a student at Christ +Church from 1575 to 1585, thus being a contemporary +of Lyly, though it is impossible to say whether they +were acquainted or not. Lyly had, however, another +Oxford contemporary who certainly took a keen interest +in Spanish literature, possessing a knowledge of Castilian, +though himself an Englishman. This was Hakluyt, who +must have been known to Lyly; and for the following +reason. In 1597 Henry Lok<a name="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> published a volume of +religious poems to which Lyly contributed commendatory +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +verses. On the other hand Hakluyt's first book +was supplemented by a woodcut map executed by his +friend Michael Lok<a name="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>, brother of Thomas Lok the Spanish +merchant, and uncle to the aforesaid Henry. It seems +highly improbable, therefore, that Lyly and Hakluyt +possessing these common friends could have remained +unknown to each other at Oxford. Indeed we may feel +justified in supposing that Hakluyt, Sidney, Carew, Lyly, +Thomas Lodge, and Thomas Rogers (the translator of +<cite>Estella</cite>) were all personally acquainted, if not intimate, +at the University. Another and very important name +may be added to this list, that of Stephen Gosson, who, +"a Kentish man born" like our hero, and entering +Oxford a year after him (in 1572), must, I feel sure, +have been one of his friends. The fact that he was +at first interested in acting, and is said to have written +comedies, goes a long way to confirm this. We are also +led to suppose that he had devoted some attention to +Spanish literature, and that he was probably acquainted +with Hakluyt and the Loks, from certain verses of his, +printed at the end of Thomas Nicholas' <cite>Pleasant History +of the Conquest of West India</cite>, a translation of Cortes' +book published in 1578<a name="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>. Taking all this into consideration, +it is extremely interesting to find Gosson publishing +in 1579 his famous <cite>Schoole of Abuse</cite>, which bears +most of the distinguishing marks of euphuism already +noted, but which can scarcely have been modelled upon +Lyly's work; for as Professor Saintsbury writes: "the +very short interval between the appearance of <cite>Euphues</cite> +and the <cite>Schoole of Abuse</cite>, shows that he must rather +have mastered the Lylian style in the same circumstances +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +and situations as Lyly than have directly borrowed it +from his fellow at Oxford<a name="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>." And moreover Gosson's +style does not read like an imitation of Lyly. The +same tricks and affectations are employed, but they are +employed differently and perhaps more effectively.</p> + +<p>Lyly is again found in contact with the Spanish atmosphere, +as one of the dependents of the Earl of Oxford, +who patronized Robert Baker, George Baker, and +Anthony Munday, who were all under the "spell of the +peninsula<a name="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>." But we cannot be certain when his relations +with de Vere commenced, and unless we can feel sure +that they had begun before the writing of <cite>Euphues</cite>, the +point is not of importance for our present argument.</p> + +<p>These facts are of course little more than hints, but +I think they are sufficient to establish a fairly strong +probability that Lyly was one of a literary set at Oxford +(as I have already suggested in dealing with his life) the +members of which were especially interested in Spanish +literature, perhaps through the influence of Corro. It +seems extremely improbable that Lyly himself possessed +any knowledge of Castilian, and it is by no means necessary +to show that he did, for it is quite sufficient to point +out that he must have been continually in the presence +of those who were discussing peninsular writings, and +that in this way he would have come to a knowledge of +the most famous Spanish book which had yet received +translation, the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite> of Guevara.</p> + +<p>But we are still left with the question on our hands; +why was this book the most famous peninsular production +of Lyly's day? It is a question which no critic, +as far as I am aware, has ever formulated, and yet it +seems endowed with the greatest importance. We have +seen how and why Spanish literature in general found +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +a reception in England. But the special question as to +the ascendancy of Guevara obviously requires a special +answer. Guevara was of course well known all over the +continent, and it might seem that this was a sufficient +explanation of his popularity in England. In reality, +however, such an explanation is no solution at all, it +merely widens the issue; for we are still left asking for +a reason of his continental fame. The problem requires +a closer investigation than it has at present received. +It was undoubtedly Guevara's <em lang="es" xml:lang="es">alto estilo</em> which gave his +writings their chief attraction; and a style so elaborate +would only find a reception in a favourable atmosphere, +that is among those who had already gone some way +towards the creation of a similar style themselves. +<em lang="la" xml:lang="la">A priori</em> therefore the answer to our question would be +that Guevara was no isolated stylist, but only the most +famous example of a literary phase, which had its +independent representatives all over Europe. A consideration +of English prose under the Tudors will, +I think, fully confirm this conclusion as far as our own +country is concerned, and it will also offer us an explanation, +in terms of internal development, of the origin +and sources of euphuism.</p> + +<p>We have noticed with suspicion that our two translators +took their Guevara from the French. And it is +therefore quite legitimate to suppose that Berners and +North, separated as they were from the original, were as +much creators as translators of the euphuistic style. But +there are other circumstances connected with Berners, +which are much more fatal to Dr Landmann's theory +than this. In the first place it appears that the part +played by Berners in the history of euphuism has been +considerably under-estimated. Mr Sidney Lee was the +first to combat the generally accepted view in a criticism +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +of Mrs Humphry Ward's article on <cite>Euphuism</cite> in the +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Encyclopaedia Britannica</cite>, in which she follows Dr Landmann. +His criticism, which appeared in the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenæum</cite>, +was afterwards enlarged in an appendix to his edition +of Berners' translation of <cite>Huon of Bordeaux</cite>. "Lord +Berners' sentences," Mr Lee writes, "are euphuistic +beyond all question; they are characterized by the +forced antitheses, alliteration, and the far-fetched illustrations +from natural phenomena, peculiar to Lyly and +his successors<a name="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>." He denies, moreover, that Berners +was any less euphuistic than North, and gives parallel +extracts from their translations to prove this. A comparison +of the two passages in question can leave no +doubt that Mr Lee's deduction is correct. Mr Bond +therefore is in grave error when he writes, "North +endeavoured what Berners had not aimed at, to reproduce +in his Diall the characteristics of Guevara's style, +with the notable addition of an alliteration natural to +English but not to Spanish; and it is he who must be +regarded as the real founder of our euphuistic literary +fashion<a name="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>." Lyly may indeed have borrowed from North +rather than from Berners; but, if Berners' English was +as euphuistic as North's, and if Berners could show +fourteen editions to North's two before 1580, it is +Berners and not North who must be described as "the +real founder of our euphuistic literary fashion." And +as Mr Lee shows, his nephew Sir Francis Bryan must +share the title with him, for the colophon of the <cite>Golden +Boke</cite> states that the translation was undertaken "at the +instaunt desire of his nevewe Sir Francis Bryan Knyghte." +It was Bryan also who wrote the passage at the +conclusion of the <cite>Boke</cite> applauding the "swete style<a name="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>." +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +This Sir Francis Bryan was a favourite of Henry VIII., +a friend of Surrey and Wyatt, possibly of Ascham and +of his master Cheke, in fact a very well-known figure at +court and in the literary circles of his day<a name="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>. Euphuism +must, therefore, have had a considerable vogue even in +the days of Henry VIII. If it could be shown that +Bryan could read Castilian, the Guevara theory might +still possess some plausibility, for it would be argued +that Berners learnt his style from his nephew. But, +though we know Bryan to have entertained a peculiar +affection for Guevara's writings, there is no evidence to +prove that he could read them in the original. Indeed +when he set himself to translate Guevara's <cite>Dispraise of +the life of a courtier</cite>, he, like his uncle, had to go to a +French translation<a name="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>. Wherever we turn, in fact, we are +met by this French barrier between Guevara and his +English translators, which seems to preclude the possibility +of his style having exercised the influence ascribed +to it by Dr Landmann and those who follow him.</p> + +<p>But there is more behind: and we cannot help feeling +convinced that the facts we are now about to bring +forward ought to dispose of the Landmann-Guevara +theory once and for all. In the article before mentioned +Mr Lee goes on to say: "The translator's prologue to +Lord Berners' <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite> written in 1524 and that to be +found in other of his works show him to have come +under Guevara's or a similar influence before he translated +the <cite>Golden Boke</cite><a name="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>." Here is an extract from the +prologue in question. "The most profitable thing in this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +world for the institution of the human life is history. +Once the continual reading thereof maketh young men +equal in prudence to old men, and to old fathers striken +in age it ministereth experience of things. More it +yieldeth private persons worthy of dignity, rule and +governance: it compelleth the emperors, high rulers, +and governors to do noble deeds to the end they may +obtain immortal glory: it exciteth, moveth and stirreth +the strong, hardy warriors, for the great laud that they +have after they lie dead, promptly to go in hand with +great and hard perils in defence of their country: and it +prohibiteth reproveable persons to do mischievous deeds +for fear of infamy and shame. So thus through the +monuments of writing which is the testimony unto virtue +many men have been moved, some to build cities, some +to devise and establish laws right, profitable, necessary +and behoveful for the human life, some other to find new +arts, crafts and sciences, very requisite to the use of +mankind. But above all things, whereby man's wealth +riseth, special laud and praise ought to be given to +history: it is the keeper of such things as have been +virtuously done, and the witness of evil deeds, and by +the benefit of history all noble, high and virtuous acts be +immortal. What moved the strong and fierce Hercules +to enterprise in his life so many great incomparable +labours and perils? Certainly nought else but that for +his great merit immortality might be given him of all +folk.… Why moved and stirred Phalerius the King +Ptolemy oft and diligently to read books? Forsooth +for no other cause but that those things are found written +in books that the friends dare not show to the prince<a name="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>." +This is of course far from being the full-blown euphuism +of Lyly or Pettie, yet we cannot but agree with Mr Lee, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +when he declares that "the parallelism of the sentences, +the repetition of the same thought differently expressed, +the rhetorical question, the accumulation of synonyms, +the classical references, are irrefutable witnesses to the +presence of euphuism<a name="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>." But Mr Lee appeared to be +quite unconscious of the full significance of his discovery. +<em>It means that Berners was writing euphuism in 1524, five +years before Guevara published his book in Spain.</em> No +critic, as far as I have been able to discover, has shown +any consciousness of this significant fact<a name="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>, which is of +course of the utmost importance in this connexion; as, if +it is to carry all the weight that is at first sight due to it, +the theory that euphuism was a mere borrowing from +the Spanish must be pronounced entirely exploded. +But it is as well not to be over-confident. Guevara's +<cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite>, his earliest work, was undoubtedly first +published by his authority in 1529, but there seems to be +a general feeling that the book had previously appeared +in pirated form. This feeling is based upon the title of +the 1529 edition<a name="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>, which describes the book as "<q lang="es" xml:lang="es">nueuamente +reuisto por su señoria</q>," and upon certain remarks +of Hallam in his <cite>Literature of Europe</cite>. Though I can +find no confirmation for the statements he makes upon +the authority of a certain Dr West of Dublin, yet the +words of so well known a writer cannot be ignored. He +quotes Dr West in a footnote as follows: "There are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +some circumstances connected with the <cite>Relox</cite> (i.e. the +sub-title of the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite>) not generally known, which +satisfactorily account for various erroneous statements +that have been made on the subject by writers of high +authority. The fact is that Guevara, about the year 1518, +commenced a life and letters of M. Aurelius which purported +to be a translation of a Greek work found in +Florence. Having sometime afterwards lent this MS. to +the emperor it was surreptitiously copied and printed, as +he informs us himself, first in Seville and afterwards in +Portugal.… Guevara himself subsequently published it +(1529) with considerable additions<a name="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>." From this it appears +that previous unauthorised editions of Guevara's +book had been published before 1529. Might not +Berners therefore have come under Guevara's influence +as early as 1524? We must concede that it is possible, +but, on the other hand, the difficulties in the way of such +a contingency seem almost insuperable. In the first place, +if we are to believe Dr West, Guevara did not begin to +write his work before 1518, and it was not until "some +time afterwards" (whatever this may mean) that it was +"surreptitiously copied and printed." It would require +a bold man to assert that a book thus published could +be influencing the style of an English writer as early as +1524. But further it must be remembered that Berners +almost certainly could not read Castilian<a name="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>. Now the +earliest known French translation of Guevara is one by +Réné Bertaut in 1531, which Berners himself is known +to have used<a name="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>. Therefore, if Berners was already under +Guevara's influence in 1524, he must have known of an +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +earlier French pirated translation of an earlier pirated +edition of the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite>. To sum up; if the euphuistic +tendency in English prose is to be ascribed entirely, or +even mainly, to the influence of Guevara's <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite>, +we must digest four improbabilities: (i) that there existed +a pirated edition of the book in Spain <em>earlier</em> than 1524: +(ii) that this had been translated into French, also before +1524, although the version of Bertaut in 1531 is the +earliest French translation we have any trace of: (iii) that +Berners himself had come across this hypothetical French +edition, again before 1524: and (iv) that the French +translation had so faithfully reproduced the style of the +original, that Berners was able to translate it from French +into English, for the purpose of his prologue to <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite>.</p> + +<p>In face of these facts, the Guevara theory is no +longer tenable; and in consequence the whole situation +is reversed, and we approach the problem from the +natural side, the side from which it should have been +approached from the first—that is from the English and +not the Spanish side. I say the natural side, because it +seems to me obvious that the popularity of a foreign +author in any country implies the existence in that +country, previous to the introduction of the author, of +an atmosphere (or more concretely a public) favourable +to the distinguishing characteristics of the author introduced. +And so it now appears that Guevara found +favour in England because his style, or something very +like it, was already known there; and it was the most +natural thing in the world that Berners, who shows that +style most prominently, should have been the channel by +which Guevara became known to English readers. The +whole problem of this 16th century prose is analogous to +that of 18th century verse. The solution of both was for +a long time found in foreign influence. It was natural +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +to assume that France, the pivot of our foreign policy at +the end of the 17th century, gave us the classical movement, +and that Spain, equally important politically in +the 16th century, gave us euphuism. Closer investigation +has disproved both these theories<a name="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>, showing that, while +foreign influence was undoubtedly an immense factor in +the <em>development</em> of these literary fashions, their real <em>origin</em> +was English.</p> + +<p>The proof of this does not rest entirely on the case of +Berners. We might even concede that he was acquainted +with an earlier edition of Guevara, and that his style was +actually derived from Spanish sources, without surrendering +our thesis that euphuism was a natural growth. +Berners' euphuism, whatever its origin, was premature; +and, though the <cite>Golden Boke</cite> passed through twelve +editions between 1534 and 1560, we cannot say that its +style influenced English writing until the time of Lyly, +for its vogue was confined to a small class of readers, +designated by Mr Underhill as the "Guevara-group." On +the other hand, it is possible to trace a feeling towards +euphuism among writers who were quite outside this +group.</p> + +<p>Latimer, for example, delighted in alliterative turns +of speech, though the antithetical mannerisms are absent +in him. His famous denunciation of the unpreaching +prelates is an excellent instance:</p> + +<p>"But now for the faults of unpreaching prelates, +methink I could guess what might be said for the excusing +of them. They are so troubled with lordly living, +they be so placed in palaces, couched in courts, ruffling +in their rents, dancing in their dominions, burdened with +ambassages, pampering of their paunches like a monk +that maketh his jubilee, munching in their mangers, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +moiling in their gay manors and mansions, and so +troubled with loitering in their lordships, that they +cannot attend it."</p> + +<p>Here is no transverse alliteration, such as we find so +frequently in Lyly, but a simple alliteration—"a rudimentary +euphuism of balanced and alliterative phrases, +probably like the alliteration of Anglo-Saxon homilies, +borrowed from popular poetry<a name="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>." Latimer also employs +the responsive method so frequently used by Lyly. "But +ye say it is new learning. Now I tell you it is old +learning. Yea, ye say, it is old heresy new scoured. +Nay, I tell you it is old truth long rusted with your +canker, and now made new bright and scoured." It is +no long step from this to the rhetorical question and its +formal answer "ay but——." Alliteration is not found +in Guevara; it was an addition, and a very important +one, made by his translators. This was at any rate a +purely native product, and cannot be assigned to Spain. +The antithesis and parallelism were the fruits of humanism, +and they appear, combined with Latimer's alliteration, in +the writings of Sir John Cheke and his pupil Roger +Ascham. Cheke's famous criticism of Sallust's style, as +being "more art than nature and more labour than art," +introduces us at once to euphuism, and gives us by the +way a very excellent comment upon it. Again he speaks +of "magistrates more ready to tender all justice and pitifull +in hearing the poor man's causes which ought to +amend matters more than you can devise and were ready +to redress them better than you can imagine<a name="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>"; which is +a good example of the euphuistic combination of alliteration +and balance.</p> + +<p>In Ascham the style is still more marked. There +are, indeed, so many examples of euphuism in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +<cite>Schoolmaster</cite> and in the <cite>Toxophilus</cite>, that one can only +select. As an illustration of transverse alliteration quite +as complex as any in <cite>Euphues</cite>, we may notice the following: +"Hard wittes be hard to receive, but sure to +keep; painfull without weariness, hedefull without wavering, +constant without any new fanglednesse; bearing +heavie things, though not lightlie, yet willinglie; entering +hard things though not easily, yet depelie<a name="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>." Classical +allusions abound throughout Ascham's work, and he +occasionally indulges in the ethics of natural history as +follows:</p> + +<p>"Young Graftes grow not onlie sonest, but also +fairest and bring always forth the best and sweetest +fruite; young whelps learne easilie to carrie; young +Popingeis learne quickly to speak; and so, to be short, +if in all other things though they lacke reason, sense, and +life, the similitude of youth is fittest to all goodnesse, +surelie nature in mankinde is more beneficial and effectual +in this behalfe<a name="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>."</p> + +<p>We know that Lyly had read the <cite>Schoolmaster</cite>, as he +took the very title of his book from its description of +<span lang="el" xml:lang="el" title="Euphuês" style="border-bottom: 1px dotted #06C;">Εὐφυής</span> as "he that is apte by goodnesse of witte and +applicable by readiness of will to learning"—a description +which is in itself a euphuism; and it is probable +that he knew his Ascham as thoroughly as he did his +Guevara.</p> + +<p>Sir Henry Craik has some very pertinent remarks +on the peculiarities of Ascham's style. "One of these," +he writes, "is his proneness to alliteration, due perhaps +to his desire to reproduce the most striking features of +the Early English.… A tendency of an almost directly +opposite kind is the balance of sentences which he +imitates from Classical models.… These two are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +perhaps the most striking characteristics of Ascham's +prose; and it is interesting to observe how much the +structure of the sentence in the more elaborated stages +of English prose is due to their combination<a name="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>." Here +we have the two elements of our native-grown euphuism, +and their origins, carefully distinguished. Of course +with euphuism we do not commence English prose; +that is already centuries old; but we are dealing with +the beginnings of English prose style, by which we mean +a conscious and artistic striving after literary effect. +That the first stylists should look to the rhetoricians for +their models was inevitable, and of these there were two +kinds available; the classical orators and the alliterative +homilies of the Early English. But, deferring this point +for a later treatment, let us conclude our study of the +evolution of euphuism in England.</p> + +<p>So far we have been dealing with euphuistic tendencies +only, since in the style of Ascham and his predecessors, +alliteration and antithesis are not employed consistently, +but merely on occasion for the sake of emphasis. Other +marks of euphuism, such as the fantastic embroidery of +mythical beasts and flowers, are absent. Even in North's +<cite>Diall</cite> alliteration is not profuse, and similes from natural +history are comparatively rare. In George Pettie, +however, we find a complete euphuist before <cite>Euphues</cite>. +This writer again brings us in touch with that Oxford +atmosphere, which, I maintain, surrounded the birth of +the full-blown euphuism. A student of Christ Church, +he took his B.A. degree in 1560<a name="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>, and so probably just +escaped being a contemporary of Lyly. But, as he was +a "dear friend" of William Gager, who was a considerably +younger man than himself, it seems probable that he +continued his Oxford connexion after his degree. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +However this may be, he published his <cite>Petite Pallace of +Pettie his Pleasure</cite>, which so exactly anticipates the style +of <cite>Euphues</cite>, in 1576, only two years before the later book. +The <cite>Petite Pallace</cite> was an imitation of the famous +<cite>Palace of Pleasure</cite> published in 1566 by William +Painter, who, though he had known Guevara's writings, +drew his material almost entirely from Italian sources. +That Pettie also possessed a knowledge of Spanish +literature, as we should expect from the period of his +residence at Oxford, is shown by his translation of +Guazzo's <cite>Civile Conversation</cite> in 1581, to which he affixes +a euphuistic preface. This again was only a left-handed +transcript from the French. Therefore the Spanish +elements, though undoubtedly present, cannot be insisted +upon. We may concede that Pettie had read North, +or even go so far as to assert with Mr Underhill that +he was acquainted with "parts of the Gallicized Guevara," +without lending countenance to Dr Landmann's radical +theories. No one, reading the <cite>Petite Pleasure</cite>, can doubt +that Pettie was the real creator of euphuism in its fullest +development, and that Lyly was only an imitator. +Though I have already somewhat overburdened this +chapter. I cannot refrain from quoting a passage from +Pettie, not only as an example of his style, but also +because the passage is in itself so delightful, that it is +one's duty to rescue it from oblivion:</p> + +<p>"As amongst all the bonds of benevolence and good +will, there is none more honourable, ancient, or honest +than marriage, so in my fancy there is none that doth +more firmly fasten and inseparably unite us together +than the same estate doth, or wherein the fruits of true +friendship do more plenteously appear: in the father is +a certain severe love and careful goodwill towards the +child, the child beareth a fearful affection and awful +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +obedience towards the father: the master hath an +imperious regard of the servant, the servant a servile +care of the master. The friendship amongst men is +grounded upon no love and dissolved upon every light +occasion: the goodwill of kinsfolk is constantly cold, +as much of custom as of devotion: but in this stately +estate of matrimony there is nothing fearful, all things +are done faithfully without doubting, truly without +doubling, willingly without constraint, joyfully without +complaint: yea there is such a general consent and +mutual agreement between the man and wife, that they +both wish and will covet and crave one thing. And as +a scion grafted in a strange stalk, their natures being +united by growth, they become one and together bear +one fruit: so the love of the wife planted in the breast +of her husband, their hearts by continuance of love +become one, one sense and one soul serveth them both. +And as the scion severed from the stock withereth +away, if it be not grafted in some other: so a loving +wife separated from the society of her husband withereth +away in woe and leadeth a life no less pleasant than +death<a name="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>." Lyly never wrote anything to equal this. Indeed +it is not unworthy of the lips of one of Shakespeare's +heroines.</p> + +<p>The euphuism of the foregoing quotation will be +readily detected. The sole difference between the styles +of Lyly and Pettie is that, while Pettie's similes from +nature are simple and natural, Lyly, with his knowledge +of Pliny and of the bestiaries, added his fabulous +"unnatural natural history." Pettie's book was popular +for the time, three editions of it being called for in the +first year of its publication, but it was soon to be thrust +aside by the fame of the much more pretentious, and, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +apart from the style, better constructed <cite>Euphues</cite> of Lyly. +In truth, as Gabriel Harvey justly but unkindly remarks, +"Young Euphues but hatched the eggs his elder freendes +laid." But the parental responsibility and merit must +be attributed to him who hatches. It was Lyly who +made euphuism famous and therefore a power; and, +despite the fact that he marks the culmination of the +movement, he is the most dynamical of all the euphuists.</p> + +<p>It remains to sum up our conclusions respecting the +origin and development of this literary phase. Difficult +as it is to unravel the tangled network of obscure +influences which surrounded its birth, I venture to think +that a sufficiently complete disproof of that extreme +theory, which would ascribe it entirely to Guevara's +influence, has been offered. Guevara, in the translation +of Berners, undoubtedly took the field early, but, as we +have seen, Berners was probably feeling towards the +style before he knew Guevara; and moreover the bishop's +<em lang="es" xml:lang="es">alto estilo</em> must have suffered considerably while passing +through the French. Even allowing everything, as we +have done, for the close connexion between Spain and +England, for the Spanish tradition at Oxford, and for the +interest in peninsular writings shown by Lyly's immediate +circle of friends, we cannot accord to Dr Landmann's +explanation anything more than a very modified acceptance. +Nor would a complete rejection of this solution +of the Lyly problem render English euphuism inexplicable; +for something very like it would naturally +have resulted from the close application of classical +methods to prose writing; and in the case of Cheke and +Ascham we actually see the process at work. And yet +Lyly owed a great debt to Guevara. A true solution, +therefore, must find a place for foreign as well as native +influences. And to say that the Spanish intervention +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +confirmed and hastened a development already at work, +of which the original impulse was English, is, I think, to +give a due allowance to both.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_I_III">Section III.</a></span> <i>Lyly's Legatees and the relation +between Euphuism and the Renaissance.</i></h3> + +<p>The publication of <cite>Euphues</cite> was the culmination, +rather than the origin, of that literary phase to which +it gave its name. And the vogue of euphuism after +1579 was short, lasting indeed only until about 1590; +yet during these ten years its influence was far-reaching, +and left a definite mark upon later English prose. It +would be idle, if not impossible, to trace its effects upon +every individual writer who fell under its immediate +fascination. Moreover the task has already been performed +in a great measure by M. Jusserand<a name="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> and +Mr Bond<a name="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>. They have shown once and for all that +Greene, Lodge, Welbanke, Munday, Warner, Wilkinson, +and above all Shakespeare, were indebted to our author +for certain mannerisms of style. I shall therefore content +myself with noticing two or three writers, tainted +with euphuism, who have been generally overlooked, and +who seem to me important enough, either in themselves, +or as throwing light upon the subject of the essay, to +receive attention.</p> + +<p>The first of these is the dramatist Kyd, who completed +his well-known <cite>Spanish Tragedy</cite> between 1584 +and 1589, that is at the height of the euphuistic fashion. +This play was apparently an inexhaustible joke to the +Elizabethans; for the references to it in later dramatists +are innumerable. One passage must have been particularly +famous, for we find it parodied most elaborately by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +Field, as late as 1606, in his <cite>A Woman is a Weathercock</cite><a name="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>. +The passage in question, which was obviously inspired by +Lyly, runs as follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Yet might she love me for my valiance:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I, but that's slandered by captivity.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Yet might she love me to content her sire:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I, but her reason masters her desire.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Yet might she love me as her brother's friend:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I, but her hopes aim at some other end.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Yet might she love me to uprear her state:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I, but perhaps she loves some nobler mate.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Yet might she love me as her beautie's thrall:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I, but I feare she cannot love at all."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">Nathaniel Field's parody of this melodramatic nonsense +is so amusing that I cannot forbear quoting it. This +time the despairing lover is Sir Abraham Ninny, who +quotes Kyd to his companions, and they with the cry of +"Ha God-a-mercy, old Hieromino!" begin the game of +parody, which must have been keenly enjoyed by the +audience. Field improves on the original by putting the +alternate lines of despair into the mouths of Ninny's +jesting friends. It runs, therefore:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"—Yet might she love me for my lovely eyes.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Ay but, perhaps your nose she does despise.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Yet might she love me for my dimpled chin.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Ay but, she sees your beard is very thin.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Yet might she love me for my proper body.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Ay but, she thinks you are an arrant noddy.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Yet might she love me 'cause I am an heir.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Ay but, perhaps she does not like your ware.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Yet might she love me in despite of all.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(the lady herself)—Ay but indeed I cannot love at all."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">This parody, apart from any interest it possesses for the +student of Lyly, is an excellent illustration of the ways +of Elizabethan playwrights, and of the thorough knowledge +of previous plays they assumed their audience to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +have possessed. There are several other examples of +Kyd's acquaintance with the <cite>Euphues</cite> in the <cite>Spanish +Tragedy</cite><a name="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>, in the other dramas<a name="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>, and in his prose works<a name="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>, +which it is not necessary to quote. But there is one more +passage, again from his most famous play, which is so +full of interest that it cannot be passed over in silence. +It is a counsel of hope to the despairing lover, and +assumes this inspiring form:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"My Lord, though Belimperia seem thus coy<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Let reason hold you in your wonted joy;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In time the savage Bull sustains the yoke,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In time all Haggard Hawkes will stoop to lure,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In time small wedges cleave the hardest Oake,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In time the flint is pearst with softest shower,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And she in time will fall from her disdain,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And rue the sufferance of your deadly paine<a name="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">Now these lines are practically a transcript of the opening +words of the 47th sonnet in Watson's <cite>Hekatompathia</cite> +published in 1582. Remembering Lyly's penetrating +observation that "the soft droppes of rain pearce the +hard marble, many strokes overthrow the tallest oake<a name="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>," +and bearing in mind that the high priest of euphuism +himself contributed a commendatory epistle to the +<cite>Hekatompathia</cite>, we should expect that these Bulls and +Hawkes and Oakes were choice flowers of speech, culled +from that botanico-zoological "garden of prose"—the +<cite>Euphues</cite>. But as a matter of fact Watson himself informs +us in a note that his sonnet is an imitation of the +Italian Serafino, from whom he also borrows other +sonnet-conceits in the same volume, some of which are +full of similar references to the properties of animals and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +plants. The conclusion is forced upon us therefore that +Watson and Lyly went to the same source, or, if a knowledge +of Italian cannot be granted to our author, that he +borrowed from Watson. At any rate Watson cannot be +placed amongst the imitators of <cite>Euphues</cite>. Like Pettie +and Gosson he must share with Lyly the credit of +creation. He was a friend of Lyly's at Oxford; they +dedicated their books to the same patron, and they +employed the same publisher. Moreover, the little we +have of Watson's prose is highly euphuistic, and it is +apparent from the epistle above mentioned that he was +on terms of closest intimacy with the author of <cite>Euphues</cite>. +In him we have another member of that interesting circle +of Oxford euphuists, who continued their connexion in +London under de Vere's patronage.</p> + +<p>Watson again was a friend of the well-known poet +Richard Barnefield, who though too young in 1578 to +have been of the University coterie of euphuists, shows +definite traces of their affectation in his works. The +conventional illustrations from an "unnatural natural +history" abound in his <cite>Affectionate Shepherd</cite><a name="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> (1594), +and he repeats the jargon about marble and showers<a name="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> +which we have seen in Lyly, Watson and Kyd. Again +in his <cite>Cynthia</cite> (1594) there is a distinct reference to the +opening words of <cite>Euphues</cite> in the lines,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Wit without wealth is bad, yet counted good;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Wealth wanting wisdom's worse, yet deemed as well<a name="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">His prose introduction betrays the same influence.</p> + +<p>These then are a few among the countless scribblers +of those prolific times who fell under the spell of the +euphuistic fashion. They are mentioned, either because +their connexion with the movement has been overlooked, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +or because they throw a new and important +light upon Lyly himself. Of other legatees it is impossible +to treat here; and it is enough, without tracing +it in any detail, to indicate "the slender euphuistic +thread that runs in iron through Marlowe, in silver +through Shakespeare, in bronze through Bacon, in +more or less inferior metal through every writer of +that age<a name="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>."</p> + +<p>There is nothing strange in this infatuation, if we +remember that euphuism was "the English type of an +all but universal disease<a name="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>," as Symonds puts it. Dr Landmann, +we have decided, was wrong in his insistence +upon foreign influence; but his error was a natural one, +and points to a fact which no student of Renaissance +literature can afford to neglect. Matthew Arnold long +ago laid down the clarifying principle that "the criticism +which alone can much help us for the future, is +a criticism which regards Europe as being, for intellectual +and spiritual purposes, one great confederation, bound +to a joint action and working to a common result<a name="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>." +And the truth of this becomes more and more indisputable, +the longer we study European history, whether +it be from the side of Politics, of Religion, or of Art. +Landmann ascribes euphuism to Spain, Symonds ascribes +it to Italy, and an equally good case might be made out +in favour of France. There is truth in all these hypotheses, +but each misses the true significance of the matter, +which is that euphuism must have come, and would have +come, without any question of borrowing.</p> + +<p>The date 1453 is usually taken as a convenient +starting point for the Renaissance, though the movement +was already at work in Italy, for that was the year of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +Byzantium's fall and of the diffusion of the classics over +Europe. But, for the countries outside Italy, I think +that the date 1493 is almost as important. Hitherto the +new learning had been in a great measure confined to +Italy, but with the invasion of Charles VIII., which commences +a long period of French and Spanish occupation +of Italian soil, the Renaissance, especially on its artistic +side, began to find its way into the neighbouring states, +and through them into England. It is the old story, so +familiar to sociologists, of a lower civilization falling +under the spell of the culture exhibited by a more +advanced subject population, of a conqueror worshipping +the gods of the conquered. It is the story of the conquest +of Greece by Rome, of the conquest of Rome by +the Germans. But the interesting point to notice is that, +when the "barbarian" Frenchman descended from the +Alps upon the fair plains of Lombardy, the Italian +Renaissance was already showing signs of decadence. +It was in the age of the Petrarchisti, of Aretino, of Doni, +and of Marini that Europe awoke to the full consciousness +of the wonders of Italian literature. Thus it was +that those beyond the Alps drank of water already +tainted. That France, Spain, and England should be +attracted by the affectations of Italy, rather than by +what was best in her literature, was only to be expected. +"It was easier to catch the trick of an Aretino, and +a Marini, than to emulate the style of a Tasso or a +Castiglione": and besides they were themselves inventing +similar extravagances independently of Italy. The +purely formal ideal of Art had in Spain already found +expression among the courtiers of Juan II. of Castile. +One of them, Baena, writes as follows of poetry: "that +it cannot be learned or well and properly known, save by +the man of very deep and subtle invention, and of a very +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +lofty and fine discretion, and of a very healthy and unerring +judgment, and such a one must have seen and +heard and read many and diverse books and writings, +and know all languages and have frequented kings' +Courts and associated with great men and beheld and +taken part in worldly affairs; and finally he must be of +gentle birth, courteous and sedate, polished, humorous, +polite, witty, and have in his composition honey, and +sugar, and salt, and a good presence and a witty manner +of reasoning; moreover he must be also a lover and ever +make a show and pretence of it<a name="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>." Such a catalogue of +the poet's requisites might have been written by any +one of our Oxford euphuists; and Watson, at least, +among them fulfilled all its conditions.</p> + +<p>The Italian influence, therefore, did but hasten a +process already at work. The reasons for this universal +movement are very difficult to determine. But among +many suggestions of more or less value, a few causes of +the change may here be hazarded. In the first place, +then, the Renaissance happened to be contemporaneous +with the death of feudalism. The ideal of chivalry is +dying out all over Europe; and the romances of chivalry +are everywhere despised. The horizontal class divisions +become obscured by the newly found perpendicular +divisions of nationality; and in Italy and England at +least the old feudal nobility have almost entirely disappeared. +A new centre of national life and culture is +therefore in the process of formation, that of the Court; +and thanks to this, the ideal of chivalry gives place to +the new ideal of the courtier or the gentleman. This +ideal found literary expression in the moral Court +treatises, which were so universally popular during the +Renaissance, and of which Guevara, Castiglione, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +Lyly are the most famous instances. The ambition of +those who frequent Courts has always been to appear +distinguished—distinguished that is from the vulgar and +the ordinary, or, as we should now say, from the Philistine. +In the Courts of the Renaissance period, where +learning was considered so admirable, this necessary +distinction would naturally take the form of a cultured, +if not pedantic, diction; and for this it was natural that +men should go to the classics, and more especially to +classical orators, as models of good speech. It must +not be imagined that this process was a conscious one. +In many countries the rhetorical style was already +formed by scholars before it became the speech of the +Court. In fact the beginnings of modern prose style are +to be found in humanism. Ascham with his hatred of +the "Italianated gentleman," was probably quite unconscious +of his own affinity to that objectionable type, +when imitating the style of his favourite Tully in the +<cite>Schoolmaster</cite>. The classics it must be remembered +were not discovered by the humanists, they were only +rediscovered. The middle ages had used them, as they +had used the Old Testament, as prophetic books. Virgil's +mediaeval reputation for example rests for the most +part upon the fourth Eclogue. The humanists, on the +other hand, looked upon the classics as literature and +valued them for their style. But here again they drank +from tainted sources; for, with the exception of a few +writers such as Cicero and Terence, the classics they +knew and loved best were the product of the silver age +of Rome, the characteristics of which are beautifully +described by the author of <cite>Marius the Epicurean</cite> in his +chapter significantly called <cite>Euphuism</cite>. Few of the Renaissance +students had the critical acumen of Cheke, +and they fell therefore an easy prey to the stylism of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +later Latin writers, with its antithesis and extravagance. +But, with all this, men could not quite shake off the +middle ages. There is much of the Scholastic in Lyly, +and the exuberance of ornament, the fantastic similes +from natural history, and the moral lessons deduced +from them, are quite mediaeval in feeling. We learnt +the lessons of the classics backward; and it was not +until centuries after, that men realised that the essence +of Hellenism is restraint and harmony.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of the movement generally, but it +passed through many phases, such as arcadianism, gongorism, +dubartism; and yet of all these phases euphuism +was, I think, the most important: certainly if we confine +our attention to English literature this must be admitted. +But, even if we keep our eyes upon the Continent alone, +euphuism would seem to be more significant than the +movements which succeeded it; for it was a definite +attempt, seriously undertaken, to force modern languages +into a classical mould, while the other and later affectations +were merely passing extravagances, possessing +little dynamical importance. In this way, short-lived +and abortive as it seemed, euphuism anticipated the +literature of the <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ancien régime</em>.</p> + +<p>The movement, moreover, was only one aspect of the +Renaissance; it was the under-current which in the 18th +century became the main stream. Paradoxical as it may +seem, the Renaissance in its most modern aspect was a +development of the middle ages, and not of the classics. +This we call romanticism. As an artistic product it was +developed on strictly national and traditional lines, born +of the fields as it were, free as a bird and as sweet, giving +birth in England to the drama, in Italy to the plastic +arts. It is essentially opposed to the classical movement, +for it represents the idea as distinct from the form. Lyly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +belongs to both movements, for, while he is the protagonist +of the romantic drama, in his <cite>Euphues</cite> we may +discover the source of the artificial stream which, concealed +for a while beneath the wild exuberance of the +romantic growth, appears later in the 18th century embracing +the whole current of English literature. Before, +however, proceeding to fix the position of euphuism in +the development of English prose, let us sum up the +results we have obtained from our examination of its +relation to the general European Renaissance. Originating +in that study of classical style we find so forcibly +advocated by Ascham in his <cite>Schoolmaster</cite>, it was essentially +a product of humanism. In every country scholars +were interested as much in the style as in the matter of +the newly discovered classics. This was due, partly to +the lateness of the Latin writers chiefly known to them, +partly to the mediaeval preference for words rather than +ideas, and partly to the fact that the times were not yet +ripe for an appreciation of the spirit as distinct from the +letter of the classics. In Italy, in France, and in Spain, +therefore, we may find parallels to euphuism without +supposing any international borrowings. <cite>Euphues</cite>, in +fact, is not so much a reflection of, as a <cite>Glasse for +Europe</cite>.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_I_IV">Section IV.</a></span> <i>The position of Euphuism in the history +of English prose.</i></h3> + +<p>A few words remain to be said about this literary +curiosity, by way of assigning a place to it in the history +of our prose. To do so with any scientific precision is +impossible, but there are many points of no small +significance in this connexion, which should not be +passed over.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +English prose at the beginning of the 16th century, +that is before the new learning had become a power in +the land, though it had not yet been employed for +artistic purposes, was already an important part of our +literature, and possessed a quality which no national +prose had exhibited since the days of Greece, the quality +of popularity<a name="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>. This popularity, which arose from the +fact that French and Latin had for so long been the +language of the ruling section of the community, is still +the distinction which marks off our prose from that of +other nations. In Italy, for example, the language of +literature is practically incomprehensible to the dwellers +on the soil. But what English prose has gained in +breadth and comprehension by representing the tongue +of the people, it has lost in subtlety. French prose, +which developed from the speech of the Court, is a +delicate instrument, capable of expressing the finest +shades of meaning, while the styles of George Meredith +and of Henry James show how difficult it is for a subtle +intellect to move freely within the limitations of English +prose. Indeed, "it is a remarkable fact," as Sainte Beuve +noticed, "and an inversion of what is true of other languages +that, in French, prose has always had the precedence +over poetry." Repeated attempts, however, have +been made to capture our language, and to transport it +into aristocratic atmospheres; and of these attempts the +first is associated with the name of Lyly.</p> + +<p>We have seen that English euphuism was at first a +flower of unconscious growth sprung from the soil of +humanism. But ultimately, in the hands of Pettie, +Gosson, Lyly, and Watson, it became the instrument +of an Oxford coterie deliberately and consciously employed +for the purpose of altering the form of English +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +prose. These men did not despise their native tongue; +they used the purest English, carefully avoiding the +favourite "ink-horn terms" of their contemporaries: +they admired it, as one admires a wild bird of the +fields, which one wishes to capture in order to make it +hop and sing in a golden cage. The humanists were +already developing a learned style within the native +language; Lyly and his friends utilized this learned +style for the creation of an aristocratic type. Euphuism +was no "transient phase of madness<a name="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>," as Mr Earle contemptuously +calls it, but a brave attempt, and withal a +first attempt, to assert that prose writing is an art no less +than the writing of poetry; and this alone should give it +a claim upon students of English literature.</p> + +<p>The first point we must notice, therefore, about +English euphuism is that it represents a tendency to +confine literature within the limits of the Court—in +accordance, one might almost say, with the general +centralization of politics and religion under the Tudors—and +that, as a necessary result of this, conscious prose +style appears for the first time in our language. I say +English euphuism, because that is our chief concern, and +because though euphuism on the Continent was, as we +have seen, the expression in literature of the new ideal +of the courtier, yet it was by no means so great an innovation +as it was in England, inasmuch as the Romance +literatures had always represented the aristocracy. The +form which this style assumed was dependent upon the +circumstances which gave it birth, and upon the general +conditions of the age. Owing to the former it became +erudite, polished, precise, meet indeed for the "parleyings" +of courtiers and maids-in-waiting; but it was to the latter +that it owed its essentials. Hitherto we have contented +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +ourselves with indicating the rhetorical aspect of euphuism. +We have seen that the Latin orators and the +writers of our English homilies exercised a considerable +influence over the new stylists. It was natural that +rhetoricians should attract those who were desirous of +writing ornamental and artistic prose, and one feels inclined +to believe that it was not entirely for spiritual +reasons that Lyly frequently attended Dr Andrews' +sermons<a name="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>. But the euphuistic manner has a wider +significance than this, for it marks the transition from +poetry to prose.</p> + +<p>"The age of Elizabeth is pre-eminently an age of +poetry, of which prose may be regarded as merely the +overflow<a name="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>." It was at once the end of the mediaeval, +and the beginning of the modern, world, and consequently, +it displays the qualities of both. But the future +lay with the small men rather than with the great. +Shakespeare and Milton were no innovators. With their +names the epoch of primitive literature, which finds expression +in the drama and the epic, ends, while it reaches +its highest flights. The dawn of the modern epoch, +the age of prose and of the novel, is, on the other hand, +connected with the names of Lyly, Sidney, and Nash. +Thus, as in the 18th century poetry was subservient, and +so became assimilated, to prose, so the prose of the 16th +century exhibited many of the characteristics of verse. +And of this general literary feature euphuism is the +most conspicuous example; for in its employment of +alliteration and antithesis, in addition to the excessive +use of illustration and simile which characterizes arcadianism +and its successors, the style of Lyly is transitional +in structure as well as in ornament. Moreover +the alliteration, which is peculiar to English euphuism, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +gives it a musical element which its continental parallels +lacked. The dividing line between alliteration and +rhyme, and between antithesis and rhythm, is not a +broad one<a name="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>. Indeed Pettie found it so narrow that he +occasionally lapsed into metrical rhythm. And so, +though we cannot say that euphuism is verse, we can +say that it partakes of the nature of verse. In this +endeavour to provide an adequate structure for the +support of the mass of imagery that the taste of the +age demanded, it showed itself superior to the rival +prose fashions. <cite>Euphues</cite> is a model of form beside the +tedious prolixity of the <cite>Arcadia</cite>, or the chaotic effusions +of Nash. The weariness, which the modern reader feels +for the romance of Lyly, is due rather to the excessive +quantity of its metaphor, which was the fault of the age, +than to its pedantic style.</p> + +<p>I write loosely of "style," but strictly speaking the +euphuists paid especial attention to diction. And here +again the poetical and aristocratic tendencies of euphuism +show themselves. For diction, which is the art of +selection, the selection of apt words, is of course one of +the first essentials of poetic art, and is also more prominent +in the prose of Court literature than elsewhere. +The precision, the <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">finesse</em>, the subtlety, of French prose +has only been attained by centuries of attention to +diction. English prose, on the other hand, is singularly +lacking in this quality; and for this cause it would +never have produced a Flaubert, despite its splendid +achievements in style. Had euphuism been more successful, +it might have altered the whole aspect of later +English prose, by giving us in the 16th century that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +quality of diction which did not become prominent in +our prose until the days of Pater and the purists.</p> + +<p>And yet, though it failed in this particular, the influence +of the general qualities of its style upon later +prose must have been incalculable. The vogue of +euphuism as a craze was brief; but <cite>Euphues</cite> received +fresh publication about once every three years down to +1636, and long after its social popularity had become a +thing of the past, it probably attracted the careful study +of those who wished to write artistic prose. The only +model of prose form which the age possessed could +scarcely sink into oblivion, or become out of date, until +its principal lessons had been so well learnt as to pass +into common-places. The exaggerations, which first +gave it fame, were probably discounted by the more +sincere appreciation of later critics, to whom its more +sterling qualities would appeal. For some reason, the +musical properties of euphuism do not appear to have +found favour among those critics, and this was probably +a loss to our literature. "Alliteration," as Professor +Raleigh remarks, "is often condemned as a flaw in +rhymed verse, and it may well be open to question +whether Lyly did not give it its true position in attempting +to invent a place for it in what is called prose<a name="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>." +Possibly its failure in this respect was due to the growth +of that intellectual asceticism, and that reaction against +the domination of poetry, which are, I think, intimately +bound up with the fortunes of Puritanism. The beginning +of this reaction is visible as early as 1589 in the +words of Warner's preface to <cite>Albion's England</cite>, which +display the very affectation they protest against: "onely +this error may be thought hatching in our English, that +to runne on the letter we often runne from the matter: +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +and being over prodigall in similes we become lesse +profitable in sentences and more prolixious to sense." +But, however this may be, it was the formal rather than +the musical qualities which gave <cite>Euphues</cite> its dynamical +importance in the history of English prose. Subsequent +writers had much to learn from a book in which the +principle of design is for the first time visible. With +euphuism, antithesis and the use of balanced sentences +came to stay. We may see them in the style of Johnson +and Gibbon, while alliterative antithesis reappears to-day +in the shape of the epigram. Doubtless Lyly abused +the antithetical device; but his successors had only to +discover a means of skilfully concealing the structure, +an improvement which the early euphuists, with all the +enthusiasm of inventors, could not have appreciated.</p> + +<p>Moreover, in aiming at elegance and precision, Lyly +attained a lucidity almost unequalled among his contemporaries. +His attention to form saved him from +the besetting sin of Elizabethan prose,—incoherence by +reason of an overwhelming display of ornament. His +very illustrations were subject to the restraint which his +style demanded, being sown, to use his own metaphor, +"here and there lyke Strawberries, not in heapes, lyke +Hoppes<a name="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>." Arcadianism came as a reaction against +euphuism, attempting to replace its artificiality by +simplicity. But how infinitely more preferable is the +novel of Lyly, with its artificial precision and lucidity, +to the conscious artlessness of Sidney's <cite>Arcadia</cite>, with +its interminable sentences and confused syntax. As a +modern euphuist has taught us, of all poses the natural +pose is the most irritating. In accordance with his +desire for precision, Lyly made frequent use of the short +sentence. In this we have another indication of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +modernity: for the short sentence, which is so characteristic +of English prose style to-day, occurs more often in +his work than in the writings of any of his predecessors. +And, in reference to the same question of lucidity, we +may notice that he was the first writer who gave special +attention to the separation of his prose into paragraphs,—a +matter apparently trivial, but really of no small +importance. Finally, it is a remarkable fact that the +number of words to be found in <cite>Euphues</cite> which have +since become obsolete is a very small one—"at most but +a small fraction of one per cent.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>" And this is in itself +sufficient to indicate the influence which Lyly's novel +has exerted upon English prose. As he reads it, no one +can avoid being struck by the modernity of its language, +an impression not to be obtained from a perusal of the +plays. The explanation is simple enough. The plays +were not read or absorbed by their author's contemporaries +and successors; <cite>Euphues</cite> was. In the domain +of style, <cite>Euphues</cite> was dynamical; the plays were not.</p> + +<p>But the true value of Lyly's prose lies not so much +in what it achieved as in what it attempted; for the +qualities, which euphuism, by its insistence upon design +and elegance, really aimed at, were strength, brilliancy, +and refinement. For the first time in the history of our +literature, men are found to write prose with the purpose +of fascinating and enticing the reader, not merely by +what is said, but also by the manner of saying it. +"Lyly" (and, we may add, his associates), writes his latest +editor, "grasped the fact that in prose no less than in +poetry, the reader demanded to be led onward by a +succession of half imperceptible shocks of pleasure in +the beauty and vigour of diction, or in the ingenuity +of phrasing, in sentence after sentence—pleasure inseparable +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +from that caused by a perception of the nice +adaptation of words to thought, pleasure quite other than +that derivable from the acquisition of fresh knowledge<a name="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>." +The direct influence of the man who first taught us this +lesson, who showed us that a writer, to be successful, +should seek not merely to express himself, but also to +study the mind of his reader, must have been something +quite beyond computation. And that his direct influence +was not more lasting was due, in the first place, to the +fact that he had not grasped the full significance of this +psychological aspect of style, if we may so call it, which +he and his friends had been the first to discover. As +with most first attempts, euphuism, while bestowing +immense benefits upon those who came after, was itself +a failure. The euphuists perceived the problem of style, +but successfully attacked only one half of it. More +acute than their contemporaries, they realised the +principle of economy, but, as with one who makes an +entirely new mechanical invention, they were themselves +unable to appreciate what their discovery would lead to. +They were right in addressing themselves to the task +of attracting, and stimulating, the reader by means of +precision, pointed antithesis, and such like attempts +to induce pleasurable mental sensations, but they forgot +that anyone must eventually grow weary under the +influence of continuous excitation without variation. +The soft drops of rain pierce the hard marble, many +strokes overthrow the tallest oak, and much monotony +will tire the readiest reader. Or, to use the phraseology +of a somewhat more recent scientist, they "considered +only those causes of force in language which depend +upon economy of the mental <em>energies</em>," they paid no +attention to "those which depend upon the economy +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +of the mental <em>sensibilities</em><a name="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>." This is one explanation +of the weariness with which <cite>Euphues</cite> fills the modern +reader, and of the speed with which, in spite of its +priceless pioneer work, that book was superseded and +forgotten in its own days. It is our duty to give it its +full meed of recognition, but we can understand and +forgive the ungratefulness of its contemporaries.</p> + +<p>Another cause of the oblivion which so soon overtook +the famous Elizabethan novel, has already been +suggested. Euphuism was too antagonistic to the +general current of English prose to be successful. Lyly +and his Oxford clique were attempting a revolution +similar to that undertaken, at the same period, by Ronsard +and his <em>Pleiad</em>. Lyly failed in prose, where Ronsard +succeeded in poetry, because he endeavoured to go back +upon tradition, while the Frenchman worked strictly +within its limits. The attempt to throw Court dress over +the plain homespun of our English prose might have +been attended with success, had our literature been +younger and more easily led astray. As it was, prose in +this country, when euphuism invaded it, could already +show seven centuries of development, and, moreover, +development along the broad and national lines of +common or vulgar speech. Euphuism was after all only +part of the general tendency of the age to focus everything +that was good in politics, religion, and art, on the +person and immediate surroundings of the sovereign; +and the history of the eighteenth century, which saw the +last issue of the series of <cite>Euphues</cite> reprints, is the history +of the collapse of this centralization all along the line, +ending in the complete vindication of the democratic +basis of English life and literature.</p> + +<p>With these general remarks we must leave the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +subject of euphuism. No history of its origin and its influence +can be completely satisfactory: such questions +must of necessity receive a speculative and tentative +solution, for it is impossible to give them an exact +answer which admits of no dispute. The age of Lyly +was far more complex than ours, with all our artistic +sects and schisms; the currents of literary influence were +multitudinous and extremely involved. As Symonds +wrote, "The romantic art of the modern world did not +spring like that of Greece from an ungarnered field of +flowers. Troubled by reminiscences from the past and +by reciprocal influences from one another, the literatures +of modern Europe came into existence with composite +dialects and obeyed confused canons of taste, exhibited +their adolescent vigour with affected graces and showed +themselves senile in their cradles." In the field of literature +to-day the standards are more numerous, but +more distinctive, than those of the Elizabethans. Our +ideals are classified with almost scientific exactness, and +we wear the labels proudly. But the very splendour of +the Renaissance was due to the fact that in the same +group, in the same artist, were to be found the most +diverse ideals and the most opposite methods. They +worshipped they knew not what, we know what we worship. +Yet this difference does not prevent us from +seeing curious points of similarity between our own and +those times. The 16th, like the 19th century, was a +period of revolt from the past: and at such moments +men feel a supreme contempt for the common-place in +literature. The cry of art for art's sake is raised, and +the result is extravagance, euphuism. A wave of intellectual +dandyism seems to sweep over the face of literature, +aristocratic in its aims and sympathies. Then are +the battle lines drawn up, and the spectators watch, with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +admiration or contempt, the eternally recurrent strife +between David and the Philistines; and whether the +young hero be clad in the knee-breeches of aestheticism, +or the slashed doublet of the courtier; whether he be +armed with epigram and sunflower, or with euphuism +and camomile; variation of costume cannot conceal the +identity of his personality—the personality of the fop of +culture.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br/> +<span style="font-size: 80%">THE FIRST ENGLISH NOVEL.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +Despite the disproportionate attention given to +euphuism by so many of Lyly's critics, <cite>Euphues</cite> is no +less important as a novel than as a piece of prose. We +can, however, dismiss this second branch of our subject +in fewer words, because the problem of <cite>Euphues</cite> is much +simpler and more straightforward than the problem of +euphuism. It can scarcely be said that Lyly has yet +been thoroughly appreciated as a novelist; indeed, the +whole subject of the Elizabethan novel is very far from +having received a satisfactory treatment at present. +This is not surprising when we consider that the last +word remains to be said upon the Elizabethan drama. +The birth of modern literature was so sudden, its life, +even in the cradle, was so complex that it baffles criticism. +Like the peal of an organ with a thousand stops, +the English Renaissance seemed to break the stillness +of the great mediaeval church, shaking its beautiful +sombre walls and filling it from floor to roof with wild, +pagan music. Indeed, the more we study those 50 or +60 years which embrace the so-called Elizabethan period, +the more are we struck by the fact that, ever since, +we have been simply making variations upon the themes, +which the men of those times gave us. Modern science, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +modern poetry, modern drama, sat like pages at the feet +of the Great Queen. Among these the novel cut but an +insignificant figure, although it was the novel which had +perhaps the longest future before it. We need not +wonder therefore that our first English novelist has been +treated by many with neglect. None I think have done +more to make amends in this direction than Professor +Raleigh and M. Jusserand; the former in his graceful, +humorous, and penetrating little book, <cite>The English +Novel</cite>; and the latter in his well-known work on <cite>The +English Novel in the time of Shakespeare</cite>, which gives +one, while reading it, the feeling of being present at a +fancy-dress ball, so skilfully does he detect the forms +and faces of present-day fiction behind euphuistic mask +and beneath arcadian costume. To these two books +the present writer owes a debt which all must feel who +have stood bewildered upon the threshold of Elizabeth's +Court with its glittering throng of genius and wit.</p> + +<p>Sudden, however, as was this crop of warriors wielding +pen, it must not be forgotten that the dragon's teeth +had first been sown in mediaeval soil. With Lyly the +English novel came into being, but that child of his +genius was not without ancestry or relations. And so, +before discussing the character and fortunes of the infant, +let us devote a few introductory remarks to pedigree. +Roughly speaking, the prose narrative in England, +before <cite>Euphues</cite>, falls into three divisions, the romance of +chivalry, the <em>novella</em>, and the moral Court treatise,—and +all three are of foreign extraction, that is to say, they +are represented in England by translations only. Chaucer +indeed is a mine of material suitable for the novel, but +the father of English literature elected to write in verse, +and his <cite>Canterbury Tales</cite> have no appreciable influence +upon the later prose story. For some reason, the mediaeval +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +prose narrative seems to have been confined to the +so-called Celtic races. Certainly, both the romance of +chivalry and the <em>novella</em> are to be traced back to French +sources. The <em>novella</em>, which, at our period, had become +thoroughly naturalized in Italy, under the auspices of +Boccaccio, had originally sprung from the <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fabliaux</em> of +13th century France. Nor was the <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fabliau</em> the only +article of French production which found a new and +more stimulative home across the Alps; for just as it is +possible to trace the German Reformation back, through +Huss, to its birth in Wycliff's England, so French critics +have delighted to point out that the Italian Renaissance +itself was but an expansion of an earlier Renaissance in +France, which, for all the strength and maturity it +gained under its new conditions, lost much of that +indescribable flavour of direct simplicity and gracious +sweetness which breathes from the pages of <cite>Aucassin +and Nicolette</cite> and its companion <cite>Amis and Amile</cite>. +Under Charles VIII. and his successors this Renaissance +was carried home, as it were, to die—so subtle is the ebb +and flow of intellectual influences between country and +country. In England the <em>novella</em>, of which Chaucer had +made ample use, first appeared in prose dress from the +printing-press of Caxton's successor, Wynkyn de Worde. +The Dutch printer had also published Lord Berners' +translation of <cite>Huon of Bordeaux</cite>, the best romance of +chivalry belonging to the Charlemagne cycle. But, +before the dawn of the 16th century Malory had already +given us <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Morte D'Arthur</cite>, from the Arthurian cycle, +printed, as everyone knows, by the industrious Caxton +himself. Thus, if we neglect, as I think we may, translations +from the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gesta Romanorum</cite>, we may say that the +prose narrative appeared in England simultaneously +with the printing-press, a fact which is more than coincidence; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +since the multiplication of books, which Caxton +began, decreased the necessity for remembering tales; +and therefore it was now possible to dispense with the +aid of verse; in fact Caxton deprived the minstrel of his +occupation.</p> + +<p>Of the third form of prose narrative—the moral +Court treatise—we have already said something. It had +appeared in Italy and in Spain, and our connexion with +it came from the latter country, through Berners' translation +of the <cite>Golden Boke</cite> of Guevara. So slight was +the thread of narrative running through this book, that +one would imagine at first sight that it could have little +to do with the history of our novel. And yet in comparison +with its importance in this respect the <em>novella</em> +and the romance of chivalry are quite insignificant. +The two latter never indeed lost their popularity during +the Elizabethan age, but they had ceased to be considered +respectable—a very different thing—before that +age began. The first cause of their fall in the social +scale was the disapprobation of the humanists. Ascham, +echoing Plato's condemnation of Homer, attacks the +romance of chivalry from the moral point of view, at the +same time cunningly associating it with "Papistrie." +But he holds the <em>novella</em> even in greater abhorrence, for, +after declaring that the whole pleasure of the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Morte +D'Arthur</cite> "standeth in two speciall poyntes, in open +mans slaughter, and bold bawdrye," he goes on to say: +"and yet ten <cite>Morte Arthurs</cite> do not a tenth part so much +harm as one of those bookes, made in Italy and translated +in England<a name="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>."</p> + +<p>But there were social as well as moral reasons for the +depreciation of Malory and Boccaccio. The taste of the +age began to find these foreign dishes, if not unpalatable, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +at least not sufficiently delicate. England was fortunate +in receiving the Reformation and the Renaissance at the +same time; and the men of those "spacious times" set +before their eyes that ideal of the courtier, so exquisitely +embodied by Sir Philip Sidney, in which godliness was +not thought incompatible with refinement of culture and +graciousness of bearing. For the first time our country +became civilized in the full meaning of that word, and +the knight, shedding the armour of barbarism, became +the gentleman, clothed in velvet and silk. The romance +of chivalry, therefore, became old-fashioned; and it +seemed for a time doomed to destruction until it received +a new lease of life, purged of mediaevalism and modernised +by the hands of Sidney himself, under the guise of +arcadianism. While, however, <cite>Arcadia</cite> remained an undiscovered +country, the needs of the age were supplied +by the "moral Court treatise." It was perhaps not so +much that the old stories found little response in the +new form of society, as that they did not reflect that +society. We may well believe that the taste for mirrors, +which now became so fashionable, found its psychological +parallel in the desire of the Elizabethans to discover +their own fashions, their own affectations, themselves, +in the stories they read; and if this indeed be what is +meant by realism in literature that quality in the novel +dates from those days. In this sense if in no other, in +the sense that he held, for the first time, a polished +mirror before contemporary life and manners, Lyly must +be called the first of English novelists.</p> + +<p><cite>The Anatomy of Wit</cite>, which it is most important to +distinguish from its sequel, was the descendant in the +direct line from the "moral Court treatise." Something +perhaps of the atmosphere of the <em>novella</em> clung about its +pages, but that was only to be expected: Lyly added +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +incident to the bare scheme of discourses, and for that +he had no other models but the Italians. But Guevara +was his real source. Dr Landmann's verdict, that +"Euphuism is not only adapted from Guevara's <em lang="es" xml:lang="es">alto +estilo</em>, but <cite>Euphues</cite> itself, as to its contents, is a mere +imitation of Guevara's enlarged biography of Marcus +Aurelius," has certainly been shown by Mr Bond to be +a gross overstatement; yet there can be no doubt that +the <cite>Diall of Princes</cite> was Lyly's model on the side of +matter, as was Pettie's <cite>Pallace</cite> on the side of style. Our +author's debt to the Spaniard is seen in a correspondence +between many parts of his book and the <cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Aureo Libro</cite>, in +certain of the concluding letters and discourses, and in +many other ways which Mr Bond has patiently noted<a name="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>. +Guevara, however, was but one among many previous +writers to whom Lyly owed obligations. <cite>Euphues</cite> was +justly styled by its author "compiled," being in fact +a mosaic, pieced together from the classics, and especially +Plutarch, Pliny, and Ovid, and from previous English +writers such as Harrison, Heywood, Fortescue, and +Gascoigne; names that indicate the course of literary +"browsing" that Lyly substituted for the ordinary +curriculum at Oxford. To mention all the authors from +whom he borrowed, and to point out the portions of +his novel which are due to their several influences, +would only be to repeat a task already accomplished +by Mr Bond<a name="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>.</p> + +<p>Allowing for all its author's "picking and stealing," +<cite>The Anatomy of Wit</cite> was in the highest sense an original +book; for, though it is the old moral treatise, its form is +new, and it is enlivened by a thin thread of narrative. +The hero Euphues is a young man lately come from +Athens, which is unmistakeably Oxford, to Naples, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +which is just as unmistakeably London. Here he soon +becomes the centre of a convivial circle, where he is wise +enough to distinguish between friend and parasite, to +discern the difference between the "faith of Laelius +and the flattery of Aristippus." The story thus opens +bravely, but the words of the title-page, "most necessary +to remember," are ever present in the author's mind, +and before we have reached the fourth page the sermon +is upon us. For "conscience" attired as an old man, +Eubulus, now enters the stage of this Court <em>morality</em> and +proceeds to deliver a long harangue upon the folly of +youth, concluding with much excellent though obvious +counsel. We should be in sympathy with the rude +answer of Euphues, were it but curt at the same time, +but, alas, it covers six pages. Having thus imprudently +crushed the "wisdom of eld" by the weight of his +utterance, our hero shows his natural preference for the +companionship and counsel of youth, by forming an +ardent friendship with Philautus, of so close a nature, +that "they used not only one boorde but one bed, one +booke (if so be that they thought it not one too many)." +This alliance, however, is not concluded until Euphues +has given us his own views, together with those of half +antiquity, upon the subject of friendship, or before he +has formally professed his affection in a pompous address, +beginning "Gentleman and friend," and has been +as formally accepted. By Philautus he is introduced to +Lucilla, the chief female character of the book, a lady, +if we are to believe the description of her "Lilly cheeks +dyed with a Vermilion red," of startling if somewhat +factitious beauty. To say that the plot now thickens +would be to use too coarse a word; it becomes slightly +tinged with incident, inasmuch as Euphues falls in +love with Lucilla, the destined bride of Philautus. She +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +reciprocates his passion, and the double fickleness of +mistress and friend forms an excellent opportunity, +which Lyly does not fail to seize, for infinite moralizings +in euphuistic strains. Philautus is naturally indignant +at the turn affairs have taken, and the former friends +exchange letters of recrimination, in which, however, +their embittered feelings are concealed beneath a vast +display of classical learning. But Nemesis, swift and +sudden, awaits the faithless Euphues. Lucilla, it turns +out, is subject to a mild form of erotomania and is +constitutionally fickle, so that before her new lover has +begun to realise his bliss she has already contracted +a passion for some other young gentleman. Thus, +struck down in the hour of his pride and passion, +Euphues becomes "a changed man," and bethinks himself +of his soul, which he has so long neglected. This is +the turning-point of the book, the turning-point of half +the English novels written since Lyly's day. The +remainder of the <cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite> is taken up with what +may be described as the private papers of Euphues, +consisting of letters, essays, and dialogues, including +<cite>A Cooling Carde for all Fond Lovers</cite>, a treatise on +education, and a refutation of atheism, and so amid the +thunders of the artillery of platitude the first part of +<cite>Euphues</cite> closes.</p> + +<p>Professor Raleigh's explanation of this tedious +moralizing is that Lyly, wit and euphuist, possessed +the Nonconformist conscience: "Beneath the courtier's +slashed doublet, under his ornate brocade and frills, there +stood the Puritan." This I believe to be a mistaken +view of the case. As we shall later see reason to suppose, +Lyly never became, as did his acquaintance Gosson, a +very seriously-minded person. Certainly <cite>Euphues</cite> does +not prove that Puritanism was latent in him. The moral +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +atmosphere which pervades it was not of Lyly's invention; +he inherited it from his predecessors Guevara +and Castiglione, and he employed it because he knew +that it was expected of him. That he moralized not so +much from conviction as from convention (to use a +euphuism), is, I think, sufficiently proved by the fact +that in the second part of his novel, where he is addressing +a new public, the pulpit strain is much less frequent, +while in his plays it entirely disappears. The <cite>Anatomy +of Wit</cite> is essentially the work of an inexperienced writer, +feeling his way towards a public, and without sufficient +skill or courage to dispense with the conventions which +he has inherited from previous writers. One feels, while +reading the book, that Lyly was himself conscious that +his hero was an insufferable coxcomb, and that he only +created him because he wished to comply with the +public taste. It may be, as M. Jusserand asserts, that +Lyly anticipated Richardson, but, if the light-hearted +Oxford madcap had any qualities in common with the +sedate bookseller, artistic sincerity was not one of them.</p> + +<p>What has just been said is not entirely applicable to +the treatise on education which passed under the title of +<cite>Euphues and his Ephoebus</cite>. Although simply an adaptation +of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Educatione</cite> of Plutarch, it was not entirely +devoid of originality. Here we find the famous attack +upon Oxford, which was, we fear, prompted by a desire +to spite the University authorities rather than by any +earnest feeling of moral condemnation. But in addition +to this there are contributions of Lyly's own invention +to the theory of teaching which are not without merit. +He was, as we have seen, interested in education. It +seems even possible that he had actually practised as +a master before the <cite>Euphues</cite> saw light<a name="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>; and, therefore, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +we have every reason to suppose that this little treatise +was a labour of love. Possibly Ascham's <cite>Schoolmaster</cite> +inspired him with the idea of writing it. Certainly, when +we have allowed everything for Plutarch's work, enough +remains over to justify Mr Quick's inclusion of John +Lyly, side by side with Roger Ascham, in his <cite>Educational +Reformers</cite>.</p> + +<p>But such excellent work has but little to do with the +business of novel-writing, and, when we turn to this +aspect of the <cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite>, there is little to be said +for it from the aesthetic point of view. Indeed, it cannot +strictly be called a novel at all. It is the bridge between +the moral Court treatise and the novel, and, as such, all +its aesthetic defects matter little in comparison with its +dynamical value. It was a great step to hang the chestnuts +of discourse upon a string of incident. The story +is feeble, the plot puerile, but it was something to have +a story and a plot which dealt with contemporary life. +And lastly, though characterization is not even attempted, +yet now and again these euphuistic puppets, distinguishable +only by their labels, are inspired with something +that is almost life by a phrase or a chance word.</p> + +<p>I have said that it is very important to distinguish +between the two parts of <cite>Euphues</cite>. Two years only +elapsed between their respective publications, but in +these two years Lyly, and with him our novel, had +made great strides. In 1578 he was not yet a novelist, +though the conception of the novel and the capacity for +its creation were, as we have just shown, already forming +in his brain. In 1580, however, the English novel had +ceased to be merely potential; for it had come into being +with the appearance of <cite>Euphues and his England</cite>. Here +in the same writer, in the same book, and within the +space of two years, we may observe one of the most +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +momentous changes of modern literature in actual process. +The <cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite> is still the moral Court +treatise, coloured by the influence of the Italian <em>novella</em>; +<cite>Euphues and his England</cite> is the first English novel. +Lyly unconsciously symbolizes the change he initiated +by laying the scene of his first part in Italy, while in +the second he brings his hero to England. That sea +voyage, which provoked the stomach of Philautus sore, +was an important one for us, since the freight of the +vessel was nothing less than our English novel.</p> + +<p>The difference between the two parts is remarkable +in more ways than one, and in none more so than in the +change of dedication. The <cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite>, as was +only fitting in a moral Court treatise, was inscribed to +the gentleman readers; <cite>Euphues and his England</cite>, on the +other hand, made an appeal to a very different class of +readers, and a class which had hitherto been neglected +by authors—"the ladies and gentlewomen of England." +With the instinct, almost, of a religious reformer, Lyly +saw that to succeed he must enlist the ladies on his side. +And the experiment was so successful that I am inclined +to attribute the pre-eminence of Lyly among other +euphuists to this fact alone. "Hatch the egges his +friendes had laid" he certainly did, but he fed the +chicks upon a patent food of his own invention. +Mr Bond suggests that the general attention which the +<cite>Anatomy</cite> secured by its attacks upon women gave Lyly +the idea for the second part. But, though this was probably +the immediate cause of his change of front, something +like <cite>Euphues and his England</cite> must have come +sooner or later, because all the conditions were ripe for +its production. Side by side with the ideal of the +courtier had arisen the ideal of the cultured lady. +Ascham, visiting Lady Jane Grey, "founde her in her +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +chamber reading <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phaedon Platonis</cite> in Greeke and that +with as much delite, as some gentlemen would read a +merie tale in Bocase<a name="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>"; and, when a Queen came to the +throne who could talk Greek at Cambridge, the fashion +of learning for ladies must have received an immense +impetus. With a "blue stocking" showing on the royal +footstool, all the ladies of the Court would at least lay +claim to a certain amount of learning. Dr Landmann +has attributed the vogue of euphuism, at least in part, to +feminine influences, but in so far as England shared that +affectation with the other Courts of Europe, where the +fair sex had not yet acquired such freedom as in England, +we must not press the point too much in this direction. +The importance in English literature of that "monstrous +regiment of women," against which John Knox blew his +rude trumpet so shamelessly, is seen not so much in the +style of <cite>Euphues</cite> as in its contents; indeed, in the second +part of that work euphuism is much less prominent than +in the first. The romance of chivalry and the Italian +tale would be still more distasteful to the new woman +than they were to the new courtier. Doubtless Boccaccio +may have found a place in many a lady's secret bookshelf +as Zola and Guy de Maupassant do perchance to-day, +but he was scarcely suitable for the boudoir table +or for polite literary discussion. Something was needed +which would appeal at once to the feminine taste for +learning and to the desire for delicacy and refinement. +This want was only partially supplied by the moral +Court treatise, which was ostensibly written for the +courtier and not the maid-in-waiting. What was required +was a book expressly provided for the eye of +ladies—such a book, in fact, as <cite>Euphues and his England</cite>. +Lyly's discovery of this new literary public and its +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +requirements was of great importance, for have not the +ladies ever since his day been the patrons and purchasers +of the novel? What would happen to the literary market +to-day were our mothers, wives, and sisters to deny themselves +the pleasure of fiction? The very question would +send the blood from Mr Mudie's lips. The two thousand +and odd novels which are published annually in this +country show the existence of a large leisured class in +our community, and this class is undoubtedly the feminine +one. The novel, therefore, owes not only its birth, +but its continued existence down to our own day, to the +"ladies and gentlewomen of England"; and this dedication +may be taken as a general one for all novels +since Lyly's time. "<cite>Euphues</cite>," he writes, "had rather lye +shut in a Ladye's casket than open in a scholar's studie," +and he continues, "after dinner you may overlooke him +to keepe you from sleepe, or if you be heavie, to bring +you to sleepe … it were better to hold <cite>Euphues</cite> in your +hands though you let him fall, when you be willing to +winke, then to sowe in a clout, and pricke your fingers +when you begin to nod<a name="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>." "With <cite>Euphues</cite>," remarks +M. Jusserand, "commences in England the literature of +the drawing-room<a name="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>"; and the literature of the drawing-room +is to all intents and purposes the novel.</p> + +<p>All the faults of its predecessor are present in <cite>Euphues +and his England</cite>, but they are not so conspicuous. The +euphuistic garb and the mantle of the prophet Guevara +sit more lightly upon our author. In every way his +movements are freer and bolder; having gained confidence +by his first success, he now dares to be original. +The story becomes at times quite interesting, even for +a modern reader. At its opening Euphues and Philautus, +who have come to terms on a basis of common condemnation +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +of Lucilla, are discovered on their way to +England. By way of enlivening the weary hours, our +hero, ever ready to play the preacher now that he has +ceased to be the warning, delivers himself of a lengthy, +but highly edifying tale, which evokes the impatient +exclamation of Philautus already quoted; we may however +notice as a sign of progress that Euphues has +substituted a moral narrative for his usual discourse. +The relations between the two friends have become +distinctly amusing, and might, in abler hands, have +resulted in comic situation. Euphues, having learnt the +lesson of the burnt child, is now a very grave person, +proud of his own experience and of its fruits in himself. +Extremes met,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Where pinched ascetic and red sensualist<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Alternately recurrent freeze and burn,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">and it is interesting to note that Euphues embodies +many of the characteristics of the Byronic hero—his +sententiousness, his misogyny, his cynicism born of disillusionment, +and his rhetorical flatulency; but he is no +rebel like Manfred because he finds consolation in his +own pre-eminence in a world of platitude. Conscious +of his dearly bought wisdom, he makes it his continuous +duty, if not pleasure, to rebuke the over-amorous +Philautus, who was at least human, and to enlarge upon +the infidelity of the opposite sex. Lyly failed to realise +the possibilities of this antagonism of character, because +he always appears to be in sympathy with his hero, and +so misses an opportunity which would have delighted +the heart of Thackeray. I say "appears," because I +consider that this sympathy was nothing but a pose +which he considered necessary for the popularity of his +book. It is important however to observe that the idea +of one character as a foil to another, though undeveloped, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +is here present for the first time in our national +prose story.</p> + +<p>The tale ended and the voyage over, our friends +arrive in England, where after stopping at Dover "3 or +4 days, until they had digested ye seas, and recovered +their healths," they proceeded to Canterbury, at which +place they fell in with an old man named Fidus, who +gave them entertainment for body and mind. To those +who have conscientiously read the whole history of +Euphues up to this point, the incident of Fidus will +appear immensely refreshing. It seems to me, in fact, +to mark the highest point of Lyly's skill as a novelist, +doubtless because he is here drawing upon his memory<a name="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> +and not his imagination. The old gentleman, very +different from his prototype Eubulus, moves quite +humanly among his bees and flowers, and tells the +graceful story of his love with a charm that is almost +natural. And, although he checks the action of the +story for thirty-three pages, we are sorry to take leave +of this "fatherlye and friendlye sire"; for he lays for +a time the ghost of homily, which reappears directly +his guests begin to "forme their steppes towards +London." Having reached the Court, in due time +Philautus, in accordance with the prophecies of Euphues +though much to his disgust, falls in love. The lady of +his choice, however, has unfortunately given her heart +to another, by name Surius. The despondent lover, +after applying in vain to an Italian magician for a love-philtre, +at length determines to adopt the bolder line of +writing to his scornful lady. The letter is conveyed in +a pomegranate, and the incident of its presentation is +prettily conceived and displays a certain amount of +dramatic power. The upshot is that Philautus eventually +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +finds a maiden who is unattached and who is ready to +return love for love. Her he marries, and remains +behind with "his Violet" in England, while Euphues, +less happy than self-satisfied, returns to Athens. The +interest of the latter half of the book centres round the +house of Lady Flavia, where the principal characters +of both sexes meet together and discuss the philosophy +of love and the psychology of ladies. Such intellectual +gatherings were a recognised institution at Florence at +this time, being an imitation of Plato's symposium, and +Lyly had already attempted, not so successfully as here, +to describe one in the house of Lucilla of the <cite>Anatomy +of Wit</cite>.</p> + +<p>In every way <cite>Euphues and his England</cite> is an improvement +upon its predecessor. The story and plot +are still weak, but the situations are often well thought +out and treated with dramatic effect. The action indeed +is slow, but it moves; and in the story of Fidus it +moves comparatively quickly. Such motion of course +can scarcely ruffle the mental waters of those accustomed +to the breathless whirlwinds which form the +heart of George Meredith's novels; but these whirlwinds +are as directly traceable to the gentle but fitful agitation +of <cite>Euphues</cite>, as was the storm that overtook Ahab's +chariot to the little cloud undiscerned by the prophet's +eye. The figures, again, that move in Lyly's second +novel are no longer clothes filled with moral sawdust. +The character of Philautus is especially well drawn, +though at times blurred and indistinct. Lyly had not +yet passed the stage of creating types, that is of portraying +one aspect and an obvious one of such a +complex thing as human nature. But a criticism which +would be applicable to Dickens is no condemnation of +an Elizabethan pioneer. It was much to have attempted +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +characterization, and in the case of Philautus, Iffida, +Camilla, and perhaps "the Violet" the attempt was +nearly if not quite successful. It is noticeable that for +one who was afterwards to become a writer of comedy, +Lyly shows a remarkable absence of humour in these +novels. Now and again we seem trembling on the +brink of humour, when the young wiseacre is brought +into contact with his weak-hearted friend, but the line +is seldom actually crossed. Wit, as Lyly here understood +it, had nothing of the risible in it; for it meant +to him little more than a graceful handling of obvious +themes.</p> + +<p>But the importance of <cite>Euphues</cite> was in its influence, +not in its actual achievement. And here again we must +reassert the significance of Lyly's appeal to women. +"That noble faculty," as Macaulay expresses it, "whereby +man is able to live in the past and in the future in the +distant and in the unreal," is rarely found in the opposite +sex. They delight in novelty, their minds are of a practical +cast, and their interests almost invariably lie in the +present. The names of Jane Austen, George Eliot, and +Mrs Humphry Ward are sufficient to show how entirely +successful a woman may be in delineating the life around +her. If there is any truth in this generalization, it was +no mere coincidence that the first English romance +dealing with contemporary life was written expressly for +the ladies of Elizabeth's Court. The alteration in the +face of social life, brought about by the recognition of +the feminine claim and hastened no doubt by the fact +that England, Scotland, and France were at this period +under the rule of three ladies of strong character, was +inevitably attended with great changes in literature. +This change is first expressed by Lyly in his second +novel and later in his dramas. The mediaeval conception +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +of women, a masculine conception, now underwent +feminine correction; and what is perhaps of more importance +still, the conception of man undergoes transformation +also. The result is that the centre of gravity +of the story is now shifted. Of old it had treated of +deeds and glorious prowess for the sake of honour, or +more often for the sake of some anaemic damsel; now +it deals with the passion itself and not its knightly +manifestations,—with the very feelings and hearts of the +lovers. In other words under the auspices of Elizabeth +and her maids of honour, the English story becomes +subjective, feminine, its scene is shifted from the battlefield +and the lists to the lady's boudoir; it becomes a +novel. "We change lance and war-horse, for walking-sword +and pumps and silk stockings. We forget the +filletted brows and wind-blown hair, the zone, the flowing +robe, the sandalled or buskined feet, and feel the dawning +empire of the fan, the glove, the high-heeled shoe, +the bonnet, the petticoat, and the parasol<a name="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>": in fact we +enter into the modern world. At the first expression of +this change in literature <cite>Euphues and his England</cite> is of +the very greatest interest. Characters in fiction now for +the first time move before a background of everyday +life and discuss matters of everyday importance. And, +as if Lyly wished to leave no doubt as to his aims and +methods, he gives at the conclusion of his book that interesting +description of Elizabethan England entitled +<cite>A glasse for Europe</cite>.</p> + +<p>It is however in Lyly's treatment of the subject of +love that the change is most conspicuous. The subtleties +of passion are now realised for the first time. We are +shown the private emotions, the secret alternations of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +hope and despair which agitate the breasts of man and +maid, and, more important still, we find these emotions +at work under the restraint of social conditions; the +violent torrent of passion checked and confined by the +demands of etiquette and the conventions of aristocratic +life. The relation between these unwritten laws of our +social constitution and the impetuous ardour of the lover, +has formed the main theme of our modern love stories +in the novel and on the stage. In the days of chivalry, +when love ran wild in the woods, woman was the passive +object either of hunt or of rescue; but the scene of battle +being shifted to the boudoir she can demand her own +conditions with the result that the game becomes infinitely +more refined and intricate. Persons of both +sexes, outwardly at peace but inwardly armed to the +teeth, meet together in some lady's house to discuss the +subject so dangerous to both, and conversation conditioned +by this fact inevitably becomes subtle, allusive, +intense; for it derives its light and shade from the flicker +of that fire which the company finds such a perilous +fascination in playing with. Lyly's work does not exhibit +quite such modernity as this, but we may truthfully +say that his <cite>Euphues and his England</cite> is the psychological +novel in germ.</p> + +<p>Its latent possibilities were however not perceived by +the writers of the 16th century. The style which had in +part won popularity for it so speedily was the cause also +of its equally speedy decline. Like a fossil in the stratum +of euphuism it was soon covered up by the artificial layer +of arcadianism. The novel of Sidney, though its loose and +meandering style marked a reaction against euphuism, +carried on the Lylian tradition in its appeal to ladies. +The <cite>Arcadia</cite>, in no way so modern as the <cite>Euphues</cite>, lies +for that very reason more directly in the line of development<a name="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +for, while the former is linked by the heroical +romance of the seventeenth century to the romance +of this day, the latter's influence is not visible until +the eighteenth century, if we except its immediate +Elizabethan imitators. And yet, as we remarked of +Lyly's prose, a book which received so many editions +cannot have been entirely without effect upon the minds +of its readers and upon the literature of the age. This +influence, however, could have been little more than +suggestive and indirect, and it is quite impossible to +determine its value. Its importance for us lies in the +fact that we can realise how it anticipated the novel of +the 18th and 19th centuries. Not until the days of +Richardson is it possible to detect a Lylian flavour in +English fiction; and even here it would be risky to +insist too pointedly on any inference that might be +drawn from the coincidence of an abridged form of +<cite>Euphues</cite> being republished (after almost a century's +oblivion) twenty years before the appearance of <cite>Pamela</cite>. +A direct literary connexion between Lyly and Richardson +seems out of the question: and the utmost we can +say with certainty is that the novel of the latter, in providing +moral food for its own generation, relieved the +18th century reader of the necessity of going back to +the Elizabethan writer for the entertainment he desired. +As a novelist, therefore, Lyly was only of secondary +dynamical importance, by which I mean that, although +we can rest assured that he exercised a considerable +influence upon later writers, we cannot actually trace +this influence at work; we cannot in fact point to Lyly +as the first of a <em>definite</em> series. The novel like its style +coloured, but did not deflect, the stream of English +literature. And indeed we may say this not only of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +<cite>Euphues</cite> but of Elizabethan fiction as a whole. The +public to which a 16th century novel would appeal was +a small one. Few people in those days could read, and +of these the majority preferred to read poetry; and +though, as we have seen, <cite>Euphues</cite> passed through, for +the age, a considerable number of editions, the circle of +those who appreciated Lyly, Sidney, and Nash must +have been for the most part confined to the Court. And +this accounts for the brevity of their popularity and for +its intensity while it lasted; a phenomenon which is not +seen in the drama, and which is due to the susceptibility +of Court life to sudden changes of fashion. Drama was +the natural form of literature in an age when most people +were illiterate and yet when all were eager for literary +entertainment. Drama was therefore the main current +of artistic production, the prose novel being quite a +minor, almost an insignificant, tributary. Realising then +the inevitable limitations which surrounded our English +fiction at its birth we can understand its infantile +imperfections and the subsequent arrest of its development.</p> + +<p>"The novel held in Elizabeth's time very much the +same place as was held by the drama at the Restoration; +it was an essentially aristocratic entertainment, and the +same pitfall waylaid both, the pitfall of artificiality. +Dryden's audiences and the readers of <cite>Euphues</cite> both +sought for better bread than is made of wheat; both +were supplied with what satisfied them in an elaborate +confection of husks<a name="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>."</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br/> +<span style="font-size: 80%">LYLY THE DRAMATIST.</span></h2> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +So far we have been dealing with those of Lyly's +writings, which, though they are his most famous, form +quite a small section of his work, and exerted an influence +upon later writers which may have been considerable but +was certainly indirect. His plays on the other hand, in the +production of which he spent the better part of his life, +greatly outweigh his novel both in aesthetic and historical +importance. To attempt to estimate Lyly's position as +a novelist and as a prose writer is to chase the will-o'-the-wisp +of theory over the morass of uncertainty; the task +of investigating his comedies is altogether simpler and +more straightforward. After groping our way through +the undergrowth of minor literature, we come out upon +the great highway of Elizabethan art—the drama. Let +us first see how Lyly himself came to tread this same +pathway.</p> + +<p>There is a difference of opinion between Mr Bond +and Mr Baker, our chief authorities, as to the order in +which Lyly wrote his plays<a name="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>. But though Mr Baker +claims priority for <cite>Endymion</cite>, and Mr Bond for <cite>Campaspe</cite>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +both are convinced that our author was already in 1580 +beginning to look to the stage as a larger arena for his +artistic genius than the novel. And from what I have +said of his life at Oxford and his connexion with de Vere, +we need not be surprised that this was so. It would be +well however at this juncture to recapitulate, and in part +to expand those remarks, in order to show more clearly +how Lyly's dramatic bent was formed. Seats of learning, +as we shall see presently, had long before the days of +Lyly favoured the comic muse, and Oxford was no +exception to this rule. Anthony à Wood tells us how +Richard Edwardes in 1566 produced at that University +his play <cite>Palamon and Arcite</cite>, and how her Majesty +"laughed heartily thereat and gave the author great +thanks for his pains"; a scene which would still be fresh +in men's minds five years after, when Lyly entered +Magdalen College. But it is scarcely necessary to stretch +a point here since we know from the <cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite> +that Lyly was a student of Edwardes' comedies<a name="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>. Again, +William Gager, Pettie's "dear friend" and Lyly's fellow-student, +was a dramatist, while Gosson himself tells us +of comedies which he had written before 1577.</p> + +<p>Probably however it was not until he had left Oxford +for London that Lyly conceived the idea of writing +comedy, for we must attribute its original suggestion +to his friend and employer the Earl of Oxford. Edward +de Vere, Burleigh's son-in-law, had visited Italy, and +affected the vices and artificialities of that country, +returning home, we are told, laden with silks and oriental +stuffs for the adornment of his chamber and his person. +He was frequently in debt and still more frequently in +disgrace with the Queen and with his father-in-law. +Dilettante, aesthete, and euphuist, he would naturally +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +attract the Oxford fop, and that Lyly attached himself +to his clique disposes, in my mind at least, of all theories +of his puritanical tendencies. Certainly a Nonconformist +conscience could not have flourished in de Vere's household. +One bond between the Earl and his secretary was +their love of music—an art which played an important +part in the beginning of our comedy.</p> + +<p>In relieving the action of his plays by those songs +of woodland beauty unmatched in literature Shakespeare +was only following a custom set by his predecessors, +Udall, Edwardes, and Lyly, who being schoolmasters +(and the two latter being musicians and holding positions +in choir schools), embroidered their comedies with lyrics +to be sung by the fresh young voices of their pupils. +De Vere, though unconnected with a school, probably +followed the same tradition. For the interesting thing +about him is that he also wrote comedy. Like many +members of the nobility in those days he maintained his +own company of players; and we find them in 1581 +giving performances at Cambridge and Ipswich. His +comedies, moreover, though now lost were placed in the +same rank as those of Edwardes by the Elizabethan +critic Puttenham<a name="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>. Now as secretary of such a man, and +therefore in close intimacy with him, it would be the +most natural thing in the world for Lyly to try his hand +at play-writing, and, if his patron approved of his efforts, +an introduction to Court could be procured, since Oxford +was Lord High Chamberlain, and the play would be +acted. It was to Oxford's patronage, therefore, and +not to his subsequent connexion with the "children of +Powles," that Lyly owed his first dramatic impulse, and +probably also his first dramatic success, for <cite>Campaspe</cite> +and <cite>Sapho</cite> were produced at Court in 1582<a name="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>. His +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +appointment at the choir school of course confirmed his +resolutions and thus he became the first great Elizabethan +dramatist.</p> + +<p>But a purely circumstantial explanation of an important +departure in a man's life will only appear satisfactory +to fatalists who worship the blind god Environment. +And without indulging in any abstruse psychological +discussion, but rather looking at the question from +a general point of view, we can understand how an +intellect of Lyly's type, as revealed by the <cite>Euphues</cite>, +found its ultimate expression in comedy. Comedy, as +Meredith tells us, is only possible in a civilized society, +"where ideas are current and the perceptions quick." +We have already touched upon this point and later we +must return to it again; but for the moment let us +notice that this idea of comedy, though he would have +been quite unable to formulate it in words, was in reality +at the back of Lyly's mind, or rather we should perhaps +say that he quite unconsciously embodied it. He was +<em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par excellence</em> the product of a "social" atmosphere; he +moved more freely within the Court than without; his +whole mind was absorbed by the subtleties of language; +a brilliant conversation, an apt repartee, a well-turned +phrase were the very breath of his nostrils; his ideal +was the intellectual beau. Add to this compound the +ingredient of literary ambition and the result is a comic +dramatist. Lyly, Congreve, Sheridan, were all men +of fashion first and writers of comedy after. In the +author of <cite>Lady Windermere's Fan</cite> we have lately seen +another example—the example of one whose ambition +was to be "the first well-dressed philosopher in the +history of thought." Poems, novels, fairy stories, he +gave us, but it was on the stage of comedy that he +eventually found his true <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">métier</em>. "With <cite>Euphues</cite>," +writes Mr Bond, "we enter the path which leads to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +Restoration dramatists … and in Lucilla and Camilla +we are prescient of Millamant and Belinda<a name="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>." This is +very true, but the statement has a nearer application +which Mr Bond misses. Camilla is the lady who moves +under varied names through all Lyly's plays. The +second part of <cite>Euphues</cite> and the first of Lyly's comedies +are as closely connected psychologically and aesthetically, +as they were in point of time.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_III_I">Section I.</a></span> <i>English Comedy before 1580.</i></h3> + +<p>But when Lyly's creations began to walk the boards, +the English stage was already some centuries old and +therefore, in order to appreciate our author's position, +a few words are necessary upon the development of +our drama and especially of comedy previous to his +time.</p> + +<p>Though the <em>miracle</em> play of our forefathers frequently +contained a species of coarse humour usually put into +the mouth of the Devil, who appears to have been for +the middle ages very much what the "comic muse" is +for us moderns, it is to the <em>morality</em> not to the <em>miracle</em> +that one should look for the real beginnings of comedy +as distinct from mere buffoonery.</p> + +<p>The <em>morality</em> was not so much an offshoot as a complement +of the <em>miracle</em>. They stood to each other, as +sermon does to service. To say therefore that the +<em>morality</em> secularized the drama is to go too far; as well +might we say that Luther secularized Christianity. +What it did, however, was important enough; it severed +the connexion between drama and ritual. The <em>miracle</em>, +treating of the history of mankind from the Creation to +the days of Christ, unfolded before the eyes of its +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +audience the grand scheme of human salvation; the +<em>morality</em> on the other hand was not concerned with +historical so much as practical Christianity. Its object +was to point a moral: and it did this in two ways; +either as an affirmative, constructive inculcator of what +life should be,—as the portrayer of the ideal; or as +a negative, critical describer of the types of life actually +existing,—as the portrayer of the real. It approached +more nearly to comedy in its latter function, but in both +aspects it really prepared the way for the comic muse. +The natural prey of comedy, as our greatest comic +writer has taught us, is folly, "known to it in all her +transformations, in every disguise; and it is with the +springing delight of hawk over heron, hound after fox, +that it gives her chase, never fretting, never tiring, sure +of having her, allowing her no rest." Thus it is that +characters in comedy, symbolizing as they often do some +social folly, tend to be rather types than personalities. +The <em>morality</em>, therefore, in substituting typical figures, +however crude, for the mechanical religious characters of +the <em>miracle</em>, makes an immense advance towards comedy. +Moreover, the very selection of types requires an appreciation, +if not an analysis, of the differences of human +character, an appreciation for which there was no need +in the <em>miracle</em>. In the <em>morality</em> again the action is no +longer determined by tradition, and it becomes incumbent +on the playwright to provide motives for the movements +of his puppets. It follows naturally from this +that situations must be devised to show up the particular +quality which each type symbolizes. We need not +enter the vexed question of the origin of plot construction; +but we may notice in this connexion that the +<em>morality</em> certainly gave us that peculiar form of plot-movement +which is most suitable to comedy. To quote +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +Mr Gayley's words: "In tragedy, the movement must +be economic of its ups and downs; once headed downwards +it must plunge, with but one or two vain recovers, +to the abyss. In comedy, on the other hand, though the +movement is ultimately upward, the crises are more +numerous; the oftener the individual stumbles without +breaking his neck, and the more varied his discomfitures, +so long as they are temporary, the better does he +enjoy his ease in the cool of the day.… Now the +novelty of the plot in the <em>moral</em> play, lay in the fact that +the movement was of this oscillating, upward kind—a +kind unknown as a rule to the <em>miracle</em>, whose conditions +were less fluid, and to the farce, which was too shallow +and superficial<a name="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>."</p> + +<p>If all these claims be justifiable there can be no +doubt that the <em>morality</em> was of the utmost importance +in the history not only of comedy but of English +drama as a whole. Though it was the cousin, not the +child of the <em>miracle</em>, though it cannot be said to have +secularized our drama, it is the link between the ritual +play and the play of pure amusement; it connects the +rood gallery with the London theatre. When Symonds +writes that the <em>morality</em> "can hardly be said to lie in +the direct line of evolution between the <em>miracle</em> and the +legitimate drama" we may in part agree with him; but +he is quite wrong when he goes on to describe it as "an +abortive side-effect, which was destined to bear barren +fruit<a name="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>."</p> + +<p>The real secularization of the drama was in the first +place probably due to classical influences—or, to be +more precise, I should perhaps say, scholastic influences—and +it is not until the 16th century that these influences +become prominent. I say "become prominent," +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +because Terence and Plautus were known from the +earliest times, and Dr Ward is inclined to think that +Latin comedy affected the earlier drama of England to +a considerable extent<a name="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>, although good examples of +Terentian comedy are not found until the 16th century. +Humanism again comes forward as an important +literary formative element. The part which the student +class took in the development of European drama as a +whole has as yet scarcely been appreciated. It is to +scholars that the birth of the secular Drama must be +attributed. Lyly, as we said, made use of his mastership +for the production of his plays, but Lyly was by +no means the first schoolmaster-dramatist. Schools and +universities had long before his day been productive of +drama; our very earliest existing saints' play or <em>marvel</em> +was produced by a certain Geoffrey at Dunstable, "de +consuetudine magistrorum et scholarum<a name="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>." And this +was only natural, seeing that at such places any number +of actors is available and all are supposed to be interested +in literature. It is a remarkable fact, however, +and illustrative of the connexion between comedy and +music, that of all places of education choir schools +seem to have usurped the lion's share of drama. John +Heywood, the first to break away from the tradition of +the <em>morality</em>, was a choir boy of the Chapel Royal, and +afterwards in all probability held a post there as +master<a name="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a>. Heywood's brilliant, but farcical interludes +are too slight to merit the title of comedy, yet he is +of great importance because of his rejection of allegories +and of his use of "personal types" instead of "personified +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +abstractions<a name="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>." It was not until 1540, a few years after +Heywood's interlude <cite>The Play of the Wether</cite>, that pure +English comedy appears, and we must turn to Eton to +discover its cradle, for Nicholas Udall's <cite>Roister Doister</cite> +has every claim to rank as the first completely constructed +comedy in our language—the first comedy of +flesh and blood. Roister smacks of the "miles gloriosus"; +Merygreeke combines the vice with the Terentian rogue; +and yet, when all is said, Udall's play remains a remarkably +original production, realistic and English.</p> + +<p>Next, in point of time and importance, comes +Stevenson's <cite>Gammer Gurton's Needle</cite>, still more +thoroughly English than the last, though quite inferior +as a comedy, and indeed scarcely rising above the level +of farce. Inasmuch, however, as it is a drama of English +rustic life, it is directly antecedent to <cite>Mother Bombie</cite>, +and perhaps also to the picaresque novel. Secular +dramas now began to multiply apace. But keeping our +eye upon comedy, and upon Lyly in particular as we +near the date of his advent, it will be sufficient I think +to mention two more names to complete the chain of +development. From Cambridge, the nurse of Stevenson, +we must now turn to Oxford; and, as we do so, we seem +to be drawing very close to the end of our journey. +Thus far we have had nothing like the romantic comedy—the +comedy of sentiment, of love, the comedy which +is at once serious and witty, and which contains the +elements of tragedy. This appears, or is at least foreshadowed +for the first time, about four years after +Stevenson's "first-rate screaming farce," as Symonds +has dubbed it, in the <cite>Damon and Pithias</cite> of Richard +Edwardes, a writer with whom, as we have seen, Lyly +was thoroughly familiar. Indeed, the play in question +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +anticipates our author in many ways, for example in +the introduction of pages, in the use of English proverbs +and Latin quotations, and in the insertion of songs<a name="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>. +With reference to the last point, we may remark that +Edwardes like Lyly was interested in music, and like +him also held a post in a choir school, being one of the +"gentlemen of the Chapel Royal." In the <cite>Damon and +Pithias</cite> the old <em>morality</em> is once and for all discarded. +The play is entirely free from all allegorical elements, +and is only faintly tinged with didacticism. But we +cannot express the aim of Edwardes better than in his +own words:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"In comedies the greatest skyll is this, lightly to touch<br /></span> +<span class="i1">All thynges to the quick; and eke to frame each person so<br /></span> +<span class="i1">That by his common talke, you may his nature rightly know."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">To touch lightly and yet with penetration, to reveal +character by dialogue, this is indeed to write modern +drama, modern comedy.</p> + +<p>It would seem that between Edwardes and Lyly +there was no room for another link, so closely does the +one follow the other; and yet one more play must be +mentioned to complete the series. This time we are +no longer brought into touch with the classics or with +the scholastic influences, for the play in question is a +translation from the Italian, being in fact Ariosto's +<cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Suppositi</cite>, englished by George Gascoigne<a name="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>. Though +a translation it was more than a transcript; it was +englished in the true sense of that word, in sentiment +as well as in phrase. Its chief importance lies in the +fact that it is written in prose, and is therefore the first +prose comedy in our language. But Mr Gayley would +go further than this, for he describes it as "the first +English comedy in every way worthy of the name." +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +It was written entirely for amusement, and for the +amusement of adults, not of children; and if it were +the only product of Gascoigne's pen it would justify the +remark of an early 17th century critic, who says of this +writer that he "brake the ice for our quainter poets who +now write, that they may more safely swim through the +main ocean of sweet poesy"; for, to quote a modern +writer, "with the blood of the New comedy, the Latin +comedy, the Renaissance in its veins, it is far ahead +of its English contemporaries, if not of its time<a name="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>." The +play was well known and popular among the Elizabethans, +being revived at Oxford in 1582<a name="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>. Shakespeare +used it for the construction of his <cite>Taming of the Shrew</cite>: +and altogether it is difficult to say how much Elizabethan +drama probably owed to this one comedy, which though +Italian in origin was carefully adapted to English taste +by its translator. There can be no doubt that Lyly +studied this among other of Gascoigne's works, and that +he must have learnt many lessons from it, though the +fact does not appear to have been sufficiently appreciated +by Lylian students; for even Mr Bond fails, I +think, to realise its importance.</p> + +<p>This, in brief outline, is the history of our comedy +down to the time when Lyly took it in hand; or should +we not rather say "an introduction to the history of our +comedy"? For true English comedy is not to be found +in any of the plays we have mentioned. Heywood, +Udall, Stevenson, Edwardes, are the names that convey +"broken lights" of comedy, hints of the dawn, nothing +more; and Gascoigne was a translator. The supreme +importance of a writer, who at this juncture produced +eight comedies of sustained merit, and of varying types, +is something which is quite beyond computation. But +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +if we are to attempt to realise the greatness of our debt +to Lyly, let us estimate exactly how much these previous +efforts had done in the way of pioneer work, and how far +also they fell short of comedy in the strict sense of that +word.</p> + +<p>The fifty years which lie between Heywood and Lyly +saw considerable progress, but progress of a negative +rather than a constructive nature, and moreover progress +which came in fits and starts, and not continuously. It +was in fact a period of transition and of individual and +disconnected experiments. Each of the writers above +mentioned contributed something towards the common +development, but not one of them, except Ariosto's +translator, gave us comedy which may be considered +complete in every way. They all display a very +elementary knowledge of plot construction. Udall is +perhaps the most successful in this respect; his plot is +trivial but, well versed as he is in Terence, he manages +to give it an ordered and natural development. But the +other pre-Lylian dramatists quite failed to realise the +vital importance of plot, which is indeed the very essence +of comedy; and, in expending energies upon the development +of an argument, as in <cite>Jacke Jugeler</cite>, which was a +parody of transubstantiation, or upon the construction +of disconnected humorous situations, as in <cite>Gammer +Gurton's Needle</cite>, they missed the whole point of comedy. +Again, though there is a clear idea of distinction and +interplay of characters, there is little perception of the +necessity of developing character as the plot moves +forward. Merygreeke, it may be objected, is an example +of such development, but the alteration in Merygreeke's +nature is due to inconsistency, not to evolution. Moreover, +stage conventions had not yet become a matter of +fixed tradition. "We have a perpetual conflict between +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +what spectators actually see and what they are supposed +to see, between the time actually passed and that supposed +to have elapsed; an outrageous demand on the +imagination in one place, a refusal to exercise or allow +us to exercise it in another<a name="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>." Further, English comedy +before 1580 was marked, on the one hand, by its poetic +literary form and, on the other, by its almost complete +absence of poetic ideas. Lyly, with the instinct of a +born conversationalist, realised that prose was the only +possible dress for comedy that should seek to represent +contemporary life. But even in their use of verse his +predecessors were unsuccessful. Udall seemed to have +thought that his unequal dogtail lines would wag if he +struck a rhyme at the end, and even Edwardes was little +better. The use of blank verse had yet to be discovered, +and Lyly was to have a hand in this matter also<a name="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>. As +for poetical treatment of comedy, Edwardes is the only +one who even approaches it. He does so, because he +sees that the comic muse only ceases to be a mask when +sentiment is allowed to play over her features. And +even he only half perceives it; for the sentiment of +friendship is not strong enough for complete animation, +the muse's eyes may twinkle, but passion alone will give +them depth and let the soul shine through. But, in +order that passion should fill comedy with the breath +of life, it was necessary that both sexes should walk the +stage on an equal footing. That which comedy before +1580 lacked, that which alone could round it off into a +poetic whole, was the female element. "Comedy," writes +George Meredith, "lifts women to a station offering +them free play for their wit, as they usually show it, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +when they have it, on the side of sound sense. The +higher the comedy, the more prominent the part they +enjoy in it." But the dramatist cannot lift them far; +the civilized plane must lie only just beneath the comic +plane; the stage cannot be lighted by woman's wit if +the audience have not yet realised that brain forms +a part of the feminine organism. In the days of Elizabeth +this realisation began to dawn in men's minds; but +it was Lyly who first expressed it in literature, in his +novel and then in his dramas. Those who preceded +him were only dimly conscious of it, and therefore they +failed to seize upon it as material for art. It was at +Court, the Court of a great virgin Queen, that the +equality of social privileges for women was first established; +it was a courtier who introduced heroines into +our drama.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_III_II">Section II.</a></span> <i>The Eight Plays.</i></h3> + +<p>Concerning the order of Lyly's plays there is, as we +have seen, some difference of opinion. The discussion +between Mr Bond and Mr Baker in reality turns upon +the interpretation of the allegory of <cite>Endymion</cite>, and it is +therefore one of those questions of literary probability +which can never hope to receive a satisfactory answer. +Both critics, however, are in agreement as to the proper +method of classification. They divide the dramas into +four categories: historical, of which <cite>Campaspe</cite> is the sole +example; allegorical, which includes <cite>Sapho and Phao</cite>, +<cite>Endymion</cite>, and <cite>Midas</cite>; pastoral, which includes <cite>Gallathea</cite>, +<cite>The Woman in the Moon</cite>, and <cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite>; and +lastly realistic, of which again there is only one example, +<cite>Mother Bombie</cite>. The fault which may be found with this +classification is that the so-called pastoral plays have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +much of the allegorical about them, and it is perhaps +better, therefore, to consider them rather as a subdivision +of class two than as a distinct species.</p> + +<p>For the moment putting on one side all questions of +the allegory of <cite>Endymion</cite>, there are two reasons which +seem to go a long way towards justifying Mr Bond for +placing <cite>Campaspe</cite> as the earliest of Lyly's plays. In the +first place the atmosphere of <cite>Euphues</cite>, which becomes +weaker in the other plays, is so unmistakeable in this +historical drama as to force the conclusion upon us that +they belong to the same period. The painter Apelles, +whose name seemed almost to obsess Lyly in his novel, +is one of the chief characters of <cite>Campaspe</cite>, and the +dialogue is more decidedly euphuistic than any other +play. The second point we may notice is one which can +leave very little doubt as to the correctness of Mr Bond's +chronology. <cite>Campaspe</cite> and <cite>Sapho</cite> were published before +1585, that is, before Lyly accepted the mastership at the +St Paul's choir school, whereas none of his other plays +came into the printer's hands until after the inhibition of +the boys' acting rights in 1591; the obvious inference +being that Lyly printed his plays only when he had no +interest in preserving the acting rights.</p> + +<p>But whatever date we assign to <cite>Campaspe</cite>, there can +be little doubt that it was one of the first dramas in our +language with an historical background. Indeed, <cite>Kynge +Johan</cite> is the only play before 1580 which can claim to +rival it in this respect. But <cite>Kynge Johan</cite> was written +solely for the purpose of religious satire, being an attack +upon the priesthood and Church abuses. It must, therefore, +be classed among those political <em>moralities</em>, of which +so many examples appeared during the early part of the +16th century. <cite>Campaspe</cite>, on the other hand, is entirely +devoid of any ethical or satirical motive. Allegory, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +which Lyly was able to put to his own peculiar uses, +is here quite absent. The sole aim of its author was to +provide amusement, and in this respect it must have +been entirely successful. The play is interesting, and at +times amusing, even to a modern reader; but to those +who witnessed its performance at Blackfriars, and, two +years later, at the Court, it would appear as a marvel of +wit and dramatic power after the crude material which +had hitherto been offered to them. In the choice of his +subject Lyly shows at once that he is an artist with a +feeling for beauty, even if he seldom rises to its sublimities. +The story of the play, taken from Pliny, is that of +Alexander's love for his Theban captive Campaspe, and +of his subsequent self-sacrifice in giving her up to her +lover Apelles. The social change, which I have sought +to indicate in the preceding pages, is at once evident in +this play. "We calling Alexander from his grave," says +its Prologue<a name="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>, "seeke only who was his love"; and the +remark is a sweep of the hat to the ladies of the Court, +whose importance, as an integral part of the audience, is +now for the first time openly acknowledged. "Alexander, +the great conqueror of the world," says Lyly with his +hand upon his heart, "only interests me as a lover." +The whole motive of the play, which would have been +meaningless to a mediaeval audience, is a compliment to +the ladies. It is as if our author nets Mars with Venus, +and presents the shamefaced god as an offering of flattery +to the Queen and her Court. <cite>Campaspe</cite> is, in fact, the +first romantic drama, not only the forerunner of Shakespeare, +but a remote ancestor of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hernani</cite> and the 19th +century French theatre. "The play's defect," says +Mr Bond, "is one of passion"—a criticism which is +applicable to all Lyly's dramas; and yet we must not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +forget that Lyly was the earliest to deal with passion +dramatically. The love of Alexander is certainly unemotional, +not to say callous; but possibly the great +monarch's equanimity was a veiled tribute to the supposed +indifference of the virgin Queen to all matters of +Cupid's trade. Between Campaspe and Apelles, however, +we have scenes which are imbued, if not vitalized, +by passion. Lyly was a beginner, and his fault lay in +attempting too much. Caring more for brilliancy of +dialogue than for anything else, he was no more likely +to be successful here, in portraying passion through conversation +weighted by euphuism, than he had been in his +novel. Yet his endeavour to depict the conflict of masculine +passion with feminine wit, impatient sallies neatly +parried, deliberate lunges quietly turned aside, was in +every way praiseworthy. "A witte apt to conceive and +quickest to answer" is attributed by Alexander to Campaspe, +and, though she exhibits few signs of it, yet in his +very idea of endowing women with wit Lyly leads us on +to the high-road of comedy leading to Congreve.</p> + +<p>In addition to the romantic elements above described, +we have here also that page-prattle which is so characteristic +of all Lyly's plays. These urchins, full of mischief +and delighting in quips, were probably borrowed from +Edwardes, but Lyly made them all his own; and one +can understand how naturally their parts would be played +by his boy-actors. Their repartee, when it is not pulling +to pieces some Latin quotation familiar to them at school, +or ridiculing a point of logic, is often really witty. One +of them, overhearing the hungry Manes at strife with +Diogenes over the matter of an overdue dinner, exclaims +to his friend, "This is their use, nowe do they dine one +upon another." Diogenes again, in whom we may see +the prototype of Shakespeare's Timon, is amusing enough +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +at times with his "dogged" snarlings and sallies which +frequently however miss their mark. He and the pages +form an underplot of farce, upon which Lyly improved +in his later plays, bringing it also more into connexion +with the main plot. In passing, we may notice that few +of Shakespeare's plays are without this farcical substratum.</p> + +<p>Leaving the question of dramatic construction and +characterization for a more general treatment later, we +now pass on to the consideration of Lyly's allegorical +plays. The absence of all allegory from <cite>Campaspe</cite> shows +that Lyly had broken with the <em>morality</em>: and we seem +therefore to be going back, when two years later we have +an allegorical play from his pen. But in reality there is +no retrogression; for with Lyly allegory is not an ethical +instrument. I have mentioned examples of plays before +his day which employed the machinery of the <em>morality</em>, +for the purposes of political and religious satire. The +old form of drama seems to have developed a keen +sensibility to <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">double entendre</em> among theatre-goers. +Nothing indeed is so remarkable about the Elizabethan +stage as the secret understanding which almost invariably +existed between the dramatist and his audience. +We have already had occasion to notice it in connexion +with Field's parody of Kyd. The spectators were always +on the alert to detect some veiled reference to prominent +political figures or to current affairs. Often in fact, as +was natural, they would discover hints where nothing +was implied; and for one Mrs Gallup in modern America +there must have been a dozen in every auditorium of +Elizabethan England. Such over-clever busybodies +would readily twist an innocent remark into treason or +sacrilege, and therefore, long before Lyly's time, it was +customary for a playwright to defend himself in the prologue +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +against such treatment, by denying any ambiguity +in his dialogue. In an audience thus susceptible to +innuendo Lyly saw his opportunity. He was a courtier +writing for the Court, he was also, let us add, anxious to +obtain a certain coveted post at the Revels' Office. He +was an artist not entirely without ideals, yet ever ready +to curry favour and to aim at material advantages by +his literary facility. The idea therefore of writing dramas +which should be, from beginning to end, nothing but an +ingenious compliment to his royal mistress would not be +in the least distasteful to him. But we must not attribute +too much to motives of personal ambition. Spenser's +<cite>Faery Queen</cite> was not published until 1590; but Lyly +had known Spenser before the latter's departure for +Ireland, and, even if the scheme of that poet's masterpiece +had not been confided to him, the ideas which it +contained were in the air. The cult of Elizabeth, which +was far from being a piece of insincere adulation, had +for some time past been growing into a kind of literary +religion. Even to us, there is something magical about +the great Queen, and we can hardly be surprised that the +pagans of those days hailed her as half divine. When +Lyly commenced his career, she had been on the throne +for twenty years, in itself a wonderful fact to those who +could remember the gloom which had surrounded her +accession. Through a period of infinite danger both at +home and abroad she had guided England with intrepidity +and success; and furthermore she had done +all this single-handed, refusing to share her throne with +a partner even for the sake of protection, and yet improving +upon the Habsburg policy<a name="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> by making coquetry +the pivot of her diplomacy. It was no wonder therefore +that,</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"As the imperial votaress passed on<br /></span> +<span class="i1">In maiden meditation fancy free,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">the courtiers she fondled, and the artists she patronized, +should half in fancy, half in earnest, think of her as +something more than human, and search the fables of +their newly discovered classics for examples of enthroned +chastity and unconquerable virgin queens.</p> + +<p>All Lyly's plays except <cite>Campaspe</cite> and <cite>Mother Bombie</cite> +are written in this vein; each, as Symonds beautifully +puts it, is "a censer of exquisitely chased silver, full of +incense to be tossed before Elizabeth upon her throne." +In the three plays <cite>Sapho and Phao</cite>, <cite>Endymion</cite>, and +<cite>Midas</cite> this element of flattery is more prominent than +in the others, inasmuch as they are not only full of compliments +unmistakeably directed towards the Queen, but +they actually seek to depict incidents from her reign +under the guise of classical mythology. It is for this +reason that they have been classified under the label of +allegory. It is quite possible, however, to read and enjoy +these plays without a suspicion of any inner meaning; +nor does the absence of such suspicion render the action +of the play in any way unintelligible, so skilfully does +Lyly manipulate his story. With a view, therefore, to +his position in the history of Elizabethan drama, and to +the lessons which he taught those who came after him, +the superficial interpretation of each play is all that need +engage our attention, and we shall content ourselves +with briefly indicating the actual incident which it +symbolizes.</p> + +<p>The story of <cite>Sapho and Phao</cite> is, very shortly, as +follows. Phao, a poor ferryman, is endowed by Venus +with the gift of beauty. Sapho, who in Lyly's hands +is stripped of all poetical attributes and becomes simply +a great Queen of Sicily, sees him and instantly falls in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +love with him. To conceal her passion, she pretends to +her ladies that she has a fever, at the same time sending +for Phao, who is rumoured to have herbs for such complaints. +Meanwhile Venus herself falls a victim to the +charms she has bestowed upon the ferryman. Cupid is +therefore called in to remedy matters on her behalf. +The boy, who plays a part which no one can fail to +compare with that of Puck in the <cite>Midsummer Night's +Dream</cite>, succeeds in curing Sapho's passion, but, much to +his mother's disgust, won over by the Queen's attractions, +refuses to go further, and even inspires Phao with a +loathing for the goddess. The play ends with Phao's +departure from Sicily in despair, and Cupid's definite +rebellion from the rule of Venus, resulting in his remaining +with Sapho. In this story, which is practically +a creation of Lyly's brain, though of course it is founded +upon the classical tale of Sapho's love for Phao, our +playwright presents under the form of allegory the +history of Alençon's courtship of Elizabeth. Sapho, +Queen of Sicily, is of course Elizabeth, Queen of England. +The difficulty of Alençon's (that is Phao's) ugliness is +overcome by the device of making it love's task to +confer beauty upon him. Phao like Alençon quits the +island and its Queen in despair; while the play is +rounded off by the pretty compliment of representing +love as a willing captive in Elizabeth's Court.</p> + +<p>As a play <cite>Sapho and Phao</cite> shows a distinct advance +upon <cite>Campaspe</cite>. The dialogue is less euphuistic, and +therefore much more effective. The conversation between +Sapho and Phao, in the scene where the latter +comes with his herbs to cure the Queen, is very charming, +and well expresses the passion which the one is too +humble and the other too proud to show.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> +<blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> I know no hearb to make lovers sleepe but +Heartesease, which because it groweth +so high, I cannot reach: for—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> For whom?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> For such as love.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> It groweth very low, and I can never stoop +to it, that—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> That what?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> That I may gather it: but why doe you +sigh so, Phao?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> It is mine use Madame.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> It will doe you harme and mee too: for I +never heare one sighe, but I must sigh't +also.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> It were best then that your Ladyship give +me leave to be gone: for I can but sigh.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> Nay stay: for now I beginne to sighe, I +shall not leave though you be gone. +But what do you thinke best for your +sighing to take it away?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> Yew, Madame.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> Mee?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> No, Madame, yewe of the tree.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sapho.</span> Then will I love yewe the better, and +indeed I think it should make me sleepe +too, therefore all other simples set aside, +I will simply use onely yewe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phao.</span> Doe Madame: for I think nothing in the +world so good as yewe<a name="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>Altogether there is a great increase in general vitality +in this play. Lyly draws nearer to the conception of +ideal comedy. "Our interest," he tells us in his Prologue, +"was at this time to move inward delight not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +outward lightnesse, and to breede (if it might be) soft +smiling, not loud laughing"; and to this end he tends +to minimize the purely farcical element. The pages are +still present, but they are balanced by a group of +Sapho's maids-in-waiting who discuss the subject of love +upon the stage with great frankness and charm. Mileta, +the leader of this chorus, is, we may suspect, a portrait +drawn from life; she is certainly much more convincing +than the somewhat shadowy Campaspe. The figures in +Lyly's studio are limited in number—Camilla, Lucilla, +Campaspe, Mileta, all come from the same mould: in +Pandion we may discover Euphues under a new name, +and the surly Vulcan is only another edition of the +"crabbed Diogenes." And yet each of these types +becomes more life-like as he proceeds, and if the puppets +that he left to his successors were not yet human, they +had learnt to walk the stage without that angularity of +movement and jerkiness of speech which betray the +machine.</p> + +<p>Departing for a moment from the strictly chronological +order, and leaving <cite>Gallathea</cite> for later treatment, +we pass on to <cite>Endymion</cite>, the second of the allegorical +dramas, and, without doubt, the boldest in conception +and the most beautiful in execution of all Lyly's plays. +The story is founded upon the classical fable of Diana's +kiss to the sleeping boy, but its arrangement and development +are for the most part of Lyly's invention: +indeed, he was obliged to frame it in accordance with +the facts which he sought to allegorize. All critics are +agreed in identifying Cynthia with Elizabeth and Endymion +with Leicester, but they part company upon the +interpretation of the play as a whole. The story is +briefly as follows. Endymion, forsaking his former love +Tellus, contracts an ardent passion for Cynthia, who, in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +accordance with her character as moon-goddess, meets +his advances with coolness. Tellus determines to be +revenged, and, by the aid of a sorceress Dipsas, sends +the youth into a deep sleep from which no one can +awaken him. Cynthia learns what has befallen, and +although she does not suspect Tellus, she orders the +latter to be shut up in a castle for speaking maliciously +of Endymion. She then sends Eumenides, the young +man's great friend, to seek out a remedy. This man is +deeply in love with Semele, who scorns his passion, and +therefore, when he reaches a magic fountain which will +answer any question put to it, he is so absorbed with his +own troubles as almost to forget those of his friend. +A carefully thought-out piece of writing follows, for he +debates with himself whether to use his one question for +an enquiry about his love or his sleeping friend. Friendship +and duty conquer at length, and, looking into the +well, he discovers that the remedy for Endymion's sickness +is a kiss from Cynthia's lips. He returns with his +message, the kiss is given, Endymion, grown old after +40 years' sleep, is restored to youth, the treachery of +Tellus is discovered and eventually forgiven, and the +play ends amid a peal of marriage bells. Endymion, +however, is left unmarried, knowing as he does that +lowly and distant worship is all he can be allowed to +offer the virgin goddess. The play, of course, has a +farcical underplot which is only connected very slightly +with the main story by Sir Tophas' ridiculous passion +for Dipsas. His love in fact is presented as a kind of +caricature of Endymion's, and he is the laughing-stock +of a number of pages who gambol and play pranks after +the usual manner of Lyly's boys. The solution of the +allegory lies mainly in the interpretation of Tellus' +character, and I cannot but agree with Mr Bond when +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +he decides that Tellus is Mary Queen of Scots. He is +perhaps less convincing where he pairs Endymion with +Sidney, and Semele with Penelope Devereux, the famous +<cite>Stella</cite>. Lastly we may notice his suggestion that Tophas +may be Gabriel Harvey, which certainly appears to be +more probable than Halpin's theory that Stephen Gosson +is here meant<a name="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>. But the whole question is one of such +obscurity, and of so little importance from the point of +view of my argument, that I shall not attempt to enter +further into it.</p> + +<p>In <cite>Endymion</cite> Lyly shows that his mastership of +St Paul's has increased his knowledge of stage-craft. +For example, while <cite>Campaspe</cite> contains at least four +imaginary transfers in space in the middle of a scene, +<cite>Endymion</cite> has only one: and it is a transfer which +requires a much smaller stretch of imagination than +the constant appearance of Diogenes' tub upon the +stage whenever and wherever comic relief was considered +necessary. There is improvement moreover in +characterization. But the interesting thing about this +play is Shakespeare's intimate knowledge of it, visible +chiefly in the <cite>Midsummer Night's Dream</cite>. The well-known +speech of Oberon to Puck, directing him to +gather the "little western flower," is to all intents and +purposes a beautiful condensation of Lyly's allegory. +One would like, indeed, to think that there was something +more than fancy in Mr Gollancz's suggestion that +Shakespeare when a boy had seen this play of Lyly's +acted at Kenilworth, where Leicester entertained Elizabeth; +little William going thither with his father from +the neighbouring town of Stratford. But however that +may be, <cite>Endymion</cite> certainly had a peculiar fascination +for him; we may even detect borrowings from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +underplot. Tophas' enumeration of the charms of +Dipsas<a name="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> foreshadows Thisbe's speech over the fallen +Pyramus<a name="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>, while, did we not know Lyly's play to be the +earlier, we might suspect the page's song near the sleeping +knight to be a clumsy caricature of the graceful +songs of the fairies guarding Titania's dreams. Again +there are parallels in Shakespeare's earliest comedy +<cite>Love's Labour's Lost</cite>. Sir Tophas, who is undoubtedly +modelled upon Roister Doister, reappears with his page, +as Armado with his attendant Moth. And I have no +doubt that many other resemblances might be discovered +by careful investigation. We cannot wonder +that <cite>Endymion</cite> attracted Shakespeare, for it is the +most "romantic" of all Lyly's plays. Indistinctness of +character seems to be in keeping with an allegory of +moonshine; and even the mechanical action cannot +spoil the poetical atmosphere which pervades the whole. +Here if anywhere Lyly reached the poetical plane. He +speaks of "thoughts stitched to the starres," of "time +that treadeth all things down but truth," of the "ivy +which, though it climb up by the elme, can never get +hold of the beames of the sunne," and the play is full of +many other quaint poetical conceits.</p> + +<p>From the point of view of drama, however, it cannot +be considered equal to the third of the allegorical plays. +As a man of fashion Lyly was nothing if not up to date. +In August 1588 the great Armada had made its abortive +attack upon Cynthia's kingdom, and twelve months were +scarcely gone before the industrious Court dramatist had +written and produced on the stage an allegorical satire +upon his Catholic Majesty Philip, King of Spain. Though +it contains compliments to Elizabeth, <cite>Midas</cite> is more of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +a patriotic than a purely Court play. The story, with +but a few necessary alterations, comes from Ovid's +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Metamorphoses</cite><a name="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>. It is the old tale of the three wishes. +Love, power, and wealth are offered, and Midas chooses +the last. But he soon finds that the gift of turning +everything to gold has its drawbacks. Even his beard +accidentally becomes bullion. He eventually gets rid +of his obnoxious power by bathing in a river. The +fault of the play is that there are, as it were, two sections; +for now we are introduced to an entirely new situation. +The King chances upon Apollo and Pan engaged in a +musical contest, and, asked to decide between them, +gives his verdict for the goat-foot god. Apollo, in +revenge, endows him with a pair of ass's ears. For +some time he manages to conceal them; but "murder +will out," for the reeds breathe the secret to the wind. +Midas in the end seeks pardon at Apollo's shrine, and is +relieved of his ears. At the same time he abandons his +project of invading the neighbouring island of Lesbos, +to which continual references are made throughout the +play. This island is of course England; the golden +touch refers to the wealth of Spanish America, while, +if Halpin be correct, Pan and Apollo signify the Catholic +and the Protestant faith respectively. We may also notice, +in passing, that the ears obviously gave Shakespeare the +idea of Bottom's "transfiguration."</p> + +<p>The weakness of the play, as I have said, lies in its +duality of action. In other respects, however, it is certainly +a great advance on its predecessors, especially in +its underplot, which is for the first time connected satisfactorily +with the main argument. Motto, the royal +barber, in the course of his duties, obtains possession +of the golden beard: and the history of this somewhat +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +unusual form of treasure affords a certain amount of +amusing farcical relief. It is stolen by one of the Court +pages, Motto recovers it as a reward for curing the thief's +toothache, but he loses it again because, being overheard +hinting at the ass's ears, he is convicted of treason by +the pages, and is blackmailed in consequence. From +this it will be seen that the underplot is more embroidered +with incident and is, in every way, better arranged +than in the earlier plays.</p> + +<p>We must now turn to the pastoral plays, <cite>Gallathea</cite>, +<cite>The Woman in the Moon</cite>, and <cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite>, +which we may consider together since their stories, +uninspired by any allegorical purpose beyond general +compliments to the Queen, do not require any detailed +consideration. And yet it should be pointed out that +this distinction between Lyly's allegorical and pastoral +plays is more apparent than real. There are shepherds +in <cite>Midas</cite>, the Queen appears under the mythological +title of Ceres in <cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite>. Such overlapping +however is only to be expected, and the division is at +least very convenient for purposes of classification. +Lyly's pastoral plays form, as it were, a link between +the drama and the masque; indeed, when we consider +that all the Elizabethan dramatists were students of +Lyly, it is possible that comedy and masque may have +been evolved from the Lylian mythological play by a +process of differentiation. It may be that our author +increased the pastoral element as the arcadian fashion +came into vogue, but this argument does not hold of +<cite>Gallathea</cite>, while we are uncertain as to the date of <cite>Love's +Metamorphosis</cite>. None of these plays are worth considering +in detail, but each has its own particular point of +interest. In <cite>Gallathea</cite> this is the introduction of girls +in boys' clothes. As far as I know, Lyly is the first to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +use the convenient dramatic device of disguise. How +effective a trick it was, is proved by the manner in which +later dramatists, and in particular Shakespeare, adopted +it. Its full significance cannot be appreciated by us to-day, +for the whole point of it was that the actors, who +appeared as girls dressed up as boys, were, as the audience +knew, really boys themselves; a fact which doubtless +increased the funniness of the situation. <cite>The Woman in +the Moon</cite> gives us a man disguised in his wife's clothes, +which is a variation of the same trick. But the importance +of <cite>The Woman</cite> lies in its poetical form. Most +Elizabethan scholars have decided that this play was +Lyly's first dramatic effort, on the authority of the +Prologue, which bids the audience</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Remember all is but a poet's dream,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The first he had in Phoebus' holy bower,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">But not the last, unless the first displease."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>But the maturity and strength of the drama argue a +fairly considerable experience in its author, and we shall +therefore be probably more correct if we place it last instead +of first of Lyly's plays, interpreting the words of +the Prologue as simply implying that it was Lyly's first +experiment in blank verse, inspired possibly by the +example of Marlowe in <cite>Tamburlaine</cite> and of Shakespeare +in <cite>Love's Labour's Lost</cite><a name="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a>. But, whatever its date, <cite>The +Woman in the Moon</cite> must rank among the earliest +examples of blank verse in our language, and, as such, +its importance is very great. In <cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite> +there is nothing of interest equal to those points we have +noticed in the other two plays of the same class. The +only remarkable thing, indeed, about it is the absence of +that farcical under-current which appears in all his other +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +plays. Mr Bond suggests, with great plausibility, that +such an element had originally appeared, but that, because +it dealt with dangerous questions of the time, +perhaps with the <cite>Marprelate</cite> controversy, it was expunged.</p> + +<p>It now remains to say a few words upon <cite>Mother +Bombie</cite>, which forms the fourth division of Lyly's +dramatic writings. Though it presents many points +of similarity in detail to his other plays, its general +atmosphere is so different (displaying, indeed, at times +distinct errors of taste) that I should be inclined to assign +it to a friend or pupil of Lyly, were it not bound up with +Blount's <cite>Sixe Court Comedies</cite><a name="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a>, and therein said to be +written by "the onely Rare Poet of that time, the wittie, +comical, facetiously quicke, and unparalleled John Lilly +master of arts." It is clever in construction, but undeniably +tedious. It shows that Lyly had learnt much +from Udall, Stevenson, and Gascoigne, and perhaps its +chief point of interest is that it links these writers to the +later realists, Ben Jonson, and that student of London +life, who is surely one of the most charming of all the +Elizabethan dramatists, whimsical and delightful Thomas +Dekker. <cite>Mother Bombie</cite> was an experiment in the drama +of realism, the realism that Nash was employing so +successfully in his novels. It has been labelled as our +earliest pure farce of well-constructed plot and literary +form, but, though it is certainly on a much higher plane +than <cite>Roister Doister</cite>, it would only create confusion if +we denied that title to Udall's play. Yet, despite its +comparative unimportance, and although it is evident +that Lyly is here out of his natural element, <cite>Mother +Bombie</cite> is interesting as showing the (to our ideas) extraordinary +confusion of artistic ideals which, as I have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +already noticed, is the remarkable thing about the +Renaissance in England. Here we have a courtier, a +writer of allegories, of dream-plays, the first of our +mighty line of romanticists, producing a somewhat +vulgar realistic play of rustic life. There is nothing +anomalous in this. "Violence and variation," which +someone has described as the two essentials of the ideal +life, were certainly the distinguishing marks of the New +Birth; and the men of that age demanded it in their +literature. The drama of horror, the drama of insanity, +the drama of blood, all were found on the Elizabethan +stage, and all attracted large audiences. People delighted +to read accounts of contemporary crime; often these +choice morsels were dished up for them by some famous +writer, as Kyd did in <cite>The Murder of John Brewer</cite>. The +taste for realism is by no means a purely 19th century +product. Moreover, the Elizabethans soon wearied +of sameness; only a writer of the greatest versatility, +such as Shakespeare, could hope for success, or at least +financial success; and it was, perhaps, in order to +revive his waning popularity that Lyly took to realism. +But the child of fashion is always the earliest to +become out of date, and we cannot think that <cite>Mother +Bombie</cite> did much towards improving our author's reputation.</p> + +<p>At this point of our enquiry it will be as well to say +a few words upon the lyrics which Lyly sprinkled broadcast +over his plays. From an aesthetic point of view +these are superior to anything else he wrote. "Foreshortened +in the tract of time," his novel, his plays, have +become forgotten, and it is as the author of <cite>Cupid and +my Campaspe played</cite> that he is alone known to the lover +of literature. There is no need to enter into an investigation +of the numerous anonymous poems which Mr Bond +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +has claimed for him<a name="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>; even if we knew for certain that +he was their author, they are so mediocre in themselves +as to be unworthy of notice, scarcely I think of recovery. +But let us turn to the songs of his dramas, of which there +are 32 in all. These are, of course, unequal in merit, but +the best are worthy to be ranked with Shakespeare's +lyrics, and our greatest dramatist was only following +Lyly's example when he introduced lyrics into his plays. +I have already pointed out that music was an important +element in our early comedy. Udall had introduced +songs into his <cite>Roister Doister</cite>, and we have them also in +<cite>Gammer Gurton</cite> and <cite>Damon and Pithias</cite>, but never, before +Lyly's day, had they taken so prominent a part in +drama, for no previous dramatist had possessed a tithe +of Lyly's lyrical genius. Every condition favoured our +author in this introduction of songs into his plays. He +had tradition at his back; he was intensely interested in +music, and probably composed the airs himself; and +lastly he was master of a choir school, and would +therefore use every opportunity for displaying his pupils' +voices on the stage. Too much stress, however, must +not be laid upon this last condition, because Lyly had +already written three songs for <cite>Campaspe</cite> and four for +<cite>Sapho and Phao</cite> before he became connected with +St Paul's, a fact which points again to de Vere, himself +a lyrist of considerable powers, as Lyly's adviser and +master. Doubts, indeed, have been cast upon Lyly's +authorship of these lyrics on the ground that they are +omitted from the first edition of the plays. But we need, +I think, have no hesitation in accepting Lyly as their +creator, since the omission in question is fully accounted +for by the fact that they were probably written separately +from the plays, and handed round amongst the boys +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +together with the musical score<a name="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>. These songs are of +various kinds and of widely different value. We have, +for example, the purely comic poem, probably accompanied +by gesture and pantomime, such as the song of +Petulus from <cite>Midas</cite>, beginning, "O my Teeth! deare +Barber ease me," with interruptions and refrains supplied +by his companion and the scornful Motto. Many of +these songs, indeed, are cast into dialogue form, sometimes +each page singing a verse by himself, as in "O for +a Bowle of fatt canary." This last is the earliest of +Lyly's wine-songs, which for swing and vigour are among +some of the best in our language, reminding us irresistibly +of those pagan chants of the mediaeval wandering scholar +which the late Mr Symonds has collected for us in his +<cite>Wine, Women, and Song</cite>. The drinking song, "Io +Bacchus," which occurs in <cite>Mother Bombie</cite>, is undoubtedly, +I think, modelled on one of these earlier student +compositions; the reference to the practice of throwing +hats into the fire is alone sufficient to suggest it. But it +is as a writer of the lyric proper that Lyly is best known. +No one but Herrick, perhaps, has given us more graceful +love trifles woven about some classical conceit. Mr +Palgrave has familiarized us with the best, <cite>Cupid and +my Campaspe played</cite>, but there are others only less +charming than this. The same theme is employed in +the following:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"O Cupid! Monarch over Kings!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Wherefore hast thou feet and wings?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Is it to show how swift thou art,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">When thou would'st wound a tender heart?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Thy wings being clipped, and feet held still,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Thy bow so many would not kill.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">It is all one in Venus' wanton school<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Who highest sits, the wise man or the fool!<br /></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +<span class="i2">Fools in love's college<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Have far more knowledge<br /></span> +<span class="i1">To read a woman over,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Than a neat prating lover.<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Nay, 'tis confessed<br /></span> +<span class="i1">That fools please women best<a name="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a>!"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">Another quotation must be permitted. This time it is +no embroidered conceit, but one of those lyrics of pure +nature music, of which the Renaissance poets were so +lavish, touched with the fire of Spring, with the light of +hope, bird-notes untroubled by doubt, unconscious of +pessimism, which are therefore all the more charming +for us who dwell amid sunsets of intense colouring, who +can see nothing but the hectic splendours of autumn. +For the melancholy nightingale the poet has surprise +and admiration, no sympathy:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"What Bird so sings, yet so does wail?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">O 'tis the ravished Nightingale.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Jug, jug, jug, jug, tereu, she cries,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And still her woes at Midnight rise.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Brave prick song! who is't now we hear?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">None but the lark so shrill and clear;<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Now at heaven's gates she claps her wings,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">The Morn not waking till she sings.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Hark, hark, with what a pretty throat<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Poor Robin-red-breast tunes his note.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Hark how the jolly cuckoos sing<br /></span> +<span class="i1">'Cuckoo' to welcome in the spring,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">'Cuckoo' to welcome in the spring<a name="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">This delightful song comes from the first of Lyly's +dramas, and few even of Shakespeare's lyrics can +equal it. Indeed, coming as it does at the dawn of the +Elizabethan era, it seems like the cuckoo herself "to +welcome in the spring."</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Section_III_III">Section III.</a></span> <i>Lyly's dramatic Genius and Influence.</i></h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +Having thus very briefly passed in review the various +plays that Lyly bequeathed to posterity<a name="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>, we must say +a few words in conclusion on their main characteristics, +the advance they made upon their predecessors, and +their influence on later drama.</p> + +<p>In Lyly, it is worth noticing, England has her first +professional dramatist. Unlike those who had gone +before him he was no amateur, he wrote for his living, and +he wrote as one interested in the technical side of the +theatre. They had played with drama, producing indeed +interesting experiments, but accomplishing only what +one would expect from men who merely took a lay +interest in the theatre, and who possessed a certain +knowledge, scholastic rather than technical, of the +methods of the classical playwrights. He, having +probably learnt at Oxford all there was to be known +concerning the drama of the ancient world, came to +London, and, definitely deciding to embark upon the +dramatist's career, saw and studied such <em>moralities</em> and +plays as were to be seen, aided and directed by the +experience and knowledge of his patron: finding in +the <em>moralities</em>, allegory; in the plays of Udall and +Stevenson, farce; in <cite>Damon and Pithias</cite>, a romantic play +upon a classical theme; and in Gascoigne's <cite>Supposes</cite>, +brilliant prose dialogue. That he was induced to make +such a study, and that he was enabled to carry it out so +thoroughly, was due partly, I think, to his peculiar +financial position. As secretary of de Vere, and later +as Vice-master of St Paul's School, he was independent +of the actual necessity of bread-winning, which forced +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +even Shakespeare to pander to the garlic-eating multitude +he loathed, and wrung from him the cry,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Alas, 'tis true I have been here and there<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And made myself a motley to the view,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear" …<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">But, on the other hand, neither post was sufficiently +remunerative to secure for him the comforts, still less +the luxuries, of life. His income required supplementing, +if only for the sake of meeting his tobacco bill, +though I have a strong suspicion that the bills sent in +to him served no more useful purpose than to light his +pipe. But, however, adopting the theatre as his profession, +he would naturally make a serious study of +dramatic art, and, having no need for constantly filling +the maw of present necessity, he could undertake such +a study thoroughly and at his leisure. And to this +cause his peculiar importance in the history of the +Elizabethan stage is mainly due. Next to Jonson, the +most learned of all the dramatists, yet possessing little of +their poetical capacity, he set them the most conspicuous +example in technique and stage-craft, in the science of +play-writing, which they would probably have been far +too busy to acquire for themselves. Lyly's eight dramas +formed the rough-hewn but indispensable foundation-stone +of the Elizabethan edifice. Spenser has been +called the poet's poet, Lyly was in his own days the +playwright's dramatist.</p> + +<p>Of his dramatic construction we have already spoken. +We have noticed that he introduced the art of disguise; +that he varied his action by songs, accompanied perhaps +with pantomime. Mr Bond suggests further that he +probably did much to extend the use of stage properties +and scenery<a name="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a>. But the real importance of his plays lies +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +in their plot construction and character drawing, points +which as yet we have only touched upon. The way in +which he manages the action of his plays shows a skill +quite unapproached by anything that had gone before, +and more pronounced than that of many which came +after. Too often indeed we have dialogues, scenes, and +characters which have no connexion with the development +of the story; but when we consider how frequently +Shakespeare sinned in this respect, we cannot blame +Lyly for introducing a philosophical discussion between +Plato and Aristotle, as in <cite>Campaspe</cite>, or those merry +altercations between his pages which added so much +colour and variety to his plays. However many interruptions +there were, he never allowed his audience to +forget the main business, as Dekker, for example, so +frequently did. Nowhere, again, in Lyly's plays are +the motives inadequate to support the action, as they +were in the majority of dramas previous to 1580. Even +Alexander's somewhat tame surrender of Campaspe is +quite in accordance with his royal dignity and magnanimity; +and, moreover, we are warned in the third act +that the King's love is slight and will fade away at the +first blast of the war trumpet, for as he tells us he is +"not so far in love with Campaspe as with Bucephalus, +if occasion serve either of conflict or of conquest<a name="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>." +In <cite>Endymion</cite> the motives are perhaps most skilfully +displayed, and lead most naturally on to the action, and +in this play, also, Lyly is perhaps most successful in +creating that dramatic excitement which is caused by +working up to an apparent deadlock (due to the +intrigues of Tellus), and which is made to resolve itself +and disappear in the final act. Closely allied with the +development of action by the presentation of motives +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +is the weaving of the plot. And in this Lyly is not so +satisfactory, though, of course, far in advance of his +predecessors. A steady improvement, however, is discernible +as he proceeds. In the earlier plays the page +element does little more than afford comic relief: the +encounters between Manes and his friends, and between +Manes and his master, can hardly be dignified by the +name of plot. It is in <cite>Midas</cite>, as I have already +suggested, that this farcical under-current displays incident +and action of its own, turning as it does upon the +relations of the pages with Motto and the theft of the +beard. Here again the comic scenes, now connected +together for the first time, are also united with the main +story. But the page element by no means represents +Lyly's only attempt at creating an underplot. It will +be seen from the story of <cite>Endymion</cite> related above that +in that play our author is not contented with a single +passion-nexus, if the expression may be allowed, that of +Tellus, Cynthia, and Endymion, but he gives us another, +that of Eumenides and Semele, which has no real connexion +with the action, but which seriously threatens to +interrupt it at one point. Other interests are hinted at, +rather than developed, by the infatuation of Sir Tophas +for Dipsas, and by the history of the latter's husband. +Though <cite>Midas</cite> is more advanced in other ways, it +displays nothing like the complexity of <cite>Endymion</cite>, and +it is moreover, as I have said, cut in two by the want of +connexion between the incident of the golden touch +and that of the ass's ears. Lastly, in <cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite>, +which is without the element of farce, the relations +between the nymphs and the shepherds complete +that underplot of passion which is hinted at in <cite>Sapho</cite>, +in the evident fancy which Mileta shows for Phao, and +developed as we have just noticed in <cite>Endymion</cite>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +In this plot construction and interweaving, Lyly had +no models except the classics, and we may, therefore, +say that his work in this direction was almost entirely +original. The last-mentioned play was produced at +Court some time before 1590, and we cannot doubt, was +attended by our greatest dramatist. At any rate the +lessons which Shakespeare learnt from Lyly in the +matter of plot complication are visible in the <cite>Midsummer +Night's Dream</cite>, which was produced in 1595<a name="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>. The intricate +mechanism of this play, reminding us with its +four plots (the Duke and Hippolyta, the lovers, the +mechanics, and the fairies) of the <em>miracle</em> with its imposing +but unimportant divinities in the Rood gallery, its +main stage whereon moved human characters, its Crypt +supplying the rude comic element in the shape of devils, +and its angels who moved from one level to another +welding the whole together, was far beyond Lyly's +powers, but it was only possible even for Shakespeare +after a thorough study of Lyly's methods.</p> + +<p>As I have previously pointed out, Lyly was not very +successful in the matter of character drawing. Never, +even for a moment, is passion allowed to disturb the +cultured placidity of the dialogue. The conditions under +which his plays were produced may in part account for +this. The children of Paul's could hardly be expected +to display much light and shade of emotion in their +acting, certainly depth of passion was beyond their +scope. But the fault, I think, lies rather in the dramatist +than in the actors. Lyly's mind was in all probability +altogether of too superficial a nature for a sympathetic +analysis of the human soul. That at least is how I interpret +his character. All his work was more "art than +nature," some of it was "more labour than art." On the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +technical side his dramatic advance is immense, but we +may look in vain in his dramas for any of that appreciation +of the elemental facts of human nature which can +alone create enduring art. In their characterization, +Lyly's plays do little more than form a link between +Shakespeare and the old <em>morality</em>. This comes out most +strongly in their peculiar method of character grouping. +By a very natural process the <em>moral</em> type is split up with +the intention of giving it life and variety. Thus we have +those groups of pages, of maids-in-waiting, of shepherds, +of deities, etc., which are so characteristic of Lyly's plays. +There is no real distinction between page and page, and +between nymph and nymph; but their merry conversations +give a piquancy and colour to the drama which +make up for, and in part conceal, the absence of character. +All that was necessary for the creation of character was +to fit these pieces of the <em>moral</em> type together again in a +different way, and to breathe the spirit of genius into +the new creation. We can see Lyly feeling towards this +solution of the problem in his portrayal of Gunophilus, +the clown of <cite>The Woman in the Moon</cite>. This character, +which anticipates the immortal clowns of Shakespeare, +is formed by an amalgamation of the pages in the +previous plays into one comic figure. But Lyly also +attempts to create single figures, in addition to these +group characters which for the most part have little to +do with the action. Often he helps out his poverty of +invention by placing descriptions of one character in the +mouth of another. "How stately she passeth bye, yet +how soberly!" exclaims Alexander watching Campaspe +at a distance, "a sweet consent in her countenance with +a chaste disdaine, desire mingled with coyness, and I cannot +tell how to tearme it, a curst yeelding modestie!"—an +excellent piece of description, and one which is very +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +necessary for the animation of the shadowy Campaspe. +At times however Lyly can dispense with such adventitious +aids. Pipenetta, the fascinating little wench in +<cite>Midas</cite> and one of our dramatist's most successful creations, +needs no other illumination than her own pert +speeches. Diogenes again is an effective piece of work. +But both these are minor characters who therefore receive +no development, and if we look at the more important +personages of Lyly's portrait gallery, we must agree +with Mr Bond<a name="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> that Tellus is the best. She is a character +which exhibits considerable development, and she is also +Lyly's only attempt to embody the evil principle in +woman—a hint for the construction of that marvellous +portrait of another Scottish queen, the Lady Macbeth, +which Lyly just before his death in 1606 may have seen +upon the stage.</p> + +<p>On the whole Lyly is most successful when he is +drawing women, which was only as it should be, if we +allow that the feminine element is the very pivot of true +comedy. This he saw, and it is because he was the first +to realise it and to grapple with the difficulties it entailed +that the title of father of English comedy may be given +him without the least reserve or hesitation. Sapho the +haughty but amorous queen, Mileta the mocking but +tender Court lady, Gallathea the shy provincial lass, and +Pipenetta the saucy little maid-servant, fill our stage for +the first time in history with their tears and their laughter, +their scorn of the mere male and their "curst yeelding +modestie," their bold sallies and their bashful blushes. +Nothing like this had as yet been seen in English +literature. I have already pointed out why it was +that woman asserted her place in art at this juncture. +Yet, although the revolution would have come about in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +any case, all honour must be paid to the man who saw +it coming, anticipated it, and determined its fortunes by +the creation of such a number of feminine characters +from every class in the social scale. And if it be true +that he only gave us "their outward husk of wit and +raillery and flirtation," if it be true that his interpretation +of woman was superficial, that he had no understanding +for the soul behind the social mask, for the emotional +and passionate current, now a quiet stream, now a raging +torrent, beneath the layer of etiquette, his work was none +the less important for that.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Blood and brain and spirit, three<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Join for true felicity."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">Blood his girls had and brain, but his genius was not +divine enough to bestow upon them the third essential. +Yet they were alive, they were flesh, they had wit, and +in this they are undoubtedly the forerunners not only of +Shakespeare's heroines but of Congreve's and of Meredith's—to +mention the three greatest delineators of +women in our language. They are the Undines in the +story of our literature, beautiful and seductive, complete +in everything but soul!</p> + +<p>While realising that woman should be the real +protagonist in comedy, Lyly also appreciated the fact +that skilful dialogue and brilliant repartee are only less +important, and that for this purpose prose was more suitable +than verse. Gascoigne's <cite>Supposes</cite> was his model in +both these innovations, and yet he would undoubtedly +have adopted them of his own accord without any +outside suggestion. And since <cite>The Supposes</cite> was a +translation, <cite>Campaspe</cite> deserves the title of the first purely +English comedy in prose. The <cite>Euphues</cite> had given him +a reputation for sprightly and witty dialogue, he himself +was possibly known at Court as a brilliant conversationalist, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +and therefore when he came to write plays he +would naturally do all in his power to maintain and to +improve his fame in this respect. With his acute sense +of form he would recognise how clumsy had been the +efforts of previous dramatists, and he knew also how +impossible it would be, in verse form, to write witty +dialogue, up to date in the subjects it handled. He +therefore determined to use prose, and, though he manipulates +it somewhat awkwardly in his earlier plays +while still under the influence of the euphuistic fashion, +he steadily improves, as he gains experience of the +function and needs of dialogue, until at length he succeeds +in creating a thoroughly serviceable dramatic +instrument. This departure was a great event in English +literature. Shakespeare was too much of a poet ever to +dispense altogether with verse, but he appreciated the +virtue of prose as a vehicle of comic dialogue, and he +uses it occasionally even in his earliest comedy, <cite>Love's +Labour's Lost</cite>. Ben Jonson on the other hand—perhaps +more than any other Lyly's spiritual heir—wrote nearly +all his comedies in prose. And it is not fanciful I think +to see in Lyly's pointed dialogue, tinged with euphuism, +the forerunner of Congreve's sparkling conversation and +of the epigrammatic writing of our modern English +playwrights.</p> + +<p>Such are the main characteristics of Lyly's dramatic +genius. To attempt to trace his influence upon later +writers would be to write a history of the Elizabethan +stage. In the foregoing remarks I have continually indicated +Shakespeare's debt to him in matters of detail. +<cite>The Midsummer Night's Dream</cite> is from beginning to end +full of reminiscences from the plays of the earlier dramatist, +transmuted, vitalized, and beautified by the genius +of our greatest poet. It is as if he had witnessed in one +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +day a representation of all Lyly's dramatic work, and +wearied by the effort of attention had fallen asleep and +dreamt this <cite>Dream</cite>. <cite>Love's Labour's Lost</cite> is only less +indebted to Lyly; indeed nearly all Shakespeare's plays, +certainly all his comedies, exhibit the same influence: +for he knew his Lyly through and through, and his +assimilative power was unequalled. Shakespeare might +almost be said to be a combination of Marlowe and Lyly +plus that indefinable something which made him the +greatest writer of all time. Marlowe, his master in +tragedy, was also his master in poetry, in that strength +of conception and beauty of execution which together +make up the soul of drama. Lyly, besides the lesson he +taught him in comedy, was also his model for dramatic +construction, brilliancy of dialogue, technical skill, and all +that comprises the science of play-making—things which +were perhaps of more moment to him, with his scanty +classical knowledge, than Marlowe's lesson which he had +little need of learning. And what we have said of +Shakespeare may be said of Elizabethan drama as a +whole. "Marlowe's place," writes Mr Havelock Ellis, +"is at the heart of English poetry"; his "high, astounding +terms" took the world of his day by storm, his gift +to English literature was the gift of sublime beauty, of +imagination, and passion. Lyly could lay claim to none +of these, but his contribution was perhaps of more importance +still. He did the spade-work, and did it once +and for all. With his knowledge of the Classics and of +previous English experiments he wrote plays that, compared +with what had gone before, were models of plot +construction, of the development of action, and even of +characterization. Moreover he was before Marlowe by +some nine years in the production of true romantic +drama, and in his treatment of women. In spite, therefore, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +of Marlowe's immense superiority to him on the +aesthetic side, Lyly must be placed above the author of +<cite>Edward II.</cite> in dynamical importance.</p> + +<p>In connexion with Lyly's influence the question of +the exact nature of his dramatic productions is worth +a moment's consideration. Are they masques or dramas? +and if the latter are they strictly speaking classical or +romantic in form? As I have already suggested, the +answer to the first half of this question is that they were +neither and both. In Lyly's day drama had not yet +been differentiated from masque, and his plays, therefore, +partook of the nature of both. Produced as they were +for the Court, it was natural that they should possess +something of that atmosphere of pageantry, music, and +pantomime which we now associate with the word +masque. But Elizabeth was economical and preferred +plain drama to the expensive masque displays, though +she was ready to enjoy the latter, if they were provided +for her by Leicester or some other favourite. Lyly's +work therefore never advanced very far in the direction +of the masque, though in its complimentary allegories it +had much in common with it. The question as to +whether it should be described as classical rather than +as romantic is not one which need detain us long. It is +interesting however as it again brings out the peculiarity +of Lyly's position. It may indeed be claimed for him +that all sections of Elizabethan drama, except perhaps +tragedy, are to be found in embryo in his plays. I have +said that he was the first of the romanticists, but he was +no less the first important writer of classical drama. +<cite>Gorbuduc</cite> and its like had been tedious and clumsy +imitations, and, moreover, they had imitated Seneca, who +was a late classic. Lyly, though the Greek dramatists +were unknown to him, had probably studied Aristotle's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +<cite>Poetics</cite>, and was certainly acquainted with Horace's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars +Poetica</cite>, and with the comedies of Terence and Plautus. +He was, therefore, an authority on matters dramatic, and +could boast of a learning on the subject of technique +which few of his contemporaries or his successors could +lay claim to, and which they were only too ready to +glean second-hand. And yet, though he was wise +enough to appreciate all that the classics could teach +him, he was a romanticist at heart, or perhaps it would +be better to say that he threw the beautiful and loosely +fitting garment of romanticism over the classical frame +of his dramas. And even in the matter of this frame he +was not always orthodox. He bowed to the tradition of +the unities: but he frequently broke with it; in <cite>The +Woman</cite> alone does he confine the action to one day; +and, though he is more careful to observe unity of place, +imaginary transfers occurring in the middle of scenes +indicate his rebellion against this restriction. Nevertheless, +when all is said, he remains, with the exception of +Jonson, the most classical of all Elizabethan playwrights, +and just as he anticipates the 17th and 18th centuries in +his prose, so in his dramas we may discover the first +competent handling of those principles and restrictions +which, more clearly enunciated by Ben Jonson, became +iron laws for the post-Elizabethan dramatists.</p> + +<p>It is this "balance between classic precedent and +romantic freedom<a name="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>" that constitutes his supreme importance, +not only in Elizabethan literature, but even +in the history of subsequent English drama. From +Lyly we may trace the current of romanticism, through +Shakespeare, to Goethe and Victor Hugo; in Lyly +also we may see the first embodiment of that classical +tradition which even Shakespeare's "purge" could do +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +nothing to check, and which was eventually to lay its +dead hand upon the art of the 18th century. May we +not say more than this? Is he not the first name in a +continuous series from 1580 to our own day, the first +link in the chain of dramatic development, which binds +the "singing room of Powles" to the Lyceum of Irving? +And it is interesting to notice that the principle which +he was the first to express shows at the present moment +evident signs of exhaustion; for its future developments +seem to be limited to that narrow strip of social melodrama, +which lies between the devil of the comic opera +and the deep sea of the Ibsenic problem play. Indeed +it would not be altogether fanciful, I think, to say that +<cite>The Importance of being Earnest</cite> finishes the process that +<cite>Campaspe</cite> started; and to view that process as a circle +begun in euphuism, and completed in aestheticism.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br/> +<span style="font-size: 80%;">CONCLUSION.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +At the beginning of this essay I gave a short account +of the main facts of our author's life, reserving my judgment +upon his character and genius until after the +examination of his works. That examination which +I have now concluded is far too superficial in character +to justify a psychological synthesis such as that advocated +by M. Hennequin<a name="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>. But though this essay cannot +claim to have exhausted the subject of the ways and +means of Lyly's art, yet in the course of our survey we +have had occasion to notice several interesting points in +reference to his mind and character, which it will be well +to bring together now in order to give a portrait, however +inadequate, of the man who played so important a part +in English literature.</p> + +<p>Nash supplies the only piece of contemporary information +about his person and habits, and all he tells us +is that he was short of stature and that he smoked. +But Ben Jonson gives us an unmistakeable caricature +of him under the delightfully appropriate name of +Fastidious Brisk in <cite>Every Man out of His Humour</cite>. +He describes him as a "neat, spruce, affecting courtier, +one that wears clothes well, and in fashion; practiseth +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +by his glass how to salute; speaks good remnants notwithstanding +his base viol and tobacco; swears tersely +and with variety; cares not what lady's favour he belies, +or great man's familiarity: a good property to perfume +the boot of a coach. He will borrow another man's +horse to praise and back him as his own. Or, for a need +can post himself into credit with his merchant, only with +the gingle of his spur and the jerk of his wand<a name="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>." +Allowing for the exaggeration of satire, we cannot +doubt that this portrait is in the main correct. It +indicates a man who follows fashion, even in swearing, +to the excess of foppery, who delights in scandal, who +contracts debts with an easy conscience, and who is +withal a merry fellow and a wit. All this is in accordance +with what we know of his life. We can picture +him at Oxford serenading the Magdalen dons with his +"base viol," or perhaps organizing a night party to +disturb the slumbers of some insolent tradesman who +had dared to insist upon payment; his neat little figure +leading a gang of young rascals, and among them the +"sea-dog" Hakluyt, the sturdy and as yet unconverted +Gosson, the refined Watson, and perchance George +Pettie concealing his thorough enjoyment of the situation +by a smile of elderly amusement. Or yet again we +can see him at the room of some boon companion +seriously announcing to a convulsed assembly his intention +of applying for a fellowship, and when the last +quip had been hurled at him through clouds of smoke +and the laughter had died down, proposing that the +house should go into committee for the purpose of +concocting the now famous letter to Burleigh. When +we next catch a glimpse of him he is no longer the +madcap; he walks with such dignity as his stature +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +permits, for he is now author of the much-talked-of +<cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite>, and one of the most fashionable young +men of the Court. What elaboration of toilet, what +adjustment and readjustment of ruffles and lace, what +bowing and scraping before the glass, preceded that +great event of his life—his presentation to the Queen—can +only be guessed at. But we can well picture him, +following his magnificently over-dressed patron up the +long reception-room, his heart beating with pleasurable +excitement, yet his manners not forgotten in the hour +of his pride, as he nods to an acquaintance and bows +with sly demureness to some Iffida or Camilla. Those +were the days of his success, the happiest period of his +life when, as secretary to the Lord Chamberlain and +associate of the highest in the land, he breathed his +native atmosphere, the praises and flattery of a fickle +world of fashion. But, time-server as he was, he was no +sycophant. Leaving de Vere's service after a sharp +quarrel, he was not ashamed to take up the profession +of teaching in which he had already had some experience. +We see him next, therefore, a master of St Paul's, +engrossed in the not unpleasant duties of drilling his +pupils for the performance of his plays, accompanying +their songs on his instrument, or himself taking his +place on the stage, now as Diogenes in his ubiquitous +tub, and now as the golden-bearded and long-eared +Midas. And last of all he appears as the disappointed, +disillusioned man, "infelix academicus ignotus." A wife +and children on his hands, his occupation gone, his hopes +of the Revels Mastership blasted, he becomes desperate, +and writes that last bitter letter to Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>The man of fashion out of date, the social success +left high and dry by the unheeding current, he died +eventually in poverty, not because he had wasted his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +substance, like Greene, in Bohemia, but because, thinking +to take Belgravia by storm, he had forgotten that the +foundations of that city are laid on the bodies of her +sons. But leaving</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The thrice three muses mourning for the death<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Of Learning late deceased in beggary,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="noindent">let us look more closely into the character of this man, +whose brilliant and successful youth was followed by so +sad an old age.</p> + +<p>In spite of Professor Raleigh and the moralizing of +<cite>Euphues</cite>, we may decide that there was nothing of the +Puritan about him. His life at Oxford, his attachment +to the notorious de Vere, the keen pleasure he took in +the things of this world, are, I think, sufficient to prove +this. His general attitude towards life was one of vigorous +hedonism, not of intellectual asceticism. The ethical +element of <cite>Euphues</cite> links him rather to the already +vanishing Humanism than to the rising Puritanism, +against which all his sympathies were enlisted, as his +contributions to the <cite>Marprelate</cite> controversy indicate. I +have refrained from touching upon these <em>Mar-Martin</em> +tracts because they possess neither aesthetic nor dynamical +importance, being, as Gabriel Harvey—always +ready with the spiteful epigram—describes them, "alehouse +and tinkerly stuffe, nothing worthy a scholar or a +real gentleman." They are worth mentioning, however, +as throwing a light upon the religious prejudices of our +author. He was a courtier and he was a churchman, and +in lending his aid to crush sectarians he thought no more +deeply about the matter than he did in voting as Member +of Parliament against measures which conflicted with his +social inclinations. There was probably not an ounce of +the theological spirit in his whole composition; for his +refutation of atheism was a youthful essay in dialectics, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +a bone thrown to the traditions of the moral Court +treatise.</p> + +<p>If, indeed, he was seriously minded in any respect, it +was upon the subject of Art. Himself a novelist and +dramatist, he displayed also a keen delight in music, and +evinced a considerable, if somewhat superficial, interest +in painting. And yet, though he apparently made it his +business to know something of every art, he was no +sciolist, and, if he went far afield, it was only in order to +improve himself in his own particular branch. All the +knowledge he acquired in such amateur appreciation was +brought to the service of his literary productions. And +the same may be said of his extensive excursions into +the land of books. No Elizabethan dramatist but Lyly, +with the possible exception of Jonson, could marshal +such an array of learning, and few could have turned even +what they had with such skill and effect to their own +purposes. Lyly had made a thorough study of such +classics as were available in his day, and we have seen +how he employed them in his novel and in his plays. +But the classics formed only a small section of the books +digested by this omnivorous reader. If he could not +read Spanish, French, or Italian, he devoured and assimilated +the numerous translations from those languages +into English, Guevara indeed being his chief inspiration. +Nor did he neglect the literature of his own land. Few +books we may suppose, which had been published in +English previous to 1580, had been unnoticed by him. +We have seen what a thorough acquaintance he possessed +of English drama before his day, and how he exhibits +the influence of the writings of Ascham and perhaps +other humanists, how he laid himself under obligation +to the bestiaries and the proverb-books for his euphuistic +philosophy, and how his lyrics indicate a possible study +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +of the mediaeval scholar song-books. In conclusion, it +is interesting to notice that we have clear evidence that +he knew Chaucer<a name="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>.</p> + +<p>Idleness, therefore, cannot be urged against him; nor +does this imposing display of learning indicate a pedant. +Lyly had nothing in common with the spirit of his old +friend Gabriel Harvey, whom indeed he laughed at. +There is a story that Watson and Nash invited a company +together to sup at the Nag's Head in Cheapside, +and to discuss the pedantries of Harvey, and our euphuist +in all probability made one of the party. His erudition +sat lightly on him, for it was simply a means to the end +of his art. Moreover, a student's life could have possessed +no attraction for one of his temperament. Unlike Marlowe +and Greene, he had harvested all his wild oats +before he left Oxford; but the process had refined rather +than sobered him, for his laugh lost none of its merriment, +and his wit improved with experience, so that +we may well believe that in the Court he was more +Philautus than Euphues. In his writings also his aim +was to be graceful rather than erudite; and, ponderous +as his <cite>Euphues</cite> seems to us now, it appealed to its +Elizabethan public as a model of elegance. His art was +perhaps only an instrument for the acquisition of social +success, but he was nevertheless an artist to the fingertips. +Yet he was without the artist's ideals, and this fact, +together with his frivolity, vitiated his writings to a considerable +extent, or, rather, the superficiality of his art +was the result of the superficiality of his soul. Of that +"high seriousness," which Aristotle has declared to be +the poet's essential, he has nothing. Technique throughout +was his chief interest, and it is in technique alone +that he can claim to have succeeded. "More art than +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +nature" is a just criticism of everything he wrote, with +the exception of his lyrics. He was supremely clever, +one of the cleverest writers in our literature when we +consider what he accomplished, and how small was the +legacy of his predecessors; but he was much too clever +to be simple. He excelled in the niceties of art, he +revelled in the accomplishment of literary feats, his +intellect was akin to the intellect of those who in their +humbler fashion find pleasure in the solution of acrostics. +And consequently his writings were frequently as finical +as his dress was fastidious; for it was the form and not +the idea which fascinated him; to his type of mind the +letter was everything and the spirit nothing. Indeed, +the true spirit of art was quite beyond his comprehension, +though he was connoisseur enough to appreciate its presence +in others. Artist and man of taste he was, but he +was no poet. Artist he was, I have said, to the fingertips, +but his art lay at his fingers' ends, not at his soul. +He was facile, ingenious, dexterous, everything but inspired. +He had wit, learning, skill, imagination, but +none of that passionate apprehension of life which +makes the poet, and which Marlowe and Shakespeare +possessed so fully. And therefore it was his fate to be +nothing more than a forerunner, a straightener of the +way; and before his death he realised with bitterness +that he was only a stepping-stone for young Shakespeare +to mount his throne. He was, indeed, the draughtsman +of the Elizabethan workshop, planning and designing +what others might build. He was the expert mathematician +who formulated the laws which enabled Shakespeare +to read the stars. Of the heights and depths of passion +he was unconscious; he was no psychologist, laying bare +the human soul with the lancet; and though now and +again, as in <cite>Endymion</cite>, he caught a glimpse of the silver +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +beauties of the moon, he had no conception of the glories +of the midday sun.</p> + +<p>And yet though he lacked the poet's sense, his wit +did something to repair the defect, and even if it has a +musty flavour for our pampered palates, it saves his +writings from becoming unbearably wearisome; and +moreover his fun was without that element of coarseness +which mars the comic scenes of later dramatists +who appealed to more popular audiences. But it is +quite impossible for us to realise how brilliant his wit +seemed to the Elizabethans before it was eclipsed by +the genius of Shakespeare. Even as late as 1632 Blount +exclaims, "This poet sat at the sunne's table," words +referring perhaps more especially to Lyly's poetical +faculty, but much truer if interpreted as an allusion +to his wit. The genius of our hero played like a dancing +sunbeam over the early Elizabethan stage. Never before +had England seen anything like it, and we cannot wonder +that his public hailed him in their delight as one of the +greatest writers of all time. How could they know that +he was only the first voice in a choir of singers which, +bursting forth before his notes had died away, would +shake the very arch of heaven with the passion and the +beauty of their song? But for us who have heard the +chorus first, the recitative seems poor and thin. The +magic has long passed from <cite>Euphues</cite>, once a name to +conjure with, and even the plays seem dull and lifeless. +That it should be so was inevitable, for the wit which +illuminated these works was of the time, temporary, the +earliest beam of the rising sun. This sunbeam it is +impossible to recover, and with all our efforts we catch +little but dust.</p> + +<p>And yet for the scientific critic Lyly's work is still +alive with significance. Worthless as much of it is from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +the aesthetic point of view, from the dynamical, the +historical aspect few English writers are of greater +interest. Waller was rescued from oblivion and labelled +as the first of the classical poets. But we can claim +more for Lyly than this. Extravagant as it may sound, +he was one of the great founders of our literature. His +experiments in prose first taught men that style was a +matter worthy of careful study, he was among the earliest +of those who realised the utility of blank verse for +dramatic purposes, he wrote the first English novel in +our language, and finally he is not only deservedly recognised +as the father of English comedy, but by his +mastery of dramatic technique he laid such a burden of +obligation upon future playwrights that he placed English +drama upon a completely new basis. Of the three main +branches of our literature, therefore, two—the novel and +the drama—were practically of his creation, and though +his work suffered because it lacked the quality of poetry, +for the historian of literature it is none the less important +on that account.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_CHIEF_AUTHORITIES">LIST OF CHIEF AUTHORITIES.</a></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> +<ul id="bibliography"> +<li><span class="smcap">Arber.</span> The Martin Marprelate Controversy. Scholar's Library.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Ascham, Roger.</span> The Schoolmaster. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Ascham, Roger.</span> Toxophilus. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Baker, G. P.</span> Lyly's Endymion.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Barnefield, Richard.</span> Poems. Arber's Scholar's Library.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Berners, Lord.</span> The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Berners, Lord.</span> Froissart's Chronicles. Globe Edition.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Boas.</span> Works of Kyd. Clarendon Press.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Bond, R. W.</span> John Lyly. Clarendon Press. 3 Vols.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Brunet.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de Libraire.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Butler Clarke.</span> Spanish Literature.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Child, C. G.</span> John Lyly and Euphuism. <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Münchener Beiträge</cite> <span class="smcap">vii</span>.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Craik, Sir H.</span> Specimens of English Prose.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Dictionary</span> of National Biography.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Earle.</span> History of English Prose.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Field, Nathaniel.</span> A Woman is a Weathercock.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Fitzmaurice-Kelly.</span> Spanish Literature. Heinemann.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Gayley.</span> Representative English Comedies.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Gosse.</span> From Shakespeare to Pope.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Gosson.</span> School of Abuse. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Guevara, Antonio de.</span> <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo del emperado Marco Aurelio.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Hallam.</span> Introduction to the Literature of Europe.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Hennequin.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Critique Scientifique.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Hume, Martin.</span> Spanish Influence on English Literature.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Jusserand.</span> The English Novel in the time of Shakespeare.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Landmann, Dr.</span> Shakespeare and Euphuism. <cite>New Shak. Soc. Trans.</cite> 1880–2.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Landmann, Dr.</span> Introduction to Euphues. <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sprache und Literatur.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Latimer.</span> Sermons. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Lee, Sidney.</span> <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenæum</span>, July 14, 1883.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Lee, Sidney.</span> Huon of Bordeaux (Berners'). Early Eng. Text Soc. Extra Series <span class="smcap">xl</span>., <span class="smcap">xli</span>.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Lee, Sidney.</span> Life of Shakespeare.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Liebig.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lord Bacon et les sciences d'observation en moyen âge.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Lyly.</span> Euphues. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Macaulay, G. G.</span> Introd. to Froissart's Chronicles. Globe Edition.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Meredith, George.</span> Essay on Comedy.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Mézières.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Prédécesseurs et contemporains de Shakespeare.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Minto.</span> Manual of English Prose Literature.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">North, Thomas.</span> Diall of Princes.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Pearson, Karl.</span> Chances of Death. Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>. <cite>German Passion Play.</cite></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Pettie, George.</span> Petite Palace of Pettie his Pleasure.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Raleigh, Prof. W.</span> The English Novel.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Return from Parnassus.</span> Arber's Scholar's Library.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Saintsbury.</span> Specimens of English Prose.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Spencer, Herbert.</span> Essays—Philosophy of Style.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Symonds, J. A.</span> Shakespeare's Predecessors.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Udall, Nicholas.</span> Ralph Roister Doister. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Underhill.</span> Spanish Literature in Tudor England.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Ward, Dr A. W.</span> English Dramatic Literature. 3 Vols.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Ward, Mrs H.</span> "John Lyly," Article in <cite>Enc. Brit.</cite></li> +<li><span class="smcap">Watson, Thomas.</span> Poems. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Webbe.</span> Discourses of English Poetry. Arber's English Reprints.</li> +<li><span class="smcap">Weymouth, Dr R. F.</span> On Euphuism. <cite>Phil. Soc. Trans.</cite> 1870–2.</li> +</ul> + + +<h2><a name="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Affectionate Shepherd</cite>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li><cite>Albion's England</cite>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Alençon, Duc d', <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li><cite>Amis and Amile</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li><cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite> (v. <cite>Euphues</cite>)</li> +<li>Andrews, Dr, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>Arber (reprints), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li><cite>Arcadia</cite>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Aretino, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Ariosto, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Armada, Spanish, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>Arnold, Matthew, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars Poetica</cite> (of Horace), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>Ascham, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenae Oxonienses</cite>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenæum</cite>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Athens, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li><cite>Aucassin and Nicolette</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Aurelius, Marcus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Austen, Jane, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Bacon, Lord, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Baena, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Baker, G. P., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li>Baker, George, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Baker, Robert, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Barnefield, Richard, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Berners, Lord, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Bertaut, Réné, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li>bestiaries, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biographia Britannica</cite>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Blackfriars, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>blank verse, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li>Blount, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li>Boas, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Bond, R. W., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Brunet, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li>Bryan, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Burleigh, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Butler Clarke, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Byron (anticipated by Lyly), <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Cambridge, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li><cite>Campaspe</cite>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>–<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li><cite>Canterbury Tales</cite>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Carew, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Carpenter, Edward, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Castiglione, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Caxton, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Cecil, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li><cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Celestina</cite>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Charles VIII., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Chaucer, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Cheke, Sir John, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Child, C. G., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>choristers, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Christ Church, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li><cite>Civile Conversation</cite>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +comedy + <ul class="index-sub"> + <li>before Lyly, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>–<a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + <li>and folly, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> + <li>and masque, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + <li>and music, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>and society, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + <li>and woman, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>–<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>–<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>–<a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Congreve, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li><cite>Cooling Carde for all Fond Lovers, A</cite>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Corpus Christi College (Oxford), <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Corro, Antonio de, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Cortes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Craik, Sir H., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li><cite>Cupid and my Campaspe played</cite>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li><cite>Cynthia</cite>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Damon and Pithias</cite>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Educatione</cite> (of Plutarch), <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Dekker, Thomas, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Devereux, Penelope, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li><cite>Diall of Princes</cite>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li><cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Diana</cite>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Dickens, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li><cite>Dispraise of the Life of a Courtier</cite>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Doni, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Dryden, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>dubartism, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Earle, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>education (Lyly's views on), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>–<a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li><cite>Edward II.</cite>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Edwardes, Richard, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Eliot, George, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Ellis, Havelock, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li><cite>Endymion</cite>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>–<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li><cite>English Novel, The</cite> (v. Raleigh)</li> +<li><cite>English Novel in the time of Shakespeare, The</cite> (v. Jusserand)</li> +<li>Erasmus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li><cite>Estella</cite>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Eton, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li><cite>Euphues</cite> + <ul class="index-sub"> + <li>antecedents of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>–<a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + <li>criticism and description of + <ol class="index-sub"> + <li><cite>Anatomy of Wit</cite>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>–<a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + <li><cite>Euphues and his England</cite>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>–<a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + </ol></li> + <li>dedication of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>–<a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + <li>distinction between the two parts, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>–<a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + <li>Elizabethan reputation of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>–<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>–<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + <li>first English novel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>–<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + <li>moral tone of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>–<a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + <li>publication and editions of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Euphues and his England</cite> (v. <cite>Euphues</cite>)</li> +<li><cite>Euphues and his Ephoebus</cite>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>–<a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Euphuism + <ul class="index-sub"> + <li>analysis of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>–<a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + <li>an aristocratic fashion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + <li>diction and, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>humanism and, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>–<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>–<a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li>imitators of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>–<a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>origins of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>–<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>Oxford and, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>–<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>–<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>–<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + <li>poetry and, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>–<a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>Renaissance and, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>–<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + <li>Scott's misapprehension of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>secret of Lyly's influence, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>–<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>Spain and, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>–<a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +<cite>Every Man out of His Humour</cite>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>fabliau, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li><cite>Faery Queen, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Field, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li>Fitzmaurice-Kelly, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Flaubert, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Florence, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Fortescue, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>France (and French), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li><cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Gager, William, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li><cite>Gallathea</cite>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li><cite>Gammer Gurton's Needle</cite>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Gascoigne, George, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Gayley, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Geoffrey of Dunstable, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li><cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gesta Romanorum</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Gibbon, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li><cite>Glasse for Europe, A</cite>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li><cite>Golden Boke, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Gollancz, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>gongorism, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Goodlet, Dr, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li><cite>Gorbuduc</cite>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Gosse, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Gosson, Stephen, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Granada, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Greek, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Greene, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Grey, Lady Jane, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Guazzo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li>Guerrero, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Guevara, Antonio de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>–<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>–<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>–<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Habsburgs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Hakluyt, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Hallam, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li>Halpin, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li>Harrison, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Harvey, Dr, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Harvey, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li><cite>Hekatompathia</cite>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Hennequin, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li>Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li><cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hernani</cite>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Herrick, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Heywood, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Homer, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Horace, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>humanism, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Hume, Martin, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li><cite>Huon of Bordeaux</cite>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Huss, John, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Importance of being Earnest, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Italy (and Italian), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Jacke Jugelar</cite>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>James I., <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>James, Henry, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li>Johnson, Dr, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li>Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Jusserand, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Katherine of Aragon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Kenilworth, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Knox, John, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Kyd, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>–<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li><cite>Kynge Johan</cite>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Lady Windermere's Fan</cite>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Landmann, Dr, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +Latimer, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li><cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Lazarillo de Tórmes</cite>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Lee, Sidney, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>–<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li>Leicester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li><cite lang="es" xml:lang="es">Libro Aureo</cite> (v. Guevara)</li> +<li>Liebig, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li><cite>Literature of Europe</cite>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li>Lodge, Thomas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Lok, Henry, Thomas, and Michael, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>London, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>London, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li><cite>Love's Labour's Lost</cite>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li><cite>Love's Metamorphosis</cite>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li>Luther, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>Lyly, John: + <ul class="index-sub"> + <li>character and genius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>–<a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + <li>compared with Marlowe, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>–<a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + <li>courtier and man of fashion, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + <li>dramatist, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>–<a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + <li>forerunner of Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>–<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>–<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>–<a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + <li>friends of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>–<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + <li>Jonson's caricature of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>–<a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + <li>learning, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>–<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>–<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + <li>life, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>–<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>–<a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>–<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>–<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + <li>novelist, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>–<a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + <li>poet, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>–<a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + <li>position in English literature, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>–<a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>–<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>–<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>–<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>–<a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>–<a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>–<a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + <li>prose, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>–<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>–<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>–<a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + <li>reputation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>–<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>lyrics, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>–<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Macaulay, G. C., <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li><cite>Macbeth</cite>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>Magdalen College (Oxford), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Malory, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Marini, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li><cite>Marius the Epicurean</cite>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Marlowe, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>–<a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li><cite>Martin Marprelate</cite>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>–<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Mary (Tudor), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Mary (of Scots), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>masque, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Maupassant, Guy de, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li><cite>Mayde's Metamorphosis</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Mendoza, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Meredith, George, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li><cite>Midas</cite>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>–<a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li><cite>Midsummer Night's Dream</cite> (anticipated by Lyly), <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>–<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li>Milton, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>miracle-play, the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>–<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li><cite>Monastery, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Montemayor, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>moral court treatise, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>morality-play, the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>–<a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li><cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Morte d'Arthur</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li><cite>Mother Bombie</cite>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>–<a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Munday, Anthony, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li><cite>Murder of John Brewer, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Naples, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Nash, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Newton, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Nicholas, Thomas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>North, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>novella, the, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +Ovid, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li>Oxford, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>–<a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>–<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Oxford, Earl of (v. Vere, Edward de)</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Painter, William, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li>Palgrave, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li><cite>Palamon and Arcite</cite>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li><cite>Pallace of Pleasure</cite>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li><cite>Pamela</cite>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>pastoral romance, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li>Petrarchisti, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Pettie, George, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li><cite>Petite Pallace of Pettie his Pleasure</cite>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Philip II. of Spain (caricatured by Lyly), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>picaresque romance, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Plato, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Plautus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li><cite>Play of the Wether, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li><cite>Pleasant History of the Conquest of West India</cite>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Plutarch, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li><cite>Poetics of Aristotle, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>puritanism, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Puttenham, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Quick, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quintilian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Raleigh, Prof. W., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li><cite>Ralph Roister Doister</cite>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Renaissance, the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>–<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Revels' Office, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Richardson, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Rogers, Thomas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>romance of chivalry, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>–<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Ronsard, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Rowland, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><cite>Sacharissa</cite>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Sainte Beuve, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li>St Paul's Choir School, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Saintsbury, Prof., <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Sallust, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li><cite>Sapho and Phao</cite>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>–<a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li>Savoy Hospital, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> +<li><cite>School of Abuse, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li><cite>Schoolmaster, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Schwan, Dr, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Seneca, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>–<a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li>Sheridan, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Sidney, Sir Philip, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li><cite>Sixe Court Comedies</cite>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li><cite>Soliman and Perseda</cite>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Soto, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Spain (and Spanish), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>–<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>–<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li><cite>Spanish Tragedy, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Spenser, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li><cite>Stella</cite>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Stevenson, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Stratford, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li><cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Suppositi</cite> (<cite>Supposes</cite>), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Surrey, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Symonds, J. A., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Taine, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li><cite>Tamburlaine</cite>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li><cite>Taming of the Shrew, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +Tasso, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Tents and Toils (office of), <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li>Terence, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Thackeray, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li><cite>Timon of Athens</cite> (anticipated by Lyly), <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li><cite>Toxophilus</cite>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Tully (v. Cicero)</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Udall, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Underhill, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Vere, Edward de, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Villa Garcia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Virgil, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Vives, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Waller, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li>Ward, Dr, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Ward, Mrs H., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Warner, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Watson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Webbe, William, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li>Welbanke, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>West, Dr, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li>Weymouth, Dr, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li>Wilkinson, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li><cite>Wine, Women and Song</cite>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li><cite>Woman in the Moon, The</cite>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li><cite>Woman is a Weathercock, A</cite>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>women, importance of, in the Elizabethan age, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>–<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>–<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>–<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>–<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>–<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Wood, Anthony à, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Wyatt, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Wycliff, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Wynkyn de Worde, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Zola, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +</ul> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: smaller; margin-top: 60px; margin-bottom: 60px;">CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> <cite>The Complete Works of John Lyly.</cite> R. W. Bond, 3 Vols. Clarendon +Press.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> Cf. Hennequin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 2; Baker, p. v.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ath. Ox.</cite> (ed. Bliss), <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 676.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 6. But Baker, pp. vii, viii, would seem to disagree with this.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> Baker, p. xii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">[9]</a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenae Oxonienses</cite> (ed. Bliss), <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 676.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">[10]</a> Mr Baker however seems to think that his reference to Cambridge +(<cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 436) implies a term of residence there. Baker, p. xxii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">[11]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">[12]</a> I have to thank Dr Ward for pointing out to me the interesting fact +that a large proportion of Elizabeth's M.P.'s were royal officials.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">[13]</a> <cite>A discourse of English Poetrie</cite>, Arber's reprint.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">[14]</a> Child, pp. 6–20, for an account of chief writers who have dealt with +euphuism.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">[15]</a> <cite>John Lyly and Euphuism.</cite> C. G. Child.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">[16]</a> <cite>On Euphuism</cite>, Phil. Soc. Trans., 1870–2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">[17]</a> Child, p. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">[18]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">[19]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 90.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">[20]</a> Child, p. 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">[21]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">[22]</a> Jusserand, p. 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">[23]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 402.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">[24]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">[25]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">[26]</a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lord Bacon et les sciences d'observation en moyen âge</cite>, par Liebig, +traduit par de Tchihatchef.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">[27]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 131 note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">[28]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 299.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">[29]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">[30]</a> Underhill, p. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">[31]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 268 note. Mr Underhill writes: "The attempt to connect the +style of Sidney with that of Montemayor has failed."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">[32]</a> Underhill, p. 48, but see Martin Hume, ch. <span class="smcap">ix</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">[33]</a> Some doubt has been thrown upon Mendoza's authorship. See +Fitzmaurice-Kelly, p. 158, and Martin Hume, p. 133.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">[34]</a> Martin Hume, p. 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">[35]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">[36]</a> Underhill, p. 178, to whom I am indebted for nearly all the preceding +remarks in connexion with the Spanish atmosphere at Oxford.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">[37]</a> Arber's reprint, <cite>School of Abuse</cite>, p. 97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">[38]</a> Craik, vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">[39]</a> Underhill, ch. <span class="smcap">viii</span>. § 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">[40]</a> Huon of Bordeaux, appendix <span class="smcap">i</span>., <cite>Lord Berners and Euphuism</cite>, p. 786.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">[41]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">[42]</a> See <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenæum</cite>, July 14, 1883.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">[43]</a> <cite>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</cite>, Bryan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">[44]</a> The 2nd edition of this book, which was published under another title, +is thus described in the B. M. Cat.: "<cite>A looking-glass for the court</cite> … out of +Castilian drawne into French by A. Alaygre; and out of the French into +English by Sir F. Briant."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">[45]</a> Huon, p. 787.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">[46]</a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite>, Globe edition, p. xxviii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">[47]</a> Huon, p. 788.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">[48]</a> After writing the above I have noticed that Mr G. C. Macaulay, +in the Introduction to the Globe <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite>, writes as follows (p. xvi): +"If nothing else could be adduced to show that the tendency (i.e. euphuism) +existed already in English literature, the prefaces to Lord Berners' <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Froissart</cite> +written before he could possibly have read Guevara, would be enough +to prove it."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">[49]</a> There are two extant editions of 1529, (i) published at Valladolid, +from which the words above are quoted, (ii) published at Enueres, which +appears to be an earlier edition. Copies of both in the British Museum.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">[50]</a> Hallam, <cite>Lit. of Europe</cite>, ed. 1855, vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 403 n. Brunet in his +<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Manuel de Libraire</cite> gives Hallam's view without comment, tome <span class="smcap">ii</span>. +"Guevara."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">[51]</a> Underhill, p. 69.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52" class="label">[52]</a> Bond, vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53" class="label">[53]</a> For 18th century v. Gosse, <cite>From Shakespeare to Pope</cite>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54" class="label">[54]</a> Craik, vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 224.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55" class="label">[55]</a> Craik, p. 258.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56" class="label">[56]</a> Arber, <cite>Schoolmaster</cite>, p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57" class="label">[57]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58" class="label">[58]</a> Craik, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59" class="label">[59]</a> <cite>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</cite>, Pettie.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60" class="label">[60]</a> I have taken the liberty of modernising the spelling.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61" class="label">[61]</a> Jusserand, ch. <span class="smcap">iv</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62" class="label">[62]</a> Bond, vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. pp. 164–175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63" class="label">[63]</a> Act <span class="smcap">i</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">ii</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64" class="label">[64]</a> <cite>Sp. Trag.</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iv</span>. 190 (cp. <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 146).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65" class="label">[65]</a> <cite>Soliman and Perseda</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iii</span>. 130 (cp. <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 100), and Act <span class="smcap">ii</span>. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66" class="label">[66]</a> <cite>Kyd's Works</cite> (Boas), p. 288, and ch. <span class="smcap">ix</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67" class="label">[67]</a> <cite>Sp. Trag.</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">ii</span>. 1–8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68" class="label">[68]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69" class="label">[69]</a> <cite>Poems</cite>, Arber, pp. 18 and 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70" class="label">[70]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71" class="label">[71]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 51.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72" class="label">[72]</a> Symonds, p. 407.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73" class="label">[73]</a> <abbr>id.</abbr>, p. 404.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74" class="label">[74]</a> <cite>Essays in Criticism</cite>, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75" class="label">[75]</a> Butler Clarke, <cite>Spanish Literature</cite>, p. 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76" class="label">[76]</a> Cf. Earle, pp. 422, 423.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77" class="label">[77]</a> Earle, p. 436.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78" class="label">[78]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79" class="label">[79]</a> Raleigh, p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80" class="label">[80]</a> This touches upon the famous dispute between Dr Schwan and +Dr Goodlet which is excellently dealt with by Mr Child, p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81" class="label">[81]</a> Raleigh, p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82" class="label">[82]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 220.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83" class="label">[83]</a> Child, p. 41.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84" class="label">[84]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85" class="label">[85]</a> H. Spencer, Essays, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. <cite>Phil. of Style</cite>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86" class="label">[86]</a> <cite>Schoolmaster</cite>, p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87" class="label">[87]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. pp. 154–156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88" class="label">[88]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. pp. 156–159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89" class="label">[89]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90" class="label">[90]</a> <cite>Schoolmaster</cite>, p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91" class="label">[91]</a> <cite>Euphues</cite>, p. 220.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92" class="label">[92]</a> Jusserand, p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93" class="label">[93]</a> Mr Bond thinks it a picture of Lyly's father.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94" class="label">[94]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95" class="label">[95]</a> It was Sidney and Nash who set the fashion for the 17th century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96" class="label">[96]</a> Raleigh, p. 57. He writes <cite>Arcadia</cite> for <cite>Euphues</cite> but the substitution +is legitimate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97" class="label">[97]</a> Baker, p. lxxxviii, places <cite>Endymion</cite> as early as Sept. 1579. Bond, +vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>. p. 10, attempts to disprove Baker's contention, and in vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 309, +he maintains chiefly on grounds of style that <cite>Campaspe</cite> was the earliest of +Lyly's plays, being produced at the Christmas of 1580.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98" class="label">[98]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99" class="label">[99]</a> <cite>Dict. Of Nat. Biog.</cite>, Edward de Vere.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100" class="label">[100]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 230 (chronological table).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101" class="label">[101]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102" class="label">[102]</a> Gayley, p. lxiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103" class="label">[103]</a> Symonds, p. 199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104" class="label">[104]</a> Ward, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105" class="label">[105]</a> Gayley, p. xiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106" class="label">[106]</a> I put this interpretation upon the account of Heywood's receiving +40 shillings from Queen Mary "for pleying an interlude with his children."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107" class="label">[107]</a> Ward, <cite>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</cite>, Heywood.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108" class="label">[108]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109" class="label">[109]</a> 1566.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110" class="label">[110]</a> Gayley, p. lxxxv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111" class="label">[111]</a> <cite>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</cite>, Gascoigne, George.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112" class="label">[112]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 237.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113" class="label">[113]</a> George Gascoigne, whose importance does not seem to have been +realised by Elizabethan students, also produced a drama in blank verse.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114" class="label">[114]</a> From <cite>Prologue</cite> at the Court.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115" class="label">[115]</a> <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">"Alii bella gerunt, tu felix Austria nube."</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116" class="label">[116]</a> <cite>Sapho and Phao</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iii</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">iv</span>. 60–85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117" class="label">[117]</a> Halpin, <cite>Oberon's Vision</cite>, Shakespeare Society, 1843.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118" class="label">[118]</a> <cite>Endymion</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iii</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">ii</span>. ll. 30–60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119" class="label">[119]</a> Cp. also Shakespeare, <cite>Sonnet <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></cite>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120" class="label">[120]</a> <span class="smcap">xi</span>. 85–193.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121" class="label">[121]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">iii</span>. p. 234.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122" class="label">[122]</a> For title-page, Bond, <span class="smcap">iii</span>. p. 1, date 1632.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123" class="label">[123]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">iii</span>. p. 433.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124" class="label">[124]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 36, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125" class="label">[125]</a> <cite>Mother Bombie</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iii</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">iii</span>. 1–14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126" class="label">[126]</a> <cite>Campaspe</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">v</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">i</span>. 32–44. I have modernised the spelling.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127" class="label">[127]</a> I have said nothing of the <cite>Mayde's Metamorphosis</cite>, as most critics are +agreed in assigning it to some unknown author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128" class="label">[128]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. pp. 265–266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129" class="label">[129]</a> <cite>Campaspe</cite>, Act <span class="smcap">iii</span>. Sc. <span class="smcap">iv</span>. 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130" class="label">[130]</a> Sidney Lee, <cite>Life</cite>, p. 151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131" class="label">[131]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 284.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132" class="label">[132]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">ii</span>. p. 266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133" class="label">[133]</a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Critique Scientifique.</cite></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134" class="label">[134]</a> From the <cite>Preface</cite>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135" class="label">[135]</a> Bond, <span class="smcap">i</span>. p. 401.</p></div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of John Lyly, by John Dover Wilson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN LYLY *** + +***** This file should be named 22525-h.htm or 22525-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/2/22525/ + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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