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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prairie Traveler, by Randolph Marcy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Prairie Traveler
+       A Hand-book for Overland Expeditions
+
+Author: Randolph Marcy
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23066]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected
+without note. Dialect spellings, contractions and discrepancies have
+been retained.
+
+
+[Illustration: FORT SMITH, ARKANSAS.]
+
+
+
+THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
+
+
+A HAND-BOOK FOR OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS.
+
+WITH MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND ITINERARIES OF THE
+PRINCIPAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI AND THE PACIFIC.
+
+
+
+By
+
+RANDOLPH B. MARCY,
+CAPTAIN U. S. ARMY.
+
+
+
+PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT.
+
+NEW YORK:
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+1859.
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year
+one thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine, by
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS,
+
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of
+the Southern District of New York.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+The different Routes to California and Oregon. Their respective
+Advantages. Organization of Companies. Elections of Captains.
+Wagons and Teams. Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. Stores
+and Provisions. How packed. Desiccated and canned Vegetables.
+Pemmican. Antiscorbutics. Cold Flour. Substitutes in case of
+Necessity. Amount of Supplies. Clothing. Camp Equipage. Arms.     15
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Marching. Treatment of Animals. Water. Different methods of
+finding and purifying it. Journadas. Methods of crossing them.
+Advance and Rear Guards. Selection of Camp. Sanitary Considerations.
+Dr. Jackson's Report. Picket Guards. Stampedes. How to prevent
+them. Corraling Wagons.                                            44
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Repairing broken Wagons. Fording Rivers. Quicksand. Wagon Boats.
+Bull Boats. Crossing Packs. Swimming Animals. Marching with loose
+Horses. Herding Mules. Best Methods of Marching. Herding and
+guarding Animals. Descending Mountains. Storms. Northers.          71
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Packing. Saddles. Mexican Method. Madrina, or Bell-mare.
+Attachment of the Mule illustrated. Best Method of Packing.
+Hoppling Animals. Selecting Horses and Mules. Grama and bunch
+Grass. European Saddles. California Saddle. Saddle Wounds.
+Alkali. Flies. Colic. Rattlesnake Bites. Cures for the Bite.       98
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Bivouacs. Tente d'Abri. Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. Comanche
+Lodge. Sibley Tent. Camp Furniture. Litters. Rapid Traveling.
+Fuel. Making Fires. Fires on the Prairies. Jerking Meat. Making
+Lariats. Making Caches. Disposition of Fire-arms. Colt's
+Revolvers. Gun Accidents. Trailing. Indian Sagacity.              132
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Guides and Hunters. Delawares and Shawnees. Khebirs. Black
+Beaver. Anecdotes. Domestic Troubles. Lodges. Similarity of
+Prairie Tribes to the Arabs. Method of making War. Tracking and
+pursuing Indians. Method of attacking them. Telegraphing by
+Smokes.                                                           183
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Hunting. Its Benefits to the Soldier. Buffalo. Deer. Antelope.
+Bear. Big-horn, or Mountain Sheep. Their Habits, and Hints upon
+the best Methods of hunting them.                                 230
+
+ITINERARIES.                                                      253
+
+APPENDIX.                                                         335
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                 Page
+
+Map of Overland routes                             _at end of volume._
+Fort Smith, Arkansas                                   _Frontispiece._
+Swimming a Horse                                                   78
+Diagram for Measurements                                           81
+Crossing a Stream                                                  87
+Grimsley's Pack-saddle                                             99
+California Saddle                                                 119
+Half-faced Camp                                                   134
+Conical Bivouac                                                   135
+Tent Knapsack                                                     137
+Comanche Lodge                                                    140
+Sibley Tent                                                       143
+Camp Chairs                                                       145
+Camp Table--Field Cot                                             146
+Field Cot--Camp Bureau                                            148
+Mess-chest                                                        149
+Horse-litter                                                      151
+Hand-litter                                                       154
+The Grizzly                                                       167
+Horse-tracks                                                      178
+Keep away!                                                        209
+Calling up Antelopes                                              245
+The Needles                                                       254
+Chimney Rock                                                      269
+Devil's Gate                                                      271
+Well in the Desert                                                292
+Map of the Pike's Peak Gold Region                                296
+Sangre de Cristo Pass                                             300
+San Francisco Mountain                                            309
+Canon on Bill Williams's Fork                                     312
+Artillery Peak                                                    313
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+A quarter of a century's experience in frontier life, a great portion
+of which has been occupied in exploring the interior of our continent,
+and in long marches where I have been thrown exclusively upon my own
+resources, far beyond the bounds of the populated districts, and where
+the traveler must vary his expedients to surmount the numerous
+obstacles which the nature of the country continually reproduces, has
+shown me under what great disadvantages the "_voyageur_" labors for
+want of a timely initiation into those minor details of prairie-craft,
+which, however apparently unimportant in the abstract, are sure, upon
+the plains, to turn the balance of success for or against an
+enterprise.
+
+This information is so varied, and is derived from so many different
+sources, that I still find every new expedition adds substantially to
+my practical knowledge, and am satisfied that a good Prairie Manual
+will be for the young traveler an addition to his equipment of
+inappreciable value.
+
+With such a book in his hand, he will be able, in difficult circumstances,
+to avail himself of the matured experience of veteran travelers, and
+thereby avoid many otherwise unforeseen disasters; while, during the
+ordinary routine of marching, he will greatly augment the sum of his
+comforts, avoid many serious losses, and enjoy a comparative exemption
+from doubts and anxieties. He will feel himself a master spirit in the
+wilderness he traverses, and not the victim of every _new_ combination
+of circumstances which nature affords or fate allots, as if to try his
+skill and prowess.
+
+I have waited for several years, with the confident expectation that
+some one more competent than myself would assume the task, and give the
+public the desired information; but it seems that no one has taken
+sufficient interest in the subject to disseminate the benefits of his
+experience in this way. Our frontier-men, although brave in council and
+action, and possessing an intelligence that quickens in the face of
+danger, are apt to feel shy of the pen. They shun the atmosphere of the
+student's closet; their sphere is in the free and open wilderness. It
+is not to be wondered at, therefore, that to our veteran borderer the
+field of literature should remain a "_terra incognita_." It is our
+army that unites the chasm between the culture of civilization in the
+aspect of science, art, and social refinement, and the powerful
+simplicity of nature. On leaving the Military Academy, a majority of
+our officers are attached to the line of the army, and forthwith
+assigned to duty upon our remote and extended frontier, where the
+restless and warlike habits of the nomadic tribes render the soldier's
+life almost as unsettled as that of the savages themselves.
+
+A regiment is stationed to-day on the borders of tropical Mexico;
+to-morrow, the war-whoop, borne on a gale from the northwest, compels
+its presence in the frozen latitudes of Puget's Sound. The very limited
+numerical strength of our army, scattered as it is over a vast area of
+territory, necessitates constant changes of stations, long and toilsome
+marches, a promptitude of action, and a tireless energy and
+self-reliance, that can only be acquired through an intimate
+acquaintance with the sphere in which we act and move.
+
+The education of our officers at the Military Academy is doubtless well
+adapted to the art of civilized warfare, but can not familiarize them
+with the diversified details of border service; and they often, at the
+outset of their military career, find themselves compelled to improvise
+new expedients to meet novel emergences.
+
+The life of the wilderness is an _art_ as well as that of the city
+or court, and every art subjects its votaries to discipline in
+preparing them for a successful career in its pursuit. The Military
+Art, as enlarged to meet all the requirements of border service, the
+savage in his wiles or the elements in their caprices, embraces many
+other special arts which have hitherto been almost ignored, and results
+which experience and calculation should have guaranteed have been
+improvidently staked upon favorable chances.
+
+The main object at which I have aimed in the following pages has been
+to explain and illustrate, as clearly and succinctly as possible, the
+best methods of performing the duties devolving upon the prairie
+traveler, so as to meet their contingencies under all circumstances,
+and thereby to endeavor to establish a more uniform system of marching
+and campaigning in the Indian country.
+
+I have also furnished itineraries of most of the principal routes that
+have been traveled across the plains, taken from the best and most
+reliable authorities; and I have given some information concerning the
+habits of the Indians and wild animals that frequent the prairies, with
+the secrets of the hunter's and warrior's strategy, which I have
+endeavored to impress more forcibly upon the reader by introducing
+illustrative anecdote.
+
+I take great pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to several
+officers of the Topographical Engineers and of other corps of the army
+for the valuable information I have obtained from their official
+reports regarding the different routes embraced in the itineraries, and
+to these gentlemen I beg leave very respectfully to dedicate my book.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+The different Routes to California and Oregon. Their respective
+Advantages. Organization of Companies. Elections of Captains.
+Wagons and Teams. Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. Stores
+and Provisions. How packed. Desiccated and canned Vegetables.
+Pemmican. Antiscorbutics. Cold Flour. Substitutes in case of
+Necessity. Amount of Supplies. Clothing. Camp Equipage. Arms.
+
+
+ROUTES TO CALIFORNIA AND OREGON.
+
+Emigrants or others desiring to make the overland journey to the
+Pacific should bear in mind that there are several different routes
+which may be traveled with wagons, each having its advocates in persons
+directly or indirectly interested in attracting the tide of emigration
+and travel over them.
+
+Information concerning these routes coming from strangers living or
+owning property near them, from agents of steam-boats or railways, or
+from other persons connected with transportation companies, should be
+received with great caution, and never without corroborating evidence
+from disinterested sources.
+
+There is no doubt that each one of these roads has its advantages and
+disadvantages, but a judicious selection must depend chiefly upon the
+following considerations, namely, the locality from whence the
+individual is to take his departure, the season of the year when he
+desires to commence his journey, the character of his means of
+transportation, and the point upon the Pacific coast that he wishes to
+reach.
+
+Persons living in the Northeastern States can, with about equal
+facility and dispatch, reach the eastern terminus of any one of the
+routes they may select by means of public transport. And, as animals
+are much cheaper upon the frontier than in the Eastern States, they
+should purchase their teams at or near the point where the overland
+journey is to commence.
+
+Those living in the Northwestern States, having their own teams, and
+wishing to go to any point north of San Francisco, will of course make
+choice of the route which takes its departure from the Missouri River.
+
+Those who live in the middle Western States, having their own means of
+transportation, and going to any point upon the Pacific coast, should
+take one of the middle routes.
+
+Others, who reside in the extreme Southwest, and whose destination is
+south of San Francisco, should travel the southern road running through
+Texas, which is the only one practicable for comfortable winter travel.
+The grass upon a great portion of this route is green during the entire
+winter, and snow seldom covers it. This road leaves the Gulf coast at
+_Powder-horn_, on Matagorda Bay, which point is difficult of access by
+land from the north, but may be reached by steamers from New Orleans
+five times a week.
+
+There are stores at Powder-horn and Indianola where the traveler can
+obtain most of the articles necessary for his journey, but I would
+recommend him to supply himself before leaving New Orleans with every
+thing he requires with the exception of animals, which he will find
+cheaper in Texas.
+
+This road has received a large amount of travel since 1849, is well
+tracked and defined, and, excepting about twenty miles of "_hog
+wallow prairie_" near Powder-horn, it is an excellent road for
+carriages and wagons. It passes through a settled country for 250
+miles, and within this section supplies can be had at reasonable rates.
+
+At Victoria and San Antonio many fine stores will be found, well
+supplied with large stocks of goods, embracing all the articles the
+traveler will require.
+
+The next route to the north is that over which the semi-weekly mail to
+California passes, and which, for a great portion of the way to New
+Mexico, I traveled and recommended in 1849. This road leaves the
+Arkansas River at Fort Smith, to which point steamers run during the
+seasons of high water in the winter and spring.
+
+Supplies of all descriptions necessary for the overland journey may be
+procured at Fort Smith, or at Van Buren on the opposite side of the
+Arkansas. Horses and cattle are cheap here. The road, on leaving Fort
+Smith, passes through the Choctaw and Chickasaw country for 180 miles,
+then crosses Red River by ferry-boat at Preston, and runs through the
+border settlements of northern Texas for 150 miles, within which
+distances supplies may be procured at moderate prices.
+
+This road is accessible to persons desiring to make the entire journey
+with their own transportation from Tennessee or Mississippi, by
+crossing the Mississippi River at Memphis or Helena, passing Little
+Rock, and thence through Washington County, intersecting the road at
+Preston. It may also be reached by taking steamers up Red River to
+Shreveport or Jefferson, from either of which places there are roads
+running through a populated country, and intersecting the Fort Smith
+road near Preston.
+
+This road also unites with the San Antonio road at El Paso, and from
+that point they pass together over the mountains to Fort Yuma and to
+San Francisco in California.
+
+Another road leaves Fort Smith and runs up the south side of the
+Canadian River to Santa Fe and Albuquerque in New Mexico.
+
+This route is set down upon most of the maps of the present day as
+having been discovered and explored by various persons, but my own name
+seems to have been carefully excluded from the list. Whether this
+omission has been intentional or not, I leave for the authors to
+determine. I shall merely remark that I had the command and entire
+direction of an expedition which in 1849 discovered, explored, located,
+and marked out this identical wagon road from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to
+Santa Fe, New Mexico, and that this road, for the greater portion of
+the distance, is the same that has been since recommended for a Pacific
+railway.
+
+This road, near Albuquerque, unites with Captain Whipple's and
+Lieutenant Beall's roads to California.
+
+Another road, which takes its departure from Fort Smith and passes
+through the Cherokee country, is called the "Cherokee Trail." It
+crosses Grand River at Fort Gibson, and runs a little north of west to
+the Verdigris River, thence up the valley of this stream on the north
+side for 80 miles, when it crosses the river, and, taking a northwest
+course, strikes the Arkansas River near old Fort Mann, on the Santa Fe
+trace; thence it passes near the base of Pike's Peak, and follows down
+Cherry Creek from its source to its confluence with the South Platte,
+and from thence over the mountains into Utah, and on to California
+_via_ Fort Bridger and Salt Lake City.
+
+For persons who desire to go from the Southern States to the gold
+diggings in the vicinity of Cherry Creek, this route is shorter by
+some 300 miles than that from Fort Smith _via_ Fort Leavenworth. It
+is said to be an excellent road, and well supplied with the requisites
+for encamping. It has been traveled by large parties of California
+emigrants for several years, and is well tracked and defined.
+
+The grass upon all the roads leaving Fort Smith is sufficiently
+advanced to afford sustenance to animals by the first of April, and
+from this time until winter sets in it is abundant. The next route on
+the north leaves the Missouri River at Westport, Leavenworth City,
+Atcheson, or from other towns above, between either of which points and
+St. Louis steamers ply during the entire summer season.
+
+The necessary outfit of supplies can always be procured at any of the
+starting-points on the Missouri River at moderate rates.
+
+This is the great emigrant route from Missouri to California and
+Oregon, over which so many thousands have traveled within the past few
+years. The track is broad, well worn, and can not be mistaken. It has
+received the major part of the Mormon emigration, and was traversed by
+the army in its march to Utah in 1857.
+
+At the point where this road crosses the South Platte River, Lieutenant
+Bryan's road branches off to the left, leading through Bridger's Pass,
+and thence to Fort Bridger. The Fort Kearney route to the gold region
+near Pike's Peak also leaves the emigrant road at this place and runs
+up the South Platte.
+
+From Fort Bridger there are two roads that may be traveled with wagons
+in the direction of California; one passing Salt Lake City, and the
+other running down Bear River to Soda Springs, intersecting the Salt
+Lake City road at the _City of Rocks_. Near Soda Springs the Oregon
+road turns to the right, passing Fort Hall, and thence down Snake River
+to Fort Wallah-Wallah. Unless travelers have business in Salt Lake
+Valley, I would advise them to take the Bear River route, as it is much
+shorter, and better in every respect. The road, on leaving the Missouri
+River, passes for 150 miles through a settled country where grain can
+be purchased cheap, and there are several stores in this section where
+most of the articles required by travelers can be obtained.
+
+Many persons who have had much experience in prairie traveling prefer
+leaving the Missouri River in March or April, and feeding grain to
+their animals until the new grass appears. The roads become muddy and
+heavy after the spring rains set in, and by starting out early the
+worst part of the road will be passed over before the ground becomes
+wet and soft. This plan, however, should never be attempted unless the
+animals are well supplied with grain, and kept in good condition. They
+will eat the old grass in the spring, but it does not, in this climate,
+as in Utah and New Mexico, afford them sufficient sustenance.
+
+The grass, after the 1st of May, is good and abundant upon this road as
+far as the South Pass, from whence there is a section of about 50 miles
+where it is scarce; there is also a scarcity upon the desert beyond the
+sink of the Humboldt. As large numbers of cattle pass over the road
+annually, they soon consume all the grass in these barren localities,
+and such as pass late in the season are likely to suffer greatly, and
+oftentimes perish from starvation. When I came over the road in August,
+1858, I seldom found myself out of sight of dead cattle for 500 miles
+along the road, and this was an unusually favorable year for grass, and
+before the main body of animals had passed for that season.
+
+Upon the head of the Sweetwater River, and west of the South Pass,
+alkaline springs are met with, which are exceedingly poisonous to
+cattle and horses. They can readily be detected by the yellowish-red
+color of the grass growing around them. Animals should never be allowed
+to graze near them or to drink the water.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF COMPANIES.
+
+After a particular route has been selected to make the journey across
+the plains, and the requisite number have arrived at the eastern
+terminus, their first business should be to organize themselves into a
+company and elect a commander. The company should be of sufficient
+magnitude to herd and guard animals, and for protection against
+Indians.
+
+From 50 to 70 men, properly armed and equipped, will be enough for
+these purposes, and any greater number only makes the movements of the
+party more cumbersome and tardy.
+
+In the selection of a captain, good judgment, integrity of purpose, and
+practical experience are the essential requisites, and these are
+indispensable to the harmony and consolidation of the association. His
+duty should be to direct the order of march, the time of starting and
+halting, to select the camps, detail and give orders to guards, and,
+indeed, to control and superintend all the movements of the company.
+
+An obligation should then be drawn up and signed by all the members of
+the association, wherein each one should bind himself to abide in all
+cases by the orders and decisions of the captain, and to aid him by
+every means in his power in the execution of his duties; and they
+should also obligate themselves to aid each other, so as to make the
+individual interest of each member the common concern of the whole
+company. To insure this, a fund should be raised for the purchase of
+extra animals to supply the places of those which may give out or die
+on the road; and if the wagon or team of a particular member should
+fail and have to be abandoned, the company should obligate themselves
+to transport his luggage, and the captain should see that he has his
+share of transportation equal with any other member. Thus it will be
+made the interest of every member of the company to watch over and
+protect the property of others as well as his own.
+
+In case of failure on the part of any one to comply with the
+obligations imposed by the articles of agreement after they have been
+duly executed, the company should of course have the power to punish
+the delinquent member, and, if necessary, to exclude him from all the
+benefits of the association.
+
+On such a journey as this, there is much to interest and amuse one who
+is fond of picturesque scenery, and of wild life in its most primitive
+aspect, yet no one should attempt it without anticipating many rough
+knocks and much hard labor; every man must expect to do his share of
+duty faithfully and without a murmur.
+
+On long and arduous expeditions men are apt to become irritable and
+ill-natured, and oftentimes fancy they have more labor imposed upon
+them than their comrades, and that the person who directs the march is
+partial toward his favorites, etc. That man who exercises the greatest
+forbearance under such circumstances, who is cheerful, slow to take up
+quarrels, and endeavors to reconcile difficulties among his companions,
+is deserving of all praise, and will, without doubt, contribute largely
+to the success and comfort of an expedition.
+
+The advantages of an association such as I have mentioned are
+manifestly numerous. The animals can be herded together and guarded by
+the different members of the company in rotation, thereby securing to
+all the opportunities of sleep and rest. Besides, this is the only way
+to resist depredations of the Indians, and to prevent their stampeding
+and driving off animals; and much more efficiency is secured in every
+respect, especially in crossing streams, repairing roads, etc., etc.
+
+Unless a systematic organization be adopted, it is impossible for a
+party of any magnitude to travel in company for any great length of
+time, and for all the members to agree upon the same arrangements in
+marching, camping, etc. I have several times observed, where this has
+been attempted, that discords and dissensions sooner or later arose
+which invariably resulted in breaking up and separating the company.
+
+When a captain has once been chosen, he should be sustained in all his
+decisions unless he commit some manifest outrage, when a majority of
+the company can always remove him, and put a more competent man in his
+place. Sometimes men may be selected who, upon trial, do not come up to
+the anticipations of those who have placed them in power, and other men
+will exhibit, during the course of the march, more capacity. Under
+these circumstances it will not be unwise to make a change, the first
+election having been distinctly provisional.
+
+
+WAGONS AND TEAMS.
+
+A company having been organized, its first interest is to procure a
+proper outfit of transportation and supplies for the contemplated
+journey.
+
+Wagons should be of the simplest possible construction--strong, light,
+and made of well-seasoned timber, especially the wheels, as the
+atmosphere, in the elevated and arid region over which they have to
+pass, is so exceedingly dry during the summer months that, unless the
+wood-work is thoroughly seasoned, they will require constant repairs to
+prevent them from falling to pieces.
+
+Wheels made of the bois-d'arc, or Osage orange-wood, are the best for
+the plains, as they shrink but little, and seldom want repairing. As,
+however, this wood is not easily procured in the Northern States, white
+oak answers a very good purpose if well seasoned.
+
+Spring wagons made in Concord, New Hampshire, are used to transport
+passengers and the mails upon some of the routes across the plains, and
+they are said, by those who have used them, to be much superior to any
+others. They are made of the close-grained oak that grows in a high
+northern latitude, and well seasoned.
+
+The pole of the wagon should have a joint where it enters the hounds,
+to prevent the weight from coming upon it and breaking the hounds in
+passing short and abrupt holes in the road.
+
+The perch or coupling-pole should be shifting or movable, as, in the
+event of the loss of a wheel, an axle, or other accident rendering it
+necessary to abandon the wagon, a temporary cart may be constructed out
+of the remaining portion. The tires should be examined just before
+commencing the journey, and, if not perfectly snug, reset.
+
+One of the chief causes of accidents to carriages upon the plains
+arises from the nuts coming off from the numerous bolts that secure the
+running gearing. To prevent this, the ends of all the bolts should be
+riveted; it is seldom necessary to take them off, and when this is
+required the ends of the bolts may easily be filed away.
+
+Wagons with six mules should never, on a long journey over the
+prairies, be loaded with over 2000 pounds, unless grain is transported,
+when an additional thousand pounds may be taken, provided it is fed out
+daily to the team. When grass constitutes the only forage, 2000 pounds
+is deemed a sufficient load. I regard our government wagons as
+unnecessarily heavy for six mules. There is sufficient material in them
+to sustain a burden of 4000 pounds, but they are seldom loaded with
+more than half that weight. Every wagon should be furnished with
+substantial bows and double osnaburg covers, to protect its contents
+from the sun and weather.
+
+There has been much discussion regarding the relative merits of mules
+and oxen for prairie traveling, and the question is yet far from being
+settled. Upon good firm roads, in a populated country, where grain can
+be procured, I should unquestionably give the preference to mules, as
+they travel faster, and endure the heat of summer much better than
+oxen; and if the journey be not over 1000 miles, and the grass
+abundant, even without grain, I think mules would be preferable. But
+when the march is to extend 1500 or 2000 miles, or over a rough sandy
+or muddy road, I believe young oxen will endure better than mules; they
+will, if properly managed, keep in better condition, and perform the
+journey in an equally brief space of time. Besides, they are much more
+economical, a team of six mules costing six hundred dollars, while an
+eight-ox team only costs upon the frontier about two hundred dollars.
+Oxen are much less liable to be stampeded and driven off by Indians,
+and can be pursued and overtaken by horsemen; and, finally, they can,
+if necessary, be used for beef.
+
+In Africa oxen are used as saddle animals, and it is said that they
+perform good service in this way. This will probably be regarded by our
+people as a very undignified and singular method of locomotion, but, in
+the absence of any other means of transportation upon a long journey, a
+saddle-ox might be found serviceable.
+
+Andersson, in his work on Southwestern Africa, says: "A short strong
+stick, of peculiar shape, is forced through the cartilage of the nose
+of the ox, and to either end of this stick is attached (in bridle
+fashion) a tough leathern thong. From the extreme tenderness of the
+nose he is now more easily managed." "Hans presented me with an ox
+called 'Spring,' which I afterward rode upward of two thousand miles.
+On the day of our departure he mounted us all on oxen, and a curious
+sight it was to see some of the men take their seats who had never
+before ridden on ox-back. It is impossible to guide an ox as one would
+guide a horse, for in the attempt to do so you would instantly jerk the
+stick out of his nose, which at once deprives you of every control over
+the beast; but by pulling _both_ sides of the bridle at the same time,
+and toward the side you wish him to take, he is easily managed.[1] Your
+seat is not less awkward and difficult; for the skin of the ox, unlike
+that of the horse, is loose, and, notwithstanding your saddle may be
+tightly girthed, you keep rocking to and fro like a child in a cradle.
+A few days, however, enables a person to acquire a certain steadiness,
+and long habit will do the rest."
+
+      [1] A ring instead of the stick put through the cartilage of the
+      nose would obviate this difficulty.--AUTHOR.
+
+"Ox traveling, when once a man becomes accustomed to it, is not so
+disagreeable as might be expected, particularly if one succeeds in
+obtaining a tractable animal. On emergencies, an ox can be made to
+proceed at a tolerable quick pace; for, though his walk is only about
+three miles an hour at an average, he may be made to perform double
+that distance in the same time. Mr. Galton once accomplished 24 miles
+in four hours, and that, too, through heavy sand!"
+
+Cows will be found very useful upon long journeys when the rate of
+travel is slow, as they furnish milk, and in emergencies they may be
+worked in wagons. I once saw a small cow yoked beside a large ox, and
+driven about six hundred miles attached to a loaded wagon, and she
+performed her part equally well with the ox. It has been by no means an
+unusual thing for emigrant travelers to work cows in their teams.
+
+The inhabitants of Pembina, on Red River, work a single ox harnessed in
+shafts like a horse, and they transport a thousand pounds in a rude
+cart made entirely of wood, without a particle of iron. One man drives
+and takes the entire charge of eight or ten of these teams upon long
+journeys. This is certainly a very economical method of transportation.
+
+
+STORES AND PROVISIONS.
+
+Supplies for a march should be put up in the most secure, compact, and
+portable shape.
+
+Bacon should be packed in strong sacks of a hundred pounds to each; or,
+in very hot climates, put in boxes and surrounded with bran, which in a
+great measure prevents the fat from melting away.
+
+If pork be used, in order to avoid transporting about forty per cent.
+of useless weight, it should be taken out of the barrels and packed
+like the bacon; then so placed in the bottom of the wagons as to keep
+it cool. The pork, if well cured, will keep several months in this way,
+but bacon is preferable.
+
+Flour should be packed in stout double canvas sacks well sewed, a
+hundred pounds in each sack.
+
+Butter may be preserved by boiling it thoroughly, and skimming off the
+scum as it rises to the top until it is quite clear like oil. It is
+then placed in tin canisters and soldered up. This mode of preserving
+butter has been adopted in the hot climate of southern Texas, and it is
+found to keep sweet for a great length of time, and its flavor is but
+little impaired by the process.
+
+Sugar may be well secured in India-rubber or gutta-percha sacks, or so
+placed in the wagon as not to risk getting wet.
+
+Desiccated or dried vegetables are almost equal to the fresh, and are
+put up in such a compact and portable form as easily to be transported
+over the plains. They have been extensively used in the Crimean war,
+and by our own army in Utah, and have been very generally approved.
+They are prepared by cutting the fresh vegetables into thin slices and
+subjecting them to a very powerful press, which removes the juice and
+leaves a solid cake, which, after having been thoroughly dried in an
+oven, becomes almost as hard as a rock. A small piece of this, about
+half the size of a man's hand, when boiled, swells up so as to fill a
+vegetable dish, and is sufficient for four men. It is believed that the
+antiscorbutic properties of vegetables are not impaired by desiccation,
+and they will keep for years if not exposed to dampness. Canned
+vegetables are very good for campaigning, but are not so portable as
+when put up in the other form. The desiccated vegetables used in our
+army have been prepared by Chollet and Co., 46 Rue Richer, Paris. There
+is an agency for them in New York. I regard these compressed vegetables
+as the best preparation for prairie traveling that has yet been
+discovered. A single ration weighs, before being boiled, only an ounce,
+and a cubic yard contains 16,000 rations. In making up their outfit for
+the plains, men are very prone to overload their teams with a great
+variety of useless articles. It is a good rule to carry nothing more
+than is absolutely necessary for use upon the journey. One can not
+expect, with the limited allowance of transportation that emigrants
+usually have, to indulge in luxuries upon such expeditions, and
+articles for use in California can be purchased there at less cost than
+that of overland transport.
+
+The allowance of provisions for men in marching should be much greater
+than when they take no exercise. The army ration I have always found
+insufficient for soldiers who perform hard service, yet it is ample for
+them when in quarters.
+
+The following table shows the amount of subsistence consumed per day by
+each man of Dr. Rae's party, in his spring journey to the Arctic
+regions of North America in 1854:
+
+    Pemmican                          1.25 lbs.
+    Biscuit                           0.25  "
+    Edward's preserved potatoes       0.10  "
+    Flour                             0.33  "
+    Tea                               0.03  "
+    Sugar                             0.14  "
+    Grease or alcohol, for cooking    0.25  "
+                                      ----
+                                      2.35 lbs.
+
+This allowance of a little over two pounds of the most nutritious food
+was found barely sufficient to subsist the men in that cold climate.
+
+The pemmican, which constitutes almost the entire diet of the Fur
+Company's men in the Northwest, is prepared as follows: The buffalo
+meat is cut into thin flakes, and hung up to dry in the sun or before a
+slow fire; it is then pounded between two stones and reduced to a
+powder; this powder is placed in a bag of the animal's hide, with the
+hair on the outside; melted grease is then poured into it, and the bag
+sewn up. It can be eaten raw, and many prefer it so. Mixed with a
+little flour and boiled, it is a very wholesome and exceedingly
+nutritious food, and will keep fresh for a long time.
+
+I would advise all persons who travel for any considerable time through
+a country where they can procure no vegetables to carry with them some
+antiscorbutics, and if they can not transport desiccated or canned
+vegetables, citric acid answers a good purpose, and is very portable.
+When mixed with sugar and water, with a few drops of the essence of
+lemon, it is difficult to distinguish it from lemonade. Wild onions are
+excellent as antiscorbutics; also wild grapes and greens. An infusion
+of hemlock leaves is also said to be an antidote to scurvy.
+
+The most portable and simple preparation of subsistence that I know of,
+and which is used extensively by the Mexicans and Indians, is called
+"_cold flour_." It is made by parching corn, and pounding it in a
+mortar to the consistency of coarse meal; a little sugar and cinnamon
+added makes it quite palatable. When the traveler becomes hungry or
+thirsty, a little of the flour is mixed with water and drunk. It is an
+excellent article for a traveler who desires to go the greatest length
+of time upon the smallest amount of transportation. It is said that
+half a bushel is sufficient to subsist a man thirty days.
+
+Persons undergoing severe labor, and driven to great extremities for
+food, will derive sustenance from various sources that would never
+occur to them under ordinary circumstances. In passing over the Rocky
+Mountains during the winter of 1857-8, our supplies of provisions were
+entirely consumed eighteen days before reaching the first settlements
+in New Mexico, and we were obliged to resort to a variety of expedients
+to supply the deficiency. Our poor mules were fast failing and dropping
+down from exhaustion in the deep snows, and our only dependence for the
+means of sustaining life was upon these starved animals as they became
+unserviceable and could go no farther. We had no salt, sugar, coffee,
+or tobacco, which, at a time when men are performing the severest labor
+that the human system is capable of enduring, was a great privation. In
+this destitute condition we found a substitute for tobacco in the bark
+of the red willow, which grows upon many of the mountain streams in
+that vicinity. The outer bark is first removed with a knife, after
+which the inner bark is scraped up into ridges around the sticks, and
+held in the fire until it is thoroughly roasted, when it is taken off
+the stick, pulverized in the hand, and is ready for smoking. It has the
+narcotic properties of the tobacco, and is quite agreeable to the taste
+and smell. The sumach leaf is also used by the Indians in the same way,
+and has a similar taste to the willow bark. A decoction of the dried
+wild or horse mint, which we found abundant under the snow, was quite
+palatable, and answered instead of coffee. It dries up in that climate,
+but does not lose its flavor. We suffered greatly for the want of salt;
+but, by burning the outside of our mule steaks, and sprinkling a little
+gunpowder upon them, it did not require a very extensive stretch of the
+imagination to fancy the presence of both salt and pepper. We tried the
+meat of horse, colt, and mules, all of which were in a starved
+condition, and of course not very tender, juicy, or nutritious. We
+consumed the enormous amount of from five to six pounds of this meat
+per man daily, but continued to grow weak and thin, until, at the
+expiration of twelve days, we were able to perform but little labor,
+and were continually craving for fat meat.
+
+The allowance of provisions for each grown person, to make the journey
+from the Missouri River to California, should suffice for 110 days. The
+following is deemed requisite, viz.: 150 lbs. of flour, or its
+equivalent in hard bread; 25 lbs. of bacon or pork, and enough fresh
+beef to be driven on the hoof to make up the meat component of the
+ration; 15 lbs. of coffee, and 25 lbs. of sugar; also a quantity of
+saleratus or yeast powders for making bread, and salt and pepper.
+
+These are the chief articles of subsistence necessary for the trip, and
+they should be used with economy, reserving a good portion for the
+western half of the journey. Heretofore many of the California
+emigrants have improvidently exhausted their stocks of provisions
+before reaching their journey's end, and have, in many cases, been
+obliged to pay the most exorbitant prices in making up the deficiency.
+
+It is true that if persons choose to pass through Salt Lake City, and
+the Mormons _happen_ to be in an amiable mood, supplies may sometimes
+be procured from them; but those who have visited them well know how
+little reliance is to be placed upon their hospitality or spirit of
+accommodation.
+
+I once traveled with a party of New Yorkers _en route_ for California.
+They were perfectly ignorant of every thing relating to this kind of
+campaigning, and had overloaded their wagons with almost every thing
+except the very articles most important and necessary; the consequence
+was, that they exhausted their teams, and were obliged to throw away
+the greater part of their loading. They soon learned that Champagne,
+East India sweetmeats, olives, etc., etc., were not the most useful
+articles for a prairie tour.
+
+
+CLOTHING.
+
+A suitable dress for prairie traveling is of great import to health and
+comfort. Cotton or linen fabrics do not sufficiently protect the body
+against the direct rays of the sun at midday, nor against rains or
+sudden changes of temperature. Wool, being a non-conductor, is the best
+material for this mode of locomotion, and should always be adopted for
+the plains. The coat should be short and stout, the shirt of red or
+blue flannel, such as can be found in almost all the shops on the
+frontier: this, in warm weather, answers for an outside garment. The
+pants should be of thick and soft woolen material, and it is well to
+have them re-enforced on the inside, where they come in contact with
+the saddle, with soft buckskin, which makes them more durable and
+comfortable.
+
+Woolen socks and stout boots, coming up well at the knees, and made
+large, so as to admit the pants, will be found the best for horsemen,
+and they guard against rattlesnake bites.
+
+In traveling through deep snow during very cold weather in winter,
+moccasins are preferable to boots or shoes, as being more pliable, and
+allowing a freer circulation of the blood. In crossing the Rocky
+Mountains in the winter, the weather being intensely cold, I wore two
+pairs of woolen socks, and a square piece of thick blanket sufficient
+to cover the feet and ankles, over which were drawn a pair of thick
+buckskin moccasins, and the whole enveloped in a pair of buffalo-skin
+boots with the hair inside, made open in the front and tied with
+buckskin strings. At the same time I wore a pair of elkskin pants,
+which most effectually prevented the air from penetrating to the skin,
+and made an excellent defense against brush and thorns.
+
+My men, who were dressed in the regulation clothing, wore out their
+pants and shoes before we reached the summit of the mountains, and many
+of them had their feet badly frozen in consequence. They mended their
+shoes with pieces of leather cut from the saddle-skirts as long as they
+lasted, and, when this material was gone, they covered the entire shoe
+with green beeve or mule hide, drawn together and sewed upon the top,
+with the hair inside, which protected the upper as well as the sole
+leather. The sewing was done with an awl and buckskin strings. These
+simple expedients contributed greatly to the comfort of the party; and,
+indeed, I am by no means sure that they did not, in our straitened
+condition, without the transportation necessary for carrying disabled
+men, save the lives of some of them. Without the awl and buckskins we
+should have been unable to have repaired the shoes. They should never
+be forgotten in making up the outfit for a prairie expedition.
+
+We also experienced great inconvenience and pain by the reflection of
+the sun's rays from the snow upon our eyes, and some of the party
+became nearly snow-blind. Green or blue glasses, inclosed in a wire
+net-work, are an effectual protection to the eyes; but, in the absence
+of these, the skin around the eyes and upon the nose should be
+blackened with wet powder or charcoal, which will afford great relief.
+
+In the summer season shoes are much better for footmen than boots, as
+they are lighter, and do not cramp the ankles; the soles should be
+broad, so as to allow a square, firm tread, without distorting or
+pinching the feet.
+
+The following list of articles is deemed a sufficient outfit for one
+man upon a three months' expedition, viz.:
+
+    2 blue or red flannel overshirts, open in front, with buttons.
+    2 woolen undershirts.
+    2 pairs thick cotton drawers.
+    4 pairs woolen socks.
+    2 pairs cotton socks.
+    4 colored silk handkerchiefs.
+    2 pairs stout shoes, for footmen.
+    1 pair boots, for horsemen.
+    1 pair shoes, for horsemen.
+    3 towels.
+    1 gutta percha poncho.
+    1 broad-brimmed hat of soft felt.
+    1 comb and brush.
+    2 tooth-brushes.
+    1 pound Castile soap.
+    3 pounds bar soap for washing   clothes.
+    1 belt-knife and small whetstone.
+    Stout linen thread, large needles, a bit of beeswax, a few
+      buttons, paper of pins, and a thimble, all contained in
+      a small buckskin or stout cloth bag.
+
+The foregoing articles, with the coat and overcoat, complete the
+wardrobe.
+
+
+CAMP EQUIPAGE.
+
+The bedding for each person should consist of two blankets, a
+comforter, and a pillow, and a gutta percha or painted canvas cloth to
+spread beneath the bed upon the ground, and to contain it when rolled
+up for transportation.
+
+Every mess of six or eight persons will require a wrought-iron camp
+kettle, large enough for boiling meat and making soup; a coffee-pot and
+cups of heavy tin, with the handles riveted on; tin plates, frying and
+bake pans of wrought iron, the latter for baking bread and roasting
+coffee. Also a mess pan of heavy tin or wrought iron for mixing bread
+and other culinary purposes; knives, forks, and spoons; an extra camp
+kettle; tin or gutta percha bucket for water--wood, being liable to
+shrink and fall to pieces, is not deemed suitable; an axe, hatchet, and
+spade will also be needed, with a mallet for driving picket-pins.
+Matches should be carried in bottles and corked tight, so as to exclude
+the moisture.
+
+A little blue mass, quinine, opium, and some cathartic medicine, put up
+in doses for adults, will suffice for the medicine-chest.
+
+Each ox wagon should be provided with a covered tar-bucket, filled with
+a mixture of tar or resin and grease, two bows extra, six S's, and six
+open links for repairing chains. Every set of six wagons should have a
+tongue, coupling pole, king-bolt, and pair of hounds extra.
+
+Every set of six mule wagons should be furnished with five pairs of
+hames, two double trees, four whipple-trees, and two pairs of lead bars
+extra.
+
+Two lariats will be needed for every horse and mule, as one generally
+wears out before reaching the end of a long journey. They will be found
+useful in crossing deep streams, and in letting wagons down steep hills
+and mountains; also in repairing broken wagons. Lariats made of hemp
+are the best.
+
+One of the most indispensable articles to the outfit of the prairie
+traveler is buckskin. For repairing harness, saddles, bridles, and
+numerous other purposes of daily necessity, the awl and buckskin will
+be found in constant requisition.
+
+
+ARMS.
+
+Every man who goes into the Indian country should be armed with a rifle
+and revolver, and he should never, either in camp or out of it, lose
+sight of them. When not on the march, they should be placed in such a
+position that they can be seized at an instant's warning; and when
+moving about outside the camp, the revolver should invariably be worn
+in the belt, as the person does not know at what moment he may have use
+for it.
+
+A great diversity of opinion obtains regarding the kind of rifle that
+is the most efficient and best adapted to Indian warfare, and the
+question is perhaps as yet very far from being settled to the
+satisfaction of all. A large majority of men prefer the breech-loading
+arm, but there are those who still adhere tenaciously to the
+old-fashioned muzzle-loading rifle as preferable to any of the modern
+inventions. Among these may be mentioned the border hunters and
+mountaineers, who can not be persuaded to use any other than the
+Hawkins rifle, for the reason that they know nothing about the merits
+of any others. My own experience has forced me to the conclusion that
+the breech-loading arm possesses great advantages over the
+muzzle-loading, for the reason that it can be charged and fired with
+much greater rapidity.
+
+Colt's revolving pistol is very generally admitted, both in Europe and
+America, to be the most efficient arm of its kind known at the present
+day. As the same principles are involved in the fabrication of his
+breech-loading rifle as are found in the pistol, the conviction to me
+is irresistible that, if one arm is worthy of consideration, the other
+is equally so. For my own part, I look upon Colt's new patent rifle as
+a most excellent arm for border service. It gives six shots in more
+rapid succession than any other rifle I know of, and these, if properly
+expended, are oftentimes sufficient to decide a contest; moreover, it
+is the most reliable and certain weapon to fire that I have ever used,
+and I can not resist the force of my conviction that, if I were alone
+upon the prairies, and expected an attack from a body of Indians, I am
+not acquainted with any arm I would as soon have in my hands as this.
+
+The army and navy revolvers have both been used in our army, but the
+officers are not united in opinion in regard to their relative merits.
+I prefer the large army size, for reasons which will be given
+hereafter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Marching. Treatment of Animals. Water. Different methods of finding
+and purifying it. Journadas. Methods of crossing them. Advance and
+Rear Guards. Selection of Camp. Sanitary Considerations. Dr. Jackson's
+Report. Picket Guards. Stampedes. How to prevent them. Corraling
+Wagons.
+
+
+MARCHING.
+
+The success of a long expedition through an unpopulated country depends
+mainly on the care taken of the animals, and the manner in which they
+are driven, herded, and guarded. If they are broken down or lost, every
+thing must be sacrificed, and the party becomes perfectly helpless.
+
+The great error into which inexperienced travelers are liable to fall,
+and which probably occasions more suffering and disaster than almost
+any thing else, lies in overworking their cattle at the commencement of
+the journey. To obviate this, short and easy drives should be made
+until the teams become habituated to their work, and gradually inured
+to this particular method of traveling. If animals are overloaded and
+overworked when they first start out into the prairies, especially if
+they have recently been taken from grain, they soon fall away, and give
+out before reaching the end of the journey.
+
+Grass and water are abundant and good upon the eastern portions of all
+the different overland routes; animals should not, therefore, with
+proper care, fall away in the least before reaching the mountains, as
+west of them are long stretches where grass and water are scarce, and
+it requires the full amount of strength and vigor of animals in good
+condition to endure the fatigues and hard labor attendant upon the
+passage of these deserts. Drivers should be closely watched, and never,
+unless absolutely necessary, permitted to beat their animals, or to
+force them out of a walk, as this will soon break down the best teams.
+Those teamsters who make the least use of the whip invariably keep
+their animals in the best condition. Unless the drivers are checked at
+the outset, they are very apt to fall into the habit of flogging their
+teams. It is not only wholly unnecessary but cruel, and should never be
+tolerated.
+
+In traveling with ox teams in the summer season, great benefit will be
+derived from making early marches; starting with the dawn, and making a
+"nooning" during the heat of the day, as oxen suffer much from the heat
+of the sun in midsummer. These noon halts should, if possible, be so
+arranged as to be near grass and water, where the animals can improve
+their time in grazing. When it gets cool they may be hitched to the
+wagons again, and the journey continued in the afternoon. Sixteen or
+eighteen miles a day may thus be made without injury to the beasts, and
+longer drives can never be expedient, unless in order to reach grass or
+water. When the requisites for encamping can not be found at the
+desired intervals, it is better for the animals to make a very long
+drive than to encamp without water or grass. The noon halt in such
+cases may be made without water, and the evening drive lengthened.
+
+
+WATER.
+
+The scarcity of water upon some of the routes across the plains
+occasionally exposes the traveler to intense suffering, and renders it
+a matter of much importance for him to learn the best methods of
+guarding against the disasters liable to occur to men and animals in
+the absence of this most necessary element.
+
+In mountainous districts water can generally be found either in
+springs, the dry beds of streams, or in holes in the rocks, where they
+are sheltered from rapid evaporation. For example, in the Hueco tanks,
+thirty miles east of El Paso, New Mexico, upon the Fort Smith road,
+where there is an immense reservoir in a cave, water can always be
+found. This reservoir receives the drainage of a mountain.
+
+During a season of the year when there are occasional showers, water
+will generally be found in low places where there is a substratum of
+clay, but after the dry season has set in these pools evaporate, and it
+is necessary to dig wells. The lowest spots should be selected for this
+purpose when the grass is green and the surface earth moist.
+
+In searching for water along the dry sandy beds of streams, it is well
+to try the earth with a stick or ramrod, and if this indicates moisture
+water will generally be obtained by excavation. Streams often sink in
+light and porous sand, and sometimes make their appearance again lower
+down, where the bed is more tenacious; but it is a rule with prairie
+travelers, in searching for water in a sandy country, to ascend the
+streams, and the nearer their sources are approached the more water
+will be found in a dry season.
+
+Where it becomes necessary to sink a well in a stream the bed of which
+is quicksand, a flour-barrel, perforated with small holes, should be
+used as a curb, to prevent the sand from caving in. The barrel must be
+forced down as the sand is removed; and when, as is often the case,
+there is an undercurrent through the sand, the well will be continually
+filled with water.
+
+There are many indications of water known to old campaigners, although
+none of them are absolutely infallible. The most certain of them are
+deep green cottonwood or willow trees growing in depressed localities;
+also flags, water-rushes, tall green grass, etc.
+
+The fresh tracks and trails of animals converging toward a common
+centre, and the flight of birds and water-fowl toward the same points,
+will also lead to water. In a section frequented by deer or mustangs,
+it may be certain that water is not far distant, as these animals drink
+daily, and they will not remain long in a locality after the water has
+dried up. Deer generally go to water during the middle of the day, but
+birds toward evening.
+
+A supply of drinking water may be obtained during a shower from the
+drippings of a tent, or by suspending a cloth or blanket by the four
+corners and hanging a small weight to the centre, so as to allow all
+the rain to run toward one point, from whence it drops into a vessel
+beneath. India-rubber, gutta-percha, or painted canvas cloths answer a
+very good purpose for catching water during a rain, but they should be
+previously well washed, to prevent them from imparting a bad taste.
+
+When there are heavy dews water may be collected by spreading out a
+blanket with a stick attached to one end, tying a rope to it, dragging
+it over the grass, and wringing out the water as it accumulates. In
+some parts of Australia this method is practiced.
+
+In traversing the country upon the head waters of Red River during the
+summer of 1852, we suffered most severely from thirst, having nothing
+but the acrid and bitter waters from the river, which, issuing from a
+gypsum formation, was highly charged with salts, and, when taken into
+the stomach, did not quench thirst in the slightest degree, but, on the
+contrary, produced a most painful and burning sensation, accompanied
+with diarrhoea. During the four days that we were compelled to drink
+this water the thermometer rose to 104 deg. in the shade, and the only
+relief we found was from bathing in the river.
+
+The use of water is a matter of habit, very much within our control, as
+by practice we may discipline ourselves so as to require but a small
+amount. Some persons, for example, who place no restraint upon their
+appetites, will, if they can get it, drink water twenty times a day,
+while others will not perhaps drink more than once or twice during the
+same time. I have found a very effectual preventive to thirst by
+drinking a large quantity of water before breakfast, and, on feeling
+thirsty on the march, chewing a small green twig or leaf.
+
+Water taken from stagnant pools, charged with putrid vegetable matter
+and animalculae, would be very likely to generate fevers and dysenteries
+if taken into the stomach without purification. It should therefore be
+thoroughly boiled, and all the scum removed from the surface as it
+rises; this clarifies it, and by mixing powdered charcoal with it the
+disinfecting process is perfected. Water may also be purified by
+placing a piece of alum in the end of a stick that has been split, and
+stirring it around in a bucket of water. Charcoal and the leaves of the
+prickly pear are also used for the same purpose. I have recently seen a
+compact and portable filter, made of charcoal, which clarifies the
+water very effectually, and draws it off on the siphon principle. It
+can be obtained at 85 West Street, New York, for one dollar and a half.
+Water may be partially filtered in a muddy pond by taking a barrel and
+boring the lower half full of holes, then filling it up with grass or
+moss above the upper holes, after which it is placed in the pond with
+the top above the surface. The water filters through the grass or moss,
+and rises in the barrel to a level with the pond. Travelers frequently
+drink muddy water by placing a cloth or handkerchief over the mouth of
+a cup to catch the larger particles of dirt and animalculae.
+
+Water may be cooled so as to be quite palatable by wrapping cloths
+around the vessels containing it, wetting them, and hanging them in the
+air, where a rapid evaporation will be produced. Some of the
+frontier-men use a leathern sack for carrying water: this is porous,
+and allows the necessary evaporation without wetting.
+
+The Arabs also use a leathern bottle, which they call _zemsemiyah_.
+When they are _en route_ they hang it on the shady side of a camel,
+where the evaporation keeps the water continually cool.
+
+No expedition should ever set out into the plains without being
+supplied with the means for carrying water, especially in an unknown
+region. If wooden kegs are used they must frequently be looked after,
+and soaked, in order that they may not shrink and fall to pieces. Men,
+in marching in a hot climate, throw off a great amount of perspiration
+from the skin, and require a corresponding quantity of water to supply
+the deficiency, and unless they get this they suffer greatly. When a
+party makes an expedition into a desert section, where there is a
+probability of finding no water, and intend to return over the same
+track, it is well to carry water as far as convenient, and bury it in
+the ground for use on the return trip.
+
+"Captain Sturt, when he explored Australia, took a tank in his cart,
+which burst, and, besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he
+was enabled to face a desert country with a success which no traveler
+had ever attained to. For instance, when returning homeward, the water
+was found to be drying up from the country on all sides of him. He was
+at a pool, and the next stage was 118 miles, at the end of which it was
+doubtful if there remained any water. It was necessary to send to
+reconnoitre, and to furnish the messenger with means of returning
+should the pool be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and,
+filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), sent it by an ox
+dray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he
+dispatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the
+horse and man were to drink at the hide and go on. Thus they had 36
+gallons to supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or six days at 30
+miles a day, at the close of which they would return to the ox
+hide--sleeping, in fact, five nights on 36 gallons of water. This a
+hardy, well-driven horse could do, even in the hottest climate."[2]
+
+      [2] F. Galton's _Art of Travel_, p. 17 and 18.
+
+
+JOURNADAS.
+
+In some localities 50 or 60 miles, and even greater distances, are
+frequently traversed without water; these long stretches are called by
+the Mexicans "_journadas_," or day's journeys. There is one in New
+Mexico called _Journada del Muerto_, which is 78-1/2 miles in length,
+where, in a dry season, there is not a drop of water; yet, with proper
+care, this drive can be made with ox or mule teams, and without loss or
+injury to the animals.
+
+On arriving at the last camping-ground before entering upon the
+journada, all the animals should be as well rested and refreshed as
+possible. To insure this, they must be turned out upon the best grass
+that can be found, and allowed to eat and drink as much as they desire
+during the entire halt. Should the weather be very warm, and the teams
+composed of oxen, the march should not be resumed until it begins to
+cool in the afternoon. They should be carefully watered just previous
+to being hitched up and started out upon the journada, the water-kegs
+having been previously filled. The drive is then commenced, and
+continued during the entire night, with 10 or 15 minutes rest every two
+hours. About daylight a halt should be made, and the animals
+immediately turned out to graze for two hours, during which time,
+especially if there is dew upon the grass, they will have become
+considerably refreshed, and may be put to the wagons again and driven
+until the heat becomes oppressive toward noon, when they are again
+turned out upon a spot where the grass is good, and, if possible, where
+there are shade trees. About four o'clock P.M. they are again started,
+and the march continued into the night, and as long as they can be
+driven without suffering. If, however, there should be dew, which is
+seldom the case on the plains, it would be well to turn out the animals
+several times during the second night, and by morning, if they are in
+good condition, the journada of 70 or 80 miles will have been passed
+without any great amount of suffering. I am supposing, in this case,
+that the road is firm and free from sand.
+
+Many persons have been under the impression that animals, in traversing
+the plains, would perform better and keep in better condition by
+allowing them to graze in the morning before commencing the day's
+march, which involves the necessity of making late starts, and driving
+during the heat of the day. The same persons have been of the opinion
+that animals will graze only at particular hours; that the remainder of
+the day must be allowed them for rest and sleep, and that, unless these
+rules be observed, they would not thrive. This opinion is, however,
+erroneous, as animals will in a few days adapt themselves to any
+circumstances, so far as regards their hours of labor, rest, and
+refreshment. If they have been accustomed to work at particular periods
+of the day, and the order of things is suddenly reversed, the working
+hours changed into hours of rest, and _vice versa_, they may not do as
+well for a short time, but they will soon accustom themselves to the
+change, and eat and rest as well as before. By making early drives
+during the summer months the heat of the day is avoided, whereas, I
+repeat, if allowed to graze before starting, the march can not commence
+until it grows warm, when animals, especially oxen, will suffer greatly
+from the heat of the sun, and will not do as well as when the other
+plan is pursued.
+
+Oxen upon a long journey will sometimes wear down their hoofs and
+become lame. When this occurs, a thick piece of raw hide wrapped around
+the foot and tied firmly to the leg will obviate the difficulty,
+provided the weather is not wet; for if so, the shoe soon wears out.
+Mexican and Indian horses and mules will make long journeys without
+being shod, as their hoofs are tough and elastic, and wear away very
+gradually; they will, however, in time become very smooth, making it
+difficult for them to travel upon grass.
+
+A train of wagons should always be kept closed upon a march; and if, as
+often happens, a particular wagon gets out of order and is obliged to
+halt, it should be turned out of the road, to let the others pass while
+the injury is being repaired. As soon as the broken wagon is in order,
+it should fall into the line wherever it happens to be. In the event of
+a wagon breaking down so as to require important repairs, men should be
+immediately dispatched with the necessary tools and materials, which
+should be placed in the train where they can readily be got at, and a
+guard should be left to escort the wagon to camp after having been
+repaired. If, however, the damage be so serious as to require any great
+length of time to repair it, the load should be transferred to other
+wagons, so that the team which is left behind will be able to travel
+rapidly and overtake the train.
+
+If the broken wagon is a poor one, and there be abundance of better
+ones, the accident being such as to involve much delay for its repair,
+it may be wise to abandon it, taking from it such parts as may possibly
+be wanted in repairing other wagons.
+
+
+ADVANCE AND REAR GUARDS.
+
+A few men, well mounted, should constitute the advance and rear guards
+for each train of wagons passing through the Indian country. Their duty
+will be to keep a vigilant look-out in all directions, and to
+reconnoitre places where Indians would be likely to lie in ambush.
+Should hostile Indians be discovered, the fact should be at once
+reported to the commander, who (if he anticipates an attack) will
+rapidly form his wagons into a circle or "_corral_," with the animals
+toward the centre, and the men on the inside, with their arms in
+readiness to repel an attack from without. If these arrangements be
+properly attended to, few parties of Indians will venture to make an
+attack, as they are well aware that some of their warriors might pay
+with their lives the forfeit of such indiscretion.
+
+I know an instance where one resolute man, pursued for several days by
+a large party of Comanches on the Santa Fe trace, defended himself by
+dismounting and pointing his rifle at the foremost whenever they came
+near him, which always had the effect of turning them back. This was
+repeated so often that the Indians finally abandoned the pursuit, and
+left the traveler to pursue his journey without farther molestation.
+During all this time he did not discharge his rifle; had he done so he
+would doubtless have been killed.
+
+
+SELECTION OF CAMPS.
+
+The security of animals, and, indeed, the general safety of a party, in
+traveling through a country occupied by hostile Indians, depends
+greatly upon the judicious selection of camps. One of the most
+important considerations that should influence the choice of a locality
+is its capability for defense. If the camp be pitched beside a stream,
+a concave bend, where the water is deep, with a soft alluvial bed
+inclosed by high and abrupt banks, will be the most defensible, and all
+the more should the concavity form a peninsula. The advantages of such
+a position are obvious to a soldier's eye, as that part of the
+encampment inclosed by the stream is naturally secure, and leaves only
+one side to be defended. The concavity of the bend will enable the
+defending party to cross its fire in case of attack from the exposed
+side. The bend of the stream will also form an excellent corral in
+which to secure animals from a stampede, and thereby diminish the
+number of sentinels needful around the camp. In herding animals at
+night within the bend of a stream, a spot should be selected where no
+clumps of brush grow on the side where the animals are posted. If
+thickets of brush can not be avoided, sentinels should be placed near
+them, to guard against Indians, who might take advantage of this cover
+to steal animals, or shoot them down with arrows, before their presence
+were known.
+
+In camping away from streams, it is advisable to select a position in
+which one or more sides of the encampment shall rest upon the crest of
+an abrupt hill or bluff. The prairie Indians make their camps upon the
+summits of the hills, whence they can see in all directions, and thus
+avoid a surprise.
+
+The line of tents should be pitched on that side of the camp most
+exposed to attack, and sentinels so posted that they may give alarm in
+time for the main body to rally and prepare for defense.
+
+
+SANITARY CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+When camping near rivers and lakes surrounded by large bodies of timber
+and a luxuriant vegetation, which produces a great amount of
+decomposition and consequent exhalations of malaria, it is important to
+ascertain what localities will be the least likely to generate disease,
+and to affect the sanitary condition of men occupying them.
+
+This subject has been thoroughly examined by Dr. Robert Johnson,
+Inspector General of Hospitals in the English army in 1845; and, as his
+conclusions are deduced from enlarged experience and extended research,
+they should have great weight. I shall therefore make no apology for
+introducing here a few extracts from his interesting report touching
+upon this subject:
+
+"It is consonant with the experience of military people, in all ages
+and in all countries, that camp diseases most abound near the muddy
+banks of large rivers, near swamps and ponds, and on grounds which have
+been recently stripped of their woods. The fact is precise, but it has
+been set aside to make way for an opinion. It was assumed, about half a
+century since, by a celebrated army physician, that camp diseases
+originated from causes of putrefaction, and that putrefaction is
+connected radically with a stagnant condition of the air.
+
+"As streams of air usually proceed along rivers with more certainty and
+force than in other places, and as there is evidently a more certain
+movement of air, that is, more wind on open grounds than among woods
+and thickets, this sole consideration, without any regard to
+experience, influenced opinion, gave currency to the destructive maxim
+that the banks of rivers, open grounds, and exposed heights are the
+most eligible situations for the encampment of troops. They are the
+best ventilated; they must, if the theory be true, be the most healthy.
+
+"The fact is the reverse; but, demonstrative as the fact may be,
+fashion has more influence than multiplied examples of fact
+experimentally proved. Encampments are still formed in the vicinity of
+swamps, or on grounds which are newly cleared of their woods, in
+obedience to theory, and contrary to fact.
+
+"It is prudent, as now said, in _selecting ground for encampment_, to
+avoid the immediate vicinity of swamps and rivers. The air is there
+noxious; but, as its influence thence originating does not extend
+beyond a certain limit, it is a matter of some importance to ascertain
+to what distance it does extend; because, if circumstances do not
+permit that the encampment be removed out of its reach, prudence
+directs that remedies be applied to weaken the force of its pernicious
+impressions.
+
+"The remedies consist in the interposition of rising grounds, woods, or
+such other impediments as serve to break the current in its progress
+from the noxious source. It is an obvious fact, that the noxious cause,
+or the exhalation in which it is enveloped, ascends as it traverses the
+adjacent plain, and that its impression is augmented by the
+adventitious force with which it strikes upon the subject of its
+action.
+
+"It is thus that a position of three hundred paces from the margin of a
+swamp, on a level with the swamp itself, or but moderately elevated, is
+less unhealthy than one at six hundred on the same line of direction on
+an exposed height. The cause here strikes fully in its ascent; and as
+the atmosphere has a more varied temperature, and the succussions of
+the air are more irregular on the height than on the plain, the
+impression is more forcible, and the noxious effect more strongly
+marked. In accord with this principle, it is almost uniformly true,
+_coeteris paribus_, that diseases are more common, at least more
+violent, in broken, irregular, and hilly countries, where the
+temperature is liable to sudden changes, and where blasts descend with
+fury from the mountains, than in large and extensive inclined plains
+under the action of equal and gentle breezes only.
+
+"From this fact it becomes an object of the first consideration, in
+selecting ground for encampment, to guard against the impression of
+strong winds on their own account, independently of their proceeding
+from swamps, rivers, and noxious soils.
+
+"It is proved by experience, in armies as in civil life, that injury
+does not often result from simple wetting with rain when the person is
+fairly exposed in the open air, and habitually inured to the
+contingencies of weather. Irregular troops, which act in the advanced
+line of armies, and which have no other shelter from weather than a
+hedge or tree, rarely experience sickness--never, at least, the
+sickness which proceeds from contagion; hence it is inferred that the
+shelter of tents is not necessary for the preservation of health.
+Irregular troops, with contingent shelter only, are comparatively
+healthy, while sickness often rages with violence in the same scene,
+among those who have all the protection against the inclemencies of
+weather which can be furnished by canvas. The fact is verified by
+experience, and the cause of it is not of difficult explanation. When
+the earth is damp, the action of heat on its surface occasions the
+interior moisture to ascend. The heat of the bodies of a given number
+of men, confined within a tent of a given dimension, raises the
+temperature within the tent beyond the temperature of the common air
+outside the tent. The ascent of moisture is thus encouraged, generally
+by a change of temperature in the tent, and more particularly by the
+immediate or near contact of the heated bodies of the men with the
+surface of the earth. Moisture, as exhaled from the earth, is
+considered by observers of fact to be a cause which acts injuriously on
+health. Produced artificially by the accumulation of individuals in
+close tents, it may reasonably be supposed to produce its usual effects
+on armies. A cause of contagious influence, of fatal effect, is thus
+generated by accumulating soldiers in close and crowded tents, under
+the pretext of defending them from the inclemencies of the weather; and
+hence it is that the means which are provided for the preservation of
+health are actually the causes of destruction of life.
+
+"There are two causes which more evidently act upon the health of
+troops in the field than any other, namely, moisture exhaled direct
+from the surface of the earth in undue quantity, and emanations of a
+peculiar character arising from diseased action in the animal system in
+a mass of men crowded together. These are principal, and they are
+important. The noxious effects may be obviated, or rather the noxious
+cause will not be generated, under the following arrangement, namely, a
+carpet of painted canvas for the floor of the tent; a tent with a light
+roof, as defense against perpendicular rain or the rays of a vertical
+sun; and with side walls of moderate height, to be employed only
+against driving rains. To the first there can be no objection: it is
+useful, as preventing the exhalations of moisture from the surface of
+the earth; it is convenient, as always ready; and it is economical, as
+less expensive than straw. It requires to be fresh painted only once a
+year."
+
+The effect of crowding men together in close quarters, illy ventilated,
+was shown in the prisons of Hindostan, where at one time, when the
+English held sway, they had, on an average, 40,000 natives in
+confinement; and this unfortunate population was every year liberated
+by death in proportions varying from 4000 to 10,000. The annual average
+mortality by crowded and unventilated barracks in the English army has
+sometimes been enormous, as at Barrackpore, where it seldom fell far
+short of one tenth; that is to say, its garrisons were every year
+decimated by fever or cholera, while the officers and other
+inhabitants, who lived in well-ventilated houses, did not find the
+place particularly unhealthy.
+
+The same fact of general exemption among the officers, and complete
+exemption among their wives, was observed in the marching regiments,
+which lost by cholera from one tenth to one sixth of the enlisted men,
+who were packed together at night ten and twelve in a tent, with the
+thermometer at 96 deg.. The dimensions of the celebrated Black Hole of
+Calcutta--where in 1756, 123 prisoners out of 140 died by carbonic acid
+in one night--was but eighteen feet square, and with but two small
+windows. Most of the twenty-three who survived until morning were
+seized with putrid fever and died very soon afterward.
+
+On the 1st of December, 1848, 150 deck passengers of the steamer
+Londonderry were ordered below by the captain and the hatches closed
+upon them: seventy were found dead the next morning.
+
+The streams which intersect our great prairies have but a very sparse
+growth of wood or vegetation upon their banks, so that one of the
+fundamental causes for the generation of noxious malaria does not, to
+any great extent, exist here, and I believe that persons may encamp
+with impunity directly upon their banks.
+
+
+PICKET GUARDS.
+
+When a party is sufficiently strong, a picket guard should be stationed
+during the night some two or three hundred yards in advance of the
+point which is most open to assault, and on low ground, so that an
+enemy approaching over the surrounding higher country can be seen
+against the sky, while the sentinel himself is screened from
+observation. These sentinels should not be allowed to keep fires,
+unless they are so placed that they can not be seen from a distance.
+
+During the day the pickets should be posted on the summits of the
+highest eminences in the vicinity of camp, with instructions to keep a
+vigilant lookout in all directions; and, if not within hailing
+distance, they should be instructed to give some well-understood
+telegraphic signals to inform those in camp when there is danger. For
+example, should Indians be discovered approaching at a great distance,
+they may raise their caps upon the muzzles of their pieces, and at the
+same time walk around in a circle; while, if the Indians are near and
+moving rapidly, the sentinel may swing his cap and run around rapidly
+in a circle. To indicate the direction from which the Indians are
+approaching, he may direct his piece toward them, and walk in the same
+line of direction.
+
+Should the pickets suddenly discover a party of Indians very near, and
+with the apparent intention of making an attack, they should fire their
+pieces to give the alarm to the camp.
+
+These telegraphic signals, when well understood and enforced, will tend
+greatly to facilitate the communication of intelligence throughout the
+camp, and conduce much to its security.
+
+The picket guards should receive minute and strict orders regarding
+their duties under all circumstances, and these orders should be
+distinctly understood by every one in the camp, so that no false alarms
+will be created. All persons, with the exception of the guards and
+herders, should after dark be confined to the limits of the chain of
+sentinels, so that, if any one is seen approaching from without these
+limits, it will be known that they are strangers.
+
+As there will not often be occasion for any one to pass the chain of
+pickets during the night, it is a good rule (especially if the party is
+small), when a picket sentinel discovers any one lurking about his post
+from without, if he has not himself been seen, to quietly withdraw and
+report the fact to the commander, who can wake his men and make his
+arrangements to repel an attack and protect his animals. If, however,
+the man upon the picket has been seen, he should distinctly challenge
+the approaching party, and if he receives no answer, fire, and retreat
+to camp to report the fact.
+
+It is of the utmost importance that picket guards should be wide awake,
+and allow nothing to escape their observation, as the safety of the
+whole camp is involved. During a dark night a man can see better
+himself, and is less exposed to the view of others, when in a sitting
+posture than when standing up or moving about. I would therefore
+recommend this practice for night pickets.
+
+Horses and mules (especially the latter), whose senses of hearing and
+smelling are probably more acute than those of almost any other
+animals, will discover any thing strange or unusual about camp much
+sooner than a man. They indicate this by turning in the direction from
+whence the object is approaching, holding their heads erect, projecting
+their ears forward, and standing in a fixed and attentive attitude.
+They exhibit the same signs of alarm when a wolf or other wild animal
+approaches the camp; but it is always wise, when they show fear in this
+manner, to be on the alert till the cause is ascertained.
+
+Mules are very keenly sensitive to danger, and, in passing along over
+the prairies, they will often detect the proximity of strangers long
+before they are discovered by their riders. Nothing seems to escape
+their observation; and I have heard of several instances where they
+have given timely notice of the approach of hostile Indians, and thus
+prevented stampedes.
+
+Dogs are sometimes good sentinels, but they often sleep sound, and are
+not easily awakened on the approach of an enemy.
+
+In marching with large force, unless there is a guide who knows the
+country, a small party should always be sent in advance to search for
+good camping-places, and these parties should be dispatched early
+enough to return and meet the main command in the event of not finding
+a camping-place within the limits of the day's march. A regiment should
+average upon the prairies, where the roads are good, about eighteen
+miles a day, but, if necessary, it can make 25 or even 30 miles. The
+advance party should therefore go as far as the command can march,
+provided the requisites for camping are not found within that distance.
+The article of first importance in campaigning is grass, the next
+water, and the last fuel.
+
+It is the practice of most persons traveling with large ox trains to
+select their camps upon the summit of a hill, where the surrounding
+country in all directions can be seen. Their cattle are then
+continually within view from the camp, and can be guarded easily.
+
+When a halt is made the wagons are "corraled," as it is called, by
+bringing the two front ones near and parallel to each other. The two
+next are then driven up on the outside of these, with the front wheels
+of the former touching the rear wheels of the latter, the rear of the
+wagons turned out upon the circumference of the circle that is being
+formed, and so on until one half the circle is made, when the rear of
+the wagons are turned in to complete the circle. An opening of about
+twenty yards should be left between the last two wagons for animals to
+pass in and out of the corral, and this may be closed with two ropes
+stretched between the wagons. Such a corral forms an excellent and
+secure barricade against Indian attacks, and a good inclosure for
+cattle while they are being yoked; indeed, it is indispensable.
+
+
+STAMPEDES.
+
+Inclosures are made in the same manner for horses and mules, and, in
+case of an attempt to stampede them, they should be driven with all
+possible dispatch into the corral, where they will be perfectly secure.
+A "stampede" is more to be dreaded upon the plains than almost any
+disaster that can happen. It not unfrequently occurs that very many
+animals are irretrievably lost in this way, and the objects of an
+expedition thus defeated.
+
+The Indians are perfectly familiar with the habits and disposition of
+horses and mules, and with the most effectual methods of terrifying
+them. Previous to attempting a stampede, they provide themselves with
+rattles and other means for making frightful noises; thus prepared,
+they approach as near the herds as possible without being seen, and
+suddenly, with their horses at full speed, rush in among them, making
+the most hideous and unearthly screams and noises to terrify them, and
+drive them off before their astonished owners are able to rally and
+secure them.
+
+As soon as the animals are started the Indians divide their party,
+leaving a portion to hurry them off rapidly, while the rest linger some
+distance in the rear, to resist those who may pursue them.
+
+Horses and mules will sometimes, especially in the night, become
+frightened and stampeded from very slight causes. A wolf or a deer
+passing through a herd will often alarm them, and cause them to break
+away in the most frantic manner. Upon one occasion in the Choctaw
+country, my entire herd of about two hundred horses and mules all
+stampeded in the night, and scattered over the country for many miles,
+and it was several days before I succeeded in collecting them together.
+The alarm occurred while the herders were walking among the animals,
+and without any perceptible cause. The foregoing facts go to show how
+important it is at all times to keep a vigilant guard over animals. In
+the vicinity of hostile Indians, where an attack may be anticipated,
+several good horses should be secured in such positions that they will
+continually be in readiness for an emergency of this kind. The herdsmen
+should have their horses in hand, saddled and bridled, and ready at an
+instant's notice to spring upon their backs and drive the herds into
+camp. As soon as it is discovered that the animals have taken fright,
+the herdsmen should use their utmost endeavors to turn them in the
+direction of the camp, and this can generally be accomplished by riding
+the bell mare in front of the herd, and gradually turning her toward
+it, and slackening her speed as the familiar objects about the camp
+come in sight. This usually tends to quiet their alarm.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Repairing broken Wagons. Fording Rivers. Quicksand. Wagon Boats. Bull
+Boats. Crossing Packs. Swimming Animals. Marching with loose Horses.
+Herding Mules. Best Methods of Marching. Herding and guarding Animals.
+Descending Mountains. Storms. Northers.
+
+
+REPAIRS OF ACCIDENTS.
+
+The accidents most liable to happen to wagons on the plains arise from
+the great dryness of the atmosphere, and the consequent shrinkage and
+contraction of the wood-work in the wheels, the tires working loose,
+and the wheels, in passing over sidling ground, oftentimes falling down
+and breaking all the spokes where they enter the hub. It therefore
+becomes a matter of absolute necessity for the prairie traveler to
+devise some means of repairing such damages, or of guarding against
+them by the use of timely expedients.
+
+The wheels should be frequently and closely examined, and whenever a
+tire becomes at all loose it should at once be tightened with pieces of
+hoop-iron or wooden wedges driven by twos simultaneously from opposite
+sides. Another remedy for the same thing is to take off the wheels
+after encamping, sink them in water, and allow them to remain over
+night. This swells the wood, but is only temporary, requiring frequent
+repetition; and, after a time, if the wheels have not been made of
+thoroughly seasoned timber, it becomes necessary to reset the tires in
+order to guard against their destruction by falling to pieces and
+breaking the spokes.
+
+If the tires run off near a blacksmith's shop, or if there be a
+traveling forge with the train, they may be tied on with raw hide or
+ropes, and thus driven to the shop or camp. When a rear wheel breaks
+down upon a march, the best method I know of for taking the vehicle to
+a place where it can be repaired is to take off the damaged wheel, and
+place a stout pole of three or four inches in diameter under the end of
+the axle, outside the wagon-bed, and extending forward above the front
+wheel, where it is firmly lashed with ropes, while the other end of the
+pole runs six or eight feet to the rear, and drags upon the ground. The
+pole must be of such length and inclination that the axle shall be
+raised and retained in its proper horizontal position, when it can be
+driven to any distance that may be desired. The wagon should be
+relieved as much as practicable of its loading, as the pole dragging
+upon the ground will cause it to run heavily.
+
+When a front wheel breaks down, the expedient just mentioned can not be
+applied to the front axle, but the two rear wheels may be taken off and
+placed upon this axle (they will always fit), while the sound front
+wheel can be substituted upon one side of the rear axle, after which
+the pole may be applied as before described. This plan I have adopted
+upon several different occasions, and I can vouch for its efficacy.
+
+The foregoing facts may appear very simple and unimportant in
+themselves, but blacksmiths and wheelwrights are not met with at every
+turn of the roads upon the prairies; and in the wilderness, where the
+traveler is dependent solely upon his own resources, this kind of
+information will be found highly useful.
+
+When the spokes in a wheel shrink more than the felloes, they work
+loose in the hub, and can not be tightened by wedging. The only remedy
+in such cases is to cut the felloe with a saw on opposite sides, taking
+out two pieces of such dimensions that the reduced circumference will
+draw back the spokes into their proper places and make them snug. A
+thin wagon-bow, or barrel-hoops, may then be wrapped around the outside
+of the felloe, and secured with small nails or tacks. This increases
+the diameter of the wheel, so that when the tire has been heated, put
+on, and cooled, it forces back the spokes into their true places, and
+makes the wheel as sound and strong as it ever was. This simple process
+can be executed in about half an hour if there be fuel for heating, and
+obviates the necessity of cutting and welding the tire. I would
+recommend that the tires should be secured with bolts and nuts, which
+will prevent them from running off when they work loose, and, if they
+have been cut and reset, they should be well tried with a hammer where
+they are welded to make sure that the junction is sound.
+
+
+FORDING RIVERS.
+
+Many streams that intersect the different routes across our continent
+are broad and shallow, and flow over beds of quicksand, which, in
+seasons of high water, become boggy and unstable, and are then
+exceedingly difficult of crossing. When these streams are on the rise,
+and, indeed, before any swelling is perceptible, their beds become
+surcharged with the sand loosened by the action of the under-current
+from the approaching flood, and from this time until the water subsides
+fording is difficult, requiring great precautions.
+
+On arriving upon the bank of a river of this character which has not
+recently been crossed, the condition of the quicksand may be
+ascertained by sending an intelligent man over the fording-place, and,
+should the sand not yield under his feet, it may be regarded as safe
+for animals or wagons. Should it, however, prove soft and yielding, it
+must be thoroughly examined, and the best track selected. This can be
+done by a man on foot, who will take a number of sharp sticks long
+enough, when driven into the bottom of the river, to stand above the
+surface of the water. He starts from the shore, and with one of the
+sticks and his feet tries the bottom in the direction of the opposite
+bank until he finds the firmest ground, where he plants one of the
+sticks to mark the track. A man incurs no danger in walking over
+quicksand provided he step rapidly, and he will soon detect the safest
+ground. He then proceeds, planting his sticks as often as may be
+necessary to mark the way, until he reaches the opposite bank. The ford
+is thus ascertained, and, if there are footmen in the party, they
+should cross before the animals and wagons, as they pack the sand, and
+make the track more firm and secure.
+
+If the sand is soft, horses should be led across, and not allowed to
+stop in the stream; and the better to insure this, they should be
+watered before entering upon the ford; otherwise, as soon as they stand
+still, their feet sink in the sand, and soon it becomes difficult to
+extricate them. The same rule holds in the passage of wagons: they must
+be driven steadily across, and the animals never allowed to stop while
+in the river, as the wheels sink rapidly in quicksand. Mules will often
+stop from fear, and, when once embarrassed in the sand, they lie down,
+and will not use the slightest exertion to regain their footing. The
+only alternative, then, is to drag them out with ropes. I have even
+known some mules refuse to put forth the least exertion to get up after
+being pulled out upon firm ground, and it was necessary to set them
+upon their feet before they were restored to a consciousness of their
+own powers.
+
+In crossing rivers where the water is so high as to come into the
+wagon-beds, but is not above a fording stage, the contents of the
+wagons may be kept dry by raising the beds between the uprights, and
+retaining them in that position with blocks of wood placed at each
+corner between the rockers and the bottom of the wagon-beds. The blocks
+must be squared at each end, and their length, of course, should vary
+with the depth of water, which can be determined before cutting them.
+This is a very common and simple method of passing streams among
+emigrant travelers.
+
+When streams are deep, with a very rapid current, it is difficult for
+the drivers to direct their teams to the proper coming-out places, as
+the current has a tendency to carry them too far down. This difficulty
+may be obviated by attaching a lariat rope to the leading animals, and
+having a mounted man ride in front with the rope in his hand, to assist
+the team in stemming the current, and direct it toward the point of
+egress. It is also a wise precaution, if the ford be at all hazardous,
+to place a mounted man on the lower side of the team with a whip, to
+urge forward any animal that may not work properly.
+
+[Illustration: SWIMMING A HORSE.]
+
+Where rivers are wide, with a swift current, they should always, if
+possible, be forded obliquely down stream, as the action of the water
+against the wagons assists very materially in carrying them across. In
+crossing the North Platte upon the Cherokee trail at a season when the
+water was high and very rapid, we were obliged to take the only
+practicable ford, which ran diagonally up the stream. The consequence
+was, that the heavy current, coming down with great force against the
+wagons, offered such powerful resistance to the efforts of the mules
+that it was with difficulty they could retain their footing, and
+several were drowned. Had the ford crossed obliquely down the river,
+there would have been no difficulty.
+
+When it becomes necessary, with loaded wagons, to cross a stream of
+this character against the current, I would recommend that the teams be
+doubled, the leading animals led, a horseman placed on each side with
+whips to assist the driver, and that, before the first wagon enters the
+water, a man should be sent in advance to ascertain the best ford.
+
+During seasons of high water, men, in traversing the plains, often
+encounter rivers which rise above a fording stage, and remain in that
+condition for many days, and to await the falling of the water might
+involve a great loss of time. If the traveler be alone, his only way is
+to swim his horse; but if he retains the seat on his saddle, his weight
+presses the animal down into the water, and cramps his movements very
+sensibly. It is a much better plan to attach a cord to the bridle-bit,
+and drive him into the stream; then, seizing his tail, allow him to tow
+you across. If he turns out of the course, or attempts to turn back, he
+can be checked with the cord, or by splashing water at his head. If the
+rider remains in the saddle, he should allow the horse to have a loose
+rein, and never pull upon it except when necessary to guide. If he
+wishes to steady himself, he can lay hold upon the mane.
+
+In traveling with large parties, the following expedients for crossing
+rivers have been successfully resorted to within my own experience, and
+they are attended with no risk to life or property.
+
+A rapid and deep stream, with high, abrupt, and soft banks, probably
+presents the most formidable array of unfavorable circumstances that
+can be found. Streams of this character are occasionally met with, and
+it is important to know how to cross them with the greatest promptitude
+and safety.
+
+A train of wagons having arrived upon the bank of such a stream, first
+select the best point for the passage, where the banks upon both sides
+require the least excavation for a place of ingress and egress to and
+from the river. As I have before remarked, the place of entering the
+river should be above the coming-out place on the opposite bank, as the
+current will then assist in carrying wagons and animals across. A spot
+should be sought where the bed of the stream is firm at the place where
+the animals are to get out on the opposite bank. If, however, no such
+place can be found, brush and earth should be thrown in to make a
+foundation sufficient to support the animals, and to prevent them from
+bogging. After the place for crossing has been selected, it will be
+important to determine the breadth of the river between the points of
+ingress and egress, in order to show the length of rope necessary to
+reach across. A very simple practical method of doing this without
+instruments is found in the French "Manuel du Genie." It is as follows:
+
+[Illustration: The line AB (the distance to be measured) is extended
+upon the bank to D, from which point, after having marked it, lay off
+equal distances, DC and C_d_; produce BC to _b_, making CB=C_b_; then
+extend the line _db_ until it intersects the prolongation of the line
+through CA at _a_. The distance between _ab_ is equal to AB, or the
+width of the crossing.]
+
+A man who is an expert swimmer then takes the end of a fishing-line or
+a small cord in his mouth, and carries it across, leaving the other end
+fixed upon the opposite bank, after which a lariat is attached to the
+cord, and one end of it pulled across and made fast to a tree; but if
+there is nothing convenient to which the lariat can be attached, an
+extra axle or coupling-pole can be pulled over by the man who has
+crossed, firmly planted in the ground, and the rope tied to it. The
+rope must be long enough to extend twice across the stream, so that one
+end may always be left on each shore. A very good substitute for a
+ferry-boat may be made with a wagon-bed by filling it with empty
+water-casks, stopped tight and secured in the wagon with ropes, with a
+cask lashed opposite the centre of each outside. It is then placed in
+the water bottom upward, and the rope that has been stretched across
+the stream attached to one end of it, while another rope is made fast
+to the other end, after which it is loaded, the shore-end loosened, and
+the men on the opposite bank pull it across to the landing, where it is
+discharged and returned for another load, and so on until all the
+baggage and men are passed over.
+
+The wagons can be taken across by fastening them down to the axles,
+attaching a rope to the end of the tongue, and another to the rear of
+each to steady it and hold it from drifting below the landing. It is
+then pushed into the stream, and the men on the opposite bank pull it
+over. I have passed a large train of wagons in this way across a rapid
+stream fifteen feet deep without any difficulty. I took, at the same
+time, a six-pounder cannon, which was separated from its carriage, and
+ferried over upon the wagon-boat; after which the carriage was pulled
+over in the same way as described for the wagons.
+
+There are not always a sufficient number of airtight water-casks to
+fill a wagon-bed, but a tentfly, paulin, or wagon-cover can generally
+be had. In this event, the wagon-bed may be placed in the centre of one
+of these, the cloth brought up around the ends and sides, and secured
+firmly with ropes tied around transversely, and another rope fastened
+lengthwise around under the rim. This holds the cloth in its place, and
+the wagon may then be placed in the water right side upward, and
+managed in the same manner as in the other case. If the cloth be made
+of cotton, it will soon swell so as to leak but very little, and
+answers a very good purpose.
+
+Another method of ferrying streams is by means of what is called by the
+mountaineers a "_bull-boat_," the frame-work of which is made of
+willows bent into the shape of a short and wide skiff, with a flat
+bottom. Willows grow upon the banks of almost all the streams on the
+prairies, and can be bent into any shape desired. To make a boat with
+but one hide, a number of straight willows are cut about an inch in
+diameter, the ends sharpened and driven into the ground, forming a
+frame-work in the shape of a half egg-shell cut through the
+longitudinal axis. Where these rods cross they are firmly secured with
+strings. A stout rod is then heated and bent around the frame in such a
+position that the edges of the hide, when laid over it and drawn tight,
+will just reach it. This rod forms the gunwale, which is secured by
+strings to the ribs. Small rods are then wattled in so as to make it
+symmetrical and strong. After which the green or soaked hide is thrown
+over the edges, sewed to the gunwales, and left to dry. The rods are
+then cut off even with the gunwale, and the boat is ready for use.
+
+To build a boat with two or more hides: A stout pole of the desired
+length is placed upon the ground for a keel, the ends turned up and
+secured by a lariat; willow rods of the required dimensions are then
+cut, heated, and bent into the proper shape for knees, after which
+their centres are placed at equal distances upon the keel, and firmly
+tied with cords. The knees are retained in their proper curvature by
+cords around the ends. After a sufficient number of them have been
+placed upon the keel, two poles of suitable dimensions are heated, bent
+around the ends for a gunwale, and firmly lashed to each knee. Smaller
+willows are then interwoven, so as to model the frame.
+
+Green or soaked hides are cut into the proper shape to fit the frame,
+and sewed together with buckskin strings; then the frame of the boat is
+placed in the middle, the hide drawn up snug around the sides, and
+secured with raw-hide thongs to the gunwale. The boat is then turned
+bottom upward and left to dry, after which the seams where they have
+been sewed are covered with a mixture of melted tallow and pitch: the
+craft is now ready for launching.
+
+A boat of this kind is very light and serviceable, but after a while
+becomes water-soaked, and should always be turned bottom upward to dry
+whenever it is not in the water. Two men can easily build a _bull-boat_
+of three hides in two days which will carry ten men with perfect safety.
+
+A small party traveling with a pack train and arriving upon the banks
+of a deep stream will not always have the time to stop or the means to
+make any of the boats that have been described. Should their luggage be
+such as to become seriously injured by a wetting, and there be an
+India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth disposable, or if even a green beef
+or buffalo hide can be procured, it may be spread out upon the ground,
+and the articles of baggage placed in the centre, in a square or
+rectangular form; the ends and sides are then brought up so as entirely
+to envelop the package, and the whole secured with ropes or raw hide.
+It is then placed in the water with a rope attached to one end, and
+towed across by men in the same manner as the boats before described.
+If hides be used they will require greasing occasionally, to prevent
+their becoming water-soaked.
+
+[Illustration: CROSSING A STREAM.]
+
+When a mounted party with pack animals arrive upon the borders of a
+rapid stream, too deep to ford, and where the banks are high and
+abrupt, with perhaps but one place where the beasts can get out upon
+the opposite shore, it would not be safe to drive or ride them in,
+calculating that all will make the desired landing. Some of them will
+probably be carried by the swift current too far down the stream, and
+thereby endanger not only their own lives, but the lives of their
+riders. I have seen the experiment tried repeatedly, and have known
+several animals to be carried by the current below the point of egress,
+and thus drowned. Here is a simple, safe, and expeditious method of
+taking animals over such a stream. Suppose, for example, a party of
+mounted men arrive upon the bank of the stream. There will always be
+some good swimmers in the party, and probably others who can not swim
+at all. Three or four of the most expert of these are selected, and
+sent across with one end of a rope made of lariats tied together, while
+the other end is retained upon the first bank, and made fast to the
+neck of a gentle and good swimming horse; after which another gentle
+horse is brought up and made fast by a lariat around his neck to the
+tail of the first, and so on until all the horses are thus tied
+together. The men who can not swim are then mounted upon the best
+swimming horses and tied on, otherwise they are liable to become
+frightened, lose their balance, and be carried away in a rapid current;
+or a horse may stumble and throw his rider. After the horses have been
+strung out in a single line by their riders, and every thing is in
+readiness, the first horse is led carefully into the water, while the
+men on the opposite bank, pulling upon the rope, thus direct him
+across, and, if necessary, aid him in stemming the current. As soon as
+this horse strikes bottom he pulls upon those behind him, and thereby
+assists them in making the landing, and in this manner all are passed
+over in perfect safety.
+
+
+DRIVING LOOSE HORSES.
+
+In traveling with loose horses across the plains, some persons are in
+the habit of attaching them in pairs by their halters to a long, stout
+rope stretched between two wagons drawn by mules, each wagon being
+about half loaded. The principal object of the rear wagon being to hold
+back and keep the rope stretched, not more than two stout mules are
+required, as the horses aid a good deal with their heads in pulling
+this wagon. From thirty to forty horses may be driven very well in this
+manner, and, if they are wild, it is perhaps the safest method, except
+that of leading them with halters held by men riding beside them. The
+rope to which the horses are attached should be about an inch and a
+quarter in diameter, with loops or rings inserted at intervals
+sufficient to admit the horses without allowing them to kick each
+other, and the halter straps tied to these loops. The horses, on first
+starting, should have men by their sides, to accustom them to this
+manner of being led. The wagons should be so driven as to keep the rope
+continually stretched. Good drivers must be assigned to these wagons,
+who will constantly watch the movements of the horses attached, as well
+as their own teams.
+
+I have had 150 loose horses driven by ten mounted herdsmen. This
+requires great care for some considerable time, until the horses become
+gentle and accustomed to their herders. It is important to ascertain,
+as soon as possible after starting, which horses are wild, and may be
+likely to stampede and lead off the herd; such should be led, and never
+suffered to run loose, either on the march or in camp. Animals of this
+character will soon indicate their propensities, and can be secured
+during the first days of the march. It is desirable that all animals
+that will not stampede when not working should run loose on a march, as
+they pick up a good deal of grass along the road when traveling, and
+the success of an expedition, when animals get no other forage but
+grass, depends in a great degree upon the time given them for grazing.
+They will thrive much better when allowed a free range than when
+picketed, as they then are at liberty to select such grass as suits
+them. It may therefore be set down as an infallible rule never to be
+departed from, that all animals, excepting such as will be likely to
+stampede, should be turned loose for grazing immediately after arriving
+at the camping-place; but it is equally important that they should be
+carefully herded as near the camp as good grass will admit; and those
+that it is necessary to picket should be placed upon the best grass,
+and their places changed often. The ropes to which they are attached
+should be about forty feet long; the picket-pins, of iron, fifteen
+inches long, with ring and swivel at top, so that the rope shall not
+twist as the animal feeds around it; and the pins must be firmly driven
+into tenacious earth.
+
+Animals should be herded during the day at such distances as to leave
+sufficient grass undisturbed around and near the camp for grazing
+through the night.
+
+
+METHOD OF MARCHING.
+
+Among men of limited experience in frontier life will be found a great
+diversity of opinion regarding the best methods of marching, and of
+treating animals in expeditions upon the prairies. Some will make late
+starts and travel during the heat of the day without nooning, while
+others will start early and make two marches, laying by during the
+middle of the day; some will picket their animals continually in camp,
+while others will herd them day and night, etc., etc. For mounted
+troops, or, indeed, for any body of men traveling with horses and
+mules, a few general rules may be specified which have the sanction of
+mature experience, and a deviation from them will inevitably result in
+consequences highly detrimental to the best interests of an expedition.
+
+In ordinary marches through a country where grass and water are
+abundant and good, animals receiving proper attention should not fall
+away, even if they receive no grain; and, as I said before, they should
+not be made to travel faster than a walk unless absolutely necessary;
+neither should they be taken off the road for the purpose of hunting or
+chasing buffalo, as one buffalo-chase injures them more than a week of
+moderate riding. In the vicinity of hostile Indians, the animals must
+be carefully herded and guarded within protection of the camp, while
+those picketed should be changed as often as the grass is eaten off
+within the circle described by the tether-rope. At night they should be
+brought within the chain of sentinels and picketed as compactly as is
+consistent with the space needed for grazing, and under no
+circumstances, unless the Indians are known to be near and an attack is
+to be expected, should they be tied up to a picket line where they can
+get no grass. Unless allowed to graze at night they will fall away
+rapidly, and soon become unserviceable. It is much better to march
+after nightfall, turn some distance off the road, and to encamp without
+fires in a depressed locality where the Indians can not track the
+party, and the animals may be picketed without danger.
+
+In descending abrupt hills and mountains one wheel of a loaded wagon
+should always be locked, as this relieves the wheel animals and makes
+every thing more secure. When the declivity is great both rear wheels
+should be locked, and if very abrupt, requiring great effort on the
+wheel animals to hold the wagon, the wheels should be rough-locked by
+lengthening the lock-chains so that the part which goes around the
+wheels will come directly upon the ground, and thus create more
+friction. Occasionally, however, hills are met with so nearly
+perpendicular that it becomes necessary to attach ropes to the rear
+axle, and to station men to hold back upon them and steady the vehicle
+down the descent. Rough-locking is a very safe method of passing heavy
+artillery down abrupt declivities. There are several mountains between
+the Missouri River and California where it is necessary to resort to
+one of the two last-mentioned methods in order to descend with
+security. If there are no lock-chains upon wagons, the front and rear
+wheels on the same side may be tied together with ropes so as to lock
+them very firmly.
+
+It is an old and well-established custom among men experienced in
+frontier life always to cross a stream upon which it is intended to
+encamp for the night, and this rule should never be departed from where
+a stream is to be forded, as a rise during the night might detain the
+traveler for several days in awaiting the fall of the waters.
+
+
+STORMS.
+
+In Western Texas, during the autumn and winter months, storms arise
+very suddenly, and, when accompanied by a north wind, are very severe
+upon men and animals; indeed, they are sometimes so terrific as to make
+it necessary for travelers to hasten to the nearest sheltered place to
+save the lives of their animals. When these storms come from the north,
+they are called "_northers;_" and as, during the winter season, the
+temperature often undergoes a sudden change of many degrees at the time
+the storm sets in, the perspiration is checked, and the system receives
+an instantaneous shock, against which it requires great vital energy to
+bear up. Men and animals are not, in this mild climate, prepared for
+these capricious meteoric revolutions, and they not unfrequently perish
+under their effects.
+
+While passing near the head waters of the Colorado in October, 1849, I
+left one of my camps at an early hour in the morning under a mild and
+soft atmosphere, with a gentle breeze from the south, but had marched
+only a short distance when the wind suddenly whipped around into the
+north, bringing with it a furious chilling rain, and in a short time
+the road became so soft and heavy as to make the labor of pulling the
+wagons over it very exhausting upon the mules, and they came into camp
+in a profuse sweat, with the rain pouring down in torrents upon them.
+
+They were turned out of harness into the most sheltered place that
+could be found; but, instead of eating, as was their custom, they
+turned their heads from the wind, and remained in that position,
+chilled and trembling, without making the least effort to move. The
+rain continued with unabated fury during the entire day and night, and
+on the following morning thirty-five out of one hundred and ten mules
+had perished, while those remaining could hardly be said to have had a
+spark of vitality left. They were drawn up with the cold, and could
+with difficulty walk. Tents and wagon-covers were cut up to protect
+them, and they were then driven about for some time, until a little
+vital energy was restored, after which they commenced eating grass, but
+it was three or four days before they recovered sufficiently to resume
+the march.
+
+The mistake I made was in driving the mules after the "norther"
+commenced. Had I gone immediately into camp, before they became heated
+and wearied, they would probably have eaten the grass, and this, I have
+no doubt, would have saved them; but as it was, their blood became
+heated from overwork, and the sudden chill brought on a reaction which
+proved fatal. If an animal will eat his forage plentifully, there is
+but little danger of his perishing with cold. This I assert with much
+confidence, as I once, when traveling with about 1500 horses and mules,
+encountered the most terrific snow-storm that has been known within the
+memory of the oldest mountaineers. It commenced on the last day of
+April, and continued without cessation for sixty consecutive hours. The
+day had been mild and pleasant; the green grass was about six inches
+high; the trees had put out their new leaves, and all nature conspired
+to show that the sombre garb of winter had been permanently superseded
+by the smiling attire of spring. About dark, however, the wind turned
+into the north; it commenced to snow violently, and increased until it
+became a frightful tempest, filling the atmosphere with a dense cloud
+of driving snow, against which it was impossible to ride or walk. Soon
+after the storm set in, one herd of three hundred horses and mules
+broke away from the herdsmen who were around them, and, in spite of all
+their efforts, ran at full speed, directly with the wind and snow, for
+fifty miles before they stopped.
+
+Three of the herdsmen followed them as far as they were able, but soon
+became exhausted and lost on the prairie. One of them found his way
+back to camp in a state of great prostration and suffering. One of the
+others was found dead, and the third crawling about upon his hands and
+knees, after the storm ceased.
+
+It happened, fortunately, that I had reserved a quantity of corn to be
+used in the event of finding a scarcity of grass, and as soon as the
+ground became covered with snow, so that the animals could not get at
+the grass, I fed out the corn, which I am induced to believe saved
+their lives. Indeed, they did not seem to be at all affected by this
+prolonged and unseasonable tempest. This occurred upon the summit of
+the elevated ridge dividing the waters of the Arkansas and South Platte
+Rivers, where storms are said to be of frequent occurrence.
+
+The greater part of the animals that stampeded were recovered after the
+storm, and, although they had traveled a hundred miles at a very rapid
+pace, they did not seem to be much affected by it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Packing. Saddles. Mexican Method. Madrina, or Bell-mare. Attachment
+of the Mule illustrated. Best Method of Packing. Hoppling Animals.
+Selecting Horses and Mules. Grama and bunch Grass. European Saddles.
+California Saddle. Saddle Wounds. Alkali. Flies. Colic. Rattlesnake
+Bites. Cures for the Bite.
+
+
+PACKING AND DRIVING.
+
+With a train of pack animals properly organized and equipped, a party
+may travel with much comfort and celerity. It is enabled to take short
+cuts, and move over the country in almost any direction without regard
+to roads. Mountains and broken ground may easily be traversed, and
+exemption is gained from many of the troubles and detentions attendant
+upon the transit of cumbersome wagon-trains.
+
+One of the most essential requisites to the outfit of a pack train is a
+good pack-saddle. Various patterns are in use, many of which are mere
+instruments of torture upon the backs of the poor brutes, lacerating
+them cruelly, and causing continued pain.
+
+The Mexicans use a leathern pack-saddle without a tree. It is stuffed
+with hay, and is very large, covering almost the entire back, and
+extending far down the sides. It is secured with a broad hair girth,
+and the load is kept in position by a lash-rope drawn by two men so
+tight as to give the unfortunate beast intense suffering.
+
+[Illustration: GRIMSLEY'S PACK-SADDLE.]
+
+A pack-saddle is made by T. Grimsley, No. 41 Main Street, St. Louis,
+Mo. It is open at the top, with a light, compact, and strong tree,
+which fits the animal's back well, and is covered with raw hide, put on
+green, and drawn tight by the contraction in drying. It has a leathern
+breast-strap, breeching, and lash-strap, with a broad hair girth
+fastened in the Mexican fashion. Of sixty-five of these saddles that I
+used in crossing the Rocky Mountains, over an exceedingly rough and
+broken section, not one of them wounded a mule's back, and I regard
+them as the best saddles I have ever seen.
+
+No people, probably, are more familiar with the art of packing than the
+Mexicans. They understand the habits, disposition, and powers of the
+mule perfectly, and will get more work out of him than any other men I
+have ever seen. The mule and the donkey are to them as the camel to the
+Arab--their porters over deserts and mountains where no other means of
+transportation can be used to advantage. The Spanish Mexicans are,
+however, cruel masters, having no mercy upon their beasts, and it is no
+uncommon thing for them to load their mules with the enormous burden of
+three or four hundred pounds.
+
+These muleteers believe that, when the pack is firmly lashed, the
+animal supports his burden better and travels with greater ease, which
+seems quite probable, as the tension forms, as it were, an external
+sheath supporting and bracing the muscles. It also has a tendency to
+prevent the saddle from slipping and chafing the mule's back. With such
+huge _cargas_ as the Mexicans load upon their mules, it is impossible,
+by any precautions, to prevent their backs and withers from becoming
+horribly mangled, and it is common to see them working their animals
+day after day in this miserable plight. This heavy packing causes the
+scars that so often mark Mexican mules.
+
+The animal, in starting out from camp in the morning, groaning under
+the weight of his heavy burden, seems hardly able to move; but the pack
+soon settles, and so loosens the lashing that after a short time he
+moves along with more ease. Constant care and vigilance on the part of
+the muleteers are necessary to prevent the packs from working loose and
+falling off. The adjustment of a _carga_ upon a mule does not, however,
+detain the caravan, as the others move on while it is being righted. If
+the mules are suffered to halt, they are apt to lie down, and it is
+very difficult for them, with their loads, to rise; besides, they are
+likely to strain themselves in their efforts to do so. The Mexicans, in
+traveling with large caravans, usually make the day's march without
+nooning, as too much time would be consumed in unloading and packing up
+again.
+
+Packs, when taken off in camp, should be piled in a row upon the
+ground, and, if there be a prospect of rain, the saddles should be
+placed over them, and the whole covered with the saddle-blankets or
+canvas.
+
+The muleteers and herders should be mounted upon well-trained horses,
+and be careful to keep the animals of the caravan from wandering or
+scattering along the road. This can easily be done by having some of
+the men riding upon each side, and others in rear of the caravan.
+
+In herding mules it is customary among prairie travelers to have a
+bell-mare, to which the mules soon become so attached that they will
+follow her wherever she goes. By keeping her in charge of one of the
+herdsmen, the herds are easily controlled; and during a stampede, if
+the herdsman mounts her, and rushes ahead toward camp, they will
+generally follow.
+
+In crossing rivers the bell-mare should pass first, after which the
+mules are easily induced to take to the water and pass over, even if
+they have to swim. Mules are good swimmers unless they happen, by
+plunging off a high bank, to get water in their ears, when they are
+often drowned. Whenever a mule in the water drops his ears, it is a
+sure indication that he has water in them, and he should be taken out
+as soon as possible. To prevent accidents of this nature, where the
+water is deep and the banks abrupt, the mule herds should be allowed to
+enter slowly, and without crowding, as otherwise they are not only
+likely to get their heads under water, but to throw each other over and
+get injured.
+
+The _madrina_, or bell-mare, acts a most important part in a herd
+of mules, and is regarded by experienced campaigners as indispensable
+to their security. She is selected for her quiet and regular habits.
+She will not wander far from the camp. If she happen to have a colt by
+her side, this is no objection, as the mules soon form the most devoted
+attachment to it. I have often seen them leave their grazing when very
+hungry, and flock around a small colt, manifesting their delight by
+rubbing it with their noses, licking it with their tongues, kicking up
+their heels, and making a variety of other grotesque demonstrations of
+affection, while the poor little colt, perfectly unconscious of the
+cause of these ungainly caresses, stood trembling with fear, but unable
+to make his escape from the compact circle of his mulish admirers.
+Horses and asses are also used as bell animals, and the mules soon
+become accustomed to following them. If a man leads or rides a bell
+animal in advance, the mules follow, like so many dogs, in the most
+orderly procession.
+
+"After traveling about fourteen miles," says Bayard Taylor, "we were
+joined by three miners, and our mules, taking a sudden liking for their
+horses, jogged on at a more brisk pace. The instincts of the mulish
+heart form an interesting study to the traveler in the mountains. I
+would (were the comparison not too ungallant) liken it to a woman's,
+for it is quite as uncertain in its sympathies, bestowing its
+affections when least expected, and, when bestowed, quite as constant,
+so long as the object is not taken away. Sometimes a horse, sometimes
+an ass, captivates the fancy of a whole drove of mules, but often an
+animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told me that his whole train of
+mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plains of the Cimarone, and
+ran half a mile, when they halted in apparent satisfaction. The cause
+of their freak was found to be a buffalo calf which had strayed from
+the herd. They were frisking around it in the greatest delight, rubbing
+their noses against it, throwing up their heels, and making themselves
+ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and bray, while the calf,
+unconscious of its attractive qualities, stood trembling in their
+midst."
+
+"If several large troops," says Charles Darwin, "are turned into one
+field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead the
+_madrinas_ a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there
+may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell,
+and separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for
+their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose
+an old mule, for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the
+power of smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the
+madrina; for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of
+affection. The feeling, however, is not of an individual nature, for I
+believe I am right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as
+a madrina."
+
+Of the attachment that a mule will form for a horse, I will cite an
+instance from my own observation, which struck me at the time as being
+one of the most remarkable and touching evidences of devotion that I
+have ever known among the brute creation.
+
+On leaving Fort Leavenworth with the army for Utah in 1857, one of the
+officers rode a small mule, whose kind and gentle disposition soon
+caused him to become a favorite among the soldiers, and they named him
+"Billy." As this officer and myself were often thrown together upon the
+march, the mule, in the course of a few days, evinced a growing
+attachment for a mare that I rode. The sentiment was not, however,
+reciprocated on her part, and she intimated as much by the reversed
+position of her ears, and the free exercise of her feet and teeth
+whenever Billy came within her reach; but these signal marks of
+displeasure, instead of discouraging, rather seemed to increase his
+devotion, and whenever at liberty he invariably sought to get near her,
+and appeared much distressed when not permitted to follow her.
+
+On leaving Camp Scott for New Mexico Billy was among the number of
+mules selected for the expedition. During the march I was in the habit,
+when starting out from camp in the morning, of leading off the party,
+and directing the packmen to hold the mule until I should get so far in
+advance with the mare that he could not see us; but the moment he was
+released he would, in spite of all the efforts of the packers, start
+off at a most furious pace, and never stop or cease braying until he
+reached the mare's side. We soon found it impossible to keep him with
+the other mules, and he was finally permitted to have his own way.
+
+In the course of time we encountered the deep snows in the Rocky
+Mountains, where the animals could get no forage, and Billy, in common
+with the others, at length became so weak and jaded that he was unable
+any longer to leave his place in the caravan and break a track through
+the snow around to the front. He made frequent attempts to turn out and
+force his way ahead, but after numerous unsuccessful efforts he would
+fall down exhausted, and set up a most mournful braying.
+
+The other mules soon began to fail, and to be left, worn out and
+famished, to die by the wayside; it was not, however, for some time
+that Billy showed symptoms of becoming one of the victims, until one
+evening after our arrival at camp I was informed that he had dropped
+down and been left upon the road during the day. The men all deplored
+his loss exceedingly, as his devotion to the mare had touched their
+kind hearts, and many expressions of sympathy were uttered around their
+bivouac fires on that evening.
+
+Much to our surprise, however, about ten o'clock, just as we were about
+going to sleep, we heard a mule braying about half a mile to the rear
+upon our trail. Sure enough, it proved to be Billy, who, after having
+rested, had followed upon our track and overtaken us. As soon as he
+reached the side of the mare he lay down and seemed perfectly
+contented.
+
+The next day I relieved him from his pack, and allowed him to run
+loose; but during the march he gave out, and was again abandoned to his
+fate, and this time we certainly never expected to see him more. To our
+great astonishment, however, about twelve o'clock that night the
+sonorous but not very musical notes of Billy in the distance aroused us
+from our slumbers, and again announced his approach. In an instant the
+men were upon their feet, gave three hearty cheers, and rushed out in a
+body to meet and escort him into camp.
+
+But this well-meant ovation elicited no response from him. He came
+reeling and floundering along through the deep snow, perfectly
+regardless of these honors, pushing aside all those who occupied the
+trail or interrupted his progress in the least, wandered about until he
+found the mare, dropped down by her side, and remained until morning.
+
+When we resumed our march on the following day he made another
+desperate effort to proceed, but soon fell down exhausted, when we
+reluctantly abandoned him, and saw him no more.
+
+Alas! poor Billy! your constancy deserved a better fate; you may,
+indeed, be said to have been a victim to unrequited affection.
+
+The articles to be transported should be made up into two packages of
+precisely equal weight, and as nearly equal in bulk as practicable,
+otherwise they will sway the saddle over to one side, and cause it to
+chafe the animal's back.
+
+The packages made, two ropes about six feet long are fastened around
+the ends by a slip-knot, and if the packages contain corn or other
+articles that will shift about, small sticks should be placed between
+the sacks and the ropes, which equalizes the pressure and keeps the
+packages snug. The ropes are then looped at the ends, and made
+precisely of the same length, so that the packs will balance and come
+up well toward the top of the saddle. Two men then, each taking a pack,
+go upon opposite sides of the mule, that has been previously saddled,
+and, raising the packs simultaneously, place the loops over the pommel
+and cantel, settling them well down into their places. The
+lashing-strap is then thrown over the top, brought through the rings
+upon each side, and drawn as tight at every turn as the two men on the
+sides can pull it, and, after having been carried back and forth
+diagonally across the packs as often as its length admits (generally
+three or four times), it is made fast to one of the rings, and securely
+tied in a slip-knot.
+
+The breast-strap and breeching must not be buckled so close as to chafe
+the skin; the girth should be broad and soft where it comes opposite
+the fore legs, to prevent cutting them. Leather girths should be
+wrapped with cloth or bound with soft material. The hair girth, being
+soft and elastic, is much better than leather.
+
+The crupper should never be dispensed with in a mountainous country,
+but it must be soft, round, and about an inch in diameter where it
+comes in contact with the tail, otherwise it will wound the animal in
+making long and abrupt descents.
+
+In Norway they use a short round stick, about ten inches long, which
+passes under the tail, and from each end of this a cord connects with
+the saddle.
+
+Camp-kettles, tin vessels, and other articles that will rattle and be
+likely to frighten animals, should be firmly lashed to the packs. When
+the packs work loose, the lash-strap should be untied, and a man upon
+each side draw it up again and make it fast. When ropes are used for
+lashing, they may be tightened by twisting them with a short stick and
+making the stick fast.
+
+One hundred and twenty-five pounds is a sufficient load for a mule upon
+a long journey.
+
+In traveling over a rocky country, and upon all long journeys, horses
+and mules should be shod, to prevent their hoofs wearing out or
+breaking. The mountaineers contend that beasts travel better without
+shoeing, but I have several times had occasion to regret the omission
+of this very necessary precaution. A few extra shoes and nails, with a
+small hammer, will enable travelers to keep their animals shod.
+
+In turning out pack animals to graze, it is well either to keep the
+lariat ropes upon them with the ends trailing upon the ground, or to
+hopple them, as no corral can be made into which they may be driven in
+order to catch them. A very good way to catch an animal without driving
+him into an inclosure is for two men to take a long rope and stretch it
+out at the height of the animal's neck; some men then drive him slowly
+up against it, when one of the men with the rope runs around behind the
+animal and back to the front again, thus taking a turn with the rope
+around his neck and holding him secure.
+
+To prevent an animal from kicking, take a forked stick and make the
+forked part fast to the bridle-bit, bringing the two ends above the
+head and securing them there, leaving the part of the stick below the
+fork of sufficient length to reach near the ground when the animal's
+head is in its natural position. He can not kick up unless he lowers
+his head, and the stick effectually prevents that.
+
+Tether-ropes should be so attached to the neck of the animal as not to
+slip and choke him, and the picket-pins never be left on the ropes
+except when in the ground, as, in the event of a stampede, they are
+very likely to swing around and injure the animals.
+
+Many experienced travelers were formerly in the habit of securing their
+animals with a strap or iron ring fastened around the fetlock of one
+fore foot, and this attached to the tether-rope. This method holds the
+animal very securely to the picket-pin, but when the rope is first put
+on, and before he becomes accustomed to it, he is liable to throw
+himself down and get hurt; so that I think the plan of tethering by the
+neck or halter is the safest, and, so far as I have observed, is now
+universally practiced.
+
+The mountaineers and Indians seldom tether their animals, but prefer
+the plan of hoppling, as this gives them more latitude for ranging and
+selecting the choicest grass.
+
+Two methods of hoppling are practiced among the Indians and hunters of
+the West: one with a strap about two feet long buckling around the fore
+legs above the fetlock joints; the other is what they term the "_side
+hopple_" which is made by buckling a strap around a front and rear
+leg upon the same side. In both cases care should be taken not to
+buckle the strap so tight as to chafe the legs. The latter plan is the
+best, because the animal, side-hoppled, is able to go but little faster
+than a walk, while the front hopple permits him, after a little
+practice, to gallop off at considerable speed. If the hopples are made
+of iron connected with chains, like handcuffs, with locks and keys, it
+will be impossible for the Indians, without files, to cut them; but the
+parts that come in contact with the legs should be covered with soft
+leather.
+
+"A horse," says Mr. Galton, "may be hoppled with a stirrup-leather by
+placing the middle around one leg, then twisting it several times and
+buckling it round the other leg. When you wish to picket horses in the
+middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two or three feet deep, and, tying
+your rope to a fagot of sticks or brushwood, or even to a bag filled
+with sand, bury this in it."
+
+For prairie service, horses which have been raised exclusively upon
+grass, and never been fed on grain, or "_range horses_," as they are
+called in the West, are decidedly the best, and will perform more hard
+labor than those that have been stabled and groomed. The large, stout
+ponies found among some of our frontier settlements are well adapted to
+this service, and endure admirably. The same remarks hold good in the
+choice of mules; and it will be found that the square-built, big-bellied,
+and short-legged Mexican mule will endure far more hard service, on
+short allowance of forage, than the larger American mule which has been
+accustomed to grain.
+
+In our trip across the Rocky Mountains we had both the American and
+Mexican mules, and improved a good opportunity of giving their relative
+powers of endurance a thorough service-trial. For many days they were
+reduced to a meagre allowance of dry grass, and at length got nothing
+but pine leaves, while their work in the deep snow was exceedingly
+severe. This soon told upon the American mules, and all of them, with
+the exception of two, died, while most of the Mexican mules went
+through. The result was perfectly conclusive.
+
+We found that, where the snow was not more than two feet deep, the
+animals soon learned to paw it away and get at the grass. Of course
+they do not get sufficient in this way, but they do much better than
+one would suppose.
+
+In Utah and New Mexico the autumn is so dry that the grass does not
+lose its nutritious properties by being washed with rains. It gradually
+dries and cures like hay, so that animals eat it freely, and will
+fatten upon it even in mid-winter. It is seldom that any grain is fed
+to stock in either of these territories.
+
+Several of the varieties of grass growing upon the slopes of the Rocky
+Mountains are of excellent quality; among these may be mentioned the
+Gramma and bunch grasses. Horses and mules turned out to graze always
+prefer the grass upon the mountain sides to grass of the valleys.
+
+We left New Mexico about the first of March, six weeks before the new
+grass appeared, with 1500 animals, many of them low in flesh, yet they
+improved upon the journey, and on their arrival in Utah were all, with
+very few exceptions, in fine working condition. Had this march been
+made at the same season in the country bordering upon the Missouri
+River, where there are heavy autumnal rains, the animals would probably
+have become very poor.
+
+In this journey the herds were allowed to range over the best grass
+that could be found, but were guarded both night and day with great
+care, whereas, if they had been corraled or picketed at night, I dare
+say they would have lost flesh.[3]
+
+      [3] Some curious and interesting experiments are said to have
+      been recently made at the veterinary school at Alfort, near
+      Paris, by order of the minister of war, to ascertain the powers
+      of endurance of horses. It appears that a horse will live on
+      water alone five-and-twenty days; seventeen days without eating
+      or drinking; only five days if fed and unwatered; ten days if fed
+      and insufficiently watered. A horse kept without water for three
+      days drank one hundred and four pounds of water in three minutes.
+      It was found that a horse taken immediately after "feed," and
+      kept in the active exercise of the "squadron school," completely
+      digested its "feed" in three hours; in the same time in the
+      "conscript's school" its food was two thirds digested; and if
+      kept perfectly quiet in the stable, its digestion was scarcely
+      commenced in three hours.
+
+
+SADDLES.
+
+Great diversity of opinion exists regarding the best equipment for
+horses, and the long-mooted question is as yet very far from being
+definitely settled.
+
+I do not regard the opinions of Europeans as having a more direct
+bearing upon this question, or as tending to establish any more
+definite and positive conclusions regarding it than have been developed
+by the experience of our own border citizens, the major part of whose
+lives has been spent in the saddle; yet I am confident that the
+following brief description of the horse equipments used in different
+parts of Europe, the substance of which I have extracted from Captain
+M'Clellan's interesting report, will be read with interest and
+instruction.
+
+The saddle used by the African chasseurs consists of a plain wooden
+tree, with a pad upon the top, but without skirts, and is somewhat
+similar to our own military saddle, but lower in the pommel and cantle.
+The girth and surcingle are of leather, with an ordinary woolen
+saddle-blanket. Their bridle has a single head-stall, with the Spanish
+bit buckled to it.
+
+A new saddle has recently been introduced into the French service by
+Captain Cogent, the tree of which is cut out of a single piece of wood,
+the cantle only being glued on, and a piece of walnut let into the
+pommel, with a thin strip veneered upon the front ends of the bars. The
+pommel and cantle are lower than in the old model; the whole is covered
+with wet raw hide, glued on and sewed at the edges. The great advantage
+this saddle possesses is in being so arranged that it may be used for
+horses of all sizes and conditions. The saddle-blanket is made of thick
+felt cloth, and is attached to the pommel by a small strap passing
+through holes in the blanket, which is thus prevented from slipping,
+and at the same time it raises the saddle so as to admit a free
+circulation of air over the horse's spine.
+
+The Hungarian saddle is made of hard wood entirely uncovered, with a
+raised pommel and cantle. The seat is formed with a leather strap four
+inches wide nailed to the forks on the front and rear, and secured to
+the side-boards by leather thongs, thus giving an elastic and easy
+saddle-seat. This is also the form of the saddle-tree used by the
+Russian and Austrian cavalry. The Russians have a leather girth
+fastened by three small buckles: it passes over the tree, and is tied
+to the side-boards. The saddle-blanket is of stout felt cloth in four
+thicknesses, and a layer of black leather over it, and the whole held
+together by leather thongs passing through and through. When the horse
+falls off in flesh, more thicknesses are added, and "_vice versa_."
+This saddle-blanket is regarded by the Russian officers as the best
+possible arrangement. The Russians use the curb and snaffle-bits made
+of steel.
+
+The Cossack saddle has a thick padding under the side-boards and on the
+seat, which raises the rider very high on his horse, so that his feet
+are above the bottom of the belly. Their bridle has but a simple
+snaffle-bit, and no martingale.
+
+The Prussian cuirassiers have a heavy saddle with a low pommel and
+cantle, covered with leather, but it is not thought by Captain
+M'Clellan to present any thing worthy of imitation.
+
+The other Prussian cavalry ride the Hungarian saddle, of a heavier
+model than the one in the Austrian service. The surcingle is of
+leather, and fastens in the Mexican style; the girth is also of
+leather, three and a half inches wide, with a large buckle. It is in
+two parts, attached to the bars by raw-hide thongs. The curb and
+snaffle steel bits are used, and attached to a single head-stall.
+
+The English cavalry use a saddle which has a lower cantle and pommel
+than our _Grimsley_ saddle, covered with leather. The snaffle-bit
+is attached to the halter head-stall by a chain and T; the curb has a
+separate head-stall, which on a march is occasionally taken off and
+hung on the carbine stock.
+
+The Sardinian saddle has a bare wooden tree very similar to the
+Hungarian. A common blanket, folded in twelve thicknesses, is placed
+under it. The girth and surcingle are of leather.
+
+Without expressing any opinion as to the comparative merits of these
+different saddles, I may be permitted to give a few general principles,
+which I regard as infallible in the choice of a saddle.
+
+The side-boards should be large, and made to conform to the shape of
+the horse's back, thereby distributing the burden over a large surface.
+It should stand up well above the spine, so as to admit a free
+circulation of air under it.
+
+For long journeys, the crupper, where it comes in contact with the
+tail, should be made of soft leather. It should be drawn back only far
+enough to hold the saddle from the withers. Some horses require much
+more tension upon the crupper than others. The girth should be made
+broad, of a soft and elastic material. Those made of hair, in use among
+the Mexicans, fulfill the precited conditions.
+
+A light and easy bit, which will not fret or chafe the horse, is
+recommended.
+
+The saddle-blanket must be folded even and smooth, and placed on so as
+to cover every part of the back that comes in contact with the saddle,
+and in warm weather it is well to place a gunny bag under the blanket,
+as it is cooler than the wool.
+
+It will have been observed that, in the French service, the folded
+saddle-blanket is tied to the pommel to prevent it slipping back. This
+is well if the blanket be taken off and thoroughly dried whenever the
+horse is unsaddled.
+
+A saddle-blanket made of moss is used in some of the Southwestern
+States, which is regarded by many as the perfection of this article of
+horse equipment. It is a mat woven into the proper shape and size from
+the beaten fibres of moss that hangs from the trees in our Southern
+States. It is cheap, durable, is not in any way affected by sweat, and
+does not chafe or heat the horse's spine like the woolen blanket. Its
+open texture allows a rapid evaporation, which tends to keep the back
+cool, and obviates the danger of stripping and sudden exposure of the
+heated parts to the sun and air.
+
+The experience of some of our officers who have used this mat for years
+in Mexico and Texas corroborates all I have said in its favor; and they
+are unanimous in the opinion that a horse will never get a sore back
+when it is placed under a good saddle.
+
+A saddle made by the Mexicans in California is called the _California
+saddle_. This is extensively used upon the Pacific slope of the
+mountains, and is believed to possess, at least, as many advantages for
+rough frontier service as any other pattern that has been invented.
+Those hardy and experienced veterans, the mountaineers, could not be
+persuaded to ride any other saddle, and their ripened knowledge of such
+matters certainly gives weight to their conclusions.
+
+[Illustration: CALIFORNIA SADDLE.]
+
+The merits of the California saddle consist in its being light, strong,
+and compact, and conforming well to the shape of the horse. When
+strapped on, it rests so firmly in position that the strongest pull of
+a horse upon a lariat attached to the pommel can not displace it. Its
+shape is such that the rider is compelled to sit nearly erect, with his
+legs on the continuation of the line of the body, which makes his seat
+more secure, and, at the same time, gives him a better control over his
+arms and horse. This position is attained by setting the stirrup-leathers
+farther back than on the old-fashioned saddle. The pommel is high, like
+the Mexican saddle, and prevents the rider from being thrown forward.
+The tree is covered with raw hide, put on green, and sewed; when this
+dries and contracts it gives it great strength. It has no iron in its
+composition, but is kept together by buckskin strings, and can easily
+be taken to pieces for mending or cleaning. It has a hair girth about
+five inches wide.
+
+The whole saddle is covered with a large and thick sheet of
+sole-leather, having a hole to lay over the pommel; it extends back
+over the horse's hips, and protects them from rain, and when taken off
+in camp it furnishes a good security against dampness when placed under
+the traveler's bed.
+
+The California saddle-tree is regarded by many as the best of all
+others for the horse's back, and as having an easier seat than the
+Mexican.
+
+General Comte de la Roche-Aymon, in his treatise upon "Light Troops,"
+published in Paris in 1856, says:
+
+"In nearly all the European armies the equipment of the horse is not in
+harmony with the new tactics--with those tactics in which, during
+nearly all of a campaign, the cavalry remains in bivouac. Have we
+reflected upon the kind of saddle which, under these circumstances,
+would cover the horse best without incommoding him during the short
+periods that he is permitted to repose? Have we reflected upon the kind
+of saddle which, offering the least fragility, exposes the horse to the
+least danger of sore back? All the cuirassiers and the dragoons of
+Europe have saddles which they call _French saddle_, the weight of
+which is a load for the horse. The interior mechanism of these saddles
+is complicated and filled with weak bands of iron, which become
+deranged, bend, and sometimes break; the rider does not perceive these
+accidents, or he does not wish to perceive them, for fear of being left
+behind or of having to go on foot; he continues on, and at the end of a
+day's march his horse has a sore back, and in a few days is absolutely
+unserviceable. We may satisfy ourselves of the truth of these
+observations by comparing the lists of horses sent to the rear during
+the course of a campaign by the cuirassiers and dragoons who use the
+French saddle, and by the hussars with the Hungarian saddle. The number
+sent to the rear by the latter is infinitely less, although employed in
+a service much more active and severe; and it might be still less by
+making some slight improvements in the manner of fixing their saddle
+upon the horse.
+
+"It is a long time since Marshal Saxe said there was but one kind of
+saddle fit for cavalry, which was the hussar saddle: this combined all
+advantages, lightness, solidity, and economy. It is astonishing that
+the system of actual war had not led to the employment of the kind of
+saddle in use among the Tartars, the Cossacks, the Hungarians, and,
+indeed, among all horsemen and nomads. This saddle has the
+incontestable advantage of permitting the horse to lie down and rest
+himself without inconvenience. If, notwithstanding the folded blanket
+which they place under the Hungarian saddle, this saddle will still
+wound the animal's back sometimes, this only proceeds from the friction
+occasioned by the motion of the horse and the movement of the rider
+upon the saddle; a friction which it will be nearly impossible to
+avoid, inasmuch as the saddle-bow is held in its place only by a
+surcingle, the ends of which are united by a leathern band: these bands
+always relax more or less, and the saddle becomes loose. To remedy
+this, I propose to attach to the saddle-bow itself a double girth, one
+end of which shall be made fast to the arch in front, and the other end
+to the rear of the arch upon the right side, to unite in a single
+girth, which would buckle to a strap attached upon the left side in the
+usual manner. This buckle will hold the saddle firmly in its place.
+
+"Notwithstanding all these precautions, however, there were still some
+inconveniences resulting from the nature of the blanket placed under
+the saddle, which I sought to remedy, and I easily accomplished it. The
+woolen nap of the cavalry saddle-blankets, not being carefully attended
+to, soon wears off, and leaves only the rough, coarse threads of the
+fabric; this absorbs the sweat from the horse, and, after it has dried
+and become hard, it acts like a rasp upon the withers, first taking off
+the hair, next the skin, and then the flesh, and, finally, the beast is
+rendered unserviceable.
+
+"I sought, during the campaign of 1807, a means to remedy this evil,
+and I soon succeeded by a process as simple as it was cheap. I
+distributed among a great number of cavalry soldiers pieces of linen
+cloth folded double, two feet square, and previously dipped in melted
+tallow. This cloth was laid next to the horse's back, under the
+saddle-blanket, and it prevented all the bad effects of the woolen
+blanket. No horses, after this appliance, were afflicted with sore
+backs. Such are the slight changes which I believe should be made in
+the use of the Hungarian saddle. The remainder of the equipment should
+remain (as it always has been) composed of a breast-strap, crupper, and
+martingale, etc."
+
+The improvements of the present age do not appear to have developed any
+thing advantageous to the saddle; on the contrary, after experimenting
+upon numerous modifications and inventions, public sentiment has at
+length given the preference to the saddle-tree of the natives in Asia
+and America, which is very similar to that of the Hungarians.
+
+
+SORES AND DISEASES.
+
+If a horse be sweating at the time he is unsaddled, it is well to strap
+the folded saddle-blanket upon his back with the surcingle, where it is
+allowed to remain until he is perfectly dry. This causes the back to
+cool gradually, and prevents scalding or swelling. Some persons are in
+the habit of washing their horses' backs while heated and sweating with
+cold water, but this is pernicious, and often produces sores. It is
+well enough to wash the back after it cools, but not before. After
+horses' backs or shoulders once become chafed and sore, it is very
+difficult to heal them, particularly when they are continued at work.
+It is better, if practicable, to stop using them for a while, and wash
+the bruised parts often with castile soap and water. Should it be
+necessary, however, to continue the animal in use, I have known very
+severe sores entirely healed by the free application of grease to the
+parts immediately after halting, and while the animal is warm and
+sweating. This seems to harden the skin and heal the wound even when
+working with the collar in contact with it. A piece of bacon rind tied
+upon the collar over the wound is also an excellent remedy.
+
+In Texas, when the horse-flies are numerous, they attack animals
+without mercy, and where a contusion is found in the skin they deposit
+eggs, which speedily produce worms in great numbers. I have tried the
+effect of spirits of turpentine and several other remedies, but nothing
+seemed to have the desired effect but calomel blown into the wound,
+which destroyed the worms and soon effected a cure.
+
+In the vicinity of the South Pass, upon the Humboldt River, and in some
+sections upon other routes to California, alkaline water is found,
+which is very poisonous to animals that drink it, and generates a
+disease known in California as "_alkali_." This disease first makes its
+appearance by swellings upon the abdomen and between the fore legs, and
+is attended with a cough, which ultimately destroys the lungs and kills
+the animal. If taken at an early stage, this disease is curable, and
+the following treatment is generally considered as the most
+efficacious. The animal is first raked, after which a large dose of
+grease is poured down its throat; acids are said to have the same
+effect, and give immediate relief. When neither of these remedies can
+be procured, many of the emigrants have been in the habit of mixing
+starch or flour in a bucket of water, and allowing the animal to drink
+it. It is supposed that this forms a coating over the mucous membrane,
+and thus defeats the action of the poison.
+
+Animals should never be allowed to graze in the vicinity of alkaline
+water, as the deposits upon the grass after floods are equally
+deleterious with the water itself.
+
+In seasons when the water is low in the Humboldt River, there is much
+less danger of the alkali, as the running water in the river then comes
+from pure mountain springs, and is confined to the channel; whereas,
+during high water, when the banks are overflowed, the salts are
+dissolved, making the water more impure.
+
+For _colic_, a good remedy is a mixture of two table-spoonfuls of
+brandy and two tea-spoonfuls of laudanum dissolved in a bottle of water
+and poured down the animal's throat. Another remedy, which has been
+recommended to me by an experienced officer as producing speedy relief,
+is a table-spoonful of chloride of lime dissolved in a bottle of water,
+and administered as in the other case.
+
+
+RATTLESNAKE BITES.
+
+Upon the southern routes to California rattlesnakes are often met with,
+but it is seldom that any person is bitten by them; yet this is a
+possible contingency, and it can never be amiss to have an antidote at
+hand.
+
+Hartshorn applied externally to the wound, and drunk in small
+quantities diluted with water whenever the patient becomes faint or
+exhausted from the effects of the poison, is one of the most common
+remedies.
+
+In the absence of all medicines, a string or ligature should at once be
+bound firmly above the puncture, then scarify deeply with a knife, suck
+out the poison, and spit out the saliva.
+
+Andersson, in his book on Southwestern Africa, says: "In the Cape
+Colony the Dutch farmers resort to a cruel but apparently effective
+plan to counteract the bad effects of a serpent's bite. An incision
+having been made in the breast of a living fowl, the bitten part is
+applied to the wound. If the poison be very deadly, the bird soon
+evinces symptoms of distress, becomes drowsy, droops its head, and
+dies. It is replaced by a second, a third, and more if requisite. When,
+however, the bird no longer exhibits any of the signs just mentioned,
+the patient is considered out of danger. A frog similarly applied is
+supposed to be equally efficacious."
+
+Haunberg, in his Travels in South Africa, mentions an antidote against
+the bite of serpents. He says: "The blood of the turtle was much cried
+up, which, on account of this extraordinary virtue, the inhabitants dry
+in the form of small scales or membranes, and carry about them when
+they travel in this country, which swarms with this most noxious
+vermin. Whenever any one is wounded by a serpent, he takes a couple of
+pinches of the dried blood internally, and applies a little of it to
+the wound."
+
+I was present upon one occasion when an Indian child was struck in the
+fore finger by a large rattlesnake. His mother, who was near at the
+time, seized him in her arms, and, placing the wounded finger in her
+mouth, sucked the poison from the puncture for some minutes, repeatedly
+spitting out the saliva; after which she chewed and mashed some
+plantain leaves and applied to the wound. Over this she sprinkled some
+finely-powdered tobacco, and wrapped the finger up in a rag. I did not
+observe that the child suffered afterward the least pain or
+inconvenience. The immediate application of the remedies probably saved
+his life.
+
+Irritation from the bite of gnats and musquitoes, etc., may be relieved
+by chewing the plantain, and rubbing the spittle on the bite.
+
+I knew of another instance near Fort Towson, in Northern Texas, where a
+small child was left upon the earthen floor of a cabin while its mother
+was washing at a spring near by. She heard a cry of distress, and, on
+going to the cabin, what was her horror on seeing a rattlesnake coiled
+around the child's arm, and striking it repeatedly with its fangs.
+After killing the snake, she hurried to her nearest neighbor, procured
+a bottle of brandy, and returned as soon as possible; but the poison
+had already so operated upon the arm that it was as black as a negro's.
+She poured down the child's throat a huge draught of the liquor, which
+soon took effect, making it very drunk, and stopped the action of the
+poison. Although the child was relieved, it remained sick for a long
+time, but ultimately recovered.
+
+A man was struck in the leg by a very large rattlesnake near Fort
+Belknap, Texas, in 1853. No other remedy being at hand, a small piece
+of indigo was pulverized, made into a poultice with water, and applied
+to the puncture. It seemed to draw out the poison, turning the indigo
+white, after which it was removed and another poultice applied. These
+applications were repeated until the indigo ceased to change its color.
+The man was then carried to the hospital at Fort Belknap, and soon
+recovered, and the surgeon of the post pronounced it a very
+satisfactory cure.
+
+A Chickasaw woman, who was bitten upon the foot near Fort Washita by a
+ground rattlesnake (a very venomous species), drank a bottle of whisky
+and applied the indigo poultice, and when I saw her, three days
+afterward, she was recovering, but the flesh around the wound sloughed
+away.
+
+A Delaware remedy, which is said to be efficacious, is to burn powder
+upon the wound, but I have never known it to be tried excepting upon a
+horse. In this case it was successful, or, at all events, the animal
+recovered.
+
+Of all the remedies known to me, I should decidedly prefer ardent
+spirits. It is considered a sovereign antidote among our Western
+frontier settlers, and I would make use of it with great confidence. It
+must be taken until the patient becomes very much intoxicated, and this
+requires a large quantity, as the action of the poison seems to
+counteract its effects.
+
+Should the fangs of the snake penetrate deep enough to reach an artery,
+it is probable the person would die in a short time. I imagine,
+however, that this does not often occur.
+
+The following remedial measures for the treatment of the bites of
+poisonous reptiles are recommended by Dr. Philip Weston in the London
+Lancet for July, 1859:
+
+1. The application of a ligature round the limb close to the wound,
+between it and the heart, to arrest the return of venous blood.
+
+2. Excision of the bitten parts, or free incision through the wounds
+made by the poison-teeth, subsequently encouraging the bleeding by warm
+solutions to favor the escape of the poison from the circulation.
+
+3. Cauterization widely round the limb of the bite with a strong
+solution of nitrate of silver, one drachm to the ounce, to prevent the
+introduction of the poison into the system by the lymphatics.
+
+4. As soon as indications of the absorption of the poison into the
+circulation begin to manifest themselves, the internal administration
+of ammonia in aerated or soda-water every quarter of an hour, to
+support the nervous energy and allay the distressing thirst.
+
+"But," he continues, "there is yet wanting some remedy that shall
+rapidly counteract the poison introduced into the blood, and assist in
+expelling it from the system. The well-authenticated accounts of the
+success attending the internal use of arsenic in injuries arising from
+the bites of venomous reptiles in the East and West Indies, and also in
+Africa, and the well-known properties of this medicine as a powerful
+tonic and alterative in conditions of impaired vitality of the blood
+arising from the absorption of certain blood-poisons, would lead me to
+include this agent in the treatment already mentioned. It should be
+administered in combination with ammonia, in full doses, frequently
+repeated, so as to neutralize quickly the poison circulating in the
+blood before it can be eliminated from the system. This could readily
+be accomplished by adding ten to fifteen minims of Fowler's solution to
+the compound spirit of ammonia, to be given every quarter of an hour in
+aerated or soda-water, until the vomiting and the more urgent symptoms
+of collapse have subsided, subsequently repeating the dose at longer
+intervals until reaction had become fully established, and the patient
+relieved by copious bilious dejections."
+
+_Cedron_, which is a nut that grows on the Isthmus of Panama, and which
+is sold by the druggists in New York, is said to be an infallible
+antidote to serpent-bites. In the _Bullet. de l'Acad. de Med._ for
+February, 1858, it is stated that a man was bitten at Panama by a
+_coral snake_, the most poisonous species on the Isthmus. During the
+few seconds that it took him to take the cedron from his bag, he was
+seized with violent pains at the heart and throat; but he had scarcely
+chewed and swallowed a piece of the nut about the size of a small bean,
+when the pains ceased as by magic. He chewed a little more, and applied
+it externally to the wound, when the pains disappeared, and were
+followed by a copious evacuation of a substance like curdled milk. Many
+other cases are mentioned where the cedron proved an antidote.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Bivouacs. Tente d'Abri. Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. Comanche Lodge.
+Sibley Tent. Camp Furniture. Litters. Rapid Traveling. Fuel. Making
+Fires. Fires on the Prairies. Jerking Meat. Making Lariats. Making
+Caches. Disposition of Fire-arms. Colt's Revolvers. Gun Accidents.
+Trailing. Indian Sagacity.
+
+
+BIVOUACS AND TENTS.
+
+In traveling with pack animals it is not always convenient or
+practicable to transport tents, and the traveler's ingenuity is often
+taxed in devising the most available means for making himself
+comfortable and secure against winds and storms. I have often been
+astonished to see how soon an experienced voyager, without any
+resources save those provided by nature, will erect a comfortable
+shelter in a place where a person having no knowledge of woodcraft
+would never think of such a thing.
+
+Almost all people in different parts of the world have their own
+peculiar methods of bivouacking.
+
+In the severe climate of Thibet, Dr. Hooker informs us that they encamp
+near large rocks, which absorb the heat during the day, and give it out
+slowly during the night. They form, as it were, reservoirs of caloric,
+the influence of which is exceedingly grateful during a cold night.
+
+In the polar regions the Esquimaux live and make themselves comfortable
+in huts of ice or snow, and with no other combustible but oil.
+
+The natives of Australia bury their bodies in the sand, keeping their
+heads only above the surface, and thus sleep warm during the chilly
+nights of that climate.
+
+Fortunately for the health and comfort of travelers upon the Plains,
+the atmosphere is pure and dry during the greater part of the year, and
+it is seldom that any rain or dew is seen; neither are there marshes or
+ponds of stagnant water to generate putrid exhalations and poisonous
+malaria. The night air of the summer months is soft, exhilarating, and
+delightful. Persons may therefore sleep in it and inhale it with
+perfect impunity, and, indeed, many prefer this to breathing the
+confined atmosphere of a house or tent.
+
+During the rainy season only is it necessary to seek shelter. In
+traveling with covered wagons one always has protection from storms,
+but with pack trains it becomes necessary to improvise the best
+substitutes for tents.
+
+A very secure protection against storms may be constructed by planting
+firmly in the ground two upright poles, with forks at their tops, and
+crossing them with a light pole laid in the forks. A gutta-percha
+cloth, or sheet of canvas, or, in the absence of either of these two,
+blankets, may be attached by one side to the horizontal pole, the
+opposite edge being stretched out to the windward at an angle of about
+forty-five degrees to the ground, and there fastened with wooden pins,
+or with buckskin strings tied to the lower border of the cloth and to
+pegs driven firmly into the earth. This forms a shelter for three or
+four men, and is a good defense against winds and rains. If a fire be
+then made in front, the smoke will be carried away, so as not to
+incommode the occupants of the bivouac.
+
+This is called a "half-faced" camp.
+
+[Illustration: HALF-FACED CAMP.]
+
+Another method practiced a great deal among mountain men and Indians
+consists in placing several rough poles equidistant around in a half
+circle, and bringing the small ends together at the top, where they are
+bound with a thong. This forms the conical frame-work of the bivouac,
+which, when covered with a cloth stretched around it, makes a very good
+shelter, and is preferable to the half-faced camp, because the sides
+are covered.
+
+[Illustration: CONICAL BIVOUAC.]
+
+When no cloths, blankets, or hides are at hand to be placed over the
+poles of the lodge, it may be covered with green boughs laid on
+compactly, so as to shed a good deal of rain, and keep out the wind in
+cold weather. We adopted this description of shelter in crossing the
+Rocky Mountains during the winter of 1857-8, and thus formed a very
+effectual protection against the bleak winds which sweep with great
+violence over those lofty and inhospitable _sierras_. We always
+selected a dense thicket for our encampment, and covered the lodges
+with a heavy coating of pine boughs, wattling them together as
+compactly as possible, and piling snow upon the outside in such a
+manner as to make them quite impervious to the wind. The fires were
+then kindled at the mouths of the lodges, and our heads and bodies were
+completely sheltered, while our feet were kept warm by the fires.
+
+The French troops, while serving in the Crimea, used what they call the
+_tente d'abri_, or shelter tent, which seems to have been received with
+great favor in Europe. It is composed of two, four, or six square
+pieces of cloth, with buttons and buttonholes adjusted upon the edges,
+and is pitched by planting two upright stakes in the ground at a
+distance corresponding with the length of the canvas when buttoned
+together. The two sticks are connected by a cord passed around the top
+of each, drawn tight, and the ends made fast to pins driven firmly into
+the ground. The canvas is then laid over the rope between the sticks,
+spread out at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and the lower edges
+secured to the earth with wooden pins. This makes some defense against
+the weather, and was the only shelter enjoyed by the mass of the French
+army in the Crimea up to October, 1855. For a permanent camp it is
+usual to excavate a shallow basement under the tent, and to bank up the
+earth on the outside in cold weather. It is designed that upon marches
+the _tente d'abri_ shall be taken to pieces and carried by the
+soldiers.
+
+A tent has recently been prepared by Mr. John Rider, 165 Broadway, New
+York, which is called the "_tent knapsack_." It has been examined by a
+board of army officers, and recommended for adoption in our military
+service.
+
+[Illustration: TENT KNAPSACK.]
+
+This tent is somewhat similar to the _tente d'abri_, and is pitched in
+the same manner, but it has this advantage, that each separate piece
+may be converted into a water-proof knapsack.
+
+The following extracts from the Report of the Board go to show that
+this tent knapsack will be useful to parties traveling on the prairies
+with pack trains:
+
+"It is a piece of gutta-percha 5 feet 3 inches long, and 3 feet 8
+inches wide, with double edges on one side, and brass studs and
+button-holes along two edges, and straps and buckles on the fourth
+edge; the whole weighing three pounds; two sticks, 3 feet 8 inches long
+by 1-1/4 inches in diameter, and a small cord. When used as a knapsack,
+the clothing is packed in a cotton bag, and the gutta-percha sheet is
+folded round it, lapping at the ends. The clothing is thus protected by
+two or three thicknesses of gutta-percha, and in this respect there is
+a superiority over the knapsack now used by our troops. Other
+advantages are, that the tent knapsack has no seams, the parts at which
+those in use wear out soonest; it adapts itself to the size of the
+contents, so that a compact and portable bundle can be made, whether
+the kit be entire or not; and, with the cotton bag, it forms a
+convenient, commodious, and durable receptacle for all a soldier's
+clothing and necessaries.
+
+"On a scout a soldier usually carries only a blanket, overcoat, and at
+most a single shirt, pair of drawers, and a pair of socks, all of which
+can be packed in the tent knapsack in a small bundle, perfectly
+protected from rain, and capable of being suspended from the shoulders
+and carried with comfort and ease during a march.
+
+"2d. As a shelter. The studs and eyelets along two edges of the tent
+knapsack are for the purpose of fastening a number of them together,
+and thus making a sheet of larger dimensions.
+
+"A sheet formed by fastening together four knapsacks was exhibited to
+the Board, stretched upon a frame of wood. When used in service the
+sheet is to be stretched on a rope supported by two poles, or by two
+rifles, muskets, or carbines, and pinned down at the sides with six
+pins, three on each side.
+
+"The sheet of four knapsacks is 10 feet 6 inches long, and 7 feet 4
+inches wide, and when pitched on a rope 4 feet 4 inches above the
+ground, covers a horizontal space 6 feet 6 inches wide, and 7 feet 4
+inches long, which will accommodate five men, and may be made to
+shelter seven. The sheet can also be used on the ground, and is a great
+protection from dampness, and as a shawl or talma; indeed, a variety of
+advantageous uses to which the gutta-percha sheet may be put will
+suggest themselves to persons using it.
+
+"The Board is satisfied with its merits in all the uses to which it is
+proposed to be put, and is of opinion that the gutta-percha tent
+knapsack may be adopted in the military service with advantage."
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+The usual tenement of the prairie tribes, and of the traders, trappers,
+and hunters who live among them, is the Comanche lodge, which is made
+of eight straight peeled poles about twenty feet long, covered with
+hides or cloth. The lodge is pitched by connecting the smaller
+extremities of three of the poles with one end of a long line. The
+three poles are then raised perpendicularly, and the larger extremities
+spread out in a tripod to the circumference of the circle that is to
+form the base of the lodge. The other poles are then raised, laid into
+the forks of the three first, and spread out equidistant upon the
+circle, thus forming the conical framework of the structure. Nine or
+ten poles are generally used in one lodge.
+
+[Illustration: COMANCHE LODGE.]
+
+The long line attached to the tripod is then wound several times around
+the top, where the poles intersect, and the lower end made fast at the
+base of the lodge, thus securing the frame firmly in its position. The
+covering, made of buffalo hides, dressed without the hair, and cut and
+sewed together to fit the conical frame, is raised with a pole, spread
+out around the structure, and united at the edges with sharpened wooden
+pegs, leaving sufficient space open at the bottom for a doorway, which
+may be closed with a blanket spread out with two small sticks, and
+suspended over the opening.
+
+The lower edge of the lodge is made fast to the ground with wooden
+pins. The apex is left open, with a triangular wing or flap on each
+side, and the windward flap constantly stretched out by means of a pole
+inserted into a pocket in the end of it, which causes it to draw like a
+sail, and thus occasions a draught from the fire built upon the ground
+in the centre of the lodge, and makes it warm and comfortable in the
+coldest winter weather. Canvas makes a very good substitute for the
+buffalo-skin covering.
+
+
+SIBLEY TENT.
+
+A tent has been invented by Major H. H. Sibley, of the army, which is
+known as the "_Sibley tent_." It is somewhat similar to the Comanche
+lodge, but in place of the conical frame-work of poles it has but one
+upright standard, resting upon an iron tripod in the centre. The tripod
+can be used to suspend cooking utensils over the fire, and, when folded
+up, admits the wooden standard between the legs, thereby reducing the
+length one half, and making it more convenient for packing and
+traveling.
+
+[Illustration: THE SIBLEY TENT.]
+
+This tent constituted the entire shelter of the army in Utah during the
+winter of 1857-8, and, notwithstanding the severity of the climate in
+the elevated locality of Camp Scott, the troops were quite comfortable,
+and pleased with the tent.
+
+In permanent camps the Sibley tent may be so pitched as to give more
+room by erecting a tripod upon the outside with three poles high and
+stout enough to admit of the tent's being suspended by ropes attached
+to the apex. This method dispenses with the necessity of the central
+upright standard.
+
+When the weather is very cold, the tent may be made warmer by
+excavating a basement about three feet deep, which also gives a wall to
+the tent, making it more roomy.
+
+The tent used in the army will shelter comfortably twelve men.
+
+Captain G. Rhodes, of the English army, in his recent work upon tents
+and tent-life, has given a description of most of the tents used in the
+different armies in Europe, but, in my judgment, none of them, in point
+of convenience, comfort, and economy, will compare with the Sibley tent
+for campaigning in cold weather. One of its most important features,
+that of admitting of a fire within it and of causing a draught by the
+disposition of the wings, is not, that I am aware, possessed by any
+other tent. Moreover, it is exempt from the objections that are urged
+against some other tents on account of insalubrity from want of top
+ventilation to carry off the impure air during the night.
+
+
+CAMP FURNITURE.
+
+The accompanying illustrations present some convenient articles of
+portable camp furniture.
+
+[Illustration: CAMP CHAIR. NO. 1.]
+
+CAMP CHAIR NO. 1 is of oak or other hard wood. Fig. 1 represents it
+opened for use; in Fig. 2 it is closed for transportation. _A_ is a
+stout canvas, forming the back and seat; _b_, _b_, _b_ are iron
+butt-hinges; _c_, _c_ are leather straps, one inch and a quarter wide,
+forming the arms; _d_ is an iron rod, with nut and screw at one end.
+
+[Illustration: CAMP CHAIRS. NOS. 2 AND 3.]
+
+CAMP CHAIR NO. 2 is made of sticks tied together with thongs of
+buckskin or raw hide.
+
+CAMP CHAIR NO. 3 is a very comfortable seat, made of a barrel, the part
+forming the seat being filled with grass.
+
+[Illustration: CAMP TABLE.]
+
+CAMP TABLE. Fig. 1 represents the table folded for transportation; in
+Fig. 2 it is spread out for use. _A_ is the top of the table; _a_, _a_
+are side boards, and _c_, _c_ are end boards, turning on butt-hinges,
+_b_, _b_, _b_.
+
+[Illustration: FIELD COT. NO. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIELD COT. NO. 2.]
+
+FIELD COTS. In No. 1, _A_ represents the cot put up for use; _B_, the
+cot folded for transportation. The legs turn upon iron bolts running
+through the head and foot boards; they are then placed upon the canvas,
+and the whole is rolled up around the side pieces. In No. 2 the upper
+figure represents the cot put up for use; the lower shows it folded for
+transportation. _A_ is a stout canvas; _b_, _b_ are iron butt-hinges;
+_c_, _c_, the legs; _d_, _d_, leather straps, with buckles, which hold
+the legs firm; _f_, _f_, ends, which fold upon hinges; _g_, _g_,
+cross-bars from leg to leg. This cot is strong, light, and portable.
+
+[Illustration: CAMP BUREAU.]
+
+CAMP BUREAU. This cut represents two chests, _A_, _A_, with their
+handles, a, a; the covers taken off, they are placed one upon the
+other, and secured by the clamps _B_, _B_; _d_ shows the division
+between the two chests. When it is to be transported, the knobs, _c_,
+are unscrewed from the drawers, the looking-glass, _f_, is removed, the
+drawers are filled with clothing, etc., and the lids are screwed on.
+
+[Illustration: MESS-CHEST.]
+
+MESS-CHEST. A represents the chest open for table; _B_ is the same
+closed; _C_ is the upper tray of tin, with compartments, _b_, _b_; _E_
+is the lower wooden tray, divided into compartments, _a_, _a_, for
+various purposes, and made fast to the bottom of the chest; _d_, _d_
+are lids opening with hinges; _f_ (in figure B) is a wooden leg,
+turning upon a hinge, and fitting snugly between two pieces of wood
+screwed upon the cover.
+
+
+LITTERS.
+
+Should a party traveling with pack animals, and without ambulances or
+wagons, have one of its members wounded or taken so sick as to be
+unable to walk or ride on horseback, a litter may be constructed by
+taking two poles about twenty feet in length, uniting them by two
+sticks three feet long lashed across the centre at six feet apart, and
+stretching a piece of stout canvas, a blanket, or hide between them to
+form the bed. Two steady horses or mules are then selected, placed
+between the poles in the front and rear of the litter, and the ends of
+the poles made fast to the sides of the animals, either by attachment
+to the stirrups or to the ends of straps secured over their backs.
+
+[Illustration: HORSE-LITTER.]
+
+The patient may then be placed upon the litter, and is ready for the
+march.
+
+The elasticity of the long poles gives an easy motion to the
+conveyance, and makes this method of locomotion much more comfortable
+than might be supposed.
+
+The prairie Indians have a way of transporting their sick and children
+upon a litter very similar in construction to the one just described,
+excepting that one animal is used instead of two. One end of the litter
+is made fast to the sides of the animal, while the other end is left to
+trail upon the ground. A projection is raised for the feet to rest
+against and prevent the patient from sliding down. Instead of canvas,
+the Indians sometimes lash a large willow basket across the poles, in
+which they place the person to be transported. The animals harnessed to
+the litter must be carefully conducted upon the march, and caution used
+in passing over rough and broken ground.
+
+[Illustration: HAND-LITTER.]
+
+A very convenient and comfortable method of packing a sick or wounded
+man when there are no animals disposable, and which is sometimes
+resorted to by the Indians, is to take two small poles about ten feet
+long, and lash three cross-pieces to them, one in the centre, and the
+other two about eighteen inches from the ends. A blanket or hide is
+then secured firmly to this frame, and the patient placed upon it under
+the centre cross-piece, which prevents him from falling out. Two men
+act as carriers, walking between the ends of the long poles. The
+patient may be protected against the rain or sun by bending small
+willows over the frame, and covering them with a cloth.
+
+
+RAPID TRAVELING.
+
+Small parties with good animals, light vehicles, and little lading, may
+traverse the Plains rapidly and comfortably, if the following
+injunctions be observed.
+
+The day's drive should commence as soon as it is light, and, where the
+road is good, the animals kept upon a slow trot for about three hours,
+then immediately turned out upon the best grass that can be found for
+two hours, thus giving time for grazing and breakfast. After which
+another drive of about three hours may be made, making the noon halt
+about three hours, when the animals are again harnessed, and the
+journey continued until night.
+
+In passing through a country infested by hostile Indians, the evening
+drive should be prolonged until an hour or two after dark, turning off
+at a point where the ground is hard, going about half a mile from the
+road, and encamping without fires, in low ground, where the Indians
+will find it difficult to track or see the party.
+
+These frequent halts serve to rest and recruit the animals so that they
+will, without injury, make from thirty to forty miles a day for a long
+time. This, however, can only be done with very light loads and
+vehicles, such, for example, as an ambulance with four mules, only
+three or four persons, and a small amount of luggage.
+
+
+FUEL AND FIRE.
+
+There are long distances upon some of the routes to California where no
+other fuel is found but the dried dung of the buffalo, called by the
+mountaineers "chips," and by the French "bois de vache," the _argul_ of
+the Tartary deserts. It burns well when perfectly dry, answers a good
+purpose for cooking, and some men even prefer it to wood. As it will
+not burn when wet, it is well, in a country where no other fuel can be
+had, when it threatens to rain, for the traveler to collect a supply
+before the rain sets in, and carry it in wagons to the camp. When dry,
+the chips are easily lighted.
+
+A great saving in fuel may be made by digging a trench about two feet
+long by eight inches in width and depth; the fires are made in the
+bottom of the trench, and the cooking utensils placed upon the top,
+where they receive all the heat. This plan is especially recommended
+for windy weather, and it is convenient at all times. The wood should
+be cut short, and split into small pieces.
+
+It is highly important that travelers should know the different methods
+that may be resorted to for kindling fires upon a march.
+
+The most simple and most expeditious of these is by using the lucifer
+matches; but, unless they are kept in well-corked bottles, they are
+liable to become wet, and will then fail to ignite.
+
+The most of those found in the shops easily imbibe dampness, and are of
+but little use in the prairies. Those marked "Van Duser, New York," and
+put up in flat rectangular boxes, are the best I have met with, and
+were the only ones I saw which were not affected by the humid climate
+of Mexico. Wax lucifers are better than wooden, as they are impervious
+to moisture.
+
+I have seen an Indian start a fire with flint and steel after others
+had failed to do it with matches. This was during a heavy rain, when
+almost all available fuel had become wet. On such occasions dry fuel
+may generally be obtained under logs, rocks, or leaning trees.
+
+The inner bark of some dry trees, cedar for instance, is excellent to
+kindle a fire. The bark is rubbed in the hand until the fibres are made
+fine and loose, when it takes fire easily; dry grass or leaves are also
+good. After a sufficient quantity of small kindling fuel has been
+collected, a moistened rag is rubbed with powder, and a spark struck
+into it with a flint and steel, which will ignite it; this is then
+placed in the centre of the loose nest of inflammable material, and
+whirled around in the air until it bursts out into a flame. When it is
+raining, the blaze should be laid upon the dryest spot that can be
+found, a blanket held over it to keep off the water, and it is fed with
+very small bits of dry wood and shavings until it has gained sufficient
+strength to burn the larger damp wood. When no dry place can be found,
+the fire may be started in a kettle or frying-pan, and afterward
+transferred to the ground.
+
+Should there be no other means of starting a fire, it can always be
+made with a gun or pistol, by placing upon the ground a rag saturated
+with damp powder, and a little dry powder sprinkled over it. The gun or
+pistol is then (uncharged) placed with the cone directly over and near
+the rag, and a cap exploded, which will invariably ignite it. Another
+method is by placing about one fourth of a charge of powder into a gun,
+pushing a rag down loosely upon it, and firing it out with the muzzle
+down near the ground, which ignites the rag.
+
+The most difficult of all methods of making a fire, but one that is
+practiced by some of the Western Indians, is by friction between two
+pieces of wood. I had often heard of this process, but never gave
+credit to its practicability until I saw the experiment successfully
+tried. It was done in the following manner: Two dried stalks of the
+Mexican soap-plant, about three fourths of an inch in diameter, were
+selected, and one of them made flat on one side; near the edge of this
+flat surface a very small indentation was made to receive the end of
+the other stick, and a groove cut from this down the side. The other
+stick is cut with a rounded end, and placed upright upon the first. One
+man then holds the horizontal piece upon the ground, while another
+takes the vertical stick between the palms of his hands, and turns it
+back and forth as rapidly as possible, at the same time pressing
+forcibly down upon it. The point of the upright stick wears away the
+indentation into a fine powder, which runs off to the ground in the
+groove that has been cut; after a time it begins to smoke, and by
+continued friction it will at length take fire.
+
+This is an operation that is difficult, and requires practice; but if a
+drill-stick is used with a cord placed around the centre of the upright
+stick, it can be turned much more rapidly than with the hands, and the
+fire produced more readily. The upright stick may be of any hard, dry
+wood, but the lower horizontal stick must be of a soft, inflammable
+nature, such as pine, cottonwood, or black walnut, and it must be
+perfectly dry. The Indians work the sticks with the palms of the hands,
+holding the lower piece between the feet; but it is better to have a
+man to hold the lower piece while another man works the drill-bow.
+
+Inexperienced travelers are very liable, in kindling fires at their
+camp, to ignite the grass around them. Great caution should be taken to
+guard against the occurrence of such accidents, as they might prove
+exceedingly disastrous. We were very near having our entire train of
+wagons and supplies destroyed, upon one occasion, by the carelessness
+of one of our party in setting fire to the grass, and it was only by
+the most strenuous and well-timed efforts of two hundred men in setting
+counter fires, and burning around the train, that it was saved. When
+the grass is dry it will take fire like powder, and if thick and tall,
+with a brisk wind, the flames run like a race-horse, sweeping every
+thing before them. A lighted match, or the ashes from a segar or pipe,
+thrown carelessly into the dry grass, sometimes sets it on fire; but
+the greatest danger lies in kindling camp-fires.
+
+To prevent accidents of this kind, before kindling the fire a space
+should be cleared away sufficient to embrace the limits of the flame,
+and all combustibles removed therefrom, and while the fire is being
+made men should be stationed around with blankets ready to put it out
+if it takes the grass.
+
+When a fire is approaching, and escape from its track is impossible, it
+may be repelled in the following manner: The train and animals are
+parked compactly together; then several men, provided with blankets,
+set fire to the grass on the lee side, burning it away gradually from
+the train, and extinguishing it on the side next the train. This can
+easily be done, and the fire controlled with the blankets, or with dry
+sand thrown upon it, until an area large enough to give room for the
+train has been burned clear. Now the train moves on to this ground of
+safety, and the fire passes by harmless.
+
+
+JERKING MEAT.
+
+So pure is the atmosphere in the interior of our continent that fresh
+meat may be cured, or _jerked,_ as it is termed in the language of
+the prairies, by cutting it into strips about an inch thick, and
+hanging it in the sun, where in a few days it will dry so well that it
+may be packed in sacks, and transported over long journeys without
+putrefying.
+
+When there is not time to jerk the meat by the slow process described,
+it may be done in a few hours by building an open frame-work of small
+sticks about two feet above the ground, placing the strips of meat upon
+the top of it, and keeping up a slow fire beneath, which dries the meat
+rapidly.
+
+The jerking process may be done upon the march without any loss of time
+by stretching lines from front to rear upon the outside of loaded
+wagons, and suspending the meat upon them, where it is allowed to
+remain until sufficiently cured to be packed away. Salt is never used
+in this process, and is not required, as the meat, if kept dry, rarely
+putrefies.
+
+If travelers have ample transportation, it will be a wise precaution,
+in passing through the buffalo range, to lay in a supply of jerked meat
+for future exigences.
+
+
+LARIATS.
+
+It frequently happens upon long journeys that the lariat ropes wear out
+or are lost, and if there were no means of replacing them great
+inconvenience might result therefrom. A very good substitute may be
+made by taking the green hide of a buffalo, horse, mule, or ox,
+stretching it upon the ground, and pinning it down by the edges. After
+it has been well stretched, a circle is described with a piece of
+charcoal, embracing as much of the skin as practicable, and a strip
+about an inch wide cut from the outer edge of sufficient length to form
+the lariat. The strip is then wrapped around between two trees or
+stakes, drawn tight, and left to dry, after which it is subjected to a
+process of friction until it becomes pliable, when it is ready for use;
+this lariat answers well so long as it is kept dry, but after it has
+been wet and dried again it becomes very hard and unyielding. This,
+however, may be obviated by boiling it in oil or grease until
+thoroughly saturated, after which it remains pliable.
+
+The Indians make very good lariat ropes of dressed buffalo or buck
+skins cut into narrow strips and braided; these, when oiled, slip much
+more freely than the hemp or cotton ropes, and are better for lassoing
+animals, but they are not as suitable for picketing as those made of
+other material, because the wolves will eat them, and thus set free the
+animals to which they are attached.
+
+
+CACHES.
+
+It not unfrequently happens that travelers are compelled, for want of
+transportation, to abandon a portion of their luggage, and if it is
+exposed to the keen scrutiny of the thieving savages who often follow
+the trail of a party, and hunt over old camps for such things as may be
+left, it will be likely to be appropriated by them. Such contingencies
+have given rise to a method of secreting articles called by the old
+French Canadian voyagers "_caching_."
+
+The proper places for making caches are in loose sandy soils, where the
+earth is dry and easily excavated. Near the bank of a river is the most
+convenient for this purpose, as the earth taken out can be thrown into
+the water, leaving no trace behind.
+
+When the spot has been chosen, the turf is carefully cut and laid
+aside, after which a hole is dug in the shape of an egg, and of
+sufficient dimensions to contain the articles to be secreted, and the
+earth, as it is taken out, thrown upon a cloth or blanket, and carried
+to a stream or ravine, where it can be disposed of, being careful not
+to scatter any upon the ground near the cache. The hole is then lined
+with bushes or dry grass, the articles placed within, covered with
+grass, the hole filled up with earth, and the sods carefully placed
+back in their original position, and every thing that would be likely
+to attract an Indian's attention removed from the locality. If an
+India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth is disposable, it should be used to
+envelop the articles in the cache.
+
+Another plan of making a cache is to dig the hole inside a tent, and
+occupy the tent for some days after the goods are deposited. This
+effaces the marks of excavation.
+
+The mountain traders were formerly in the habit of building fires over
+their caches, but the Indians have become so familiar with this
+practice that I should think it no longer safe.
+
+Another method of caching which is sometimes resorted to is to place
+the articles in the top of an evergreen tree, such as the pine,
+hemlock, or spruce. The thick boughs are so arranged around the
+packages that they can not be seen from beneath, and they are tied to a
+limb to prevent them from being blown out by the wind. This will only
+answer for such articles as will not become injured by the weather.
+
+Caves or holes in the rocks that are protected from the rains are also
+secure deposits for caching goods, but in every case care must be taken
+to obliterate all tracks or other indications of men having been near
+them. These caches will be more secure when made at some distance from
+roads or trails, and in places where Indians would not be likely to
+pass.
+
+To find a cache again, the bearing and distance from the centre of it
+to some prominent object, such as a mound, rock, or tree, should be
+carefully determined and recorded, so that any one, on returning to the
+spot, would have no difficulty in ascertaining its position.
+
+
+DISPOSITION OF FIRE-ARMS.
+
+The mountaineers and trappers exercise a very wise precaution, on
+laying down for the night, by placing their arms and ammunition by
+their sides, where they can be seized at a moment's notice. This rule
+is never departed from, and they are therefore seldom liable to be
+surprised. In Parkyns's "Abyssinia," I find the following remarks upon
+this subject:
+
+"When getting sleepy, you return your rifle between your legs, roll
+over, and go to sleep. Some people may think this is a queer place for
+a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position of all others where
+utility and comfort are most combined. The butt rests on the arm, and
+serves as a pillow for the head; the muzzle points between the knees,
+and the arms encircle the lock and breech, so that you have a smooth
+pillow, and are always prepared to start up armed at a moment's
+notice."
+
+I have never made the experiment of sleeping in this way, but I should
+imagine that a gun-stock would make rather a hard pillow.
+
+Many of our experienced frontier officers prefer carrying their pistols
+in a belt at their sides to placing them in holsters attached to the
+saddle, as in the former case they are always at hand when they are
+dismounted; whereas, by the other plan, they become useless when a man
+is unhorsed, unless he has time to remove them from the saddle, which,
+during the excitement of an action, would seldom be the case.
+
+Notwithstanding Colt's army and navy sized revolvers have been in use
+for a long time in our army, officers are by no means of one mind as to
+their relative merits for frontier service. The navy pistol, being more
+light and portable, is more convenient for the belt, but it is very
+questionable in my mind whether these qualities counterbalance the
+advantages derived from the greater weight of powder and lead that can
+be fired from the larger pistol, and the consequent increased
+projectile force.
+
+This point is illustrated by an incident which fell under my own
+observation. In passing near the "Medicine-Bow Butte" during the spring
+of 1858, I most unexpectedly encountered and fired at a full-grown
+grizzly bear; but, as my horse had become somewhat blown by a previous
+gallop, his breathing so much disturbed my aim that I missed the animal
+at the short distance of about fifty yards, and he ran off. Fearful, if
+I stopped to reload my rifle, the bear would make his escape, I
+resolved to drive him back to the advanced guard of our escort, which I
+could see approaching in the distance; this I succeeded in doing, when
+several mounted men, armed with the navy revolvers, set off in pursuit.
+They approached within a few paces, and discharged ten or twelve shots,
+the most of which entered the animal, but he still kept on, and his
+progress did not seem materially impeded by the wounds. After these men
+had exhausted their charges, another man rode up armed with the army
+revolver, and fired two shots, which brought the stalwart beast to the
+ground. Upon skinning him and making an examination of the wounds, it
+was discovered that none of the balls from the small pistols had, after
+passing through his thick and tough hide, penetrated deeper than about
+an inch into the flesh, but that the two balls from the large pistol
+had gone into the vitals and killed him. This test was to my mind a
+decisive one as to the relative efficiency of the two arms for frontier
+service, and I resolved thenceforth to carry the larger size.
+
+[Illustration: THE GRIZZLY.]
+
+Several different methods are practiced in slinging and carrying
+fire-arms upon horseback. The shoulder-strap, with a swivel to hook
+into a ring behind the guard, with the muzzle resting downward in a
+leather cup attached by a strap to the same staple as the
+stirrup-leather, is a very handy method for cavalry soldiers to sling
+their carbines; but, the gun being reversed, the jolting caused by the
+motion of the horse tends to move the charge and shake the powder out
+of the cone, which renders it liable to burst the gun and to miss fire.
+
+An invention of the Namaquas, in Africa, described by Galton in his Art
+of Travel, is as follows:
+
+"Sew a bag of canvas, leather, or hide, of such bigness as to admit the
+butt of the gun pretty freely. The straps that support it buckle
+through a ring in the pommel, and the thongs by which its slope is
+adjusted fasten round the girth below. The exact adjustments may not be
+hit upon by an unpracticed person for some little time, but, when they
+are once ascertained, the straps need never be shifted. The gun is
+perfectly safe, and never comes below the arm-pit, even in taking a
+drop leap; it is pulled out in an instant by bringing the elbow in
+front of the gun and close to the side, so as to throw the gun to the
+outside of the arm; then, lowering the hand, the gun is caught up. It
+is a bungling way to take out the gun while its barrel lies between the
+arm and the body. Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion. It
+offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting."
+
+This may be a convenient way of carrying the gun; I have never tried
+it. Of all methods I have used, I prefer, for hunting, a piece of
+leather about twelve inches by four, with a hole cut in each end; one
+of the ends is placed over the pommel of the saddle, and with a
+buckskin string made fast to it, where it remains a permanent fixture.
+When the rider is mounted, he places his gun across the strap upon the
+saddle, and carries the loose end forward over the pommel, the gun
+resting horizontally across his legs. It will now only be necessary
+occasionally to steady the gun with the hand. After a little practice
+the rider will be able to control it with his knees, and it will be
+found a very easy and convenient method of carrying it. When required
+for use, it is taken out in an instant by simply raising it with the
+hand, when the loose end of the strap comes off the pommel.
+
+The chief causes of accidents from the use of fire-arms arise from
+carelessness, and I have always observed that those persons who are
+most familiar with their use are invariably the most careful. Many
+accidents have happened from carrying guns with the cock down upon the
+cap. When in this position, a blow upon the cock, and sometimes the
+concussion produced by the falling of the gun, will explode the cap;
+and, occasionally, when the cock catches a twig, or in the clothes, and
+lifts it from the cap, it will explode. With a gun at half-cock there
+is but little danger of such accidents; for, when the cock is drawn
+back, it either comes to the full-cock, and remains, or it returns to
+the half-cock, but does not go down upon the cone. Another source of
+very many sad and fatal accidents resulting from the most stupid and
+culpable carelessness is in persons standing before the muzzles of guns
+and attempting to pull them out of wagons, or to draw them through a
+fence or brush in the same position. If the cock encounters an obstacle
+in its passage, it will, of course, be drawn back and fall upon the
+cap. These accidents are of frequent occurrence, and the cause is well
+understood by all, yet men continue to disregard it, and their lives
+pay the penalty of their indiscretion. It is a wise maxim, which
+applies with especial force in campaigning on the prairies, "_Always
+look to your gun, but never let your gun look at you._"
+
+An equally important maxim might be added to this: _Never to point
+your gun at another, whether charged or uncharged, and never allow
+another to point his gun at you._ Young men, before they become
+accustomed to the use of arms, are very apt to be careless, and a large
+percentage of gun accidents may be traced to this cause. That finished
+sportsman and wonderful shot, my friend Captain Martin Scott, than whom
+a more gallant soldier never fought a battle, was the most careful man
+with fire-arms I ever knew, and up to the time he received his
+death-wound upon the bloody field of Molino del Rey he never ceased his
+cautionary advice to young officers upon this subject. His extended
+experience and intimate acquaintance with the use of arms had fully
+impressed him with its importance, and no man ever lived whose opinions
+upon this subject should carry greater weight. As incomprehensible as
+it may appear to persons accustomed to the use of fire-arms, recruits
+are very prone, before they have been drilled at target practice with
+ball cartridges, to place the ball below the powder in the piece.
+Officers conducting detachments through the Indian country should
+therefore give their special attention to this, and require the
+recruits to tear the cartridge and pour all the powder into the piece
+before the ball is inserted.
+
+As accidents often occur in camp from the accidental discharge of
+fire-arms that have been capped, I would recommend that the arms be
+continually kept loaded in campaigning, but the caps not placed upon
+the cones until they are required for firing. This will cause but
+little delay in an action, and will conduce much to security from
+accidents.
+
+When loaded fire-arms have been exposed for any considerable time to a
+moist atmosphere, they should be discharged, or the cartridges drawn,
+and the arms thoroughly cleaned, dried, and oiled. Too much attention
+can not be given in keeping arms in perfect firing order.
+
+
+TRAILING.
+
+I know of nothing in the woodman's education of so much importance, or
+so difficult to acquire, as the art of trailing or tracking men and
+animals. To become an adept in this art requires the constant practice
+of years, and with some men a lifetime does not suffice to learn it.
+
+Almost all the Indians whom I have met with are proficient in this
+species of knowledge, the faculty for acquiring which appears to be
+innate with them. Exigencies of woodland and prairie-life stimulate the
+savage from childhood to develop faculties so important in the arts of
+war and of the chase.
+
+I have seen very few white men who were good trailers, and practice did
+not seem very materially to improve their faculties in this regard;
+they have not the same acute perceptions for these things as the Indian
+or the Mexican. It is not apprehended that this difficult branch of
+woodcraft can be taught from books, as it pertains almost exclusively
+to the school of practice, yet I will give some facts relating to the
+habits of the Indians that will facilitate its acquirement.
+
+A party of Indians, for example, starting out upon a war excursion,
+leave their families behind, and never transport their lodges; whereas,
+when they move with their families, they carry their lodges and other
+effects. If, therefore, an Indian trail is discovered with the marks of
+the lodge-poles upon it, it has certainly not been made by a war-party;
+but if the track do not show the trace of lodge-poles, it will be
+equally certain that a war or hunting party has passed that way, and if
+it is not desired to come in conflict with them, their direction may be
+avoided. Mustangs or wild horses, when moving from place to place,
+leave a trail which is sometimes difficult to distinguish from that
+made by a mounted party of Indians, especially if the mustangs do not
+stop to graze. This may be determined by following upon the trail until
+some dung is found, and if this should lie in a single pile, it is a
+sure indication that a herd of mustangs has passed, as they always stop
+to relieve themselves, while a party of Indians would keep their horses
+in motion, and the ordure would be scattered along the road. If the
+trail pass through woodland, the mustangs will occasionally go under
+the limbs of trees too low to admit the passage of a man on horseback.
+
+An Indian, on coming to a trail, will generally tell at a glance its
+age, by what particular tribe it was made, the number of the party, and
+many other things connected with it astounding to the uninitiated.
+
+I remember, upon one occasion, as I was riding with a Delaware upon the
+prairies, we crossed the trail of a large party of Indians traveling
+with lodges. The tracks appeared to me quite fresh, and I remarked to
+the Indian that we must be near the party. "Oh no," said he, "the trail
+was made two days before, in the morning," at the same time pointing
+with his finger to where the sun would be at about 8 o'clock. Then,
+seeing that my curiosity was excited to know by what means he arrived
+at this conclusion, he called my attention to the fact that there had
+been no dew for the last two nights, but that on the previous morning
+it had been heavy. He then pointed out to me some spears of grass that
+had been pressed down into the earth by the horses' hoofs, upon which
+the sand still adhered, having dried on, thus clearly showing that the
+grass was wet when the tracks were made.
+
+At another time, as I was traveling with the same Indian, I discovered
+upon the ground what I took to be a bear-track, with a distinctly-marked
+impression of the heel and all the toes. I immediately called the
+Indian's attention to it, at the same time flattering myself that I had
+made quite an important discovery, which had escaped his observation.
+The fellow remarked with a smile, "Oh no, captain, may be so he not
+bear-track." He then pointed with his gun-rod to some spears of grass
+that grew near the impression, but I did not comprehend the mystery
+until he dismounted and explained to me that, when the wind was
+blowing, the spears of grass would be bent over toward the ground, and
+the oscillating motion thereby produced would scoop out the loose sand
+into the shape I have described. The truth of this explanation was
+apparent, yet it occurred to me that its solution would have baffled
+the wits of most white men.
+
+Fresh tracks generally show moisture where the earth has been turned
+up, but after a short exposure to the sun they become dry. If the
+tracks be very recent, the sand may sometimes, where it is very loose
+and dry, be seen running back into the tracks, and by following them to
+a place where they cross water, the earth will be wet for some distance
+after they leave it. The droppings of the dung from animals are also
+good indications of the age of a trail. It is well to remember whether
+there have been any rains within a few days, as the age of a trail may
+sometimes be conjectured in this way. It is very easy to tell whether
+tracks have been made before or after a rain, as the water washes off
+all the sharp edges.
+
+It is not a difficult matter to distinguish the tracks of American
+horses from those of Indian horses, as the latter are never shod;
+moreover, they are much smaller.
+
+In trailing horses, there will be no trouble while the ground is soft,
+as the impressions they leave will then be deep and distinct; but when
+they pass over hard or rocky ground, it is sometimes a very slow and
+troublesome process to follow them. Where there is grass, the trace can
+be seen for a considerable time, as the grass will be trodden down and
+bent in the direction the party has moved; should the grass have
+returned to its upright position, the trail can often be distinguished
+by standing upon it and looking ahead for some distance in the
+direction it has been pursuing; the grass that has been turned over
+will show a different shade of green from that around it, and this
+often marks a trail for a long time.
+
+Should all traces of the track be obliterated in certain localities, it
+is customary with the Indians to follow on in the direction it has been
+pursuing for a time, and it is quite probable that in some place where
+the ground is more favorable it will show itself again. Should the
+trail not be recovered in this way, they search for a place where the
+earth is soft, and make a careful examination, embracing the entire
+area where it is likely to run.
+
+Indians who find themselves pursued and wish to escape, scatter as much
+as possible, with an understanding that they are to meet again at some
+point in advance, so that, if the pursuing party follows any one of the
+tracks, it will invariably lead to the place of rendezvous. If, for
+example, the trail points in the direction of a mountain pass, or
+toward any other place which affords the only passage through a
+particular section of country, it would not be worth while to spend
+much time in hunting it, as it would probably be regained at the pass.
+
+[Illustration: HORSE-TRACKS AT ORDINARY SPEED.]
+
+As it is important in trailing Indians to know at what gaits they are
+traveling, and as the appearance of the tracks of horses are not
+familiar to all, I have in the following cut represented the prints
+made by the hoofs at the ordinary speed of the walk, trot, and gallop,
+so that persons, in following the trail of Indians, may form an idea as
+to the probability of overtaking them, and regulate their movements
+accordingly.
+
+In traversing a district of unknown country where there are no
+prominent landmarks, and with the view of returning to the point of
+departure, a pocket compass should always be carried, and attached by a
+string to a button-hole of the coat, to prevent its being lost or
+mislaid; and on starting out, as well as frequently during the trip, to
+take the bearing, and examine the appearance of the country when facing
+toward the starting-point, as a landscape presents a very different
+aspect when viewing it from opposite directions. There are few white
+men who can retrace their steps for any great distance unless they take
+the above precautions in passing over an unknown country for the first
+time; but with the Indians it is different; the sense of locality seems
+to be innate with them, and they do not require the aid of the magnetic
+needle to guide them.
+
+Upon a certain occasion, when I had made a long march over an
+unexplored section, and was returning upon an entirely different route
+without either road or trail, a Delaware, by the name of "Black
+Beaver," who was in my party, on arriving at a particular point,
+suddenly halted, and, turning to me, asked if I recognized the country
+before us. Seeing no familiar objects, I replied in the negative. He
+put the same question to the other white men of the party, all of whom
+gave the same answers, whereupon he smiled, and in his quaint
+vernacular said, "Injun he don't know nothing. Injun big fool. White
+man mighty smart; he know heap." At the same time he pointed to a tree
+about two hundred yards from where we were then standing, and informed
+us that our outward trail ran directly by the side of it, which proved
+to be true.
+
+Another time, as I was returning from the Comanche country over a route
+many miles distant from the one I had traveled in going out, one of my
+Delaware hunters, who had never visited the section before, on arriving
+upon the crest of an eminence in the prairie, pointed out to me a clump
+of trees in the distance, remarking that our outward track would be
+found there. I was not, however, disposed to credit his statement until
+we reached the locality and found the road passing the identical spot
+he had indicated.
+
+This same Indian would start from any place to which he had gone by a
+sinuous route, through an unknown country, and keep a direct bearing
+back to the place of departure; and he assured me that he has never,
+even during the most cloudy or foggy weather, or in the darkest nights,
+lost the points of compass. There are very few white men who are
+endowed with these wonderful faculties, and those few are only rendered
+proficient by matured experience.
+
+I have known several men, after they had become lost in the prairies,
+to wander about for days without exercising the least judgment, and
+finally exhibiting a state of mental aberration almost upon the verge
+of lunacy. Instead of reasoning upon their situation, they exhaust
+themselves running a-head at their utmost speed without any regard to
+direction. When a person is satisfied that he has lost his way, he
+should stop and reflect upon the course he has been traveling, the time
+that has elapsed since he left his camp, and the probable distance that
+he is from it; and if he is unable to retrace his steps, he should keep
+as nearly in the direction of them as possible; and if he has a
+compass, this will be an easy matter; but, above all, he should guard
+against following his own track around in a circle with the idea that
+he is in a beaten trace.
+
+When he is traveling with a train of wagons which leaves a plain trail,
+he can make the distance he has traveled from camp the radius of a
+circle in which to ride around, and before the circle is described he
+will strike the trail. If the person has no compass, it is always well
+to make an observation, and to remember the direction of the wind at
+the time of departure from camp; and as this would not generally change
+during the day, it would afford a means of keeping the points of the
+compass.
+
+In the night Ursa Major (the Great Bear) is not only useful to find the
+north star, but its position, when the pointers will be vertical in the
+heavens, may be estimated with sufficient accuracy to determine the
+north even when the north star can not be seen. In tropical latitudes,
+the zodiacal stars, such as Orion and Antares, give the east and west
+bearing, and the Southern Cross the north and south when Polaris and
+the Great Bear can not be seen.
+
+It is said that the moss upon the firs and other trees in Europe gives
+a certain indication of the points of compass in a forest country, the
+greatest amount accumulating upon the north side of the trees. But I
+have often observed the trees in our own forests, and have not been
+able to form any positive conclusions in this way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Guides and Hunters. Delawares and Shawnees. Khebirs. Black Beaver.
+Anecdotes. Domestic Troubles. Lodges. Similarity of Prairie Tribes to
+the Arabs. Method of making War. Tracking and pursuing Indians. Method
+of attacking them. Telegraphing by Smokes.
+
+
+DELAWARES AND SHAWNEES.
+
+It is highly important that parties making expeditions through an
+unexplored country should secure the services of the best guides and
+hunters, and I know of none who are superior to the Delawares and
+Shawnee Indians. They have been with me upon several different
+occasions, and I have invariably found them intelligent, brave,
+reliable, and in every respect well qualified to fill their positions.
+They are endowed with those keen and wonderful powers in woodcraft
+which can only be acquired by instinct, practice, and necessity, and
+which are possessed by no other people that I have heard of, unless it
+be the khebirs or guides who escort the caravans across the great
+desert of Sahara.
+
+General E. Dumas, in his treatise upon the "Great Desert," published in
+Paris, 1856, in speaking of these guides, says:
+
+"The khebir is always a man of intelligence, of tried probity, bravery,
+and skill. He knows how to determine his position from the appearance
+of the stars; by the experience of other journeys he has learned all
+about the roads, wells, and pastures; the dangers of certain passes,
+and the means of avoiding them; all the chiefs whose territories it is
+necessary to pass through; the salubrity of the different localities;
+the remedies against diseases; the treatment of fractures, and the
+antidotes to the venom of snakes and scorpions.
+
+"In these vast solitudes, where nothing seems to indicate the route,
+where the wind covers up all traces of the track with sand, the khebir
+has a thousand ways of directing himself in the right course. In the
+night, when there are no stars in sight, by the simple inspection of a
+handful of grass, which he examines with his fingers, which he smells
+and tastes, he informs himself of his locale without ever being lost or
+wandering.
+
+"I saw with astonishment that our conductor, although he had but one
+eye, and that defective, recognized perfectly the route; and Leon, the
+African, states that the conductor of his caravan became blind upon the
+journey from ophthalmia, yet by feeling the grass and sand he could
+tell when we were approaching an inhabited place.
+
+"Our guide had all the qualities which make a good khebir. He was
+young, large, and strong; he was a master of arms; his eye commanded
+respect, and his speech won the heart. But if in the tent he was
+affable and winning, once _en route_ he spoke only when it was
+necessary, and never smiled."
+
+The Delawares are but a minute remnant of the great Algonquin family,
+whose early traditions declare them to be the parent stock from which
+the other numerous branches of the Algonquin tribes originated. And
+they are the same people whom the first white settlers found so
+numerous upon the banks of the Delaware.
+
+When William Penn held his council with the Delawares upon the ground
+where the city of Philadelphia now stands, they were as peaceful and
+unwarlike in their habits as the Quakers themselves. They had been
+subjugated by the Five Nations, forced to take the appellation of
+squaws, and forego the use of arms; but after they moved west, beyond
+the influence of their former masters, their naturally independent
+spirit revived, they soon regained their lofty position as braves and
+warriors, and the male squaws of the Iroquois soon became formidable
+men and heroes, and so have continued to the present day. Their
+war-path has reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean on the west,
+Hudson's Bay on the north, and into the very heart of Mexico on the
+south.
+
+They are not clannish in their dispositions like most other Indians,
+nor by their habits confined to any given locality, but are found as
+traders, trappers, or hunters among most of the Indian tribes
+inhabiting our continent. I even saw them living with the Mormons in
+Utah. They are among the Indians as the Jews among the whites,
+essentially wanderers.
+
+The Shawnees have been associated with the Delawares 185 years. They
+intermarry and live as one people. Their present places of abode are
+upon the Missouri River, near Fort Leavenworth, and in the Choctaw
+Territory, upon the Canadian River, near Fort Arbuckle. They are
+familiar with many of the habits and customs of their pale-faced
+neighbors, and some of them speak the English language, yet many of
+their native characteristics tenaciously cling to them.
+
+Upon one occasion I endeavored to teach a Delaware the use of the
+compass. He seemed much interested in its mechanism, and very
+attentively observed the oscillations of the needle. He would move away
+a short distance, then return, keeping his eyes continually fixed upon
+the needle and the uniform position into which it settled. He did not,
+however, seem to comprehend it in the least, but regarded the entire
+proceeding as a species of necromantic performance got up for his
+especial benefit, and I was about putting away the instrument when he
+motioned me to stop, and came walking toward it with a very serious but
+incredulous countenance, remarking, as he pointed his finger toward it,
+"Maybe so he tell lie sometime."
+
+The ignorance evinced by this Indian regarding the uses of the compass
+is less remarkable than that of some white men who are occasionally met
+upon the frontier.
+
+While surveying Indian lands in the wilds of Western Texas during the
+summer of 1854, I encountered a deputy surveyor traveling on foot, with
+his compass and chain upon his back. I saluted him very politely,
+remarking that I presumed he was a surveyor, to which he replied, "I
+reckon, _stranger_, I ar that thar individoal."
+
+I had taken the magnetic variation several times, always with nearly
+the same results (about 10 deg. 20'); but, in order to verify my
+observations, I was curious to learn how they accorded with his own
+working, and accordingly inquired of him what he made the variation of
+the compass in that particular locality. He seemed struck with
+astonishment, took his compass from his back and laid it upon a log
+near by, then facing me, and pointing with his hand toward it, said,
+
+"Straanger, do yer see that thar instru-_ment_?" to which I replied in
+the affirmative. He continued,
+
+"I've owned her well-nigh goin on twenty year. I've put her through the
+perarries and through the timber, and now look yeer, straanger, you can
+just bet your life on't she never _var_-ried arry time, and if you'll
+just follow her sign you'll knock the centre outer the north star. She
+never lies, she don't."
+
+He seemed to consider my interrogatory as a direct insinuation that his
+compass was an imperfect one, and hence his indignation. Thinking that
+I should not get any very important intelligence concerning the
+variation of the needle from this surveyor, I begged his pardon for
+questioning the accuracy of his instru-_ment_, bid him good-morning,
+and continued on my journey.
+
+
+BLACK BEAVER.
+
+In 1849 I met with a very interesting specimen of the Delaware tribe
+whose name was Black Beaver. He had for ten years been in the employ of
+the American Fur Company, and during this time had visited nearly every
+point of interest within the limits of our unsettled territory. He had
+set his traps and spread his blanket upon the head waters of the
+Missouri and Columbia; and his wanderings had led him south to the
+Colorado and Gila, and thence to the shores of the Pacific in Southern
+California. His life had been that of a veritable cosmopolite, filled
+with scenes of intense and startling interest, bold and reckless
+adventure. He was with me two seasons in the capacity of guide, and I
+always found him perfectly reliable, brave, and competent. His
+reputation as a resolute, determined, and fearless warrior did not
+admit of question, yet I have never seen a man who wore his laurels
+with less vanity.
+
+When I first made his acquaintance I was puzzled to know what to think
+of him. He would often, in speaking of the Prairie Indians, say to me,
+
+"Captain, if you have a fight, you mustn't count much on me, for I'ze a
+big coward. When the fight begins I 'spect you'll see me run under the
+cannon; Injun mighty 'fraid of big gun."
+
+I expressed my surprise that he should, if what he told me was true,
+have gained such a reputation as a warrior; whereupon he informed me
+that many years previous, when he was a young man, and before he had
+ever been in battle, he, with about twenty white men and four
+Delawares, were at one of the Fur Company's trading-posts upon the
+Upper Missouri, engaged in trapping beaver. While there, the stockade
+fort was attacked by a numerous band of Blackfeet Indians, who fought
+bravely, and seemed determined to annihilate the little band that
+defended it.
+
+After the investment had been completed, and there appeared no
+probability of the attacking party's abandoning their purpose, "One
+d----d fool Delaware" (as Black Beaver expressed it) proposed to his
+countrymen to make a sortie, and thereby endeavor to effect an
+impression upon the Blackfeet. This, Beaver said, was the last thing he
+would ever have thought of suggesting, and it startled him
+prodigiously, causing him to tremble so much that it was with
+difficulty he could stand.
+
+He had, however, started from home with the fixed purpose of becoming a
+distinguished brave, and made a great effort to stifle his emotion. He
+assumed an air of determination, saying that was the very idea he was
+just about to propose; and, slapping his comrades upon the back,
+started toward the gate, telling them to follow. As soon as the gate
+was passed, he says, he took particular care to keep in the rear of the
+others, so that, in the event of a retreat, he would be able to reach
+the stockade first.
+
+They had not proceeded far before a perfect shower of arrows came
+falling around them on all sides, but, fortunately, without doing them
+harm. Not fancying this hot reception, those in front proposed an
+immediate retreat, to which he most gladly acceded, and at once set off
+at his utmost speed, expecting to reach the fort first. But he soon
+discovered that his comrades were more fleet, and were rapidly passing
+and leaving him behind. Suddenly he stopped and called out to them,
+"Come back here, you cowards, you squaws; what for you run away and
+leave brave man to fight alone?" This taunting appeal to their courage
+turned them back, and, with their united efforts, they succeeded in
+beating off the enemy immediately around them, securing their entrance
+into the fort.
+
+Beaver says when the gate was closed the captain in charge of the
+establishment grasped him warmly by the hand, saying, "Black Beaver,
+you are a brave man; you have done this day what no other man in the
+fort would have the courage to do, and I thank you from the bottom of
+my heart."
+
+In relating the circumstance to me he laughed most heartily, thinking
+it a very good joke, and said after that he was regarded as a brave
+warrior.
+
+The truth is, my friend Beaver was one of those few heroes who never
+sounded his own trumpet; yet no one that knows him ever presumed to
+question his courage.
+
+At another time, while Black Beaver remained upon the head waters of
+the Missouri, he was left in charge of a "_cache_" consisting of a
+quantity of goods buried to prevent their being stolen by the Indians.
+During the time he was engaged upon this duty he amused himself by
+hunting in the vicinity, only visiting his charge once a day. As he was
+making one of these periodical visits, and had arrived upon the summit
+of a hill overlooking the locality, he suddenly discovered a large
+number of hostile Blackfeet occupying it, and he supposed they had
+appropriated all the goods. As soon as they espied him, they beckoned
+for him to come down and have a friendly chat with them.
+
+Knowing that their purpose was to beguile him into their power, he
+replied that he did not feel in a talking humor just at that time, and
+started off in another direction, whereupon they hallooed after him,
+making use of the most insulting language and gestures, and asking him
+if he considered himself a man thus to run away from his friends, and
+intimating that, in their opinion, he was an old woman, who had better
+go home and take care of the children.
+
+Beaver says this roused his indignation to such a pitch that he
+stopped, turned around, and replied, "Maybe so; s'pose three or four of
+you Injuns come up here alone, I'll show you if I'ze old womans." They
+did not, however, accept the challenge, and Beaver rode off.
+
+Although the Delawares generally seem quite happy in their social
+relations, yet they are not altogether exempt from some of those minor
+discords which occasionally creep in and mar the domestic harmony of
+their more civilized pale-faced brethren.
+
+I remember, upon one occasion, I had bivouacked for the night with
+Black Beaver, and he had been endeavoring to while away the long hours
+of the evening by relating to me some of the most thrilling incidents
+of his highly-adventurous and erratic life, when at length a hiatus in
+the conversation gave me an opportunity of asking him if he was a
+married man. He hesitated for some time; then looking up and giving his
+forefinger a twirl, to imitate the throwing of a lasso, replied, "One
+time me catch 'um wife. I pay that woman, _his modder_, one hoss--one
+saddle--one bridle--two plug tobacco, and plenty goods. I take him home
+to my house--got plenty meat--plenty corn--plenty every thing. One time
+me go take walk, maybe so three, maybe so two hours. When I come home,
+that woman he say, 'Black Beaver, what for you go way long time?' I
+say, 'I not go nowhere; I just take one littel walk.' Then that woman
+he get heap mad, and say, 'No, Black Beaver, you not take no littel
+walk. I know what for you go way; _you go see nodder one woman_.' I
+say, 'Maybe not.' Then that woman she cry long time, and all e'time now
+she mad. You never seen 'Merican woman that a-way?"
+
+I sympathized most deeply with my friend in his distress, and told him
+for his consolation that, in my opinion, the women of his nation were
+not peculiar in this respect; that they were pretty much alike all
+over the world, and I was under the impression that there were
+well-authenticated instances even among white women where they had
+subjected themselves to the same causes of complaint so feelingly
+depicted by him. Whereupon he very earnestly asked, "What you do for
+cure him? Whip him?" I replied, "No; that, so far as my observation
+extended, I was under the impression that this was generally regarded
+by those who had suffered from its effects as one of those chronic and
+vexatious complaints which would not be benefited by the treatment he
+suggested, even when administered in homoeopathic doses, and I believed
+it was now admitted by all sensible men that it was better in all such
+cases to let nature take its course, trusting to a merciful
+Providence."
+
+At this reply his countenance assumed a dejected expression, but at
+length he brightened up again and triumphantly remarked, "I tell you,
+my friend, what I do; I ketch 'um nodder one wife when I go home."
+
+Black Beaver had visited St. Louis and the small towns upon the
+Missouri frontier, and he prided himself not a little upon his
+acquaintance with the customs of the whites, and never seemed more
+happy than when an opportunity offered to display this knowledge in
+presence of his Indian companions. It so happened, upon one occasion,
+that I had a Comanche guide who bivouacked at the same fire with
+Beaver. On visiting them one evening according to my usual practice, I
+found them engaged in a very earnest and apparently not very amicable
+conversation. On inquiring the cause of this, Beaver answered,
+
+"I've been telling this Comanche what I seen 'mong the white folks."
+
+I said, "Well, Beaver, what did you tell him?"
+
+"I tell him 'bout the steam-boats, and the railroads, and the heap o'
+houses I seen in St. Louis."
+
+"Well, sir, what does he think of that?"
+
+"He say I'ze d----d fool."
+
+"What else did you tell him about?"
+
+"I tell him the world is round, but he keep all e'time say, Hush, you
+fool! do you spose I'ze child? Haven't I got eyes? Can't I see the
+prairie? You call him round? He say, too, maybe so I tell you something
+you not know before. One time my grandfather he make long journey that
+way (pointing to the west). When he get on big mountain, he seen heap
+water on t'other side, jest so flat he can be, and he seen the sun go
+right straight down on t'other side. I then tell him all these rivers
+he seen, all e'time the water he run; s'pose the world flat the water
+he stand still. Maybe so he not b'lieve me?"
+
+I told him it certainly looked very much like it. I then asked him to
+explain to the Comanche the magnetic telegraph. He looked at me
+earnestly, and said,
+
+"What you call that magnetic telegraph?"
+
+I said, "you have heard of New York and New Orleans?"
+
+"Oh yes," he replied.
+
+"Very well; we have a wire connecting these two cities, which are about
+a thousand miles apart, and it would take a man thirty days to ride it
+upon a good horse. Now a man stands at one end of this wire in New
+York, and by touching it a few times he inquires of his friend in New
+Orleans what he had for breakfast. His friend in New Orleans touches
+the other end of the wire, and in ten minutes the answer comes
+back--ham and eggs. Tell him that, Beaver."
+
+His countenance assumed a most comical expression, but he made no
+remark until I again requested him to repeat what I had said to the
+Comanche, when he observed,
+
+"No, captain, I not tell him that, for I don't b'lieve that myself."
+
+Upon my assuring him that such was the fact, and that I had seen it
+myself, he said,
+
+"Injun not very smart; sometimes he's big fool, but he holler pretty
+loud; you hear him maybe half a mile; you say 'Merican man he talk
+thousand miles. I 'spect you try to fool me now, captain; _maybe so
+you lie_."
+
+The Indians living between the outer white settlements and the nomadic
+tribes of the Plains form intermediate social links in the chain of
+civilization.
+
+The first of these occupy permanent habitations, but the others,
+although they cultivate the soil, are only resident while their crops
+are growing, going out into the prairies after harvest to spend the
+winter in hunting. Among the former may be mentioned the Cherokees,
+Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, and of the latter are the Delawares,
+Shawnees, Kickapoos, etc., who are perfectly familiar with the use of
+the rifle, and, in my judgment, would make as formidable partisan
+warriors as can be found in the universe.
+
+
+THE WILD TRIBES OF THE WEST.
+
+These are very different in their habits from the natives that formerly
+occupied the country bordering upon the Atlantic coast. The latter
+lived permanently in villages, where they cultivated the soil, and
+never wandered very far from them. They did not use horses, but always
+made their war expeditions on foot, and never came into action unless
+they could screen themselves behind the cover of trees. They inflicted
+the most inhuman tortures upon their prisoners, but did not, that I am
+aware, violate the chastity of women.
+
+The prairie tribes have no permanent abiding places; they never plant a
+seed, but roam for hundreds of miles in every direction over the
+Plains. They are perfect horsemen, and seldom go to war on foot. Their
+attacks are made in the open prairies, and when unhorsed they are
+powerless. They do not, like the eastern Indians, inflict upon their
+prisoners prolonged tortures, but invariably subject all females that
+have the misfortune to fall into their merciless clutches to an ordeal
+worse than death.
+
+It is highly important to every man passing through a country
+frequented by Indians to know some of their habits, customs, and
+propensities, as this will facilitate his intercourse with friendly
+tribes, and enable him, when he wishes to avoid a conflict, to take
+precautions against coming in collision with those who are hostile.
+
+Almost every tribe has its own way of constructing its lodges,
+encamping, making fires, its own style of dress, by some of which
+peculiarities the experienced frontiersman can generally distinguish
+them.
+
+The Osages, for example, make their lodges in the shape of a wagon-top,
+of bent rods or willows covered with skins, blankets, or the bark of
+trees.
+
+The Kickapoo lodges are made in an oval form, something like a rounded
+hay-stack, of poles set in the ground, bent over, and united at top;
+this is covered with cloths or bark.
+
+The Witchetaws, Wacos, Towackanies, and Tonkowas erect their hunting
+lodges of sticks put up in the form of the frustum of a cone and
+covered with brush.
+
+All these tribes leave the frame-work of their lodges standing when
+they move from camp to camp, and this, of course, indicates the
+particular tribe that erected them.
+
+The Delawares and Shawnees plant two upright forked poles, place a
+stick across them, and stretch a canvas covering over it, in the same
+manner as with the "_tente d'abri_."
+
+The Sioux, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Utes, Snakes, Blackfeet, and Kioways
+make use of the Comanche lodge, covered with dressed buffalo hides.
+
+All the Prairie Indians I have met with are the most inveterate
+beggars. They will flock around strangers, and, in the most importunate
+manner, ask for every thing they see, especially tobacco and sugar;
+and, if allowed, they will handle, examine, and occasionally pilfer
+such things as happen to take their fancy. The proper way to treat them
+is to give them at once such articles as are to be disposed of, and
+then, in a firm and decided manner, let them understand that they are
+to receive nothing else.
+
+A party of Keechis once visited my camp with their principal chief, who
+said he had some important business to discuss, and demanded a council
+with the _capitan_. After consent had been given, he assembled his
+principal men, and, going through the usual preliminary of taking a
+_big smoke_, he arose, and with a great deal of ceremony commenced
+his pompous and flowery speech, which, like all others of a similar
+character, amounted to nothing, until he touched upon the real object
+of his visit. He said he had traveled a long distance over the prairies
+to see and have a talk with his white brothers; that his people were
+very hungry and naked. He then approached me with six small sticks,
+and, after shaking hands, laid one of the sticks in my hand, which he
+said represented sugar, another signified tobacco, and the other four,
+pork, flour, whisky, and blankets, all of which he assured me his
+people were in great need of, and must have. His talk was then
+concluded, and he sat down, apparently much gratified with the graceful
+and impressive manner with which he had executed his part of the
+performance.
+
+It then devolved upon me to respond to the brilliant effort of the
+prairie orator, which I did in something like the following manner.
+After imitating his style for a short time, I closed my remarks by
+telling him that we were poor infantry soldiers, who were always
+obliged to go on foot; that we had become very tired of walking, and
+would like very much to ride. Furthermore, I had observed that they had
+among them many fine horses and mules. I then took two small sticks,
+and imitating as nearly as possible the manner of the chief, placed one
+in his hand, which I told him was nothing more or less than a
+first-rate horse, and then the other, which signified a good large
+mule. I closed by saying that I was ready to exchange presents whenever
+it suited his convenience.
+
+They looked at each other for some time without speaking, but finally
+got up and walked away, and I was not troubled with them again.
+
+
+INDIAN FIGHTING.
+
+The military system, as taught and practiced in our army up to the time
+of the Mexican war, was, without doubt, efficient and well adapted to
+the art of war among civilized nations. This system was designed for
+the operations of armies acting in populated districts, furnishing
+ample resources, and against an enemy who was tangible, and made use of
+a similar system.
+
+The vast expanse of desert territory that has been annexed to our
+domain within the last few years is peopled by numerous tribes of
+marauding and erratic savages, who are mounted upon fleet and hardy
+horses, making war the business and pastime of their lives, and
+acknowledging none of the ameliorating conventionalities of civilized
+warfare. Their tactics are such as to render the old system almost
+wholly impotent.
+
+To act against an enemy who is here to-day and there to-morrow; who at
+one time stampedes a herd of mules upon the head waters of the
+Arkansas, and when next heard from is in the very heart of the
+populated districts of Mexico, laying waste haciendas, and carrying
+devastation, rapine, and murder in his steps; who is every where
+without being any where; who assembles at the moment of combat, and
+vanishes whenever fortune turns against him; who leaves his women and
+children far distant from the theatre of hostilities, and has neither
+towns or magazines to defend, nor lines of retreat to cover; who
+derives his commissariat from the country he operates in, and is not
+encumbered with baggage-wagons or pack-trains; who comes into action
+only when it suits his purposes, and never without the advantage of
+numbers or position--with such an enemy the strategic science of
+civilized nations loses much of its importance, and finds but rarely,
+and only in peculiar localities, an opportunity to be put in practice.
+
+Our little army, scattered as it has been over the vast area of our
+possessions, in small garrisons of one or two companies each, has
+seldom been in a situation to act successfully on the offensive against
+large numbers of these marauders, and has often been condemned to hold
+itself almost exclusively upon the defensive. The morale of the troops
+must thereby necessarily be seriously impaired, and the confidence of
+the savages correspondingly augmented. The system of small garrisons
+has a tendency to disorganize the troops in proportion as they are
+scattered, and renders them correspondingly inefficient. The same
+results have been observed by the French army in Algeria, where, in
+1845, their troops were, like ours, disseminated over a vast space, and
+broken up into small detachments stationed in numerous intrenched
+posts. Upon the sudden appearance of Abd el Kader in the plain of
+Mitidja, they were defeated with serious losses, and were from day to
+day obliged to abandon these useless stations, with all the supplies
+they contained. A French writer, in discussing this subject, says:
+
+"We have now abandoned the fatal idea of defending Algeria by small
+intrenched posts. In studying the character of the war, the nature of
+the men who are to oppose us, and of the country in which we are to
+operate, we must be convinced of the danger of admitting any other
+system of fortification than that which is to receive our grand depots,
+our magazines, and to serve as places to recruit and rest our troops
+when exhausted by long expeditionary movements.
+
+"These fortifications should be established in the midst of the centres
+of action, so as to command the principal routes, and serve as pivots
+to expeditionary columns.
+
+"We owe our success to a system of war which has its proofs in twice
+changing our relations with the Arabs. This system consists altogether
+in the great mobility we have given to our troops. Instead of
+disseminating our soldiers with the vain hope of protecting our
+frontiers with a line of small posts, we have concentrated them, to
+have them at all times ready for emergencies, and since then the
+fortune of the Arabs has waned, and we have marched from victory to
+victory.
+
+"This system, which has thus far succeeded, ought to succeed always,
+and to conduct us, God willing, to the peaceful possession of the
+country."
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+In reading a treatise upon war as it is practiced by the French in
+Algeria, by Colonel A. Laure, of the 2d Algerine Tirailleurs, published
+in Paris in 1858, I was struck with the remarkable similarity between
+the habits of the Arabs and those of the wandering tribes that inhabit
+our Western prairies. Their manner of making war is almost precisely
+the same, and a successful system of strategic operations for one will,
+in my opinion, apply to the other.
+
+As the Turks have been more successful than the French in their
+military operations against the Arab tribes, it may not be altogether
+uninteresting to inquire by what means these inferior soldiers have
+accomplished the best results.
+
+The author above mentioned, in speaking upon this subject, says:
+
+"In these latter days the world is occupied with the organization of
+mounted infantry, according to the example of the Turks, where, in the
+most successful experiments that have been made, the mule carries the
+foot-soldier.
+
+"The Turkish soldier mounts his mule, puts his provisions upon one side
+and his accoutrements upon the other, and, thus equipped, sets out upon
+long marches, traveling day and night, and only reposing occasionally
+in bivouac. Arrived near the place of operations (as near the break of
+day as possible), the Turks dismount in the most profound silence, and
+pass in succession the bridle of one mule through that of another in
+such a manner that a single man is sufficient to hold forty or fifty of
+them by retaining the last bridle, which secures all the others; they
+then examine their arms, and are ready to commence their work. The
+chief gives his last orders, posts his guides, and they make the
+attack, surprise the enemy, generally asleep, and carry the position
+without resistance. The operation terminated, they hasten to beat a
+retreat, to prevent the neighboring tribes from assembling, and thus
+avoid a combat.
+
+"The Turks had only three thousand mounted men and ten thousand
+infantry in Algeria, yet these thirteen thousand men sufficed to
+conquer the same obstacles which have arrested us for twenty-six years,
+notwithstanding the advantage we had of an army which was successively
+re-enforced until it amounted to a hundred thousand.
+
+"Why not imitate the Turks, then, mount our infantry upon mules, and
+reduce the strength of our army?
+
+"The response is very simple:
+
+"The Turks are Turks--that is to say, Mussulmans--and indigenous to the
+country; the Turks speak the Arabic language; the Deys of Algiers had
+less country to guard than we, and they care very little about
+retaining possession of it. They are satisfied to receive a part of its
+revenues. They were not permanent; their dominion was held by a thread.
+The Arab dwells in tents; his magazines are in caves. When he starts
+upon a war expedition, he folds his tent, drives far away his beasts of
+burden, which transport his effects, and only carries with him his
+horse and arms. Thus equipped, he goes every where; nothing arrests
+him; and often, when we believe him twenty leagues distant, he is in
+ambush at precisely rifle range from the flanks of his enemy.
+
+"It may be thought the union of contingents might retard their
+movements, but this is not so. The Arabs, whether they number ten or a
+hundred thousand, move with equal facility. They go where they wish and
+as they wish upon a campaign; the place of rendezvous merely is
+indicated, and they arrive there.
+
+"What calculations can be made against such an organization as this?
+
+"Strategy evidently loses its advantages against such enemies; a
+general can only make conjectures; he marches to find the Arabs, and
+finds them not; then, again, when he least expects it, he suddenly
+encounters them.
+
+"When the Arab despairs of success in battle, he places his sole
+reliance upon the speed of his horse to escape destruction; and as he
+is always in a country where he can make his camp beside a little
+water, he travels until he has placed a safe distance between himself
+and his enemy."
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+No people probably on the face of the earth are more ambitious of
+martial fame, or entertain a higher appreciation for the deeds of a
+daring and successful warrior, than the North American savages. The
+attainment of such reputation is the paramount and absorbing object of
+their lives; all their aspirations for distinction invariably take this
+channel of expression. A young man is never considered worthy to occupy
+a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in battle; and he
+who can count the greatest number of scalps is the most highly honored
+by his tribe. This idea is inculcated from their earliest infancy. It
+is not surprising, therefore, that, with such weighty inducements
+before him, the young man who, as yet, has gained no renown as a brave
+or warrior, should be less discriminate in his attacks than older men
+who have already acquired a name. The young braves should, therefore,
+be closely watched when encountered on the Plains.
+
+The prairie tribes are seldom at peace with all their neighbors, and
+some of the young braves of a tribe are almost always absent upon a war
+excursion. These forays sometimes extend into the heart of the northern
+states of Mexico, where the Indians have carried on successful
+invasions for many years. They have devastated and depopulated a great
+portion of Sonora and Chihuahua. The objects of these forays are to
+steal horses and mules, and to take prisoners; and if it so happens
+that a war-party has been unsuccessful in the accomplishment of these
+ends, or has had the misfortune to lose some of its number in battle,
+they become reckless, and will often attack a small party with whom
+they are not at war, provided they hope to escape detection. The
+disgrace attendant upon a return to their friends without some trophies
+as an offset to the loss of their comrades is a powerful incentive to
+action, and they extend but little mercy to defenseless travelers who
+have the misfortune to encounter them at such a conjuncture.
+
+While en route from New Mexico to Arkansas in 1849 I was encamped near
+the head of the Colorado River, and wishing to know the character of
+the country for a few miles in advance of our position, I desired an
+officer to go out and make the reconnoissance. I was lying sick in my
+bed at the time, or I should have performed the duty myself. I expected
+the officer would have taken an escort with him, but he omitted to do
+so, and started off alone. After proceeding a short distance he
+discovered four mounted Indians coming at full speed directly toward
+him, when, instead of turning his own horse toward camp, and
+endeavoring to make his escape (he was well mounted), or of halting and
+assuming a defensive attitude, he deliberately rode up to them; after
+which the tracks indicated that they proceeded about three miles
+together, when the Indians most brutally killed and scalped my most
+unfortunate but too credulous friend, who might probably have saved his
+life had he not, in the kindness of his excellent heart, imagined that
+the savages would reciprocate his friendly advances. He was most
+woefully mistaken, and his life paid the forfeit of his generous and
+noble disposition.
+
+I have never been able to get any positive information as to the
+persons who committed this murder, yet circumstances render it highly
+probable that they were a party of young Indians who were returning
+from an unsuccessful foray, and they were unable to resist the
+temptation of taking the scalp and horse of the lieutenant.
+
+A small number of white men, in traveling upon the Plains, should not
+allow a party of strange Indians to approach them unless able to resist
+an attack under the most unfavorable circumstances.
+
+It is a safe rule, when a man finds himself alone in the prairies, and
+sees a party of Indians approaching, not to allow them to come near
+him, and if they persist in so doing, to signal them to keep away. If
+they do not obey, and he be mounted upon a fleet horse, he should make
+for the nearest timber. If the Indians follow and press him too
+closely, he should halt, turn around, and point his gun at the
+foremost, which will often have the effect of turning them back, but he
+should never draw trigger unless he finds that his life depends upon
+the shot; for, as soon as his shot is delivered, his sole dependence,
+unless he have time to reload, must be upon the speed of his horse.
+
+The Indians of the Plains, notwithstanding the encomiums that have been
+heaped upon their brethren who formerly occupied the Eastern States for
+their gratitude, have not, so far as I have observed, the most distant
+conception of that sentiment. You may confer numberless benefits upon
+them for years, and the more that is done for them the more they will
+expect. They do not seem to comprehend the motive which dictates an act
+of benevolence or charity, and they invariably attribute it to fear or
+the expectation of reward. When they make a present, it is with a view
+of getting more than its equivalent in return.
+
+I have never yet been able to discover that the Western wild tribes
+possessed any of those attributes which among civilized nations are
+regarded as virtues adorning the human character. They have yet to be
+taught the first rudiments of civilization, and they are at this time
+as far from any knowledge of Christianity, and as worthy subjects for
+missionary enterprise, as the most untutored natives of the South Sea
+Islands.
+
+[Illustration: KEEP AWAY!]
+
+The only way to make these merciless freebooters fear or respect the
+authority of our government is, when they misbehave, first of all to
+chastise them well by striking such a blow as will be felt for a long
+time, and thus show them that we are superior to them in war. They will
+then respect us much more than when their good-will is purchased with
+presents.
+
+The opinion of a friend of mine, who has passed the last twenty-five
+years of his life among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains,
+corroborates the opinions I have advanced upon this head, and although
+I do not endorse all of his sentiments, yet many of them are deduced
+from long and matured experience and critical observation. He says:
+
+"They are the most onsartainest varmints in all creation, and I reckon
+tha'r not mor'n half human; for you never seed a human, arter you'd fed
+and treated him to the best fixins in your lodge, jist turn round and
+steal all your horses, or ary other thing he could lay his hands on.
+No, not adzackly. He would feel kinder grateful, and ask you to spread
+a blanket in his lodge ef you ever passed that a-way. But the Injun he
+don't care shucks for you, and is ready to do you a heap of mischief as
+soon as he quits your feed. No, Cap.," he continued, "it's not the
+right way to give um presents to buy peace; but ef I war governor of
+these yeer United States, I'll tell you what I'd do. I'd invite um all
+to a big feast, and make b'lieve I wanted to have a big talk; and as
+soon as I got um all together, I'd pitch in and sculp about half of um,
+and then t'other half would be mighty glad to make a peace that would
+stick. That's the way I'd make a treaty with the dog'ond, red-bellied
+varmints; and as sure as you're born, Cap., that's the only way."
+
+I suggested to him the idea that there would be a lack of good faith
+and honor in such a proceeding, and that it would be much more in
+accordance with my notions of fair dealing to meet them openly in the
+field, and there endeavor to punish them if they deserve it. To this he
+replied,
+
+"Tain't no use to talk about honor with them, Cap.; they hain't got no
+such thing in um; and they won't show fair fight, any way you can fix
+it. Don't they kill and sculp a white man when-ar they get the better
+on him? The mean varmints, they'll never behave themselves until you
+give um a clean out and out licking. They can't onderstand white folks'
+ways, and they won't learn um; and ef you treat um decently, they think
+you ar afeard. You may depend on't, Cap., the only way to treat Injuns
+is to thrash them well at first, then the balance will sorter take to
+you and behave themselves."
+
+The wealth of the Prairie Indians consists almost exclusively in their
+horses, of which they possess large numbers; and they are in the saddle
+from infancy to old age. Horsemanship is with them, as with the Arab of
+the Sahara, a necessary part of their education. The country they
+occupy is unsuited to cultivation, and their only avocations are war,
+rapine, and the chase. They have no fixed habitations, but move from
+place to place with the seasons and the game. All their worldly effects
+are transported in their migrations, and wherever their lodges are
+pitched there is their home. They are strangers to all cares, creating
+for themselves no artificial wants, and are perfectly happy and
+contented so long as the buffalo is found within the limits of their
+wanderings. Every man is a soldier, and they generally exhibit great
+confidence in their own military prowess.
+
+
+MEETING INDIANS.
+
+On approaching strangers these people put their horses at full speed,
+and persons not familiar with their peculiarities and habits might
+interpret this as an act of hostility; but it is their custom with
+friends as well as enemies, and should not occasion groundless alarm.
+
+When a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near enough to
+distinguish signals, all that is necessary in order to ascertain their
+disposition is to raise the right hand with the palm in front, and
+gradually push it forward and back several times. They all understand
+this to be a command to halt, and if they are not hostile it will at
+once be obeyed.
+
+After they have stopped the right hand is raised again as before, and
+slowly moved to the right and left, which signifies "I do not know you.
+Who are you?" As all the wild tribes have their peculiar pantomimic
+signals by which they are known, they will then answer the inquiry by
+giving their signal. If this should not be understood, they may be
+asked if they are friends by raising both hands grasped in the manner
+of shaking hands, or by locking the two fore-fingers firmly while the
+hands are held up. If friendly, they will respond with the same signal;
+but if enemies, they will probably disregard the command to halt, or
+give the signal of anger by closing the hand, placing it against the
+forehead, and turning it back and forth while in that position.
+
+The pantomimic vocabulary is understood by all the Prairie Indians, and
+when oral communication is impracticable it constitutes the court or
+general council language of the Plains. The signs are exceedingly
+graceful and significant; and, what was a fact of much astonishment to
+me, I discovered they were very nearly the same as those practiced by
+the mutes in our deaf and dumb schools, and were comprehended by them
+with perfect facility.
+
+The Comanche is represented by making with the hand a waving motion in
+imitation of the crawling of a snake.
+
+The Cheyenne, or "Cut-arm," by drawing the hand across the arm, to
+imitate cutting it with a knife.
+
+The Arapahoes, or "Smellers," by seizing the nose with the thumb and
+fore-finger.
+
+The Sioux, or "Cut-throats," by drawing the hand across the throat.
+
+The Pawnees, or "Wolves," by placing a hand on each side of the
+forehead, with two fingers pointing to the front, to represent the
+narrow, sharp ears of the wolf.
+
+The Crows, by imitating the flapping of the bird's wings with the palms
+of the hands.
+
+When Indians meet a party of strangers, and are disposed to be
+friendly, the chiefs, after the usual salutations have been exchanged,
+generally ride out and accompany the commander of the party some
+distance, holding a friendly talk, and, at the same time, indulging
+their curiosity by learning the news, etc. Phlegmatic and indifferent
+as they appear to be, they are very inquisitive and observing, and, at
+the same time, exceedingly circumspect and cautious about disclosing
+their own purposes.
+
+They are always desirous of procuring, from whomsoever they meet,
+testimonials of their good behavior, which they preserve with great
+care, and exhibit upon all occasions to strangers as a guarantee of
+future good conduct.
+
+On meeting with a chief of the Southern Comanches in 1849, after going
+through the usual ceremony of embracing, and assuring me that he was
+the best friend the Americans ever had among the Indians, he exhibited
+numerous certificates from the different white men he had met with,
+testifying to his friendly disposition. Among these was one that he
+desired me to read with special attention, as he said he was of the
+opinion that perhaps it might not be so complimentary in its character
+as some of the others. It was in these words:
+
+    "The bearer of this says he is a Comanche chief, named Senaco;
+    that he is the biggest Indian and best friend the whites ever
+    had; in fact, that he is a first-rate fellow; but I believe he
+    is a d----d rascal, _so look out for him_."
+
+I smiled on reading the paper, and, looking up, found the chief's eyes
+intently fixed upon mine with an expression of the most earnest
+inquiry. I told him the paper was not as good as it might be, whereupon
+he destroyed it.
+
+Five years after this interview I met Senaco again near the same place.
+He recognized me at once, and, much to my surprise, pronounced my name
+quite distinctly.
+
+A circumstance which happened in my interview with this Indian shows
+their character for diplomatic policy.
+
+I was about locating and surveying a reservation of land upon which the
+government designed to establish the Comanches, and was desirous of
+ascertaining whether they were disposed voluntarily to come into the
+measure. In this connection, I stated to him that their Great Father,
+the President, being anxious to improve their condition, was willing to
+give them a permanent location, where they could cultivate the soil,
+and, if they wished it, he would send white men to teach them the
+rudiments of agriculture, supply them with farming utensils, and all
+other requisites for living comfortably in their new homes. I then
+desired him to consult with his people, and let me know what their
+views were upon the subject.
+
+After talking a considerable time with his head men, he rose to reply,
+and said, "He was very happy to learn that the President remembered his
+poor red children in the Plains, and he was glad to see me again, and
+hear from me that their Great Father was their friend; that he was also
+very much gratified to meet his agent who was present, and that he
+should remember with much satisfaction the agreeable interview we had
+had upon that occasion." After delivering himself of numerous other
+non-committal expressions of similar import, he closed his speech and
+took his seat without making the slightest allusion to the subject in
+question.
+
+On reminding him of this omission, and again demanding from him a
+distinct and categorical answer, he, after a brief consultation with
+his people, replied that his talk was made and concluded, and he did
+not comprehend why it was that I wanted to open the subject anew. But,
+as I continued to press him for an answer, he at length said, "You come
+into our country and select a small patch of ground, around which you
+run a line, and tell us the President will make us a present of this to
+live upon, when every body knows that the whole of this entire country,
+from the Red River to the Colorado, is now, and always has been, ours
+from time immemorial. I suppose, however, if the President tells us to
+confine ourselves to these narrow limits, we shall be forced to do so,
+whether we desire it or not."
+
+He was evidently averse to the proposed change in their mode of life,
+and has been at war ever since the establishment of the settlement.
+
+The mode of life of the nomadic tribes, owing to their unsettled and
+warlike habits, is such as to render their condition one of constant
+danger and apprehension. The security of their numerous animals from
+the encroachments of their enemies and habitual liability to attacks
+compels them to be at all times upon the alert. Even during profound
+peace they guard their herds both night and day, while scouts are often
+patrolling upon the surrounding heights to give notice of the approach
+of strangers, and enable them to secure their animals and take a
+defensive attitude.
+
+When one of these people conceives himself injured his thirst for
+revenge is insatiable. Grave and dignified in his outward bearing, and
+priding himself upon never exhibiting curiosity, joy, or anger, yet
+when once roused he evinces the implacable dispositions of his race;
+the affront is laid up and cherished in his breast, and nothing can
+efface it from his mind until ample reparation is made. The insult must
+be atoned for by presents, or be washed out with blood.
+
+
+WAR EXPEDITIONS.
+
+When a chief desires to organize a war-party, he provides himself with
+a long pole, attaches a red flag to the end of it, and trims the top
+with eagle feathers. He then mounts his horse in his war-costume, and
+rides around through the camp singing the war-song. Those who are
+disposed to join the expedition mount their horses and fall into the
+procession; after parading about for a time, all dismount, and the
+war-dance is performed. This ceremony is continued from day to day
+until a sufficient number of volunteers are found to accomplish the
+objects desired, when they set out for the theatre of their intended
+exploits.
+
+As they proceed upon their expedition, it sometimes happens that the
+chief with whom it originated, and who invariably assumes the command,
+becomes discouraged at not finding an opportunity of displaying his
+warlike abilities, and abandons the enterprise; in which event, if
+others of the party desire to proceed farther, they select another
+leader and push on, and thus so long as any one of the party holds out.
+
+A war-party is sometimes absent for a great length of time, and for
+days, weeks, and months their friends at home anxiously await their
+return, until, suddenly, from afar, the shrill war-cry of an _avant
+courier_ is heard proclaiming the approach of the victorious warriors.
+The camp is in an instant alive with excitement and commotion. Men,
+women, and children swarm out to meet the advancing party. Their white
+horses are painted and decked out in the most fantastic style, and led
+in advance of the triumphal procession; and, as they pass around
+through the village, the old women set up a most unearthly howl of
+exultation, after which the scalp-dance is performed with all the pomp
+and display their limited resources admit of, the warriors having their
+faces painted black.
+
+When, on the other hand, the expedition terminates disastrously by the
+loss of some of the party in battle, the relatives of the deceased cut
+off their own hair, and the tails and manes of their horses, as symbols
+of mourning, and howl and cry for a long time.
+
+In 1854 I saw the widow of a former chief of the Southern Comanches,
+whose husband had been dead about three years, yet she continued her
+mourning tribute to his memory by crying daily for him and refusing all
+offers to marry again.
+
+The prairie warrior is occasionally seen with the rifle in his hand,
+but his favorite arm is the bow, the use of which is taught him at an
+early age. By constant practice he acquires a skill in archery that
+renders him no less formidable in war than successful in the chase.
+Their bows are usually made of the tough and elastic wood of the
+"_bois d'are_," strengthened and re-enforced with sinews of the deer
+wrapped firmly around, and strung with a cord of the same material.
+They are from three to four feet long. The arrows, which are carried in
+a quiver upon the back, are about twenty inches long, of flexible wood,
+with a triangular iron point at one end, and at the other two feathers
+intersecting at right angles.
+
+At short distances (about fifty yards), the bow, in the hands of the
+Indian, is effective, and in close proximity with the buffalo throws
+the arrow entirely through his huge carcass. In using this weapon the
+warrior protects himself from the missiles of his enemy with a shield
+made of two thicknesses of undressed buffalo hide filled in with hair.
+
+The Comanches, Sioux, and other prairie tribes make their attacks upon
+the open prairies. Trusting to their wonderful skill in equitation and
+horsemanship, they ride around their enemies with their bodies thrown
+upon the opposite side of the horse, and discharge their arrows in
+rapid succession while at full speed; they will not, however, often
+venture near an enemy who occupies a defensive position. If, therefore,
+a small party be in danger of an attack from a large force of Indians,
+they should seek the cover of timber or a park of wagons, or, in the
+absence of these, rocks or holes in the prairie which afford good
+cover.
+
+Attempts to stampede animals are often made when parties first arrive
+in camp, and when every one's attention is preoccupied in the
+arrangements therewith connected. In a country infested by hostile
+Indians, the ground in the vicinity of which it is proposed to encamp
+should be cautiously examined for tracks and other Indian _signs_
+by making a circuit around the locality previous to unharnessing the
+animals.
+
+After Indians have succeeded in stampeding a herd of horses or mules,
+and desire to drive them away, they are in the habit of pushing them
+forward as rapidly as possible for the first few days, in order to
+place a wide interval between themselves and any party that may be in
+pursuit.
+
+In running off stolen animals, the Indians are generally divided into
+two parties, one for driving and the other to act as a rear guard.
+Before they reach a place where they propose making a halt, they leave
+a vidette upon some prominent point to watch for pursuers and give the
+main party timely warning, enabling them to rally their animals and
+push forward again.
+
+
+TRACKING INDIANS.
+
+When an Indian sentinel intends to watch for an enemy approaching from
+the rear, he selects the highest position available, and places himself
+near the summit in such an attitude that his entire body shall be
+concealed from the observation of any one in the rear, his head only
+being exposed above the top of the eminence. Here he awaits with great
+patience so long as he thinks there is any possibility of danger, and
+it will be difficult for an enemy to surprise him or to elude his keen
+and scrutinizing vigilance. Meanwhile his horse is secured under the
+screen of the hill, all ready when required. Hence it will be evident
+that, in following Indian depredators, the utmost vigilance and caution
+must be exercised to conceal from them the movements of their pursuers.
+They are the best scouts in the world, proficient in all the artifices
+and stratagems available in border warfare, and when hotly pursued by a
+superior force, after exhausting all other means of evasion, they
+scatter in different directions; and if, in a broken or mountainous
+country, they can do no better, abandon their horses and baggage, and
+take refuge in the rocks, gorges, or other hiding-places. This plan has
+several times been resorted to by Indians in Texas when surprised, and,
+notwithstanding their pursuers were directly upon them, the majority
+made their escape, leaving behind all their animals and other property.
+
+For overtaking a marauding party of Indians who have advanced eight or
+ten hours before the pursuing party are in readiness to take the trail,
+it is not best to push forward rapidly at first, as this will weary and
+break down horses. The Indians must be supposed to have at least fifty
+or sixty miles the start; it will, therefore, be useless to think of
+overtaking them without providing for a long chase. Scouts should
+continually be kept out in front upon the trail to reconnoitre and give
+preconcerted signals to the main party when the Indians are espied.
+
+In approaching all eminences or undulations in the prairies, the
+commander should be careful not to allow any considerable number of his
+men to pass upon the summits until the country around has been
+carefully reconnoitred by the scouts, who will cautiously raise their
+eyes above the crests of the most elevated points, making a
+scrutinizing examination in all directions; and, while doing this,
+should an Indian be encountered who has been left behind as a sentinel,
+he must, if possible, be secured or shot, to prevent his giving the
+alarm to his comrades. These precautions can not be too rigidly
+enforced when the trail becomes "warm;" and if there be a moon, it will
+be better to lie by in the daytime and follow the trail at night, as
+the great object is to come upon the Indians when they are not
+anticipating an attack. Such surprises, if discreetly conducted;
+generally prove successful.
+
+As soon as the Indians are discovered in their bivouac, the pursuing
+party should dismount, leave their horses under charge of a guard in
+some sequestered place, and, before advancing to the attack, the men
+should be instructed in signals for their different movements, such as
+all will easily comprehend and remember. As, for example, a pull upon
+the right arm may signify to face to the right, and a pull upon the
+left arm to face to the left; a pull upon the skirt of the coat, to
+halt; a gentle push on the back, to advance in ordinary time; a slap on
+the back, to advance in double quick time, etc., etc.
+
+These signals, having been previously well understood and practiced,
+may be given by the commander to the man next to him, and from him
+communicated in rapid succession throughout the command.
+
+I will suppose the party formed in one rank, with the commander on the
+right. He gives the signal, and the men move off cautiously in the
+direction indicated. The importance of not losing sight of his comrades
+on his right and left, and of not allowing them to get out of his
+reach, so as to break the chain of communication, will be apparent to
+all, and great care should be taken that the men do not mistake their
+brothers in arms for the enemy. This may be prevented by having two
+_pass-words_, and when there be any doubt as to the identity of two
+men who meet during the night operations, one of these words may be
+repeated by each. Above all, the men must be fully impressed with the
+importance of not firing a shot until the order is given by the
+commanding officer, and also that a rigorous personal accountability
+will be enforced in all cases of a violation of this rule.
+
+If the commander gives the signal for commencing the attack by firing a
+pistol or gun, there will probably be no mistake, unless it happens
+through carelessness by the accidental discharge of firearms.
+
+I can conceive of nothing more appalling, or that tends more to throw
+men off their guard and produce confusion, than a sudden and unexpected
+night-attack. Even the Indians, who pride themselves upon their
+coolness and self-possession, are far from being exempt from its
+effects; and it is not surprising that men who go to sleep with a sense
+of perfect security around them, and are suddenly aroused from a sound
+slumber by the terrific sounds of an onslaught from an enemy, should
+lose their presence of mind.
+
+
+TELEGRAPHING BY SMOKES.
+
+The transparency of the atmosphere upon the Plains is such that objects
+can be seen at great distances; a mountain, for example, presents a
+distinct and bold outline at fifty or sixty miles, and may occasionally
+be seen as far as a hundred miles.
+
+The Indians, availing themselves of this fact, have been in the habit
+of practicing a system of telegraphing by means of smokes during the
+day and fires by night, and, I dare say, there are but few travelers
+who have crossed the mountains to California that have not seen these
+signals made and responded to from peak to peak in rapid succession.
+
+The Indians thus make known to their friends many items of information
+highly important to them. If enemies or strangers make their appearance
+in the country, the fact is telegraphed at once, giving them time to
+secure their animals and to prepare for attack, defense, or flight.
+
+War or hunting parties, after having been absent a long time from their
+erratic friends at home, and not knowing where to find them, make use
+of the same preconcerted signals to indicate their presence.
+
+Very dense smokes may be raised by kindling a large fire with dry wood,
+and piling upon it the green boughs of pine, balsam, or hemlock. This
+throws off a heavy cloud of black smoke which can be seen very far.
+
+This simple method of telegraphing, so useful to the savages both in
+war and in peace, may, in my judgment, be used to advantage in the
+movements of troops co-operating in separate columns in the Indian
+country.
+
+I shall not attempt at this time to present a matured system of
+signals, but will merely give a few suggestions tending to illustrate
+the advantages to be derived from the use of them.
+
+For example, when two columns are marching through a country at such
+distances apart that smokes may be seen from one to the other, their
+respective positions may be made known to each other at any time by two
+smokes raised simultaneously or at certain preconcerted intervals.
+
+Should the commander of one column desire to communicate with the
+other, he raises three smokes simultaneously, which, if seen by the
+other party, should be responded to in the same manner. They would then
+hold themselves in readiness for any other communications.
+
+If an enemy is discovered in small numbers, a smoke raised twice at
+fifteen minutes' interval would indicate it; and if in large force,
+three times with the same intervals might be the signal.
+
+Should the commander of one party desire the other to join him, this
+might be telegraphed by four smokes at ten minutes' interval.
+
+Should it become necessary to change the direction of the line of
+march, the commander may transmit the order by means of two
+simultaneous smokes raised a certain number of times to indicate the
+particular direction; for instance, twice for north, three times for
+south, four times for east, and five times for west; three smokes
+raised twice for northeast, three times for northwest, etc., etc.
+
+By multiplying the combinations of signals a great variety of messages
+might be transmitted in this manner; but, to avoid mistakes, the
+signals should be written down and copies furnished the commander of
+each separate party, and they need not necessarily be made known to
+other persons.
+
+During the day an intelligent man should be detailed to keep a vigilant
+look-out in all directions for smokes, and he should be furnished with
+a watch, pencil, and paper, to make a record of the signals, with their
+number, and the time of the intervals between them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Hunting. Its Benefits to the Soldier. Buffalo. Deer. Antelope. Bear.
+Big-horn, or Mountain Sheep. Their Habits, and Hints upon the best
+Methods of hunting them.
+
+
+HUNTING.
+
+I know of no better school of practice for perfecting men in
+target-firing, and the use of firearms generally, than that in which
+the frontier hunter receives his education. One of the first and most
+important lessons that he is taught impresses him with the conviction
+that, unless his gun is in good order and steadily directed upon the
+game, he must go without his supper; and if ambition does not stimulate
+his efforts, his appetite will, and ultimately lead to success and
+confidence in his own powers.
+
+The man who is afraid to place the butt of his piece firmly against his
+shoulder, or who turns away his head at the instant of pulling trigger
+(as soldiers often do before they have been drilled at target-practice),
+will not be likely to bag much game or to contribute materially toward
+the result of a battle. The successful hunter, as a general rule, is a
+good shot, will always charge his gun properly, and may be relied upon
+in action. I would, therefore, when in garrison or at permanent camps,
+encourage officers and soldiers in field-sports. If permitted, men very
+readily cultivate a fondness for these innocent and healthy exercises,
+and occupy their leisure time in their pursuit; whereas, if confined to
+the narrow limits of a frontier camp or garrison, having no amusements
+within their reach, they are prone to indulge in practices which are
+highly detrimental to their physical and moral condition.
+
+By making short excursions about the country they acquire a knowledge
+of it, become inured to fatigue, learn the art of bivouacking,
+trailing, etc., etc., all of which will be found serviceable in border
+warfare; and, even if they should perchance now and then miss some of
+the minor routine duties of the garrison, the benefits they would
+derive from hunting would, in my opinion, more than counterbalance its
+effects. Under the old regime it was thought that drills,
+dress-parades, and guard-mountings comprehended the sum total of the
+soldier's education, but the experience of the last ten years has
+taught us that these are only the rudiments, and that to combat
+successfully with Indians we must receive instruction from them, study
+their tactics, and, where they suit our purposes, copy from them.
+
+The union of discipline with the individuality, self-reliance, and
+rapidity of locomotion of the savage is what we should aim at. This
+will be the tendency of the course indicated, and it is conceived by
+the writer that an army composed of well-disciplined hunters will be
+the most efficient of all others against the only enemy we have to
+encounter within the limits of our vast possessions.
+
+I find some pertinent remarks upon this subject in a very sensible
+essay by "a late captain of infantry" (U.S.). He says:
+
+"It is conceived that scattered bands of mounted hunters, with the
+speed of a horse and the watchfulness of a wolf or antelope, whose
+faculties are sharpened by their necessities; who, when they get short
+of provisions, separate and look for something to eat, and find it in
+the water, in the ground, or on the surface; whose bill of fare ranges
+from grass-seed, nuts, roots, grasshoppers, lizards, and rattlesnakes
+up to the antelope, deer, elk, bear, and buffalo, and who have a
+continent to roam over, will be neither surprised, caught, conquered,
+overawed, or reduced to famine by a rumbling, bugle-blowing,
+drum-beating town passing through their country on wheels at the speed
+of a loaded wagon.
+
+"If the Indians are in the path and do not wish to be seen, they cross
+a ridge, and the town moves on, ignorant whether there are fifty
+Indians within a mile or no Indian within fifty miles. If the Indians
+wish to see, they return to the crest of the ridge, crawl up to the
+edge, pull up a bunch of grass by the roots, and look through or under
+it at the procession."
+
+Although I would always encourage men in hunting when permanently
+located, yet, unless they are good woodsmen, it is not safe to permit
+them to go out alone in marching through the Indian country, as, aside
+from the danger of encountering Indians, they would be liable to become
+bewildered and perhaps lost, and this might detain the entire party in
+searching for them. The better plan upon a march is for three or four
+to go out together, accompanied by a good woodsman, who will be able
+with certainty to lead them back to camp.
+
+The little group could ascertain if Indians are about, and would be
+strong enough to act on the defensive against small parties of them;
+and, while they are amusing themselves, they may perform an important
+part as scouts and flankers.
+
+An expedition may have been perfectly organized, and every thing
+provided that the wisest forethought could suggest, yet circumstances
+beyond the control of the most experienced traveler may sometimes arise
+to defeat the best concerted plans. It is not, for example, an
+impossible contingency that the traveler may, by unforeseen delays,
+consume his provisions, lose them in crossing streams, or have them
+stolen by hostile Indians, and be reduced to the necessity of depending
+upon game for subsistence. Under these circumstances, a few
+observations upon the habits of the different animals that frequent the
+Plains and on the best methods of hunting them may not be altogether
+devoid of interest or utility in this connection.
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+The largest and most useful animal that roams over the prairies is the
+buffalo. It provides food, clothing, and shelter to thousands of
+natives whose means of livelihood depend almost exclusively upon this
+gigantic monarch of the prairies.
+
+Not many years since they thronged in countless multitudes over all
+that vast area lying between Mexico and the British possessions, but
+now their range is confined within very narrow limits, and a few more
+years will probably witness the extinction of the species.
+
+The traveler, in passing from Texas or Arkansas through southern New
+Mexico to California, does not, at the present day, encounter the
+buffalo; but upon all the routes north of latitude 36 deg. the animal is
+still found between the 99th and 102d meridians of longitude.
+
+Although generally regarded as migratory in their habits, yet the
+buffalo often _winter_ in the snows of a high northern latitude. Early
+in the spring of 1858 I found them in the Rocky Mountains, at the head
+of the Arkansas and South Platte Rivers, and there was every indication
+that this was a permanent abiding-place for them.
+
+There are two methods generally practiced in hunting the buffalo, viz.:
+running them on horseback, and stalking, or still-hunting. The first
+method requires a sure-footed and tolerably fleet horse that is not
+easily frightened. The buffalo cow, which makes much better beef than
+the bull, when pursued by the hunter runs rapidly, and, unless the
+horse be fleet, it requires a long and exhausting chase to overtake
+her.
+
+When the buffalo are discovered, and the hunter intends to give chase,
+he should first dismount, arrange his saddle-blanket and saddle, buckle
+the girth tight, and make every thing about his horse furniture snug
+and secure. He should then put his arms in good firing order, and,
+taking the lee side of the herd, so that they may not get "_the
+wind_" of him, he should approach in a walk as close as possible,
+taking advantage of any cover that may offer. His horse then, being
+cool and fresh, will be able to dash into the herd, and probably carry
+his rider very near the animal he has selected before he becomes
+alarmed.
+
+If the hunter be right-handed, and uses a pistol, he should approach
+upon the left side, and when nearly opposite and close upon the
+buffalo, deliver his shot, taking aim a little below the centre of the
+body, and about eight inches back of the shoulder. This will strike the
+vitals, and generally render another shot unnecessary.
+
+When a rifle or shot-gun is used the hunter rides up on the right side,
+keeping his horse well in hand, so as to be able to turn off if the
+beast charges upon him; this, however, never happens except with a
+buffalo that is wounded, when it is advisable to keep out of his reach.
+
+The buffalo has immense powers of endurance, and will run for many
+miles without any apparent effort or diminution in speed. The first
+buffalo I ever saw I followed about ten miles, and when I left him he
+seemed to run faster than when the chase commenced.
+
+As a long buffalo-chase is very severe labor upon a horse, I would
+recommend to all travelers, unless they have a good deal of surplus
+horse-flesh, never to expend it in running buffalo.
+
+Still-hunting, which requires no consumption of horse-flesh, and is
+equally successful with the other method, is recommended. In stalking
+on horseback, the most broken and hilly localities should be selected,
+as these will furnish cover to the hunter, who passes from the crest of
+one hill to another, examining the country carefully in all directions.
+When the game is discovered, if it happen to be on the lee side, the
+hunter should endeavor, by making a wide detour, to get upon the
+opposite side, as he will find it impossible to approach within rifle
+range with the wind.
+
+When the animal is upon a hill, or in any other position where he can
+not be approached without danger of disturbing him, the hunter should
+wait until he moves off to more favorable ground, and this will not
+generally require much time, as they wander about a great deal when not
+grazing; he then pickets his horse, and approaches cautiously, seeking
+to screen himself as much as possible by the undulations in the
+surface, or behind such other objects as may present themselves; but if
+the surface should offer no cover, he must crawl upon his hands and
+knees when near the game, and in this way he can generally get within
+rifle range.
+
+Should there be several animals together, and his first shot take
+effect, the hunter can often get several other shots before they become
+frightened. A Delaware Indian and myself once killed five buffaloes out
+of a small herd before the remainder were so much disturbed as to move
+away; although we were within the short distance of twenty yards, yet
+the reports of our rifles did not frighten them in the least, and they
+continued grazing during all the time we were loading and firing.
+
+The sense of smelling is exceedingly acute with the buffalo, and they
+will take the wind from the hunter at as great a distance as a mile.
+
+When the animal is wounded, and stops, it is better not to go near him
+until he lies down, as he will often run a great distance if disturbed;
+but if left to himself, will in many cases die in a short time.
+
+The tongues, humps, and marrow-bones are regarded as the choice parts
+of the animal. The tongue is taken out by ripping open the skin between
+the prongs of the lower jaw-bone and pulling it out through the
+orifice. The hump may be taken off by skinning down on each side of the
+shoulders and cutting away the meat, after which the hump-ribs can be
+unjointed where they unite with the spine. The marrow, when roasted in
+the bones, is delicious.
+
+
+THE DEER.
+
+Of all game quadrupeds indigenous to this continent, the common red
+deer is probably more widely dispersed from north to south and from
+east to west over our vast possessions than any other. They are found
+in all latitudes from Hudson's Bay to Mexico, and they clamber over the
+most elevated peaks of the western sierras with the same ease that they
+range the eastern forests or the everglades of Florida. In summer they
+crop the grass upon the summits of the Rocky Mountains, and in winter,
+when the snow falls deep, they descend into sheltered valleys, where
+they fall an easy prey to the Indians.
+
+Besides the common red deer of the Eastern States, two other varieties
+are found in the Rocky Mountains, viz., the "black-tailed deer," which
+takes its name from the fact of its having a small tuft of black hair
+upon the end of its tail, and the _long-tailed_ species. The former of
+these is considerably larger than the eastern deer, and is much darker,
+being of a very deep-yellowish iron-gray, with a yellowish red upon the
+belly. It frequents the mountains, and is never seen far away from
+them. Its habits are similar to those of the red deer, and it is hunted
+in the same way. The only difference I have been able to discern
+between the long-tailed variety and the common deer is in the length of
+the tail and body. I have seen this animal only in the neighborhood of
+the Rocky Mountains, but it may resort to other localities.
+
+Although the deer are still abundant in many of our forest districts in
+the east, and do not appear to decrease very rapidly, yet there has
+within a few years been a very evident diminution in the numbers of
+those frequenting our Western prairies. In passing through Southern
+Texas in 1846, thousands of deer were met with daily, and, astonishing
+as it may appear, it was no uncommon spectacle to see from one to two
+hundred in a single herd; the prairies seemed literally alive with
+them; but in 1855 it was seldom that a herd often was seen in the same
+localities. It seemed to me that the vast herds first met with could
+not have been killed off by the hunters in that sparsely-populated
+section, and I was puzzled to know what had become of them. It is
+possible they may have moved off into Mexico; they certainly are not in
+our territory at the present time.
+
+Twenty years' experience in deer-hunting has taught me several facts
+relative to the habits of the animal which, when well understood, will
+be found of much service to the inexperienced hunter, and greatly
+contribute to his success. The best target-shots are not necessarily
+the most skillful deer-stalkers. One of the great secrets of this art
+is in knowing how to approach the game without giving alarm, and this
+can not easily be done unless the hunter sees it before he is himself
+discovered. There are so many objects in the woods resembling the deer
+in color that none but a practiced eye can often detect the difference.
+
+When the deer is reposing he generally turns his head from the wind, in
+which position he can see an enemy approaching from that direction, and
+his nose will apprise him of the presence of danger from the opposite
+side. The best method of hunting deer, therefore, is _across the wind_.
+
+While the deer are feeding, early in the morning and a short time
+before dark in the evening are the best times to stalk them, as they
+are then busily occupied and less on the alert. When a deer is espied
+with his head down, cropping the grass, the hunter advances cautiously,
+keeping his eyes constantly directed upon him, and screening himself
+behind intervening objects, or, in the absence of other cover, crawls
+along upon his hands and knees in the grass, until the deer hears his
+steps and raises his head, when he must instantly stop and remain in an
+attitude fixed and motionless as a statue, for the animal's vision is
+his keenest sense. When alarmed he will detect the slightest movement
+of a small object, and, unless the hunter stands or lies perfectly
+still, his presence will be detected. If the hunter does not move, the
+deer will, after a short time, recover from his alarm and resume his
+grazing, when he may be again approached. The deer always exhibits his
+alarm by a sudden jerking of the tail just before he raises his head.
+
+I once saw a Delaware Indian walk directly up within rifle range of a
+deer that was feeding upon the open prairie and shoot him down; he was,
+however, a long time in approaching, and made frequent halts whenever
+the animal flirted his tail and raised his head. Although he often
+turned toward the hunter, yet he did not appear to notice him, probably
+taking him for a stump or tree.
+
+When the deer are lying down in the smooth prairie, unless the grass is
+tall, it is difficult to get near them, as they are generally looking
+around, and become alarmed at the least noise.
+
+The Indians are in the habit of using a small instrument which imitates
+the bleat of the young fawn, with which they lure the doe within range
+of their rifles. The young fawn gives out no scent upon its track until
+it is sufficiently grown to make good running, and instinct teaches the
+mother that this wise provision of nature to preserve the helpless
+little quadruped from the ravages of wolves, panthers, and other
+carnivorous beasts, will be defeated if she remains with it, as her
+tracks can not be concealed. She therefore hides her fawn in the grass,
+where it is almost impossible to see it, even when very near it, goes
+off to some neighboring thicket within call, and makes her bed alone.
+The Indian pot-hunter, who is but little scrupulous as to the means he
+employs in accomplishing his ends, sounds the bleat along near the
+places where he thinks the game is lying, and the unsuspicious doe, who
+imagines that her offspring is in distress, rushes with headlong
+impetuosity toward the sound, and often goes within a few yards of the
+hunter to receive her death-wound.
+
+This is cruel sport, and can only be justified when meat is scarce,
+which is very frequently the case in the Indian's larder.
+
+It does not always comport with a man's feelings of security,
+especially if he happens to be a little nervous, to sound the
+deer-bleat in a wild region of country. I once undertook to experiment
+with the instrument myself, and made my first essay in attempting to
+call up an antelope which I discovered in the distance. I succeeded
+admirably in luring the wary victim within shooting range, had raised
+upon my knees, and was just in the act of pulling trigger, when a
+rustling in the grass on my left drew my attention in that direction,
+where, much to my surprise, I beheld a huge panther within about twenty
+yards, bounding with gigantic strides directly toward me. I turned my
+rifle, and in an instant, much to my relief and gratification, its
+contents were lodged in the heart of the beast.
+
+Many men, when they suddenly encounter a deer, are seized with nervous
+excitement, called in sporting parlance the "_buck fever_," which
+causes them to fire at random. Notwithstanding I have had much
+experience in hunting, I must confess that I am never entirely free
+from some of the symptoms of this malady when firing at large game, and
+I believe that in four out of five cases where I have missed the game
+my balls have passed too high. I have endeavored to obviate this by
+sighting my rifle low, and it has been attended with more successful
+results. The same remarks apply to most other men I have met with. They
+fire too high when excited.
+
+
+THE ANTELOPE.
+
+This animal frequents the most elevated bleak and naked prairies in all
+latitudes from Mexico to Oregon, and constitutes an important item of
+subsistence with many of the Prairie Indians. It is the most wary,
+timid, and fleet animal that inhabits the Plains. It is about the size
+of a small deer, with a heavy coating of coarse, wiry hair, and its
+flesh is more tender and juicy than that of the deer. It seldom enters
+a timbered country, but seems to delight in cropping the grass from the
+elevated swells of the prairies. When disturbed by the traveler, it
+will circle around him with the speed of the wind, but does not stop
+until it reaches some prominent position whence it can survey the
+country on all sides, and nothing seems to escape its keen vision. They
+will sometimes stand for a long time and look at a man, provided he
+does not move or go out of sight; but if he goes behind a hill with the
+intention of passing around and getting nearer to them, he will never
+find them again in the same place. I have often tried the experiment,
+and invariably found that, as soon as I went where the antelope could
+not see me, he moved off. Their sense of hearing, as well as vision, is
+very acute, which renders it difficult to stalk them. By taking
+advantage of the cover afforded in broken ground, the hunter may, by
+moving slowly and cautiously over the crests of the irregularities in
+the surface, sometimes approach within rifle range.
+
+The antelope possesses a greater degree of curiosity than any other
+animal I know of, and will often approach very near a strange object.
+The experienced hunter, taking advantage of this peculiarity, lies down
+and secretes himself in the grass, after which he raises his
+handkerchief, hand, or foot, so as to attract the attention of the
+animal, and thus often succeeds in beguiling him within shooting
+distance.
+
+In some valleys near the Rocky Mountains, where the pasturage is good
+during the winter season, they collect in immense herds. The Indians
+are in the habit of surrounding them in such localities and running
+them with their horses until they tire them out, when they slay large
+numbers.
+
+[Illustration: CALLING UP ANTELOPES.]
+
+The antelope makes a track much shorter than the deer, very broad and
+round at the heel, and quite sharp at the toe; a little experience
+renders it easy to distinguish them.
+
+
+THE BEAR.
+
+Besides the common black bear of the Eastern States, several others are
+found in the mountains of California, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico,
+viz., the grizzly, brown, and cinnamon varieties; all have nearly the
+same habits, and are hunted in the same manner.
+
+From all I had heard of the grizzly bear, I was induced to believe him
+one of the most formidable and savage animals in the universe, and that
+the man who would deliberately encounter and kill one of these beasts
+had performed a signal feat of courage which entitled him to a lofty
+position among the votaries of Nimrod. So firmly had I become impressed
+with this conviction, that I should have been very reluctant to fire
+upon one had I met him when alone and on foot. The grizzly bear is
+assuredly the monarch of the American forests, and, so far as physical
+strength is concerned, he is perhaps without a rival in the world; but,
+after some experience in hunting, my opinions regarding his courage and
+his willingness to attack men have very materially changed.
+
+In passing over the elevated table-lands lying between the two forks of
+the Platte River in 1858, I encountered a full-grown female grizzly
+bear, with two cubs, very quietly reposing upon the open prairie,
+several miles distant from any timber. This being the first opportunity
+that had ever occurred to me for an encounter with the ursine monster,
+and being imbued with the most exalted notions of the beast's
+proclivities for offensive warfare, especially when in the presence of
+her offspring, it may very justly be imagined that I was rather more
+excited than usual. I, however, determined to make the assault. I felt
+the utmost confidence in my horse, as she was afraid of nothing; and,
+after arranging every thing about my saddle and arms in good order, I
+advanced to within about eighty yards before I was discovered by the
+bear, when she raised upon her haunches and gave me a scrutinizing
+examination. I seized this opportune moment to fire, but missed my aim,
+and she started off, followed by her cubs at their utmost speed. After
+reloading my rifle, I pursued, and, on coming again within range,
+delivered another shot, which struck the large bear in the fleshy part
+of the thigh, whereupon she set up a most distressing howl and
+accelerated her pace, leaving her cubs behind. After loading again I
+gave the spurs to my horse and resumed the chase, soon passing the
+cubs, who were making the most plaintive cries of distress. They were
+heard by the dam, but she gave no other heed to them than occasionally
+to halt for an instant, turn around, sit up on her posteriors, and give
+a hasty look back; but, as soon as she saw me following her, she
+invariably turned again and redoubled her speed. I pursued about four
+miles and fired four balls into her before I succeeded in bringing her
+to the ground, and from the time I first saw her until her death-wound,
+notwithstanding I was often very close upon her heels, she never came
+to bay or made the slightest demonstration of resistance. Her sole
+purpose seemed to be to make her escape, leaving her cubs in the most
+cowardly manner.
+
+Upon three other different occasions I met the mountain bears, and once
+the cinnamon species, which is called the most formidable of all, and
+in none of these instances did they exhibit the slightest indication of
+anger or resistance, but invariably ran from me.
+
+Such is my experience with this formidable monarch of the mountains. It
+is possible that if a man came suddenly upon the beast in a thicket,
+where it could have no previous warning, he might be attacked; but it
+is my opinion that if the bear gets _the wind_ or sight of a man at
+any considerable distance, it will endeavor to get away as soon as
+possible. I am so fully impressed with this idea that I shall hereafter
+hunt bear with a feeling of as much security as I would have in hunting
+the buffalo.
+
+The grizzly, like the black bear, hybernates in winter, and makes his
+appearance in the spring with his claws grown out long and very soft
+and tender; he is then poor, and unfit for food.
+
+I have heard a very curious fact stated by several old mountaineers
+regarding the mountain bears, which, of course, I can not vouch for,
+but it is given by them with great apparent sincerity and candor. They
+assert that no instance has ever been known of a female bear having
+been killed in a state of pregnancy. This singular fact in the history
+of the animal seems most inexplicable to me, unless she remain
+concealed in her brumal slumber until after she has been delivered of
+her cubs.
+
+I was told by an old Delaware Indian that when the bear has been
+traveling against the wind and wishes to lie down, he always turns in
+an opposite direction, and goes some distance away from his first track
+before making his bed. If an enemy then comes upon his trail, his keen
+sense of smell will apprise him of the danger. The same Indian
+mentioned that when a bear had been pursued and sought shelter in a
+cave, he had often endeavored to eject him with smoke, but that the
+bear would advance to the mouth of the cave, where the fire was
+burning, and put it out with his paws, then retreat into the cave
+again. This would indicate that Bruin is endowed with some glimpses of
+reason beyond the ordinary instincts of the brute creation in general,
+and, indeed, is capable of discerning the connection between cause and
+effect. Notwithstanding the extraordinary intelligence which this
+quadruped exhibits upon some occasions, upon others he shows himself to
+be one of the most stupid brutes imaginable. For example, when he has
+taken possession of a cavern, and the courageous hunter enters with a
+torch and rifle, it is said he will, instead of forcibly ejecting the
+intruder, raise himself upon his haunches and cover his eyes with his
+paws, so as to exclude the light, apparently thinking that in this
+situation he can not be seen. The hunter can then approach as close as
+he pleases and shoot him down.
+
+
+THE BIG-HORN.
+
+The big-horn or mountain sheep, which has a body like the deer, with
+the head of a sheep, surmounted by an enormous pair of short, heavy
+horns, is found throughout the Rocky Mountains, and resorts to the most
+inaccessible peaks and to the wildest and least-frequented glens. It
+clambers over almost perpendicular cliffs with the greatest ease and
+celerity, and skips from rock to rock, cropping the tender herbage that
+grows upon them.
+
+It has been supposed by some that this animal leaps down from crag to
+crag, lighting upon his horns, as an evidence of which it has been
+advanced that the front part of the horns is often much battered. This
+I believe to be erroneous, as it is very common to see horns that have
+no bruises upon them.
+
+The old mountaineers say they have often seen the bucks engaged in
+desperate encounters with their huge horns, which, in striking
+together, made loud reports. This will account for the marks sometimes
+seen upon them.
+
+The flesh of the big-horn, when fat, is more tender, juicy, and
+delicious than that of any other animal I know of, but it is a _bon
+bouche_ which will not grace the tables of our city epicures until a
+railroad to the Rocky Mountains affords the means of transporting it to
+a market a thousand miles distant from its haunts.
+
+In its habits the mountain sheep greatly resembles the chamois of
+Switzerland, and it is hunted in the same manner. The hunter traverses
+the most inaccessible and broken localities, moving along with great
+caution, as the least unusual noise causes them to flit away like a
+phantom, and they will be seen no more. The animal is gregarious, but
+it is seldom that more than eight or ten are found in a flock. When not
+grazing they seek the sheltered sides of the mountains, and repose
+among the rocks.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEEDLES. Between Cayetano Mountains and the San
+Juan River--Sierra de la Plata, or Silver Mountains, in the distance.]
+
+
+
+
+ITINERARIES.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ITINERARIES:
+
+SHOWING THE DISTANCES BETWEEN CAMPING-PLACES, THE CHARACTER OF THE
+ROADS, AND THE FACILITIES FOR OBTAINING WOOD, WATER, AND GRASS ON THE
+PRINCIPAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND THE PACIFIC OCEAN.
+
+
+No.                                                              Page
+
+     I. From Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fe and Albuquerque,
+New Mexico. By Captain R. B. Marcy, U.S.A.                        257
+
+    II. From Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe, by the way of the upper
+ferry of the Kansas River and the Cimarron                        260
+
+   III. Camping-places upon a road discovered and marked out from
+Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Dona Ana and El Paso, New Mexico, in
+1849. By Captain R. B. Marcy, U.S.A.                              263
+
+    IV. From Leavenworth City to Great Salt Lake City             266
+
+     V. From Salt Lake City to Sacramento and Benicia, California 273
+
+    VI. From Great Salt Lake City to Los Angeles and San Francisco,
+California                                                        277
+
+   VII. From Fort Bridger to the "City of Rocks." From Captain
+Handcock's Journal                                                279
+
+  VIII. From Soda Springs to the City of Rocks, known as Hudspeth's
+Cut-off                                                           282
+
+    IX. Sublet's Cut-off, from the junction of the Salt Lake and
+Fort Hall Roads                                                   282
+
+     X. From Lawson's Meadows, on the Humboldt River, to Fort
+Reading, via Rogue River Valley, Fort Lane, Oregon Territory, Yreka,
+and Fort Jones                                                    283
+
+    XI. From Soda Springs to Fort Wallah Wallah and Oregon City,
+Oregon, via Fort Hall                                             285
+
+   XII. Route for pack trains from John Day's River to Oregon
+City                                                              288
+
+  XIII. From Indianola and Powder-horn to San Antonio, Texas      288
+
+   XIV. Wagon-road from San Antonio, Texas, to El Paso, N.M., and
+Fort Yuma, California                                             289
+
+    XV. From Fort Yuma to San Diego, California                   292
+
+   XVI. From El Paso, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California, via
+Santa Cruz                                                        294
+
+  XVII. From Westport, Missouri, to the gold diggings at Pike's
+Peak and "Cherry Creek," N.T., via the Arkansas River             295
+
+ XVIII. From St. Paul's, Min., to Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon      302
+
+   XIX. Lieutenant E. F. Beale's route from Albuquerque to the
+Colorado River                                                    307
+
+    XX. Captain Whipple's route from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to
+San Pedro, California                                             308
+
+   XXI. From Fort Yuma to Benicia, California. From Lieutenant
+R. S. Williamson's Report                                         315
+
+  XXII. A new route from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, opened by
+Captain J. H. Simpson, U.S.A., in 1858                            317
+
+ XXIII. From Fort Thorne, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California    318
+
+  XXIV. Lieutenant Bryan's Route from the Laramie Crossing of the
+South Platte to Fort Bridger, via Bridger's Pass                  320
+
+   XXV. Wagon-route from Denver City, at the Mouth of Cherry Creek,
+to Fort Bridger, Utah                                             323
+
+  XXVI. From Nebraska City, on the Missouri, to Fort Kearney      326
+
+ XXVII. From Camp Floyd, Utah, to Fort Union, New Mexico. By
+Colonel W. W. Loring, U.S.A.                                      327
+
+XXVIII. Wagon-route from Guaymas, Mexico, to Tubac, Arizona. From
+Captain Stone's Journal                                           333
+
+
+I.--_From Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fe and Albuquerque, New
+Mexico._ By Captain R. B. MARCY, U.S.A.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Smith to
+
+     15. Strickland's Farm.--The road crosses the Poteau River at Fort
+         Smith, where there is a ferry; it then follows the Poteau
+         bottom for ten miles. This part of the road is very muddy
+         after heavy rains. At 14 miles it passes the Choctaw Agency,
+         where there are several stores. There is the greatest
+         abundance of wood, water, and grass at all camps for the first
+         200 miles. Where any of these are wanting it will be specially
+         mentioned. The road passes through the Choctaw settlements for
+         about 150 miles, and corn and supplies can be purchased from
+         these Indians at reasonable rates.
+
+     11. Camp Creek.--Road crosses a prairie of three miles in length,
+         then enters a heavy forest. The camp is on a small branch,
+         with grass plenty in a small prairie about 400 yards to the
+         left of the road.
+
+     12. Coon Creek.--Road passes through the timber, and is muddy in
+         a rainy season.
+
+     12. Sans Bois Creek.--Prairie near; some Choctaw houses at the
+         crossing.
+
+     14. Bend of Sans Bois Creek.--Indian farm.
+
+     15. South Fork of Canadian, or "Gain's Creek."--Road traverses
+         a very rough and hilly region. There is a ford and a ferry
+         upon the creek. Indian farm on the west bank.
+
+     12. First ford of Coal Creek.--Road crosses over a rolling
+         prairie, and at four miles the Fort Washita road turns to the
+         left.
+
+         Second ford of Coal Creek.--Indian farm.
+
+      4. Little Cedar Mountain.--Very rough, mountainous road.
+
+      6. Stony Point.--Very rough, mountainous road.
+
+      5. Shawnee Village.--Several Indian houses.
+
+     14. Shawnee Town.--Road passes several small prairies. Indian
+         settlement; store on opposite bank of Canadian River, near
+         the camp.
+
+     21. Delaware Mountain.--Road passes over a very beautiful country,
+         with small streams of good water frequent, and good camps. It
+         crosses small prairies and groves of timber.
+
+      5. Boggy River.--Road passes a country similar to that mentioned
+         above.
+
+      3. Clear Creek.--Road turns to the right near a prominent round
+         mound. Beautiful country, diversified with prairies and
+         timbered lands.
+
+      7. Branch of Topofki Creek.--Beautiful country and fine roads.
+
+  9-1/2. Cane Creek.--Excellent camp.
+
+      5. Small Branch.--Road passes about two miles from the old "Camp
+         Arbuckle," built by Captain Marcy in 1853, since occupied by
+         Black Beaver and several Delaware families.
+
+ 11-1/2. Mustang Creek.--Road runs on the dividing ridge between the
+         waters of the Washita and Canadian, on a high prairie.
+
+ 17-1/2. Choteau's Creek.--Road passes on the high prairie opposite
+         Choteau's old trading-house, and leaves the outer limits of the
+         Indian settlements. Excellent road, and good camps at short
+         distances.
+
+ 11-3/4. Choteau's Creek.--Road runs up the creek; is smooth and good.
+
+ 12-3/4. Head of Choteau's Creek.--Road runs up the creek, and is good.
+
+ 17-1/4. Branch of Washita River.--Road runs over an elevated prairie
+         country, and passes a small branch at six miles from last camp.
+
+  5-3/4. Branch of "Spring Creek."--Good camp.
+
+     16. Head of "Spring Creek."--Road traverses a high prairie country,
+         is smooth and firm.
+
+     13. Red Mounds.--Road runs over a high rolling prairie country,
+         and is excellent.
+
+      5. Branch of Washita River.--Good road.
+
+ 15-3/4. Branch of Canadian.--Road continues on the ridge dividing
+         the Washita and Canadian rivers; is smooth and firm.
+
+ 17-3/4. Branch of Washita River.--Road continues on the "divide."
+
+     18. Branch of Canadian.--Road continues on the divide from one
+         to four miles from the Canadian.
+
+     19. On Canadian River.--Good road.
+
+     16. Little Washita River.--Good road; timber becoming scarce.
+
+     13. Branch of Canadian.--Good road.
+
+ 17-1/2. Antelope Buttes.--Road runs along the Canadian bottom, and
+         in places is sandy.
+
+     14. Rush Lake.--Small pond on the prairie. No wood within half a
+         mile; some buffalo chips; poor water.
+
+     16. Branch of Washita River.--Good road on the divide.
+
+ 10-1/4. Dry River.--Road descends a very long hill, and crosses the
+         dry river near the Canadian. Water can be found by digging
+         about a foot in the sand of the creek. Good grass on the west
+         bank.
+
+     17. Branch of Canadian.--Road winds up a very long and abrupt hill,
+         but is smooth and firm.
+
+ 22-1/2. Timbered Creek.--Road passes over a very elevated prairie
+         country, and descends by a long hill into the beautiful valley
+         of Timbered Creek.
+
+ 11-1/2. Spring Branch.--Good camp.
+
+     14. Spring Branch.--Good camp.
+
+ 17-3/4. Branch of Canadian.--Road passes a small branch 3-1/2 miles
+         from the last camp.
+
+ 18-3/8. Branch of Canadian.--Road passes a small branch of the
+         Canadian at 8 miles from the last camp.
+
+ 17-7/8. Spring Branch.--Good road.
+
+  9-1/2. Branch of Canadian.--Good road and camp.
+
+ 18-1/2. Branch of the Canadian.--Good road and camp.
+
+ 10-1/4. Pools of Water.--Good camp.
+
+     10. Large Pond.--Good camp.
+
+     25. Pools of Water.--No wood; water brackish. The road passes
+         over a very elevated and dry country, without wood or water.
+
+ 18-1/2. Head of Branch.--At 13-1/2 miles the road crosses a branch
+         of the Canadian.
+
+ 19-3/4. Laguna Colorado.--Road here falls into an old Mexican
+         cart-road. Good springs on the left up the creek, with wood
+         and grass abundant.
+
+      7. Pools of Water.--Road runs through cedars.
+
+ 10-3/8. Pajarito Creek.--Grass begins to be rather short in places,
+         but is abundant on the creek.
+
+ 13-1/2. Gallenas Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     15. 2d Gallenas Creek.--Good road.
+
+ 16-1/2. Pecos River at Anton Chico.--This is the first settlement
+         after leaving Camp Arbuckle. Corn and vegetables can be
+         purchased here. Grass is generally short here.
+
+     15. Pecos River opposite Questa.--Road runs through the cedar,
+         and is firm and good. Camp is in sight of the town of Questa,
+         upon a very elevated bluff.
+
+ 21-3/4. Laguna Colorado.--Road passes through a wooded country for a
+         portion of the distance, but leaves it before reaching camp,
+         where there is no wood, but water generally sufficient for
+         trains. In very dry seasons it has been known to fail. The
+         road forks here, the right leading to Santa Fe via Galistio
+         (45-1/2 miles), and the left to Albuquerque.
+
+ 22-1/2. San Antonio.--Good road.
+
+ 18-3/4. Albuquerque.--Good road.
+
+Total distance from Fort Smith to Albuquerque, 814-3/4 miles.
+
+Total distance from Fort Smith to Santa Fe, 819 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+II.--_From Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe, by the way of the upper ferry
+of the Kansas River and the Cimarron._
+
+[In this table the distances, taken by an odometer, are given in miles
+and hundredths of a mile. The _measured_ distances between the crossing
+of the Arkansas and Santa Fe are from Major Kendrick's published table.
+Wood, water, and grass are found at all points where the absence of
+them is not stated.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         From Fort Leavenworth to
+
+   2.88. Salt Creek.
+
+   9.59. Stranger's Creek.
+
+  13.54. Stranger's Creek.
+
+   9.60. Grasshopper Creek.
+
+   6.50. Grasshopper Creek.
+
+   2.86. Grasshopper Creek.
+
+   2.60. Grasshopper Creek.
+
+   4.54. Soldier's Creek.
+
+   2.45. Upper Ferry, Kansas River.
+
+   7.41. Pottawatomie Settlement.
+
+   5.75. Pottawatomie Creek.
+
+   3.89. White Wakarussi Creek.
+
+   7.78. White Wakarussi Creek.
+
+   6.27. White Wakarussi Creek.
+
+   0.73. Road from Independence.--No place to encamp.
+
+   5.72. White Wakarussi Creek.
+
+   2.51. White Wakarussi Creek.
+
+   2.82. 142-mile Creek.
+
+   7.80. Bluff Creek.
+
+   5.77. Rock Creek.
+
+   5.08. Big John Spring.
+
+   2.29. Council Grove.
+
+   7.97. Elm Creek.--Water generally.
+
+   8.06. Diamond Spring.
+
+   1.42. Diamond Creek.
+
+  15.46. Lost Spring.--No wood.
+
+   9.25. Mud Creek.--Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+   7.76. Cottonwood Creek.
+
+   6.16. Water Holes.--Water generally; no wood.
+
+  12.44. Big Turkey Creek.--No water.
+
+   7.83. Little Turkey Creek.--Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+  18.19. Little Arkansas River.
+
+  10.60. Owl Creek.--Water generally in holes above and below crossing.
+
+   6.39. Little Cow Creek.--Water only occasionally.
+
+   2.93. Big Cow Creek.--Water holes, 10 miles (estimated). Water
+         uncertain; no wood.
+
+  18.24. Bend of the Arkansas.
+
+   6.66. Walnut Creek.
+
+  16.35. Pawnee Rock.--Teams sometimes camp near here, and drive stock
+         to the Arkansas to water. No wood.
+
+   5.28. Ash Creek.--Water above and below crossing, uncertain.
+
+   6.65. Pawnee Fork.--Best grass some distance above crossing.
+
+         From Pawnee Fork to the lower crossing of the Arkansas, a
+         distance of 98-1/2 miles, convenient camping-places can be
+         found along the Arkansas; the most prominent localities are
+         therefore only mentioned. A supply of fuel should be laid in
+         at Pawnee Fork to last till you pass Fort Mann, though it may
+         be obtained, but inconveniently, from the _opposite_ side of
+         the Arkansas. Dry Route branches off at 3-1/2 miles (estimated).
+         This route joins the main one again 10 miles this side of Fort
+         Mann. It is said to be a good one, but deficient in water and
+         without wood.
+
+  11.43. Coon Creek.
+
+  46.58. Jackson's Island.
+
+   5.01. Dry Route comes in.
+
+  10.05. Fort Mann.
+
+  25.34. Lower Crossing of the Arkansas.--The Bent's Fort Route
+         branches off at this point. For the distances upon this route,
+         see next table. A supply of wood should be got from this
+         vicinity to last till you reach Cedar Creek.
+
+  15.68. Water-hole.--Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+  30.02. Two Water-holes.--Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+  14.14. Lower Cimarron Springs.--No wood.
+
+  20.00. Pools of Water.--Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+  19.02. Middle Springs of the Cimarron.--No wood.
+
+  12.93. Little Crossing of the Cimarron.--No wood.
+
+  14.10. Upper Cimarron Springs.--No wood. Pools of water, 7 miles
+         (estimated). No wood.
+
+  19.05. Cold Spring.--A tree here and there in the vicinity. Pools of
+         water, 11 miles (estimated). Water uncertain; no wood.
+
+  16.13. Cedar Creek.--M'Nees' Creek, 10 miles (estimated). Water
+         indifferent and uncertain; scant pasture; no wood. Arroyo
+         del la Sena, 2-1/2 miles (estimated). No water.
+
+  21.99. Cottonwood Creek.--No water. Arroyo del Burro, 5 miles
+         (estimated).
+
+  15.17. Rabbit-ear Creek.--10 miles (estimated), springs. Round Mound,
+         8 miles (estimated). No water; no wood; no camping-place. Rock
+         Creek, 10 miles (estimated). Grazing scant; no wood.
+
+  26.40. Whetstone Creek.--Spring; no wood. Arroyo Don Carlos, 10-1/2
+         miles (estimated). Water, etc., to the left of the road.
+
+  14.13. Point of Rocks.--Water and grass _up the canon_, just after
+         crossing the _point_; scattering shrub cedars on the
+         neighboring heights.
+
+  16.62. Sandy Arroyo.--Water uncertain; no wood. Crossing of Canadian
+         River, 4-3/4 miles (estimated). Grazing above the crossing;
+         willows.
+
+  10.05. Rio Ocate.--Wood 1/3 of a mile to right of road; grass in
+         the canon. Pond of water, 13-1/2 miles (estimated). No wood.
+
+  19.65. Wagon Mound.--Santa Clara Springs. Wood brought from the Rio
+         Ocate. Rio del Perro (Rock Creek), 17-1/2 miles (estimated).
+
+  21.62. Canon del Lobo.--Rio Moro, 3-1/2 miles (estimated). Rio
+         Sapillo, 1 mile (estimated). The Bent's Fort Route comes in here.
+
+  18.00. Las Vegas.--Forage purchasable.
+
+  13.05. Tacolote.--Forage purchasable. Ojo Vernal, 5 miles (estimated).
+         No grass to speak of.
+
+  14.00. San Miguel.--Forage purchasable; no grass.
+
+  21.81. Ruins of Pecos.--Grazing very scant. Cottonwood Creek, 4-1/2
+         miles (estimated). Water uncertain; no grass.
+
+  13.41. Stone Corral.--No grass.
+
+  10.80. Santa Fe.--Forage purchasable; no grazing.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+III.--_Camping-places upon a road discovered and marked out from
+Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Dona Ana and El Paso, New Mexico, in 1849._
+By Captain R. B. MARCY, U.S.A.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Smith to
+
+     65. South Fork of the Canadian.--The road from Fort Smith to the
+         South Fork of the Canadian follows the same track as the road
+         to Albuquerque and Santa Fe, and by reference to the tables of
+         distances for that road the intermediate camps will be found.
+
+     15. Prior's Store.--Grass, wood, and water near.
+
+ 17-1/2. Little Boggy.--Good camp. Wherever there are not the requisites
+         of wood, water, and grass for encamping, it will be specially
+         noted; when they are not mentioned they will always be found.
+
+     13. Little Boggy.--Good camp.
+
+ 15-1/2. Boggy Depot.--Store and blacksmith's shop.
+
+ 12-3/5. Blue River.--The road passes over a flat section, which
+         is muddy after rains.
+
+  8-1/2. Fort Washita.--Good camp half a mile before reaching the fort.
+         The road forks at the Indian village on the Boggy, the left
+         being the most direct. There are settlers along the road, who
+         will give all necessary information to strangers. Corn plenty.
+
+     22. Preston Texas, on Red River.--The road from Fort Washita runs
+         through the Indian settlements, passing many places where good
+         camps may be found, and crosses the Red River at Preston. There
+         is a ferry here; also stores and a blacksmith's shop.
+
+     20. M'Carty's.--Road runs through a heavy-timbered country,
+         crossing several streams where there are good camps.
+
+ 14-2/5. Elm Fork of the Trinity, at Gainesville.--Road passes over a
+         section diversified by prairies and groves of timber.
+
+     12. Elm Fork of Trinity.--Good camp.
+
+     11. Elm Fork of Trinity.--Excellent camps. Road passes over a
+         beautiful country rapidly settling up with farmers, who
+         cultivate and sell grain at low rates.
+
+      9. Turkey Creek.--Tributary of Red River. Road emerges from the
+         upper "Cross Timbers" two miles from camp.
+
+ 26-3/4. Buffalo Springs.--Springs of good water, but of limited
+         amount, in a ravine.
+
+     12. On a Ravine.--Pools of good water and a small running stream,
+         not reliable.
+
+ 13-1/2. On a Ravine.--Pools of water.
+
+ 17-1/4. On a Ravine.--Pools of water.
+
+ 17-1/4. Running branch of Cottonwood Spring.--Branch about two feet
+         wide, good water; wood about half a mile distant.
+
+     14. Fort Belknap.--Good road through post-oak timber. County seat
+         and town at Fort Belknap. Good camp on the west side of the
+         Brazos, which is always fordable except in very high water.
+
+     14. Small Branch.--Water in holes.
+
+     18. Water-holes.--Pools of water. Road passes over prairie and
+         timbered lands, is very smooth and level.
+
+  7-1/2. Stem's Farm, on Clear Fork of the Brazos River.--Good road;
+         excellent camp, with abundance of wood, water, and grass.
+         Indian reservation here.
+
+     13. Elm Creek, or Qua-qua-ho-no.--Good road over rolling prairie
+         and mesquite lands.
+
+     17. Ravine.--Pools of standing water. Good road.
+
+     18. Ravine.--Pools of standing water. Good road.
+
+     27. Small Creek.--Tributary of the Brazos. Good road.
+
+      6. Pools of Water.--Good camp.
+
+  8-1/2. Small Branch.--Good water.
+
+ 20-1/2. Tributary of the Colorado.--Brackish water.
+
+  3-1/4. Rio Colorado.--Brackish water. Road very excellent.
+
+12-1/10. Spring on the Road.--Good water.
+
+22-9/10. Big spring to the left of the road, affording a great amount
+         of water, which runs off in a small stream.
+
+     23. Laguna Colorado.--Water somewhat sulphurous; fuel mesquite
+         roots; grass abundant.
+
+     35. Mustang Pond.--This pond is north of the road about two
+         miles, and was found in 1849, but emigrants and others have
+         not been able to find it since. For this reason I would advise
+         travelers to fill their water-kegs at the Laguna Colorado, as
+         in a very dry season they might not be able to get any water
+         until they reach the Sand Hills. The road is excellent over
+         the "Llano Estacado," or Staked Plain.
+
+ 34-1/2. Sand Hills.--Water in holes. The water is good here, and can
+         always be relied on as permanent. The road through the Sand
+         Hills is very heavy, and I would advise travelers with loaded
+         wagons to make half loads.
+
+ 31-1/2. Laguna near the Pecos River.--Road passes through the hills,
+         and descends the high prairie to the valley of the Pecos.
+         Laguna on the left.
+
+ 15-5/8. Crossing of Pecos.--Water deep and not fordable; river 42
+         yards wide. A road leads up the eastern bank of the Pecos to
+         a ford with rock bottom. Good camps can be had at almost any
+         point on the Pecos. The water is brackish, but can be used
+         without harm.
+
+ 54-1/2. Pecos River.--Point of the river where the road turns off
+         toward Delaware Creek.
+
+  9-1/8. Delaware Creek.--Good road after leaving the Pecos River.
+         The road on the Pecos is good in the bottom in very dry
+         weather, but after heavy rains it is submerged and very muddy.
+         Travelers should then turn off to the bluffs. The water in
+         Delaware Creek is brackish.
+
+ 11-7/8. Ojo de San Martin.--Fine spring of fresh water, also mineral
+         spring. Good road up Delaware Creek.
+
+15-3/10. Independence Spring.--Large spring of excellent water. Look
+         out for Indians.
+
+ 5-1/10. Ojo del Camins.--Good spring in the pine timber at the base
+         of the mountain.
+
+  4-1/2. Peak of the Guadalupe.--Spring at the foot of the mountain.
+         Road descends the mountain, and is very steep.
+
+ 23-7/8. Ojo del Cuerbo.--Road descends through a very rough and
+         sinuous ravine, and crosses a long prairie to camp at a
+         pond of standing water. No wood.
+
+     26. Cornudas (Wells).--Well in the rocks; plenty of water for
+         small parties. Road good.
+
+  8-3/4. Sierra del Alamo.--Road good; water limited in quantity.
+         There is a small spring upon the side of the
+         mountain. No wood except a few mesquite roots.
+
+ 22-1/4. Waco Tanks.--Good water in a large reservoir in the rocks.
+         The road here branches, the left leading to El Paso and the
+         right to Dona Ana.
+
+     28. El Paso, on the Rio del Norte.--Road good, with some sand;
+         no water upon it.
+
+         The distance from the "Waco Tanks" to Dona Ana is 63 miles,
+         but 40 miles of the road is over heavy sand, and no water
+         until reaching the mountain, 25 miles from Dona Ana. I would
+         recommend travelers to take the El Paso road in preference.
+
+Total distance from Fort Smith to El Paso, 860 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+IV.--_From Leavenworth City to Great Salt Lake City._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Leavenworth City to
+
+      3. Salt Creek.--Good camp; wood, water, and grass.
+
+     12. Cold Spring.--To the right of the road, in a deep ravine,
+         plenty of wood, water, and grass.
+
+     12. Small Branch.--To the north of the road, in an arroya,
+         good wood, water, and grass. Here enters the road from
+         Atcheson, 6 miles distant.
+
+ 16-2/3. Grasshopper Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+  9-1/2. Walnut Creek.--Road passes a town called Whitehead, 4
+         miles from last camp. Water in pools, but 3/4 of a mile
+         below is a fine spring; plenty of wood, water, and grass.
+
+     17. Grasshopper Creek.--Good camp, with wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+ 12-1/2. Big Nemehaw, two miles above Richland.--Good wood, water,
+         and grass near the creek.
+
+     11. Water-holes.--On the ridge, at the head of a ravine, are
+         wood, water, and grass, but in a dry time there would
+         be but little water.
+
+ 10-3/4. Vermilion Creek.--Water in the creek not good, but there
+         is a good well of cold water near the road. Wood and grass
+         good.
+
+ 21-1/2. Big Blue River.--Upper crossing, good ford; plenty of wood,
+         water, and grass. Fine clear stream, 60 yards wide.
+
+ 17-1/2. Branch of the Big Blue.--Camp half a mile north of the
+         road; good wood, water, and grass.
+
+     15. Turkey, or Rock Creek.--Good spring 400 yards to the north
+         of the road. Store at the crossing. Good wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+     19. Big Sandy.--Wood, water, and grass good.
+
+     19. Little Blue River.--Road runs across the hills without
+         water until reaching camp. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 18-3/4. Little Blue River.--Camp is at the point where the road
+         turns off from the creek. Good camps may be found any where
+         on the Little Blue, with excellent wood, water, and grass.
+         Fine running stream.
+
+     15. Little Blue River.--Road strikes the creek again, and
+         keeps it to the camp. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+     19. Elm Creek.--Road leaves the Little Blue, and runs along
+         a divide to the head of Elm Creek, where we found water
+         in holes, with some few trees; grass good.
+
+     20. Platte River.--Road crosses one small branch, where there
+         is water except in a dry season. Good camp on the Platte,
+         with wood, water, and grass.
+
+     15. Fort Kearney.--Good camp about two miles from the fort,
+         upon the Platte, either above or below; grass, wood, and
+         water abundant.
+
+     17. Platte River--Road runs along the river, where there is
+         plenty of grass, and occasionally a few cottonwood-trees.
+         Here the buffalo generally begin to be seen, and the
+         traveler can always get a plenty of buffalo-chips along
+         in this section.
+
+ 16-3/4. On Plum Creek.--Road runs along the Platte to Plum Creek,
+         where there is a little wood, with good grass and water.
+         Mail station at the crossing of Plum Creek.
+
+ 22-1/3. On Platte River.--Road runs along the Platte bottom
+         after crossing Plum Creek, and is good except in wet
+         weather. The road occasionally comes near the Platte,
+         and, although the timber becomes thin, yet places are
+         found where fuel can be obtained. Grass is plenty at
+         all points.
+
+     23. On Platte River.--Road continues along the river valley
+         over a flat country where the water stands in ponds,
+         and is boggy in wet weather. Camps occasionally on
+         the river, but little fuel. Grass and water good.
+
+     14. On Platte River.--Road continues along the valley, with
+         the same character as before, but more timber. Camp
+         opposite Brady's Island. Plenty of wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+ 17-1/4. Slough.--On the Prairie. Road runs from one to three
+         miles from the river. No wood all day; plenty of grass,
+         and buffalo-chips for cooking.
+
+ 15-1/4. Platte River.--Road crosses O'Fallon's Bluffs, where there
+         is a good camping-place on the right of the road. Plenty
+         of wood, water, and grass on a small stream, which is part
+         of the Platte. Mail station here.
+
+ 16-1/2. South Platte River.--Road runs along the Platte, with no
+         timber. Good grass and water at any point, with buffalo-chips
+         for fuel.
+
+     17. South Platte River.--No timber all day. Good water and grass
+         at all points, with buffalo-chips.
+
+      8. South Platte Crossing.--No wood all day. Good water and
+         grass, with buffalo-chips. The river is about 600 yards wide,
+         rapid, with quicksand bottom, but can be forded when not above
+         a medium stage. It is best to send a footman ahead to
+         ascertain the depth of water before crossing the wagons and
+         animals.
+
+     19. Ash Hollow, at North Platte River.--Road leaves the South Fork
+         of the Platte, and strikes over the high prairie for 16 miles,
+         when it descends the high bluffs bordering the valley of the
+         North Platte, and enters Ash Hollow, where there is a plenty
+         of wood and a small spring of water. Half a mile beyond this
+         the road reaches the river. Mail station and a small grocery
+         here.
+
+ 16-3/4. North Platte.--Very sandy road; no wood; grass and water
+         plenty at all points; buffalo-chips sufficient for cooking.
+
+     17. North Platte.--Road sandy in places; no wood; good grass
+         and water; some buffalo-chips.
+
+ 16-1/2. North Platte.--Road good; no wood; good grass and water;
+         cattle-chips in places.
+
+ 18-3/4. North Platte.--No wood. Camp opposite "Chimney Rock,"
+         which is a very peculiar formation on the south of the road,
+         and resembles a chimney. Grass good. Road muddy after rains.
+
+[Illustration: CHIMNEY ROCK.]
+
+ 17-1/2. North Platte.--No wood; grass and water good.
+
+     16. "Horse Creek," branch of the North Platte.--In seven
+         miles the road passes through Scott's Bluffs, where there is
+         generally water in the first ravine about 200 yards below the
+         road. The road then descends the mountain, at the foot of
+         which is the Platte and a mail station. A little wood can be
+         obtained at Scott's Bluffs; there is none on Horse Creek.
+
+ 14-1/4. North Platte.--Road follows the river bottom all day.
+         Wood, water, and grass on the river.
+
+     12. Fort Laramie.--Road rough and rocky in places. There are
+         wood and water plenty, and before many trains have passed the
+         grass is good above the fort. Mail station and post-office
+         here, with a sutler's store well stocked with such articles as
+         the traveler wants.
+
+     10. North Platte.--Road good, but hilly in places. Camp is in
+         the river bottom, with plenty of wood, water, and grass. Hot
+         spring two miles above here.
+
+     14. Bitter Creek.--There are two roads, both of which lead to
+         Salt Lake. The upper or south road is best in the spring or in
+         wet weather. I traveled the lower road. Wood, water, and grass
+         are good.
+
+ 17-3/4. Horse-shoe Creek.--Fine camp, with excellent wood, water,
+         and grass. The road here forks, one passing to the left over
+         the hills, and the other running nearer the Platte.
+
+ 20-1/2. North Platte River.--Good road along near the river. Good
+         wood, water, and grass. Road crosses the river at 12-1/2
+         miles.
+
+ 20-1/4. North Platte River.--Road crosses the river again, and the
+         camp is two miles above the mouth of La Prell Creek. Good
+         wood, water, and grass.
+
+     19. North Platte River.--Road runs along the river, and is
+         smooth and good. The camp is two miles above the crossing of
+         Deer Creek, where there is a blacksmith's shop and store. Good
+         grass, wood, and water.
+
+     16. North Platte River.--Good road, with wood, water, and grass
+         at camp.
+
+     13. North Platte River.--Good road passing the bridge, where
+         there is a blacksmith's shop and store, also a military
+         station and a mail station. At two miles from camp the road
+         crosses the river on a good ford with rocky bottom. The wood,
+         water, and grass are abundant.
+
+     23. Red Buttes, on the North Platte.--Road is very hilly, and
+         in some places sandy; passes Willow Spring, where there is
+         grass and a little wood. Good wood, water, and grass at camp.
+         Mail station here.
+
+     11. Sweet Water Creek.--Road leaves the river at the Red Buttes,
+         and strikes over the high rolling prairie. Good grass and
+         water, but little wood at camp.
+
+     15. On Sweet Water Creek.--Road passes a blacksmith's shop and
+         store at the bridge six miles from camp, and at 2-1/2 miles
+         from the camp it passes the "Devil's Gate" and a mail station.
+         The Sweet Water here runs between two perpendicular cliffs,
+         presenting a most singular and striking appearance. Take wood
+         at the Gate for camp. Good grass and water at all places on
+         Sweet Water Creek.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL'S GATE.]
+
+     20. Sweet Water Creek.--Road muddy after rains, and some bad
+         ravines to cross. Wood, water, and grass of the best quality
+         at camp.
+
+     12. Sweet Water Creek.--Road runs along the valley of the Sweet
+         Water, where there is plenty of wood and grass in places, but
+         little wood at the camp noted.
+
+      8. On Sweet Water.--Road good; no wood; grass abundant.
+
+     20. On Sweet Water.--Road good; no wood.
+
+     17. Strawberry Creek.--Little wood; grass and water abundant.
+         Road leaves "Sweet Water," and ascends a very long hill which
+         is very rocky.
+
+ 20-1/4. South Pass.--Road crosses the dividing ridge, and strikes
+         the Pacific Spring, where there is excellent water and good
+         grass if many cattle have not passed, in which event the
+         traveler had better continue on down the creek which issues
+         from the spring. Sage for fuel; no wood.
+
+ 15-3/4. Dry Sandy Creek.--Grass scarce; no wood; some sage and
+         greasewood; water brackish, but drinkable; road good. Here the
+         traveler should send ahead and have the best spots of grass
+         found, as it is very scarce throughout this section. Sublett's
+         Cut-off turns off here for Soda Springs and Fort Hall. Take
+         the left for Fort Bridger and Salt Lake City.
+
+     15. Little Sandy Creek.--Grass in spots along the creek bottom,
+         and some fuel.
+
+     18. Big Sandy Creek.--Grass in detached spots on the creek, and
+         little fuel.
+
+ 21-1/2. Green River, Upper Ford.--Grass and fuel on the river.
+
+      7. Green River, at the Lower Ford.--Good grass and fuel below
+         the ford. Ferry in time of high water. Mail station and
+         grocery.
+
+     16. Black's Fork.--Good grass and fuel.
+
+      7. Ham's Fork.--United States bridge, no toll. Good grass
+         and fuel.
+
+     12. Black's Fork.--Road forks at the crossing of Black's Fork,
+         both roads leading to Fort Bridger. This itinerary is upon
+         the left-hand road, which crosses Black's Fork two miles
+         from Ham's Fork.
+
+     13. Smith's Fork.--Good camps along Black's Fork at any place,
+         but the road leaves the stream for several miles. Wood,
+         water, and grass at the confluence of Black's and Smith's
+         Forks.
+
+ 18-1/4. Fort Bridger.--Good camps above and below the fort.
+         Military post, mail station, and store.
+
+         Muddy Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water. Grass short after
+         many trains have passed. It is then necessary to go up the
+         creek to find good grass. Road passes a fine spring 3 miles
+         back.
+
+     19. Bear River.--Good camps, with wood, water, and grass.
+
+         Good ford, except in very high water. Sulphur Creek two miles
+         back.
+
+     19. Red Fork.--In "Echo Canon," two miles below Cashe Cave,
+         good grass and fuel; water plenty.
+
+ 19-1/4. Weber River.--Good grass, wood, and water. Mail station.
+         United States bridge for high water; no toll.
+
+  5-1/4. Spring Branch.--Good camp. Road leaves the river, and takes
+         the left into a valley.
+
+      9. Bauchmin's Creek.--Road crosses over a mountain, and
+         descends to the creek, where there is a good camp.
+
+     14. Big Canon Creek.--Road crosses Bauchmin's Creek 13 times
+         in 8 miles, then ascends the mountain along a small creek,
+         which is well wooded and good grass.
+
+      6. Emigration Creek.--Road leaves Canon Creek, and crosses the
+         two mountains, which are very steep and long. Grass and wood
+         before crossing the "Little Mountain."
+
+ 10-1/4. Great Salt Lake City.--Forage can be purchased here, as well
+         as most of the articles the traveler may require, at high
+         prices. There is no camping-place within two miles of the
+         city. It is best for those who encamp with animals to cross
+         the Jordan River, or to stop near the mouth of the canon
+         before entering the city.
+
+Total distance from Fort Leavenworth to Salt Lake City, 1168 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+V.--_From Salt Lake City to Sacramento and Benicia, California._
+
+Miles.
+
+         From Salt Lake City to
+
+     18. Hait's Ranch.--Good road, and grass abundant until Bear
+         River is crossed.
+
+ 17-1/4. Ford on Weber River.--Good road, and grass abundant.
+
+     15. Point of Mountain.--Spring water warm but pure.
+
+ 12-3/4. Box Elder Creek.--Excellent water; grass and fuel
+         abundant in the canons.
+
+     23. Ferry on Bear River.--Four miles above the usual crossing.
+         Excellent grass.
+
+    3/4. West Bank.--Grass not good on the west bank.
+
+      6. Small Spring.--Cross Bear River below the mouth of the
+         Mallade.
+
+ 17-1/2. Blue Springs.--Water and grass scarce, and of poor quality.
+
+ 21-1/4. Deep Creek.--Heavy sage, but good grass on the right of the
+         road, near sink.
+
+ 20-1/2. Cedar Springs.--Good grass on the hills, with fine water
+         and wood; rolling country.
+
+     10. Rock Creek.--Plenty of grass to the left of the road; good
+         camping-place.
+
+ 14-1/2. Raft River.--Good camp.
+
+ 22-1/2. Goose Creek Mountains.--Grass, wood, and water abundant;
+         rough and mountainous country. Road from Fort Bridger comes
+         in here _via_ Soda Springs.
+
+ 17-3/4. On Goose Creek.--Rough, broken country, with a good road,
+         which runs along the creek for several miles.
+
+ 28-1/2. Head of 1000 Spring Valley.--Road runs over a rolling,
+         barren section, with but little water except on the river
+         far to the right.
+
+ 25-3/4. 1000 Spring Valley.--Meadow grass; good fuel scarce. Camps
+         can be found at short intervals along the road.
+
+     14. Head of Humboldt River.--Fine camping-places, and road
+         generally good, running over a rolling country.
+
+     23. Slough of the Humboldt.--Extensive bottoms of good grass.
+
+     20. Humboldt River.--Along the entire course of the Humboldt
+         good grass is found in the bottoms. The road, which follows
+         the bottom, is hard and smooth, but can not be traveled in
+         seasons of very high water, as the bottom overflows. It is
+         then necessary to take the road on the bluffs, where the grass
+         is scarce. The river, when not above a fording stage, can be
+         forded at almost any point, and good camps can be found at
+         short intervals. There are spots along the river bottom where
+         alkaline ponds are frequent. These are poisonous to cattle,
+         and should be avoided by travelers. It is well along this
+         river not to allow animals to drink any water except from the
+         river where it is running.
+
+     20. Humboldt River.--The foregoing remarks apply for every camp
+         on the Humboldt River.
+
+     22. Humboldt River.--Good camps along the Humboldt Valley.
+
+     23. Humboldt River.
+
+ 13-1/2. Humboldt River.
+
+ 16-1/2. Humboldt River.
+
+     25. Humboldt River.
+
+ 13-3/4. Humboldt River.
+
+     24. Humboldt River.
+
+ 24-1/2. Humboldt River.
+
+ 20-1/4. Humboldt River.
+
+ 18-3/4. Humboldt River.
+
+ 13-1/2. Humboldt River.
+
+ 18-1/4. Lawson's Meadows.--The road here forks, the left going by
+         the Carson Valley and Sacramento route, and the right _via_
+         Goose, Clear, and Rhett lakes, Applegate's Pass of the Cascade
+         Mountains, into Rogue River Valley, Fort Law, Oregon
+         Territory, Yreka, Fort Jones, Fort Reading, and Sacramento
+         River.
+
+ 33-1/2. On Humboldt River.--Grass and water poor all the distance
+         to the Sink of the Humboldt.
+
+ 19-1/2. Sink of Humboldt River.--The water at the Sink is strongly
+         impregnated with alkali; the road generally is good. Travelers
+         should not allow their stock to drink too freely of this
+         water.
+
+     26. Head Sink of Humboldt.--Road good.
+
+     45. Carson River.--Road crosses the desert, where there is no
+         water for stock, but there is a well where travelers can
+         purchase water for drinking. This part of the road should be
+         traveled in the cool of the day and at night. Grass good, also
+         the water.
+
+      2. Carson River.--Good bunch-grass near the road.
+
+     30. Carson River.--26 miles of desert; poor grass.
+
+     14. Eagle Ranch.--Good grass and water.
+
+     13. Reese's Ranch.--Good grass and water.
+
+     12. Williams' Ranch.--Very good water and grass.
+
+     15. Hope Valley.--Road rough and rocky.
+
+      3. Near Sierra.--Good camp, with water and grass.
+
+      7. First Summit.--Road rough and rocky; good water; grass
+         scarce.
+
+      2. Second Summit.--Road mountainous and very steep; snow nearly
+         all the year.
+
+     10. Lakes.--Good camp.
+
+     12. Leek Springs.--Good grass near the road.
+
+     10. Trader's Creek.--Grass and fuel scarce.
+
+     12. Sly Park.--Grass and fuel near the road.
+
+         Forty Mile House.--Water plenty; grass scarce.
+
+         Sacramento Valley.--Water plenty; purchase forage.
+
+         Sacramento City.--Water plenty; purchase forage.
+
+Total distance from Salt Lake City to Benicia, 973 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+At the Big Meadows, 23 miles from the Sink of the Humboldt, travelers
+should make a halt of a day or two to rest and recruit their animals
+and to cut grass for crossing the desert, as this is the last
+good camping-place until reaching Carson River. The ground near this
+place is boggy, and animals should be watered with buckets. The
+camping-ground here is on the right bank of the river, and about half a
+mile to the left of the main road. The water is in a slough, near its
+head, where will be found some springs which run off a short distance,
+but soon sink.
+
+The road across the desert is very sandy, especially toward the western
+extremity. Twenty miles from the Sink of the Humboldt there are four
+wells. About half a mile east of the mail station the road leading to
+the wells turns to the right, where water can be purchased for from one
+to two shillings for each man and beast.
+
+At 9-1/2 miles beyond the mail station, on the desert, a road turns off
+from the main trace toward a very high sandy ridge, and directly upon
+the top of this ridge is the crater of an extinct volcano, at the
+bottom of which is a salt lake. Upon the extreme north end of this lake
+will be found a large spring of fresh water, sufficient for 1000
+animals. From thence to "Ragtown," on Carson River, is three miles.
+
+I would advise travelers, when their animals become exhausted before
+reaching this water, to take them out of harness and drive them to this
+place to recruit. There is some grass around the lake.
+
+This desert has always been the most difficult part of the journey to
+California, and more animals have probably been lost here than at any
+other place. The parts of wagons that are continually met with here
+shows this most incontestably.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+VI.--_From Great Salt Lake City to Los Angeles and San Francisco,
+California._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Salt Lake City to
+
+ 20-5/8. Willow Creek.--Good grass.
+
+     14. American Creek.--Good grass.
+
+ 11-1/2. Provo City.--Town.
+
+  7-1/4. Hobble Creek.--Good camp.
+
+      6. Spanish Fork.--Good camp.
+
+      5. Peteetneet.--Good camp.
+
+     25. Salt Creek.--Several small streams between. Good camp.
+
+ 18-5/8. Toola Creek.--Ford. No wood; grass good.
+
+  6-1/4. Sevier River.--Road is sandy, passing over a high ridge.
+         Good camp.
+
+ 25-1/2. Cedar Creek.--Road rather mountainous and sandy. Good grass
+         and wood.
+
+ 17-1/2. Creek.--This is the fourth stream south of Sevier River.
+         Road crosses two streams. Good camp.
+
+  3-5/8. Willow Flats.--The water sinks a little east of the road.
+
+     25. Spring.--Good grass and water.
+
+ 22-1/4. Sage Creek.--Grass poor; wood and water.
+
+  5-1/8. Beaver Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 27-1/4. North Canon Creek.--In Little Salt Lake Valley. Good grass;
+         no wood. The road is rough and steep for six miles.
+
+  5-3/8. Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+  6-3/4. Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 12-7/8. Cottonwood Creek.--Good grass and water.
+
+      9. Cedar Springs.--Good camp.
+
+     23. Pynte Creek.--Good grass one mile up the canon.
+
+      9. Road Springs.--Road is rough; good camp.
+
+     16. Santa Clara.--Road descending and rough; poor grass.
+         From this point to Cahoon Pass look out for Indians.
+
+ 17-1/8. Camp Springs.--Two miles before reaching the springs the
+         road leaves the Santa Clara. Good grass.
+
+ 22-7/8. Rio Virgin.--Road crosses over the summit of a mountain.
+         Good road; grass poor.
+
+ 39-5/8. Rio Virgin.--Road runs down the Rio Virgin, crossing it
+         ten times. Grass good down the river.
+
+ 19-5/8. Muddy Creek.--Road for half a mile is very steep and
+         sandy. Good camp.
+
+ 52-5/8. Las Vegas.--Water is sometimes found 2-1/2 miles west of
+         the road in holes 23 miles from the Muddy, and some grass
+         about a mile from the road. Good camp.
+
+      5. On Vegas.--Road runs up the river. Good grass.
+
+     17. Cottonwood Spring.--Poor grass.
+
+ 29-3/4. Cottonwood Grove.--No grass. Water and grass can be found
+         four miles west by following the old Spanish trail to a
+         ravine, and thence to the left in the ravine one mile.
+
+ 21-3/4. Resting Springs.--Good grass and water. Animals should be
+         rested here before entering the desert.
+
+      7. Spring.--The spring is on the left of the road, and flows
+         into Saleratus Creek. Animals must not be allowed to drink the
+         Saleratus water.
+
+ 14-1/8. Salt Springs.--Poor grass and no fresh water.
+
+ 38-3/4. Bitter Springs.--Good road; poor grass.
+
+ 30-3/4. Mohave River.--Good road and good grass.
+
+ 51-1/2. On the Mohave.--Last ford. Good grass all the way up the
+         Mohave.
+
+     17. Cahoon Pass.--At the summit.
+
+     10. Camp.--Road bad down the canon.
+
+ 11-1/2. Coco Mongo Ranch.
+
+     10. Del Chino Ranch.--Williams.
+
+ 19-3/8. San Gabriel River.
+
+      6. San Gabriel Mission.
+
+  8-1/4. Pueblo de los Angeles.
+
+ 65-3/4. Santa Clara River.--_On the Coast Route._ Good camps to
+         San Jose.
+
+  7-1/2. Buena Ventura Mission and River.--Road here strikes the
+         Pacific shore.
+
+     26. Santa Barbara.--Town.
+
+ 45-3/4. San Yenness River.--At the Mission.
+
+ 78-7/8. Santa Margareta.--Old Mission.
+
+ 28-3/8. San Miguel.--Old Mission.
+
+ 24-3/4. San Antonio River.
+
+ 26-3/4. Rio del Monterey.
+
+ 15-5/8. Solida Mission.--At the ford of Rio del Monterey.
+
+ 37-1/2. San Juan Mission.
+
+     33. San Jose Pueblo.
+
+     75. San Francisco.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+VII.--_From Fort Bridger to the "City of Rocks."_ From Captain
+Handcock's Journal.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Bridger to
+
+      9. Little Muddy Creek.--Water brackish in pools along the creek;
+         tall bunch-grass; sage for fuel. Road runs over a barren
+         section, is rough, and passes one steep hill.
+
+ 12-1/3. Big Muddy Creek.--The road, with the exception of two or
+         three bad gullies, is good for ten miles; it then follows the
+         Big Muddy bottom, which is flat and boggy. The camp is three
+         miles above the crossing. Some grass; sage for fuel.
+
+ 14-1/5. Small Branch of the Muddy Creek.--Cross the river in three
+         miles at a bad ford. A mile above camp the grass is good. Road
+         generally good.
+
+ 19-1/2. On Small Creek.--Road continues up the Muddy 9-1/2 miles to
+         its head. It then ascends to the divide between Bear and Green
+         Rivers, probably 800 feet, in 1-3/5 miles. The descent on the
+         other side is about the same. The road passes many fine
+         springs. At one and two miles back it passes points of hills,
+         where it is very rough. Good grass and sage at camp.
+
+ 8-9/10. Bear River.--Bad creek to cross near the camp; thence to Bear
+         River Valley the road is good. It then follows down the river,
+         crossing Willow Creek. Good camp, with a large, fine spring.
+
+     17. Bear River.--Good road along the river; plenty of wood,
+         water, and grass at all points.
+
+         Foot of Grant's Mountain.--Road runs along Bear River; at
+         2-1/2 miles strikes Smith's Fork, a rapid trout stream. The
+         road crosses the lower ford. A few miles farther on is a bad
+         slough, which can be avoided by taking a round on the hills.
+         Cross Thomas's Fork on a bridge, also a slough near it; toll
+         $2.00 for each team and wagon. The road then leaves Bear River
+         Valley, and turns over a very steep hill. Good grass, wood,
+         and water.
+
+     12. Bear River.--Road ascends Grant's Mountain 1200 feet in 1-1/2
+         miles--double teams--then descends again into Bear River
+         Valley at 4-4/5 miles. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 17-2/5. Indian Creek.--Road crosses eight fine spring branches;
+         camp is on a beautiful trout stream. Good wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+     11. Spring near Bear River.--Road is hilly, crossing two
+         spring branches. Good wood, water, and grass. The camp is on
+         the left and near the road.
+
+     11. Bear River.--At 6-7/10 miles the road strikes a large
+         group of springs called "Soda Springs," and here crosses Pine
+         Creek, on the left bank of which is a saleratus lake. Soon
+         after it strikes the main springs, and after crossing another
+         creek the "Steam-boat Spring" may be seen in the bed of the
+         river.
+
+     15. "Port Neuf," or Rock Creek.--At 2-3/10 miles the road leaves
+         Bear River near where it runs through a canon with high bluffs
+         on each side. At this point the California and Fort Hall roads
+         separate. The California road (called Hudspeth's Cut-off) then
+         crosses a valley between the Bear River and Port Neuf River
+         Mountains, 9 miles. No water from camp to camp. Good camp.
+
+     15. Marsh Creek.--About two miles above the main road the creek
+         can be forded; a road leads to it from the descent into the
+         valley. Road good; water and grass plenty; no wood.
+
+ 16-1/5. Paunack Creek.--First part of the road is hilly; the remainder
+         good. Good camp.
+
+  7-1/5. Mallade River.--At 7-1/5 miles the road crosses the Mallade
+         River. Good camp 140 miles from Salt Lake City. Good road.
+
+22-3/10. Small Creek.--The road ascends a ridge through a canon, and
+         descends to a valley on the other side. From the camp to the
+         summit of the ridge is 6-1/5 miles. The descent is 3-7/10
+         miles. It then crosses a valley 8 miles wide, and strikes a
+         canon which leads to the top of a hill over a rough road.
+         Plenty of wood, water, and grass at camp, but no water between
+         this and the last camp.
+
+  9-3/5. Small Creek.--Road after five miles strikes a canon with a
+         long but gentle ascent. Two miles from the entrance of this
+         canon is a spring branch. There is wood and some grass and
+         water at this place.
+
+ 11-1/5. Spring Branch.--The road passes through a canon, and at 5
+         miles strikes the head of a spring branch, which it follows
+         down 2-1/2 miles to the junction with a larger branch, which
+         is bridged. At nine tenths of a mile another fork enters.
+         Grass very fine here. Road follows down this across the main
+         branch, and the camp is 2 miles below. Good camp.
+
+ 18-1/2. Decassure Creek, or Raft River.--Road continues down the
+         creek 2-3/10 miles, and crosses, then ascends by a steep hill
+         to an elevated sage plain, leaving the creek at 11-4/5 miles,
+         and passes a slough with water. Good camp.
+
+ 17-9/10. Spring Branch.--The road crosses the creek near the last
+         camp, and follows up a valley, crossing in five miles several
+         spring branches. At 2-9/10 miles it crosses the creek again,
+         and follows up the valley two miles farther, then crosses a
+         high sage plain 8-9/10 miles long, when it strikes a spring
+         150 yards to the left of the road, where there is an excellent
+         camp in a beautiful valley.
+
+     10. Junction of Salt Lake City Road.--Road passes several small
+         branches in 3 miles, then commences ascending through a canon
+         which, in 2-1/5 miles, leads to the entrance to the "City of
+         Rocks," and passes through these for three miles. It then
+         crosses a ridge, leaving the City of Rocks, and at ten miles
+         from last camp intersects the road from "Salt Lake City." At
+         1-2/5 miles beyond this a road leads off to the right to a
+         spring branch, 3 miles, where there is a good camp near the
+         foot of Goose Creek Mountain. From this point California
+         travelers can refer to the itinerary of the route from Salt
+         Lake City to Sacramento.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+VIII.--_From Soda Springs to the City of Rocks, known as Hudspeth's
+Cut-off._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Soda Springs to
+
+      20. Bear River.--The road runs down Bear River, crossing
+         some small streams. Good camp.
+
+     10. Portner Creek.--Camp at the head of the creek. Good wood,
+         water, and grass.
+
+     12. Fork of Portner Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Pauack Creek.--Road crosses a summit. Good road and camp.
+
+     12. Snake Spring.--Good camp.
+
+     12. Utha Spring.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Decassure Creek.--Road crosses a small stream; rather bad
+         crossing. Good camp.
+
+     18. City of Rocks.--Junction of Salt Lake road. Good camp.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+IX.--_Sublets Cut-off, from the junction of the Salt Lake and Fort
+Hall Roads._
+
+Miles.
+
+         _Junction_ to
+
+      7. Big Sandy.
+
+     44. Green River.--From the Big Sandy to Green River (upper road)
+         there is an abundance of grass in places along the road, but
+         no water.
+
+      6. Small Creek.--The road runs up the creek. Good grass.
+
+      4. On the Creek.--Good grass and water.
+
+     12. Small Spring.--The spring is on the left of the road. Good
+         grass.
+
+      9. Ham's Fork.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+      6. Spring.--On the summit of a mountain. Good grass.
+
+      6. Muddy Creek.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+     10. Spring.--In Bear River Valley. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+      6. Smith's Fork.--In Bear, River Valley. Good wood, water;
+         and grass.
+
+     10. Tomaus' Fork.--Road runs down Bear River. Good wood, water,
+         and grass.
+
+      7. Spring Creek.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+      7. Smith's Ford.--Road crosses over a spur of the mountain;
+         long and gradual ascent; descent rather abrupt. Good wood,
+         water, and grass.
+
+      8. Telleck's Fork.--Road runs down Bear River. Good camp.
+
+      4. Small Creek.--Good camp.
+
+      4. Small Creek.--Good camp.
+
+      7. Small Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     12. Soda Springs.--Left side of the road, among some cedars,
+         is a good camp.
+
+         Here take the left-hand road to California, called
+         _Hudspeth's Cut-off_.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+X.--_From Lawson's Meadows, on the Humboldt River, to Fort Reading,
+via Rogue River Valley, Fort Lane, Oregon Territory, Yreka, and Fort
+Jones._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Lawson's Meadows to
+
+ 18-1/2. Mountain Spring.--Road leaves the Humboldt, and takes a
+         northwesterly course 12 miles to a spring of good water. Good
+         bunch-grass to the left of the road, and a small spring at the
+         camp. The road is plain on leaving the river, but after a few
+         days it becomes faint. Road from this point passes over a
+         desert country for about 60 miles, without good water or much
+         grass.
+
+ 38-1/2. Black Rock Spring.--Road level and hard, with little
+         vegetation. In 14 miles pass springs, but the water is not
+         good. In 16 miles the road passes a slough which is difficult
+         to cross; water not good, but can be given to cattle in small
+         quantities. In five miles from this the road passes Black
+         Rock, mentioned by Colonel Fremont in his trip from Columbia
+         River in 1843-4. Three miles farther pass boiling springs,
+         very hot, but good cooled. Grass pretty good.
+
+ 20-1/4. Mountain Rill.--Water good; bunch-grass in the vicinity. In
+         eight miles' travel the road passes a beautiful creek of pure
+         water, with good grass.
+
+  5-3/4. Lake (Marshy).
+
+ 10-1/2. High Rock Canon.--This canon is 25 miles long, with wild and
+         curious scenery. Road crosses the creek frequently, and the
+         mud is bad. In the autumn the road is good.
+
+ 14-3/4. High Rock Canon.
+
+         Small Creek.--Beautiful country, with the greatest abundance
+         of water and grass; also fuel.
+
+ 25-1/4. Pine Grove Creek.--Road passes over an interesting country,
+         well supplied with wood, water, and grass, and passes around
+         the south end of a salt lake.
+
+ 18-1/2. West Slope of Sierra.--Road passes over the mountain, which
+         is steep but not rocky, then descends to a small creek of good
+         water which runs into Goose Lake. Good grass and fuel. Look
+         out for the Indians, as they are warlike and treacherous here.
+
+  7-3/4. East shore of Goose Lake.--Excellent camp.
+
+ 16-1/4. West shore of Goose Lake.--This is a beautiful sheet of
+         fresh water; great quantities of water-fowl resort to this
+         lake.
+
+ 16-1/4. Slough Springs.--The road passes over a very rocky divide,
+         covered with loose volcanic debris, very hard for animals, and
+         wearing to their feet. They should be well shod before
+         attempting the passage.
+
+ 18-1/2. Marshy Lake.--Road difficult for wagons.
+
+     15. Clear Lake.--Beautiful lake of pure water, with good grass
+         around its shore.
+
+ 25-1/4. East shore of Rhett's Lake.--Road tolerable over a rolling,
+         rocky country, between lakes. The road crosses Lost River over
+         a natural bridge, on a solid, smooth ledge of rock.
+
+     19. West shore of Rhett's Lake.--Plenty of wood, water, and
+         grass along this road.
+
+     21. Klamath River.--Road leaves Rhett's Lake, and enters the
+         forest and mountains; tolerably good. Good camp.
+
+ 15-1/4. Cascade Mountains.--The road passes over high mountains,
+         through lofty pine-trees. Camp is at Summit Meadows. Good
+         water and grass, also fuel.
+
+ 14-1/4. Western slope of Cascade Mountains.--Rough roads.
+
+ 19-1/4. Rogue River Valley.--Road descends into the settlements
+         in six miles, where there is a lovely fertile valley, well
+         settled with farmers.
+
+ 23-3/4. Fort Lane.--Near "Table Rock," on Rogue River, eight miles
+         from Jacksonville. Dragoon post.
+
+ 22-3/4. Rogue River Valley.--Good camp.
+
+     18. Siskiyou Mountains.--Road crosses the Siskiyou Mountains,
+         and is difficult for wagons.
+
+     18. Yreka.--Flourishing mining city.
+
+     18. Fort Jones.--Infantry post, in Scott's Valley.
+
+     20. Scott's Mountain.--Good camp at the foot of the mountain.
+         Road passes over the mountains, but is impassable for wagons.
+
+     90. Shasta City.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+    180. Sacramento City.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XI.--_From Soda Springs to Fort Wallah Wallah and Oregon City, Oregon_,
+via _Fort Hall._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Soda Springs to
+
+     25. Portner Creek.--Good camp. Take the right-hand road.
+
+     10. Ross's Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     10. Fort Hall Valley.--Good camp. Road runs down the creek.
+
+      8. Snake River.--Good camp. Road crosses the river bottom.
+
+      5. Fort Hall.
+
+     15. Small Branch.--Camp is three miles below the crossing of
+         Port Neuf River, which is fordable. Good wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+     10. American Falls.--Good camp.
+
+     13. Raft River.--Road rough and rocky. Sage for fuel; grass
+         scarce.
+
+     17. Bend of Swamp Creek.--Grass scarce.
+
+     20. On Snake River.--Road crosses Swamp and Goose Creeks. Wood
+         on the hills; grass short.
+
+     25. Rock Creek.--Road crosses one small creek, and is very rough
+         and rocky for several miles, when it enters a sandy region,
+         where the grass is scarce; sage plenty, and willows on the
+         creek.
+
+     24. Snake River.--Road crosses several small branches. There is
+         but little grass except in narrow patches along the river
+         bottom.
+
+     26. Fishing Falls.--Road very crooked and rough, crossing two
+         small streams.
+
+     29. Snake River.--Road crosses several small creeks, but leaves
+         the main river to the north, and runs upon an elevated
+         plateau. Good grass at camp.
+
+     16. Snake River (ford).--Road tortuous; ford good in low water.
+
+     19. Small Branch.--Road crosses Snake River, and follows up a
+         small branch, leaving the river to the left. Good grass.
+         Road ascends to a high plateau, which it keeps during the
+         whole distance.
+
+     26. River "Aux Rochers."--Road passes Hot Springs, and is rough.
+         Wood, water, and grass plenty.
+
+     22. Small Creek.--Road crosses two small branches, and is very
+         rocky, but at camp grass, wood, and water are abundant.
+
+     23. Rio Boise.--Road crosses one small creek, and follows along
+         the Boise River. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+     26. Fort Boise.--Road follows the south bank of Boise River to
+         the fort.
+
+      2. Fort Boise.--Road crosses Boise River. Good ford at ordinary
+         stages. Grass good in the river bottom.
+
+     20. River "Aux Matthews."--Good road. Grass abundant, but
+         coarse; wood and water plenty.
+
+     27. Snake River.--Road passes over a rough country. Grass scarce
+         and of a poor quality.
+
+     20. Burnt River.--Road leaves Snake River, and takes across
+         Burnt River, following up the north side of this to the
+         camp. It is mountainous and rough, but the grass is
+         good, and there is wood along the river.
+
+     22. Burnt River.--Road continues up the river, and is still
+         rough and mountainous. Grass and wood plenty.
+
+     26. Small Branch.--Road passes over a divide to "Powder River."
+         It is still rough, but getting better. The grass is good.
+
+     13. Powder River.--Good road; grass plenty.
+
+     21. Creek.--Road passes a divide, crossing several small
+         streams, and is smooth, with plenty of grass and fuel.
+
+     20. Creek.--Road crosses one small branch, and is rather rough.
+         The grass and fuel are good and abundant.
+
+     21. Creek.--Road follows down the creek for ten miles, then
+         turns up a small branch, and is good. There is plenty
+         of grass and fuel.
+
+     12. Branch.--Road crosses a divide and strikes another branch.
+
+      5. Small branch of the Umatilah River.--Good road, with plenty
+         of wood and grass.
+
+     16. Branch of Wallah Wallah River.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+     18. Wallah Wallah River.--Wood, water, and grass. Columbia River
+         at Fort Wallah Wallah.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+     10. Butler Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     18. Wells's Spring.--Good camp.
+
+     12. Willow Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     13. Cedar Spring.--Good camp.
+
+      6. John Day's River.--Good camp.
+
+      5. Forks of Road.--No camping. Left-hand road for wagons, and
+         right-hand for pack trains. This itinerary takes the left.
+
+     10. Ouley's Camp.--Good camp.
+
+     19. Soot's River.--Good camp.
+
+      6. Fall River.--Good camp.
+
+     10. Utah's River.--Good camp.
+
+     18. Soot's River.--Good camp.
+
+      6. Soot's River.--Good camp. Road follows up the river, crossing
+         it several times.
+
+     16. Sand River Fork.--Good grass a mile and a half to the left
+         of the road.
+
+      8. Good Camp.
+
+     15. Royal Hill Camp.--Good camp.
+
+      7. Sandy River.--But little grass.
+
+     45. Down the River.--Good camps all the distance.
+
+     25. Oregon City.--Good camps all the distance.
+
+     75. Salem.--Good camps all the distance.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XII.--_Route for pack trains from John Day's River to Oregon City._
+
+Miles.
+
+         John Day's River to
+
+     17. Columbia River.--From John Day's River to the forks of the
+         road, and thence by the right-hand fork to the
+         Columbia. Good camp.
+
+  2-1/2. Soot's River Ferry.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Dalles.--Good camp.
+
+     25. Dog River.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Cascade Mountains.--One bad place.
+
+      9. Ouley's Rock.--Good camp.
+
+     20. Image Plain Ferry.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Portland.--Good camp.
+
+     12. Oregon City.--Good camp.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XIII.--_From Indianola and Powder-horn to San Antonio, Texas._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Powder-horn to
+
+      4. Indianola, Texas.--Steamers run from New Orleans five times
+         a week to Powder-horn.
+
+     14. Chocolate Creek.--Good grass and water; fuel scarce. Road
+         passes over a low, flat country, which in wet weather
+         is heavy and muddy.
+
+     12. Grove.--Grove of oak; good water and grass. The road passes
+         over a hog-wallow prairie, which is very muddy, and almost
+         impassable for loaded teams after rains. The grass is abundant
+         every where in this section.
+
+ 12-1/2. Victoria.--The road is good, passing along near the east
+         bank of the Guadalupe River. The country is thickly settled
+         with farmers, who sell grain at reasonable rates. Grass
+         abundant, also fuel.
+
+     34. Yorktown.--Road crosses the Guadalupe River on a bridge;
+         toll one dollar for a six-mule team. It then crosses a
+         low bottom for three miles; from thence the road is
+         good, over a rolling country, with plenty of wood,
+         water, and grass.
+
+     33. Cibello River.--Good road; wood, water, and grass plenty.
+
+     35. San Antonio.--Good road, with plenty of wood, water, and
+         grass along the road. The Cibello is fordable at
+         ordinary stages. The traveler can procure any thing he
+         may need at Victoria and at San Antonio.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XIV.--_Wagon-road from San Antonio, Texas, to El Paso, N.M., and
+Fort Yuma, Cal._
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         San Antonio to
+
+   6.41. Leona.
+
+  18.12. Castroville.
+
+  11.00. Hondo.
+
+  14.28. Rio Seco.
+
+  12.50. Sabinal.
+
+  13.46. Rio Frio.
+
+  15.12. Nueces.
+
+  10.27. Turkey Creek.
+
+  15.33. Elm Creek.--All good camps, with abundance of wood, water,
+         and grass. Country mostly settled, and the road very
+         good, except in wet weather, from San Antonio to Elm
+         Creek.
+
+   7.00. Fort Clarke.--Good grass, wood, and water. Road level and
+         good.
+
+   7.00. Piedra Pinta,--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+   8.86. Maverick's Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+  12.61. San Felipe.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+  10.22. Devil's River.--First crossing. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+  18.27. California Springs.--Grass and water poor.
+
+  18.39. Devil's River.--Second crossing. Grass poor.
+
+  19.50. Devil's River.--Good camp. The only water between Devil's
+         River and Live Oak Creek is at Howard's Springs. The
+         road is very rough in places.
+
+  44.00. Howard's Springs.--Grass scarce; water plenty in winter;
+         wood plenty.
+
+  30.44. Live Oak Creek.--Good water and grass. The road passes
+         within 1-1/2 miles of Fort Lancaster.
+
+   7.29. Crossing of Pecos River.--Bad water and bad camp. The water
+         of the Pecos can be used.
+
+   5.47. Las Moras.--Good water, grass, and wood. The road is rough
+         on the Pecos.
+
+  32.85. Camp on the Pecos River.--Wood and grass scarce.
+
+  16.26. Escondido Creek.--At the crossing. Water good; little
+         grass or wood.
+
+   8.76. Escondido Spring.--Grass and water good; little grass.
+
+  19.40. Comanche Creek.--Grass and water good; little grass.
+
+   8.88. Leon Springs.--Grass and water good; no wood.
+
+  33.86. Barela Spring.--Grass and water good; wood plenty.
+
+  28.00. Fort Davis.--Good camp. From Fort Davis to Eagle Springs
+         there is an ascent, and one of the very best of roads.
+
+  18.42. Barrel Springs.--Water good; grass and wood fair.
+
+  13.58. Dead Man's Hole.--Good wood and water; grass scarce.
+
+  32.83. Van Horne's Wells.--No grass or wood, but they will be
+         found two miles back.
+
+  19.74. Eagle Springs.--Grass and wood poor; water about half a
+         mile from camp, in a narrow canon.
+
+  32.03. Mouth of Canon "de los Camenos."--The road is rather rough.
+         From here to Fort Bliss, opposite El Paso, the road
+         runs near the river, and camps may be made any where.
+         The wood, water, and grass are good at all points.
+
+  61.13. San Eluzario.--Mexican town.
+
+   9.25. Socorro.--Mexican town.
+
+  15.00. Fort Bliss, at El Paso.--United States military post and
+         Mexican town.
+
+Total distance from San Antonio to El Paso, 654.27 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+Miles.
+
+         El Paso to
+
+     22. Cottonwood.--From El Paso to Messilla Valley, in the Gadsden
+         Purchase, the road runs up the east bank of the Rio
+         Grande to Fort Fillmore (N.M.), where it crosses the
+         river into the Messilla Valley.
+
+     22. Fort Fillmore.
+
+      6. La Messilla.
+
+     65. Cook's Spring.--From Messilla Valley to Tucson the road is
+         remarkably good, with good grass and water. The streams
+         on this section are the Mimbres and San Pedro, both
+         fordable, and crossed with little trouble. The Apache
+         Indians are generally met with in this country. There
+         is a flouring-mill two miles below El Paso, where flour
+         can be purchased at very reasonable prices.
+
+     18. Rio Mimbres.
+
+     17. Ojo la Vaca.
+
+     10. Ojo de Ynez.
+
+     34. Peloncilla.
+
+     18. San Domingo.
+
+     23. Apache Springs.
+
+      9. Cabesas Springs.
+
+     26. Dragon Springs.
+
+     18. Quercos Canon.--Bunch-grass will be found sufficient for
+         traveling purposes along this section of the road
+         between El Paso and Tucson.
+
+      6. San Pedro Crossing.
+
+     20. Cienega.
+
+     13. Cienega Creek.
+
+     20. Mission of San Navier.
+
+      8. Tucson.--Total distance from El Paso to Tucson, 305 miles.
+
+      5. Pico Chico Mountain.
+
+     35. First Camp on Gila River.
+
+     29. Maricopa Wells.--The Maricopa Wells are at the western
+         extremity of a fertile valley occupied by Pincos
+         Indians, who cultivate corn and other grain.
+
+     40. Tezotal.--Across Jornada. There is but little grass here,
+         but in the season the mesquite leaves are a good substitute.
+
+     10. Ten Mile Camp.
+
+     15. Oatman's Flat.--First crossing of the Gila River.
+
+     25. Second Crossing of the Gila.--The traveler can generally
+         find sufficient grass in the hills along the valley of
+         the Gila.
+
+     32. Peterman's Station.
+
+     20. Antelope Peak.
+
+     24. Little Corral.
+
+     16. Fort Yuma.
+
+The distance from El Paso to Fort Yuma is 644 miles.
+
+[Illustration: WELL IN THE DESERT.--ALAMO MOCHO.]
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XV.--_From Fort Yuma to San Diego, California._
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Yuma to
+
+  10.00. Los Algodones.--Along the Colorado.
+
+  10.00. Cook's Wells.--Here commences the great desert; water
+         nowhere good or reliable until arriving at Carizo
+         Creek. The points named are where deep wells have been
+         dug. "New River," though usually set down, is a dry
+         arroyo. The surface of the desert for seven miles on
+         the eastern side is drifting sand and heavy for wagons.
+         Then comes a section in the centre of the desert that
+         is hard and level. On the west side there is about
+         three miles of a mud flat.
+
+  21.90. Alamo Rancho.
+
+  16.40. Little Laguna.
+
+   4.50. New River.
+
+   5.80. Big Laguna.
+
+  26.40. Carizo Creek.--Water good; cane and brush for fuel, and
+         they afford some forage for the animals; no grass.
+
+  16.60. Vallecito.--Grass poor; wood and water sufficient.
+
+  17.80. San Felipe.--Grass poor; wood scarce; water good.
+
+  15.80. Warner's Ranch.--The road passes through a beautiful oak
+         grove, where there is an abundance of grass and water.
+         This is the summit of the mountain. At the Ranch the
+         grass is poor, and no wood. The water is good. The oak
+         grove terminates six miles from Warner's.
+
+  10.30. Santa Isabel.--Good grass, wood, and water. This was an
+         old Spanish mission, but is now occupied by some
+         Americans and Indians.
+
+  11.40. Laguna.--Two miles from last camp is a good camping-place.
+         The road passes over some steep hills, not high. This
+         is the best camp on the road.
+
+  12.00. San Pasquel.--For the first nine miles the road is level
+         and good to the top of the mountain, where there is a
+         good camping-place, with wood, water, and grass; thence
+         the road descends a very steep hill. The camp is on the
+         east side of the brook, near Soto's house.
+
+  18.80. Parrasquitas.--The road passes a good camp three miles
+         from San Pasqual. Wood, Water, and grass at Parrasquitas.
+
+   8.00. Fisher's House.--The road passes over several hills, and
+         at four miles is a good camping-place. Wood, water, and
+         grass at camp.
+
+         San Diego, California.--When animals are to be kept a
+         considerable time at San Diego, they should be taken
+         four or five miles up the river, as the grass is poor
+         near the town.
+
+Total distance from Fort Yuma to San Diego, 217 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XVI.--_From El Paso, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California_, via _Santa
+Cruz._
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         From El Paso to
+
+  26.10. Samalayuca.--Spring, with grass and wood.
+
+  38.00. Salado.--Bad water, with little grass and wood.
+
+  24.75. Santa Maria.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+  27.50. Mines of San Pedro.--Bad water; little grass or water.
+
+  19.20. Correlitos.--Good water, grass, and wood.
+
+  20.00. Janos.--Good water, grass, and wood.
+
+  12.00. Pelatudo.--Good water, grass, and wood.
+
+  30.00. San Francisco.--Water half a mile south of the road.
+
+  18.00. San Louis.--Good water, grass, and wood.
+
+  35.00. San Bernardino.--Good water, grass, and wood.
+
+  30.00. Ash Creek.--Grass, wood, and water.
+
+  37.00. Head of San Pedro.--Grass and water.
+
+  24.00. Santa Cruz.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+  31.00. Cocospe.--Much grass; 10 or 12 miles without water. Leave
+         Santa Cruz River at old Rancho San Lazaro. No water till
+         reaching the head of San Ignacio, except at nine miles, a
+         spring one mile west of the road.
+
+  26.00. Hemores.--From Cocospe to Santa Anna follow down the San
+         Ignacio, and in many places there is wood and grass. Grass
+         is much better at three miles from the river. At the foot
+         of the hills there is an abundance of grama-grass.
+
+   5.00. Terrenati.
+
+   4.00. San Ignacio.
+
+   5.20. Madina.
+
+   5.20. San Lorenzo.
+
+   2.60. Santa Marta.
+
+   5.20. Santa Anna.
+
+  26.00. Alamita.--Plenty of grass. Leave the river 10 or 12 miles
+         from Santa Anna, and no water thence to Alamita, which is a
+         small rancho.
+
+  31.20. Altar.--No water; grass abundant.
+
+  13.00. Laguna.--Small water-hole; grass scanty and poor.
+
+  52.00. Sonia.--Sometimes water is found 25 miles from the Laguna,
+         south of the road. There is a well at Sonia in the town,
+         and sometimes water in a hole 300 yards south of the town,
+         100 yards west of the road.
+
+  10.40. El Paso.--Well at El Paso supplying 100 animals; water
+         muddy and brackish; grass poor.
+
+  52.00. Sonorita.--No water on the road; at Sonorita are several
+         brackish springs. Grass poor; bad camping-place; saltpetre
+         at the springs.
+
+         Quita Oaquita.--No water on the road. Saline spring at camp,
+         better than at Sonorita, but the grass is not so good.
+
+  10.40. Agua Salado.--Water uncertain; grass poor.
+
+  23.40. Los Pleyes.--Water only in the rainy season, one mile west
+         of the road, hidden by bushes and difficult to find. Grass
+         pretty good.
+
+  28.60. Cabeza Prieta.--Natural tenajas in a ravine two miles from
+         the road; follow a wagon-track up this ravine between a
+         black and a red mountain. The water is good and abundant;
+         grass tolerable.
+
+  31.00. Poso.--No water on the road until reaching Poso. Here it
+         is abundant on the east side of the road; grass good one
+         mile west.
+
+  13.00. Rio Gila.--But little good grass.
+
+  26.00. Fort Yuma, at the crossing of the Colorado River.--But
+         little good grass for several miles.
+
+Total distance from El Paso to Fort Yuma, 756 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XVII.--_From Westport, Missouri, to the gold diggings at Pike's Peak
+and "Cherry Creek" N.T._, via _the Arkansas River._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Westport to
+
+  4-3/4. Indian Creek.--The road runs over a beautiful country.
+         Indian Creek is a small wooded stream, with abundance
+         of grass and water.
+
+  8-3/4. Cedar Creek.--The road passes over a fine country, and
+         there is a good camping-place at Cedar Creek.
+
+  8-1/2. Bull Creek.--The road is smooth and level, with less wood
+         than before. Camping good.
+
+[Illustration: Sketch of the country in the vicinity of the Gold
+Region near Pike's Peak and Cherry Creek.]
+
+  9-1/2. Willow Springs.--At nine miles the road passes "Black Jack
+         Creek," where there is a good camping-place. The road has
+         but little wood upon it at first, but it increases toward
+         the end of the march. The road is level for some distance,
+         but becomes more rolling, and the country is covered with
+         the finest grass. Good camp at one mile from the main road.
+
+ 20-1/4. 110-Mile Creek.--The road traverses the same character of
+         country as yesterday, but with less woodland, is very smooth,
+         and at 9 and 12 miles passes "Rock Creeks," which have no
+         running water in a dry season. Good camp.
+
+ 22-1/2. Prairie Chicken Creek.--At eight miles the road crosses
+         Dwissler Creek, which is a fine little stream; four miles
+         farther First Dragoon Creek, and at one mile farther the
+         Second Dragoon Creek, both fine streams, well wooded, and
+         good camping-places. Good camp.
+
+     20. "Big Rock Creek."--At one mile the road crosses a small wooded
+         branch. Three miles beyond it crosses "Elm Creek," where
+         a good camping-place may be found. At 7 miles it crosses
+         142-Mile Creek, and at 13 miles it crosses Bluff Creek, where
+         there is a good camping-place. Good camp.
+
+     20. "Council Grove," on Elm Creek.--Road passes "Big John Spring"
+         at 13 miles, and is smooth and good. A fine camp is found
+         three fourths of a mile beyond the "Grove," on Elm Creek,
+         with abundance of wood, water, and grass.
+
+     16. Diamond Spring.--At-eight miles the road crosses Elm Creek,
+         and passes over a section similar to that east of Council
+         Grove. It is fine in dry weather, but muddy after heavy
+         rains. Good camp at Diamond Spring.
+
+     16. Lost Spring.--One mile from camp the road passes a wooded
+         creek. From thence there is no more wood or permanent water
+         until arriving at camp. Take wood here for cooking, as there
+         is not a tree or bush in sight from Lost Spring. The country
+         becomes more level, with grass every where. The road is muddy
+         in wet weather.
+
+ 15-3/4. Cottonwood Creek.--Road continues over a prairie country,
+         sensibly rising and improving. Wood, water, and grass at
+         camp.
+
+     22. Turkey Creek.--The road is good, and at 18 miles passes
+         Little Turkey Creek. No wood, and the water poor at camp;
+         grass good.
+
+     23. Little Arkansas River.--The road runs over a level prairie,
+         and at 3-1/2 miles passes "Big Turkey Creek," with the
+         Arkansas River Valley in sight all day. After rains there
+         are frequent pools of water along the road. Good camp.
+
+     20. "Big Cow" Creek.--The road passes for ten miles over a level
+         prairie, to Charez Creek, which is a bushy gully; thence six
+         miles to Little Cow Creek, which is a brushy stream, with
+         here and there a tree. Good camp here to the left of the
+         road, near a clump of trees. "Prairie-dog towns" commence
+         to be seen. Road very level. Buffalo-grass here.
+
+     20. Big Bend of the Arkansas.--The road at 12 miles strikes the
+         sand-hills of the Arkansas River. They are soon passed,
+         however, and the level river bottom is reached. The river
+         has a rapid current flowing over a quicksand bed. The road
+         is generally good from the last camp. Wood, water, and grass
+         at camp.
+
+      7. Walnut Creek.--The road is good. Cool springs at this camp;
+         good grass and wood.
+
+     21. Head of Coon Creek.--At five miles the road forks, one
+         following the river, the other a "short cut" "dry route"
+         to Fort Atkinson, where they unite on the river. The country
+         rises for ten miles on the dry route, then descends to the
+         river, and is covered with the short buffalo-grass. No wood
+         at camp.
+
+     18. Arkansas River.--The road passes over an undulating and
+         uninteresting prairie, with but little vegetation. The water
+         in dry weather is in pools.
+
+     19. Arkansas River, at Fort Atkinson.--The road runs over a
+         similar country to that of yesterday, with no wood near;
+         plenty of buffalo-chips for cooking, and good grass.
+
+ 18-3/4. Arkansas River.--At 4-1/2 miles the road ascends a bluff
+         covered with thick buffalo-grass. On the river is heavy
+         bottom-grass. At 17 miles pass a ford. Grass good at camp.
+
+ 19-1/4. Arkansas River.--The road is sandy for 14 miles, but not
+         deep except in places; thence to camp it is good. Good camp.
+
+     22. Arkansas River.--Country prairie, covered with short
+         buffalo-grass. Good camp.
+
+     22. Arkansas River.--The road is fine, crossing several dry-beds
+         of creeks, along which are seen a few scattering trees. Good
+         camp on a dry creek near the river.
+
+     24. Arkansas River.--The road runs over a barren plain at the
+         foot of the main plateau, and crosses two dry creeks near
+         the camp, on which are cottonwood-trees. Plenty of wood at
+         camp.
+
+     21. Arkansas River.--The road follows the base of the hills at
+         from one to three miles from the river. Good camp.
+
+     20. Arkansas River.--At seven miles the road strikes the "Big
+         Timbers," where there is a large body of cottonwood; thence
+         for three miles the road is heavy sand. Good camps along
+         here.
+
+     13. Arkansas River.--At one mile the road passes some old houses
+         formerly used as a trading-post. Here terminates the "Big
+         Timbers." Coarse grass at the camp.
+
+     15. Arkansas River.--At three miles the road passes the mouth of
+         Purgatoire Creek. Camp is below Bent's Fort. Good grass here.
+
+     24. Arkansas River.--Pass Bent's Fort. The grass is excellent in
+         the vicinity of the fort, but after this it is not so good.
+         The road runs over a high and considerably broken country.
+         Good camp.
+
+     11. Arkansas River.--Opposite the mouth of the Apishpa Creek;
+         good camp. The Huerfano Mountains and Spanish Peaks are in
+         sight from the camp. The "Cherokee Trail" comes in from
+         Arkansas near Bent's Fort, and leads to the gold diggings
+         at Cherry Creek.
+
+      9. Arkansas River.--Opposite the mouth of the Huerfano Creek.
+         Good camp, and a ford opposite Charles Audebee's house.
+
+     12. Arkansas River.--At this point the Cherokee trail bears to
+         the right and leaves the river. The left-hand, or river road,
+         runs up to the old pueblo at the mouth of the Fontaine qui
+         Bouille Creek. The right-hand road leads to the gold diggings.
+
+[Illustration: SANGRE DE CRISTO PASS.]
+
+ 15-3/4. Fontaine qui Bouille.--The road strikes in a northwest
+         course over the rolling country, and comes upon the creek
+         at a most beautiful camp, where there is a great abundance
+         of good wood, water, and grass. The wood, water, and grass
+         are good at all points on the Fontaine qui Bouille, and
+         travelers can camp any where upon this stream.
+
+ 17-1/2. Fontaine qui Bouille.--Here the road forks, one running
+         up the river, and the other striking directly across to the
+         divide of the Arkansas and Platte. I prefer the left-hand
+         road, as it has more water and better grass upon it.
+
+  6-1/2. Forks of the "Fontaine qui Bouille."--The road to Cherry
+         Creek here leaves the "Fontaine qui Bouille" and bears to the
+         right. There is a large Indian trail which crosses the main
+         creek, and takes a northwest course toward "Pike's Peak." By
+         going up this trail about two miles a mineral spring will be
+         found, which gives the stream its name of "_The Fountain
+         that Boils_." This spring, or, rather, these springs, as
+         there are two, both of which boil up out of solid rock, are
+         among the greatest natural curiosities that I have ever seen.
+         The water is strongly impregnated with salts, but is
+         delightful to the taste, and somewhat similar to the
+         Congress-water. It will well compensate any one for the
+         trouble of visiting it.
+
+ 17-1/2. Black Squirrel Creek.--This creek is near the crest of the
+         high divide between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers. It is a
+         small running branch, but always affords good water. There is
+         pine timber here, and the grass is good on the prairies to
+         the east. This is a locality which is very subject to severe
+         storms, and it was here that I encountered the most severe
+         snow-storm that I have ever known, on the first day of May,
+         1858. I would advise travelers to hasten past this spot as
+         rapidly as possible during the winter and spring months, as a
+         storm might prove very serious here.
+
+     14. Near the head of Cherry Creek.--The road crosses one small
+         branch at four miles from Black Squirrel Creek; it then takes
+         up to an elevated plateau, which in a rainy season is very
+         muddy. The camp is at the first timber that is found, near
+         the road, to the left. There is plenty of wood, water, and
+         grass here. There is also a good camping-place at the small
+         branch that is mentioned.
+
+     10. On Cherry Creek.--There is good grass, wood, and water
+         throughout the valley of Cherry Creek. The mountains are from
+         five to ten miles distant, on the left or west of the road,
+         and when I passed there was a great abundance of elk, deer,
+         antelope, bear, and turkeys throughout this section.
+
+      7. On Cherry Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     11. On Cherry Creek.--Good camp.
+
+     17. Mouth of Cherry Creek, at the South Platte.--Good camp, and
+         a town built up since I passed, called "_Denver City_."
+
+Total distance from Westport to the gold diggings, 685-1/4 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XVIII.--_From St. Paul's, Min., to Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon._
+
+Miles.
+
+         St. Paul's to
+
+ 17-1/4. Small Brook.--The wood, water, and grass are abundant as far
+         as the "Bois des Sioux" River.
+
+ 20-1/4. Cow Creek.--This stream is crossed on a bridge.
+
+ 23-1/4. Small Lake.--North of the road. The road passes over a
+         rolling prairie, and crosses Elk River on a bridge.
+
+     17. Near Sauk Rapids.--The road crosses Elk River twice on
+         bridges; Mississippi River near.
+
+     18. Russel's.--Ferry across the Mississippi River, then follow
+         the Red River trail. Camp is on a cold spring brook.
+
+      6. Cold Spring Brook.--Cross Sauk River, 300 feet wide, 4-1/2
+         feet deep.
+
+ 19-1/2. Lake Henry.--Road good.
+
+ 18-3/4. Lightning Lake.--Cross Cow River in a ferry-boat; water 4-1/2
+         feet deep.
+
+ 17-1/2. Lake.--One mile from Red River trail. Pass White Bean Lake.
+
+  9-1/2. Pike Lake.--Pass the South Branch of the Chippeway River.
+         Road runs over rolling prairie, and crosses a small branch.
+
+ 19-1/4. Small Lake.--Cross Chippeway River in a boat. Road passes
+         numerous lakes and the best grass.
+
+  9-3/4. Small Lake.--Road passes rolling prairies, and crosses
+         Rabbit River.
+
+     27. "Bois des Sioux" River.--Cross Bois des Sioux Prairie;
+         rolling ground.
+
+     11. Wild Rice River.--Cross "Bois des Sioux" River, 70 feet wide
+         and 4 to 7 feet deep, muddy bottom and banks. Wood, water,
+         and grass at all camps between this and Maple River.
+
+  4-1/2. Small Creek.--Cross Wild Rice River on a bridge.
+
+ 26-1/2. Sheyene River.--Smooth prairie road.
+
+ 16-1/2. Maple River.--Cross Sheyene River on a bridge, and several
+         small branches.
+
+     20. Small Creek.--Smooth road; no wood.
+
+     20. Pond.--Wet and marshy; numerous ponds in sight; no wood.
+
+     15. Pond.--No wood; approaching Sheyene River.
+
+ 13-1/2. Sheyene River.--Prairie more rolling; camp in the river
+         bottom. Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+      7. Slough.--Cross Sheyene River, 50 feet wide, 3-1/2 feet deep.
+         No wood.
+
+     10. Lake.--Rolling prairie, with many marshes. Wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+ 10-1/2. Pond.--Low, wet prairie; no wood; plenty of grass and water.
+
+ 18-1/4. Marsh.--Smooth prairie, generally dry.
+
+     20. "Riviere a Jaques."--Smooth prairie, with marshes. Road
+         crosses the river several times. Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 21-1/2. Pond.--Hilly and marshy prairie, with small ponds, and no
+         wood.
+
+     12. Small Branch.--Marshy prairie, filled with ponds, with a
+         thin, short grass, and no wood.
+
+ 19-3/4. Lake.--On a high knoll. Road crosses the South Fork of
+         Sheyene River; good crossing; thence rolling prairie,
+         passing "Balto de Morale," also a narrow lake 4-1/2 miles
+         long.
+
+ 16-1/2. Pond.--Marshy prairie, ponds, and knolls; cross a small
+         branch at 7-3/4 miles. No wood.
+
+ 17-3/4. Pond.--Rolling prairie. Cross Wintering River, a deep,
+         muddy stream 100 feet wide, also marshy prairies and ponds.
+         No wood.
+
+     16. Small Branch.--Tributary of Mouse River. Road skirts the
+         valley of Mouse River, crossing the ravines near their
+         heads.
+
+ 15-1/4. Pond.--Undulating prairie with occasional marshes; the road
+         then turns up the high ridge called "Grand Coteau." No wood.
+
+ 20-1/4. Lake.--Hilly road approaching Grand Coteau. No wood.
+
+     20. Lake.--Rolling prairie; smooth, good road; no wood.
+
+ 15-1/2. Pond.--Road passes Grand Coteau at 11 miles, and runs
+         between two lakes. No wood, but plenty of "bois de vache"
+         for fuel.
+
+ 19-1/4. Branch of White Earth River.--Country rolling and hilly.
+         Road passes wood at eight miles from camp.
+
+ 23-1/4. Pond.--For two miles the road passes over a low, flat
+         country, after which the country is hilly. No wood.
+
+ 23-1/2. Pond.--Rolling and hilly country, with rocky knobs. At 18
+         miles cross branch of Muddy Creek 15 feet wide. Wood in
+         ravines near this stream. No wood at camp.
+
+     20. Pond.--Rolling country. At 11 miles there is water in a
+         ravine. To the left there is more water, but the country
+         is rough. No wood.
+
+ 16-1/4. Fort Union.--Road descends a hill to the fort; before this
+         it passes over high, firm prairie. Good grass near in the
+         hills.
+
+  6-1/2. Pond.--No wood; good grass.
+
+      6. Little Muddy River.--Good camp.
+
+ 15-1/2. Creek.--Two good camps between this and the last. Wood,
+         water, and grass.
+
+     10. Big Muddy River.--Drift-wood for fuel.
+
+     11. Marsh near Missouri.--Good camp.
+
+     18. Poplar River.--Good camp. One or two good camps between
+         this and the last camp.
+
+ 23-1/2. Creek near Missouri.--Good camp.
+
+     15. Slough near Missouri.--Good camp.
+
+ 17-1/2. Milk River.--One good camp between this and the last camp.
+
+ 13-1/2. Milk River.--Several good camps passed.
+
+ 17-1/2. Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+ 19-1/2. Milk River.--Several good camps passed.
+
+ 17-3/4. Milk River.--At the crossing. The road follows a trail on
+         the bluffs, and descends again to the river.
+
+  7-1/2. Lake.--No wood; grass and water plenty.
+
+ 12-1/2. Milk River.--Second crossing. Good camp.
+
+     12. Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+ 15-1/2. Milk River.--Good camps between this and the last camp.
+
+ 10-3/4. Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+     20. Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+     16. Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+     18. Milk River.--At the third crossing.--Good camp.
+
+  7-1/2. Branch of Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+ 17-1/2. Branch of Milk River.--Several good camps between this and
+         the last camp.
+
+      6. Branch of Milk River.--Good camp.
+
+ 19-1/4. Prairie Spring.--No wood; water and grass plenty.
+
+ 13-3/4. Teton River.--Road crosses "Marias River."
+
+  8-3/4. Teton River, at Fort Benton.--A trading-post.
+
+  2-1/2. Small Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 18-3/4. Missouri River.--Good camp.
+
+ 20-1/2. Missouri River.--Above the falls. Road much broken into
+         ravines. Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 16-3/4. Missouri River.--Road crosses first tributary above Fort
+         Benton at ten miles.
+
+     17. Missouri River.--The road becomes very bad after fourteen
+         miles, but is better on the north side of the Missouri.
+
+      6. Missouri River.--The road is exceedingly rough and broken;
+         crosses the river.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+     11. Tributary of the Missouri.--The most difficult part of the
+         road is passed, but the country is still hilly.
+
+ 18-1/2. Tributary of the Missouri.--The road follows up the
+         last-mentioned stream to near its head. Good camps.
+
+     15. Near the summit of Little Blackfoot Pass, on a broad Indian
+         trail; excellent road.
+
+ 14-3/4. Little Blackfoot River.--Road crosses the summit of the Rocky
+         Mountains. Good road for wagons, with many camping-places.
+
+ 17-1/2. Little Blackfoot River.--Road good, descending along the
+         river. Near the camp a large fork comes in.
+
+ 28-1/2. Little Blackfoot River.--Good road, which follows the broad,
+         open valley for 14 miles. Good camps.
+
+ 19-1/2.-Little Blackfoot River.--The valley contracts so that wagons
+         will be forced to take the bed of the river in some places.
+         The river is fordable, and the trail crosses it five times
+         during the day.
+
+ 22-1/2. Blackfoot River.--Sixteen miles from the last camp "Blackfoot"
+         and "Hell Gate" River's enter, and about one mile of this
+         distance is impassable for wagons; they would have to cross
+         the river, which is fordable. Good camps.
+
+ 27-1/2. Fort Owen.--Road runs up the St. Mary's River to Fort Owen
+         over a broad, good trail in the valley.
+
+     40. St. Mary's River.--The south Nez Perces trail leaves the
+         main trail, which ascends the St. Mary's Valley to the Forks,
+         and follows the southwest fork to its source. To the Forks
+         the valley of the St. Mary's is open, and admits wagons.
+
+     24. Southwest Fork of St. Mary's River.--The road follows a
+         narrow trail, crossing the river frequently, and is not
+         passable for wagons. The valley is narrow, and shut in by
+         hills.
+
+  5-1/2. Kooskooskia River.--Road leaves the St. Mary's River, passing
+         over a high ridge to the Kooskooskia River.
+
+     10. Branch.--Road runs over wooded hills.
+
+     14. Creek.--Road runs over wooded hills.
+
+      9. Small Creek.--This is the best camp between the St. Mary's
+         River and the Nez Perces country.
+
+     15. Small Creek.--Road passes over wooded hills.
+
+      9. Small Branch.--Road passes over wooded hills, is very rough
+         and difficult. Poor camp.
+
+     14. Small Creek.--Ten miles from last camp the road passes a high
+         divide, ascending rapidly, though not difficult. Good grass
+         on the summit, but no water.
+
+     13. Small Creek.--Good camp where the trail emerges from the woods
+         on to the high plateau.
+
+      7. Clear Water River.--Large tributary. Road runs over high
+         table-land, and descends to the valley of the river.
+
+     43. Lapwai River.--The road follows a broad trail down the river
+         six miles, when it leaves the river bottom and ascends the
+         plateau, which extends to Craig's house, on the Lapwai,
+         fifteen miles from the river.
+
+     23. Tributary Snake River.--The trail runs over high ground from
+         Craig's to Lapwai River, 15 miles. This river is 450 feet
+         wide. No wood. Indians are generally found here, who ferry
+         over travelers. The trail follows Snake River for several
+         miles.
+
+ 26-1/4. Tchannon River.--The trail passes 5-1/2 miles up the bottom
+         of a small creek; then runs over a steep hill to another
+         small creek, 8 miles; then along the valley of this stream
+         10-1/2 miles; thence over a high hill to camp on Tchannon
+         River, 3 miles.
+
+ 11-1/2. Touchet River.--The trail crosses the Tchannon River, and
+         ascends to a high plain, which continues to camp.
+
+ 32-1/2. Touchet River.--Road follows a good trail along the valley,
+         where good camps are found any where, with wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+ 19-1/2. Fort Wallah Wallah.--Leaving Touchet River, the trail passes
+         over again to the plains, when there is neither wood, water,
+         or grass to Fort Wallah Wallah.
+
+Total distance from St. Paul's to Fort Union,         712-1/2 miles.
+Total distance from Fort Union to Fort Benton,        377-1/2   "
+Total distance from Fort Benton to Fort Owen,         255       "
+Total distance from Fort Owen to Fort Wallah Wallah,  340-3/4   "
+                                                     --------
+Total distance from St. Paul's, Min., to
+Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon,                          1685-3/4 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XIX.--_Lieutenant_ E. F. BEALE'S _route from Albuquerque to the
+Colorado River._
+
+[Distances is miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         Albuquerque to
+
+   2.10. Atrisco.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  20.63. Rio Puerco.--Water in pools; wood and grass.
+
+  19.41. Near Puta.--Abundance of wood, water, and grass.
+
+  13.12. Covera.--Water and grass abundant; wood scarce.
+
+  13.06. Hay Camp.--Wood, water, and grass plenty.
+
+  25.37. Agua Frio.--Wood, water, and grass plenty.
+
+  16.28. Inscription Rock.--Small spring; grass and wood plenty.
+
+  16.32. Ojo del Pescado.--Water and grass plenty; wood for camp.
+
+  15.13. Zuni.--Grass and water plenty; wood scarce.
+
+   6.19. Indian Well.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  14.43. No. 1.--Wood and grass; no water.
+
+  11.93. Jacob's Well.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   6.57. No. 2, Navajo Spring.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  13.62. Noon Halt.--Water by digging; grass and wood scarce.
+
+   6.13. No. 3.--Grass abundant.
+
+   7.75. Noon Halt.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+   7.25. No. 4.--Water in holes; grass and fuel plenty.
+
+   3.60. Three Lakes.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   1.75. Crossing Puerco.--Wood, water, and grass abundant as far as
+         Leroux Spring.
+
+  11.25. No. 5.
+
+  18.50. No. 6.
+
+  10.17. No. 7.
+
+  13.25. No. 8.
+
+  19.35. Canon Diablo.
+
+  14.75. No. 10.
+
+  13.50. Near Cosnino Caves.
+
+  17.32. San Francisco Spring.
+
+   9.06. Leroux Spring.
+
+   8.48. No. 13.--Wood and grass, but no water.
+
+  11.13. Breckenridge Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+   8.07. No. 14.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+   6.50. Cedar Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+  10.50. No. 15.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+  19.75. Alexander's Canon.--Wood and grass plenty; not much water.
+
+   8.05. Smith's Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+   8.75. Pass Dornin.--Wood and grass abundant; no water.
+
+  13.50. No. 19.--Wood and grass abundant; no water.
+
+  16.35. No. 20.--Water two miles from camp; wood and grass plenty.
+
+   4.06. Hemphill's Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+  21.25. No. 21.--Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+   9.75. No. 22.--Wood and grass; spring one mile distant.
+
+   5.50. No. 23.--Wood and grass plenty; no water.
+
+   8.45. No. 24.--Wood and grass; spring three miles off.
+
+  16.75. No. 25.--Wood and grass; no water.
+
+   7.25. Sabadras Spring.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  13.25. No. 26.--Wood; no grass or water.
+
+   8.75. Spring.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   1.25. No. 27.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   3.17. No. 28.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   1.25. No. 29.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   3.11. No. 30.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+   3.25. No. 31.--East bank of Colorado River; wood.
+
+         No. 32.--West bank; water and grass abundant.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XX.--_Captain_ WHIPPLE'S _Route from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to San
+Pedro, California._
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         Albuquerque to
+
+   0.88. Atrisco.--Permanent running water.
+
+  12.16. Isleta.--Permanent running water.
+
+  22.78. Rio Puerco.--Water in holes.
+
+  18.30. Rio Rita.--Permanent running water.
+
+  13.77. Covera.--Permanent running water.
+
+  14.66. Hay Camp.--Permanent running water.
+
+  17.71. Sierra Madre.--No water.
+
+   8.06. Agua Frio.--Permanent running water.
+
+  17.49. Inscription Rock.--El Moro. Permanent springs.
+
+  14.23. Ojo del Pescado.--Permanent springs.
+
+  11.74. Zuni.--Permanent running water.
+
+[Illustration: SAN FRANCISCO MOUNTAIN.
+Upon Captain Whipple's trail from Albuquerque to the Colorado River.]
+
+   8.83. Arch Spring.--Permanent spring.
+
+  10.77. ....--No water.
+
+  19.69. Jacob's Well.--Permanent water-hole.
+
+   7.04. Navajo Spring.--Permanent springs.
+
+  12.13. Willow Creek.--Rio de la Jara. Water in holes.
+
+  10.87. Rio Puerco of the West.--Water in holes.
+
+  11.59. Lithodendron Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+  11.99. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+  14.42. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   8.63. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   4.94. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   1.35. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   4.90. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+  10.99. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+  15.88. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   4.44. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+   1.51. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water.
+
+  29.72. Colinino Caves.--Permanent water-holes.
+
+  11.81. Near San Francisco Spring.--No water; water 4 miles from
+         camp.
+
+  10.46. Leroux's Spring.--Permanent water.
+
+   8.23. ....--No water.
+
+   6.17. ....--No water.
+
+   8.54. New Year's Spring.--Permanent spring.
+
+   9.77. Lava Creek.--Water in hole.
+
+   9.89. Cedar Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+  13.26. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+   3.89. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+  13.52. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+   0.87. Picacho Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+   7.45. ....--No water.
+
+   8.69. Turkey Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   5.71. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   6.67. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent water in holes.
+
+   5.98. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent water in holes.
+
+   5.80. Canon Creek.--Permanent water in holes.
+
+  12.16. Canon Creek.--Permanent water in holes.
+
+   0.30. Canon Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+  11.29. Canon Creek.--Water in holes.
+
+   9.64. Cactus Pass.--Permanent running water.
+
+   7.97. White Cliff Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+  11.60. Big Horn Springs.--Permanent spring.
+
+[Illustration: CANON ON BILL WILLIAMS'S FORK.]
+
+  12.83. Mouth of Canon Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   9.21. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   4.35. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   6.21. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   4.08. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   6.10. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   5.56. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water.
+
+   6.44. Mouth of Big Sandy Creek.--Permanent running water as far
+         as the Colorado River.
+
+   6.52. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   8.97. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   6.85. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   7.22. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   3.90. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   8.69. Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   4.33. Mouth of Rio Santa Maria.
+
+   4.74. On Colorado River.
+
+   5.02. On Colorado River.
+
+   9.06. On Colorado River.
+
+   11.39. On Colorado River.
+
+   29.87. On Colorado River.
+
+[Illustration: ARTILLERY PEAK.]
+
+   1.02. Mojave Villages.
+
+   9.46. Crossing of the Colorado River.
+
+   0.33. On Colorado River.
+
+   2.78. On Colorado River.
+
+  20.71. ....--The road, on leaving the Colorado, runs up over a
+         gravelly ridge to a barren niesa, and descends the bed of
+         the Mojave 4 or 5 miles above its mouth, and at 9-1/2 miles
+         it passes springs near the point where the road turns around
+         the western base of a mountain. There is no water at the
+         camp, but grass in an arroya.
+
+   9.00. Pai-Ute Creek.--This is a fine stream, with good water and
+         grass.
+
+  13.00. Arroyo.--Grass and wood; water is found by digging.
+
+   7.00. Fine Spring.--Good water and grass. The wagon-road passes
+         around the hills, but an Indian trail leads through the
+         ravine where the spring is.
+
+  19.00. Marl Spring.--This is a small but constant spring; excellent
+         grass, and greasewood for fuel.
+
+  30.00. Lake.--The road follows a ridge for some distance, then
+         descends to an arroyo, and in a few miles emerges into a
+         sandy plain, where there is the dry bed of a lake, which is
+         firm, and makes a smooth, good road. The camp is at some
+         marshy pools of water. Good grass, and greasewood for fuel.
+
+  12.00. Mojave River.--Road passes through a valley of drifted sand,
+         and at the camp strikes the river, which is here a beautiful
+         stream of fresh water, 10 to 12 feet wide and a foot deep,
+         with a hard, gravelly bottom. Grass in the hills near.
+
+  13.00. Mojave River.--The road ascends the river, the banks of which
+         are covered with fine grass and mesquite wood. Good camps
+         along here.
+
+  20.00. Mojave River.--The road leads up the river for a short
+         distance, when it turns into an arroyo, and ascends to a low
+         mesa, and continues along the border of a level prairie
+         covered with fine bunch-grass. It then enters the river
+         bottom again, which is here several miles wide, and well
+         wooded. Grass good.
+
+  20.00. Mojave River.--Six miles from camp the road strikes the Mormon
+         road, and crosses the stream near a Mormon camping-place. The
+         trail runs along the river, which gets larger and has more
+         timber on its banks as it is ascended. Good grass, wood, and
+         water.
+
+  22.00. Mojave River.--A short distance from camp the valley contracts,
+         but the road is good. It leaves the valley and crosses a
+         gravelly ridge, but enters it again. Good grass, wood, and
+         water.
+
+  15.00. Mojave River.--Road continues along the right bank of the
+         river, in a southwest course, and crosses the river at camp.
+         Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+  29.50. Cajou Creek.--The road leaves the river at the crossing, and
+         runs toward a break in the San Bernadino Mountains; it
+         ascends a sharp hill and enters a cedar thicket; it then
+         ascends to the summit of the Cajou Pass; thence over a spur
+         of the mountains into an arroyo or creek in a ravine; thence
+         along the dry channel of the Cajou Creek for two miles, where
+         the water begins to run, and from thence the road is rough to
+         camp.
+
+   7.00. Cajou Creek.--Road continues along the creek to camp, and is
+         rough. Wood, water, and grass at camp.
+
+  20.00. Cocomouga's Ranch.--On a pretty stream of running water. The
+         road runs for six miles down the Cajou Creek, along its steep
+         and rocky bed. It is here a good-sized stream. Captain
+         Whipple's road here leaves the San Bernadino road, and turns
+         to the west along the base of the mountains toward Los
+         Angeles; it then crosses a prairie and strikes the ranch of
+         Cocomouga. Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  24.00. Town of El Monte.--The road runs upon the northern border of
+         a basin which is watered by many small streams, and is
+         settled. The camp is on the pretty stream of San Gabriel,
+         where there is a good camping-place.
+
+  14.25. City of Los Angeles.--The road passes the Mission of San
+         Gabriel, then enters a ravine among hills and broken ground;
+         it then descends and crosses the river which waters the
+         valley, and enters the city. There is a good camp upon the
+         point of a ridge on the left bank of the river.
+
+  23.00. San Pedro.--Good camp.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXI.--_From Fort Yuma to Benicia, California._ From Lieutenant R. S.
+WILLIAMSON'S Report.
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Yuma, on Rio Colorado, to
+
+   6.51. Pilot Knob.
+
+   5.06. Algodones.
+
+  11.18. Cook's Wells.
+
+  21.11. Alamo Mocho.
+
+  14.16. Little Laguna.
+
+  10.29. Big Laguna.
+
+  12.92. Forks of Road.--The left-hand road leads to San Diego,
+         139.94 miles, the right-hand to San Francisco.
+
+  17.62. Salt Creek.
+
+  28.94. Water in the Desert.--Below point of rocks.
+
+  12.60. Cohuilla Village.
+
+  15.82. Deep Well.
+
+  10.62. Hot Spring.
+
+   7.36. East base of San Gorgonio Pass.
+
+  18.29. Summit of Pass.
+
+  27.10. San Bernadino.--Mormon town.
+
+  17.60. Sycamore Grove.
+
+  14.00. Qui-qual-mun-go Ranch.
+
+  26.60. San Gabriel River.--At crossing.
+
+   6.70. Mission of San Gabriel.
+
+   9.00. Los Angeles.
+
+  10.20. Cahuengo Ranch.--At the crossing of a branch of Los
+         Angeles River.
+
+  10.70. Mission of San Fernando.
+
+   5.90. Summit of San Fernando Pass.
+
+   7.15. Santa Clara River, southeast fork.
+
+  15.80. Summit of Coast Range.--In San Francisquito Pass.
+
+  18.00. Eastern base of Sierra Nevada.
+
+   6.70. Summit of Tejon Pass.
+
+  13.10. Depot Camp in the Tejon.
+
+  31.00. Kern River.--At the crossing.
+
+  10.80. Depot Camp on Pose Creek, or "O-co-ya."
+
+  24.30. White Creek.
+
+  14.90. More's Creek.
+
+   5.10. Tule River.
+
+  22.00. Deep Creek.--Deep Creek is the first of four creeks, crossed
+         by the wagon-road, into which the "Pi-pi-yu-na" divides
+         itself after emerging from the Sierra. These streams are
+         commonly known as the "Four Creeks."
+
+   0.29. Cameron Creek.--The second of the "Four Creeks."
+
+   3.30. Kah-wee-ya River.--The third and principal one of the "Four
+         Creeks."
+
+   0.89. St. John's Creek.--The last of the "Four Creeks." At the
+         crossing.
+
+  28.13. Pool's Ferry.--On King's River.
+
+  12.32. Slough of King's River.
+
+  25.73. Fort Miller.--On San Joaquin River, in the foot-hills of the
+         Sierra Nevada.
+
+   9.40. Cottonwood Creek.
+
+   7.72. Fresno River.
+
+  12.15. Chowchilla River.--Sometimes known as "Big Mariposa."
+
+  10.39. Mariposa River.
+
+   6.03. Bear Creek.
+
+  18.33. Merced River.
+
+  18.87. Davis's Ferry.--Tuolumne River.
+
+  28.85. Grayson.--A ferry on the San Joaquin River.
+
+  27.54. Elk Horn.--The distance is by the wagon-road, and is
+         circuitous.
+
+   6.90. Summit of Livermore Pass.
+
+   7.20. Egress from Livermore Pass.
+
+  40.42. Martinez.--On the Straits of Carquives, opposite Benicia,
+         California.
+
+Total distance from Fort Yuma to Benicia, 800.45 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXII.--_A new route from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, opened by
+Captain_ J. H. SIMPSON, U.S.A., _in_ 1858.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Bridger to
+
+      6. Branch of Black's Fork.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  7-1/4. Cedar on Bluffs of Muddy.--Grass and wood all the way up the
+         ravine from the Muddy, and water at intervals.
+
+  5-1/2. Last water in ravine after leaving the Muddy.--Wood, water,
+         and grass.
+
+  5-3/4. East Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. Junction
+         of Fort Supply road.
+
+    1/2. Middle Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Sage, Water, and grass.
+
+      3. West Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Willow, water, and grass;
+         spring a mile below.
+
+  5-1/4. East Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+    1/4. Middle Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  2-3/4. Main Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  9-3/4. First Camp on White Clay Creek.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  5-1/4. White Clay Creek.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+     15. White Clay Creek.--Good camps all along the valley of White
+         Clay Creek.
+
+    3/4. Commencement of Canon.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+    1/2. White Clay Creek.--Good camps all along the valley of White
+         Clay Creek to the end of the lower canon.
+
+     12. Weber River.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+      6. Parley's Park Road.--Wood, water, and grass. Pass over the
+         divide.
+
+  3-3/4. Silver Creek.--Willows, water, and grass.
+
+      6. Timpanogos Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. Cross over the
+         divide.
+
+      1. Commencement of Canon.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 24-1/2. Cascade in Canon.--Good camps at short intervals all along
+         Timpanogos Canon.
+
+  4-1/4. Mouth of Canon.--Wood and water.
+
+  6-1/4. Battle Creek Settlement.--Purchase forage.
+
+  3-1/4. American Fork Settlement.--Purchase forage.
+
+      3. Lehi (town).--Purchase forage. Grass near.
+
+  2-3/4. Bridge over Jordan.--Grass and water; wood in the hills
+         1-1/2 miles distant.
+
+     14. Camp Floyd.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+Total distance from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, 155 miles.
+
+NOTE.--Captain Simpson says this wagon-route is far superior to the old
+one in respect to grade, wood, water, and grass, and in distance about
+the same.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXIII.--_From Fort Thorne, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California._
+
+[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.]
+
+Miles.
+
+         Fort Thorne, N.M., to
+
+  14.30. Water Holes.--One mile west of hole in rock. Water uncertain;
+         no wood.
+
+   9.19. Mule Creek.---Water at all seasons a little up the creek;
+         wood plenty.
+
+  12.00. Cook's Spring.--Water sufficient for camping; mesquite
+         bushes on the hills.
+
+  19.50. Rio Mimbres.--Water and wood abundant.
+
+  16.30. Ojo de la Vaca.--Water and wood.
+
+  12.00. Spring.--Constant small streams two miles up the canon;
+         water at the road uncertain.
+
+  44.40. Rancho.--Pond of brackish water one mile to the right, four
+         miles before reaching here.
+
+  13.90. Rio St. Simon.--Constant water a few miles up, and mesquite
+         wood.
+
+  18.40. Pass in the Mountains.--Water on the left about two miles
+         after entering the Pass.
+
+   6.40. Arroya.--Wood one mile up; water uncertain; small stream
+         crossing the road 1-1/2 miles from last camp.
+
+  26.30. Nugent's Spring.--Large spring.--Excellent water one mile
+         south, at Playa St. Domingo.
+
+  17.20. Canon.--To the left of the road. Water 1-1/2 miles up the
+         canon, two miles from the road.
+
+  17.00. Rio San Pedro.--Water and wood abundant.
+
+  16.30. San Pedro.--Water abundant; wood distant.
+
+  20.80. Cienequilla.--Water and wood abundant.
+
+   7.30. Along Cienequilla.--Water and wood abundant; road rough.
+
+  21.80. Mission of San Xavier.--Large mesquite, and water plenty in
+         Santa Cruz River.
+
+   8.00. Tucson.--Village on Santa Cruz River. Tucson is the last
+         green spot on the Santa Cruz River. The best camping-ground
+         is two miles beyond the village, where the valley widens,
+         and good grass and water are abundant.
+
+   7.20. Mud Holes.--The road passes over arroyas, but is rather level.
+
+  65.00. Agua Hermal.--Road passes over a desert section, and is hard
+         and level. Water is found in most seasons, except in early
+         summer, in natural reservoirs on an isolated mountain about
+         midway, called "Picapo;" poor water and tall, coarse grass
+         at the mud-holes. Road here strikes the Rio Gila.
+
+  15.10. Los Pimos.--Road follows the river bottom. Lagoon of bad
+         water near camp. Grass good; plenty of cottonwood and
+         mesquite.
+
+  13.20. Los Maricopas.--Road takes the river bottom, and passes
+         through cultivated fields; soil and grass good. The Indian
+         village is on a gravelly hill. The road is good.
+
+  40.00. El Tegotal.--The road leaves the river and crosses the
+         desert. No water between this and the last camp at the
+         Maricopas' village. Road is good. The calita abounds here,
+         and the mules are fond of it.
+
+  10.50. Pega del Rio.--Road runs in the river bottom, and is level.
+
+         Rincon de Vega.--Road runs in the river bottom, and is level.
+         Good grass.
+
+  10.50. Mal Pais.--Road continues near the river, but over low
+         gravel-hills and through a short canon of deep sand.
+
+   9.50. Mil Flores.--Pass over a very steep precipice to an elevated
+         plateau, thence over gravel-hills 4-1/2 miles to camp, where
+         there is excellent grass and wood.
+
+  13.70. Santado.--Road keeps the river bottom until within four
+         miles of camp, when it turns over the plateau. Good grass.
+
+  16.70. Las Lonas.--Road follows the river bottom. Scattered
+         bunch-grass on the hills.
+
+  11.40. Vegas.--Road follows along the river bottom. Grass poor.
+
+  16.80. Metate.--Road runs along at the foot of a rugged mountain.
+         Excellent grass at the camp.
+
+  14.70. El Horral.--Road ascends to the plateau, which it follows
+         for seven miles over a level country, then descends over
+         gravelly hills to the river. Camp on the river bank near the
+         desert. Wood plenty.
+
+  20.80. Los Algodones.--Road runs along at the foot of the hills or
+         spurs of the desert; small rugged hills, vegetation dwarf
+         mesquit, cacti, etc. Good grass at camp.
+
+   7.40. Fort Yuma, on the Rio Colorado.
+
+Total distance from Fort Thorne, N.M., to Fort Yuma, 571 miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXIV.--_Lieutenant_ BRYAN'S _Route from the Laramie Crossing of the
+South Platte to Fort Bridger_, via _Bridger's Pass._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Laramie Crossing to
+
+     14. Bryan's Crossing.--Road runs on the south side of the Platte.
+         Good grass and water.
+
+     12. First Crossing of Pole Creek.--Pole Creek is a rapid stream,
+         sandy bed, 15 feet wide, and two feet deep. Good grass on the
+         creek, and wood three miles off on the bluffs.
+
+     37. Second Crossing of Pole Creek.--Road runs along the creek.
+         Good grass and good camps at any point. Good road.
+
+ 17-1/4. Third Crossing of Pole Creek.--Good camp. Wood on the bluffs.
+
+ 20-1/2. Fourth Crossing of Pole Creek.--Creek dry for three miles.
+         Good grass.
+
+ 20-1/4. Bluffs covered with dead pines.--Creek is crossed several
+         times. Road runs over a rough, broken country. Good grass.
+
+ 14-1/2. Road from Fort Laramie to New Mexico.--Road rather rough.
+         The valley opens out into a wide plain. Plenty of grass.
+
+ 10-1/2. On Pole Creek.--Good road; good camp.
+
+     20. On Pole Creek.--Road crosses several ravines, most of which
+         can be avoided by keeping on the bluffs; the valley is narrow.
+         Grass not very good.
+
+ 17-1/2. Cheyenne Pass.--Road passes over a rolling country. Good
+         grass; willows for fuel. Military post established here.
+
+ 14-1/2. Summit of Black Hills.--Source of Pole Creek. Grass poor.
+
+ 10-1/4. East Fork of Laramie River.--Good camp.
+
+     16. West Fork of Laramie River.--Good camp. Cherokee trail comes
+         in here.
+
+     14. Cooper's Creek.--Wood and grass.
+
+ 10-1/2. East Fork of Medicine Bow Creek.--Wood and grass as far as
+         Pass Creek.
+
+  2-1/2. Small Creek.
+
+      6. Birch Creek.
+
+  5-1/4. West Fork of Medicine Bow Creek.
+
+      2. Flint's Creek.
+
+      3. Elm Creek.
+
+      7. Rattlesnake Creek.
+
+      5. Pass Creek.
+
+ 14-1/2. North Fork of the Platte.--Good road over high prairie. Five
+         miles before reaching the river the Cherokee trail turns to
+         the left, and crosses three miles above. Good camps on the
+         river.
+
+  3-1/2. First Crossing of Sage Creek.--Good road. Grass not plenty.
+
+ 10-1/2. Second Crossing of Sage Creek.--Road runs through Sage Creek
+         Valley; hilly, broken, and sterile country, covered with
+         sage-brush. Grass not abundant. Cherokee trail leaves three
+         miles back.
+
+      4. Third Crossing of Sage Creek.--Road continues through
+         sage-brush. Grass gets better.
+
+      3. Fourth Crossing of Sage Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water.
+
+      9. Bridger's Pass.--Road runs over a hilly country, crossing
+         several small branches, with a little grass upon their banks;
+         country covered with sage.
+
+  3-1/2. Muddy Creek.--The valley of the "Muddy" is deep and narrow
+         at first, and afterward opens out. The crossings of this
+         creek were either bridged or paved by the troops in 1858.
+         But little grass in this valley.
+
+ 20-1/2. Near Muddy Creek.--Very little grass; poor camp.
+
+ 16-1/2. Bridger's Fork of the Muddy Creek.--The road for thirteen
+         miles runs over a rolling country, then over a rough, broken
+         country, with deep ravines. No water in this fork in a dry
+         season; small springs of brackish water near the crossing.
+         Grass poor.
+
+      4. Small Spring.--Water bad; grass poor.
+
+  2-1/2. Small Spring.--In the bluff. Water bad; grass poor.
+
+      1. Haystack.--Clay butte. Spring in the dry bed of the creek.
+         Bunch-grass.
+
+  5-1/2. Small Springs.--In bluffs on the right of the road. Grass
+         poor and water bad.
+
+  7-1/2. Springs.--There is a fine spring at the foot of a steep hill
+         on the south side of the road. Very little grass; rushes on
+         the creek.
+
+  3-1/2. South Fork of Bitter Creek.--Good grass and water.
+
+ 14-3/4. On Bitter Creek.--Country hilly, and intersected with deep
+         ravines. South Fork is a fine stream of good water.
+
+     16. Sulphur Springs.--Road very hilly, crossing many deep ravines.
+         Grass and sage plenty.
+
+      9. Bitter Creek Crossing.--No grass at the crossing. Water bitter
+         when the creek is down, but tolerable in high water. Road rough,
+         with numerous ravines.
+
+ 18-1/2. North Fork of Bitter Creek.--Cherokee trail enters near the
+         crossing. Road good, but little grass except in spots. Sage
+         for fuel.
+
+      4. Bluffs.--Springs of good water in the elevated bluffs on the
+         right of the road in the cottonwood groves. Grass good and
+         abundant at the base of the bluffs.
+
+ 11-3/4. Green River.--Road is very rough and hilly, and winds along
+         the valley of the creek. Good camp on the river, with plenty
+         of wood and grass.
+
+ 15-3/4. Crossing of Black's Fork.--Road runs up through Rabbit Hollow,
+         which is steep and sandy; it then passes over rolling prairie
+         to Black's Fork. Bunch-grass on the hills, and good camp at
+         the crossing.
+
+ 11-1/4. Fort Laramie Road.--Rolling country; good road through sage
+         bushes. Good camps along the creek.
+
+  5-3/4. Ham's Fork.--Good camp on either side of the creek. United
+         States bridge here; good road.
+
+    3/4. Black's Fork Crossing.--Good ford except in high water, when
+         the right-hand road on the north bank of the creek is generally
+         traveled.
+
+ 14-1/2. Fourth Crossing of Black's Fork.--Good road; fine camp; plenty
+         of wood, water, and grass.
+
+  2-3/4. Fifth Crossing of Black's Fork.--Good camp; good road.
+
+  2-3/4. Smith's Fork.--Good camp; good road.
+
+ 11-3/4. Fort Bridger.--Good camp near; good road.
+
+Total distance from the Laramie Crossing of the South Platte to Fort
+Bridger, 520-1/2 miles. By the Fort Laramie road the distance is 569
+miles.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXV.--_Wagon-route from Denver City, at the Mouth of Cherry Creek,
+to Fort Bridger, Utah._
+
+Miles.
+
+         Denver City to
+
+      5. Vasquez Fork.--Good road and fine camp.
+
+ 19-1/2. Thompson's Fork.--Road crosses three creeks about five miles
+         apart, is good, and the camp is well supplied with water
+         and grass, but wood is scarce.
+
+ 16-1/2. Bent's Fork.--Road crosses two streams about five miles
+         apart; no wood on the first. Good camp.
+
+     26. Cashe la Poudre River.--Excellent road crossing two streams
+         at ten and twenty-three miles from the last camp; good
+         camps on both. Cashe la Poudre is a fine large stream which
+         issues from the mountains near the road, and is difficult
+         to cross in high water. It has a firm bottom. Good camps
+         along this stream, with plenty of wood and grass.
+
+     16. Beaver Creek.--Road turns to the left and enters the hills,
+         ascending very gradually between two lines of bluffs, and
+         is good except in wet weather. Good camp.
+
+     19. Small Branch.--Road crosses Beaver Creek three times,
+         affording good camps. Road is hilly, but not very rough,
+         passing for a portion of the distance through a timbered
+         region. Elk and mountain sheep are abundant in this
+         section. The camp is near the summit of the divide. Grass
+         short.
+
+ 17-1/2. Tributary of Laramie River.--Good road on the divide. Grass
+         and water plenty, but wood not abundant.
+
+ 18-1/2. Tributary of Laramie River.--Road passes Laramie Fork three
+         miles from the last camp. Good camp.
+
+     21. Tributary of Laramie River.--Road crosses a small creek at
+         14 miles from last camp. Fine camp.
+
+     17. Medicine Bow Creek.--At twelve miles the road crosses
+         Sulphur Spring Creek, and at the West Fork of the Laramie
+         Lieutenant Bryan's road enters. At ten miles from the last
+         camp there are two roads--one, Bryan's, leading north of
+         the Medicine Bow Butte, and the other to the south of it.
+         The former is the best. Good camp.
+
+ 17-1/2. Prairie Creek.--Fine camp. A portion of the road is very
+         rough. It crosses several small branches upon which good
+         camps may be had. Fine game section, with bear, elk, etc.,
+         in great abundance.
+
+ 12-1/2. North Fork of the Platte.--Excellent camp. Leave Bryan's
+         road four miles back, taking the left, which is altogether
+         the best of the two. The crossing of the Platte is good
+         except in high water, when it is very rapid. A flat-boat
+         was left here by Colonel Loring's command in 1858.
+
+ 12-1/2. Clear Creek.--Sage for fuel; grass short.
+
+     23. Dry Creek.--Road leaves Bryan's trail to Bridger's Pass,
+         and bears to the right, passing over a smooth country
+         covered with sage and poorly watered; passes a pond of
+         milky water at thirteen miles. There is water in Dry Creek
+         except in a very dry season. Two miles from the creek, on
+         the old trail, there is a fine spring on the left of the
+         road, which runs down into the road, and here is the best
+         grass after leaving the Platte, with plenty of fuel.
+
+ 10-1/2. Muddy Creek.--Road leaves the old Cherokee trail at Dry
+         Creek, and bears to the left. Good camp for a limited
+         number of animals; fine grass along near the bank of the
+         creek. Bad crossing. Buffalo seen here.
+
+ 19-1/2. Lake.--Old trail enters near this camp. Road passes a
+         brackish spring four miles back. The road may be shortened
+         by bearing to the left and skirting the hills for about six
+         miles before reaching the lake. The water in the lake is
+         not good, but drinkable, and will be abundant except in the
+         very dryest part of the summer. Grass is good on the hills.
+         The road from Dry Creek is shorter than the old road by 30
+         miles.
+
+ 24-1/2. Red Lakes.--Road is good, but traverses a very dry and
+         sterile region. The water is not good in the lakes, but
+         drinkable, and may go dry in midsummer. Grass tolerable.
+
+     22. Seminoes Spring.--After passing the flats at the Red Lakes
+         the road is smooth and good, and there is a good camp at
+         Seminoes Spring.
+
+ 12-1/2. Bitter Creek.--New road to the left, cutting off ten or
+         twelve miles. Good camp; water a little saline, but drinkable.
+
+     25. Sulphur Spring.--Road runs along the valley of Bitter Creek,
+         where there is but little grass until reaching camp.
+         Animals should be driven across the creek into the hills,
+         where the best grass is found.
+
+     17. Green River.--Road leaves Bitter Creek at Sulphur Spring,
+         and passes near, some high bluffs, where there are small
+         springs and good grass. Excellent camp at Green River. From
+         here the road runs over the same track as Bryan's road to
+         Fort Bridger. From all the information I have been able to
+         obtain regarding Lieutenant Bryan's road from Sage Creek
+         through Bridger's Pass, and thence down the Muddy Creek, I
+         am inclined to believe that the road we traveled is much
+         the best. It is said that Lieutenant Bryan's route from
+         Bridger's Pass to Green River has a scarcity of grass. The
+         water is brackish, and the supply limited, and may fail
+         altogether in a dry season. The road passes through deep
+         valleys and canons, crossing muddy creeks and deep ravines.
+         The creeks have been bridged and the ravines cut down so as
+         to form a practicable road; but freshets will probably
+         occur in the spring, which will destroy a great deal of the
+         work, and may render the road impassable.--_Lieutenant
+         Duane's Notes._
+
+         The other road is for the greater part of the distance
+         smooth, and has a sufficiency of grass in places, but the
+         water may become scarce in a very dry season.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXVI.--_From Nebraska City, on the Missouri, to Fort Kearney._
+
+Nebraska City, on the Missouri River, is a point from whence a large
+amount of the supplies for the army in Utah are sent, and one of the
+contractors, Mr. Alexander Majors, speaks of this route in the
+following terms: "The military road from Fort Leavenworth crosses very
+many tributaries of the Kansas River, the Soldier, the Grasshopper,
+etc., etc., which are at all times difficult of passage. There are no
+bridges, or but few, and those of but little service. From Nebraska
+City to Fort Kearney, which is a fixed point for the junction of all
+roads passing up the Platte, we have but one stream of any moment to
+cross. That one is Salt Creek, a stream which is now paved at a
+shallow ford with solid rock.
+
+"There is no other stream which, even in a high freshet, would stop a
+train a single day. Again, upon this route we have an abundance of
+good grazing every foot of the way to Fort Kearney. The route from
+Nebraska City is about 100 miles shorter to Fort Kearney than that
+from Fort Leavenworth, the former being less than 200 miles and the
+latter about 300 miles."
+
+From Nebraska City to Salt Creek is...... 40 miles.
+From Salt Creek to Elm Creek is.......... 60   "
+From Elm Creek to Fort Kearney is........ 100  "
+
+Upon the entire route there is an abundance of wood, water, and grass,
+and camping-places frequent.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXVII.--_From Camp Floyd, Utah, to Fort Union, New Mexico._ By
+Colonel W. W. LORING, U.S.A.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Camp Floyd to
+
+     23. Goshen.--The road runs through Cedar Valley; is level and
+         good for 11 miles, to where the road forks. The left runs
+         near the lake, and has good camps upon it. Thence to a fine
+         spring, where there is a good camp, is 3 miles. Grass
+         continues good to the camp near Goshen. Wood, water, and
+         grass abundant.
+
+     14. Salt Creek.--Road runs over a mountain in a direct course to
+         a fine spring branch, which runs into Salt Creek at 3-1/2
+         miles, where is a good camp; thence through a meadow to a
+         small branch 3 miles, striking the old Mormon road again
+         opposite a mud fort, where there is a fine spring and good
+         camp; thence into the valley of Salt Creek, where there are
+         good camps.
+
+     18. Pleasant Creek.--Near the last camp the road forks, one
+         running to Nephi, a small Mormon village, the other to Salt
+         Creek Canon, which is the one to be taken. The road runs up
+         the canon 5 miles; thence up its small right-hand fork to a
+         spring, 3 miles; thence to camp. Good camps can be found any
+         where after crossing Salt Creek, with abundance of wood,
+         water, and grass.
+
+ 19-1/2. Willow Creek.--Road at 6-1/2 miles passes a fine spring;
+         half a mile farther is another spring, where the road forks.
+         Take the right through a meadow; it is 3 or 4 miles shorter.
+         To the crossing is 3 miles; thence to the main road again 3
+         miles; to the village of Ephraim 5 miles. Good camp.
+
+     12. Lediniquint Creek.--At 6 miles pass Manti; thence to Salt
+         and Sulphur Springs is 3 miles. Good camp, with a fine
+         spring, wood, and grass.
+
+     15. Lediniquint Creek.--Road passes over a rugged country for 4
+         miles, to a creek; thence one mile it crosses another creek;
+         thence 2-1/2 miles up the creek, where there is a good camp.
+         The road improves, and for 8 or 9 miles camps can be found
+         by leaving the creek a short distance. The creek on which
+         the camp is muddy, with narrow channel.
+
+     18. Onapah Creek, or Salt Creek.--Road is good over a barren
+         country to the pointed red hills near the entrance to
+         Wasatch Pass, 7 miles. From the red hills cross Salt Creek 3
+         times in 4 miles; grass fair at 2d crossing; very good at 3d
+         crossing, and a good camp. Road rough for 3 miles after
+         leaving the creek. The road then enters a fine valley, with
+         plenty of blue and bunch grass. Road is level to within a
+         mile of the camp. Wood, water, and grass abundant at camp.
+
+  7-1/2. Head of Branch of Salt Creek.--Road runs over a ridge at
+         2 miles, thence one mile to a small branch. Grass abundant.
+         Road runs along the branch 3 miles; in places very rough,
+         with some sand; ascends the entire distance, and the camp is
+         very elevated. Good spring at camp.
+
+  5-3/4. Salt Creek.--Road passes over a ridge 2-1/2 miles to a
+         spring. Good camp at this spring. Colonel Loring worked the
+         road at this place. It crosses the creek 6 times within the
+         5-3/4 miles. Good camp, with abundance of wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+  6-1/2. Silver Creek.--Road traverses a rolling section, is good,
+         passes several springs where there are good camps, and
+         crosses several trails which lead from California to New
+         Mexico.
+
+ 17-1/2. Media Creek.--At two miles the road passes the dividing
+         ridge between the waters of Salt Lake and Green River;
+         thence two miles' descent to Shipley Creek, where is a good
+         camp. For about a mile the road is rough, but then descends
+         into an open plain where the road is good. The ground is
+         rough about the camp, and covered with sage and greasewood.
+         Two miles up the creek, near the canon, is some grass, but
+         it is not abundant here.
+
+ 19-3/4. St. Raphael Creek.--Road passes a rolling section for 5
+         miles; thence 1-1/2 mile to Garamboyer Creek, where there is
+         a good camp; thence, with the exception of a short distance,
+         the road is good to the Knobs, 9 miles, when it is broken
+         for 4-1/2 miles. Good camp.
+
+ 11-3/4. San Matio Creek.--For 3 miles the road is over a rolling
+         section, with steep hills, to a creek, where is a good camp;
+         thence, for 3 miles along the creek, soft soil and heavy
+         road; thence 5 miles to another creek, some grass, but not
+         plenty; thence to camp the road is rough in places. Good
+         camp.
+
+ 14-1/4. In the Hills.--Road runs over a rolling country 2-1/2
+         miles to San Marcos, or Tanoje Creek, where there is good
+         grass and water, with sage. Two miles farther over a
+         gravelly road, then a good plain road for 9-3/4 miles to
+         camp. Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+     23. Spring.--Road for the first ten miles is rocky, when it
+         strikes a spring, where there is a good camp; thence 2 miles
+         to water in a tank, not permanent; thence the road is on a
+         ridge for 6 miles, and is good; thence 3 miles the road is
+         sandy. The spring at camp is large, with plenty of wood, but
+         the grass is scarce. Down the creek it is more abundant.
+
+     18. Green River.--For 5 miles the road is sandy; thence the road
+         is good for the remainder of the distance to camp, where
+         there is plenty of wood, water, and grass.
+
+     13. 13-Mile Spring.--Green River can be forded at ordinary
+         stages. Road runs among several arroyas for a few miles, and
+         is then straight and good to camp. Good grass a mile to the
+         east of camp.
+
+         An Arroya.--Road runs between two rocky buttes, and strikes
+         the Mormon trail, which leaves Green River at the same
+         place, but is very tortuous. Water not permanent here; good
+         grass three fourths of a mile from camp.
+
+ 20-1/4. Cottonwood Creek.--Road passes over a broken country to a
+         water-hole, 9 miles; grass abundant; thence there is sand
+         in places: crosses several arroyas. Camp is between two
+         mountains. Wood, water, and grass abundant.
+
+     12. Grand River.--Road is over a rolling country; in places
+         light sand and heavy for wagons. Good camp.
+
+     13. Grand River.--Road is rolling and sandy. The Mormon road
+         runs nearer the mountains, and Colonel Loring thinks it is
+         better than the one he traveled. Good camp.
+
+ 16-3/4. 1-1/2 mile from Grand River.--The first 3 miles is level,
+         then the road passes over a very elevated ridge, and
+         descends into the valley. Grand River runs through a canon,
+         and can not be reached with the animals. Road in places
+         sandy. Good camp.
+
+  9-1/2. Grand River.--At two miles strike Salt Creek, where the
+         Mormon road passes up a dry creek toward Gray Mountain. Road
+         skirts the mountains along Grand River, and is rough in
+         places, passing over abrupt hills. Good camp.
+
+ 16-3/4. Grand River.--Road runs over a level and firm section, with
+         good camps at any point along the river. Cross the Mormon
+         and other trails. Good ford at the crossing except in high
+         water. Good camp.
+
+ 18-1/2. On an Arroya.--Road runs over an undulating surface, crossing
+         several small streams issuing from Elk Mountain, affording
+         good camps at almost any place, and strikes Marcy's and
+         Gunnison's trails. Good camp.
+
+ 15-1/4. Grand River.--Rolling country; high ridges with abrupt slopes
+         for 6-1/4 miles; thence into a plain for 7-1/4 miles to
+         Double Creek. Good camps.
+
+     12. Oncompagre River.--Good ford except in high water. At 6 miles
+         cross a dry creek; thence 3 miles over a high, level, and
+         firm road; strike a large trail; descend a hill with gentle
+         slope into the Valley of Oncompagre, where there are fine
+         camps. Winter resort for Ute Indians.
+
+ 14-1/2. Oncompagre River.--Road runs along the valley of the
+         Oncompagre, is good, and camps may be found at any point,
+         with plenty of wood, water, and grass.
+
+     13. Cedar Creek.--Road leaves the Oncompagre, and bears to the
+         east up Cedar Creek to the gap in the mountains, 6 miles;
+         thence up the valley of Cedar Creek to camp, where are wood,
+         water, and grass. The Gap is the first opening in the
+         mountains above the mouth of the Oncompagre.
+
+  8-3/4. Devil's Creek.--Road runs to the head of Cedar Creek, over
+         the divide, into the valley of Devil's Creek, and is rough,
+         with a steep descent. Camp is near a narrow canon called
+         Devil's Gate, with high perpendicular bluffs. Good camp.
+
+      3. North Fork of Devil's Creek.--Road very rocky, and worked by
+         Colonel Loring. Marcy's and Gunnison's trails pass here. Good
+         camp.
+
+  7-3/4. Cebola Creek.--Road passes over abrupt hills covered with
+         pine. Good camp.
+
+  5-1/2. Ruidos Creek.--Road rough, with abrupt ascents and descents.
+         Fine creek 5 feet wide, and good camp.
+
+     13. Grand River.--Road rather smooth for the first 3 miles, then
+         rough and rocky, crossing several creeks, and descending
+         into the valley of the Grand or Eagle-tail River, where is a
+         good camp. Plenty of brook trout in all the streams in this
+         section.
+
+ 14-1/2. Grand River.--Road crosses the river three times; bottom
+         wide; grass and wood abundant. Cross several beautiful
+         streams, upon which are good camps. Some sand and rough
+         places, but generally good road. Game and brook trout
+         abundant in this region. Indians resort to this section a
+         great deal.
+
+     18. Cutebetope Creek.--At about 5 miles the Cutebetope Creek
+         enters, forming at the confluence a beautiful valley, which
+         the road crosses, and strikes the creek near the Point of
+         Rocks, where the valley is only 40 yards wide, but after
+         passing the Point it opens again. The course of the creek is
+         nearly north. Good camps.
+
+     20. Spring near Beaver Creek.--Road crosses several small creeks,
+         where are good camping-places. Good camp.
+
+ 16-3/4. Sawatch Creek.--Road runs over a very rough and mountainous
+         section for 14 miles to the summit of the Rocky Mountains;
+         thence it descends to camp, where grass, wood, and water are
+         abundant.
+
+ 21-1/2. Sawatch Creek.--Road rough and rocky in places; strikes the
+         main Sawatch Creek at 9-1/2 miles; crosses numerous small
+         branches, where are grass, wood, and good water in abundance.
+
+ 25-1/2. Camero Creek.--Road for 7 miles, to Sawatch Buttes, is good;
+         thence 1-1/2 mile to the last crossing of the Sawatch, where
+         is a good camping-place. Good camp at Camero Creek.
+
+  3-1/2. Garita Creek.--Good road and good camp.
+
+ 16-1/2. Rio Grande.--Road level and good. Good camps along the
+         river at almost any point.
+
+      6. Rio Grande.--Good road and camp.
+
+ 17-1/2. Fort Garland, Hay Camp.--Road continues down the river, and
+         is good. For six miles there is timber, but after this
+         willow is the only wood to camp. Good road. Hay is cut at
+         this place for Forts Massachusetts and Garland.
+
+     16. Culebra Creek.--At 4-3/4 miles cross Trinchera Creek, where
+         is a good camp. Road rather sandy. Good camps any where on
+         Culebra Creek.
+
+ 24-3/4. Latos Creek.--Road tolerable to Costilla Creek, 10-3/4
+         miles. Good camp.
+
+     14. Ascequia, near Lama Creek.--Road crosses several small
+         branches. At 9-1/2 miles strike Red River. Grass at camp
+         good, but not abundant.
+
+ 19-3/4. Meadow near Indian Puebla.--At 6 miles the road crosses
+         the San Christobal; thence over another ridge into the valley
+         of the Rio Hondo. Camp 2 miles from Taos.
+
+      2. Taos, New Mexico.--Good road. At Taos are several stores,
+         where goods of all descriptions can be had at fair prices.
+
+     13. Taos Creek Canon.--Road passes through the settlement, where
+         grain and vegetables can be obtained. It then enters the Taos
+         Canon at 3 miles, and crosses the Canon Creek frequently to
+         camp. Good camp.
+
+     29. Gaudelapepita.--At 5 miles the road ascends to the dividing
+         ridge, and is tolerable; thence in 4 miles cross the
+         mountain, and reach a fine spring branch, where is a fine
+         camp. Thence the road passes short ridges for 9 miles to
+         Black Lake. Good camp.
+
+         Fort Union.--Road follows Coyote Canon 3 miles; thence one
+         mile to Mexican settlement; thence 19-1/2 miles over the
+         prairie to the fort.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+Colonel Loring came over the route from Camp Floyd to Fort Union with
+a large train of wagons. He, however, found the road in many places
+upon the mountains very rough, and it will require working before it
+will be suitable for general travel with loaded wagons. It is an
+excellent route for summer travel with pack trains, and is well
+supplied with the requisites for encamping.
+
+From Fort Union to Fort Garland the road passes through a settled
+country, where supplies of grain and vegetables can at all times be
+purchased at reasonable prices, and there are small towns met with
+during almost every day's march where small shops supply such articles
+of merchandise as the traveler needs.
+
+                     *      *      *      *      *
+
+XXVIII.--_Wagon-route from Guaymas, New Mexico, to Tubac, Arizona._
+From Captain STONE'S Journal.
+
+Miles.
+
+         Guaymas to
+
+ 10-1/4. Rancho del Cavallo.--Good wood, water, and grass.
+
+      9. Rancho de la Noche Buena.--Good wood and grass, but no water
+         for animals in May and June.
+
+ 19-5/8. Rancho de la Cuneguinta.--Good wood, water, and grass the
+         year round; water in tanks and wells.
+
+ 15-3/4. Rancho del Posito.--Good wood and grass the year round;
+         water for men at all times, and for animals except in the
+         months of May and June.
+
+      8. Rancho de la Palma.--Wood, water, and grass at all times.
+
+ 16-3/8. Rancho de la Paza.--Good wood, water, and grass at all
+         seasons.
+
+     16. Hermosillo.--This is a town of 10,000 inhabitants, on Sonora
+         River, where all supplies may be procured.
+
+     13. Hacienda de Alamito.--Plenty of running water, wood, grass,
+         and grain.
+
+      8. Hacienda de la Labor.--Plenty of running water, grass, and
+         grain.
+
+     28. Rancho de Tabique.--Roughest part of the road, but not
+         difficult for wagons. Wood, water, and grass. From
+         Hermosillo to this place there is water at short intervals
+         along the road.
+
+     36. Rancho Querebabi.--Wood and grass; water in tanks.
+
+     12. Barajita.--Small mining village. Bad water; good wood and
+         grass.
+
+     13. Santa Ana.--Village on the River San Ignacio. Plenty of
+         wood, water, and grass.
+
+     12. La Magdalena.--Thriving town, where all supplies can be
+         procured.
+
+      5. San Ignacio.--Village on the river. Good wood, water, and
+         grass.
+
+  6-3/4. Imuris.--Village on the river. Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 11-1/2. Los Alisos Rancho.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  3-1/2. La Casita.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+  3-1/2. Cibuta.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 11-1/4. Agua Zarca.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+ 23-1/4. Rancho de las Calabasas.--Wood, water, and grass.
+
+     13. Tubac.--Silver mines at this place.
+
+Total distance from Guaymas to Tubac, 295 miles.
+
+NOTE.--During the months of July, August, and September, water will be
+found at almost any part of the road from La Casita to Hermosillo.
+There is no lack of wood or grass on any part of the road from Guaymas
+to the frontier. The only difficulty in encamping at almost any point
+upon the road is that of obtaining water in the dry season, _i.e._,
+from February to the first of July. The remarks for each place apply
+to the most unfavorable seasons.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A. _Portable Boat._
+
+A boat has been invented by Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of the army, which
+has been used in several expeditions in Oregon and in Washington
+Territory, and has been highly commended by several experienced
+officers who have had the opportunity of giving its merits a practical
+service test.
+
+It consists of an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow
+boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by hinges, the
+different sections folding into so small a compass as to be
+conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet of
+stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord
+running diagonally back and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper
+edge.
+
+When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, but the canvas
+soon swells so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical
+purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat
+is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to
+the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are
+liable to rise above a fording stage, and where the allowance of
+transportation is small.
+
+It may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes,
+and one mule suffices to transport a boat, with all its appurtenances,
+capable of sustaining ten men.
+
+Should the canvas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a
+patch, and it does not rot or crack like India-rubber or gutta-percha;
+moreover, it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature.
+
+
+B. _Winter Traveling._
+
+In traveling through deep snow, horses will be found much better than
+mules, as the latter soon become discouraged, lie down, and refuse to
+put forth the least exertion, while the former will work as long as
+their strength holds out.
+
+When the snow is dry, and not deeper than 2-1/2 feet, horses in good
+condition, will walk through it without much difficulty, and throw
+aside the snow so as to open quite a track. If there are several horses
+they should be changed frequently, as the labor upon the leading one is
+very severe. When the snow is deeper than 2-1/2 feet, it becomes very
+difficult for animals to wade through it, and they soon weary and give
+out. The best plan, under such circumstances (and it is the one I
+adopted in crossing the Rocky Mountains, where the snow was from two to
+five feet upon the ground), is to place all the disposable men in
+advance of the animals to break the track, requiring them to alternate
+from front to rear at regular intervals of time. In this manner a track
+is beaten over which animals pass with comparative ease.
+
+When the snow increases to about four feet, it is impossible for the
+leading men to walk erect through it, and two or three of them are
+compelled to crawl upon their hands and knees, all being careful to
+place their hands and feet in the same holes that have been made by
+those in advance. This packs the snow so that it will sustain the
+others walking erect, and after 20 or 30 have passed it becomes
+sufficiently firm to bear up the animals. This, of course, is an
+exceedingly laborious and slow process, but it is the only alternative
+when a party finds itself in the midst of very deep snows in a
+wilderness. Animals, in walking over such a track as has been
+mentioned, will soon acquire the habit of placing their feet in the
+holes that have been made by the men; and, indeed, if they lose the
+step or miss the holes, they will fall down or sink to their bellies.
+
+Early in the winter, when the snow first falls in the Rocky Mountains,
+it is so light and dry that snow-shoes can not be used to advantage. We
+tried the experiment when we crossed the mountains in December and
+January, but found it impossible to walk upon them.
+
+Should a party, in a country where the snow is deep, have the
+misfortune to lose its animals by freezing, the journey can not be
+continued for any great length of time without devising some method of
+transporting subsistence besides that of carrying it upon the backs of
+the men, as they are unable to break a track through deep snow when
+loaded down in this way.
+
+The following plan has suggested itself to me as being the most
+feasible, and it is the one I resolved to adopt in the event of losing
+our mules faster than we required them for subsistence when we passed
+the Mountains.
+
+Take willow, or other flexible rods, and make long sleds, less in width
+than the track, securing the cross-pieces with rawhide thongs. Skin the
+animals, and cut the hides into pieces to fit the bottom of the sleds,
+and make them fast, with the hair on the upper side. Attach a raw-hide
+thong to the front for drawing it, and it is complete. In a very cold
+climate the hide soon freezes, becomes very solid, and slips easily
+over the snow. The meat and other articles to be transported are then
+placed upon the sled so as not to project over the sides, and lashed
+firmly. Lieutenant Cresswell, who was detached from Captain M'Clure's
+ship in the Arctic regions in 1853, says his men dragged 200 pounds
+each upon sledges over the ice. They could not, of course, pull as much
+over deep snow, but it is believed that they would have no difficulty
+in transporting half this amount, which would be sufficient to keep
+them from starvation at least fifty days.
+
+I am quite confident that a party of men who find themselves involved
+in deep snows, dependent solely upon their own physical powers, and
+without beasts of burden, can prolong their lives for a greater time,
+travel farther, and perform more labor by adopting the foregoing
+suggestions than in any other way.
+
+
+C. _Indian Signals._
+
+When Indians are pursued by a large force, and do not intend to make
+resistance, they generally scatter as much as possible, in order to
+perplex and throw off those who follow their trail, but they have an
+understanding where they are to rendezvous in advance. Sometimes,
+however, circumstances may arise during a rapid flight making it
+necessary for them to alter these plans, and turn their course in
+another direction. When this happens, they are in the habit of leaving
+behind them some well-understood signals to indicate to their friends
+in the rear the change in their-movements.
+
+For instance, they will sometimes leave a stick or other object to
+attract attention, and under this bury an arrow pointing in the new
+direction they intend to take. They will then continue on for a time in
+the course they have been pursuing, until they get upon hard ground,
+where it is difficult to see their tracks, then gradually turn their
+course in the new direction.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH of the DIFFERENT ROADS.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prairie Traveler, by Randolph Marcy
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