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diff --git a/23066-8.txt b/23066-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..12caa23 --- /dev/null +++ b/23066-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10336 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prairie Traveler, by Randolph Marcy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Prairie Traveler + A Hand-book for Overland Expeditions + +Author: Randolph Marcy + +Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23066] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected +without note. Dialect spellings, contractions and discrepancies have +been retained. + + +[Illustration: FORT SMITH, ARKANSAS.] + + + +THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER. + + +A HAND-BOOK FOR OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS. + +WITH MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND ITINERARIES OF THE +PRINCIPAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI AND THE PACIFIC. + + + +By + +RANDOLPH B. MARCY, +CAPTAIN U. S. ARMY. + + + +PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT. + +NEW YORK: +HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, +FRANKLIN SQUARE. + +1859. + +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year +one thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine, by + +HARPER & BROTHERS, + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of +the Southern District of New York. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +The different Routes to California and Oregon. Their respective +Advantages. Organization of Companies. Elections of Captains. +Wagons and Teams. Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. Stores +and Provisions. How packed. Desiccated and canned Vegetables. +Pemmican. Antiscorbutics. Cold Flour. Substitutes in case of +Necessity. Amount of Supplies. Clothing. Camp Equipage. Arms. 15 + +CHAPTER II. + +Marching. Treatment of Animals. Water. Different methods of +finding and purifying it. Journadas. Methods of crossing them. +Advance and Rear Guards. Selection of Camp. Sanitary Considerations. +Dr. Jackson's Report. Picket Guards. Stampedes. How to prevent +them. Corraling Wagons. 44 + +CHAPTER III. + +Repairing broken Wagons. Fording Rivers. Quicksand. Wagon Boats. +Bull Boats. Crossing Packs. Swimming Animals. Marching with loose +Horses. Herding Mules. Best Methods of Marching. Herding and +guarding Animals. Descending Mountains. Storms. Northers. 71 + +CHAPTER IV. + +Packing. Saddles. Mexican Method. Madrina, or Bell-mare. +Attachment of the Mule illustrated. Best Method of Packing. +Hoppling Animals. Selecting Horses and Mules. Grama and bunch +Grass. European Saddles. California Saddle. Saddle Wounds. +Alkali. Flies. Colic. Rattlesnake Bites. Cures for the Bite. 98 + +CHAPTER V. + +Bivouacs. Tente d'Abri. Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. Comanche +Lodge. Sibley Tent. Camp Furniture. Litters. Rapid Traveling. +Fuel. Making Fires. Fires on the Prairies. Jerking Meat. Making +Lariats. Making Caches. Disposition of Fire-arms. Colt's +Revolvers. Gun Accidents. Trailing. Indian Sagacity. 132 + +CHAPTER VI. + +Guides and Hunters. Delawares and Shawnees. Khebirs. Black +Beaver. Anecdotes. Domestic Troubles. Lodges. Similarity of +Prairie Tribes to the Arabs. Method of making War. Tracking and +pursuing Indians. Method of attacking them. Telegraphing by +Smokes. 183 + +CHAPTER VII. + +Hunting. Its Benefits to the Soldier. Buffalo. Deer. Antelope. +Bear. Big-horn, or Mountain Sheep. Their Habits, and Hints upon +the best Methods of hunting them. 230 + +ITINERARIES. 253 + +APPENDIX. 335 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Page + +Map of Overland routes _at end of volume._ +Fort Smith, Arkansas _Frontispiece._ +Swimming a Horse 78 +Diagram for Measurements 81 +Crossing a Stream 87 +Grimsley's Pack-saddle 99 +California Saddle 119 +Half-faced Camp 134 +Conical Bivouac 135 +Tent Knapsack 137 +Comanche Lodge 140 +Sibley Tent 143 +Camp Chairs 145 +Camp Table--Field Cot 146 +Field Cot--Camp Bureau 148 +Mess-chest 149 +Horse-litter 151 +Hand-litter 154 +The Grizzly 167 +Horse-tracks 178 +Keep away! 209 +Calling up Antelopes 245 +The Needles 254 +Chimney Rock 269 +Devil's Gate 271 +Well in the Desert 292 +Map of the Pike's Peak Gold Region 296 +Sangre de Cristo Pass 300 +San Francisco Mountain 309 +Cañon on Bill Williams's Fork 312 +Artillery Peak 313 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +A quarter of a century's experience in frontier life, a great portion +of which has been occupied in exploring the interior of our continent, +and in long marches where I have been thrown exclusively upon my own +resources, far beyond the bounds of the populated districts, and where +the traveler must vary his expedients to surmount the numerous +obstacles which the nature of the country continually reproduces, has +shown me under what great disadvantages the "_voyageur_" labors for +want of a timely initiation into those minor details of prairie-craft, +which, however apparently unimportant in the abstract, are sure, upon +the plains, to turn the balance of success for or against an +enterprise. + +This information is so varied, and is derived from so many different +sources, that I still find every new expedition adds substantially to +my practical knowledge, and am satisfied that a good Prairie Manual +will be for the young traveler an addition to his equipment of +inappreciable value. + +With such a book in his hand, he will be able, in difficult circumstances, +to avail himself of the matured experience of veteran travelers, and +thereby avoid many otherwise unforeseen disasters; while, during the +ordinary routine of marching, he will greatly augment the sum of his +comforts, avoid many serious losses, and enjoy a comparative exemption +from doubts and anxieties. He will feel himself a master spirit in the +wilderness he traverses, and not the victim of every _new_ combination +of circumstances which nature affords or fate allots, as if to try his +skill and prowess. + +I have waited for several years, with the confident expectation that +some one more competent than myself would assume the task, and give the +public the desired information; but it seems that no one has taken +sufficient interest in the subject to disseminate the benefits of his +experience in this way. Our frontier-men, although brave in council and +action, and possessing an intelligence that quickens in the face of +danger, are apt to feel shy of the pen. They shun the atmosphere of the +student's closet; their sphere is in the free and open wilderness. It +is not to be wondered at, therefore, that to our veteran borderer the +field of literature should remain a "_terra incognita_." It is our +army that unites the chasm between the culture of civilization in the +aspect of science, art, and social refinement, and the powerful +simplicity of nature. On leaving the Military Academy, a majority of +our officers are attached to the line of the army, and forthwith +assigned to duty upon our remote and extended frontier, where the +restless and warlike habits of the nomadic tribes render the soldier's +life almost as unsettled as that of the savages themselves. + +A regiment is stationed to-day on the borders of tropical Mexico; +to-morrow, the war-whoop, borne on a gale from the northwest, compels +its presence in the frozen latitudes of Puget's Sound. The very limited +numerical strength of our army, scattered as it is over a vast area of +territory, necessitates constant changes of stations, long and toilsome +marches, a promptitude of action, and a tireless energy and +self-reliance, that can only be acquired through an intimate +acquaintance with the sphere in which we act and move. + +The education of our officers at the Military Academy is doubtless well +adapted to the art of civilized warfare, but can not familiarize them +with the diversified details of border service; and they often, at the +outset of their military career, find themselves compelled to improvise +new expedients to meet novel emergences. + +The life of the wilderness is an _art_ as well as that of the city +or court, and every art subjects its votaries to discipline in +preparing them for a successful career in its pursuit. The Military +Art, as enlarged to meet all the requirements of border service, the +savage in his wiles or the elements in their caprices, embraces many +other special arts which have hitherto been almost ignored, and results +which experience and calculation should have guaranteed have been +improvidently staked upon favorable chances. + +The main object at which I have aimed in the following pages has been +to explain and illustrate, as clearly and succinctly as possible, the +best methods of performing the duties devolving upon the prairie +traveler, so as to meet their contingencies under all circumstances, +and thereby to endeavor to establish a more uniform system of marching +and campaigning in the Indian country. + +I have also furnished itineraries of most of the principal routes that +have been traveled across the plains, taken from the best and most +reliable authorities; and I have given some information concerning the +habits of the Indians and wild animals that frequent the prairies, with +the secrets of the hunter's and warrior's strategy, which I have +endeavored to impress more forcibly upon the reader by introducing +illustrative anecdote. + +I take great pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to several +officers of the Topographical Engineers and of other corps of the army +for the valuable information I have obtained from their official +reports regarding the different routes embraced in the itineraries, and +to these gentlemen I beg leave very respectfully to dedicate my book. + + + + +THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +The different Routes to California and Oregon. Their respective +Advantages. Organization of Companies. Elections of Captains. +Wagons and Teams. Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. Stores +and Provisions. How packed. Desiccated and canned Vegetables. +Pemmican. Antiscorbutics. Cold Flour. Substitutes in case of +Necessity. Amount of Supplies. Clothing. Camp Equipage. Arms. + + +ROUTES TO CALIFORNIA AND OREGON. + +Emigrants or others desiring to make the overland journey to the +Pacific should bear in mind that there are several different routes +which may be traveled with wagons, each having its advocates in persons +directly or indirectly interested in attracting the tide of emigration +and travel over them. + +Information concerning these routes coming from strangers living or +owning property near them, from agents of steam-boats or railways, or +from other persons connected with transportation companies, should be +received with great caution, and never without corroborating evidence +from disinterested sources. + +There is no doubt that each one of these roads has its advantages and +disadvantages, but a judicious selection must depend chiefly upon the +following considerations, namely, the locality from whence the +individual is to take his departure, the season of the year when he +desires to commence his journey, the character of his means of +transportation, and the point upon the Pacific coast that he wishes to +reach. + +Persons living in the Northeastern States can, with about equal +facility and dispatch, reach the eastern terminus of any one of the +routes they may select by means of public transport. And, as animals +are much cheaper upon the frontier than in the Eastern States, they +should purchase their teams at or near the point where the overland +journey is to commence. + +Those living in the Northwestern States, having their own teams, and +wishing to go to any point north of San Francisco, will of course make +choice of the route which takes its departure from the Missouri River. + +Those who live in the middle Western States, having their own means of +transportation, and going to any point upon the Pacific coast, should +take one of the middle routes. + +Others, who reside in the extreme Southwest, and whose destination is +south of San Francisco, should travel the southern road running through +Texas, which is the only one practicable for comfortable winter travel. +The grass upon a great portion of this route is green during the entire +winter, and snow seldom covers it. This road leaves the Gulf coast at +_Powder-horn_, on Matagorda Bay, which point is difficult of access by +land from the north, but may be reached by steamers from New Orleans +five times a week. + +There are stores at Powder-horn and Indianola where the traveler can +obtain most of the articles necessary for his journey, but I would +recommend him to supply himself before leaving New Orleans with every +thing he requires with the exception of animals, which he will find +cheaper in Texas. + +This road has received a large amount of travel since 1849, is well +tracked and defined, and, excepting about twenty miles of "_hog +wallow prairie_" near Powder-horn, it is an excellent road for +carriages and wagons. It passes through a settled country for 250 +miles, and within this section supplies can be had at reasonable rates. + +At Victoria and San Antonio many fine stores will be found, well +supplied with large stocks of goods, embracing all the articles the +traveler will require. + +The next route to the north is that over which the semi-weekly mail to +California passes, and which, for a great portion of the way to New +Mexico, I traveled and recommended in 1849. This road leaves the +Arkansas River at Fort Smith, to which point steamers run during the +seasons of high water in the winter and spring. + +Supplies of all descriptions necessary for the overland journey may be +procured at Fort Smith, or at Van Buren on the opposite side of the +Arkansas. Horses and cattle are cheap here. The road, on leaving Fort +Smith, passes through the Choctaw and Chickasaw country for 180 miles, +then crosses Red River by ferry-boat at Preston, and runs through the +border settlements of northern Texas for 150 miles, within which +distances supplies may be procured at moderate prices. + +This road is accessible to persons desiring to make the entire journey +with their own transportation from Tennessee or Mississippi, by +crossing the Mississippi River at Memphis or Helena, passing Little +Rock, and thence through Washington County, intersecting the road at +Preston. It may also be reached by taking steamers up Red River to +Shreveport or Jefferson, from either of which places there are roads +running through a populated country, and intersecting the Fort Smith +road near Preston. + +This road also unites with the San Antonio road at El Paso, and from +that point they pass together over the mountains to Fort Yuma and to +San Francisco in California. + +Another road leaves Fort Smith and runs up the south side of the +Canadian River to Santa Fé and Albuquerque in New Mexico. + +This route is set down upon most of the maps of the present day as +having been discovered and explored by various persons, but my own name +seems to have been carefully excluded from the list. Whether this +omission has been intentional or not, I leave for the authors to +determine. I shall merely remark that I had the command and entire +direction of an expedition which in 1849 discovered, explored, located, +and marked out this identical wagon road from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to +Santa Fé, New Mexico, and that this road, for the greater portion of +the distance, is the same that has been since recommended for a Pacific +railway. + +This road, near Albuquerque, unites with Captain Whipple's and +Lieutenant Beall's roads to California. + +Another road, which takes its departure from Fort Smith and passes +through the Cherokee country, is called the "Cherokee Trail." It +crosses Grand River at Fort Gibson, and runs a little north of west to +the Verdigris River, thence up the valley of this stream on the north +side for 80 miles, when it crosses the river, and, taking a northwest +course, strikes the Arkansas River near old Fort Mann, on the Santa Fé +trace; thence it passes near the base of Pike's Peak, and follows down +Cherry Creek from its source to its confluence with the South Platte, +and from thence over the mountains into Utah, and on to California +_via_ Fort Bridger and Salt Lake City. + +For persons who desire to go from the Southern States to the gold +diggings in the vicinity of Cherry Creek, this route is shorter by +some 300 miles than that from Fort Smith _via_ Fort Leavenworth. It +is said to be an excellent road, and well supplied with the requisites +for encamping. It has been traveled by large parties of California +emigrants for several years, and is well tracked and defined. + +The grass upon all the roads leaving Fort Smith is sufficiently +advanced to afford sustenance to animals by the first of April, and +from this time until winter sets in it is abundant. The next route on +the north leaves the Missouri River at Westport, Leavenworth City, +Atcheson, or from other towns above, between either of which points and +St. Louis steamers ply during the entire summer season. + +The necessary outfit of supplies can always be procured at any of the +starting-points on the Missouri River at moderate rates. + +This is the great emigrant route from Missouri to California and +Oregon, over which so many thousands have traveled within the past few +years. The track is broad, well worn, and can not be mistaken. It has +received the major part of the Mormon emigration, and was traversed by +the army in its march to Utah in 1857. + +At the point where this road crosses the South Platte River, Lieutenant +Bryan's road branches off to the left, leading through Bridger's Pass, +and thence to Fort Bridger. The Fort Kearney route to the gold region +near Pike's Peak also leaves the emigrant road at this place and runs +up the South Platte. + +From Fort Bridger there are two roads that may be traveled with wagons +in the direction of California; one passing Salt Lake City, and the +other running down Bear River to Soda Springs, intersecting the Salt +Lake City road at the _City of Rocks_. Near Soda Springs the Oregon +road turns to the right, passing Fort Hall, and thence down Snake River +to Fort Wallah-Wallah. Unless travelers have business in Salt Lake +Valley, I would advise them to take the Bear River route, as it is much +shorter, and better in every respect. The road, on leaving the Missouri +River, passes for 150 miles through a settled country where grain can +be purchased cheap, and there are several stores in this section where +most of the articles required by travelers can be obtained. + +Many persons who have had much experience in prairie traveling prefer +leaving the Missouri River in March or April, and feeding grain to +their animals until the new grass appears. The roads become muddy and +heavy after the spring rains set in, and by starting out early the +worst part of the road will be passed over before the ground becomes +wet and soft. This plan, however, should never be attempted unless the +animals are well supplied with grain, and kept in good condition. They +will eat the old grass in the spring, but it does not, in this climate, +as in Utah and New Mexico, afford them sufficient sustenance. + +The grass, after the 1st of May, is good and abundant upon this road as +far as the South Pass, from whence there is a section of about 50 miles +where it is scarce; there is also a scarcity upon the desert beyond the +sink of the Humboldt. As large numbers of cattle pass over the road +annually, they soon consume all the grass in these barren localities, +and such as pass late in the season are likely to suffer greatly, and +oftentimes perish from starvation. When I came over the road in August, +1858, I seldom found myself out of sight of dead cattle for 500 miles +along the road, and this was an unusually favorable year for grass, and +before the main body of animals had passed for that season. + +Upon the head of the Sweetwater River, and west of the South Pass, +alkaline springs are met with, which are exceedingly poisonous to +cattle and horses. They can readily be detected by the yellowish-red +color of the grass growing around them. Animals should never be allowed +to graze near them or to drink the water. + + +ORGANIZATION OF COMPANIES. + +After a particular route has been selected to make the journey across +the plains, and the requisite number have arrived at the eastern +terminus, their first business should be to organize themselves into a +company and elect a commander. The company should be of sufficient +magnitude to herd and guard animals, and for protection against +Indians. + +From 50 to 70 men, properly armed and equipped, will be enough for +these purposes, and any greater number only makes the movements of the +party more cumbersome and tardy. + +In the selection of a captain, good judgment, integrity of purpose, and +practical experience are the essential requisites, and these are +indispensable to the harmony and consolidation of the association. His +duty should be to direct the order of march, the time of starting and +halting, to select the camps, detail and give orders to guards, and, +indeed, to control and superintend all the movements of the company. + +An obligation should then be drawn up and signed by all the members of +the association, wherein each one should bind himself to abide in all +cases by the orders and decisions of the captain, and to aid him by +every means in his power in the execution of his duties; and they +should also obligate themselves to aid each other, so as to make the +individual interest of each member the common concern of the whole +company. To insure this, a fund should be raised for the purchase of +extra animals to supply the places of those which may give out or die +on the road; and if the wagon or team of a particular member should +fail and have to be abandoned, the company should obligate themselves +to transport his luggage, and the captain should see that he has his +share of transportation equal with any other member. Thus it will be +made the interest of every member of the company to watch over and +protect the property of others as well as his own. + +In case of failure on the part of any one to comply with the +obligations imposed by the articles of agreement after they have been +duly executed, the company should of course have the power to punish +the delinquent member, and, if necessary, to exclude him from all the +benefits of the association. + +On such a journey as this, there is much to interest and amuse one who +is fond of picturesque scenery, and of wild life in its most primitive +aspect, yet no one should attempt it without anticipating many rough +knocks and much hard labor; every man must expect to do his share of +duty faithfully and without a murmur. + +On long and arduous expeditions men are apt to become irritable and +ill-natured, and oftentimes fancy they have more labor imposed upon +them than their comrades, and that the person who directs the march is +partial toward his favorites, etc. That man who exercises the greatest +forbearance under such circumstances, who is cheerful, slow to take up +quarrels, and endeavors to reconcile difficulties among his companions, +is deserving of all praise, and will, without doubt, contribute largely +to the success and comfort of an expedition. + +The advantages of an association such as I have mentioned are +manifestly numerous. The animals can be herded together and guarded by +the different members of the company in rotation, thereby securing to +all the opportunities of sleep and rest. Besides, this is the only way +to resist depredations of the Indians, and to prevent their stampeding +and driving off animals; and much more efficiency is secured in every +respect, especially in crossing streams, repairing roads, etc., etc. + +Unless a systematic organization be adopted, it is impossible for a +party of any magnitude to travel in company for any great length of +time, and for all the members to agree upon the same arrangements in +marching, camping, etc. I have several times observed, where this has +been attempted, that discords and dissensions sooner or later arose +which invariably resulted in breaking up and separating the company. + +When a captain has once been chosen, he should be sustained in all his +decisions unless he commit some manifest outrage, when a majority of +the company can always remove him, and put a more competent man in his +place. Sometimes men may be selected who, upon trial, do not come up to +the anticipations of those who have placed them in power, and other men +will exhibit, during the course of the march, more capacity. Under +these circumstances it will not be unwise to make a change, the first +election having been distinctly provisional. + + +WAGONS AND TEAMS. + +A company having been organized, its first interest is to procure a +proper outfit of transportation and supplies for the contemplated +journey. + +Wagons should be of the simplest possible construction--strong, light, +and made of well-seasoned timber, especially the wheels, as the +atmosphere, in the elevated and arid region over which they have to +pass, is so exceedingly dry during the summer months that, unless the +wood-work is thoroughly seasoned, they will require constant repairs to +prevent them from falling to pieces. + +Wheels made of the bois-d'arc, or Osage orange-wood, are the best for +the plains, as they shrink but little, and seldom want repairing. As, +however, this wood is not easily procured in the Northern States, white +oak answers a very good purpose if well seasoned. + +Spring wagons made in Concord, New Hampshire, are used to transport +passengers and the mails upon some of the routes across the plains, and +they are said, by those who have used them, to be much superior to any +others. They are made of the close-grained oak that grows in a high +northern latitude, and well seasoned. + +The pole of the wagon should have a joint where it enters the hounds, +to prevent the weight from coming upon it and breaking the hounds in +passing short and abrupt holes in the road. + +The perch or coupling-pole should be shifting or movable, as, in the +event of the loss of a wheel, an axle, or other accident rendering it +necessary to abandon the wagon, a temporary cart may be constructed out +of the remaining portion. The tires should be examined just before +commencing the journey, and, if not perfectly snug, reset. + +One of the chief causes of accidents to carriages upon the plains +arises from the nuts coming off from the numerous bolts that secure the +running gearing. To prevent this, the ends of all the bolts should be +riveted; it is seldom necessary to take them off, and when this is +required the ends of the bolts may easily be filed away. + +Wagons with six mules should never, on a long journey over the +prairies, be loaded with over 2000 pounds, unless grain is transported, +when an additional thousand pounds may be taken, provided it is fed out +daily to the team. When grass constitutes the only forage, 2000 pounds +is deemed a sufficient load. I regard our government wagons as +unnecessarily heavy for six mules. There is sufficient material in them +to sustain a burden of 4000 pounds, but they are seldom loaded with +more than half that weight. Every wagon should be furnished with +substantial bows and double osnaburg covers, to protect its contents +from the sun and weather. + +There has been much discussion regarding the relative merits of mules +and oxen for prairie traveling, and the question is yet far from being +settled. Upon good firm roads, in a populated country, where grain can +be procured, I should unquestionably give the preference to mules, as +they travel faster, and endure the heat of summer much better than +oxen; and if the journey be not over 1000 miles, and the grass +abundant, even without grain, I think mules would be preferable. But +when the march is to extend 1500 or 2000 miles, or over a rough sandy +or muddy road, I believe young oxen will endure better than mules; they +will, if properly managed, keep in better condition, and perform the +journey in an equally brief space of time. Besides, they are much more +economical, a team of six mules costing six hundred dollars, while an +eight-ox team only costs upon the frontier about two hundred dollars. +Oxen are much less liable to be stampeded and driven off by Indians, +and can be pursued and overtaken by horsemen; and, finally, they can, +if necessary, be used for beef. + +In Africa oxen are used as saddle animals, and it is said that they +perform good service in this way. This will probably be regarded by our +people as a very undignified and singular method of locomotion, but, in +the absence of any other means of transportation upon a long journey, a +saddle-ox might be found serviceable. + +Andersson, in his work on Southwestern Africa, says: "A short strong +stick, of peculiar shape, is forced through the cartilage of the nose +of the ox, and to either end of this stick is attached (in bridle +fashion) a tough leathern thong. From the extreme tenderness of the +nose he is now more easily managed." "Hans presented me with an ox +called 'Spring,' which I afterward rode upward of two thousand miles. +On the day of our departure he mounted us all on oxen, and a curious +sight it was to see some of the men take their seats who had never +before ridden on ox-back. It is impossible to guide an ox as one would +guide a horse, for in the attempt to do so you would instantly jerk the +stick out of his nose, which at once deprives you of every control over +the beast; but by pulling _both_ sides of the bridle at the same time, +and toward the side you wish him to take, he is easily managed.[1] Your +seat is not less awkward and difficult; for the skin of the ox, unlike +that of the horse, is loose, and, notwithstanding your saddle may be +tightly girthed, you keep rocking to and fro like a child in a cradle. +A few days, however, enables a person to acquire a certain steadiness, +and long habit will do the rest." + + [1] A ring instead of the stick put through the cartilage of the + nose would obviate this difficulty.--AUTHOR. + +"Ox traveling, when once a man becomes accustomed to it, is not so +disagreeable as might be expected, particularly if one succeeds in +obtaining a tractable animal. On emergencies, an ox can be made to +proceed at a tolerable quick pace; for, though his walk is only about +three miles an hour at an average, he may be made to perform double +that distance in the same time. Mr. Galton once accomplished 24 miles +in four hours, and that, too, through heavy sand!" + +Cows will be found very useful upon long journeys when the rate of +travel is slow, as they furnish milk, and in emergencies they may be +worked in wagons. I once saw a small cow yoked beside a large ox, and +driven about six hundred miles attached to a loaded wagon, and she +performed her part equally well with the ox. It has been by no means an +unusual thing for emigrant travelers to work cows in their teams. + +The inhabitants of Pembina, on Red River, work a single ox harnessed in +shafts like a horse, and they transport a thousand pounds in a rude +cart made entirely of wood, without a particle of iron. One man drives +and takes the entire charge of eight or ten of these teams upon long +journeys. This is certainly a very economical method of transportation. + + +STORES AND PROVISIONS. + +Supplies for a march should be put up in the most secure, compact, and +portable shape. + +Bacon should be packed in strong sacks of a hundred pounds to each; or, +in very hot climates, put in boxes and surrounded with bran, which in a +great measure prevents the fat from melting away. + +If pork be used, in order to avoid transporting about forty per cent. +of useless weight, it should be taken out of the barrels and packed +like the bacon; then so placed in the bottom of the wagons as to keep +it cool. The pork, if well cured, will keep several months in this way, +but bacon is preferable. + +Flour should be packed in stout double canvas sacks well sewed, a +hundred pounds in each sack. + +Butter may be preserved by boiling it thoroughly, and skimming off the +scum as it rises to the top until it is quite clear like oil. It is +then placed in tin canisters and soldered up. This mode of preserving +butter has been adopted in the hot climate of southern Texas, and it is +found to keep sweet for a great length of time, and its flavor is but +little impaired by the process. + +Sugar may be well secured in India-rubber or gutta-percha sacks, or so +placed in the wagon as not to risk getting wet. + +Desiccated or dried vegetables are almost equal to the fresh, and are +put up in such a compact and portable form as easily to be transported +over the plains. They have been extensively used in the Crimean war, +and by our own army in Utah, and have been very generally approved. +They are prepared by cutting the fresh vegetables into thin slices and +subjecting them to a very powerful press, which removes the juice and +leaves a solid cake, which, after having been thoroughly dried in an +oven, becomes almost as hard as a rock. A small piece of this, about +half the size of a man's hand, when boiled, swells up so as to fill a +vegetable dish, and is sufficient for four men. It is believed that the +antiscorbutic properties of vegetables are not impaired by desiccation, +and they will keep for years if not exposed to dampness. Canned +vegetables are very good for campaigning, but are not so portable as +when put up in the other form. The desiccated vegetables used in our +army have been prepared by Chollet and Co., 46 Rue Richer, Paris. There +is an agency for them in New York. I regard these compressed vegetables +as the best preparation for prairie traveling that has yet been +discovered. A single ration weighs, before being boiled, only an ounce, +and a cubic yard contains 16,000 rations. In making up their outfit for +the plains, men are very prone to overload their teams with a great +variety of useless articles. It is a good rule to carry nothing more +than is absolutely necessary for use upon the journey. One can not +expect, with the limited allowance of transportation that emigrants +usually have, to indulge in luxuries upon such expeditions, and +articles for use in California can be purchased there at less cost than +that of overland transport. + +The allowance of provisions for men in marching should be much greater +than when they take no exercise. The army ration I have always found +insufficient for soldiers who perform hard service, yet it is ample for +them when in quarters. + +The following table shows the amount of subsistence consumed per day by +each man of Dr. Rae's party, in his spring journey to the Arctic +regions of North America in 1854: + + Pemmican 1.25 lbs. + Biscuit 0.25 " + Edward's preserved potatoes 0.10 " + Flour 0.33 " + Tea 0.03 " + Sugar 0.14 " + Grease or alcohol, for cooking 0.25 " + ---- + 2.35 lbs. + +This allowance of a little over two pounds of the most nutritious food +was found barely sufficient to subsist the men in that cold climate. + +The pemmican, which constitutes almost the entire diet of the Fur +Company's men in the Northwest, is prepared as follows: The buffalo +meat is cut into thin flakes, and hung up to dry in the sun or before a +slow fire; it is then pounded between two stones and reduced to a +powder; this powder is placed in a bag of the animal's hide, with the +hair on the outside; melted grease is then poured into it, and the bag +sewn up. It can be eaten raw, and many prefer it so. Mixed with a +little flour and boiled, it is a very wholesome and exceedingly +nutritious food, and will keep fresh for a long time. + +I would advise all persons who travel for any considerable time through +a country where they can procure no vegetables to carry with them some +antiscorbutics, and if they can not transport desiccated or canned +vegetables, citric acid answers a good purpose, and is very portable. +When mixed with sugar and water, with a few drops of the essence of +lemon, it is difficult to distinguish it from lemonade. Wild onions are +excellent as antiscorbutics; also wild grapes and greens. An infusion +of hemlock leaves is also said to be an antidote to scurvy. + +The most portable and simple preparation of subsistence that I know of, +and which is used extensively by the Mexicans and Indians, is called +"_cold flour_." It is made by parching corn, and pounding it in a +mortar to the consistency of coarse meal; a little sugar and cinnamon +added makes it quite palatable. When the traveler becomes hungry or +thirsty, a little of the flour is mixed with water and drunk. It is an +excellent article for a traveler who desires to go the greatest length +of time upon the smallest amount of transportation. It is said that +half a bushel is sufficient to subsist a man thirty days. + +Persons undergoing severe labor, and driven to great extremities for +food, will derive sustenance from various sources that would never +occur to them under ordinary circumstances. In passing over the Rocky +Mountains during the winter of 1857-8, our supplies of provisions were +entirely consumed eighteen days before reaching the first settlements +in New Mexico, and we were obliged to resort to a variety of expedients +to supply the deficiency. Our poor mules were fast failing and dropping +down from exhaustion in the deep snows, and our only dependence for the +means of sustaining life was upon these starved animals as they became +unserviceable and could go no farther. We had no salt, sugar, coffee, +or tobacco, which, at a time when men are performing the severest labor +that the human system is capable of enduring, was a great privation. In +this destitute condition we found a substitute for tobacco in the bark +of the red willow, which grows upon many of the mountain streams in +that vicinity. The outer bark is first removed with a knife, after +which the inner bark is scraped up into ridges around the sticks, and +held in the fire until it is thoroughly roasted, when it is taken off +the stick, pulverized in the hand, and is ready for smoking. It has the +narcotic properties of the tobacco, and is quite agreeable to the taste +and smell. The sumach leaf is also used by the Indians in the same way, +and has a similar taste to the willow bark. A decoction of the dried +wild or horse mint, which we found abundant under the snow, was quite +palatable, and answered instead of coffee. It dries up in that climate, +but does not lose its flavor. We suffered greatly for the want of salt; +but, by burning the outside of our mule steaks, and sprinkling a little +gunpowder upon them, it did not require a very extensive stretch of the +imagination to fancy the presence of both salt and pepper. We tried the +meat of horse, colt, and mules, all of which were in a starved +condition, and of course not very tender, juicy, or nutritious. We +consumed the enormous amount of from five to six pounds of this meat +per man daily, but continued to grow weak and thin, until, at the +expiration of twelve days, we were able to perform but little labor, +and were continually craving for fat meat. + +The allowance of provisions for each grown person, to make the journey +from the Missouri River to California, should suffice for 110 days. The +following is deemed requisite, viz.: 150 lbs. of flour, or its +equivalent in hard bread; 25 lbs. of bacon or pork, and enough fresh +beef to be driven on the hoof to make up the meat component of the +ration; 15 lbs. of coffee, and 25 lbs. of sugar; also a quantity of +saleratus or yeast powders for making bread, and salt and pepper. + +These are the chief articles of subsistence necessary for the trip, and +they should be used with economy, reserving a good portion for the +western half of the journey. Heretofore many of the California +emigrants have improvidently exhausted their stocks of provisions +before reaching their journey's end, and have, in many cases, been +obliged to pay the most exorbitant prices in making up the deficiency. + +It is true that if persons choose to pass through Salt Lake City, and +the Mormons _happen_ to be in an amiable mood, supplies may sometimes +be procured from them; but those who have visited them well know how +little reliance is to be placed upon their hospitality or spirit of +accommodation. + +I once traveled with a party of New Yorkers _en route_ for California. +They were perfectly ignorant of every thing relating to this kind of +campaigning, and had overloaded their wagons with almost every thing +except the very articles most important and necessary; the consequence +was, that they exhausted their teams, and were obliged to throw away +the greater part of their loading. They soon learned that Champagne, +East India sweetmeats, olives, etc., etc., were not the most useful +articles for a prairie tour. + + +CLOTHING. + +A suitable dress for prairie traveling is of great import to health and +comfort. Cotton or linen fabrics do not sufficiently protect the body +against the direct rays of the sun at midday, nor against rains or +sudden changes of temperature. Wool, being a non-conductor, is the best +material for this mode of locomotion, and should always be adopted for +the plains. The coat should be short and stout, the shirt of red or +blue flannel, such as can be found in almost all the shops on the +frontier: this, in warm weather, answers for an outside garment. The +pants should be of thick and soft woolen material, and it is well to +have them re-enforced on the inside, where they come in contact with +the saddle, with soft buckskin, which makes them more durable and +comfortable. + +Woolen socks and stout boots, coming up well at the knees, and made +large, so as to admit the pants, will be found the best for horsemen, +and they guard against rattlesnake bites. + +In traveling through deep snow during very cold weather in winter, +moccasins are preferable to boots or shoes, as being more pliable, and +allowing a freer circulation of the blood. In crossing the Rocky +Mountains in the winter, the weather being intensely cold, I wore two +pairs of woolen socks, and a square piece of thick blanket sufficient +to cover the feet and ankles, over which were drawn a pair of thick +buckskin moccasins, and the whole enveloped in a pair of buffalo-skin +boots with the hair inside, made open in the front and tied with +buckskin strings. At the same time I wore a pair of elkskin pants, +which most effectually prevented the air from penetrating to the skin, +and made an excellent defense against brush and thorns. + +My men, who were dressed in the regulation clothing, wore out their +pants and shoes before we reached the summit of the mountains, and many +of them had their feet badly frozen in consequence. They mended their +shoes with pieces of leather cut from the saddle-skirts as long as they +lasted, and, when this material was gone, they covered the entire shoe +with green beeve or mule hide, drawn together and sewed upon the top, +with the hair inside, which protected the upper as well as the sole +leather. The sewing was done with an awl and buckskin strings. These +simple expedients contributed greatly to the comfort of the party; and, +indeed, I am by no means sure that they did not, in our straitened +condition, without the transportation necessary for carrying disabled +men, save the lives of some of them. Without the awl and buckskins we +should have been unable to have repaired the shoes. They should never +be forgotten in making up the outfit for a prairie expedition. + +We also experienced great inconvenience and pain by the reflection of +the sun's rays from the snow upon our eyes, and some of the party +became nearly snow-blind. Green or blue glasses, inclosed in a wire +net-work, are an effectual protection to the eyes; but, in the absence +of these, the skin around the eyes and upon the nose should be +blackened with wet powder or charcoal, which will afford great relief. + +In the summer season shoes are much better for footmen than boots, as +they are lighter, and do not cramp the ankles; the soles should be +broad, so as to allow a square, firm tread, without distorting or +pinching the feet. + +The following list of articles is deemed a sufficient outfit for one +man upon a three months' expedition, viz.: + + 2 blue or red flannel overshirts, open in front, with buttons. + 2 woolen undershirts. + 2 pairs thick cotton drawers. + 4 pairs woolen socks. + 2 pairs cotton socks. + 4 colored silk handkerchiefs. + 2 pairs stout shoes, for footmen. + 1 pair boots, for horsemen. + 1 pair shoes, for horsemen. + 3 towels. + 1 gutta percha poncho. + 1 broad-brimmed hat of soft felt. + 1 comb and brush. + 2 tooth-brushes. + 1 pound Castile soap. + 3 pounds bar soap for washing clothes. + 1 belt-knife and small whetstone. + Stout linen thread, large needles, a bit of beeswax, a few + buttons, paper of pins, and a thimble, all contained in + a small buckskin or stout cloth bag. + +The foregoing articles, with the coat and overcoat, complete the +wardrobe. + + +CAMP EQUIPAGE. + +The bedding for each person should consist of two blankets, a +comforter, and a pillow, and a gutta percha or painted canvas cloth to +spread beneath the bed upon the ground, and to contain it when rolled +up for transportation. + +Every mess of six or eight persons will require a wrought-iron camp +kettle, large enough for boiling meat and making soup; a coffee-pot and +cups of heavy tin, with the handles riveted on; tin plates, frying and +bake pans of wrought iron, the latter for baking bread and roasting +coffee. Also a mess pan of heavy tin or wrought iron for mixing bread +and other culinary purposes; knives, forks, and spoons; an extra camp +kettle; tin or gutta percha bucket for water--wood, being liable to +shrink and fall to pieces, is not deemed suitable; an axe, hatchet, and +spade will also be needed, with a mallet for driving picket-pins. +Matches should be carried in bottles and corked tight, so as to exclude +the moisture. + +A little blue mass, quinine, opium, and some cathartic medicine, put up +in doses for adults, will suffice for the medicine-chest. + +Each ox wagon should be provided with a covered tar-bucket, filled with +a mixture of tar or resin and grease, two bows extra, six S's, and six +open links for repairing chains. Every set of six wagons should have a +tongue, coupling pole, king-bolt, and pair of hounds extra. + +Every set of six mule wagons should be furnished with five pairs of +hames, two double trees, four whipple-trees, and two pairs of lead bars +extra. + +Two lariats will be needed for every horse and mule, as one generally +wears out before reaching the end of a long journey. They will be found +useful in crossing deep streams, and in letting wagons down steep hills +and mountains; also in repairing broken wagons. Lariats made of hemp +are the best. + +One of the most indispensable articles to the outfit of the prairie +traveler is buckskin. For repairing harness, saddles, bridles, and +numerous other purposes of daily necessity, the awl and buckskin will +be found in constant requisition. + + +ARMS. + +Every man who goes into the Indian country should be armed with a rifle +and revolver, and he should never, either in camp or out of it, lose +sight of them. When not on the march, they should be placed in such a +position that they can be seized at an instant's warning; and when +moving about outside the camp, the revolver should invariably be worn +in the belt, as the person does not know at what moment he may have use +for it. + +A great diversity of opinion obtains regarding the kind of rifle that +is the most efficient and best adapted to Indian warfare, and the +question is perhaps as yet very far from being settled to the +satisfaction of all. A large majority of men prefer the breech-loading +arm, but there are those who still adhere tenaciously to the +old-fashioned muzzle-loading rifle as preferable to any of the modern +inventions. Among these may be mentioned the border hunters and +mountaineers, who can not be persuaded to use any other than the +Hawkins rifle, for the reason that they know nothing about the merits +of any others. My own experience has forced me to the conclusion that +the breech-loading arm possesses great advantages over the +muzzle-loading, for the reason that it can be charged and fired with +much greater rapidity. + +Colt's revolving pistol is very generally admitted, both in Europe and +America, to be the most efficient arm of its kind known at the present +day. As the same principles are involved in the fabrication of his +breech-loading rifle as are found in the pistol, the conviction to me +is irresistible that, if one arm is worthy of consideration, the other +is equally so. For my own part, I look upon Colt's new patent rifle as +a most excellent arm for border service. It gives six shots in more +rapid succession than any other rifle I know of, and these, if properly +expended, are oftentimes sufficient to decide a contest; moreover, it +is the most reliable and certain weapon to fire that I have ever used, +and I can not resist the force of my conviction that, if I were alone +upon the prairies, and expected an attack from a body of Indians, I am +not acquainted with any arm I would as soon have in my hands as this. + +The army and navy revolvers have both been used in our army, but the +officers are not united in opinion in regard to their relative merits. +I prefer the large army size, for reasons which will be given +hereafter. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +Marching. Treatment of Animals. Water. Different methods of finding +and purifying it. Journadas. Methods of crossing them. Advance and +Rear Guards. Selection of Camp. Sanitary Considerations. Dr. Jackson's +Report. Picket Guards. Stampedes. How to prevent them. Corraling +Wagons. + + +MARCHING. + +The success of a long expedition through an unpopulated country depends +mainly on the care taken of the animals, and the manner in which they +are driven, herded, and guarded. If they are broken down or lost, every +thing must be sacrificed, and the party becomes perfectly helpless. + +The great error into which inexperienced travelers are liable to fall, +and which probably occasions more suffering and disaster than almost +any thing else, lies in overworking their cattle at the commencement of +the journey. To obviate this, short and easy drives should be made +until the teams become habituated to their work, and gradually inured +to this particular method of traveling. If animals are overloaded and +overworked when they first start out into the prairies, especially if +they have recently been taken from grain, they soon fall away, and give +out before reaching the end of the journey. + +Grass and water are abundant and good upon the eastern portions of all +the different overland routes; animals should not, therefore, with +proper care, fall away in the least before reaching the mountains, as +west of them are long stretches where grass and water are scarce, and +it requires the full amount of strength and vigor of animals in good +condition to endure the fatigues and hard labor attendant upon the +passage of these deserts. Drivers should be closely watched, and never, +unless absolutely necessary, permitted to beat their animals, or to +force them out of a walk, as this will soon break down the best teams. +Those teamsters who make the least use of the whip invariably keep +their animals in the best condition. Unless the drivers are checked at +the outset, they are very apt to fall into the habit of flogging their +teams. It is not only wholly unnecessary but cruel, and should never be +tolerated. + +In traveling with ox teams in the summer season, great benefit will be +derived from making early marches; starting with the dawn, and making a +"nooning" during the heat of the day, as oxen suffer much from the heat +of the sun in midsummer. These noon halts should, if possible, be so +arranged as to be near grass and water, where the animals can improve +their time in grazing. When it gets cool they may be hitched to the +wagons again, and the journey continued in the afternoon. Sixteen or +eighteen miles a day may thus be made without injury to the beasts, and +longer drives can never be expedient, unless in order to reach grass or +water. When the requisites for encamping can not be found at the +desired intervals, it is better for the animals to make a very long +drive than to encamp without water or grass. The noon halt in such +cases may be made without water, and the evening drive lengthened. + + +WATER. + +The scarcity of water upon some of the routes across the plains +occasionally exposes the traveler to intense suffering, and renders it +a matter of much importance for him to learn the best methods of +guarding against the disasters liable to occur to men and animals in +the absence of this most necessary element. + +In mountainous districts water can generally be found either in +springs, the dry beds of streams, or in holes in the rocks, where they +are sheltered from rapid evaporation. For example, in the Hueco tanks, +thirty miles east of El Paso, New Mexico, upon the Fort Smith road, +where there is an immense reservoir in a cave, water can always be +found. This reservoir receives the drainage of a mountain. + +During a season of the year when there are occasional showers, water +will generally be found in low places where there is a substratum of +clay, but after the dry season has set in these pools evaporate, and it +is necessary to dig wells. The lowest spots should be selected for this +purpose when the grass is green and the surface earth moist. + +In searching for water along the dry sandy beds of streams, it is well +to try the earth with a stick or ramrod, and if this indicates moisture +water will generally be obtained by excavation. Streams often sink in +light and porous sand, and sometimes make their appearance again lower +down, where the bed is more tenacious; but it is a rule with prairie +travelers, in searching for water in a sandy country, to ascend the +streams, and the nearer their sources are approached the more water +will be found in a dry season. + +Where it becomes necessary to sink a well in a stream the bed of which +is quicksand, a flour-barrel, perforated with small holes, should be +used as a curb, to prevent the sand from caving in. The barrel must be +forced down as the sand is removed; and when, as is often the case, +there is an undercurrent through the sand, the well will be continually +filled with water. + +There are many indications of water known to old campaigners, although +none of them are absolutely infallible. The most certain of them are +deep green cottonwood or willow trees growing in depressed localities; +also flags, water-rushes, tall green grass, etc. + +The fresh tracks and trails of animals converging toward a common +centre, and the flight of birds and water-fowl toward the same points, +will also lead to water. In a section frequented by deer or mustangs, +it may be certain that water is not far distant, as these animals drink +daily, and they will not remain long in a locality after the water has +dried up. Deer generally go to water during the middle of the day, but +birds toward evening. + +A supply of drinking water may be obtained during a shower from the +drippings of a tent, or by suspending a cloth or blanket by the four +corners and hanging a small weight to the centre, so as to allow all +the rain to run toward one point, from whence it drops into a vessel +beneath. India-rubber, gutta-percha, or painted canvas cloths answer a +very good purpose for catching water during a rain, but they should be +previously well washed, to prevent them from imparting a bad taste. + +When there are heavy dews water may be collected by spreading out a +blanket with a stick attached to one end, tying a rope to it, dragging +it over the grass, and wringing out the water as it accumulates. In +some parts of Australia this method is practiced. + +In traversing the country upon the head waters of Red River during the +summer of 1852, we suffered most severely from thirst, having nothing +but the acrid and bitter waters from the river, which, issuing from a +gypsum formation, was highly charged with salts, and, when taken into +the stomach, did not quench thirst in the slightest degree, but, on the +contrary, produced a most painful and burning sensation, accompanied +with diarrhoea. During the four days that we were compelled to drink +this water the thermometer rose to 104° in the shade, and the only +relief we found was from bathing in the river. + +The use of water is a matter of habit, very much within our control, as +by practice we may discipline ourselves so as to require but a small +amount. Some persons, for example, who place no restraint upon their +appetites, will, if they can get it, drink water twenty times a day, +while others will not perhaps drink more than once or twice during the +same time. I have found a very effectual preventive to thirst by +drinking a large quantity of water before breakfast, and, on feeling +thirsty on the march, chewing a small green twig or leaf. + +Water taken from stagnant pools, charged with putrid vegetable matter +and animalculæ, would be very likely to generate fevers and dysenteries +if taken into the stomach without purification. It should therefore be +thoroughly boiled, and all the scum removed from the surface as it +rises; this clarifies it, and by mixing powdered charcoal with it the +disinfecting process is perfected. Water may also be purified by +placing a piece of alum in the end of a stick that has been split, and +stirring it around in a bucket of water. Charcoal and the leaves of the +prickly pear are also used for the same purpose. I have recently seen a +compact and portable filter, made of charcoal, which clarifies the +water very effectually, and draws it off on the siphon principle. It +can be obtained at 85 West Street, New York, for one dollar and a half. +Water may be partially filtered in a muddy pond by taking a barrel and +boring the lower half full of holes, then filling it up with grass or +moss above the upper holes, after which it is placed in the pond with +the top above the surface. The water filters through the grass or moss, +and rises in the barrel to a level with the pond. Travelers frequently +drink muddy water by placing a cloth or handkerchief over the mouth of +a cup to catch the larger particles of dirt and animalculæ. + +Water may be cooled so as to be quite palatable by wrapping cloths +around the vessels containing it, wetting them, and hanging them in the +air, where a rapid evaporation will be produced. Some of the +frontier-men use a leathern sack for carrying water: this is porous, +and allows the necessary evaporation without wetting. + +The Arabs also use a leathern bottle, which they call _zemsemiyah_. +When they are _en route_ they hang it on the shady side of a camel, +where the evaporation keeps the water continually cool. + +No expedition should ever set out into the plains without being +supplied with the means for carrying water, especially in an unknown +region. If wooden kegs are used they must frequently be looked after, +and soaked, in order that they may not shrink and fall to pieces. Men, +in marching in a hot climate, throw off a great amount of perspiration +from the skin, and require a corresponding quantity of water to supply +the deficiency, and unless they get this they suffer greatly. When a +party makes an expedition into a desert section, where there is a +probability of finding no water, and intend to return over the same +track, it is well to carry water as far as convenient, and bury it in +the ground for use on the return trip. + +"Captain Sturt, when he explored Australia, took a tank in his cart, +which burst, and, besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he +was enabled to face a desert country with a success which no traveler +had ever attained to. For instance, when returning homeward, the water +was found to be drying up from the country on all sides of him. He was +at a pool, and the next stage was 118 miles, at the end of which it was +doubtful if there remained any water. It was necessary to send to +reconnoitre, and to furnish the messenger with means of returning +should the pool be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and, +filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), sent it by an ox +dray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he +dispatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the +horse and man were to drink at the hide and go on. Thus they had 36 +gallons to supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or six days at 30 +miles a day, at the close of which they would return to the ox +hide--sleeping, in fact, five nights on 36 gallons of water. This a +hardy, well-driven horse could do, even in the hottest climate."[2] + + [2] F. Galton's _Art of Travel_, p. 17 and 18. + + +JOURNADAS. + +In some localities 50 or 60 miles, and even greater distances, are +frequently traversed without water; these long stretches are called by +the Mexicans "_journadas_," or day's journeys. There is one in New +Mexico called _Journada del Muerto_, which is 78-1/2 miles in length, +where, in a dry season, there is not a drop of water; yet, with proper +care, this drive can be made with ox or mule teams, and without loss or +injury to the animals. + +On arriving at the last camping-ground before entering upon the +journada, all the animals should be as well rested and refreshed as +possible. To insure this, they must be turned out upon the best grass +that can be found, and allowed to eat and drink as much as they desire +during the entire halt. Should the weather be very warm, and the teams +composed of oxen, the march should not be resumed until it begins to +cool in the afternoon. They should be carefully watered just previous +to being hitched up and started out upon the journada, the water-kegs +having been previously filled. The drive is then commenced, and +continued during the entire night, with 10 or 15 minutes rest every two +hours. About daylight a halt should be made, and the animals +immediately turned out to graze for two hours, during which time, +especially if there is dew upon the grass, they will have become +considerably refreshed, and may be put to the wagons again and driven +until the heat becomes oppressive toward noon, when they are again +turned out upon a spot where the grass is good, and, if possible, where +there are shade trees. About four o'clock P.M. they are again started, +and the march continued into the night, and as long as they can be +driven without suffering. If, however, there should be dew, which is +seldom the case on the plains, it would be well to turn out the animals +several times during the second night, and by morning, if they are in +good condition, the journada of 70 or 80 miles will have been passed +without any great amount of suffering. I am supposing, in this case, +that the road is firm and free from sand. + +Many persons have been under the impression that animals, in traversing +the plains, would perform better and keep in better condition by +allowing them to graze in the morning before commencing the day's +march, which involves the necessity of making late starts, and driving +during the heat of the day. The same persons have been of the opinion +that animals will graze only at particular hours; that the remainder of +the day must be allowed them for rest and sleep, and that, unless these +rules be observed, they would not thrive. This opinion is, however, +erroneous, as animals will in a few days adapt themselves to any +circumstances, so far as regards their hours of labor, rest, and +refreshment. If they have been accustomed to work at particular periods +of the day, and the order of things is suddenly reversed, the working +hours changed into hours of rest, and _vice versa_, they may not do as +well for a short time, but they will soon accustom themselves to the +change, and eat and rest as well as before. By making early drives +during the summer months the heat of the day is avoided, whereas, I +repeat, if allowed to graze before starting, the march can not commence +until it grows warm, when animals, especially oxen, will suffer greatly +from the heat of the sun, and will not do as well as when the other +plan is pursued. + +Oxen upon a long journey will sometimes wear down their hoofs and +become lame. When this occurs, a thick piece of raw hide wrapped around +the foot and tied firmly to the leg will obviate the difficulty, +provided the weather is not wet; for if so, the shoe soon wears out. +Mexican and Indian horses and mules will make long journeys without +being shod, as their hoofs are tough and elastic, and wear away very +gradually; they will, however, in time become very smooth, making it +difficult for them to travel upon grass. + +A train of wagons should always be kept closed upon a march; and if, as +often happens, a particular wagon gets out of order and is obliged to +halt, it should be turned out of the road, to let the others pass while +the injury is being repaired. As soon as the broken wagon is in order, +it should fall into the line wherever it happens to be. In the event of +a wagon breaking down so as to require important repairs, men should be +immediately dispatched with the necessary tools and materials, which +should be placed in the train where they can readily be got at, and a +guard should be left to escort the wagon to camp after having been +repaired. If, however, the damage be so serious as to require any great +length of time to repair it, the load should be transferred to other +wagons, so that the team which is left behind will be able to travel +rapidly and overtake the train. + +If the broken wagon is a poor one, and there be abundance of better +ones, the accident being such as to involve much delay for its repair, +it may be wise to abandon it, taking from it such parts as may possibly +be wanted in repairing other wagons. + + +ADVANCE AND REAR GUARDS. + +A few men, well mounted, should constitute the advance and rear guards +for each train of wagons passing through the Indian country. Their duty +will be to keep a vigilant look-out in all directions, and to +reconnoitre places where Indians would be likely to lie in ambush. +Should hostile Indians be discovered, the fact should be at once +reported to the commander, who (if he anticipates an attack) will +rapidly form his wagons into a circle or "_corral_," with the animals +toward the centre, and the men on the inside, with their arms in +readiness to repel an attack from without. If these arrangements be +properly attended to, few parties of Indians will venture to make an +attack, as they are well aware that some of their warriors might pay +with their lives the forfeit of such indiscretion. + +I know an instance where one resolute man, pursued for several days by +a large party of Comanches on the Santa Fé trace, defended himself by +dismounting and pointing his rifle at the foremost whenever they came +near him, which always had the effect of turning them back. This was +repeated so often that the Indians finally abandoned the pursuit, and +left the traveler to pursue his journey without farther molestation. +During all this time he did not discharge his rifle; had he done so he +would doubtless have been killed. + + +SELECTION OF CAMPS. + +The security of animals, and, indeed, the general safety of a party, in +traveling through a country occupied by hostile Indians, depends +greatly upon the judicious selection of camps. One of the most +important considerations that should influence the choice of a locality +is its capability for defense. If the camp be pitched beside a stream, +a concave bend, where the water is deep, with a soft alluvial bed +inclosed by high and abrupt banks, will be the most defensible, and all +the more should the concavity form a peninsula. The advantages of such +a position are obvious to a soldier's eye, as that part of the +encampment inclosed by the stream is naturally secure, and leaves only +one side to be defended. The concavity of the bend will enable the +defending party to cross its fire in case of attack from the exposed +side. The bend of the stream will also form an excellent corral in +which to secure animals from a stampede, and thereby diminish the +number of sentinels needful around the camp. In herding animals at +night within the bend of a stream, a spot should be selected where no +clumps of brush grow on the side where the animals are posted. If +thickets of brush can not be avoided, sentinels should be placed near +them, to guard against Indians, who might take advantage of this cover +to steal animals, or shoot them down with arrows, before their presence +were known. + +In camping away from streams, it is advisable to select a position in +which one or more sides of the encampment shall rest upon the crest of +an abrupt hill or bluff. The prairie Indians make their camps upon the +summits of the hills, whence they can see in all directions, and thus +avoid a surprise. + +The line of tents should be pitched on that side of the camp most +exposed to attack, and sentinels so posted that they may give alarm in +time for the main body to rally and prepare for defense. + + +SANITARY CONSIDERATIONS. + +When camping near rivers and lakes surrounded by large bodies of timber +and a luxuriant vegetation, which produces a great amount of +decomposition and consequent exhalations of malaria, it is important to +ascertain what localities will be the least likely to generate disease, +and to affect the sanitary condition of men occupying them. + +This subject has been thoroughly examined by Dr. Robert Johnson, +Inspector General of Hospitals in the English army in 1845; and, as his +conclusions are deduced from enlarged experience and extended research, +they should have great weight. I shall therefore make no apology for +introducing here a few extracts from his interesting report touching +upon this subject: + +"It is consonant with the experience of military people, in all ages +and in all countries, that camp diseases most abound near the muddy +banks of large rivers, near swamps and ponds, and on grounds which have +been recently stripped of their woods. The fact is precise, but it has +been set aside to make way for an opinion. It was assumed, about half a +century since, by a celebrated army physician, that camp diseases +originated from causes of putrefaction, and that putrefaction is +connected radically with a stagnant condition of the air. + +"As streams of air usually proceed along rivers with more certainty and +force than in other places, and as there is evidently a more certain +movement of air, that is, more wind on open grounds than among woods +and thickets, this sole consideration, without any regard to +experience, influenced opinion, gave currency to the destructive maxim +that the banks of rivers, open grounds, and exposed heights are the +most eligible situations for the encampment of troops. They are the +best ventilated; they must, if the theory be true, be the most healthy. + +"The fact is the reverse; but, demonstrative as the fact may be, +fashion has more influence than multiplied examples of fact +experimentally proved. Encampments are still formed in the vicinity of +swamps, or on grounds which are newly cleared of their woods, in +obedience to theory, and contrary to fact. + +"It is prudent, as now said, in _selecting ground for encampment_, to +avoid the immediate vicinity of swamps and rivers. The air is there +noxious; but, as its influence thence originating does not extend +beyond a certain limit, it is a matter of some importance to ascertain +to what distance it does extend; because, if circumstances do not +permit that the encampment be removed out of its reach, prudence +directs that remedies be applied to weaken the force of its pernicious +impressions. + +"The remedies consist in the interposition of rising grounds, woods, or +such other impediments as serve to break the current in its progress +from the noxious source. It is an obvious fact, that the noxious cause, +or the exhalation in which it is enveloped, ascends as it traverses the +adjacent plain, and that its impression is augmented by the +adventitious force with which it strikes upon the subject of its +action. + +"It is thus that a position of three hundred paces from the margin of a +swamp, on a level with the swamp itself, or but moderately elevated, is +less unhealthy than one at six hundred on the same line of direction on +an exposed height. The cause here strikes fully in its ascent; and as +the atmosphere has a more varied temperature, and the succussions of +the air are more irregular on the height than on the plain, the +impression is more forcible, and the noxious effect more strongly +marked. In accord with this principle, it is almost uniformly true, +_coeteris paribus_, that diseases are more common, at least more +violent, in broken, irregular, and hilly countries, where the +temperature is liable to sudden changes, and where blasts descend with +fury from the mountains, than in large and extensive inclined plains +under the action of equal and gentle breezes only. + +"From this fact it becomes an object of the first consideration, in +selecting ground for encampment, to guard against the impression of +strong winds on their own account, independently of their proceeding +from swamps, rivers, and noxious soils. + +"It is proved by experience, in armies as in civil life, that injury +does not often result from simple wetting with rain when the person is +fairly exposed in the open air, and habitually inured to the +contingencies of weather. Irregular troops, which act in the advanced +line of armies, and which have no other shelter from weather than a +hedge or tree, rarely experience sickness--never, at least, the +sickness which proceeds from contagion; hence it is inferred that the +shelter of tents is not necessary for the preservation of health. +Irregular troops, with contingent shelter only, are comparatively +healthy, while sickness often rages with violence in the same scene, +among those who have all the protection against the inclemencies of +weather which can be furnished by canvas. The fact is verified by +experience, and the cause of it is not of difficult explanation. When +the earth is damp, the action of heat on its surface occasions the +interior moisture to ascend. The heat of the bodies of a given number +of men, confined within a tent of a given dimension, raises the +temperature within the tent beyond the temperature of the common air +outside the tent. The ascent of moisture is thus encouraged, generally +by a change of temperature in the tent, and more particularly by the +immediate or near contact of the heated bodies of the men with the +surface of the earth. Moisture, as exhaled from the earth, is +considered by observers of fact to be a cause which acts injuriously on +health. Produced artificially by the accumulation of individuals in +close tents, it may reasonably be supposed to produce its usual effects +on armies. A cause of contagious influence, of fatal effect, is thus +generated by accumulating soldiers in close and crowded tents, under +the pretext of defending them from the inclemencies of the weather; and +hence it is that the means which are provided for the preservation of +health are actually the causes of destruction of life. + +"There are two causes which more evidently act upon the health of +troops in the field than any other, namely, moisture exhaled direct +from the surface of the earth in undue quantity, and emanations of a +peculiar character arising from diseased action in the animal system in +a mass of men crowded together. These are principal, and they are +important. The noxious effects may be obviated, or rather the noxious +cause will not be generated, under the following arrangement, namely, a +carpet of painted canvas for the floor of the tent; a tent with a light +roof, as defense against perpendicular rain or the rays of a vertical +sun; and with side walls of moderate height, to be employed only +against driving rains. To the first there can be no objection: it is +useful, as preventing the exhalations of moisture from the surface of +the earth; it is convenient, as always ready; and it is economical, as +less expensive than straw. It requires to be fresh painted only once a +year." + +The effect of crowding men together in close quarters, illy ventilated, +was shown in the prisons of Hindostan, where at one time, when the +English held sway, they had, on an average, 40,000 natives in +confinement; and this unfortunate population was every year liberated +by death in proportions varying from 4000 to 10,000. The annual average +mortality by crowded and unventilated barracks in the English army has +sometimes been enormous, as at Barrackpore, where it seldom fell far +short of one tenth; that is to say, its garrisons were every year +decimated by fever or cholera, while the officers and other +inhabitants, who lived in well-ventilated houses, did not find the +place particularly unhealthy. + +The same fact of general exemption among the officers, and complete +exemption among their wives, was observed in the marching regiments, +which lost by cholera from one tenth to one sixth of the enlisted men, +who were packed together at night ten and twelve in a tent, with the +thermometer at 96°. The dimensions of the celebrated Black Hole of +Calcutta--where in 1756, 123 prisoners out of 140 died by carbonic acid +in one night--was but eighteen feet square, and with but two small +windows. Most of the twenty-three who survived until morning were +seized with putrid fever and died very soon afterward. + +On the 1st of December, 1848, 150 deck passengers of the steamer +Londonderry were ordered below by the captain and the hatches closed +upon them: seventy were found dead the next morning. + +The streams which intersect our great prairies have but a very sparse +growth of wood or vegetation upon their banks, so that one of the +fundamental causes for the generation of noxious malaria does not, to +any great extent, exist here, and I believe that persons may encamp +with impunity directly upon their banks. + + +PICKET GUARDS. + +When a party is sufficiently strong, a picket guard should be stationed +during the night some two or three hundred yards in advance of the +point which is most open to assault, and on low ground, so that an +enemy approaching over the surrounding higher country can be seen +against the sky, while the sentinel himself is screened from +observation. These sentinels should not be allowed to keep fires, +unless they are so placed that they can not be seen from a distance. + +During the day the pickets should be posted on the summits of the +highest eminences in the vicinity of camp, with instructions to keep a +vigilant lookout in all directions; and, if not within hailing +distance, they should be instructed to give some well-understood +telegraphic signals to inform those in camp when there is danger. For +example, should Indians be discovered approaching at a great distance, +they may raise their caps upon the muzzles of their pieces, and at the +same time walk around in a circle; while, if the Indians are near and +moving rapidly, the sentinel may swing his cap and run around rapidly +in a circle. To indicate the direction from which the Indians are +approaching, he may direct his piece toward them, and walk in the same +line of direction. + +Should the pickets suddenly discover a party of Indians very near, and +with the apparent intention of making an attack, they should fire their +pieces to give the alarm to the camp. + +These telegraphic signals, when well understood and enforced, will tend +greatly to facilitate the communication of intelligence throughout the +camp, and conduce much to its security. + +The picket guards should receive minute and strict orders regarding +their duties under all circumstances, and these orders should be +distinctly understood by every one in the camp, so that no false alarms +will be created. All persons, with the exception of the guards and +herders, should after dark be confined to the limits of the chain of +sentinels, so that, if any one is seen approaching from without these +limits, it will be known that they are strangers. + +As there will not often be occasion for any one to pass the chain of +pickets during the night, it is a good rule (especially if the party is +small), when a picket sentinel discovers any one lurking about his post +from without, if he has not himself been seen, to quietly withdraw and +report the fact to the commander, who can wake his men and make his +arrangements to repel an attack and protect his animals. If, however, +the man upon the picket has been seen, he should distinctly challenge +the approaching party, and if he receives no answer, fire, and retreat +to camp to report the fact. + +It is of the utmost importance that picket guards should be wide awake, +and allow nothing to escape their observation, as the safety of the +whole camp is involved. During a dark night a man can see better +himself, and is less exposed to the view of others, when in a sitting +posture than when standing up or moving about. I would therefore +recommend this practice for night pickets. + +Horses and mules (especially the latter), whose senses of hearing and +smelling are probably more acute than those of almost any other +animals, will discover any thing strange or unusual about camp much +sooner than a man. They indicate this by turning in the direction from +whence the object is approaching, holding their heads erect, projecting +their ears forward, and standing in a fixed and attentive attitude. +They exhibit the same signs of alarm when a wolf or other wild animal +approaches the camp; but it is always wise, when they show fear in this +manner, to be on the alert till the cause is ascertained. + +Mules are very keenly sensitive to danger, and, in passing along over +the prairies, they will often detect the proximity of strangers long +before they are discovered by their riders. Nothing seems to escape +their observation; and I have heard of several instances where they +have given timely notice of the approach of hostile Indians, and thus +prevented stampedes. + +Dogs are sometimes good sentinels, but they often sleep sound, and are +not easily awakened on the approach of an enemy. + +In marching with large force, unless there is a guide who knows the +country, a small party should always be sent in advance to search for +good camping-places, and these parties should be dispatched early +enough to return and meet the main command in the event of not finding +a camping-place within the limits of the day's march. A regiment should +average upon the prairies, where the roads are good, about eighteen +miles a day, but, if necessary, it can make 25 or even 30 miles. The +advance party should therefore go as far as the command can march, +provided the requisites for camping are not found within that distance. +The article of first importance in campaigning is grass, the next +water, and the last fuel. + +It is the practice of most persons traveling with large ox trains to +select their camps upon the summit of a hill, where the surrounding +country in all directions can be seen. Their cattle are then +continually within view from the camp, and can be guarded easily. + +When a halt is made the wagons are "corraled," as it is called, by +bringing the two front ones near and parallel to each other. The two +next are then driven up on the outside of these, with the front wheels +of the former touching the rear wheels of the latter, the rear of the +wagons turned out upon the circumference of the circle that is being +formed, and so on until one half the circle is made, when the rear of +the wagons are turned in to complete the circle. An opening of about +twenty yards should be left between the last two wagons for animals to +pass in and out of the corral, and this may be closed with two ropes +stretched between the wagons. Such a corral forms an excellent and +secure barricade against Indian attacks, and a good inclosure for +cattle while they are being yoked; indeed, it is indispensable. + + +STAMPEDES. + +Inclosures are made in the same manner for horses and mules, and, in +case of an attempt to stampede them, they should be driven with all +possible dispatch into the corral, where they will be perfectly secure. +A "stampede" is more to be dreaded upon the plains than almost any +disaster that can happen. It not unfrequently occurs that very many +animals are irretrievably lost in this way, and the objects of an +expedition thus defeated. + +The Indians are perfectly familiar with the habits and disposition of +horses and mules, and with the most effectual methods of terrifying +them. Previous to attempting a stampede, they provide themselves with +rattles and other means for making frightful noises; thus prepared, +they approach as near the herds as possible without being seen, and +suddenly, with their horses at full speed, rush in among them, making +the most hideous and unearthly screams and noises to terrify them, and +drive them off before their astonished owners are able to rally and +secure them. + +As soon as the animals are started the Indians divide their party, +leaving a portion to hurry them off rapidly, while the rest linger some +distance in the rear, to resist those who may pursue them. + +Horses and mules will sometimes, especially in the night, become +frightened and stampeded from very slight causes. A wolf or a deer +passing through a herd will often alarm them, and cause them to break +away in the most frantic manner. Upon one occasion in the Choctaw +country, my entire herd of about two hundred horses and mules all +stampeded in the night, and scattered over the country for many miles, +and it was several days before I succeeded in collecting them together. +The alarm occurred while the herders were walking among the animals, +and without any perceptible cause. The foregoing facts go to show how +important it is at all times to keep a vigilant guard over animals. In +the vicinity of hostile Indians, where an attack may be anticipated, +several good horses should be secured in such positions that they will +continually be in readiness for an emergency of this kind. The herdsmen +should have their horses in hand, saddled and bridled, and ready at an +instant's notice to spring upon their backs and drive the herds into +camp. As soon as it is discovered that the animals have taken fright, +the herdsmen should use their utmost endeavors to turn them in the +direction of the camp, and this can generally be accomplished by riding +the bell mare in front of the herd, and gradually turning her toward +it, and slackening her speed as the familiar objects about the camp +come in sight. This usually tends to quiet their alarm. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +Repairing broken Wagons. Fording Rivers. Quicksand. Wagon Boats. Bull +Boats. Crossing Packs. Swimming Animals. Marching with loose Horses. +Herding Mules. Best Methods of Marching. Herding and guarding Animals. +Descending Mountains. Storms. Northers. + + +REPAIRS OF ACCIDENTS. + +The accidents most liable to happen to wagons on the plains arise from +the great dryness of the atmosphere, and the consequent shrinkage and +contraction of the wood-work in the wheels, the tires working loose, +and the wheels, in passing over sidling ground, oftentimes falling down +and breaking all the spokes where they enter the hub. It therefore +becomes a matter of absolute necessity for the prairie traveler to +devise some means of repairing such damages, or of guarding against +them by the use of timely expedients. + +The wheels should be frequently and closely examined, and whenever a +tire becomes at all loose it should at once be tightened with pieces of +hoop-iron or wooden wedges driven by twos simultaneously from opposite +sides. Another remedy for the same thing is to take off the wheels +after encamping, sink them in water, and allow them to remain over +night. This swells the wood, but is only temporary, requiring frequent +repetition; and, after a time, if the wheels have not been made of +thoroughly seasoned timber, it becomes necessary to reset the tires in +order to guard against their destruction by falling to pieces and +breaking the spokes. + +If the tires run off near a blacksmith's shop, or if there be a +traveling forge with the train, they may be tied on with raw hide or +ropes, and thus driven to the shop or camp. When a rear wheel breaks +down upon a march, the best method I know of for taking the vehicle to +a place where it can be repaired is to take off the damaged wheel, and +place a stout pole of three or four inches in diameter under the end of +the axle, outside the wagon-bed, and extending forward above the front +wheel, where it is firmly lashed with ropes, while the other end of the +pole runs six or eight feet to the rear, and drags upon the ground. The +pole must be of such length and inclination that the axle shall be +raised and retained in its proper horizontal position, when it can be +driven to any distance that may be desired. The wagon should be +relieved as much as practicable of its loading, as the pole dragging +upon the ground will cause it to run heavily. + +When a front wheel breaks down, the expedient just mentioned can not be +applied to the front axle, but the two rear wheels may be taken off and +placed upon this axle (they will always fit), while the sound front +wheel can be substituted upon one side of the rear axle, after which +the pole may be applied as before described. This plan I have adopted +upon several different occasions, and I can vouch for its efficacy. + +The foregoing facts may appear very simple and unimportant in +themselves, but blacksmiths and wheelwrights are not met with at every +turn of the roads upon the prairies; and in the wilderness, where the +traveler is dependent solely upon his own resources, this kind of +information will be found highly useful. + +When the spokes in a wheel shrink more than the felloes, they work +loose in the hub, and can not be tightened by wedging. The only remedy +in such cases is to cut the felloe with a saw on opposite sides, taking +out two pieces of such dimensions that the reduced circumference will +draw back the spokes into their proper places and make them snug. A +thin wagon-bow, or barrel-hoops, may then be wrapped around the outside +of the felloe, and secured with small nails or tacks. This increases +the diameter of the wheel, so that when the tire has been heated, put +on, and cooled, it forces back the spokes into their true places, and +makes the wheel as sound and strong as it ever was. This simple process +can be executed in about half an hour if there be fuel for heating, and +obviates the necessity of cutting and welding the tire. I would +recommend that the tires should be secured with bolts and nuts, which +will prevent them from running off when they work loose, and, if they +have been cut and reset, they should be well tried with a hammer where +they are welded to make sure that the junction is sound. + + +FORDING RIVERS. + +Many streams that intersect the different routes across our continent +are broad and shallow, and flow over beds of quicksand, which, in +seasons of high water, become boggy and unstable, and are then +exceedingly difficult of crossing. When these streams are on the rise, +and, indeed, before any swelling is perceptible, their beds become +surcharged with the sand loosened by the action of the under-current +from the approaching flood, and from this time until the water subsides +fording is difficult, requiring great precautions. + +On arriving upon the bank of a river of this character which has not +recently been crossed, the condition of the quicksand may be +ascertained by sending an intelligent man over the fording-place, and, +should the sand not yield under his feet, it may be regarded as safe +for animals or wagons. Should it, however, prove soft and yielding, it +must be thoroughly examined, and the best track selected. This can be +done by a man on foot, who will take a number of sharp sticks long +enough, when driven into the bottom of the river, to stand above the +surface of the water. He starts from the shore, and with one of the +sticks and his feet tries the bottom in the direction of the opposite +bank until he finds the firmest ground, where he plants one of the +sticks to mark the track. A man incurs no danger in walking over +quicksand provided he step rapidly, and he will soon detect the safest +ground. He then proceeds, planting his sticks as often as may be +necessary to mark the way, until he reaches the opposite bank. The ford +is thus ascertained, and, if there are footmen in the party, they +should cross before the animals and wagons, as they pack the sand, and +make the track more firm and secure. + +If the sand is soft, horses should be led across, and not allowed to +stop in the stream; and the better to insure this, they should be +watered before entering upon the ford; otherwise, as soon as they stand +still, their feet sink in the sand, and soon it becomes difficult to +extricate them. The same rule holds in the passage of wagons: they must +be driven steadily across, and the animals never allowed to stop while +in the river, as the wheels sink rapidly in quicksand. Mules will often +stop from fear, and, when once embarrassed in the sand, they lie down, +and will not use the slightest exertion to regain their footing. The +only alternative, then, is to drag them out with ropes. I have even +known some mules refuse to put forth the least exertion to get up after +being pulled out upon firm ground, and it was necessary to set them +upon their feet before they were restored to a consciousness of their +own powers. + +In crossing rivers where the water is so high as to come into the +wagon-beds, but is not above a fording stage, the contents of the +wagons may be kept dry by raising the beds between the uprights, and +retaining them in that position with blocks of wood placed at each +corner between the rockers and the bottom of the wagon-beds. The blocks +must be squared at each end, and their length, of course, should vary +with the depth of water, which can be determined before cutting them. +This is a very common and simple method of passing streams among +emigrant travelers. + +When streams are deep, with a very rapid current, it is difficult for +the drivers to direct their teams to the proper coming-out places, as +the current has a tendency to carry them too far down. This difficulty +may be obviated by attaching a lariat rope to the leading animals, and +having a mounted man ride in front with the rope in his hand, to assist +the team in stemming the current, and direct it toward the point of +egress. It is also a wise precaution, if the ford be at all hazardous, +to place a mounted man on the lower side of the team with a whip, to +urge forward any animal that may not work properly. + +[Illustration: SWIMMING A HORSE.] + +Where rivers are wide, with a swift current, they should always, if +possible, be forded obliquely down stream, as the action of the water +against the wagons assists very materially in carrying them across. In +crossing the North Platte upon the Cherokee trail at a season when the +water was high and very rapid, we were obliged to take the only +practicable ford, which ran diagonally up the stream. The consequence +was, that the heavy current, coming down with great force against the +wagons, offered such powerful resistance to the efforts of the mules +that it was with difficulty they could retain their footing, and +several were drowned. Had the ford crossed obliquely down the river, +there would have been no difficulty. + +When it becomes necessary, with loaded wagons, to cross a stream of +this character against the current, I would recommend that the teams be +doubled, the leading animals led, a horseman placed on each side with +whips to assist the driver, and that, before the first wagon enters the +water, a man should be sent in advance to ascertain the best ford. + +During seasons of high water, men, in traversing the plains, often +encounter rivers which rise above a fording stage, and remain in that +condition for many days, and to await the falling of the water might +involve a great loss of time. If the traveler be alone, his only way is +to swim his horse; but if he retains the seat on his saddle, his weight +presses the animal down into the water, and cramps his movements very +sensibly. It is a much better plan to attach a cord to the bridle-bit, +and drive him into the stream; then, seizing his tail, allow him to tow +you across. If he turns out of the course, or attempts to turn back, he +can be checked with the cord, or by splashing water at his head. If the +rider remains in the saddle, he should allow the horse to have a loose +rein, and never pull upon it except when necessary to guide. If he +wishes to steady himself, he can lay hold upon the mane. + +In traveling with large parties, the following expedients for crossing +rivers have been successfully resorted to within my own experience, and +they are attended with no risk to life or property. + +A rapid and deep stream, with high, abrupt, and soft banks, probably +presents the most formidable array of unfavorable circumstances that +can be found. Streams of this character are occasionally met with, and +it is important to know how to cross them with the greatest promptitude +and safety. + +A train of wagons having arrived upon the bank of such a stream, first +select the best point for the passage, where the banks upon both sides +require the least excavation for a place of ingress and egress to and +from the river. As I have before remarked, the place of entering the +river should be above the coming-out place on the opposite bank, as the +current will then assist in carrying wagons and animals across. A spot +should be sought where the bed of the stream is firm at the place where +the animals are to get out on the opposite bank. If, however, no such +place can be found, brush and earth should be thrown in to make a +foundation sufficient to support the animals, and to prevent them from +bogging. After the place for crossing has been selected, it will be +important to determine the breadth of the river between the points of +ingress and egress, in order to show the length of rope necessary to +reach across. A very simple practical method of doing this without +instruments is found in the French "Manuel du Génie." It is as follows: + +[Illustration: The line AB (the distance to be measured) is extended +upon the bank to D, from which point, after having marked it, lay off +equal distances, DC and C_d_; produce BC to _b_, making CB=C_b_; then +extend the line _db_ until it intersects the prolongation of the line +through CA at _a_. The distance between _ab_ is equal to AB, or the +width of the crossing.] + +A man who is an expert swimmer then takes the end of a fishing-line or +a small cord in his mouth, and carries it across, leaving the other end +fixed upon the opposite bank, after which a lariat is attached to the +cord, and one end of it pulled across and made fast to a tree; but if +there is nothing convenient to which the lariat can be attached, an +extra axle or coupling-pole can be pulled over by the man who has +crossed, firmly planted in the ground, and the rope tied to it. The +rope must be long enough to extend twice across the stream, so that one +end may always be left on each shore. A very good substitute for a +ferry-boat may be made with a wagon-bed by filling it with empty +water-casks, stopped tight and secured in the wagon with ropes, with a +cask lashed opposite the centre of each outside. It is then placed in +the water bottom upward, and the rope that has been stretched across +the stream attached to one end of it, while another rope is made fast +to the other end, after which it is loaded, the shore-end loosened, and +the men on the opposite bank pull it across to the landing, where it is +discharged and returned for another load, and so on until all the +baggage and men are passed over. + +The wagons can be taken across by fastening them down to the axles, +attaching a rope to the end of the tongue, and another to the rear of +each to steady it and hold it from drifting below the landing. It is +then pushed into the stream, and the men on the opposite bank pull it +over. I have passed a large train of wagons in this way across a rapid +stream fifteen feet deep without any difficulty. I took, at the same +time, a six-pounder cannon, which was separated from its carriage, and +ferried over upon the wagon-boat; after which the carriage was pulled +over in the same way as described for the wagons. + +There are not always a sufficient number of airtight water-casks to +fill a wagon-bed, but a tentfly, paulin, or wagon-cover can generally +be had. In this event, the wagon-bed may be placed in the centre of one +of these, the cloth brought up around the ends and sides, and secured +firmly with ropes tied around transversely, and another rope fastened +lengthwise around under the rim. This holds the cloth in its place, and +the wagon may then be placed in the water right side upward, and +managed in the same manner as in the other case. If the cloth be made +of cotton, it will soon swell so as to leak but very little, and +answers a very good purpose. + +Another method of ferrying streams is by means of what is called by the +mountaineers a "_bull-boat_," the frame-work of which is made of +willows bent into the shape of a short and wide skiff, with a flat +bottom. Willows grow upon the banks of almost all the streams on the +prairies, and can be bent into any shape desired. To make a boat with +but one hide, a number of straight willows are cut about an inch in +diameter, the ends sharpened and driven into the ground, forming a +frame-work in the shape of a half egg-shell cut through the +longitudinal axis. Where these rods cross they are firmly secured with +strings. A stout rod is then heated and bent around the frame in such a +position that the edges of the hide, when laid over it and drawn tight, +will just reach it. This rod forms the gunwale, which is secured by +strings to the ribs. Small rods are then wattled in so as to make it +symmetrical and strong. After which the green or soaked hide is thrown +over the edges, sewed to the gunwales, and left to dry. The rods are +then cut off even with the gunwale, and the boat is ready for use. + +To build a boat with two or more hides: A stout pole of the desired +length is placed upon the ground for a keel, the ends turned up and +secured by a lariat; willow rods of the required dimensions are then +cut, heated, and bent into the proper shape for knees, after which +their centres are placed at equal distances upon the keel, and firmly +tied with cords. The knees are retained in their proper curvature by +cords around the ends. After a sufficient number of them have been +placed upon the keel, two poles of suitable dimensions are heated, bent +around the ends for a gunwale, and firmly lashed to each knee. Smaller +willows are then interwoven, so as to model the frame. + +Green or soaked hides are cut into the proper shape to fit the frame, +and sewed together with buckskin strings; then the frame of the boat is +placed in the middle, the hide drawn up snug around the sides, and +secured with raw-hide thongs to the gunwale. The boat is then turned +bottom upward and left to dry, after which the seams where they have +been sewed are covered with a mixture of melted tallow and pitch: the +craft is now ready for launching. + +A boat of this kind is very light and serviceable, but after a while +becomes water-soaked, and should always be turned bottom upward to dry +whenever it is not in the water. Two men can easily build a _bull-boat_ +of three hides in two days which will carry ten men with perfect safety. + +A small party traveling with a pack train and arriving upon the banks +of a deep stream will not always have the time to stop or the means to +make any of the boats that have been described. Should their luggage be +such as to become seriously injured by a wetting, and there be an +India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth disposable, or if even a green beef +or buffalo hide can be procured, it may be spread out upon the ground, +and the articles of baggage placed in the centre, in a square or +rectangular form; the ends and sides are then brought up so as entirely +to envelop the package, and the whole secured with ropes or raw hide. +It is then placed in the water with a rope attached to one end, and +towed across by men in the same manner as the boats before described. +If hides be used they will require greasing occasionally, to prevent +their becoming water-soaked. + +[Illustration: CROSSING A STREAM.] + +When a mounted party with pack animals arrive upon the borders of a +rapid stream, too deep to ford, and where the banks are high and +abrupt, with perhaps but one place where the beasts can get out upon +the opposite shore, it would not be safe to drive or ride them in, +calculating that all will make the desired landing. Some of them will +probably be carried by the swift current too far down the stream, and +thereby endanger not only their own lives, but the lives of their +riders. I have seen the experiment tried repeatedly, and have known +several animals to be carried by the current below the point of egress, +and thus drowned. Here is a simple, safe, and expeditious method of +taking animals over such a stream. Suppose, for example, a party of +mounted men arrive upon the bank of the stream. There will always be +some good swimmers in the party, and probably others who can not swim +at all. Three or four of the most expert of these are selected, and +sent across with one end of a rope made of lariats tied together, while +the other end is retained upon the first bank, and made fast to the +neck of a gentle and good swimming horse; after which another gentle +horse is brought up and made fast by a lariat around his neck to the +tail of the first, and so on until all the horses are thus tied +together. The men who can not swim are then mounted upon the best +swimming horses and tied on, otherwise they are liable to become +frightened, lose their balance, and be carried away in a rapid current; +or a horse may stumble and throw his rider. After the horses have been +strung out in a single line by their riders, and every thing is in +readiness, the first horse is led carefully into the water, while the +men on the opposite bank, pulling upon the rope, thus direct him +across, and, if necessary, aid him in stemming the current. As soon as +this horse strikes bottom he pulls upon those behind him, and thereby +assists them in making the landing, and in this manner all are passed +over in perfect safety. + + +DRIVING LOOSE HORSES. + +In traveling with loose horses across the plains, some persons are in +the habit of attaching them in pairs by their halters to a long, stout +rope stretched between two wagons drawn by mules, each wagon being +about half loaded. The principal object of the rear wagon being to hold +back and keep the rope stretched, not more than two stout mules are +required, as the horses aid a good deal with their heads in pulling +this wagon. From thirty to forty horses may be driven very well in this +manner, and, if they are wild, it is perhaps the safest method, except +that of leading them with halters held by men riding beside them. The +rope to which the horses are attached should be about an inch and a +quarter in diameter, with loops or rings inserted at intervals +sufficient to admit the horses without allowing them to kick each +other, and the halter straps tied to these loops. The horses, on first +starting, should have men by their sides, to accustom them to this +manner of being led. The wagons should be so driven as to keep the rope +continually stretched. Good drivers must be assigned to these wagons, +who will constantly watch the movements of the horses attached, as well +as their own teams. + +I have had 150 loose horses driven by ten mounted herdsmen. This +requires great care for some considerable time, until the horses become +gentle and accustomed to their herders. It is important to ascertain, +as soon as possible after starting, which horses are wild, and may be +likely to stampede and lead off the herd; such should be led, and never +suffered to run loose, either on the march or in camp. Animals of this +character will soon indicate their propensities, and can be secured +during the first days of the march. It is desirable that all animals +that will not stampede when not working should run loose on a march, as +they pick up a good deal of grass along the road when traveling, and +the success of an expedition, when animals get no other forage but +grass, depends in a great degree upon the time given them for grazing. +They will thrive much better when allowed a free range than when +picketed, as they then are at liberty to select such grass as suits +them. It may therefore be set down as an infallible rule never to be +departed from, that all animals, excepting such as will be likely to +stampede, should be turned loose for grazing immediately after arriving +at the camping-place; but it is equally important that they should be +carefully herded as near the camp as good grass will admit; and those +that it is necessary to picket should be placed upon the best grass, +and their places changed often. The ropes to which they are attached +should be about forty feet long; the picket-pins, of iron, fifteen +inches long, with ring and swivel at top, so that the rope shall not +twist as the animal feeds around it; and the pins must be firmly driven +into tenacious earth. + +Animals should be herded during the day at such distances as to leave +sufficient grass undisturbed around and near the camp for grazing +through the night. + + +METHOD OF MARCHING. + +Among men of limited experience in frontier life will be found a great +diversity of opinion regarding the best methods of marching, and of +treating animals in expeditions upon the prairies. Some will make late +starts and travel during the heat of the day without nooning, while +others will start early and make two marches, laying by during the +middle of the day; some will picket their animals continually in camp, +while others will herd them day and night, etc., etc. For mounted +troops, or, indeed, for any body of men traveling with horses and +mules, a few general rules may be specified which have the sanction of +mature experience, and a deviation from them will inevitably result in +consequences highly detrimental to the best interests of an expedition. + +In ordinary marches through a country where grass and water are +abundant and good, animals receiving proper attention should not fall +away, even if they receive no grain; and, as I said before, they should +not be made to travel faster than a walk unless absolutely necessary; +neither should they be taken off the road for the purpose of hunting or +chasing buffalo, as one buffalo-chase injures them more than a week of +moderate riding. In the vicinity of hostile Indians, the animals must +be carefully herded and guarded within protection of the camp, while +those picketed should be changed as often as the grass is eaten off +within the circle described by the tether-rope. At night they should be +brought within the chain of sentinels and picketed as compactly as is +consistent with the space needed for grazing, and under no +circumstances, unless the Indians are known to be near and an attack is +to be expected, should they be tied up to a picket line where they can +get no grass. Unless allowed to graze at night they will fall away +rapidly, and soon become unserviceable. It is much better to march +after nightfall, turn some distance off the road, and to encamp without +fires in a depressed locality where the Indians can not track the +party, and the animals may be picketed without danger. + +In descending abrupt hills and mountains one wheel of a loaded wagon +should always be locked, as this relieves the wheel animals and makes +every thing more secure. When the declivity is great both rear wheels +should be locked, and if very abrupt, requiring great effort on the +wheel animals to hold the wagon, the wheels should be rough-locked by +lengthening the lock-chains so that the part which goes around the +wheels will come directly upon the ground, and thus create more +friction. Occasionally, however, hills are met with so nearly +perpendicular that it becomes necessary to attach ropes to the rear +axle, and to station men to hold back upon them and steady the vehicle +down the descent. Rough-locking is a very safe method of passing heavy +artillery down abrupt declivities. There are several mountains between +the Missouri River and California where it is necessary to resort to +one of the two last-mentioned methods in order to descend with +security. If there are no lock-chains upon wagons, the front and rear +wheels on the same side may be tied together with ropes so as to lock +them very firmly. + +It is an old and well-established custom among men experienced in +frontier life always to cross a stream upon which it is intended to +encamp for the night, and this rule should never be departed from where +a stream is to be forded, as a rise during the night might detain the +traveler for several days in awaiting the fall of the waters. + + +STORMS. + +In Western Texas, during the autumn and winter months, storms arise +very suddenly, and, when accompanied by a north wind, are very severe +upon men and animals; indeed, they are sometimes so terrific as to make +it necessary for travelers to hasten to the nearest sheltered place to +save the lives of their animals. When these storms come from the north, +they are called "_northers;_" and as, during the winter season, the +temperature often undergoes a sudden change of many degrees at the time +the storm sets in, the perspiration is checked, and the system receives +an instantaneous shock, against which it requires great vital energy to +bear up. Men and animals are not, in this mild climate, prepared for +these capricious meteoric revolutions, and they not unfrequently perish +under their effects. + +While passing near the head waters of the Colorado in October, 1849, I +left one of my camps at an early hour in the morning under a mild and +soft atmosphere, with a gentle breeze from the south, but had marched +only a short distance when the wind suddenly whipped around into the +north, bringing with it a furious chilling rain, and in a short time +the road became so soft and heavy as to make the labor of pulling the +wagons over it very exhausting upon the mules, and they came into camp +in a profuse sweat, with the rain pouring down in torrents upon them. + +They were turned out of harness into the most sheltered place that +could be found; but, instead of eating, as was their custom, they +turned their heads from the wind, and remained in that position, +chilled and trembling, without making the least effort to move. The +rain continued with unabated fury during the entire day and night, and +on the following morning thirty-five out of one hundred and ten mules +had perished, while those remaining could hardly be said to have had a +spark of vitality left. They were drawn up with the cold, and could +with difficulty walk. Tents and wagon-covers were cut up to protect +them, and they were then driven about for some time, until a little +vital energy was restored, after which they commenced eating grass, but +it was three or four days before they recovered sufficiently to resume +the march. + +The mistake I made was in driving the mules after the "norther" +commenced. Had I gone immediately into camp, before they became heated +and wearied, they would probably have eaten the grass, and this, I have +no doubt, would have saved them; but as it was, their blood became +heated from overwork, and the sudden chill brought on a reaction which +proved fatal. If an animal will eat his forage plentifully, there is +but little danger of his perishing with cold. This I assert with much +confidence, as I once, when traveling with about 1500 horses and mules, +encountered the most terrific snow-storm that has been known within the +memory of the oldest mountaineers. It commenced on the last day of +April, and continued without cessation for sixty consecutive hours. The +day had been mild and pleasant; the green grass was about six inches +high; the trees had put out their new leaves, and all nature conspired +to show that the sombre garb of winter had been permanently superseded +by the smiling attire of spring. About dark, however, the wind turned +into the north; it commenced to snow violently, and increased until it +became a frightful tempest, filling the atmosphere with a dense cloud +of driving snow, against which it was impossible to ride or walk. Soon +after the storm set in, one herd of three hundred horses and mules +broke away from the herdsmen who were around them, and, in spite of all +their efforts, ran at full speed, directly with the wind and snow, for +fifty miles before they stopped. + +Three of the herdsmen followed them as far as they were able, but soon +became exhausted and lost on the prairie. One of them found his way +back to camp in a state of great prostration and suffering. One of the +others was found dead, and the third crawling about upon his hands and +knees, after the storm ceased. + +It happened, fortunately, that I had reserved a quantity of corn to be +used in the event of finding a scarcity of grass, and as soon as the +ground became covered with snow, so that the animals could not get at +the grass, I fed out the corn, which I am induced to believe saved +their lives. Indeed, they did not seem to be at all affected by this +prolonged and unseasonable tempest. This occurred upon the summit of +the elevated ridge dividing the waters of the Arkansas and South Platte +Rivers, where storms are said to be of frequent occurrence. + +The greater part of the animals that stampeded were recovered after the +storm, and, although they had traveled a hundred miles at a very rapid +pace, they did not seem to be much affected by it. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Packing. Saddles. Mexican Method. Madrina, or Bell-mare. Attachment +of the Mule illustrated. Best Method of Packing. Hoppling Animals. +Selecting Horses and Mules. Grama and bunch Grass. European Saddles. +California Saddle. Saddle Wounds. Alkali. Flies. Colic. Rattlesnake +Bites. Cures for the Bite. + + +PACKING AND DRIVING. + +With a train of pack animals properly organized and equipped, a party +may travel with much comfort and celerity. It is enabled to take short +cuts, and move over the country in almost any direction without regard +to roads. Mountains and broken ground may easily be traversed, and +exemption is gained from many of the troubles and detentions attendant +upon the transit of cumbersome wagon-trains. + +One of the most essential requisites to the outfit of a pack train is a +good pack-saddle. Various patterns are in use, many of which are mere +instruments of torture upon the backs of the poor brutes, lacerating +them cruelly, and causing continued pain. + +The Mexicans use a leathern pack-saddle without a tree. It is stuffed +with hay, and is very large, covering almost the entire back, and +extending far down the sides. It is secured with a broad hair girth, +and the load is kept in position by a lash-rope drawn by two men so +tight as to give the unfortunate beast intense suffering. + +[Illustration: GRIMSLEY'S PACK-SADDLE.] + +A pack-saddle is made by T. Grimsley, No. 41 Main Street, St. Louis, +Mo. It is open at the top, with a light, compact, and strong tree, +which fits the animal's back well, and is covered with raw hide, put on +green, and drawn tight by the contraction in drying. It has a leathern +breast-strap, breeching, and lash-strap, with a broad hair girth +fastened in the Mexican fashion. Of sixty-five of these saddles that I +used in crossing the Rocky Mountains, over an exceedingly rough and +broken section, not one of them wounded a mule's back, and I regard +them as the best saddles I have ever seen. + +No people, probably, are more familiar with the art of packing than the +Mexicans. They understand the habits, disposition, and powers of the +mule perfectly, and will get more work out of him than any other men I +have ever seen. The mule and the donkey are to them as the camel to the +Arab--their porters over deserts and mountains where no other means of +transportation can be used to advantage. The Spanish Mexicans are, +however, cruel masters, having no mercy upon their beasts, and it is no +uncommon thing for them to load their mules with the enormous burden of +three or four hundred pounds. + +These muleteers believe that, when the pack is firmly lashed, the +animal supports his burden better and travels with greater ease, which +seems quite probable, as the tension forms, as it were, an external +sheath supporting and bracing the muscles. It also has a tendency to +prevent the saddle from slipping and chafing the mule's back. With such +huge _cargas_ as the Mexicans load upon their mules, it is impossible, +by any precautions, to prevent their backs and withers from becoming +horribly mangled, and it is common to see them working their animals +day after day in this miserable plight. This heavy packing causes the +scars that so often mark Mexican mules. + +The animal, in starting out from camp in the morning, groaning under +the weight of his heavy burden, seems hardly able to move; but the pack +soon settles, and so loosens the lashing that after a short time he +moves along with more ease. Constant care and vigilance on the part of +the muleteers are necessary to prevent the packs from working loose and +falling off. The adjustment of a _carga_ upon a mule does not, however, +detain the caravan, as the others move on while it is being righted. If +the mules are suffered to halt, they are apt to lie down, and it is +very difficult for them, with their loads, to rise; besides, they are +likely to strain themselves in their efforts to do so. The Mexicans, in +traveling with large caravans, usually make the day's march without +nooning, as too much time would be consumed in unloading and packing up +again. + +Packs, when taken off in camp, should be piled in a row upon the +ground, and, if there be a prospect of rain, the saddles should be +placed over them, and the whole covered with the saddle-blankets or +canvas. + +The muleteers and herders should be mounted upon well-trained horses, +and be careful to keep the animals of the caravan from wandering or +scattering along the road. This can easily be done by having some of +the men riding upon each side, and others in rear of the caravan. + +In herding mules it is customary among prairie travelers to have a +bell-mare, to which the mules soon become so attached that they will +follow her wherever she goes. By keeping her in charge of one of the +herdsmen, the herds are easily controlled; and during a stampede, if +the herdsman mounts her, and rushes ahead toward camp, they will +generally follow. + +In crossing rivers the bell-mare should pass first, after which the +mules are easily induced to take to the water and pass over, even if +they have to swim. Mules are good swimmers unless they happen, by +plunging off a high bank, to get water in their ears, when they are +often drowned. Whenever a mule in the water drops his ears, it is a +sure indication that he has water in them, and he should be taken out +as soon as possible. To prevent accidents of this nature, where the +water is deep and the banks abrupt, the mule herds should be allowed to +enter slowly, and without crowding, as otherwise they are not only +likely to get their heads under water, but to throw each other over and +get injured. + +The _madrina_, or bell-mare, acts a most important part in a herd +of mules, and is regarded by experienced campaigners as indispensable +to their security. She is selected for her quiet and regular habits. +She will not wander far from the camp. If she happen to have a colt by +her side, this is no objection, as the mules soon form the most devoted +attachment to it. I have often seen them leave their grazing when very +hungry, and flock around a small colt, manifesting their delight by +rubbing it with their noses, licking it with their tongues, kicking up +their heels, and making a variety of other grotesque demonstrations of +affection, while the poor little colt, perfectly unconscious of the +cause of these ungainly caresses, stood trembling with fear, but unable +to make his escape from the compact circle of his mulish admirers. +Horses and asses are also used as bell animals, and the mules soon +become accustomed to following them. If a man leads or rides a bell +animal in advance, the mules follow, like so many dogs, in the most +orderly procession. + +"After traveling about fourteen miles," says Bayard Taylor, "we were +joined by three miners, and our mules, taking a sudden liking for their +horses, jogged on at a more brisk pace. The instincts of the mulish +heart form an interesting study to the traveler in the mountains. I +would (were the comparison not too ungallant) liken it to a woman's, +for it is quite as uncertain in its sympathies, bestowing its +affections when least expected, and, when bestowed, quite as constant, +so long as the object is not taken away. Sometimes a horse, sometimes +an ass, captivates the fancy of a whole drove of mules, but often an +animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told me that his whole train of +mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plains of the Cimarone, and +ran half a mile, when they halted in apparent satisfaction. The cause +of their freak was found to be a buffalo calf which had strayed from +the herd. They were frisking around it in the greatest delight, rubbing +their noses against it, throwing up their heels, and making themselves +ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and bray, while the calf, +unconscious of its attractive qualities, stood trembling in their +midst." + +"If several large troops," says Charles Darwin, "are turned into one +field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead the +_madrinas_ a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there +may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell, +and separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for +their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose +an old mule, for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the +power of smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the +madrina; for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of +affection. The feeling, however, is not of an individual nature, for I +believe I am right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as +a madrina." + +Of the attachment that a mule will form for a horse, I will cite an +instance from my own observation, which struck me at the time as being +one of the most remarkable and touching evidences of devotion that I +have ever known among the brute creation. + +On leaving Fort Leavenworth with the army for Utah in 1857, one of the +officers rode a small mule, whose kind and gentle disposition soon +caused him to become a favorite among the soldiers, and they named him +"Billy." As this officer and myself were often thrown together upon the +march, the mule, in the course of a few days, evinced a growing +attachment for a mare that I rode. The sentiment was not, however, +reciprocated on her part, and she intimated as much by the reversed +position of her ears, and the free exercise of her feet and teeth +whenever Billy came within her reach; but these signal marks of +displeasure, instead of discouraging, rather seemed to increase his +devotion, and whenever at liberty he invariably sought to get near her, +and appeared much distressed when not permitted to follow her. + +On leaving Camp Scott for New Mexico Billy was among the number of +mules selected for the expedition. During the march I was in the habit, +when starting out from camp in the morning, of leading off the party, +and directing the packmen to hold the mule until I should get so far in +advance with the mare that he could not see us; but the moment he was +released he would, in spite of all the efforts of the packers, start +off at a most furious pace, and never stop or cease braying until he +reached the mare's side. We soon found it impossible to keep him with +the other mules, and he was finally permitted to have his own way. + +In the course of time we encountered the deep snows in the Rocky +Mountains, where the animals could get no forage, and Billy, in common +with the others, at length became so weak and jaded that he was unable +any longer to leave his place in the caravan and break a track through +the snow around to the front. He made frequent attempts to turn out and +force his way ahead, but after numerous unsuccessful efforts he would +fall down exhausted, and set up a most mournful braying. + +The other mules soon began to fail, and to be left, worn out and +famished, to die by the wayside; it was not, however, for some time +that Billy showed symptoms of becoming one of the victims, until one +evening after our arrival at camp I was informed that he had dropped +down and been left upon the road during the day. The men all deplored +his loss exceedingly, as his devotion to the mare had touched their +kind hearts, and many expressions of sympathy were uttered around their +bivouac fires on that evening. + +Much to our surprise, however, about ten o'clock, just as we were about +going to sleep, we heard a mule braying about half a mile to the rear +upon our trail. Sure enough, it proved to be Billy, who, after having +rested, had followed upon our track and overtaken us. As soon as he +reached the side of the mare he lay down and seemed perfectly +contented. + +The next day I relieved him from his pack, and allowed him to run +loose; but during the march he gave out, and was again abandoned to his +fate, and this time we certainly never expected to see him more. To our +great astonishment, however, about twelve o'clock that night the +sonorous but not very musical notes of Billy in the distance aroused us +from our slumbers, and again announced his approach. In an instant the +men were upon their feet, gave three hearty cheers, and rushed out in a +body to meet and escort him into camp. + +But this well-meant ovation elicited no response from him. He came +reeling and floundering along through the deep snow, perfectly +regardless of these honors, pushing aside all those who occupied the +trail or interrupted his progress in the least, wandered about until he +found the mare, dropped down by her side, and remained until morning. + +When we resumed our march on the following day he made another +desperate effort to proceed, but soon fell down exhausted, when we +reluctantly abandoned him, and saw him no more. + +Alas! poor Billy! your constancy deserved a better fate; you may, +indeed, be said to have been a victim to unrequited affection. + +The articles to be transported should be made up into two packages of +precisely equal weight, and as nearly equal in bulk as practicable, +otherwise they will sway the saddle over to one side, and cause it to +chafe the animal's back. + +The packages made, two ropes about six feet long are fastened around +the ends by a slip-knot, and if the packages contain corn or other +articles that will shift about, small sticks should be placed between +the sacks and the ropes, which equalizes the pressure and keeps the +packages snug. The ropes are then looped at the ends, and made +precisely of the same length, so that the packs will balance and come +up well toward the top of the saddle. Two men then, each taking a pack, +go upon opposite sides of the mule, that has been previously saddled, +and, raising the packs simultaneously, place the loops over the pommel +and cantel, settling them well down into their places. The +lashing-strap is then thrown over the top, brought through the rings +upon each side, and drawn as tight at every turn as the two men on the +sides can pull it, and, after having been carried back and forth +diagonally across the packs as often as its length admits (generally +three or four times), it is made fast to one of the rings, and securely +tied in a slip-knot. + +The breast-strap and breeching must not be buckled so close as to chafe +the skin; the girth should be broad and soft where it comes opposite +the fore legs, to prevent cutting them. Leather girths should be +wrapped with cloth or bound with soft material. The hair girth, being +soft and elastic, is much better than leather. + +The crupper should never be dispensed with in a mountainous country, +but it must be soft, round, and about an inch in diameter where it +comes in contact with the tail, otherwise it will wound the animal in +making long and abrupt descents. + +In Norway they use a short round stick, about ten inches long, which +passes under the tail, and from each end of this a cord connects with +the saddle. + +Camp-kettles, tin vessels, and other articles that will rattle and be +likely to frighten animals, should be firmly lashed to the packs. When +the packs work loose, the lash-strap should be untied, and a man upon +each side draw it up again and make it fast. When ropes are used for +lashing, they may be tightened by twisting them with a short stick and +making the stick fast. + +One hundred and twenty-five pounds is a sufficient load for a mule upon +a long journey. + +In traveling over a rocky country, and upon all long journeys, horses +and mules should be shod, to prevent their hoofs wearing out or +breaking. The mountaineers contend that beasts travel better without +shoeing, but I have several times had occasion to regret the omission +of this very necessary precaution. A few extra shoes and nails, with a +small hammer, will enable travelers to keep their animals shod. + +In turning out pack animals to graze, it is well either to keep the +lariat ropes upon them with the ends trailing upon the ground, or to +hopple them, as no corral can be made into which they may be driven in +order to catch them. A very good way to catch an animal without driving +him into an inclosure is for two men to take a long rope and stretch it +out at the height of the animal's neck; some men then drive him slowly +up against it, when one of the men with the rope runs around behind the +animal and back to the front again, thus taking a turn with the rope +around his neck and holding him secure. + +To prevent an animal from kicking, take a forked stick and make the +forked part fast to the bridle-bit, bringing the two ends above the +head and securing them there, leaving the part of the stick below the +fork of sufficient length to reach near the ground when the animal's +head is in its natural position. He can not kick up unless he lowers +his head, and the stick effectually prevents that. + +Tether-ropes should be so attached to the neck of the animal as not to +slip and choke him, and the picket-pins never be left on the ropes +except when in the ground, as, in the event of a stampede, they are +very likely to swing around and injure the animals. + +Many experienced travelers were formerly in the habit of securing their +animals with a strap or iron ring fastened around the fetlock of one +fore foot, and this attached to the tether-rope. This method holds the +animal very securely to the picket-pin, but when the rope is first put +on, and before he becomes accustomed to it, he is liable to throw +himself down and get hurt; so that I think the plan of tethering by the +neck or halter is the safest, and, so far as I have observed, is now +universally practiced. + +The mountaineers and Indians seldom tether their animals, but prefer +the plan of hoppling, as this gives them more latitude for ranging and +selecting the choicest grass. + +Two methods of hoppling are practiced among the Indians and hunters of +the West: one with a strap about two feet long buckling around the fore +legs above the fetlock joints; the other is what they term the "_side +hopple_" which is made by buckling a strap around a front and rear +leg upon the same side. In both cases care should be taken not to +buckle the strap so tight as to chafe the legs. The latter plan is the +best, because the animal, side-hoppled, is able to go but little faster +than a walk, while the front hopple permits him, after a little +practice, to gallop off at considerable speed. If the hopples are made +of iron connected with chains, like handcuffs, with locks and keys, it +will be impossible for the Indians, without files, to cut them; but the +parts that come in contact with the legs should be covered with soft +leather. + +"A horse," says Mr. Galton, "may be hoppled with a stirrup-leather by +placing the middle around one leg, then twisting it several times and +buckling it round the other leg. When you wish to picket horses in the +middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two or three feet deep, and, tying +your rope to a fagot of sticks or brushwood, or even to a bag filled +with sand, bury this in it." + +For prairie service, horses which have been raised exclusively upon +grass, and never been fed on grain, or "_range horses_," as they are +called in the West, are decidedly the best, and will perform more hard +labor than those that have been stabled and groomed. The large, stout +ponies found among some of our frontier settlements are well adapted to +this service, and endure admirably. The same remarks hold good in the +choice of mules; and it will be found that the square-built, big-bellied, +and short-legged Mexican mule will endure far more hard service, on +short allowance of forage, than the larger American mule which has been +accustomed to grain. + +In our trip across the Rocky Mountains we had both the American and +Mexican mules, and improved a good opportunity of giving their relative +powers of endurance a thorough service-trial. For many days they were +reduced to a meagre allowance of dry grass, and at length got nothing +but pine leaves, while their work in the deep snow was exceedingly +severe. This soon told upon the American mules, and all of them, with +the exception of two, died, while most of the Mexican mules went +through. The result was perfectly conclusive. + +We found that, where the snow was not more than two feet deep, the +animals soon learned to paw it away and get at the grass. Of course +they do not get sufficient in this way, but they do much better than +one would suppose. + +In Utah and New Mexico the autumn is so dry that the grass does not +lose its nutritious properties by being washed with rains. It gradually +dries and cures like hay, so that animals eat it freely, and will +fatten upon it even in mid-winter. It is seldom that any grain is fed +to stock in either of these territories. + +Several of the varieties of grass growing upon the slopes of the Rocky +Mountains are of excellent quality; among these may be mentioned the +Gramma and bunch grasses. Horses and mules turned out to graze always +prefer the grass upon the mountain sides to grass of the valleys. + +We left New Mexico about the first of March, six weeks before the new +grass appeared, with 1500 animals, many of them low in flesh, yet they +improved upon the journey, and on their arrival in Utah were all, with +very few exceptions, in fine working condition. Had this march been +made at the same season in the country bordering upon the Missouri +River, where there are heavy autumnal rains, the animals would probably +have become very poor. + +In this journey the herds were allowed to range over the best grass +that could be found, but were guarded both night and day with great +care, whereas, if they had been corraled or picketed at night, I dare +say they would have lost flesh.[3] + + [3] Some curious and interesting experiments are said to have + been recently made at the veterinary school at Alfort, near + Paris, by order of the minister of war, to ascertain the powers + of endurance of horses. It appears that a horse will live on + water alone five-and-twenty days; seventeen days without eating + or drinking; only five days if fed and unwatered; ten days if fed + and insufficiently watered. A horse kept without water for three + days drank one hundred and four pounds of water in three minutes. + It was found that a horse taken immediately after "feed," and + kept in the active exercise of the "squadron school," completely + digested its "feed" in three hours; in the same time in the + "conscript's school" its food was two thirds digested; and if + kept perfectly quiet in the stable, its digestion was scarcely + commenced in three hours. + + +SADDLES. + +Great diversity of opinion exists regarding the best equipment for +horses, and the long-mooted question is as yet very far from being +definitely settled. + +I do not regard the opinions of Europeans as having a more direct +bearing upon this question, or as tending to establish any more +definite and positive conclusions regarding it than have been developed +by the experience of our own border citizens, the major part of whose +lives has been spent in the saddle; yet I am confident that the +following brief description of the horse equipments used in different +parts of Europe, the substance of which I have extracted from Captain +M'Clellan's interesting report, will be read with interest and +instruction. + +The saddle used by the African chasseurs consists of a plain wooden +tree, with a pad upon the top, but without skirts, and is somewhat +similar to our own military saddle, but lower in the pommel and cantle. +The girth and surcingle are of leather, with an ordinary woolen +saddle-blanket. Their bridle has a single head-stall, with the Spanish +bit buckled to it. + +A new saddle has recently been introduced into the French service by +Captain Cogent, the tree of which is cut out of a single piece of wood, +the cantle only being glued on, and a piece of walnut let into the +pommel, with a thin strip veneered upon the front ends of the bars. The +pommel and cantle are lower than in the old model; the whole is covered +with wet raw hide, glued on and sewed at the edges. The great advantage +this saddle possesses is in being so arranged that it may be used for +horses of all sizes and conditions. The saddle-blanket is made of thick +felt cloth, and is attached to the pommel by a small strap passing +through holes in the blanket, which is thus prevented from slipping, +and at the same time it raises the saddle so as to admit a free +circulation of air over the horse's spine. + +The Hungarian saddle is made of hard wood entirely uncovered, with a +raised pommel and cantle. The seat is formed with a leather strap four +inches wide nailed to the forks on the front and rear, and secured to +the side-boards by leather thongs, thus giving an elastic and easy +saddle-seat. This is also the form of the saddle-tree used by the +Russian and Austrian cavalry. The Russians have a leather girth +fastened by three small buckles: it passes over the tree, and is tied +to the side-boards. The saddle-blanket is of stout felt cloth in four +thicknesses, and a layer of black leather over it, and the whole held +together by leather thongs passing through and through. When the horse +falls off in flesh, more thicknesses are added, and "_vice versa_." +This saddle-blanket is regarded by the Russian officers as the best +possible arrangement. The Russians use the curb and snaffle-bits made +of steel. + +The Cossack saddle has a thick padding under the side-boards and on the +seat, which raises the rider very high on his horse, so that his feet +are above the bottom of the belly. Their bridle has but a simple +snaffle-bit, and no martingale. + +The Prussian cuirassiers have a heavy saddle with a low pommel and +cantle, covered with leather, but it is not thought by Captain +M'Clellan to present any thing worthy of imitation. + +The other Prussian cavalry ride the Hungarian saddle, of a heavier +model than the one in the Austrian service. The surcingle is of +leather, and fastens in the Mexican style; the girth is also of +leather, three and a half inches wide, with a large buckle. It is in +two parts, attached to the bars by raw-hide thongs. The curb and +snaffle steel bits are used, and attached to a single head-stall. + +The English cavalry use a saddle which has a lower cantle and pommel +than our _Grimsley_ saddle, covered with leather. The snaffle-bit +is attached to the halter head-stall by a chain and T; the curb has a +separate head-stall, which on a march is occasionally taken off and +hung on the carbine stock. + +The Sardinian saddle has a bare wooden tree very similar to the +Hungarian. A common blanket, folded in twelve thicknesses, is placed +under it. The girth and surcingle are of leather. + +Without expressing any opinion as to the comparative merits of these +different saddles, I may be permitted to give a few general principles, +which I regard as infallible in the choice of a saddle. + +The side-boards should be large, and made to conform to the shape of +the horse's back, thereby distributing the burden over a large surface. +It should stand up well above the spine, so as to admit a free +circulation of air under it. + +For long journeys, the crupper, where it comes in contact with the +tail, should be made of soft leather. It should be drawn back only far +enough to hold the saddle from the withers. Some horses require much +more tension upon the crupper than others. The girth should be made +broad, of a soft and elastic material. Those made of hair, in use among +the Mexicans, fulfill the precited conditions. + +A light and easy bit, which will not fret or chafe the horse, is +recommended. + +The saddle-blanket must be folded even and smooth, and placed on so as +to cover every part of the back that comes in contact with the saddle, +and in warm weather it is well to place a gunny bag under the blanket, +as it is cooler than the wool. + +It will have been observed that, in the French service, the folded +saddle-blanket is tied to the pommel to prevent it slipping back. This +is well if the blanket be taken off and thoroughly dried whenever the +horse is unsaddled. + +A saddle-blanket made of moss is used in some of the Southwestern +States, which is regarded by many as the perfection of this article of +horse equipment. It is a mat woven into the proper shape and size from +the beaten fibres of moss that hangs from the trees in our Southern +States. It is cheap, durable, is not in any way affected by sweat, and +does not chafe or heat the horse's spine like the woolen blanket. Its +open texture allows a rapid evaporation, which tends to keep the back +cool, and obviates the danger of stripping and sudden exposure of the +heated parts to the sun and air. + +The experience of some of our officers who have used this mat for years +in Mexico and Texas corroborates all I have said in its favor; and they +are unanimous in the opinion that a horse will never get a sore back +when it is placed under a good saddle. + +A saddle made by the Mexicans in California is called the _California +saddle_. This is extensively used upon the Pacific slope of the +mountains, and is believed to possess, at least, as many advantages for +rough frontier service as any other pattern that has been invented. +Those hardy and experienced veterans, the mountaineers, could not be +persuaded to ride any other saddle, and their ripened knowledge of such +matters certainly gives weight to their conclusions. + +[Illustration: CALIFORNIA SADDLE.] + +The merits of the California saddle consist in its being light, strong, +and compact, and conforming well to the shape of the horse. When +strapped on, it rests so firmly in position that the strongest pull of +a horse upon a lariat attached to the pommel can not displace it. Its +shape is such that the rider is compelled to sit nearly erect, with his +legs on the continuation of the line of the body, which makes his seat +more secure, and, at the same time, gives him a better control over his +arms and horse. This position is attained by setting the stirrup-leathers +farther back than on the old-fashioned saddle. The pommel is high, like +the Mexican saddle, and prevents the rider from being thrown forward. +The tree is covered with raw hide, put on green, and sewed; when this +dries and contracts it gives it great strength. It has no iron in its +composition, but is kept together by buckskin strings, and can easily +be taken to pieces for mending or cleaning. It has a hair girth about +five inches wide. + +The whole saddle is covered with a large and thick sheet of +sole-leather, having a hole to lay over the pommel; it extends back +over the horse's hips, and protects them from rain, and when taken off +in camp it furnishes a good security against dampness when placed under +the traveler's bed. + +The California saddle-tree is regarded by many as the best of all +others for the horse's back, and as having an easier seat than the +Mexican. + +General Comte de la Roche-Aymon, in his treatise upon "Light Troops," +published in Paris in 1856, says: + +"In nearly all the European armies the equipment of the horse is not in +harmony with the new tactics--with those tactics in which, during +nearly all of a campaign, the cavalry remains in bivouac. Have we +reflected upon the kind of saddle which, under these circumstances, +would cover the horse best without incommoding him during the short +periods that he is permitted to repose? Have we reflected upon the kind +of saddle which, offering the least fragility, exposes the horse to the +least danger of sore back? All the cuirassiers and the dragoons of +Europe have saddles which they call _French saddle_, the weight of +which is a load for the horse. The interior mechanism of these saddles +is complicated and filled with weak bands of iron, which become +deranged, bend, and sometimes break; the rider does not perceive these +accidents, or he does not wish to perceive them, for fear of being left +behind or of having to go on foot; he continues on, and at the end of a +day's march his horse has a sore back, and in a few days is absolutely +unserviceable. We may satisfy ourselves of the truth of these +observations by comparing the lists of horses sent to the rear during +the course of a campaign by the cuirassiers and dragoons who use the +French saddle, and by the hussars with the Hungarian saddle. The number +sent to the rear by the latter is infinitely less, although employed in +a service much more active and severe; and it might be still less by +making some slight improvements in the manner of fixing their saddle +upon the horse. + +"It is a long time since Marshal Saxe said there was but one kind of +saddle fit for cavalry, which was the hussar saddle: this combined all +advantages, lightness, solidity, and economy. It is astonishing that +the system of actual war had not led to the employment of the kind of +saddle in use among the Tartars, the Cossacks, the Hungarians, and, +indeed, among all horsemen and nomads. This saddle has the +incontestable advantage of permitting the horse to lie down and rest +himself without inconvenience. If, notwithstanding the folded blanket +which they place under the Hungarian saddle, this saddle will still +wound the animal's back sometimes, this only proceeds from the friction +occasioned by the motion of the horse and the movement of the rider +upon the saddle; a friction which it will be nearly impossible to +avoid, inasmuch as the saddle-bow is held in its place only by a +surcingle, the ends of which are united by a leathern band: these bands +always relax more or less, and the saddle becomes loose. To remedy +this, I propose to attach to the saddle-bow itself a double girth, one +end of which shall be made fast to the arch in front, and the other end +to the rear of the arch upon the right side, to unite in a single +girth, which would buckle to a strap attached upon the left side in the +usual manner. This buckle will hold the saddle firmly in its place. + +"Notwithstanding all these precautions, however, there were still some +inconveniences resulting from the nature of the blanket placed under +the saddle, which I sought to remedy, and I easily accomplished it. The +woolen nap of the cavalry saddle-blankets, not being carefully attended +to, soon wears off, and leaves only the rough, coarse threads of the +fabric; this absorbs the sweat from the horse, and, after it has dried +and become hard, it acts like a rasp upon the withers, first taking off +the hair, next the skin, and then the flesh, and, finally, the beast is +rendered unserviceable. + +"I sought, during the campaign of 1807, a means to remedy this evil, +and I soon succeeded by a process as simple as it was cheap. I +distributed among a great number of cavalry soldiers pieces of linen +cloth folded double, two feet square, and previously dipped in melted +tallow. This cloth was laid next to the horse's back, under the +saddle-blanket, and it prevented all the bad effects of the woolen +blanket. No horses, after this appliance, were afflicted with sore +backs. Such are the slight changes which I believe should be made in +the use of the Hungarian saddle. The remainder of the equipment should +remain (as it always has been) composed of a breast-strap, crupper, and +martingale, etc." + +The improvements of the present age do not appear to have developed any +thing advantageous to the saddle; on the contrary, after experimenting +upon numerous modifications and inventions, public sentiment has at +length given the preference to the saddle-tree of the natives in Asia +and America, which is very similar to that of the Hungarians. + + +SORES AND DISEASES. + +If a horse be sweating at the time he is unsaddled, it is well to strap +the folded saddle-blanket upon his back with the surcingle, where it is +allowed to remain until he is perfectly dry. This causes the back to +cool gradually, and prevents scalding or swelling. Some persons are in +the habit of washing their horses' backs while heated and sweating with +cold water, but this is pernicious, and often produces sores. It is +well enough to wash the back after it cools, but not before. After +horses' backs or shoulders once become chafed and sore, it is very +difficult to heal them, particularly when they are continued at work. +It is better, if practicable, to stop using them for a while, and wash +the bruised parts often with castile soap and water. Should it be +necessary, however, to continue the animal in use, I have known very +severe sores entirely healed by the free application of grease to the +parts immediately after halting, and while the animal is warm and +sweating. This seems to harden the skin and heal the wound even when +working with the collar in contact with it. A piece of bacon rind tied +upon the collar over the wound is also an excellent remedy. + +In Texas, when the horse-flies are numerous, they attack animals +without mercy, and where a contusion is found in the skin they deposit +eggs, which speedily produce worms in great numbers. I have tried the +effect of spirits of turpentine and several other remedies, but nothing +seemed to have the desired effect but calomel blown into the wound, +which destroyed the worms and soon effected a cure. + +In the vicinity of the South Pass, upon the Humboldt River, and in some +sections upon other routes to California, alkaline water is found, +which is very poisonous to animals that drink it, and generates a +disease known in California as "_alkali_." This disease first makes its +appearance by swellings upon the abdomen and between the fore legs, and +is attended with a cough, which ultimately destroys the lungs and kills +the animal. If taken at an early stage, this disease is curable, and +the following treatment is generally considered as the most +efficacious. The animal is first raked, after which a large dose of +grease is poured down its throat; acids are said to have the same +effect, and give immediate relief. When neither of these remedies can +be procured, many of the emigrants have been in the habit of mixing +starch or flour in a bucket of water, and allowing the animal to drink +it. It is supposed that this forms a coating over the mucous membrane, +and thus defeats the action of the poison. + +Animals should never be allowed to graze in the vicinity of alkaline +water, as the deposits upon the grass after floods are equally +deleterious with the water itself. + +In seasons when the water is low in the Humboldt River, there is much +less danger of the alkali, as the running water in the river then comes +from pure mountain springs, and is confined to the channel; whereas, +during high water, when the banks are overflowed, the salts are +dissolved, making the water more impure. + +For _colic_, a good remedy is a mixture of two table-spoonfuls of +brandy and two tea-spoonfuls of laudanum dissolved in a bottle of water +and poured down the animal's throat. Another remedy, which has been +recommended to me by an experienced officer as producing speedy relief, +is a table-spoonful of chloride of lime dissolved in a bottle of water, +and administered as in the other case. + + +RATTLESNAKE BITES. + +Upon the southern routes to California rattlesnakes are often met with, +but it is seldom that any person is bitten by them; yet this is a +possible contingency, and it can never be amiss to have an antidote at +hand. + +Hartshorn applied externally to the wound, and drunk in small +quantities diluted with water whenever the patient becomes faint or +exhausted from the effects of the poison, is one of the most common +remedies. + +In the absence of all medicines, a string or ligature should at once be +bound firmly above the puncture, then scarify deeply with a knife, suck +out the poison, and spit out the saliva. + +Andersson, in his book on Southwestern Africa, says: "In the Cape +Colony the Dutch farmers resort to a cruel but apparently effective +plan to counteract the bad effects of a serpent's bite. An incision +having been made in the breast of a living fowl, the bitten part is +applied to the wound. If the poison be very deadly, the bird soon +evinces symptoms of distress, becomes drowsy, droops its head, and +dies. It is replaced by a second, a third, and more if requisite. When, +however, the bird no longer exhibits any of the signs just mentioned, +the patient is considered out of danger. A frog similarly applied is +supposed to be equally efficacious." + +Haunberg, in his Travels in South Africa, mentions an antidote against +the bite of serpents. He says: "The blood of the turtle was much cried +up, which, on account of this extraordinary virtue, the inhabitants dry +in the form of small scales or membranes, and carry about them when +they travel in this country, which swarms with this most noxious +vermin. Whenever any one is wounded by a serpent, he takes a couple of +pinches of the dried blood internally, and applies a little of it to +the wound." + +I was present upon one occasion when an Indian child was struck in the +fore finger by a large rattlesnake. His mother, who was near at the +time, seized him in her arms, and, placing the wounded finger in her +mouth, sucked the poison from the puncture for some minutes, repeatedly +spitting out the saliva; after which she chewed and mashed some +plantain leaves and applied to the wound. Over this she sprinkled some +finely-powdered tobacco, and wrapped the finger up in a rag. I did not +observe that the child suffered afterward the least pain or +inconvenience. The immediate application of the remedies probably saved +his life. + +Irritation from the bite of gnats and musquitoes, etc., may be relieved +by chewing the plantain, and rubbing the spittle on the bite. + +I knew of another instance near Fort Towson, in Northern Texas, where a +small child was left upon the earthen floor of a cabin while its mother +was washing at a spring near by. She heard a cry of distress, and, on +going to the cabin, what was her horror on seeing a rattlesnake coiled +around the child's arm, and striking it repeatedly with its fangs. +After killing the snake, she hurried to her nearest neighbor, procured +a bottle of brandy, and returned as soon as possible; but the poison +had already so operated upon the arm that it was as black as a negro's. +She poured down the child's throat a huge draught of the liquor, which +soon took effect, making it very drunk, and stopped the action of the +poison. Although the child was relieved, it remained sick for a long +time, but ultimately recovered. + +A man was struck in the leg by a very large rattlesnake near Fort +Belknap, Texas, in 1853. No other remedy being at hand, a small piece +of indigo was pulverized, made into a poultice with water, and applied +to the puncture. It seemed to draw out the poison, turning the indigo +white, after which it was removed and another poultice applied. These +applications were repeated until the indigo ceased to change its color. +The man was then carried to the hospital at Fort Belknap, and soon +recovered, and the surgeon of the post pronounced it a very +satisfactory cure. + +A Chickasaw woman, who was bitten upon the foot near Fort Washita by a +ground rattlesnake (a very venomous species), drank a bottle of whisky +and applied the indigo poultice, and when I saw her, three days +afterward, she was recovering, but the flesh around the wound sloughed +away. + +A Delaware remedy, which is said to be efficacious, is to burn powder +upon the wound, but I have never known it to be tried excepting upon a +horse. In this case it was successful, or, at all events, the animal +recovered. + +Of all the remedies known to me, I should decidedly prefer ardent +spirits. It is considered a sovereign antidote among our Western +frontier settlers, and I would make use of it with great confidence. It +must be taken until the patient becomes very much intoxicated, and this +requires a large quantity, as the action of the poison seems to +counteract its effects. + +Should the fangs of the snake penetrate deep enough to reach an artery, +it is probable the person would die in a short time. I imagine, +however, that this does not often occur. + +The following remedial measures for the treatment of the bites of +poisonous reptiles are recommended by Dr. Philip Weston in the London +Lancet for July, 1859: + +1. The application of a ligature round the limb close to the wound, +between it and the heart, to arrest the return of venous blood. + +2. Excision of the bitten parts, or free incision through the wounds +made by the poison-teeth, subsequently encouraging the bleeding by warm +solutions to favor the escape of the poison from the circulation. + +3. Cauterization widely round the limb of the bite with a strong +solution of nitrate of silver, one drachm to the ounce, to prevent the +introduction of the poison into the system by the lymphatics. + +4. As soon as indications of the absorption of the poison into the +circulation begin to manifest themselves, the internal administration +of ammonia in aerated or soda-water every quarter of an hour, to +support the nervous energy and allay the distressing thirst. + +"But," he continues, "there is yet wanting some remedy that shall +rapidly counteract the poison introduced into the blood, and assist in +expelling it from the system. The well-authenticated accounts of the +success attending the internal use of arsenic in injuries arising from +the bites of venomous reptiles in the East and West Indies, and also in +Africa, and the well-known properties of this medicine as a powerful +tonic and alterative in conditions of impaired vitality of the blood +arising from the absorption of certain blood-poisons, would lead me to +include this agent in the treatment already mentioned. It should be +administered in combination with ammonia, in full doses, frequently +repeated, so as to neutralize quickly the poison circulating in the +blood before it can be eliminated from the system. This could readily +be accomplished by adding ten to fifteen minims of Fowler's solution to +the compound spirit of ammonia, to be given every quarter of an hour in +aerated or soda-water, until the vomiting and the more urgent symptoms +of collapse have subsided, subsequently repeating the dose at longer +intervals until reaction had become fully established, and the patient +relieved by copious bilious dejections." + +_Cedron_, which is a nut that grows on the Isthmus of Panama, and which +is sold by the druggists in New York, is said to be an infallible +antidote to serpent-bites. In the _Bullet. de l'Acad. de Méd._ for +February, 1858, it is stated that a man was bitten at Panama by a +_coral snake_, the most poisonous species on the Isthmus. During the +few seconds that it took him to take the cedron from his bag, he was +seized with violent pains at the heart and throat; but he had scarcely +chewed and swallowed a piece of the nut about the size of a small bean, +when the pains ceased as by magic. He chewed a little more, and applied +it externally to the wound, when the pains disappeared, and were +followed by a copious evacuation of a substance like curdled milk. Many +other cases are mentioned where the cedron proved an antidote. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +Bivouacs. Tente d'Abri. Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. Comanche Lodge. +Sibley Tent. Camp Furniture. Litters. Rapid Traveling. Fuel. Making +Fires. Fires on the Prairies. Jerking Meat. Making Lariats. Making +Caches. Disposition of Fire-arms. Colt's Revolvers. Gun Accidents. +Trailing. Indian Sagacity. + + +BIVOUACS AND TENTS. + +In traveling with pack animals it is not always convenient or +practicable to transport tents, and the traveler's ingenuity is often +taxed in devising the most available means for making himself +comfortable and secure against winds and storms. I have often been +astonished to see how soon an experienced voyager, without any +resources save those provided by nature, will erect a comfortable +shelter in a place where a person having no knowledge of woodcraft +would never think of such a thing. + +Almost all people in different parts of the world have their own +peculiar methods of bivouacking. + +In the severe climate of Thibet, Dr. Hooker informs us that they encamp +near large rocks, which absorb the heat during the day, and give it out +slowly during the night. They form, as it were, reservoirs of caloric, +the influence of which is exceedingly grateful during a cold night. + +In the polar regions the Esquimaux live and make themselves comfortable +in huts of ice or snow, and with no other combustible but oil. + +The natives of Australia bury their bodies in the sand, keeping their +heads only above the surface, and thus sleep warm during the chilly +nights of that climate. + +Fortunately for the health and comfort of travelers upon the Plains, +the atmosphere is pure and dry during the greater part of the year, and +it is seldom that any rain or dew is seen; neither are there marshes or +ponds of stagnant water to generate putrid exhalations and poisonous +malaria. The night air of the summer months is soft, exhilarating, and +delightful. Persons may therefore sleep in it and inhale it with +perfect impunity, and, indeed, many prefer this to breathing the +confined atmosphere of a house or tent. + +During the rainy season only is it necessary to seek shelter. In +traveling with covered wagons one always has protection from storms, +but with pack trains it becomes necessary to improvise the best +substitutes for tents. + +A very secure protection against storms may be constructed by planting +firmly in the ground two upright poles, with forks at their tops, and +crossing them with a light pole laid in the forks. A gutta-percha +cloth, or sheet of canvas, or, in the absence of either of these two, +blankets, may be attached by one side to the horizontal pole, the +opposite edge being stretched out to the windward at an angle of about +forty-five degrees to the ground, and there fastened with wooden pins, +or with buckskin strings tied to the lower border of the cloth and to +pegs driven firmly into the earth. This forms a shelter for three or +four men, and is a good defense against winds and rains. If a fire be +then made in front, the smoke will be carried away, so as not to +incommode the occupants of the bivouac. + +This is called a "half-faced" camp. + +[Illustration: HALF-FACED CAMP.] + +Another method practiced a great deal among mountain men and Indians +consists in placing several rough poles equidistant around in a half +circle, and bringing the small ends together at the top, where they are +bound with a thong. This forms the conical frame-work of the bivouac, +which, when covered with a cloth stretched around it, makes a very good +shelter, and is preferable to the half-faced camp, because the sides +are covered. + +[Illustration: CONICAL BIVOUAC.] + +When no cloths, blankets, or hides are at hand to be placed over the +poles of the lodge, it may be covered with green boughs laid on +compactly, so as to shed a good deal of rain, and keep out the wind in +cold weather. We adopted this description of shelter in crossing the +Rocky Mountains during the winter of 1857-8, and thus formed a very +effectual protection against the bleak winds which sweep with great +violence over those lofty and inhospitable _sierras_. We always +selected a dense thicket for our encampment, and covered the lodges +with a heavy coating of pine boughs, wattling them together as +compactly as possible, and piling snow upon the outside in such a +manner as to make them quite impervious to the wind. The fires were +then kindled at the mouths of the lodges, and our heads and bodies were +completely sheltered, while our feet were kept warm by the fires. + +The French troops, while serving in the Crimea, used what they call the +_tente d'abri_, or shelter tent, which seems to have been received with +great favor in Europe. It is composed of two, four, or six square +pieces of cloth, with buttons and buttonholes adjusted upon the edges, +and is pitched by planting two upright stakes in the ground at a +distance corresponding with the length of the canvas when buttoned +together. The two sticks are connected by a cord passed around the top +of each, drawn tight, and the ends made fast to pins driven firmly into +the ground. The canvas is then laid over the rope between the sticks, +spread out at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and the lower edges +secured to the earth with wooden pins. This makes some defense against +the weather, and was the only shelter enjoyed by the mass of the French +army in the Crimea up to October, 1855. For a permanent camp it is +usual to excavate a shallow basement under the tent, and to bank up the +earth on the outside in cold weather. It is designed that upon marches +the _tente d'abri_ shall be taken to pieces and carried by the +soldiers. + +A tent has recently been prepared by Mr. John Rider, 165 Broadway, New +York, which is called the "_tent knapsack_." It has been examined by a +board of army officers, and recommended for adoption in our military +service. + +[Illustration: TENT KNAPSACK.] + +This tent is somewhat similar to the _tente d'abri_, and is pitched in +the same manner, but it has this advantage, that each separate piece +may be converted into a water-proof knapsack. + +The following extracts from the Report of the Board go to show that +this tent knapsack will be useful to parties traveling on the prairies +with pack trains: + +"It is a piece of gutta-percha 5 feet 3 inches long, and 3 feet 8 +inches wide, with double edges on one side, and brass studs and +button-holes along two edges, and straps and buckles on the fourth +edge; the whole weighing three pounds; two sticks, 3 feet 8 inches long +by 1-1/4 inches in diameter, and a small cord. When used as a knapsack, +the clothing is packed in a cotton bag, and the gutta-percha sheet is +folded round it, lapping at the ends. The clothing is thus protected by +two or three thicknesses of gutta-percha, and in this respect there is +a superiority over the knapsack now used by our troops. Other +advantages are, that the tent knapsack has no seams, the parts at which +those in use wear out soonest; it adapts itself to the size of the +contents, so that a compact and portable bundle can be made, whether +the kit be entire or not; and, with the cotton bag, it forms a +convenient, commodious, and durable receptacle for all a soldier's +clothing and necessaries. + +"On a scout a soldier usually carries only a blanket, overcoat, and at +most a single shirt, pair of drawers, and a pair of socks, all of which +can be packed in the tent knapsack in a small bundle, perfectly +protected from rain, and capable of being suspended from the shoulders +and carried with comfort and ease during a march. + +"2d. As a shelter. The studs and eyelets along two edges of the tent +knapsack are for the purpose of fastening a number of them together, +and thus making a sheet of larger dimensions. + +"A sheet formed by fastening together four knapsacks was exhibited to +the Board, stretched upon a frame of wood. When used in service the +sheet is to be stretched on a rope supported by two poles, or by two +rifles, muskets, or carbines, and pinned down at the sides with six +pins, three on each side. + +"The sheet of four knapsacks is 10 feet 6 inches long, and 7 feet 4 +inches wide, and when pitched on a rope 4 feet 4 inches above the +ground, covers a horizontal space 6 feet 6 inches wide, and 7 feet 4 +inches long, which will accommodate five men, and may be made to +shelter seven. The sheet can also be used on the ground, and is a great +protection from dampness, and as a shawl or talma; indeed, a variety of +advantageous uses to which the gutta-percha sheet may be put will +suggest themselves to persons using it. + +"The Board is satisfied with its merits in all the uses to which it is +proposed to be put, and is of opinion that the gutta-percha tent +knapsack may be adopted in the military service with advantage." + + * * * * * + +The usual tenement of the prairie tribes, and of the traders, trappers, +and hunters who live among them, is the Comanche lodge, which is made +of eight straight peeled poles about twenty feet long, covered with +hides or cloth. The lodge is pitched by connecting the smaller +extremities of three of the poles with one end of a long line. The +three poles are then raised perpendicularly, and the larger extremities +spread out in a tripod to the circumference of the circle that is to +form the base of the lodge. The other poles are then raised, laid into +the forks of the three first, and spread out equidistant upon the +circle, thus forming the conical framework of the structure. Nine or +ten poles are generally used in one lodge. + +[Illustration: COMANCHE LODGE.] + +The long line attached to the tripod is then wound several times around +the top, where the poles intersect, and the lower end made fast at the +base of the lodge, thus securing the frame firmly in its position. The +covering, made of buffalo hides, dressed without the hair, and cut and +sewed together to fit the conical frame, is raised with a pole, spread +out around the structure, and united at the edges with sharpened wooden +pegs, leaving sufficient space open at the bottom for a doorway, which +may be closed with a blanket spread out with two small sticks, and +suspended over the opening. + +The lower edge of the lodge is made fast to the ground with wooden +pins. The apex is left open, with a triangular wing or flap on each +side, and the windward flap constantly stretched out by means of a pole +inserted into a pocket in the end of it, which causes it to draw like a +sail, and thus occasions a draught from the fire built upon the ground +in the centre of the lodge, and makes it warm and comfortable in the +coldest winter weather. Canvas makes a very good substitute for the +buffalo-skin covering. + + +SIBLEY TENT. + +A tent has been invented by Major H. H. Sibley, of the army, which is +known as the "_Sibley tent_." It is somewhat similar to the Comanche +lodge, but in place of the conical frame-work of poles it has but one +upright standard, resting upon an iron tripod in the centre. The tripod +can be used to suspend cooking utensils over the fire, and, when folded +up, admits the wooden standard between the legs, thereby reducing the +length one half, and making it more convenient for packing and +traveling. + +[Illustration: THE SIBLEY TENT.] + +This tent constituted the entire shelter of the army in Utah during the +winter of 1857-8, and, notwithstanding the severity of the climate in +the elevated locality of Camp Scott, the troops were quite comfortable, +and pleased with the tent. + +In permanent camps the Sibley tent may be so pitched as to give more +room by erecting a tripod upon the outside with three poles high and +stout enough to admit of the tent's being suspended by ropes attached +to the apex. This method dispenses with the necessity of the central +upright standard. + +When the weather is very cold, the tent may be made warmer by +excavating a basement about three feet deep, which also gives a wall to +the tent, making it more roomy. + +The tent used in the army will shelter comfortably twelve men. + +Captain G. Rhodes, of the English army, in his recent work upon tents +and tent-life, has given a description of most of the tents used in the +different armies in Europe, but, in my judgment, none of them, in point +of convenience, comfort, and economy, will compare with the Sibley tent +for campaigning in cold weather. One of its most important features, +that of admitting of a fire within it and of causing a draught by the +disposition of the wings, is not, that I am aware, possessed by any +other tent. Moreover, it is exempt from the objections that are urged +against some other tents on account of insalubrity from want of top +ventilation to carry off the impure air during the night. + + +CAMP FURNITURE. + +The accompanying illustrations present some convenient articles of +portable camp furniture. + +[Illustration: CAMP CHAIR. NO. 1.] + +CAMP CHAIR NO. 1 is of oak or other hard wood. Fig. 1 represents it +opened for use; in Fig. 2 it is closed for transportation. _A_ is a +stout canvas, forming the back and seat; _b_, _b_, _b_ are iron +butt-hinges; _c_, _c_ are leather straps, one inch and a quarter wide, +forming the arms; _d_ is an iron rod, with nut and screw at one end. + +[Illustration: CAMP CHAIRS. NOS. 2 AND 3.] + +CAMP CHAIR NO. 2 is made of sticks tied together with thongs of +buckskin or raw hide. + +CAMP CHAIR NO. 3 is a very comfortable seat, made of a barrel, the part +forming the seat being filled with grass. + +[Illustration: CAMP TABLE.] + +CAMP TABLE. Fig. 1 represents the table folded for transportation; in +Fig. 2 it is spread out for use. _A_ is the top of the table; _a_, _a_ +are side boards, and _c_, _c_ are end boards, turning on butt-hinges, +_b_, _b_, _b_. + +[Illustration: FIELD COT. NO. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIELD COT. NO. 2.] + +FIELD COTS. In No. 1, _A_ represents the cot put up for use; _B_, the +cot folded for transportation. The legs turn upon iron bolts running +through the head and foot boards; they are then placed upon the canvas, +and the whole is rolled up around the side pieces. In No. 2 the upper +figure represents the cot put up for use; the lower shows it folded for +transportation. _A_ is a stout canvas; _b_, _b_ are iron butt-hinges; +_c_, _c_, the legs; _d_, _d_, leather straps, with buckles, which hold +the legs firm; _f_, _f_, ends, which fold upon hinges; _g_, _g_, +cross-bars from leg to leg. This cot is strong, light, and portable. + +[Illustration: CAMP BUREAU.] + +CAMP BUREAU. This cut represents two chests, _A_, _A_, with their +handles, a, a; the covers taken off, they are placed one upon the +other, and secured by the clamps _B_, _B_; _d_ shows the division +between the two chests. When it is to be transported, the knobs, _c_, +are unscrewed from the drawers, the looking-glass, _f_, is removed, the +drawers are filled with clothing, etc., and the lids are screwed on. + +[Illustration: MESS-CHEST.] + +MESS-CHEST. A represents the chest open for table; _B_ is the same +closed; _C_ is the upper tray of tin, with compartments, _b_, _b_; _E_ +is the lower wooden tray, divided into compartments, _a_, _a_, for +various purposes, and made fast to the bottom of the chest; _d_, _d_ +are lids opening with hinges; _f_ (in figure B) is a wooden leg, +turning upon a hinge, and fitting snugly between two pieces of wood +screwed upon the cover. + + +LITTERS. + +Should a party traveling with pack animals, and without ambulances or +wagons, have one of its members wounded or taken so sick as to be +unable to walk or ride on horseback, a litter may be constructed by +taking two poles about twenty feet in length, uniting them by two +sticks three feet long lashed across the centre at six feet apart, and +stretching a piece of stout canvas, a blanket, or hide between them to +form the bed. Two steady horses or mules are then selected, placed +between the poles in the front and rear of the litter, and the ends of +the poles made fast to the sides of the animals, either by attachment +to the stirrups or to the ends of straps secured over their backs. + +[Illustration: HORSE-LITTER.] + +The patient may then be placed upon the litter, and is ready for the +march. + +The elasticity of the long poles gives an easy motion to the +conveyance, and makes this method of locomotion much more comfortable +than might be supposed. + +The prairie Indians have a way of transporting their sick and children +upon a litter very similar in construction to the one just described, +excepting that one animal is used instead of two. One end of the litter +is made fast to the sides of the animal, while the other end is left to +trail upon the ground. A projection is raised for the feet to rest +against and prevent the patient from sliding down. Instead of canvas, +the Indians sometimes lash a large willow basket across the poles, in +which they place the person to be transported. The animals harnessed to +the litter must be carefully conducted upon the march, and caution used +in passing over rough and broken ground. + +[Illustration: HAND-LITTER.] + +A very convenient and comfortable method of packing a sick or wounded +man when there are no animals disposable, and which is sometimes +resorted to by the Indians, is to take two small poles about ten feet +long, and lash three cross-pieces to them, one in the centre, and the +other two about eighteen inches from the ends. A blanket or hide is +then secured firmly to this frame, and the patient placed upon it under +the centre cross-piece, which prevents him from falling out. Two men +act as carriers, walking between the ends of the long poles. The +patient may be protected against the rain or sun by bending small +willows over the frame, and covering them with a cloth. + + +RAPID TRAVELING. + +Small parties with good animals, light vehicles, and little lading, may +traverse the Plains rapidly and comfortably, if the following +injunctions be observed. + +The day's drive should commence as soon as it is light, and, where the +road is good, the animals kept upon a slow trot for about three hours, +then immediately turned out upon the best grass that can be found for +two hours, thus giving time for grazing and breakfast. After which +another drive of about three hours may be made, making the noon halt +about three hours, when the animals are again harnessed, and the +journey continued until night. + +In passing through a country infested by hostile Indians, the evening +drive should be prolonged until an hour or two after dark, turning off +at a point where the ground is hard, going about half a mile from the +road, and encamping without fires, in low ground, where the Indians +will find it difficult to track or see the party. + +These frequent halts serve to rest and recruit the animals so that they +will, without injury, make from thirty to forty miles a day for a long +time. This, however, can only be done with very light loads and +vehicles, such, for example, as an ambulance with four mules, only +three or four persons, and a small amount of luggage. + + +FUEL AND FIRE. + +There are long distances upon some of the routes to California where no +other fuel is found but the dried dung of the buffalo, called by the +mountaineers "chips," and by the French "bois de vache," the _argul_ of +the Tartary deserts. It burns well when perfectly dry, answers a good +purpose for cooking, and some men even prefer it to wood. As it will +not burn when wet, it is well, in a country where no other fuel can be +had, when it threatens to rain, for the traveler to collect a supply +before the rain sets in, and carry it in wagons to the camp. When dry, +the chips are easily lighted. + +A great saving in fuel may be made by digging a trench about two feet +long by eight inches in width and depth; the fires are made in the +bottom of the trench, and the cooking utensils placed upon the top, +where they receive all the heat. This plan is especially recommended +for windy weather, and it is convenient at all times. The wood should +be cut short, and split into small pieces. + +It is highly important that travelers should know the different methods +that may be resorted to for kindling fires upon a march. + +The most simple and most expeditious of these is by using the lucifer +matches; but, unless they are kept in well-corked bottles, they are +liable to become wet, and will then fail to ignite. + +The most of those found in the shops easily imbibe dampness, and are of +but little use in the prairies. Those marked "Van Duser, New York," and +put up in flat rectangular boxes, are the best I have met with, and +were the only ones I saw which were not affected by the humid climate +of Mexico. Wax lucifers are better than wooden, as they are impervious +to moisture. + +I have seen an Indian start a fire with flint and steel after others +had failed to do it with matches. This was during a heavy rain, when +almost all available fuel had become wet. On such occasions dry fuel +may generally be obtained under logs, rocks, or leaning trees. + +The inner bark of some dry trees, cedar for instance, is excellent to +kindle a fire. The bark is rubbed in the hand until the fibres are made +fine and loose, when it takes fire easily; dry grass or leaves are also +good. After a sufficient quantity of small kindling fuel has been +collected, a moistened rag is rubbed with powder, and a spark struck +into it with a flint and steel, which will ignite it; this is then +placed in the centre of the loose nest of inflammable material, and +whirled around in the air until it bursts out into a flame. When it is +raining, the blaze should be laid upon the dryest spot that can be +found, a blanket held over it to keep off the water, and it is fed with +very small bits of dry wood and shavings until it has gained sufficient +strength to burn the larger damp wood. When no dry place can be found, +the fire may be started in a kettle or frying-pan, and afterward +transferred to the ground. + +Should there be no other means of starting a fire, it can always be +made with a gun or pistol, by placing upon the ground a rag saturated +with damp powder, and a little dry powder sprinkled over it. The gun or +pistol is then (uncharged) placed with the cone directly over and near +the rag, and a cap exploded, which will invariably ignite it. Another +method is by placing about one fourth of a charge of powder into a gun, +pushing a rag down loosely upon it, and firing it out with the muzzle +down near the ground, which ignites the rag. + +The most difficult of all methods of making a fire, but one that is +practiced by some of the Western Indians, is by friction between two +pieces of wood. I had often heard of this process, but never gave +credit to its practicability until I saw the experiment successfully +tried. It was done in the following manner: Two dried stalks of the +Mexican soap-plant, about three fourths of an inch in diameter, were +selected, and one of them made flat on one side; near the edge of this +flat surface a very small indentation was made to receive the end of +the other stick, and a groove cut from this down the side. The other +stick is cut with a rounded end, and placed upright upon the first. One +man then holds the horizontal piece upon the ground, while another +takes the vertical stick between the palms of his hands, and turns it +back and forth as rapidly as possible, at the same time pressing +forcibly down upon it. The point of the upright stick wears away the +indentation into a fine powder, which runs off to the ground in the +groove that has been cut; after a time it begins to smoke, and by +continued friction it will at length take fire. + +This is an operation that is difficult, and requires practice; but if a +drill-stick is used with a cord placed around the centre of the upright +stick, it can be turned much more rapidly than with the hands, and the +fire produced more readily. The upright stick may be of any hard, dry +wood, but the lower horizontal stick must be of a soft, inflammable +nature, such as pine, cottonwood, or black walnut, and it must be +perfectly dry. The Indians work the sticks with the palms of the hands, +holding the lower piece between the feet; but it is better to have a +man to hold the lower piece while another man works the drill-bow. + +Inexperienced travelers are very liable, in kindling fires at their +camp, to ignite the grass around them. Great caution should be taken to +guard against the occurrence of such accidents, as they might prove +exceedingly disastrous. We were very near having our entire train of +wagons and supplies destroyed, upon one occasion, by the carelessness +of one of our party in setting fire to the grass, and it was only by +the most strenuous and well-timed efforts of two hundred men in setting +counter fires, and burning around the train, that it was saved. When +the grass is dry it will take fire like powder, and if thick and tall, +with a brisk wind, the flames run like a race-horse, sweeping every +thing before them. A lighted match, or the ashes from a segar or pipe, +thrown carelessly into the dry grass, sometimes sets it on fire; but +the greatest danger lies in kindling camp-fires. + +To prevent accidents of this kind, before kindling the fire a space +should be cleared away sufficient to embrace the limits of the flame, +and all combustibles removed therefrom, and while the fire is being +made men should be stationed around with blankets ready to put it out +if it takes the grass. + +When a fire is approaching, and escape from its track is impossible, it +may be repelled in the following manner: The train and animals are +parked compactly together; then several men, provided with blankets, +set fire to the grass on the lee side, burning it away gradually from +the train, and extinguishing it on the side next the train. This can +easily be done, and the fire controlled with the blankets, or with dry +sand thrown upon it, until an area large enough to give room for the +train has been burned clear. Now the train moves on to this ground of +safety, and the fire passes by harmless. + + +JERKING MEAT. + +So pure is the atmosphere in the interior of our continent that fresh +meat may be cured, or _jerked,_ as it is termed in the language of +the prairies, by cutting it into strips about an inch thick, and +hanging it in the sun, where in a few days it will dry so well that it +may be packed in sacks, and transported over long journeys without +putrefying. + +When there is not time to jerk the meat by the slow process described, +it may be done in a few hours by building an open frame-work of small +sticks about two feet above the ground, placing the strips of meat upon +the top of it, and keeping up a slow fire beneath, which dries the meat +rapidly. + +The jerking process may be done upon the march without any loss of time +by stretching lines from front to rear upon the outside of loaded +wagons, and suspending the meat upon them, where it is allowed to +remain until sufficiently cured to be packed away. Salt is never used +in this process, and is not required, as the meat, if kept dry, rarely +putrefies. + +If travelers have ample transportation, it will be a wise precaution, +in passing through the buffalo range, to lay in a supply of jerked meat +for future exigences. + + +LARIATS. + +It frequently happens upon long journeys that the lariat ropes wear out +or are lost, and if there were no means of replacing them great +inconvenience might result therefrom. A very good substitute may be +made by taking the green hide of a buffalo, horse, mule, or ox, +stretching it upon the ground, and pinning it down by the edges. After +it has been well stretched, a circle is described with a piece of +charcoal, embracing as much of the skin as practicable, and a strip +about an inch wide cut from the outer edge of sufficient length to form +the lariat. The strip is then wrapped around between two trees or +stakes, drawn tight, and left to dry, after which it is subjected to a +process of friction until it becomes pliable, when it is ready for use; +this lariat answers well so long as it is kept dry, but after it has +been wet and dried again it becomes very hard and unyielding. This, +however, may be obviated by boiling it in oil or grease until +thoroughly saturated, after which it remains pliable. + +The Indians make very good lariat ropes of dressed buffalo or buck +skins cut into narrow strips and braided; these, when oiled, slip much +more freely than the hemp or cotton ropes, and are better for lassoing +animals, but they are not as suitable for picketing as those made of +other material, because the wolves will eat them, and thus set free the +animals to which they are attached. + + +CACHÉS. + +It not unfrequently happens that travelers are compelled, for want of +transportation, to abandon a portion of their luggage, and if it is +exposed to the keen scrutiny of the thieving savages who often follow +the trail of a party, and hunt over old camps for such things as may be +left, it will be likely to be appropriated by them. Such contingencies +have given rise to a method of secreting articles called by the old +French Canadian voyagers "_caching_." + +The proper places for making cachés are in loose sandy soils, where the +earth is dry and easily excavated. Near the bank of a river is the most +convenient for this purpose, as the earth taken out can be thrown into +the water, leaving no trace behind. + +When the spot has been chosen, the turf is carefully cut and laid +aside, after which a hole is dug in the shape of an egg, and of +sufficient dimensions to contain the articles to be secreted, and the +earth, as it is taken out, thrown upon a cloth or blanket, and carried +to a stream or ravine, where it can be disposed of, being careful not +to scatter any upon the ground near the caché. The hole is then lined +with bushes or dry grass, the articles placed within, covered with +grass, the hole filled up with earth, and the sods carefully placed +back in their original position, and every thing that would be likely +to attract an Indian's attention removed from the locality. If an +India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth is disposable, it should be used to +envelop the articles in the caché. + +Another plan of making a caché is to dig the hole inside a tent, and +occupy the tent for some days after the goods are deposited. This +effaces the marks of excavation. + +The mountain traders were formerly in the habit of building fires over +their cachés, but the Indians have become so familiar with this +practice that I should think it no longer safe. + +Another method of caching which is sometimes resorted to is to place +the articles in the top of an evergreen tree, such as the pine, +hemlock, or spruce. The thick boughs are so arranged around the +packages that they can not be seen from beneath, and they are tied to a +limb to prevent them from being blown out by the wind. This will only +answer for such articles as will not become injured by the weather. + +Caves or holes in the rocks that are protected from the rains are also +secure deposits for caching goods, but in every case care must be taken +to obliterate all tracks or other indications of men having been near +them. These cachés will be more secure when made at some distance from +roads or trails, and in places where Indians would not be likely to +pass. + +To find a caché again, the bearing and distance from the centre of it +to some prominent object, such as a mound, rock, or tree, should be +carefully determined and recorded, so that any one, on returning to the +spot, would have no difficulty in ascertaining its position. + + +DISPOSITION OF FIRE-ARMS. + +The mountaineers and trappers exercise a very wise precaution, on +laying down for the night, by placing their arms and ammunition by +their sides, where they can be seized at a moment's notice. This rule +is never departed from, and they are therefore seldom liable to be +surprised. In Parkyns's "Abyssinia," I find the following remarks upon +this subject: + +"When getting sleepy, you return your rifle between your legs, roll +over, and go to sleep. Some people may think this is a queer place for +a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position of all others where +utility and comfort are most combined. The butt rests on the arm, and +serves as a pillow for the head; the muzzle points between the knees, +and the arms encircle the lock and breech, so that you have a smooth +pillow, and are always prepared to start up armed at a moment's +notice." + +I have never made the experiment of sleeping in this way, but I should +imagine that a gun-stock would make rather a hard pillow. + +Many of our experienced frontier officers prefer carrying their pistols +in a belt at their sides to placing them in holsters attached to the +saddle, as in the former case they are always at hand when they are +dismounted; whereas, by the other plan, they become useless when a man +is unhorsed, unless he has time to remove them from the saddle, which, +during the excitement of an action, would seldom be the case. + +Notwithstanding Colt's army and navy sized revolvers have been in use +for a long time in our army, officers are by no means of one mind as to +their relative merits for frontier service. The navy pistol, being more +light and portable, is more convenient for the belt, but it is very +questionable in my mind whether these qualities counterbalance the +advantages derived from the greater weight of powder and lead that can +be fired from the larger pistol, and the consequent increased +projectile force. + +This point is illustrated by an incident which fell under my own +observation. In passing near the "Medicine-Bow Butte" during the spring +of 1858, I most unexpectedly encountered and fired at a full-grown +grizzly bear; but, as my horse had become somewhat blown by a previous +gallop, his breathing so much disturbed my aim that I missed the animal +at the short distance of about fifty yards, and he ran off. Fearful, if +I stopped to reload my rifle, the bear would make his escape, I +resolved to drive him back to the advanced guard of our escort, which I +could see approaching in the distance; this I succeeded in doing, when +several mounted men, armed with the navy revolvers, set off in pursuit. +They approached within a few paces, and discharged ten or twelve shots, +the most of which entered the animal, but he still kept on, and his +progress did not seem materially impeded by the wounds. After these men +had exhausted their charges, another man rode up armed with the army +revolver, and fired two shots, which brought the stalwart beast to the +ground. Upon skinning him and making an examination of the wounds, it +was discovered that none of the balls from the small pistols had, after +passing through his thick and tough hide, penetrated deeper than about +an inch into the flesh, but that the two balls from the large pistol +had gone into the vitals and killed him. This test was to my mind a +decisive one as to the relative efficiency of the two arms for frontier +service, and I resolved thenceforth to carry the larger size. + +[Illustration: THE GRIZZLY.] + +Several different methods are practiced in slinging and carrying +fire-arms upon horseback. The shoulder-strap, with a swivel to hook +into a ring behind the guard, with the muzzle resting downward in a +leather cup attached by a strap to the same staple as the +stirrup-leather, is a very handy method for cavalry soldiers to sling +their carbines; but, the gun being reversed, the jolting caused by the +motion of the horse tends to move the charge and shake the powder out +of the cone, which renders it liable to burst the gun and to miss fire. + +An invention of the Namaquas, in Africa, described by Galton in his Art +of Travel, is as follows: + +"Sew a bag of canvas, leather, or hide, of such bigness as to admit the +butt of the gun pretty freely. The straps that support it buckle +through a ring in the pommel, and the thongs by which its slope is +adjusted fasten round the girth below. The exact adjustments may not be +hit upon by an unpracticed person for some little time, but, when they +are once ascertained, the straps need never be shifted. The gun is +perfectly safe, and never comes below the arm-pit, even in taking a +drop leap; it is pulled out in an instant by bringing the elbow in +front of the gun and close to the side, so as to throw the gun to the +outside of the arm; then, lowering the hand, the gun is caught up. It +is a bungling way to take out the gun while its barrel lies between the +arm and the body. Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion. It +offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting." + +This may be a convenient way of carrying the gun; I have never tried +it. Of all methods I have used, I prefer, for hunting, a piece of +leather about twelve inches by four, with a hole cut in each end; one +of the ends is placed over the pommel of the saddle, and with a +buckskin string made fast to it, where it remains a permanent fixture. +When the rider is mounted, he places his gun across the strap upon the +saddle, and carries the loose end forward over the pommel, the gun +resting horizontally across his legs. It will now only be necessary +occasionally to steady the gun with the hand. After a little practice +the rider will be able to control it with his knees, and it will be +found a very easy and convenient method of carrying it. When required +for use, it is taken out in an instant by simply raising it with the +hand, when the loose end of the strap comes off the pommel. + +The chief causes of accidents from the use of fire-arms arise from +carelessness, and I have always observed that those persons who are +most familiar with their use are invariably the most careful. Many +accidents have happened from carrying guns with the cock down upon the +cap. When in this position, a blow upon the cock, and sometimes the +concussion produced by the falling of the gun, will explode the cap; +and, occasionally, when the cock catches a twig, or in the clothes, and +lifts it from the cap, it will explode. With a gun at half-cock there +is but little danger of such accidents; for, when the cock is drawn +back, it either comes to the full-cock, and remains, or it returns to +the half-cock, but does not go down upon the cone. Another source of +very many sad and fatal accidents resulting from the most stupid and +culpable carelessness is in persons standing before the muzzles of guns +and attempting to pull them out of wagons, or to draw them through a +fence or brush in the same position. If the cock encounters an obstacle +in its passage, it will, of course, be drawn back and fall upon the +cap. These accidents are of frequent occurrence, and the cause is well +understood by all, yet men continue to disregard it, and their lives +pay the penalty of their indiscretion. It is a wise maxim, which +applies with especial force in campaigning on the prairies, "_Always +look to your gun, but never let your gun look at you._" + +An equally important maxim might be added to this: _Never to point +your gun at another, whether charged or uncharged, and never allow +another to point his gun at you._ Young men, before they become +accustomed to the use of arms, are very apt to be careless, and a large +percentage of gun accidents may be traced to this cause. That finished +sportsman and wonderful shot, my friend Captain Martin Scott, than whom +a more gallant soldier never fought a battle, was the most careful man +with fire-arms I ever knew, and up to the time he received his +death-wound upon the bloody field of Molino del Rey he never ceased his +cautionary advice to young officers upon this subject. His extended +experience and intimate acquaintance with the use of arms had fully +impressed him with its importance, and no man ever lived whose opinions +upon this subject should carry greater weight. As incomprehensible as +it may appear to persons accustomed to the use of fire-arms, recruits +are very prone, before they have been drilled at target practice with +ball cartridges, to place the ball below the powder in the piece. +Officers conducting detachments through the Indian country should +therefore give their special attention to this, and require the +recruits to tear the cartridge and pour all the powder into the piece +before the ball is inserted. + +As accidents often occur in camp from the accidental discharge of +fire-arms that have been capped, I would recommend that the arms be +continually kept loaded in campaigning, but the caps not placed upon +the cones until they are required for firing. This will cause but +little delay in an action, and will conduce much to security from +accidents. + +When loaded fire-arms have been exposed for any considerable time to a +moist atmosphere, they should be discharged, or the cartridges drawn, +and the arms thoroughly cleaned, dried, and oiled. Too much attention +can not be given in keeping arms in perfect firing order. + + +TRAILING. + +I know of nothing in the woodman's education of so much importance, or +so difficult to acquire, as the art of trailing or tracking men and +animals. To become an adept in this art requires the constant practice +of years, and with some men a lifetime does not suffice to learn it. + +Almost all the Indians whom I have met with are proficient in this +species of knowledge, the faculty for acquiring which appears to be +innate with them. Exigencies of woodland and prairie-life stimulate the +savage from childhood to develop faculties so important in the arts of +war and of the chase. + +I have seen very few white men who were good trailers, and practice did +not seem very materially to improve their faculties in this regard; +they have not the same acute perceptions for these things as the Indian +or the Mexican. It is not apprehended that this difficult branch of +woodcraft can be taught from books, as it pertains almost exclusively +to the school of practice, yet I will give some facts relating to the +habits of the Indians that will facilitate its acquirement. + +A party of Indians, for example, starting out upon a war excursion, +leave their families behind, and never transport their lodges; whereas, +when they move with their families, they carry their lodges and other +effects. If, therefore, an Indian trail is discovered with the marks of +the lodge-poles upon it, it has certainly not been made by a war-party; +but if the track do not show the trace of lodge-poles, it will be +equally certain that a war or hunting party has passed that way, and if +it is not desired to come in conflict with them, their direction may be +avoided. Mustangs or wild horses, when moving from place to place, +leave a trail which is sometimes difficult to distinguish from that +made by a mounted party of Indians, especially if the mustangs do not +stop to graze. This may be determined by following upon the trail until +some dung is found, and if this should lie in a single pile, it is a +sure indication that a herd of mustangs has passed, as they always stop +to relieve themselves, while a party of Indians would keep their horses +in motion, and the ordure would be scattered along the road. If the +trail pass through woodland, the mustangs will occasionally go under +the limbs of trees too low to admit the passage of a man on horseback. + +An Indian, on coming to a trail, will generally tell at a glance its +age, by what particular tribe it was made, the number of the party, and +many other things connected with it astounding to the uninitiated. + +I remember, upon one occasion, as I was riding with a Delaware upon the +prairies, we crossed the trail of a large party of Indians traveling +with lodges. The tracks appeared to me quite fresh, and I remarked to +the Indian that we must be near the party. "Oh no," said he, "the trail +was made two days before, in the morning," at the same time pointing +with his finger to where the sun would be at about 8 o'clock. Then, +seeing that my curiosity was excited to know by what means he arrived +at this conclusion, he called my attention to the fact that there had +been no dew for the last two nights, but that on the previous morning +it had been heavy. He then pointed out to me some spears of grass that +had been pressed down into the earth by the horses' hoofs, upon which +the sand still adhered, having dried on, thus clearly showing that the +grass was wet when the tracks were made. + +At another time, as I was traveling with the same Indian, I discovered +upon the ground what I took to be a bear-track, with a distinctly-marked +impression of the heel and all the toes. I immediately called the +Indian's attention to it, at the same time flattering myself that I had +made quite an important discovery, which had escaped his observation. +The fellow remarked with a smile, "Oh no, captain, may be so he not +bear-track." He then pointed with his gun-rod to some spears of grass +that grew near the impression, but I did not comprehend the mystery +until he dismounted and explained to me that, when the wind was +blowing, the spears of grass would be bent over toward the ground, and +the oscillating motion thereby produced would scoop out the loose sand +into the shape I have described. The truth of this explanation was +apparent, yet it occurred to me that its solution would have baffled +the wits of most white men. + +Fresh tracks generally show moisture where the earth has been turned +up, but after a short exposure to the sun they become dry. If the +tracks be very recent, the sand may sometimes, where it is very loose +and dry, be seen running back into the tracks, and by following them to +a place where they cross water, the earth will be wet for some distance +after they leave it. The droppings of the dung from animals are also +good indications of the age of a trail. It is well to remember whether +there have been any rains within a few days, as the age of a trail may +sometimes be conjectured in this way. It is very easy to tell whether +tracks have been made before or after a rain, as the water washes off +all the sharp edges. + +It is not a difficult matter to distinguish the tracks of American +horses from those of Indian horses, as the latter are never shod; +moreover, they are much smaller. + +In trailing horses, there will be no trouble while the ground is soft, +as the impressions they leave will then be deep and distinct; but when +they pass over hard or rocky ground, it is sometimes a very slow and +troublesome process to follow them. Where there is grass, the trace can +be seen for a considerable time, as the grass will be trodden down and +bent in the direction the party has moved; should the grass have +returned to its upright position, the trail can often be distinguished +by standing upon it and looking ahead for some distance in the +direction it has been pursuing; the grass that has been turned over +will show a different shade of green from that around it, and this +often marks a trail for a long time. + +Should all traces of the track be obliterated in certain localities, it +is customary with the Indians to follow on in the direction it has been +pursuing for a time, and it is quite probable that in some place where +the ground is more favorable it will show itself again. Should the +trail not be recovered in this way, they search for a place where the +earth is soft, and make a careful examination, embracing the entire +area where it is likely to run. + +Indians who find themselves pursued and wish to escape, scatter as much +as possible, with an understanding that they are to meet again at some +point in advance, so that, if the pursuing party follows any one of the +tracks, it will invariably lead to the place of rendezvous. If, for +example, the trail points in the direction of a mountain pass, or +toward any other place which affords the only passage through a +particular section of country, it would not be worth while to spend +much time in hunting it, as it would probably be regained at the pass. + +[Illustration: HORSE-TRACKS AT ORDINARY SPEED.] + +As it is important in trailing Indians to know at what gaits they are +traveling, and as the appearance of the tracks of horses are not +familiar to all, I have in the following cut represented the prints +made by the hoofs at the ordinary speed of the walk, trot, and gallop, +so that persons, in following the trail of Indians, may form an idea as +to the probability of overtaking them, and regulate their movements +accordingly. + +In traversing a district of unknown country where there are no +prominent landmarks, and with the view of returning to the point of +departure, a pocket compass should always be carried, and attached by a +string to a button-hole of the coat, to prevent its being lost or +mislaid; and on starting out, as well as frequently during the trip, to +take the bearing, and examine the appearance of the country when facing +toward the starting-point, as a landscape presents a very different +aspect when viewing it from opposite directions. There are few white +men who can retrace their steps for any great distance unless they take +the above precautions in passing over an unknown country for the first +time; but with the Indians it is different; the sense of locality seems +to be innate with them, and they do not require the aid of the magnetic +needle to guide them. + +Upon a certain occasion, when I had made a long march over an +unexplored section, and was returning upon an entirely different route +without either road or trail, a Delaware, by the name of "Black +Beaver," who was in my party, on arriving at a particular point, +suddenly halted, and, turning to me, asked if I recognized the country +before us. Seeing no familiar objects, I replied in the negative. He +put the same question to the other white men of the party, all of whom +gave the same answers, whereupon he smiled, and in his quaint +vernacular said, "Injun he don't know nothing. Injun big fool. White +man mighty smart; he know heap." At the same time he pointed to a tree +about two hundred yards from where we were then standing, and informed +us that our outward trail ran directly by the side of it, which proved +to be true. + +Another time, as I was returning from the Comanche country over a route +many miles distant from the one I had traveled in going out, one of my +Delaware hunters, who had never visited the section before, on arriving +upon the crest of an eminence in the prairie, pointed out to me a clump +of trees in the distance, remarking that our outward track would be +found there. I was not, however, disposed to credit his statement until +we reached the locality and found the road passing the identical spot +he had indicated. + +This same Indian would start from any place to which he had gone by a +sinuous route, through an unknown country, and keep a direct bearing +back to the place of departure; and he assured me that he has never, +even during the most cloudy or foggy weather, or in the darkest nights, +lost the points of compass. There are very few white men who are +endowed with these wonderful faculties, and those few are only rendered +proficient by matured experience. + +I have known several men, after they had become lost in the prairies, +to wander about for days without exercising the least judgment, and +finally exhibiting a state of mental aberration almost upon the verge +of lunacy. Instead of reasoning upon their situation, they exhaust +themselves running a-head at their utmost speed without any regard to +direction. When a person is satisfied that he has lost his way, he +should stop and reflect upon the course he has been traveling, the time +that has elapsed since he left his camp, and the probable distance that +he is from it; and if he is unable to retrace his steps, he should keep +as nearly in the direction of them as possible; and if he has a +compass, this will be an easy matter; but, above all, he should guard +against following his own track around in a circle with the idea that +he is in a beaten trace. + +When he is traveling with a train of wagons which leaves a plain trail, +he can make the distance he has traveled from camp the radius of a +circle in which to ride around, and before the circle is described he +will strike the trail. If the person has no compass, it is always well +to make an observation, and to remember the direction of the wind at +the time of departure from camp; and as this would not generally change +during the day, it would afford a means of keeping the points of the +compass. + +In the night Ursa Major (the Great Bear) is not only useful to find the +north star, but its position, when the pointers will be vertical in the +heavens, may be estimated with sufficient accuracy to determine the +north even when the north star can not be seen. In tropical latitudes, +the zodiacal stars, such as Orion and Antares, give the east and west +bearing, and the Southern Cross the north and south when Polaris and +the Great Bear can not be seen. + +It is said that the moss upon the firs and other trees in Europe gives +a certain indication of the points of compass in a forest country, the +greatest amount accumulating upon the north side of the trees. But I +have often observed the trees in our own forests, and have not been +able to form any positive conclusions in this way. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Guides and Hunters. Delawares and Shawnees. Khebirs. Black Beaver. +Anecdotes. Domestic Troubles. Lodges. Similarity of Prairie Tribes to +the Arabs. Method of making War. Tracking and pursuing Indians. Method +of attacking them. Telegraphing by Smokes. + + +DELAWARES AND SHAWNEES. + +It is highly important that parties making expeditions through an +unexplored country should secure the services of the best guides and +hunters, and I know of none who are superior to the Delawares and +Shawnee Indians. They have been with me upon several different +occasions, and I have invariably found them intelligent, brave, +reliable, and in every respect well qualified to fill their positions. +They are endowed with those keen and wonderful powers in woodcraft +which can only be acquired by instinct, practice, and necessity, and +which are possessed by no other people that I have heard of, unless it +be the khebirs or guides who escort the caravans across the great +desert of Sahara. + +General E. Dumas, in his treatise upon the "Great Desert," published in +Paris, 1856, in speaking of these guides, says: + +"The khebir is always a man of intelligence, of tried probity, bravery, +and skill. He knows how to determine his position from the appearance +of the stars; by the experience of other journeys he has learned all +about the roads, wells, and pastures; the dangers of certain passes, +and the means of avoiding them; all the chiefs whose territories it is +necessary to pass through; the salubrity of the different localities; +the remedies against diseases; the treatment of fractures, and the +antidotes to the venom of snakes and scorpions. + +"In these vast solitudes, where nothing seems to indicate the route, +where the wind covers up all traces of the track with sand, the khebir +has a thousand ways of directing himself in the right course. In the +night, when there are no stars in sight, by the simple inspection of a +handful of grass, which he examines with his fingers, which he smells +and tastes, he informs himself of his locale without ever being lost or +wandering. + +"I saw with astonishment that our conductor, although he had but one +eye, and that defective, recognized perfectly the route; and Leon, the +African, states that the conductor of his caravan became blind upon the +journey from ophthalmia, yet by feeling the grass and sand he could +tell when we were approaching an inhabited place. + +"Our guide had all the qualities which make a good khebir. He was +young, large, and strong; he was a master of arms; his eye commanded +respect, and his speech won the heart. But if in the tent he was +affable and winning, once _en route_ he spoke only when it was +necessary, and never smiled." + +The Delawares are but a minute remnant of the great Algonquin family, +whose early traditions declare them to be the parent stock from which +the other numerous branches of the Algonquin tribes originated. And +they are the same people whom the first white settlers found so +numerous upon the banks of the Delaware. + +When William Penn held his council with the Delawares upon the ground +where the city of Philadelphia now stands, they were as peaceful and +unwarlike in their habits as the Quakers themselves. They had been +subjugated by the Five Nations, forced to take the appellation of +squaws, and forego the use of arms; but after they moved west, beyond +the influence of their former masters, their naturally independent +spirit revived, they soon regained their lofty position as braves and +warriors, and the male squaws of the Iroquois soon became formidable +men and heroes, and so have continued to the present day. Their +war-path has reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean on the west, +Hudson's Bay on the north, and into the very heart of Mexico on the +south. + +They are not clannish in their dispositions like most other Indians, +nor by their habits confined to any given locality, but are found as +traders, trappers, or hunters among most of the Indian tribes +inhabiting our continent. I even saw them living with the Mormons in +Utah. They are among the Indians as the Jews among the whites, +essentially wanderers. + +The Shawnees have been associated with the Delawares 185 years. They +intermarry and live as one people. Their present places of abode are +upon the Missouri River, near Fort Leavenworth, and in the Choctaw +Territory, upon the Canadian River, near Fort Arbuckle. They are +familiar with many of the habits and customs of their pale-faced +neighbors, and some of them speak the English language, yet many of +their native characteristics tenaciously cling to them. + +Upon one occasion I endeavored to teach a Delaware the use of the +compass. He seemed much interested in its mechanism, and very +attentively observed the oscillations of the needle. He would move away +a short distance, then return, keeping his eyes continually fixed upon +the needle and the uniform position into which it settled. He did not, +however, seem to comprehend it in the least, but regarded the entire +proceeding as a species of necromantic performance got up for his +especial benefit, and I was about putting away the instrument when he +motioned me to stop, and came walking toward it with a very serious but +incredulous countenance, remarking, as he pointed his finger toward it, +"Maybe so he tell lie sometime." + +The ignorance evinced by this Indian regarding the uses of the compass +is less remarkable than that of some white men who are occasionally met +upon the frontier. + +While surveying Indian lands in the wilds of Western Texas during the +summer of 1854, I encountered a deputy surveyor traveling on foot, with +his compass and chain upon his back. I saluted him very politely, +remarking that I presumed he was a surveyor, to which he replied, "I +reckon, _stranger_, I ar that thar individoal." + +I had taken the magnetic variation several times, always with nearly +the same results (about 10° 20'); but, in order to verify my +observations, I was curious to learn how they accorded with his own +working, and accordingly inquired of him what he made the variation of +the compass in that particular locality. He seemed struck with +astonishment, took his compass from his back and laid it upon a log +near by, then facing me, and pointing with his hand toward it, said, + +"Straanger, do yer see that thar instru-_ment_?" to which I replied in +the affirmative. He continued, + +"I've owned her well-nigh goin on twenty year. I've put her through the +perarries and through the timber, and now look yeer, straanger, you can +just bet your life on't she never _var_-ried arry time, and if you'll +just follow her sign you'll knock the centre outer the north star. She +never lies, she don't." + +He seemed to consider my interrogatory as a direct insinuation that his +compass was an imperfect one, and hence his indignation. Thinking that +I should not get any very important intelligence concerning the +variation of the needle from this surveyor, I begged his pardon for +questioning the accuracy of his instru-_ment_, bid him good-morning, +and continued on my journey. + + +BLACK BEAVER. + +In 1849 I met with a very interesting specimen of the Delaware tribe +whose name was Black Beaver. He had for ten years been in the employ of +the American Fur Company, and during this time had visited nearly every +point of interest within the limits of our unsettled territory. He had +set his traps and spread his blanket upon the head waters of the +Missouri and Columbia; and his wanderings had led him south to the +Colorado and Gila, and thence to the shores of the Pacific in Southern +California. His life had been that of a veritable cosmopolite, filled +with scenes of intense and startling interest, bold and reckless +adventure. He was with me two seasons in the capacity of guide, and I +always found him perfectly reliable, brave, and competent. His +reputation as a resolute, determined, and fearless warrior did not +admit of question, yet I have never seen a man who wore his laurels +with less vanity. + +When I first made his acquaintance I was puzzled to know what to think +of him. He would often, in speaking of the Prairie Indians, say to me, + +"Captain, if you have a fight, you mustn't count much on me, for I'ze a +big coward. When the fight begins I 'spect you'll see me run under the +cannon; Injun mighty 'fraid of big gun." + +I expressed my surprise that he should, if what he told me was true, +have gained such a reputation as a warrior; whereupon he informed me +that many years previous, when he was a young man, and before he had +ever been in battle, he, with about twenty white men and four +Delawares, were at one of the Fur Company's trading-posts upon the +Upper Missouri, engaged in trapping beaver. While there, the stockade +fort was attacked by a numerous band of Blackfeet Indians, who fought +bravely, and seemed determined to annihilate the little band that +defended it. + +After the investment had been completed, and there appeared no +probability of the attacking party's abandoning their purpose, "One +d----d fool Delaware" (as Black Beaver expressed it) proposed to his +countrymen to make a sortie, and thereby endeavor to effect an +impression upon the Blackfeet. This, Beaver said, was the last thing he +would ever have thought of suggesting, and it startled him +prodigiously, causing him to tremble so much that it was with +difficulty he could stand. + +He had, however, started from home with the fixed purpose of becoming a +distinguished brave, and made a great effort to stifle his emotion. He +assumed an air of determination, saying that was the very idea he was +just about to propose; and, slapping his comrades upon the back, +started toward the gate, telling them to follow. As soon as the gate +was passed, he says, he took particular care to keep in the rear of the +others, so that, in the event of a retreat, he would be able to reach +the stockade first. + +They had not proceeded far before a perfect shower of arrows came +falling around them on all sides, but, fortunately, without doing them +harm. Not fancying this hot reception, those in front proposed an +immediate retreat, to which he most gladly acceded, and at once set off +at his utmost speed, expecting to reach the fort first. But he soon +discovered that his comrades were more fleet, and were rapidly passing +and leaving him behind. Suddenly he stopped and called out to them, +"Come back here, you cowards, you squaws; what for you run away and +leave brave man to fight alone?" This taunting appeal to their courage +turned them back, and, with their united efforts, they succeeded in +beating off the enemy immediately around them, securing their entrance +into the fort. + +Beaver says when the gate was closed the captain in charge of the +establishment grasped him warmly by the hand, saying, "Black Beaver, +you are a brave man; you have done this day what no other man in the +fort would have the courage to do, and I thank you from the bottom of +my heart." + +In relating the circumstance to me he laughed most heartily, thinking +it a very good joke, and said after that he was regarded as a brave +warrior. + +The truth is, my friend Beaver was one of those few heroes who never +sounded his own trumpet; yet no one that knows him ever presumed to +question his courage. + +At another time, while Black Beaver remained upon the head waters of +the Missouri, he was left in charge of a "_caché_" consisting of a +quantity of goods buried to prevent their being stolen by the Indians. +During the time he was engaged upon this duty he amused himself by +hunting in the vicinity, only visiting his charge once a day. As he was +making one of these periodical visits, and had arrived upon the summit +of a hill overlooking the locality, he suddenly discovered a large +number of hostile Blackfeet occupying it, and he supposed they had +appropriated all the goods. As soon as they espied him, they beckoned +for him to come down and have a friendly chat with them. + +Knowing that their purpose was to beguile him into their power, he +replied that he did not feel in a talking humor just at that time, and +started off in another direction, whereupon they hallooed after him, +making use of the most insulting language and gestures, and asking him +if he considered himself a man thus to run away from his friends, and +intimating that, in their opinion, he was an old woman, who had better +go home and take care of the children. + +Beaver says this roused his indignation to such a pitch that he +stopped, turned around, and replied, "Maybe so; s'pose three or four of +you Injuns come up here alone, I'll show you if I'ze old womans." They +did not, however, accept the challenge, and Beaver rode off. + +Although the Delawares generally seem quite happy in their social +relations, yet they are not altogether exempt from some of those minor +discords which occasionally creep in and mar the domestic harmony of +their more civilized pale-faced brethren. + +I remember, upon one occasion, I had bivouacked for the night with +Black Beaver, and he had been endeavoring to while away the long hours +of the evening by relating to me some of the most thrilling incidents +of his highly-adventurous and erratic life, when at length a hiatus in +the conversation gave me an opportunity of asking him if he was a +married man. He hesitated for some time; then looking up and giving his +forefinger a twirl, to imitate the throwing of a lasso, replied, "One +time me catch 'um wife. I pay that woman, _his modder_, one hoss--one +saddle--one bridle--two plug tobacco, and plenty goods. I take him home +to my house--got plenty meat--plenty corn--plenty every thing. One time +me go take walk, maybe so three, maybe so two hours. When I come home, +that woman he say, 'Black Beaver, what for you go way long time?' I +say, 'I not go nowhere; I just take one littel walk.' Then that woman +he get heap mad, and say, 'No, Black Beaver, you not take no littel +walk. I know what for you go way; _you go see nodder one woman_.' I +say, 'Maybe not.' Then that woman she cry long time, and all e'time now +she mad. You never seen 'Merican woman that a-way?" + +I sympathized most deeply with my friend in his distress, and told him +for his consolation that, in my opinion, the women of his nation were +not peculiar in this respect; that they were pretty much alike all +over the world, and I was under the impression that there were +well-authenticated instances even among white women where they had +subjected themselves to the same causes of complaint so feelingly +depicted by him. Whereupon he very earnestly asked, "What you do for +cure him? Whip him?" I replied, "No; that, so far as my observation +extended, I was under the impression that this was generally regarded +by those who had suffered from its effects as one of those chronic and +vexatious complaints which would not be benefited by the treatment he +suggested, even when administered in homoeopathic doses, and I believed +it was now admitted by all sensible men that it was better in all such +cases to let nature take its course, trusting to a merciful +Providence." + +At this reply his countenance assumed a dejected expression, but at +length he brightened up again and triumphantly remarked, "I tell you, +my friend, what I do; I ketch 'um nodder one wife when I go home." + +Black Beaver had visited St. Louis and the small towns upon the +Missouri frontier, and he prided himself not a little upon his +acquaintance with the customs of the whites, and never seemed more +happy than when an opportunity offered to display this knowledge in +presence of his Indian companions. It so happened, upon one occasion, +that I had a Comanche guide who bivouacked at the same fire with +Beaver. On visiting them one evening according to my usual practice, I +found them engaged in a very earnest and apparently not very amicable +conversation. On inquiring the cause of this, Beaver answered, + +"I've been telling this Comanche what I seen 'mong the white folks." + +I said, "Well, Beaver, what did you tell him?" + +"I tell him 'bout the steam-boats, and the railroads, and the heap o' +houses I seen in St. Louis." + +"Well, sir, what does he think of that?" + +"He say I'ze d----d fool." + +"What else did you tell him about?" + +"I tell him the world is round, but he keep all e'time say, Hush, you +fool! do you spose I'ze child? Haven't I got eyes? Can't I see the +prairie? You call him round? He say, too, maybe so I tell you something +you not know before. One time my grandfather he make long journey that +way (pointing to the west). When he get on big mountain, he seen heap +water on t'other side, jest so flat he can be, and he seen the sun go +right straight down on t'other side. I then tell him all these rivers +he seen, all e'time the water he run; s'pose the world flat the water +he stand still. Maybe so he not b'lieve me?" + +I told him it certainly looked very much like it. I then asked him to +explain to the Comanche the magnetic telegraph. He looked at me +earnestly, and said, + +"What you call that magnetic telegraph?" + +I said, "you have heard of New York and New Orleans?" + +"Oh yes," he replied. + +"Very well; we have a wire connecting these two cities, which are about +a thousand miles apart, and it would take a man thirty days to ride it +upon a good horse. Now a man stands at one end of this wire in New +York, and by touching it a few times he inquires of his friend in New +Orleans what he had for breakfast. His friend in New Orleans touches +the other end of the wire, and in ten minutes the answer comes +back--ham and eggs. Tell him that, Beaver." + +His countenance assumed a most comical expression, but he made no +remark until I again requested him to repeat what I had said to the +Comanche, when he observed, + +"No, captain, I not tell him that, for I don't b'lieve that myself." + +Upon my assuring him that such was the fact, and that I had seen it +myself, he said, + +"Injun not very smart; sometimes he's big fool, but he holler pretty +loud; you hear him maybe half a mile; you say 'Merican man he talk +thousand miles. I 'spect you try to fool me now, captain; _maybe so +you lie_." + +The Indians living between the outer white settlements and the nomadic +tribes of the Plains form intermediate social links in the chain of +civilization. + +The first of these occupy permanent habitations, but the others, +although they cultivate the soil, are only resident while their crops +are growing, going out into the prairies after harvest to spend the +winter in hunting. Among the former may be mentioned the Cherokees, +Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, and of the latter are the Delawares, +Shawnees, Kickapoos, etc., who are perfectly familiar with the use of +the rifle, and, in my judgment, would make as formidable partisan +warriors as can be found in the universe. + + +THE WILD TRIBES OF THE WEST. + +These are very different in their habits from the natives that formerly +occupied the country bordering upon the Atlantic coast. The latter +lived permanently in villages, where they cultivated the soil, and +never wandered very far from them. They did not use horses, but always +made their war expeditions on foot, and never came into action unless +they could screen themselves behind the cover of trees. They inflicted +the most inhuman tortures upon their prisoners, but did not, that I am +aware, violate the chastity of women. + +The prairie tribes have no permanent abiding places; they never plant a +seed, but roam for hundreds of miles in every direction over the +Plains. They are perfect horsemen, and seldom go to war on foot. Their +attacks are made in the open prairies, and when unhorsed they are +powerless. They do not, like the eastern Indians, inflict upon their +prisoners prolonged tortures, but invariably subject all females that +have the misfortune to fall into their merciless clutches to an ordeal +worse than death. + +It is highly important to every man passing through a country +frequented by Indians to know some of their habits, customs, and +propensities, as this will facilitate his intercourse with friendly +tribes, and enable him, when he wishes to avoid a conflict, to take +precautions against coming in collision with those who are hostile. + +Almost every tribe has its own way of constructing its lodges, +encamping, making fires, its own style of dress, by some of which +peculiarities the experienced frontiersman can generally distinguish +them. + +The Osages, for example, make their lodges in the shape of a wagon-top, +of bent rods or willows covered with skins, blankets, or the bark of +trees. + +The Kickapoo lodges are made in an oval form, something like a rounded +hay-stack, of poles set in the ground, bent over, and united at top; +this is covered with cloths or bark. + +The Witchetaws, Wacos, Towackanies, and Tonkowas erect their hunting +lodges of sticks put up in the form of the frustum of a cone and +covered with brush. + +All these tribes leave the frame-work of their lodges standing when +they move from camp to camp, and this, of course, indicates the +particular tribe that erected them. + +The Delawares and Shawnees plant two upright forked poles, place a +stick across them, and stretch a canvas covering over it, in the same +manner as with the "_tente d'abri_." + +The Sioux, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Utés, Snakes, Blackfeet, and Kioways +make use of the Comanche lodge, covered with dressed buffalo hides. + +All the Prairie Indians I have met with are the most inveterate +beggars. They will flock around strangers, and, in the most importunate +manner, ask for every thing they see, especially tobacco and sugar; +and, if allowed, they will handle, examine, and occasionally pilfer +such things as happen to take their fancy. The proper way to treat them +is to give them at once such articles as are to be disposed of, and +then, in a firm and decided manner, let them understand that they are +to receive nothing else. + +A party of Keechis once visited my camp with their principal chief, who +said he had some important business to discuss, and demanded a council +with the _capitan_. After consent had been given, he assembled his +principal men, and, going through the usual preliminary of taking a +_big smoke_, he arose, and with a great deal of ceremony commenced +his pompous and flowery speech, which, like all others of a similar +character, amounted to nothing, until he touched upon the real object +of his visit. He said he had traveled a long distance over the prairies +to see and have a talk with his white brothers; that his people were +very hungry and naked. He then approached me with six small sticks, +and, after shaking hands, laid one of the sticks in my hand, which he +said represented sugar, another signified tobacco, and the other four, +pork, flour, whisky, and blankets, all of which he assured me his +people were in great need of, and must have. His talk was then +concluded, and he sat down, apparently much gratified with the graceful +and impressive manner with which he had executed his part of the +performance. + +It then devolved upon me to respond to the brilliant effort of the +prairie orator, which I did in something like the following manner. +After imitating his style for a short time, I closed my remarks by +telling him that we were poor infantry soldiers, who were always +obliged to go on foot; that we had become very tired of walking, and +would like very much to ride. Furthermore, I had observed that they had +among them many fine horses and mules. I then took two small sticks, +and imitating as nearly as possible the manner of the chief, placed one +in his hand, which I told him was nothing more or less than a +first-rate horse, and then the other, which signified a good large +mule. I closed by saying that I was ready to exchange presents whenever +it suited his convenience. + +They looked at each other for some time without speaking, but finally +got up and walked away, and I was not troubled with them again. + + +INDIAN FIGHTING. + +The military system, as taught and practiced in our army up to the time +of the Mexican war, was, without doubt, efficient and well adapted to +the art of war among civilized nations. This system was designed for +the operations of armies acting in populated districts, furnishing +ample resources, and against an enemy who was tangible, and made use of +a similar system. + +The vast expanse of desert territory that has been annexed to our +domain within the last few years is peopled by numerous tribes of +marauding and erratic savages, who are mounted upon fleet and hardy +horses, making war the business and pastime of their lives, and +acknowledging none of the ameliorating conventionalities of civilized +warfare. Their tactics are such as to render the old system almost +wholly impotent. + +To act against an enemy who is here to-day and there to-morrow; who at +one time stampedes a herd of mules upon the head waters of the +Arkansas, and when next heard from is in the very heart of the +populated districts of Mexico, laying waste haciendas, and carrying +devastation, rapine, and murder in his steps; who is every where +without being any where; who assembles at the moment of combat, and +vanishes whenever fortune turns against him; who leaves his women and +children far distant from the theatre of hostilities, and has neither +towns or magazines to defend, nor lines of retreat to cover; who +derives his commissariat from the country he operates in, and is not +encumbered with baggage-wagons or pack-trains; who comes into action +only when it suits his purposes, and never without the advantage of +numbers or position--with such an enemy the strategic science of +civilized nations loses much of its importance, and finds but rarely, +and only in peculiar localities, an opportunity to be put in practice. + +Our little army, scattered as it has been over the vast area of our +possessions, in small garrisons of one or two companies each, has +seldom been in a situation to act successfully on the offensive against +large numbers of these marauders, and has often been condemned to hold +itself almost exclusively upon the defensive. The morale of the troops +must thereby necessarily be seriously impaired, and the confidence of +the savages correspondingly augmented. The system of small garrisons +has a tendency to disorganize the troops in proportion as they are +scattered, and renders them correspondingly inefficient. The same +results have been observed by the French army in Algeria, where, in +1845, their troops were, like ours, disseminated over a vast space, and +broken up into small detachments stationed in numerous intrenched +posts. Upon the sudden appearance of Abd el Kader in the plain of +Mitidja, they were defeated with serious losses, and were from day to +day obliged to abandon these useless stations, with all the supplies +they contained. A French writer, in discussing this subject, says: + +"We have now abandoned the fatal idea of defending Algeria by small +intrenched posts. In studying the character of the war, the nature of +the men who are to oppose us, and of the country in which we are to +operate, we must be convinced of the danger of admitting any other +system of fortification than that which is to receive our grand depôts, +our magazines, and to serve as places to recruit and rest our troops +when exhausted by long expeditionary movements. + +"These fortifications should be established in the midst of the centres +of action, so as to command the principal routes, and serve as pivots +to expeditionary columns. + +"We owe our success to a system of war which has its proofs in twice +changing our relations with the Arabs. This system consists altogether +in the great mobility we have given to our troops. Instead of +disseminating our soldiers with the vain hope of protecting our +frontiers with a line of small posts, we have concentrated them, to +have them at all times ready for emergencies, and since then the +fortune of the Arabs has waned, and we have marched from victory to +victory. + +"This system, which has thus far succeeded, ought to succeed always, +and to conduct us, God willing, to the peaceful possession of the +country." + + * * * * * + +In reading a treatise upon war as it is practiced by the French in +Algeria, by Colonel A. Laure, of the 2d Algerine Tirailleurs, published +in Paris in 1858, I was struck with the remarkable similarity between +the habits of the Arabs and those of the wandering tribes that inhabit +our Western prairies. Their manner of making war is almost precisely +the same, and a successful system of strategic operations for one will, +in my opinion, apply to the other. + +As the Turks have been more successful than the French in their +military operations against the Arab tribes, it may not be altogether +uninteresting to inquire by what means these inferior soldiers have +accomplished the best results. + +The author above mentioned, in speaking upon this subject, says: + +"In these latter days the world is occupied with the organization of +mounted infantry, according to the example of the Turks, where, in the +most successful experiments that have been made, the mule carries the +foot-soldier. + +"The Turkish soldier mounts his mule, puts his provisions upon one side +and his accoutrements upon the other, and, thus equipped, sets out upon +long marches, traveling day and night, and only reposing occasionally +in bivouac. Arrived near the place of operations (as near the break of +day as possible), the Turks dismount in the most profound silence, and +pass in succession the bridle of one mule through that of another in +such a manner that a single man is sufficient to hold forty or fifty of +them by retaining the last bridle, which secures all the others; they +then examine their arms, and are ready to commence their work. The +chief gives his last orders, posts his guides, and they make the +attack, surprise the enemy, generally asleep, and carry the position +without resistance. The operation terminated, they hasten to beat a +retreat, to prevent the neighboring tribes from assembling, and thus +avoid a combat. + +"The Turks had only three thousand mounted men and ten thousand +infantry in Algeria, yet these thirteen thousand men sufficed to +conquer the same obstacles which have arrested us for twenty-six years, +notwithstanding the advantage we had of an army which was successively +re-enforced until it amounted to a hundred thousand. + +"Why not imitate the Turks, then, mount our infantry upon mules, and +reduce the strength of our army? + +"The response is very simple: + +"The Turks are Turks--that is to say, Mussulmans--and indigenous to the +country; the Turks speak the Arabic language; the Deys of Algiers had +less country to guard than we, and they care very little about +retaining possession of it. They are satisfied to receive a part of its +revenues. They were not permanent; their dominion was held by a thread. +The Arab dwells in tents; his magazines are in caves. When he starts +upon a war expedition, he folds his tent, drives far away his beasts of +burden, which transport his effects, and only carries with him his +horse and arms. Thus equipped, he goes every where; nothing arrests +him; and often, when we believe him twenty leagues distant, he is in +ambush at precisely rifle range from the flanks of his enemy. + +"It may be thought the union of contingents might retard their +movements, but this is not so. The Arabs, whether they number ten or a +hundred thousand, move with equal facility. They go where they wish and +as they wish upon a campaign; the place of rendezvous merely is +indicated, and they arrive there. + +"What calculations can be made against such an organization as this? + +"Strategy evidently loses its advantages against such enemies; a +general can only make conjectures; he marches to find the Arabs, and +finds them not; then, again, when he least expects it, he suddenly +encounters them. + +"When the Arab despairs of success in battle, he places his sole +reliance upon the speed of his horse to escape destruction; and as he +is always in a country where he can make his camp beside a little +water, he travels until he has placed a safe distance between himself +and his enemy." + + * * * * * + +No people probably on the face of the earth are more ambitious of +martial fame, or entertain a higher appreciation for the deeds of a +daring and successful warrior, than the North American savages. The +attainment of such reputation is the paramount and absorbing object of +their lives; all their aspirations for distinction invariably take this +channel of expression. A young man is never considered worthy to occupy +a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in battle; and he +who can count the greatest number of scalps is the most highly honored +by his tribe. This idea is inculcated from their earliest infancy. It +is not surprising, therefore, that, with such weighty inducements +before him, the young man who, as yet, has gained no renown as a brave +or warrior, should be less discriminate in his attacks than older men +who have already acquired a name. The young braves should, therefore, +be closely watched when encountered on the Plains. + +The prairie tribes are seldom at peace with all their neighbors, and +some of the young braves of a tribe are almost always absent upon a war +excursion. These forays sometimes extend into the heart of the northern +states of Mexico, where the Indians have carried on successful +invasions for many years. They have devastated and depopulated a great +portion of Sonora and Chihuahua. The objects of these forays are to +steal horses and mules, and to take prisoners; and if it so happens +that a war-party has been unsuccessful in the accomplishment of these +ends, or has had the misfortune to lose some of its number in battle, +they become reckless, and will often attack a small party with whom +they are not at war, provided they hope to escape detection. The +disgrace attendant upon a return to their friends without some trophies +as an offset to the loss of their comrades is a powerful incentive to +action, and they extend but little mercy to defenseless travelers who +have the misfortune to encounter them at such a conjuncture. + +While en route from New Mexico to Arkansas in 1849 I was encamped near +the head of the Colorado River, and wishing to know the character of +the country for a few miles in advance of our position, I desired an +officer to go out and make the reconnoissance. I was lying sick in my +bed at the time, or I should have performed the duty myself. I expected +the officer would have taken an escort with him, but he omitted to do +so, and started off alone. After proceeding a short distance he +discovered four mounted Indians coming at full speed directly toward +him, when, instead of turning his own horse toward camp, and +endeavoring to make his escape (he was well mounted), or of halting and +assuming a defensive attitude, he deliberately rode up to them; after +which the tracks indicated that they proceeded about three miles +together, when the Indians most brutally killed and scalped my most +unfortunate but too credulous friend, who might probably have saved his +life had he not, in the kindness of his excellent heart, imagined that +the savages would reciprocate his friendly advances. He was most +woefully mistaken, and his life paid the forfeit of his generous and +noble disposition. + +I have never been able to get any positive information as to the +persons who committed this murder, yet circumstances render it highly +probable that they were a party of young Indians who were returning +from an unsuccessful foray, and they were unable to resist the +temptation of taking the scalp and horse of the lieutenant. + +A small number of white men, in traveling upon the Plains, should not +allow a party of strange Indians to approach them unless able to resist +an attack under the most unfavorable circumstances. + +It is a safe rule, when a man finds himself alone in the prairies, and +sees a party of Indians approaching, not to allow them to come near +him, and if they persist in so doing, to signal them to keep away. If +they do not obey, and he be mounted upon a fleet horse, he should make +for the nearest timber. If the Indians follow and press him too +closely, he should halt, turn around, and point his gun at the +foremost, which will often have the effect of turning them back, but he +should never draw trigger unless he finds that his life depends upon +the shot; for, as soon as his shot is delivered, his sole dependence, +unless he have time to reload, must be upon the speed of his horse. + +The Indians of the Plains, notwithstanding the encomiums that have been +heaped upon their brethren who formerly occupied the Eastern States for +their gratitude, have not, so far as I have observed, the most distant +conception of that sentiment. You may confer numberless benefits upon +them for years, and the more that is done for them the more they will +expect. They do not seem to comprehend the motive which dictates an act +of benevolence or charity, and they invariably attribute it to fear or +the expectation of reward. When they make a present, it is with a view +of getting more than its equivalent in return. + +I have never yet been able to discover that the Western wild tribes +possessed any of those attributes which among civilized nations are +regarded as virtues adorning the human character. They have yet to be +taught the first rudiments of civilization, and they are at this time +as far from any knowledge of Christianity, and as worthy subjects for +missionary enterprise, as the most untutored natives of the South Sea +Islands. + +[Illustration: KEEP AWAY!] + +The only way to make these merciless freebooters fear or respect the +authority of our government is, when they misbehave, first of all to +chastise them well by striking such a blow as will be felt for a long +time, and thus show them that we are superior to them in war. They will +then respect us much more than when their good-will is purchased with +presents. + +The opinion of a friend of mine, who has passed the last twenty-five +years of his life among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, +corroborates the opinions I have advanced upon this head, and although +I do not endorse all of his sentiments, yet many of them are deduced +from long and matured experience and critical observation. He says: + +"They are the most onsartainest varmints in all creation, and I reckon +tha'r not mor'n half human; for you never seed a human, arter you'd fed +and treated him to the best fixins in your lodge, jist turn round and +steal all your horses, or ary other thing he could lay his hands on. +No, not adzackly. He would feel kinder grateful, and ask you to spread +a blanket in his lodge ef you ever passed that a-way. But the Injun he +don't care shucks for you, and is ready to do you a heap of mischief as +soon as he quits your feed. No, Cap.," he continued, "it's not the +right way to give um presents to buy peace; but ef I war governor of +these yeer United States, I'll tell you what I'd do. I'd invite um all +to a big feast, and make b'lieve I wanted to have a big talk; and as +soon as I got um all together, I'd pitch in and sculp about half of um, +and then t'other half would be mighty glad to make a peace that would +stick. That's the way I'd make a treaty with the dog'ond, red-bellied +varmints; and as sure as you're born, Cap., that's the only way." + +I suggested to him the idea that there would be a lack of good faith +and honor in such a proceeding, and that it would be much more in +accordance with my notions of fair dealing to meet them openly in the +field, and there endeavor to punish them if they deserve it. To this he +replied, + +"Tain't no use to talk about honor with them, Cap.; they hain't got no +such thing in um; and they won't show fair fight, any way you can fix +it. Don't they kill and sculp a white man when-ar they get the better +on him? The mean varmints, they'll never behave themselves until you +give um a clean out and out licking. They can't onderstand white folks' +ways, and they won't learn um; and ef you treat um decently, they think +you ar afeard. You may depend on't, Cap., the only way to treat Injuns +is to thrash them well at first, then the balance will sorter take to +you and behave themselves." + +The wealth of the Prairie Indians consists almost exclusively in their +horses, of which they possess large numbers; and they are in the saddle +from infancy to old age. Horsemanship is with them, as with the Arab of +the Sahara, a necessary part of their education. The country they +occupy is unsuited to cultivation, and their only avocations are war, +rapine, and the chase. They have no fixed habitations, but move from +place to place with the seasons and the game. All their worldly effects +are transported in their migrations, and wherever their lodges are +pitched there is their home. They are strangers to all cares, creating +for themselves no artificial wants, and are perfectly happy and +contented so long as the buffalo is found within the limits of their +wanderings. Every man is a soldier, and they generally exhibit great +confidence in their own military prowess. + + +MEETING INDIANS. + +On approaching strangers these people put their horses at full speed, +and persons not familiar with their peculiarities and habits might +interpret this as an act of hostility; but it is their custom with +friends as well as enemies, and should not occasion groundless alarm. + +When a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near enough to +distinguish signals, all that is necessary in order to ascertain their +disposition is to raise the right hand with the palm in front, and +gradually push it forward and back several times. They all understand +this to be a command to halt, and if they are not hostile it will at +once be obeyed. + +After they have stopped the right hand is raised again as before, and +slowly moved to the right and left, which signifies "I do not know you. +Who are you?" As all the wild tribes have their peculiar pantomimic +signals by which they are known, they will then answer the inquiry by +giving their signal. If this should not be understood, they may be +asked if they are friends by raising both hands grasped in the manner +of shaking hands, or by locking the two fore-fingers firmly while the +hands are held up. If friendly, they will respond with the same signal; +but if enemies, they will probably disregard the command to halt, or +give the signal of anger by closing the hand, placing it against the +forehead, and turning it back and forth while in that position. + +The pantomimic vocabulary is understood by all the Prairie Indians, and +when oral communication is impracticable it constitutes the court or +general council language of the Plains. The signs are exceedingly +graceful and significant; and, what was a fact of much astonishment to +me, I discovered they were very nearly the same as those practiced by +the mutes in our deaf and dumb schools, and were comprehended by them +with perfect facility. + +The Comanche is represented by making with the hand a waving motion in +imitation of the crawling of a snake. + +The Cheyenne, or "Cut-arm," by drawing the hand across the arm, to +imitate cutting it with a knife. + +The Arapahoes, or "Smellers," by seizing the nose with the thumb and +fore-finger. + +The Sioux, or "Cut-throats," by drawing the hand across the throat. + +The Pawnees, or "Wolves," by placing a hand on each side of the +forehead, with two fingers pointing to the front, to represent the +narrow, sharp ears of the wolf. + +The Crows, by imitating the flapping of the bird's wings with the palms +of the hands. + +When Indians meet a party of strangers, and are disposed to be +friendly, the chiefs, after the usual salutations have been exchanged, +generally ride out and accompany the commander of the party some +distance, holding a friendly talk, and, at the same time, indulging +their curiosity by learning the news, etc. Phlegmatic and indifferent +as they appear to be, they are very inquisitive and observing, and, at +the same time, exceedingly circumspect and cautious about disclosing +their own purposes. + +They are always desirous of procuring, from whomsoever they meet, +testimonials of their good behavior, which they preserve with great +care, and exhibit upon all occasions to strangers as a guarantee of +future good conduct. + +On meeting with a chief of the Southern Comanches in 1849, after going +through the usual ceremony of embracing, and assuring me that he was +the best friend the Americans ever had among the Indians, he exhibited +numerous certificates from the different white men he had met with, +testifying to his friendly disposition. Among these was one that he +desired me to read with special attention, as he said he was of the +opinion that perhaps it might not be so complimentary in its character +as some of the others. It was in these words: + + "The bearer of this says he is a Comanche chief, named Senaco; + that he is the biggest Indian and best friend the whites ever + had; in fact, that he is a first-rate fellow; but I believe he + is a d----d rascal, _so look out for him_." + +I smiled on reading the paper, and, looking up, found the chief's eyes +intently fixed upon mine with an expression of the most earnest +inquiry. I told him the paper was not as good as it might be, whereupon +he destroyed it. + +Five years after this interview I met Senaco again near the same place. +He recognized me at once, and, much to my surprise, pronounced my name +quite distinctly. + +A circumstance which happened in my interview with this Indian shows +their character for diplomatic policy. + +I was about locating and surveying a reservation of land upon which the +government designed to establish the Comanches, and was desirous of +ascertaining whether they were disposed voluntarily to come into the +measure. In this connection, I stated to him that their Great Father, +the President, being anxious to improve their condition, was willing to +give them a permanent location, where they could cultivate the soil, +and, if they wished it, he would send white men to teach them the +rudiments of agriculture, supply them with farming utensils, and all +other requisites for living comfortably in their new homes. I then +desired him to consult with his people, and let me know what their +views were upon the subject. + +After talking a considerable time with his head men, he rose to reply, +and said, "He was very happy to learn that the President remembered his +poor red children in the Plains, and he was glad to see me again, and +hear from me that their Great Father was their friend; that he was also +very much gratified to meet his agent who was present, and that he +should remember with much satisfaction the agreeable interview we had +had upon that occasion." After delivering himself of numerous other +non-committal expressions of similar import, he closed his speech and +took his seat without making the slightest allusion to the subject in +question. + +On reminding him of this omission, and again demanding from him a +distinct and categorical answer, he, after a brief consultation with +his people, replied that his talk was made and concluded, and he did +not comprehend why it was that I wanted to open the subject anew. But, +as I continued to press him for an answer, he at length said, "You come +into our country and select a small patch of ground, around which you +run a line, and tell us the President will make us a present of this to +live upon, when every body knows that the whole of this entire country, +from the Red River to the Colorado, is now, and always has been, ours +from time immemorial. I suppose, however, if the President tells us to +confine ourselves to these narrow limits, we shall be forced to do so, +whether we desire it or not." + +He was evidently averse to the proposed change in their mode of life, +and has been at war ever since the establishment of the settlement. + +The mode of life of the nomadic tribes, owing to their unsettled and +warlike habits, is such as to render their condition one of constant +danger and apprehension. The security of their numerous animals from +the encroachments of their enemies and habitual liability to attacks +compels them to be at all times upon the alert. Even during profound +peace they guard their herds both night and day, while scouts are often +patrolling upon the surrounding heights to give notice of the approach +of strangers, and enable them to secure their animals and take a +defensive attitude. + +When one of these people conceives himself injured his thirst for +revenge is insatiable. Grave and dignified in his outward bearing, and +priding himself upon never exhibiting curiosity, joy, or anger, yet +when once roused he evinces the implacable dispositions of his race; +the affront is laid up and cherished in his breast, and nothing can +efface it from his mind until ample reparation is made. The insult must +be atoned for by presents, or be washed out with blood. + + +WAR EXPEDITIONS. + +When a chief desires to organize a war-party, he provides himself with +a long pole, attaches a red flag to the end of it, and trims the top +with eagle feathers. He then mounts his horse in his war-costume, and +rides around through the camp singing the war-song. Those who are +disposed to join the expedition mount their horses and fall into the +procession; after parading about for a time, all dismount, and the +war-dance is performed. This ceremony is continued from day to day +until a sufficient number of volunteers are found to accomplish the +objects desired, when they set out for the theatre of their intended +exploits. + +As they proceed upon their expedition, it sometimes happens that the +chief with whom it originated, and who invariably assumes the command, +becomes discouraged at not finding an opportunity of displaying his +warlike abilities, and abandons the enterprise; in which event, if +others of the party desire to proceed farther, they select another +leader and push on, and thus so long as any one of the party holds out. + +A war-party is sometimes absent for a great length of time, and for +days, weeks, and months their friends at home anxiously await their +return, until, suddenly, from afar, the shrill war-cry of an _avant +courier_ is heard proclaiming the approach of the victorious warriors. +The camp is in an instant alive with excitement and commotion. Men, +women, and children swarm out to meet the advancing party. Their white +horses are painted and decked out in the most fantastic style, and led +in advance of the triumphal procession; and, as they pass around +through the village, the old women set up a most unearthly howl of +exultation, after which the scalp-dance is performed with all the pomp +and display their limited resources admit of, the warriors having their +faces painted black. + +When, on the other hand, the expedition terminates disastrously by the +loss of some of the party in battle, the relatives of the deceased cut +off their own hair, and the tails and manes of their horses, as symbols +of mourning, and howl and cry for a long time. + +In 1854 I saw the widow of a former chief of the Southern Comanches, +whose husband had been dead about three years, yet she continued her +mourning tribute to his memory by crying daily for him and refusing all +offers to marry again. + +The prairie warrior is occasionally seen with the rifle in his hand, +but his favorite arm is the bow, the use of which is taught him at an +early age. By constant practice he acquires a skill in archery that +renders him no less formidable in war than successful in the chase. +Their bows are usually made of the tough and elastic wood of the +"_bois d'are_," strengthened and re-enforced with sinews of the deer +wrapped firmly around, and strung with a cord of the same material. +They are from three to four feet long. The arrows, which are carried in +a quiver upon the back, are about twenty inches long, of flexible wood, +with a triangular iron point at one end, and at the other two feathers +intersecting at right angles. + +At short distances (about fifty yards), the bow, in the hands of the +Indian, is effective, and in close proximity with the buffalo throws +the arrow entirely through his huge carcass. In using this weapon the +warrior protects himself from the missiles of his enemy with a shield +made of two thicknesses of undressed buffalo hide filled in with hair. + +The Comanches, Sioux, and other prairie tribes make their attacks upon +the open prairies. Trusting to their wonderful skill in equitation and +horsemanship, they ride around their enemies with their bodies thrown +upon the opposite side of the horse, and discharge their arrows in +rapid succession while at full speed; they will not, however, often +venture near an enemy who occupies a defensive position. If, therefore, +a small party be in danger of an attack from a large force of Indians, +they should seek the cover of timber or a park of wagons, or, in the +absence of these, rocks or holes in the prairie which afford good +cover. + +Attempts to stampede animals are often made when parties first arrive +in camp, and when every one's attention is preoccupied in the +arrangements therewith connected. In a country infested by hostile +Indians, the ground in the vicinity of which it is proposed to encamp +should be cautiously examined for tracks and other Indian _signs_ +by making a circuit around the locality previous to unharnessing the +animals. + +After Indians have succeeded in stampeding a herd of horses or mules, +and desire to drive them away, they are in the habit of pushing them +forward as rapidly as possible for the first few days, in order to +place a wide interval between themselves and any party that may be in +pursuit. + +In running off stolen animals, the Indians are generally divided into +two parties, one for driving and the other to act as a rear guard. +Before they reach a place where they propose making a halt, they leave +a vidette upon some prominent point to watch for pursuers and give the +main party timely warning, enabling them to rally their animals and +push forward again. + + +TRACKING INDIANS. + +When an Indian sentinel intends to watch for an enemy approaching from +the rear, he selects the highest position available, and places himself +near the summit in such an attitude that his entire body shall be +concealed from the observation of any one in the rear, his head only +being exposed above the top of the eminence. Here he awaits with great +patience so long as he thinks there is any possibility of danger, and +it will be difficult for an enemy to surprise him or to elude his keen +and scrutinizing vigilance. Meanwhile his horse is secured under the +screen of the hill, all ready when required. Hence it will be evident +that, in following Indian depredators, the utmost vigilance and caution +must be exercised to conceal from them the movements of their pursuers. +They are the best scouts in the world, proficient in all the artifices +and stratagems available in border warfare, and when hotly pursued by a +superior force, after exhausting all other means of evasion, they +scatter in different directions; and if, in a broken or mountainous +country, they can do no better, abandon their horses and baggage, and +take refuge in the rocks, gorges, or other hiding-places. This plan has +several times been resorted to by Indians in Texas when surprised, and, +notwithstanding their pursuers were directly upon them, the majority +made their escape, leaving behind all their animals and other property. + +For overtaking a marauding party of Indians who have advanced eight or +ten hours before the pursuing party are in readiness to take the trail, +it is not best to push forward rapidly at first, as this will weary and +break down horses. The Indians must be supposed to have at least fifty +or sixty miles the start; it will, therefore, be useless to think of +overtaking them without providing for a long chase. Scouts should +continually be kept out in front upon the trail to reconnoitre and give +preconcerted signals to the main party when the Indians are espied. + +In approaching all eminences or undulations in the prairies, the +commander should be careful not to allow any considerable number of his +men to pass upon the summits until the country around has been +carefully reconnoitred by the scouts, who will cautiously raise their +eyes above the crests of the most elevated points, making a +scrutinizing examination in all directions; and, while doing this, +should an Indian be encountered who has been left behind as a sentinel, +he must, if possible, be secured or shot, to prevent his giving the +alarm to his comrades. These precautions can not be too rigidly +enforced when the trail becomes "warm;" and if there be a moon, it will +be better to lie by in the daytime and follow the trail at night, as +the great object is to come upon the Indians when they are not +anticipating an attack. Such surprises, if discreetly conducted; +generally prove successful. + +As soon as the Indians are discovered in their bivouac, the pursuing +party should dismount, leave their horses under charge of a guard in +some sequestered place, and, before advancing to the attack, the men +should be instructed in signals for their different movements, such as +all will easily comprehend and remember. As, for example, a pull upon +the right arm may signify to face to the right, and a pull upon the +left arm to face to the left; a pull upon the skirt of the coat, to +halt; a gentle push on the back, to advance in ordinary time; a slap on +the back, to advance in double quick time, etc., etc. + +These signals, having been previously well understood and practiced, +may be given by the commander to the man next to him, and from him +communicated in rapid succession throughout the command. + +I will suppose the party formed in one rank, with the commander on the +right. He gives the signal, and the men move off cautiously in the +direction indicated. The importance of not losing sight of his comrades +on his right and left, and of not allowing them to get out of his +reach, so as to break the chain of communication, will be apparent to +all, and great care should be taken that the men do not mistake their +brothers in arms for the enemy. This may be prevented by having two +_pass-words_, and when there be any doubt as to the identity of two +men who meet during the night operations, one of these words may be +repeated by each. Above all, the men must be fully impressed with the +importance of not firing a shot until the order is given by the +commanding officer, and also that a rigorous personal accountability +will be enforced in all cases of a violation of this rule. + +If the commander gives the signal for commencing the attack by firing a +pistol or gun, there will probably be no mistake, unless it happens +through carelessness by the accidental discharge of firearms. + +I can conceive of nothing more appalling, or that tends more to throw +men off their guard and produce confusion, than a sudden and unexpected +night-attack. Even the Indians, who pride themselves upon their +coolness and self-possession, are far from being exempt from its +effects; and it is not surprising that men who go to sleep with a sense +of perfect security around them, and are suddenly aroused from a sound +slumber by the terrific sounds of an onslaught from an enemy, should +lose their presence of mind. + + +TELEGRAPHING BY SMOKES. + +The transparency of the atmosphere upon the Plains is such that objects +can be seen at great distances; a mountain, for example, presents a +distinct and bold outline at fifty or sixty miles, and may occasionally +be seen as far as a hundred miles. + +The Indians, availing themselves of this fact, have been in the habit +of practicing a system of telegraphing by means of smokes during the +day and fires by night, and, I dare say, there are but few travelers +who have crossed the mountains to California that have not seen these +signals made and responded to from peak to peak in rapid succession. + +The Indians thus make known to their friends many items of information +highly important to them. If enemies or strangers make their appearance +in the country, the fact is telegraphed at once, giving them time to +secure their animals and to prepare for attack, defense, or flight. + +War or hunting parties, after having been absent a long time from their +erratic friends at home, and not knowing where to find them, make use +of the same preconcerted signals to indicate their presence. + +Very dense smokes may be raised by kindling a large fire with dry wood, +and piling upon it the green boughs of pine, balsam, or hemlock. This +throws off a heavy cloud of black smoke which can be seen very far. + +This simple method of telegraphing, so useful to the savages both in +war and in peace, may, in my judgment, be used to advantage in the +movements of troops co-operating in separate columns in the Indian +country. + +I shall not attempt at this time to present a matured system of +signals, but will merely give a few suggestions tending to illustrate +the advantages to be derived from the use of them. + +For example, when two columns are marching through a country at such +distances apart that smokes may be seen from one to the other, their +respective positions may be made known to each other at any time by two +smokes raised simultaneously or at certain preconcerted intervals. + +Should the commander of one column desire to communicate with the +other, he raises three smokes simultaneously, which, if seen by the +other party, should be responded to in the same manner. They would then +hold themselves in readiness for any other communications. + +If an enemy is discovered in small numbers, a smoke raised twice at +fifteen minutes' interval would indicate it; and if in large force, +three times with the same intervals might be the signal. + +Should the commander of one party desire the other to join him, this +might be telegraphed by four smokes at ten minutes' interval. + +Should it become necessary to change the direction of the line of +march, the commander may transmit the order by means of two +simultaneous smokes raised a certain number of times to indicate the +particular direction; for instance, twice for north, three times for +south, four times for east, and five times for west; three smokes +raised twice for northeast, three times for northwest, etc., etc. + +By multiplying the combinations of signals a great variety of messages +might be transmitted in this manner; but, to avoid mistakes, the +signals should be written down and copies furnished the commander of +each separate party, and they need not necessarily be made known to +other persons. + +During the day an intelligent man should be detailed to keep a vigilant +look-out in all directions for smokes, and he should be furnished with +a watch, pencil, and paper, to make a record of the signals, with their +number, and the time of the intervals between them. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Hunting. Its Benefits to the Soldier. Buffalo. Deer. Antelope. Bear. +Big-horn, or Mountain Sheep. Their Habits, and Hints upon the best +Methods of hunting them. + + +HUNTING. + +I know of no better school of practice for perfecting men in +target-firing, and the use of firearms generally, than that in which +the frontier hunter receives his education. One of the first and most +important lessons that he is taught impresses him with the conviction +that, unless his gun is in good order and steadily directed upon the +game, he must go without his supper; and if ambition does not stimulate +his efforts, his appetite will, and ultimately lead to success and +confidence in his own powers. + +The man who is afraid to place the butt of his piece firmly against his +shoulder, or who turns away his head at the instant of pulling trigger +(as soldiers often do before they have been drilled at target-practice), +will not be likely to bag much game or to contribute materially toward +the result of a battle. The successful hunter, as a general rule, is a +good shot, will always charge his gun properly, and may be relied upon +in action. I would, therefore, when in garrison or at permanent camps, +encourage officers and soldiers in field-sports. If permitted, men very +readily cultivate a fondness for these innocent and healthy exercises, +and occupy their leisure time in their pursuit; whereas, if confined to +the narrow limits of a frontier camp or garrison, having no amusements +within their reach, they are prone to indulge in practices which are +highly detrimental to their physical and moral condition. + +By making short excursions about the country they acquire a knowledge +of it, become inured to fatigue, learn the art of bivouacking, +trailing, etc., etc., all of which will be found serviceable in border +warfare; and, even if they should perchance now and then miss some of +the minor routine duties of the garrison, the benefits they would +derive from hunting would, in my opinion, more than counterbalance its +effects. Under the old regime it was thought that drills, +dress-parades, and guard-mountings comprehended the sum total of the +soldier's education, but the experience of the last ten years has +taught us that these are only the rudiments, and that to combat +successfully with Indians we must receive instruction from them, study +their tactics, and, where they suit our purposes, copy from them. + +The union of discipline with the individuality, self-reliance, and +rapidity of locomotion of the savage is what we should aim at. This +will be the tendency of the course indicated, and it is conceived by +the writer that an army composed of well-disciplined hunters will be +the most efficient of all others against the only enemy we have to +encounter within the limits of our vast possessions. + +I find some pertinent remarks upon this subject in a very sensible +essay by "a late captain of infantry" (U.S.). He says: + +"It is conceived that scattered bands of mounted hunters, with the +speed of a horse and the watchfulness of a wolf or antelope, whose +faculties are sharpened by their necessities; who, when they get short +of provisions, separate and look for something to eat, and find it in +the water, in the ground, or on the surface; whose bill of fare ranges +from grass-seed, nuts, roots, grasshoppers, lizards, and rattlesnakes +up to the antelope, deer, elk, bear, and buffalo, and who have a +continent to roam over, will be neither surprised, caught, conquered, +overawed, or reduced to famine by a rumbling, bugle-blowing, +drum-beating town passing through their country on wheels at the speed +of a loaded wagon. + +"If the Indians are in the path and do not wish to be seen, they cross +a ridge, and the town moves on, ignorant whether there are fifty +Indians within a mile or no Indian within fifty miles. If the Indians +wish to see, they return to the crest of the ridge, crawl up to the +edge, pull up a bunch of grass by the roots, and look through or under +it at the procession." + +Although I would always encourage men in hunting when permanently +located, yet, unless they are good woodsmen, it is not safe to permit +them to go out alone in marching through the Indian country, as, aside +from the danger of encountering Indians, they would be liable to become +bewildered and perhaps lost, and this might detain the entire party in +searching for them. The better plan upon a march is for three or four +to go out together, accompanied by a good woodsman, who will be able +with certainty to lead them back to camp. + +The little group could ascertain if Indians are about, and would be +strong enough to act on the defensive against small parties of them; +and, while they are amusing themselves, they may perform an important +part as scouts and flankers. + +An expedition may have been perfectly organized, and every thing +provided that the wisest forethought could suggest, yet circumstances +beyond the control of the most experienced traveler may sometimes arise +to defeat the best concerted plans. It is not, for example, an +impossible contingency that the traveler may, by unforeseen delays, +consume his provisions, lose them in crossing streams, or have them +stolen by hostile Indians, and be reduced to the necessity of depending +upon game for subsistence. Under these circumstances, a few +observations upon the habits of the different animals that frequent the +Plains and on the best methods of hunting them may not be altogether +devoid of interest or utility in this connection. + + +THE BUFFALO. + +The largest and most useful animal that roams over the prairies is the +buffalo. It provides food, clothing, and shelter to thousands of +natives whose means of livelihood depend almost exclusively upon this +gigantic monarch of the prairies. + +Not many years since they thronged in countless multitudes over all +that vast area lying between Mexico and the British possessions, but +now their range is confined within very narrow limits, and a few more +years will probably witness the extinction of the species. + +The traveler, in passing from Texas or Arkansas through southern New +Mexico to California, does not, at the present day, encounter the +buffalo; but upon all the routes north of latitude 36° the animal is +still found between the 99th and 102d meridians of longitude. + +Although generally regarded as migratory in their habits, yet the +buffalo often _winter_ in the snows of a high northern latitude. Early +in the spring of 1858 I found them in the Rocky Mountains, at the head +of the Arkansas and South Platte Rivers, and there was every indication +that this was a permanent abiding-place for them. + +There are two methods generally practiced in hunting the buffalo, viz.: +running them on horseback, and stalking, or still-hunting. The first +method requires a sure-footed and tolerably fleet horse that is not +easily frightened. The buffalo cow, which makes much better beef than +the bull, when pursued by the hunter runs rapidly, and, unless the +horse be fleet, it requires a long and exhausting chase to overtake +her. + +When the buffalo are discovered, and the hunter intends to give chase, +he should first dismount, arrange his saddle-blanket and saddle, buckle +the girth tight, and make every thing about his horse furniture snug +and secure. He should then put his arms in good firing order, and, +taking the lee side of the herd, so that they may not get "_the +wind_" of him, he should approach in a walk as close as possible, +taking advantage of any cover that may offer. His horse then, being +cool and fresh, will be able to dash into the herd, and probably carry +his rider very near the animal he has selected before he becomes +alarmed. + +If the hunter be right-handed, and uses a pistol, he should approach +upon the left side, and when nearly opposite and close upon the +buffalo, deliver his shot, taking aim a little below the centre of the +body, and about eight inches back of the shoulder. This will strike the +vitals, and generally render another shot unnecessary. + +When a rifle or shot-gun is used the hunter rides up on the right side, +keeping his horse well in hand, so as to be able to turn off if the +beast charges upon him; this, however, never happens except with a +buffalo that is wounded, when it is advisable to keep out of his reach. + +The buffalo has immense powers of endurance, and will run for many +miles without any apparent effort or diminution in speed. The first +buffalo I ever saw I followed about ten miles, and when I left him he +seemed to run faster than when the chase commenced. + +As a long buffalo-chase is very severe labor upon a horse, I would +recommend to all travelers, unless they have a good deal of surplus +horse-flesh, never to expend it in running buffalo. + +Still-hunting, which requires no consumption of horse-flesh, and is +equally successful with the other method, is recommended. In stalking +on horseback, the most broken and hilly localities should be selected, +as these will furnish cover to the hunter, who passes from the crest of +one hill to another, examining the country carefully in all directions. +When the game is discovered, if it happen to be on the lee side, the +hunter should endeavor, by making a wide detour, to get upon the +opposite side, as he will find it impossible to approach within rifle +range with the wind. + +When the animal is upon a hill, or in any other position where he can +not be approached without danger of disturbing him, the hunter should +wait until he moves off to more favorable ground, and this will not +generally require much time, as they wander about a great deal when not +grazing; he then pickets his horse, and approaches cautiously, seeking +to screen himself as much as possible by the undulations in the +surface, or behind such other objects as may present themselves; but if +the surface should offer no cover, he must crawl upon his hands and +knees when near the game, and in this way he can generally get within +rifle range. + +Should there be several animals together, and his first shot take +effect, the hunter can often get several other shots before they become +frightened. A Delaware Indian and myself once killed five buffaloes out +of a small herd before the remainder were so much disturbed as to move +away; although we were within the short distance of twenty yards, yet +the reports of our rifles did not frighten them in the least, and they +continued grazing during all the time we were loading and firing. + +The sense of smelling is exceedingly acute with the buffalo, and they +will take the wind from the hunter at as great a distance as a mile. + +When the animal is wounded, and stops, it is better not to go near him +until he lies down, as he will often run a great distance if disturbed; +but if left to himself, will in many cases die in a short time. + +The tongues, humps, and marrow-bones are regarded as the choice parts +of the animal. The tongue is taken out by ripping open the skin between +the prongs of the lower jaw-bone and pulling it out through the +orifice. The hump may be taken off by skinning down on each side of the +shoulders and cutting away the meat, after which the hump-ribs can be +unjointed where they unite with the spine. The marrow, when roasted in +the bones, is delicious. + + +THE DEER. + +Of all game quadrupeds indigenous to this continent, the common red +deer is probably more widely dispersed from north to south and from +east to west over our vast possessions than any other. They are found +in all latitudes from Hudson's Bay to Mexico, and they clamber over the +most elevated peaks of the western sierras with the same ease that they +range the eastern forests or the everglades of Florida. In summer they +crop the grass upon the summits of the Rocky Mountains, and in winter, +when the snow falls deep, they descend into sheltered valleys, where +they fall an easy prey to the Indians. + +Besides the common red deer of the Eastern States, two other varieties +are found in the Rocky Mountains, viz., the "black-tailed deer," which +takes its name from the fact of its having a small tuft of black hair +upon the end of its tail, and the _long-tailed_ species. The former of +these is considerably larger than the eastern deer, and is much darker, +being of a very deep-yellowish iron-gray, with a yellowish red upon the +belly. It frequents the mountains, and is never seen far away from +them. Its habits are similar to those of the red deer, and it is hunted +in the same way. The only difference I have been able to discern +between the long-tailed variety and the common deer is in the length of +the tail and body. I have seen this animal only in the neighborhood of +the Rocky Mountains, but it may resort to other localities. + +Although the deer are still abundant in many of our forest districts in +the east, and do not appear to decrease very rapidly, yet there has +within a few years been a very evident diminution in the numbers of +those frequenting our Western prairies. In passing through Southern +Texas in 1846, thousands of deer were met with daily, and, astonishing +as it may appear, it was no uncommon spectacle to see from one to two +hundred in a single herd; the prairies seemed literally alive with +them; but in 1855 it was seldom that a herd often was seen in the same +localities. It seemed to me that the vast herds first met with could +not have been killed off by the hunters in that sparsely-populated +section, and I was puzzled to know what had become of them. It is +possible they may have moved off into Mexico; they certainly are not in +our territory at the present time. + +Twenty years' experience in deer-hunting has taught me several facts +relative to the habits of the animal which, when well understood, will +be found of much service to the inexperienced hunter, and greatly +contribute to his success. The best target-shots are not necessarily +the most skillful deer-stalkers. One of the great secrets of this art +is in knowing how to approach the game without giving alarm, and this +can not easily be done unless the hunter sees it before he is himself +discovered. There are so many objects in the woods resembling the deer +in color that none but a practiced eye can often detect the difference. + +When the deer is reposing he generally turns his head from the wind, in +which position he can see an enemy approaching from that direction, and +his nose will apprise him of the presence of danger from the opposite +side. The best method of hunting deer, therefore, is _across the wind_. + +While the deer are feeding, early in the morning and a short time +before dark in the evening are the best times to stalk them, as they +are then busily occupied and less on the alert. When a deer is espied +with his head down, cropping the grass, the hunter advances cautiously, +keeping his eyes constantly directed upon him, and screening himself +behind intervening objects, or, in the absence of other cover, crawls +along upon his hands and knees in the grass, until the deer hears his +steps and raises his head, when he must instantly stop and remain in an +attitude fixed and motionless as a statue, for the animal's vision is +his keenest sense. When alarmed he will detect the slightest movement +of a small object, and, unless the hunter stands or lies perfectly +still, his presence will be detected. If the hunter does not move, the +deer will, after a short time, recover from his alarm and resume his +grazing, when he may be again approached. The deer always exhibits his +alarm by a sudden jerking of the tail just before he raises his head. + +I once saw a Delaware Indian walk directly up within rifle range of a +deer that was feeding upon the open prairie and shoot him down; he was, +however, a long time in approaching, and made frequent halts whenever +the animal flirted his tail and raised his head. Although he often +turned toward the hunter, yet he did not appear to notice him, probably +taking him for a stump or tree. + +When the deer are lying down in the smooth prairie, unless the grass is +tall, it is difficult to get near them, as they are generally looking +around, and become alarmed at the least noise. + +The Indians are in the habit of using a small instrument which imitates +the bleat of the young fawn, with which they lure the doe within range +of their rifles. The young fawn gives out no scent upon its track until +it is sufficiently grown to make good running, and instinct teaches the +mother that this wise provision of nature to preserve the helpless +little quadruped from the ravages of wolves, panthers, and other +carnivorous beasts, will be defeated if she remains with it, as her +tracks can not be concealed. She therefore hides her fawn in the grass, +where it is almost impossible to see it, even when very near it, goes +off to some neighboring thicket within call, and makes her bed alone. +The Indian pot-hunter, who is but little scrupulous as to the means he +employs in accomplishing his ends, sounds the bleat along near the +places where he thinks the game is lying, and the unsuspicious doe, who +imagines that her offspring is in distress, rushes with headlong +impetuosity toward the sound, and often goes within a few yards of the +hunter to receive her death-wound. + +This is cruel sport, and can only be justified when meat is scarce, +which is very frequently the case in the Indian's larder. + +It does not always comport with a man's feelings of security, +especially if he happens to be a little nervous, to sound the +deer-bleat in a wild region of country. I once undertook to experiment +with the instrument myself, and made my first essay in attempting to +call up an antelope which I discovered in the distance. I succeeded +admirably in luring the wary victim within shooting range, had raised +upon my knees, and was just in the act of pulling trigger, when a +rustling in the grass on my left drew my attention in that direction, +where, much to my surprise, I beheld a huge panther within about twenty +yards, bounding with gigantic strides directly toward me. I turned my +rifle, and in an instant, much to my relief and gratification, its +contents were lodged in the heart of the beast. + +Many men, when they suddenly encounter a deer, are seized with nervous +excitement, called in sporting parlance the "_buck fever_," which +causes them to fire at random. Notwithstanding I have had much +experience in hunting, I must confess that I am never entirely free +from some of the symptoms of this malady when firing at large game, and +I believe that in four out of five cases where I have missed the game +my balls have passed too high. I have endeavored to obviate this by +sighting my rifle low, and it has been attended with more successful +results. The same remarks apply to most other men I have met with. They +fire too high when excited. + + +THE ANTELOPE. + +This animal frequents the most elevated bleak and naked prairies in all +latitudes from Mexico to Oregon, and constitutes an important item of +subsistence with many of the Prairie Indians. It is the most wary, +timid, and fleet animal that inhabits the Plains. It is about the size +of a small deer, with a heavy coating of coarse, wiry hair, and its +flesh is more tender and juicy than that of the deer. It seldom enters +a timbered country, but seems to delight in cropping the grass from the +elevated swells of the prairies. When disturbed by the traveler, it +will circle around him with the speed of the wind, but does not stop +until it reaches some prominent position whence it can survey the +country on all sides, and nothing seems to escape its keen vision. They +will sometimes stand for a long time and look at a man, provided he +does not move or go out of sight; but if he goes behind a hill with the +intention of passing around and getting nearer to them, he will never +find them again in the same place. I have often tried the experiment, +and invariably found that, as soon as I went where the antelope could +not see me, he moved off. Their sense of hearing, as well as vision, is +very acute, which renders it difficult to stalk them. By taking +advantage of the cover afforded in broken ground, the hunter may, by +moving slowly and cautiously over the crests of the irregularities in +the surface, sometimes approach within rifle range. + +The antelope possesses a greater degree of curiosity than any other +animal I know of, and will often approach very near a strange object. +The experienced hunter, taking advantage of this peculiarity, lies down +and secretes himself in the grass, after which he raises his +handkerchief, hand, or foot, so as to attract the attention of the +animal, and thus often succeeds in beguiling him within shooting +distance. + +In some valleys near the Rocky Mountains, where the pasturage is good +during the winter season, they collect in immense herds. The Indians +are in the habit of surrounding them in such localities and running +them with their horses until they tire them out, when they slay large +numbers. + +[Illustration: CALLING UP ANTELOPES.] + +The antelope makes a track much shorter than the deer, very broad and +round at the heel, and quite sharp at the toe; a little experience +renders it easy to distinguish them. + + +THE BEAR. + +Besides the common black bear of the Eastern States, several others are +found in the mountains of California, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, +viz., the grizzly, brown, and cinnamon varieties; all have nearly the +same habits, and are hunted in the same manner. + +From all I had heard of the grizzly bear, I was induced to believe him +one of the most formidable and savage animals in the universe, and that +the man who would deliberately encounter and kill one of these beasts +had performed a signal feat of courage which entitled him to a lofty +position among the votaries of Nimrod. So firmly had I become impressed +with this conviction, that I should have been very reluctant to fire +upon one had I met him when alone and on foot. The grizzly bear is +assuredly the monarch of the American forests, and, so far as physical +strength is concerned, he is perhaps without a rival in the world; but, +after some experience in hunting, my opinions regarding his courage and +his willingness to attack men have very materially changed. + +In passing over the elevated table-lands lying between the two forks of +the Platte River in 1858, I encountered a full-grown female grizzly +bear, with two cubs, very quietly reposing upon the open prairie, +several miles distant from any timber. This being the first opportunity +that had ever occurred to me for an encounter with the ursine monster, +and being imbued with the most exalted notions of the beast's +proclivities for offensive warfare, especially when in the presence of +her offspring, it may very justly be imagined that I was rather more +excited than usual. I, however, determined to make the assault. I felt +the utmost confidence in my horse, as she was afraid of nothing; and, +after arranging every thing about my saddle and arms in good order, I +advanced to within about eighty yards before I was discovered by the +bear, when she raised upon her haunches and gave me a scrutinizing +examination. I seized this opportune moment to fire, but missed my aim, +and she started off, followed by her cubs at their utmost speed. After +reloading my rifle, I pursued, and, on coming again within range, +delivered another shot, which struck the large bear in the fleshy part +of the thigh, whereupon she set up a most distressing howl and +accelerated her pace, leaving her cubs behind. After loading again I +gave the spurs to my horse and resumed the chase, soon passing the +cubs, who were making the most plaintive cries of distress. They were +heard by the dam, but she gave no other heed to them than occasionally +to halt for an instant, turn around, sit up on her posteriors, and give +a hasty look back; but, as soon as she saw me following her, she +invariably turned again and redoubled her speed. I pursued about four +miles and fired four balls into her before I succeeded in bringing her +to the ground, and from the time I first saw her until her death-wound, +notwithstanding I was often very close upon her heels, she never came +to bay or made the slightest demonstration of resistance. Her sole +purpose seemed to be to make her escape, leaving her cubs in the most +cowardly manner. + +Upon three other different occasions I met the mountain bears, and once +the cinnamon species, which is called the most formidable of all, and +in none of these instances did they exhibit the slightest indication of +anger or resistance, but invariably ran from me. + +Such is my experience with this formidable monarch of the mountains. It +is possible that if a man came suddenly upon the beast in a thicket, +where it could have no previous warning, he might be attacked; but it +is my opinion that if the bear gets _the wind_ or sight of a man at +any considerable distance, it will endeavor to get away as soon as +possible. I am so fully impressed with this idea that I shall hereafter +hunt bear with a feeling of as much security as I would have in hunting +the buffalo. + +The grizzly, like the black bear, hybernates in winter, and makes his +appearance in the spring with his claws grown out long and very soft +and tender; he is then poor, and unfit for food. + +I have heard a very curious fact stated by several old mountaineers +regarding the mountain bears, which, of course, I can not vouch for, +but it is given by them with great apparent sincerity and candor. They +assert that no instance has ever been known of a female bear having +been killed in a state of pregnancy. This singular fact in the history +of the animal seems most inexplicable to me, unless she remain +concealed in her brumal slumber until after she has been delivered of +her cubs. + +I was told by an old Delaware Indian that when the bear has been +traveling against the wind and wishes to lie down, he always turns in +an opposite direction, and goes some distance away from his first track +before making his bed. If an enemy then comes upon his trail, his keen +sense of smell will apprise him of the danger. The same Indian +mentioned that when a bear had been pursued and sought shelter in a +cave, he had often endeavored to eject him with smoke, but that the +bear would advance to the mouth of the cave, where the fire was +burning, and put it out with his paws, then retreat into the cave +again. This would indicate that Bruin is endowed with some glimpses of +reason beyond the ordinary instincts of the brute creation in general, +and, indeed, is capable of discerning the connection between cause and +effect. Notwithstanding the extraordinary intelligence which this +quadruped exhibits upon some occasions, upon others he shows himself to +be one of the most stupid brutes imaginable. For example, when he has +taken possession of a cavern, and the courageous hunter enters with a +torch and rifle, it is said he will, instead of forcibly ejecting the +intruder, raise himself upon his haunches and cover his eyes with his +paws, so as to exclude the light, apparently thinking that in this +situation he can not be seen. The hunter can then approach as close as +he pleases and shoot him down. + + +THE BIG-HORN. + +The big-horn or mountain sheep, which has a body like the deer, with +the head of a sheep, surmounted by an enormous pair of short, heavy +horns, is found throughout the Rocky Mountains, and resorts to the most +inaccessible peaks and to the wildest and least-frequented glens. It +clambers over almost perpendicular cliffs with the greatest ease and +celerity, and skips from rock to rock, cropping the tender herbage that +grows upon them. + +It has been supposed by some that this animal leaps down from crag to +crag, lighting upon his horns, as an evidence of which it has been +advanced that the front part of the horns is often much battered. This +I believe to be erroneous, as it is very common to see horns that have +no bruises upon them. + +The old mountaineers say they have often seen the bucks engaged in +desperate encounters with their huge horns, which, in striking +together, made loud reports. This will account for the marks sometimes +seen upon them. + +The flesh of the big-horn, when fat, is more tender, juicy, and +delicious than that of any other animal I know of, but it is a _bon +bouche_ which will not grace the tables of our city epicures until a +railroad to the Rocky Mountains affords the means of transporting it to +a market a thousand miles distant from its haunts. + +In its habits the mountain sheep greatly resembles the chamois of +Switzerland, and it is hunted in the same manner. The hunter traverses +the most inaccessible and broken localities, moving along with great +caution, as the least unusual noise causes them to flit away like a +phantom, and they will be seen no more. The animal is gregarious, but +it is seldom that more than eight or ten are found in a flock. When not +grazing they seek the sheltered sides of the mountains, and repose +among the rocks. + +[Illustration: THE NEEDLES. Between Cayetano Mountains and the San +Juan River--Sierra de la Plata, or Silver Mountains, in the distance.] + + + + +ITINERARIES. + + + + +LIST OF ITINERARIES: + +SHOWING THE DISTANCES BETWEEN CAMPING-PLACES, THE CHARACTER OF THE +ROADS, AND THE FACILITIES FOR OBTAINING WOOD, WATER, AND GRASS ON THE +PRINCIPAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND THE PACIFIC OCEAN. + + +No. Page + + I. From Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fé and Albuquerque, +New Mexico. By Captain R. B. Marcy, U.S.A. 257 + + II. From Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fé, by the way of the upper +ferry of the Kansas River and the Cimarron 260 + + III. Camping-places upon a road discovered and marked out from +Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Doña Aña and El Paso, New Mexico, in +1849. By Captain R. B. Marcy, U.S.A. 263 + + IV. From Leavenworth City to Great Salt Lake City 266 + + V. From Salt Lake City to Sacramento and Benicia, California 273 + + VI. From Great Salt Lake City to Los Angeles and San Francisco, +California 277 + + VII. From Fort Bridger to the "City of Rocks." From Captain +Handcock's Journal 279 + + VIII. From Soda Springs to the City of Rocks, known as Hudspeth's +Cut-off 282 + + IX. Sublet's Cut-off, from the junction of the Salt Lake and +Fort Hall Roads 282 + + X. From Lawson's Meadows, on the Humboldt River, to Fort +Reading, via Rogue River Valley, Fort Lane, Oregon Territory, Yreka, +and Fort Jones 283 + + XI. From Soda Springs to Fort Wallah Wallah and Oregon City, +Oregon, via Fort Hall 285 + + XII. Route for pack trains from John Day's River to Oregon +City 288 + + XIII. From Indianola and Powder-horn to San Antonio, Texas 288 + + XIV. Wagon-road from San Antonio, Texas, to El Paso, N.M., and +Fort Yuma, California 289 + + XV. From Fort Yuma to San Diego, California 292 + + XVI. From El Paso, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California, via +Santa Cruz 294 + + XVII. From Westport, Missouri, to the gold diggings at Pike's +Peak and "Cherry Creek," N.T., via the Arkansas River 295 + + XVIII. From St. Paul's, Min., to Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon 302 + + XIX. Lieutenant E. F. Beale's route from Albuquerque to the +Colorado River 307 + + XX. Captain Whipple's route from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to +San Pedro, California 308 + + XXI. From Fort Yuma to Benicia, California. From Lieutenant +R. S. Williamson's Report 315 + + XXII. A new route from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, opened by +Captain J. H. Simpson, U.S.A., in 1858 317 + + XXIII. From Fort Thorne, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California 318 + + XXIV. Lieutenant Bryan's Route from the Laramie Crossing of the +South Platte to Fort Bridger, via Bridger's Pass 320 + + XXV. Wagon-route from Denver City, at the Mouth of Cherry Creek, +to Fort Bridger, Utah 323 + + XXVI. From Nebraska City, on the Missouri, to Fort Kearney 326 + + XXVII. From Camp Floyd, Utah, to Fort Union, New Mexico. By +Colonel W. W. Loring, U.S.A. 327 + +XXVIII. Wagon-route from Guaymas, Mexico, to Tubac, Arizona. From +Captain Stone's Journal 333 + + +I.--_From Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fé and Albuquerque, New +Mexico._ By Captain R. B. MARCY, U.S.A. + +Miles. + + Fort Smith to + + 15. Strickland's Farm.--The road crosses the Poteau River at Fort + Smith, where there is a ferry; it then follows the Poteau + bottom for ten miles. This part of the road is very muddy + after heavy rains. At 14 miles it passes the Choctaw Agency, + where there are several stores. There is the greatest + abundance of wood, water, and grass at all camps for the first + 200 miles. Where any of these are wanting it will be specially + mentioned. The road passes through the Choctaw settlements for + about 150 miles, and corn and supplies can be purchased from + these Indians at reasonable rates. + + 11. Camp Creek.--Road crosses a prairie of three miles in length, + then enters a heavy forest. The camp is on a small branch, + with grass plenty in a small prairie about 400 yards to the + left of the road. + + 12. Coon Creek.--Road passes through the timber, and is muddy in + a rainy season. + + 12. Sans Bois Creek.--Prairie near; some Choctaw houses at the + crossing. + + 14. Bend of Sans Bois Creek.--Indian farm. + + 15. South Fork of Canadian, or "Gain's Creek."--Road traverses + a very rough and hilly region. There is a ford and a ferry + upon the creek. Indian farm on the west bank. + + 12. First ford of Coal Creek.--Road crosses over a rolling + prairie, and at four miles the Fort Washita road turns to the + left. + + Second ford of Coal Creek.--Indian farm. + + 4. Little Cedar Mountain.--Very rough, mountainous road. + + 6. Stony Point.--Very rough, mountainous road. + + 5. Shawnee Village.--Several Indian houses. + + 14. Shawnee Town.--Road passes several small prairies. Indian + settlement; store on opposite bank of Canadian River, near + the camp. + + 21. Delaware Mountain.--Road passes over a very beautiful country, + with small streams of good water frequent, and good camps. It + crosses small prairies and groves of timber. + + 5. Boggy River.--Road passes a country similar to that mentioned + above. + + 3. Clear Creek.--Road turns to the right near a prominent round + mound. Beautiful country, diversified with prairies and + timbered lands. + + 7. Branch of Topofki Creek.--Beautiful country and fine roads. + + 9-1/2. Cane Creek.--Excellent camp. + + 5. Small Branch.--Road passes about two miles from the old "Camp + Arbuckle," built by Captain Marcy in 1853, since occupied by + Black Beaver and several Delaware families. + + 11-1/2. Mustang Creek.--Road runs on the dividing ridge between the + waters of the Washita and Canadian, on a high prairie. + + 17-1/2. Choteau's Creek.--Road passes on the high prairie opposite + Choteau's old trading-house, and leaves the outer limits of the + Indian settlements. Excellent road, and good camps at short + distances. + + 11-3/4. Choteau's Creek.--Road runs up the creek; is smooth and good. + + 12-3/4. Head of Choteau's Creek.--Road runs up the creek, and is good. + + 17-1/4. Branch of Washita River.--Road runs over an elevated prairie + country, and passes a small branch at six miles from last camp. + + 5-3/4. Branch of "Spring Creek."--Good camp. + + 16. Head of "Spring Creek."--Road traverses a high prairie country, + is smooth and firm. + + 13. Red Mounds.--Road runs over a high rolling prairie country, + and is excellent. + + 5. Branch of Washita River.--Good road. + + 15-3/4. Branch of Canadian.--Road continues on the ridge dividing + the Washita and Canadian rivers; is smooth and firm. + + 17-3/4. Branch of Washita River.--Road continues on the "divide." + + 18. Branch of Canadian.--Road continues on the divide from one + to four miles from the Canadian. + + 19. On Canadian River.--Good road. + + 16. Little Washita River.--Good road; timber becoming scarce. + + 13. Branch of Canadian.--Good road. + + 17-1/2. Antelope Buttes.--Road runs along the Canadian bottom, and + in places is sandy. + + 14. Rush Lake.--Small pond on the prairie. No wood within half a + mile; some buffalo chips; poor water. + + 16. Branch of Washita River.--Good road on the divide. + + 10-1/4. Dry River.--Road descends a very long hill, and crosses the + dry river near the Canadian. Water can be found by digging + about a foot in the sand of the creek. Good grass on the west + bank. + + 17. Branch of Canadian.--Road winds up a very long and abrupt hill, + but is smooth and firm. + + 22-1/2. Timbered Creek.--Road passes over a very elevated prairie + country, and descends by a long hill into the beautiful valley + of Timbered Creek. + + 11-1/2. Spring Branch.--Good camp. + + 14. Spring Branch.--Good camp. + + 17-3/4. Branch of Canadian.--Road passes a small branch 3-1/2 miles + from the last camp. + + 18-3/8. Branch of Canadian.--Road passes a small branch of the + Canadian at 8 miles from the last camp. + + 17-7/8. Spring Branch.--Good road. + + 9-1/2. Branch of Canadian.--Good road and camp. + + 18-1/2. Branch of the Canadian.--Good road and camp. + + 10-1/4. Pools of Water.--Good camp. + + 10. Large Pond.--Good camp. + + 25. Pools of Water.--No wood; water brackish. The road passes + over a very elevated and dry country, without wood or water. + + 18-1/2. Head of Branch.--At 13-1/2 miles the road crosses a branch + of the Canadian. + + 19-3/4. Laguna Colorado.--Road here falls into an old Mexican + cart-road. Good springs on the left up the creek, with wood + and grass abundant. + + 7. Pools of Water.--Road runs through cedars. + + 10-3/8. Pajarito Creek.--Grass begins to be rather short in places, + but is abundant on the creek. + + 13-1/2. Gallenas Creek.--Good camp. + + 15. 2d Gallenas Creek.--Good road. + + 16-1/2. Pecos River at Anton Chico.--This is the first settlement + after leaving Camp Arbuckle. Corn and vegetables can be + purchased here. Grass is generally short here. + + 15. Pecos River opposite Questa.--Road runs through the cedar, + and is firm and good. Camp is in sight of the town of Questa, + upon a very elevated bluff. + + 21-3/4. Laguna Colorado.--Road passes through a wooded country for a + portion of the distance, but leaves it before reaching camp, + where there is no wood, but water generally sufficient for + trains. In very dry seasons it has been known to fail. The + road forks here, the right leading to Santa Fé via Galistio + (45-1/2 miles), and the left to Albuquerque. + + 22-1/2. San Antonio.--Good road. + + 18-3/4. Albuquerque.--Good road. + +Total distance from Fort Smith to Albuquerque, 814-3/4 miles. + +Total distance from Fort Smith to Santa Fé, 819 miles. + + * * * * * + +II.--_From Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fé, by the way of the upper ferry +of the Kansas River and the Cimarron._ + +[In this table the distances, taken by an odometer, are given in miles +and hundredths of a mile. The _measured_ distances between the crossing +of the Arkansas and Santa Fé are from Major Kendrick's published table. +Wood, water, and grass are found at all points where the absence of +them is not stated.] + +Miles. + + From Fort Leavenworth to + + 2.88. Salt Creek. + + 9.59. Stranger's Creek. + + 13.54. Stranger's Creek. + + 9.60. Grasshopper Creek. + + 6.50. Grasshopper Creek. + + 2.86. Grasshopper Creek. + + 2.60. Grasshopper Creek. + + 4.54. Soldier's Creek. + + 2.45. Upper Ferry, Kansas River. + + 7.41. Pottawatomie Settlement. + + 5.75. Pottawatomie Creek. + + 3.89. White Wakarussi Creek. + + 7.78. White Wakarussi Creek. + + 6.27. White Wakarussi Creek. + + 0.73. Road from Independence.--No place to encamp. + + 5.72. White Wakarussi Creek. + + 2.51. White Wakarussi Creek. + + 2.82. 142-mile Creek. + + 7.80. Bluff Creek. + + 5.77. Rock Creek. + + 5.08. Big John Spring. + + 2.29. Council Grove. + + 7.97. Elm Creek.--Water generally. + + 8.06. Diamond Spring. + + 1.42. Diamond Creek. + + 15.46. Lost Spring.--No wood. + + 9.25. Mud Creek.--Water uncertain; no wood. + + 7.76. Cottonwood Creek. + + 6.16. Water Holes.--Water generally; no wood. + + 12.44. Big Turkey Creek.--No water. + + 7.83. Little Turkey Creek.--Water uncertain; no wood. + + 18.19. Little Arkansas River. + + 10.60. Owl Creek.--Water generally in holes above and below crossing. + + 6.39. Little Cow Creek.--Water only occasionally. + + 2.93. Big Cow Creek.--Water holes, 10 miles (estimated). Water + uncertain; no wood. + + 18.24. Bend of the Arkansas. + + 6.66. Walnut Creek. + + 16.35. Pawnee Rock.--Teams sometimes camp near here, and drive stock + to the Arkansas to water. No wood. + + 5.28. Ash Creek.--Water above and below crossing, uncertain. + + 6.65. Pawnee Fork.--Best grass some distance above crossing. + + From Pawnee Fork to the lower crossing of the Arkansas, a + distance of 98-1/2 miles, convenient camping-places can be + found along the Arkansas; the most prominent localities are + therefore only mentioned. A supply of fuel should be laid in + at Pawnee Fork to last till you pass Fort Mann, though it may + be obtained, but inconveniently, from the _opposite_ side of + the Arkansas. Dry Route branches off at 3-1/2 miles (estimated). + This route joins the main one again 10 miles this side of Fort + Mann. It is said to be a good one, but deficient in water and + without wood. + + 11.43. Coon Creek. + + 46.58. Jackson's Island. + + 5.01. Dry Route comes in. + + 10.05. Fort Mann. + + 25.34. Lower Crossing of the Arkansas.--The Bent's Fort Route + branches off at this point. For the distances upon this route, + see next table. A supply of wood should be got from this + vicinity to last till you reach Cedar Creek. + + 15.68. Water-hole.--Water uncertain; no wood. + + 30.02. Two Water-holes.--Water uncertain; no wood. + + 14.14. Lower Cimarron Springs.--No wood. + + 20.00. Pools of Water.--Water uncertain; no wood. + + 19.02. Middle Springs of the Cimarron.--No wood. + + 12.93. Little Crossing of the Cimarron.--No wood. + + 14.10. Upper Cimarron Springs.--No wood. Pools of water, 7 miles + (estimated). No wood. + + 19.05. Cold Spring.--A tree here and there in the vicinity. Pools of + water, 11 miles (estimated). Water uncertain; no wood. + + 16.13. Cedar Creek.--M'Nees' Creek, 10 miles (estimated). Water + indifferent and uncertain; scant pasture; no wood. Arroyo + del la Seña, 2-1/2 miles (estimated). No water. + + 21.99. Cottonwood Creek.--No water. Arroyo del Burro, 5 miles + (estimated). + + 15.17. Rabbit-ear Creek.--10 miles (estimated), springs. Round Mound, + 8 miles (estimated). No water; no wood; no camping-place. Rock + Creek, 10 miles (estimated). Grazing scant; no wood. + + 26.40. Whetstone Creek.--Spring; no wood. Arroyo Don Carlos, 10-1/2 + miles (estimated). Water, etc., to the left of the road. + + 14.13. Point of Rocks.--Water and grass _up the cañon_, just after + crossing the _point_; scattering shrub cedars on the + neighboring heights. + + 16.62. Sandy Arroyo.--Water uncertain; no wood. Crossing of Canadian + River, 4-3/4 miles (estimated). Grazing above the crossing; + willows. + + 10.05. Rio Ocaté.--Wood 1/3 of a mile to right of road; grass in + the cañon. Pond of water, 13-1/2 miles (estimated). No wood. + + 19.65. Wagon Mound.--Santa Clara Springs. Wood brought from the Rio + Ocaté. Rio del Perro (Rock Creek), 17-1/2 miles (estimated). + + 21.62. Cañon del Lobo.--Rio Moro, 3-1/2 miles (estimated). Rio + Sapillo, 1 mile (estimated). The Bent's Fort Route comes in here. + + 18.00. Las Vegas.--Forage purchasable. + + 13.05. Tacolote.--Forage purchasable. Ojo Vernal, 5 miles (estimated). + No grass to speak of. + + 14.00. San Miguel.--Forage purchasable; no grass. + + 21.81. Ruins of Pecos.--Grazing very scant. Cottonwood Creek, 4-1/2 + miles (estimated). Water uncertain; no grass. + + 13.41. Stone Corral.--No grass. + + 10.80. Santa Fé.--Forage purchasable; no grazing. + + * * * * * + +III.--_Camping-places upon a road discovered and marked out from +Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Doña Aña and El Paso, New Mexico, in 1849._ +By Captain R. B. MARCY, U.S.A. + +Miles. + + Fort Smith to + + 65. South Fork of the Canadian.--The road from Fort Smith to the + South Fork of the Canadian follows the same track as the road + to Albuquerque and Santa Fé, and by reference to the tables of + distances for that road the intermediate camps will be found. + + 15. Prior's Store.--Grass, wood, and water near. + + 17-1/2. Little Boggy.--Good camp. Wherever there are not the requisites + of wood, water, and grass for encamping, it will be specially + noted; when they are not mentioned they will always be found. + + 13. Little Boggy.--Good camp. + + 15-1/2. Boggy Depôt.--Store and blacksmith's shop. + + 12-3/5. Blue River.--The road passes over a flat section, which + is muddy after rains. + + 8-1/2. Fort Washita.--Good camp half a mile before reaching the fort. + The road forks at the Indian village on the Boggy, the left + being the most direct. There are settlers along the road, who + will give all necessary information to strangers. Corn plenty. + + 22. Preston Texas, on Red River.--The road from Fort Washita runs + through the Indian settlements, passing many places where good + camps may be found, and crosses the Red River at Preston. There + is a ferry here; also stores and a blacksmith's shop. + + 20. M'Carty's.--Road runs through a heavy-timbered country, + crossing several streams where there are good camps. + + 14-2/5. Elm Fork of the Trinity, at Gainesville.--Road passes over a + section diversified by prairies and groves of timber. + + 12. Elm Fork of Trinity.--Good camp. + + 11. Elm Fork of Trinity.--Excellent camps. Road passes over a + beautiful country rapidly settling up with farmers, who + cultivate and sell grain at low rates. + + 9. Turkey Creek.--Tributary of Red River. Road emerges from the + upper "Cross Timbers" two miles from camp. + + 26-3/4. Buffalo Springs.--Springs of good water, but of limited + amount, in a ravine. + + 12. On a Ravine.--Pools of good water and a small running stream, + not reliable. + + 13-1/2. On a Ravine.--Pools of water. + + 17-1/4. On a Ravine.--Pools of water. + + 17-1/4. Running branch of Cottonwood Spring.--Branch about two feet + wide, good water; wood about half a mile distant. + + 14. Fort Belknap.--Good road through post-oak timber. County seat + and town at Fort Belknap. Good camp on the west side of the + Brazos, which is always fordable except in very high water. + + 14. Small Branch.--Water in holes. + + 18. Water-holes.--Pools of water. Road passes over prairie and + timbered lands, is very smooth and level. + + 7-1/2. Stem's Farm, on Clear Fork of the Brazos River.--Good road; + excellent camp, with abundance of wood, water, and grass. + Indian reservation here. + + 13. Elm Creek, or Qua-qua-ho-no.--Good road over rolling prairie + and mesquite lands. + + 17. Ravine.--Pools of standing water. Good road. + + 18. Ravine.--Pools of standing water. Good road. + + 27. Small Creek.--Tributary of the Brazos. Good road. + + 6. Pools of Water.--Good camp. + + 8-1/2. Small Branch.--Good water. + + 20-1/2. Tributary of the Colorado.--Brackish water. + + 3-1/4. Rio Colorado.--Brackish water. Road very excellent. + +12-1/10. Spring on the Road.--Good water. + +22-9/10. Big spring to the left of the road, affording a great amount + of water, which runs off in a small stream. + + 23. Laguna Colorado.--Water somewhat sulphurous; fuel mesquite + roots; grass abundant. + + 35. Mustang Pond.--This pond is north of the road about two + miles, and was found in 1849, but emigrants and others have + not been able to find it since. For this reason I would advise + travelers to fill their water-kegs at the Laguna Colorado, as + in a very dry season they might not be able to get any water + until they reach the Sand Hills. The road is excellent over + the "Llano Estacado," or Staked Plain. + + 34-1/2. Sand Hills.--Water in holes. The water is good here, and can + always be relied on as permanent. The road through the Sand + Hills is very heavy, and I would advise travelers with loaded + wagons to make half loads. + + 31-1/2. Laguna near the Pecos River.--Road passes through the hills, + and descends the high prairie to the valley of the Pecos. + Laguna on the left. + + 15-5/8. Crossing of Pecos.--Water deep and not fordable; river 42 + yards wide. A road leads up the eastern bank of the Pecos to + a ford with rock bottom. Good camps can be had at almost any + point on the Pecos. The water is brackish, but can be used + without harm. + + 54-1/2. Pecos River.--Point of the river where the road turns off + toward Delaware Creek. + + 9-1/8. Delaware Creek.--Good road after leaving the Pecos River. + The road on the Pecos is good in the bottom in very dry + weather, but after heavy rains it is submerged and very muddy. + Travelers should then turn off to the bluffs. The water in + Delaware Creek is brackish. + + 11-7/8. Ojo de San Martin.--Fine spring of fresh water, also mineral + spring. Good road up Delaware Creek. + +15-3/10. Independence Spring.--Large spring of excellent water. Look + out for Indians. + + 5-1/10. Ojo del Camins.--Good spring in the pine timber at the base + of the mountain. + + 4-1/2. Peak of the Guadalupe.--Spring at the foot of the mountain. + Road descends the mountain, and is very steep. + + 23-7/8. Ojo del Cuerbo.--Road descends through a very rough and + sinuous ravine, and crosses a long prairie to camp at a + pond of standing water. No wood. + + 26. Cornudas (Wells).--Well in the rocks; plenty of water for + small parties. Road good. + + 8-3/4. Sierra del Alamo.--Road good; water limited in quantity. + There is a small spring upon the side of the + mountain. No wood except a few mesquite roots. + + 22-1/4. Waco Tanks.--Good water in a large reservoir in the rocks. + The road here branches, the left leading to El Paso and the + right to Doña Aña. + + 28. El Paso, on the Rio del Norte.--Road good, with some sand; + no water upon it. + + The distance from the "Waco Tanks" to Doña Aña is 63 miles, + but 40 miles of the road is over heavy sand, and no water + until reaching the mountain, 25 miles from Doña Aña. I would + recommend travelers to take the El Paso road in preference. + +Total distance from Fort Smith to El Paso, 860 miles. + + * * * * * + +IV.--_From Leavenworth City to Great Salt Lake City._ + +Miles. + + Leavenworth City to + + 3. Salt Creek.--Good camp; wood, water, and grass. + + 12. Cold Spring.--To the right of the road, in a deep ravine, + plenty of wood, water, and grass. + + 12. Small Branch.--To the north of the road, in an arroya, + good wood, water, and grass. Here enters the road from + Atcheson, 6 miles distant. + + 16-2/3. Grasshopper Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 9-1/2. Walnut Creek.--Road passes a town called Whitehead, 4 + miles from last camp. Water in pools, but 3/4 of a mile + below is a fine spring; plenty of wood, water, and grass. + + 17. Grasshopper Creek.--Good camp, with wood, water, and + grass. + + 12-1/2. Big Nemehaw, two miles above Richland.--Good wood, water, + and grass near the creek. + + 11. Water-holes.--On the ridge, at the head of a ravine, are + wood, water, and grass, but in a dry time there would + be but little water. + + 10-3/4. Vermilion Creek.--Water in the creek not good, but there + is a good well of cold water near the road. Wood and grass + good. + + 21-1/2. Big Blue River.--Upper crossing, good ford; plenty of wood, + water, and grass. Fine clear stream, 60 yards wide. + + 17-1/2. Branch of the Big Blue.--Camp half a mile north of the + road; good wood, water, and grass. + + 15. Turkey, or Rock Creek.--Good spring 400 yards to the north + of the road. Store at the crossing. Good wood, water, and + grass. + + 19. Big Sandy.--Wood, water, and grass good. + + 19. Little Blue River.--Road runs across the hills without + water until reaching camp. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 18-3/4. Little Blue River.--Camp is at the point where the road + turns off from the creek. Good camps may be found any where + on the Little Blue, with excellent wood, water, and grass. + Fine running stream. + + 15. Little Blue River.--Road strikes the creek again, and + keeps it to the camp. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 19. Elm Creek.--Road leaves the Little Blue, and runs along + a divide to the head of Elm Creek, where we found water + in holes, with some few trees; grass good. + + 20. Platte River.--Road crosses one small branch, where there + is water except in a dry season. Good camp on the Platte, + with wood, water, and grass. + + 15. Fort Kearney.--Good camp about two miles from the fort, + upon the Platte, either above or below; grass, wood, and + water abundant. + + 17. Platte River--Road runs along the river, where there is + plenty of grass, and occasionally a few cottonwood-trees. + Here the buffalo generally begin to be seen, and the + traveler can always get a plenty of buffalo-chips along + in this section. + + 16-3/4. On Plum Creek.--Road runs along the Platte to Plum Creek, + where there is a little wood, with good grass and water. + Mail station at the crossing of Plum Creek. + + 22-1/3. On Platte River.--Road runs along the Platte bottom + after crossing Plum Creek, and is good except in wet + weather. The road occasionally comes near the Platte, + and, although the timber becomes thin, yet places are + found where fuel can be obtained. Grass is plenty at + all points. + + 23. On Platte River.--Road continues along the river valley + over a flat country where the water stands in ponds, + and is boggy in wet weather. Camps occasionally on + the river, but little fuel. Grass and water good. + + 14. On Platte River.--Road continues along the valley, with + the same character as before, but more timber. Camp + opposite Brady's Island. Plenty of wood, water, and + grass. + + 17-1/4. Slough.--On the Prairie. Road runs from one to three + miles from the river. No wood all day; plenty of grass, + and buffalo-chips for cooking. + + 15-1/4. Platte River.--Road crosses O'Fallon's Bluffs, where there + is a good camping-place on the right of the road. Plenty + of wood, water, and grass on a small stream, which is part + of the Platte. Mail station here. + + 16-1/2. South Platte River.--Road runs along the Platte, with no + timber. Good grass and water at any point, with buffalo-chips + for fuel. + + 17. South Platte River.--No timber all day. Good water and grass + at all points, with buffalo-chips. + + 8. South Platte Crossing.--No wood all day. Good water and + grass, with buffalo-chips. The river is about 600 yards wide, + rapid, with quicksand bottom, but can be forded when not above + a medium stage. It is best to send a footman ahead to + ascertain the depth of water before crossing the wagons and + animals. + + 19. Ash Hollow, at North Platte River.--Road leaves the South Fork + of the Platte, and strikes over the high prairie for 16 miles, + when it descends the high bluffs bordering the valley of the + North Platte, and enters Ash Hollow, where there is a plenty + of wood and a small spring of water. Half a mile beyond this + the road reaches the river. Mail station and a small grocery + here. + + 16-3/4. North Platte.--Very sandy road; no wood; grass and water + plenty at all points; buffalo-chips sufficient for cooking. + + 17. North Platte.--Road sandy in places; no wood; good grass + and water; some buffalo-chips. + + 16-1/2. North Platte.--Road good; no wood; good grass and water; + cattle-chips in places. + + 18-3/4. North Platte.--No wood. Camp opposite "Chimney Rock," + which is a very peculiar formation on the south of the road, + and resembles a chimney. Grass good. Road muddy after rains. + +[Illustration: CHIMNEY ROCK.] + + 17-1/2. North Platte.--No wood; grass and water good. + + 16. "Horse Creek," branch of the North Platte.--In seven + miles the road passes through Scott's Bluffs, where there is + generally water in the first ravine about 200 yards below the + road. The road then descends the mountain, at the foot of + which is the Platte and a mail station. A little wood can be + obtained at Scott's Bluffs; there is none on Horse Creek. + + 14-1/4. North Platte.--Road follows the river bottom all day. + Wood, water, and grass on the river. + + 12. Fort Laramie.--Road rough and rocky in places. There are + wood and water plenty, and before many trains have passed the + grass is good above the fort. Mail station and post-office + here, with a sutler's store well stocked with such articles as + the traveler wants. + + 10. North Platte.--Road good, but hilly in places. Camp is in + the river bottom, with plenty of wood, water, and grass. Hot + spring two miles above here. + + 14. Bitter Creek.--There are two roads, both of which lead to + Salt Lake. The upper or south road is best in the spring or in + wet weather. I traveled the lower road. Wood, water, and grass + are good. + + 17-3/4. Horse-shoe Creek.--Fine camp, with excellent wood, water, + and grass. The road here forks, one passing to the left over + the hills, and the other running nearer the Platte. + + 20-1/2. North Platte River.--Good road along near the river. Good + wood, water, and grass. Road crosses the river at 12-1/2 + miles. + + 20-1/4. North Platte River.--Road crosses the river again, and the + camp is two miles above the mouth of La Prell Creek. Good + wood, water, and grass. + + 19. North Platte River.--Road runs along the river, and is + smooth and good. The camp is two miles above the crossing of + Deer Creek, where there is a blacksmith's shop and store. Good + grass, wood, and water. + + 16. North Platte River.--Good road, with wood, water, and grass + at camp. + + 13. North Platte River.--Good road passing the bridge, where + there is a blacksmith's shop and store, also a military + station and a mail station. At two miles from camp the road + crosses the river on a good ford with rocky bottom. The wood, + water, and grass are abundant. + + 23. Red Buttes, on the North Platte.--Road is very hilly, and + in some places sandy; passes Willow Spring, where there is + grass and a little wood. Good wood, water, and grass at camp. + Mail station here. + + 11. Sweet Water Creek.--Road leaves the river at the Red Buttes, + and strikes over the high rolling prairie. Good grass and + water, but little wood at camp. + + 15. On Sweet Water Creek.--Road passes a blacksmith's shop and + store at the bridge six miles from camp, and at 2-1/2 miles + from the camp it passes the "Devil's Gate" and a mail station. + The Sweet Water here runs between two perpendicular cliffs, + presenting a most singular and striking appearance. Take wood + at the Gate for camp. Good grass and water at all places on + Sweet Water Creek. + +[Illustration: THE DEVIL'S GATE.] + + 20. Sweet Water Creek.--Road muddy after rains, and some bad + ravines to cross. Wood, water, and grass of the best quality + at camp. + + 12. Sweet Water Creek.--Road runs along the valley of the Sweet + Water, where there is plenty of wood and grass in places, but + little wood at the camp noted. + + 8. On Sweet Water.--Road good; no wood; grass abundant. + + 20. On Sweet Water.--Road good; no wood. + + 17. Strawberry Creek.--Little wood; grass and water abundant. + Road leaves "Sweet Water," and ascends a very long hill which + is very rocky. + + 20-1/4. South Pass.--Road crosses the dividing ridge, and strikes + the Pacific Spring, where there is excellent water and good + grass if many cattle have not passed, in which event the + traveler had better continue on down the creek which issues + from the spring. Sage for fuel; no wood. + + 15-3/4. Dry Sandy Creek.--Grass scarce; no wood; some sage and + greasewood; water brackish, but drinkable; road good. Here the + traveler should send ahead and have the best spots of grass + found, as it is very scarce throughout this section. Sublett's + Cut-off turns off here for Soda Springs and Fort Hall. Take + the left for Fort Bridger and Salt Lake City. + + 15. Little Sandy Creek.--Grass in spots along the creek bottom, + and some fuel. + + 18. Big Sandy Creek.--Grass in detached spots on the creek, and + little fuel. + + 21-1/2. Green River, Upper Ford.--Grass and fuel on the river. + + 7. Green River, at the Lower Ford.--Good grass and fuel below + the ford. Ferry in time of high water. Mail station and + grocery. + + 16. Black's Fork.--Good grass and fuel. + + 7. Ham's Fork.--United States bridge, no toll. Good grass + and fuel. + + 12. Black's Fork.--Road forks at the crossing of Black's Fork, + both roads leading to Fort Bridger. This itinerary is upon + the left-hand road, which crosses Black's Fork two miles + from Ham's Fork. + + 13. Smith's Fork.--Good camps along Black's Fork at any place, + but the road leaves the stream for several miles. Wood, + water, and grass at the confluence of Black's and Smith's + Forks. + + 18-1/4. Fort Bridger.--Good camps above and below the fort. + Military post, mail station, and store. + + Muddy Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water. Grass short after + many trains have passed. It is then necessary to go up the + creek to find good grass. Road passes a fine spring 3 miles + back. + + 19. Bear River.--Good camps, with wood, water, and grass. + + Good ford, except in very high water. Sulphur Creek two miles + back. + + 19. Red Fork.--In "Echo Cañon," two miles below Cashe Cave, + good grass and fuel; water plenty. + + 19-1/4. Weber River.--Good grass, wood, and water. Mail station. + United States bridge for high water; no toll. + + 5-1/4. Spring Branch.--Good camp. Road leaves the river, and takes + the left into a valley. + + 9. Bauchmin's Creek.--Road crosses over a mountain, and + descends to the creek, where there is a good camp. + + 14. Big Cañon Creek.--Road crosses Bauchmin's Creek 13 times + in 8 miles, then ascends the mountain along a small creek, + which is well wooded and good grass. + + 6. Emigration Creek.--Road leaves Cañon Creek, and crosses the + two mountains, which are very steep and long. Grass and wood + before crossing the "Little Mountain." + + 10-1/4. Great Salt Lake City.--Forage can be purchased here, as well + as most of the articles the traveler may require, at high + prices. There is no camping-place within two miles of the + city. It is best for those who encamp with animals to cross + the Jordan River, or to stop near the mouth of the cañon + before entering the city. + +Total distance from Fort Leavenworth to Salt Lake City, 1168 miles. + + * * * * * + +V.--_From Salt Lake City to Sacramento and Benicia, California._ + +Miles. + + From Salt Lake City to + + 18. Hait's Ranch.--Good road, and grass abundant until Bear + River is crossed. + + 17-1/4. Ford on Weber River.--Good road, and grass abundant. + + 15. Point of Mountain.--Spring water warm but pure. + + 12-3/4. Box Elder Creek.--Excellent water; grass and fuel + abundant in the cañons. + + 23. Ferry on Bear River.--Four miles above the usual crossing. + Excellent grass. + + 3/4. West Bank.--Grass not good on the west bank. + + 6. Small Spring.--Cross Bear River below the mouth of the + Mallade. + + 17-1/2. Blue Springs.--Water and grass scarce, and of poor quality. + + 21-1/4. Deep Creek.--Heavy sage, but good grass on the right of the + road, near sink. + + 20-1/2. Cedar Springs.--Good grass on the hills, with fine water + and wood; rolling country. + + 10. Rock Creek.--Plenty of grass to the left of the road; good + camping-place. + + 14-1/2. Raft River.--Good camp. + + 22-1/2. Goose Creek Mountains.--Grass, wood, and water abundant; + rough and mountainous country. Road from Fort Bridger comes + in here _via_ Soda Springs. + + 17-3/4. On Goose Creek.--Rough, broken country, with a good road, + which runs along the creek for several miles. + + 28-1/2. Head of 1000 Spring Valley.--Road runs over a rolling, + barren section, with but little water except on the river + far to the right. + + 25-3/4. 1000 Spring Valley.--Meadow grass; good fuel scarce. Camps + can be found at short intervals along the road. + + 14. Head of Humboldt River.--Fine camping-places, and road + generally good, running over a rolling country. + + 23. Slough of the Humboldt.--Extensive bottoms of good grass. + + 20. Humboldt River.--Along the entire course of the Humboldt + good grass is found in the bottoms. The road, which follows + the bottom, is hard and smooth, but can not be traveled in + seasons of very high water, as the bottom overflows. It is + then necessary to take the road on the bluffs, where the grass + is scarce. The river, when not above a fording stage, can be + forded at almost any point, and good camps can be found at + short intervals. There are spots along the river bottom where + alkaline ponds are frequent. These are poisonous to cattle, + and should be avoided by travelers. It is well along this + river not to allow animals to drink any water except from the + river where it is running. + + 20. Humboldt River.--The foregoing remarks apply for every camp + on the Humboldt River. + + 22. Humboldt River.--Good camps along the Humboldt Valley. + + 23. Humboldt River. + + 13-1/2. Humboldt River. + + 16-1/2. Humboldt River. + + 25. Humboldt River. + + 13-3/4. Humboldt River. + + 24. Humboldt River. + + 24-1/2. Humboldt River. + + 20-1/4. Humboldt River. + + 18-3/4. Humboldt River. + + 13-1/2. Humboldt River. + + 18-1/4. Lawson's Meadows.--The road here forks, the left going by + the Carson Valley and Sacramento route, and the right _via_ + Goose, Clear, and Rhett lakes, Applegate's Pass of the Cascade + Mountains, into Rogue River Valley, Fort Law, Oregon + Territory, Yreka, Fort Jones, Fort Reading, and Sacramento + River. + + 33-1/2. On Humboldt River.--Grass and water poor all the distance + to the Sink of the Humboldt. + + 19-1/2. Sink of Humboldt River.--The water at the Sink is strongly + impregnated with alkali; the road generally is good. Travelers + should not allow their stock to drink too freely of this + water. + + 26. Head Sink of Humboldt.--Road good. + + 45. Carson River.--Road crosses the desert, where there is no + water for stock, but there is a well where travelers can + purchase water for drinking. This part of the road should be + traveled in the cool of the day and at night. Grass good, also + the water. + + 2. Carson River.--Good bunch-grass near the road. + + 30. Carson River.--26 miles of desert; poor grass. + + 14. Eagle Ranch.--Good grass and water. + + 13. Reese's Ranch.--Good grass and water. + + 12. Williams' Ranch.--Very good water and grass. + + 15. Hope Valley.--Road rough and rocky. + + 3. Near Sierra.--Good camp, with water and grass. + + 7. First Summit.--Road rough and rocky; good water; grass + scarce. + + 2. Second Summit.--Road mountainous and very steep; snow nearly + all the year. + + 10. Lakes.--Good camp. + + 12. Leek Springs.--Good grass near the road. + + 10. Trader's Creek.--Grass and fuel scarce. + + 12. Sly Park.--Grass and fuel near the road. + + Forty Mile House.--Water plenty; grass scarce. + + Sacramento Valley.--Water plenty; purchase forage. + + Sacramento City.--Water plenty; purchase forage. + +Total distance from Salt Lake City to Benicia, 973 miles. + + * * * * * + +At the Big Meadows, 23 miles from the Sink of the Humboldt, travelers +should make a halt of a day or two to rest and recruit their animals +and to cut grass for crossing the desert, as this is the last +good camping-place until reaching Carson River. The ground near this +place is boggy, and animals should be watered with buckets. The +camping-ground here is on the right bank of the river, and about half a +mile to the left of the main road. The water is in a slough, near its +head, where will be found some springs which run off a short distance, +but soon sink. + +The road across the desert is very sandy, especially toward the western +extremity. Twenty miles from the Sink of the Humboldt there are four +wells. About half a mile east of the mail station the road leading to +the wells turns to the right, where water can be purchased for from one +to two shillings for each man and beast. + +At 9-1/2 miles beyond the mail station, on the desert, a road turns off +from the main trace toward a very high sandy ridge, and directly upon +the top of this ridge is the crater of an extinct volcano, at the +bottom of which is a salt lake. Upon the extreme north end of this lake +will be found a large spring of fresh water, sufficient for 1000 +animals. From thence to "Ragtown," on Carson River, is three miles. + +I would advise travelers, when their animals become exhausted before +reaching this water, to take them out of harness and drive them to this +place to recruit. There is some grass around the lake. + +This desert has always been the most difficult part of the journey to +California, and more animals have probably been lost here than at any +other place. The parts of wagons that are continually met with here +shows this most incontestably. + + * * * * * + +VI.--_From Great Salt Lake City to Los Angeles and San Francisco, +California._ + +Miles. + + Salt Lake City to + + 20-5/8. Willow Creek.--Good grass. + + 14. American Creek.--Good grass. + + 11-1/2. Provo City.--Town. + + 7-1/4. Hobble Creek.--Good camp. + + 6. Spanish Fork.--Good camp. + + 5. Peteetneet.--Good camp. + + 25. Salt Creek.--Several small streams between. Good camp. + + 18-5/8. Toola Creek.--Ford. No wood; grass good. + + 6-1/4. Sevier River.--Road is sandy, passing over a high ridge. + Good camp. + + 25-1/2. Cedar Creek.--Road rather mountainous and sandy. Good grass + and wood. + + 17-1/2. Creek.--This is the fourth stream south of Sevier River. + Road crosses two streams. Good camp. + + 3-5/8. Willow Flats.--The water sinks a little east of the road. + + 25. Spring.--Good grass and water. + + 22-1/4. Sage Creek.--Grass poor; wood and water. + + 5-1/8. Beaver Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 27-1/4. North Cañon Creek.--In Little Salt Lake Valley. Good grass; + no wood. The road is rough and steep for six miles. + + 5-3/8. Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 6-3/4. Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 12-7/8. Cottonwood Creek.--Good grass and water. + + 9. Cedar Springs.--Good camp. + + 23. Pynte Creek.--Good grass one mile up the cañon. + + 9. Road Springs.--Road is rough; good camp. + + 16. Santa Clara.--Road descending and rough; poor grass. + From this point to Cahoon Pass look out for Indians. + + 17-1/8. Camp Springs.--Two miles before reaching the springs the + road leaves the Santa Clara. Good grass. + + 22-7/8. Rio Virgin.--Road crosses over the summit of a mountain. + Good road; grass poor. + + 39-5/8. Rio Virgin.--Road runs down the Rio Virgin, crossing it + ten times. Grass good down the river. + + 19-5/8. Muddy Creek.--Road for half a mile is very steep and + sandy. Good camp. + + 52-5/8. Las Vegas.--Water is sometimes found 2-1/2 miles west of + the road in holes 23 miles from the Muddy, and some grass + about a mile from the road. Good camp. + + 5. On Vegas.--Road runs up the river. Good grass. + + 17. Cottonwood Spring.--Poor grass. + + 29-3/4. Cottonwood Grove.--No grass. Water and grass can be found + four miles west by following the old Spanish trail to a + ravine, and thence to the left in the ravine one mile. + + 21-3/4. Resting Springs.--Good grass and water. Animals should be + rested here before entering the desert. + + 7. Spring.--The spring is on the left of the road, and flows + into Saleratus Creek. Animals must not be allowed to drink the + Saleratus water. + + 14-1/8. Salt Springs.--Poor grass and no fresh water. + + 38-3/4. Bitter Springs.--Good road; poor grass. + + 30-3/4. Mohave River.--Good road and good grass. + + 51-1/2. On the Mohave.--Last ford. Good grass all the way up the + Mohave. + + 17. Cahoon Pass.--At the summit. + + 10. Camp.--Road bad down the cañon. + + 11-1/2. Coco Mongo Ranch. + + 10. Del Chino Ranch.--Williams. + + 19-3/8. San Gabriel River. + + 6. San Gabriel Mission. + + 8-1/4. Pueblo de los Angeles. + + 65-3/4. Santa Clara River.--_On the Coast Route._ Good camps to + San José. + + 7-1/2. Buena Ventura Mission and River.--Road here strikes the + Pacific shore. + + 26. Santa Barbara.--Town. + + 45-3/4. San Yenness River.--At the Mission. + + 78-7/8. Santa Margareta.--Old Mission. + + 28-3/8. San Miguel.--Old Mission. + + 24-3/4. San Antonio River. + + 26-3/4. Rio del Monterey. + + 15-5/8. Solida Mission.--At the ford of Rio del Monterey. + + 37-1/2. San Juan Mission. + + 33. San José Pueblo. + + 75. San Francisco. + + * * * * * + +VII.--_From Fort Bridger to the "City of Rocks."_ From Captain +Handcock's Journal. + +Miles. + + Fort Bridger to + + 9. Little Muddy Creek.--Water brackish in pools along the creek; + tall bunch-grass; sage for fuel. Road runs over a barren + section, is rough, and passes one steep hill. + + 12-1/3. Big Muddy Creek.--The road, with the exception of two or + three bad gullies, is good for ten miles; it then follows the + Big Muddy bottom, which is flat and boggy. The camp is three + miles above the crossing. Some grass; sage for fuel. + + 14-1/5. Small Branch of the Muddy Creek.--Cross the river in three + miles at a bad ford. A mile above camp the grass is good. Road + generally good. + + 19-1/2. On Small Creek.--Road continues up the Muddy 9-1/2 miles to + its head. It then ascends to the divide between Bear and Green + Rivers, probably 800 feet, in 1-3/5 miles. The descent on the + other side is about the same. The road passes many fine + springs. At one and two miles back it passes points of hills, + where it is very rough. Good grass and sage at camp. + + 8-9/10. Bear River.--Bad creek to cross near the camp; thence to Bear + River Valley the road is good. It then follows down the river, + crossing Willow Creek. Good camp, with a large, fine spring. + + 17. Bear River.--Good road along the river; plenty of wood, + water, and grass at all points. + + Foot of Grant's Mountain.--Road runs along Bear River; at + 2-1/2 miles strikes Smith's Fork, a rapid trout stream. The + road crosses the lower ford. A few miles farther on is a bad + slough, which can be avoided by taking a round on the hills. + Cross Thomas's Fork on a bridge, also a slough near it; toll + $2.00 for each team and wagon. The road then leaves Bear River + Valley, and turns over a very steep hill. Good grass, wood, + and water. + + 12. Bear River.--Road ascends Grant's Mountain 1200 feet in 1-1/2 + miles--double teams--then descends again into Bear River + Valley at 4-4/5 miles. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 17-2/5. Indian Creek.--Road crosses eight fine spring branches; + camp is on a beautiful trout stream. Good wood, water, and + grass. + + 11. Spring near Bear River.--Road is hilly, crossing two + spring branches. Good wood, water, and grass. The camp is on + the left and near the road. + + 11. Bear River.--At 6-7/10 miles the road strikes a large + group of springs called "Soda Springs," and here crosses Pine + Creek, on the left bank of which is a saleratus lake. Soon + after it strikes the main springs, and after crossing another + creek the "Steam-boat Spring" may be seen in the bed of the + river. + + 15. "Port Neuf," or Rock Creek.--At 2-3/10 miles the road leaves + Bear River near where it runs through a cañon with high bluffs + on each side. At this point the California and Fort Hall roads + separate. The California road (called Hudspeth's Cut-off) then + crosses a valley between the Bear River and Port Neuf River + Mountains, 9 miles. No water from camp to camp. Good camp. + + 15. Marsh Creek.--About two miles above the main road the creek + can be forded; a road leads to it from the descent into the + valley. Road good; water and grass plenty; no wood. + + 16-1/5. Paunack Creek.--First part of the road is hilly; the remainder + good. Good camp. + + 7-1/5. Mallade River.--At 7-1/5 miles the road crosses the Mallade + River. Good camp 140 miles from Salt Lake City. Good road. + +22-3/10. Small Creek.--The road ascends a ridge through a cañon, and + descends to a valley on the other side. From the camp to the + summit of the ridge is 6-1/5 miles. The descent is 3-7/10 + miles. It then crosses a valley 8 miles wide, and strikes a + cañon which leads to the top of a hill over a rough road. + Plenty of wood, water, and grass at camp, but no water between + this and the last camp. + + 9-3/5. Small Creek.--Road after five miles strikes a cañon with a + long but gentle ascent. Two miles from the entrance of this + cañon is a spring branch. There is wood and some grass and + water at this place. + + 11-1/5. Spring Branch.--The road passes through a cañon, and at 5 + miles strikes the head of a spring branch, which it follows + down 2-1/2 miles to the junction with a larger branch, which + is bridged. At nine tenths of a mile another fork enters. + Grass very fine here. Road follows down this across the main + branch, and the camp is 2 miles below. Good camp. + + 18-1/2. Decassure Creek, or Raft River.--Road continues down the + creek 2-3/10 miles, and crosses, then ascends by a steep hill + to an elevated sage plain, leaving the creek at 11-4/5 miles, + and passes a slough with water. Good camp. + + 17-9/10. Spring Branch.--The road crosses the creek near the last + camp, and follows up a valley, crossing in five miles several + spring branches. At 2-9/10 miles it crosses the creek again, + and follows up the valley two miles farther, then crosses a + high sage plain 8-9/10 miles long, when it strikes a spring + 150 yards to the left of the road, where there is an excellent + camp in a beautiful valley. + + 10. Junction of Salt Lake City Road.--Road passes several small + branches in 3 miles, then commences ascending through a cañon + which, in 2-1/5 miles, leads to the entrance to the "City of + Rocks," and passes through these for three miles. It then + crosses a ridge, leaving the City of Rocks, and at ten miles + from last camp intersects the road from "Salt Lake City." At + 1-2/5 miles beyond this a road leads off to the right to a + spring branch, 3 miles, where there is a good camp near the + foot of Goose Creek Mountain. From this point California + travelers can refer to the itinerary of the route from Salt + Lake City to Sacramento. + + * * * * * + +VIII.--_From Soda Springs to the City of Rocks, known as Hudspeth's +Cut-off._ + +Miles. + + Soda Springs to + + 20. Bear River.--The road runs down Bear River, crossing + some small streams. Good camp. + + 10. Portner Creek.--Camp at the head of the creek. Good wood, + water, and grass. + + 12. Fork of Portner Creek.--Good camp. + + 15. Pauack Creek.--Road crosses a summit. Good road and camp. + + 12. Snake Spring.--Good camp. + + 12. Utha Spring.--Good camp. + + 15. Decassure Creek.--Road crosses a small stream; rather bad + crossing. Good camp. + + 18. City of Rocks.--Junction of Salt Lake road. Good camp. + + * * * * * + +IX.--_Sublets Cut-off, from the junction of the Salt Lake and Fort +Hall Roads._ + +Miles. + + _Junction_ to + + 7. Big Sandy. + + 44. Green River.--From the Big Sandy to Green River (upper road) + there is an abundance of grass in places along the road, but + no water. + + 6. Small Creek.--The road runs up the creek. Good grass. + + 4. On the Creek.--Good grass and water. + + 12. Small Spring.--The spring is on the left of the road. Good + grass. + + 9. Ham's Fork.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 6. Spring.--On the summit of a mountain. Good grass. + + 6. Muddy Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 10. Spring.--In Bear River Valley. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 6. Smith's Fork.--In Bear, River Valley. Good wood, water; + and grass. + + 10. Tomaus' Fork.--Road runs down Bear River. Good wood, water, + and grass. + + 7. Spring Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 7. Smith's Ford.--Road crosses over a spur of the mountain; + long and gradual ascent; descent rather abrupt. Good wood, + water, and grass. + + 8. Telleck's Fork.--Road runs down Bear River. Good camp. + + 4. Small Creek.--Good camp. + + 4. Small Creek.--Good camp. + + 7. Small Creek.--Good camp. + + 12. Soda Springs.--Left side of the road, among some cedars, + is a good camp. + + Here take the left-hand road to California, called + _Hudspeth's Cut-off_. + + * * * * * + +X.--_From Lawson's Meadows, on the Humboldt River, to Fort Reading, +via Rogue River Valley, Fort Lane, Oregon Territory, Yreka, and Fort +Jones._ + +Miles. + + Lawson's Meadows to + + 18-1/2. Mountain Spring.--Road leaves the Humboldt, and takes a + northwesterly course 12 miles to a spring of good water. Good + bunch-grass to the left of the road, and a small spring at the + camp. The road is plain on leaving the river, but after a few + days it becomes faint. Road from this point passes over a + desert country for about 60 miles, without good water or much + grass. + + 38-1/2. Black Rock Spring.--Road level and hard, with little + vegetation. In 14 miles pass springs, but the water is not + good. In 16 miles the road passes a slough which is difficult + to cross; water not good, but can be given to cattle in small + quantities. In five miles from this the road passes Black + Rock, mentioned by Colonel Frémont in his trip from Columbia + River in 1843-4. Three miles farther pass boiling springs, + very hot, but good cooled. Grass pretty good. + + 20-1/4. Mountain Rill.--Water good; bunch-grass in the vicinity. In + eight miles' travel the road passes a beautiful creek of pure + water, with good grass. + + 5-3/4. Lake (Marshy). + + 10-1/2. High Rock Cañon.--This cañon is 25 miles long, with wild and + curious scenery. Road crosses the creek frequently, and the + mud is bad. In the autumn the road is good. + + 14-3/4. High Rock Cañon. + + Small Creek.--Beautiful country, with the greatest abundance + of water and grass; also fuel. + + 25-1/4. Pine Grove Creek.--Road passes over an interesting country, + well supplied with wood, water, and grass, and passes around + the south end of a salt lake. + + 18-1/2. West Slope of Sierra.--Road passes over the mountain, which + is steep but not rocky, then descends to a small creek of good + water which runs into Goose Lake. Good grass and fuel. Look + out for the Indians, as they are warlike and treacherous here. + + 7-3/4. East shore of Goose Lake.--Excellent camp. + + 16-1/4. West shore of Goose Lake.--This is a beautiful sheet of + fresh water; great quantities of water-fowl resort to this + lake. + + 16-1/4. Slough Springs.--The road passes over a very rocky divide, + covered with loose volcanic debris, very hard for animals, and + wearing to their feet. They should be well shod before + attempting the passage. + + 18-1/2. Marshy Lake.--Road difficult for wagons. + + 15. Clear Lake.--Beautiful lake of pure water, with good grass + around its shore. + + 25-1/4. East shore of Rhett's Lake.--Road tolerable over a rolling, + rocky country, between lakes. The road crosses Lost River over + a natural bridge, on a solid, smooth ledge of rock. + + 19. West shore of Rhett's Lake.--Plenty of wood, water, and + grass along this road. + + 21. Klamath River.--Road leaves Rhett's Lake, and enters the + forest and mountains; tolerably good. Good camp. + + 15-1/4. Cascade Mountains.--The road passes over high mountains, + through lofty pine-trees. Camp is at Summit Meadows. Good + water and grass, also fuel. + + 14-1/4. Western slope of Cascade Mountains.--Rough roads. + + 19-1/4. Rogue River Valley.--Road descends into the settlements + in six miles, where there is a lovely fertile valley, well + settled with farmers. + + 23-3/4. Fort Lane.--Near "Table Rock," on Rogue River, eight miles + from Jacksonville. Dragoon post. + + 22-3/4. Rogue River Valley.--Good camp. + + 18. Siskiyou Mountains.--Road crosses the Siskiyou Mountains, + and is difficult for wagons. + + 18. Yreka.--Flourishing mining city. + + 18. Fort Jones.--Infantry post, in Scott's Valley. + + 20. Scott's Mountain.--Good camp at the foot of the mountain. + Road passes over the mountains, but is impassable for wagons. + + 90. Shasta City.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 180. Sacramento City. + + * * * * * + +XI.--_From Soda Springs to Fort Wallah Wallah and Oregon City, Oregon_, +via _Fort Hall._ + +Miles. + + Soda Springs to + + 25. Portner Creek.--Good camp. Take the right-hand road. + + 10. Ross's Creek.--Good camp. + + 10. Fort Hall Valley.--Good camp. Road runs down the creek. + + 8. Snake River.--Good camp. Road crosses the river bottom. + + 5. Fort Hall. + + 15. Small Branch.--Camp is three miles below the crossing of + Port Neuf River, which is fordable. Good wood, water, and + grass. + + 10. American Falls.--Good camp. + + 13. Raft River.--Road rough and rocky. Sage for fuel; grass + scarce. + + 17. Bend of Swamp Creek.--Grass scarce. + + 20. On Snake River.--Road crosses Swamp and Goose Creeks. Wood + on the hills; grass short. + + 25. Rock Creek.--Road crosses one small creek, and is very rough + and rocky for several miles, when it enters a sandy region, + where the grass is scarce; sage plenty, and willows on the + creek. + + 24. Snake River.--Road crosses several small branches. There is + but little grass except in narrow patches along the river + bottom. + + 26. Fishing Falls.--Road very crooked and rough, crossing two + small streams. + + 29. Snake River.--Road crosses several small creeks, but leaves + the main river to the north, and runs upon an elevated + plateau. Good grass at camp. + + 16. Snake River (ford).--Road tortuous; ford good in low water. + + 19. Small Branch.--Road crosses Snake River, and follows up a + small branch, leaving the river to the left. Good grass. + Road ascends to a high plateau, which it keeps during the + whole distance. + + 26. River "Aux Rochers."--Road passes Hot Springs, and is rough. + Wood, water, and grass plenty. + + 22. Small Creek.--Road crosses two small branches, and is very + rocky, but at camp grass, wood, and water are abundant. + + 23. Rio Boisè.--Road crosses one small creek, and follows along + the Boisè River. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 26. Fort Boisè.--Road follows the south bank of Boisè River to + the fort. + + 2. Fort Boisè.--Road crosses Boisè River. Good ford at ordinary + stages. Grass good in the river bottom. + + 20. River "Aux Matthews."--Good road. Grass abundant, but + coarse; wood and water plenty. + + 27. Snake River.--Road passes over a rough country. Grass scarce + and of a poor quality. + + 20. Burnt River.--Road leaves Snake River, and takes across + Burnt River, following up the north side of this to the + camp. It is mountainous and rough, but the grass is + good, and there is wood along the river. + + 22. Burnt River.--Road continues up the river, and is still + rough and mountainous. Grass and wood plenty. + + 26. Small Branch.--Road passes over a divide to "Powder River." + It is still rough, but getting better. The grass is good. + + 13. Powder River.--Good road; grass plenty. + + 21. Creek.--Road passes a divide, crossing several small + streams, and is smooth, with plenty of grass and fuel. + + 20. Creek.--Road crosses one small branch, and is rather rough. + The grass and fuel are good and abundant. + + 21. Creek.--Road follows down the creek for ten miles, then + turns up a small branch, and is good. There is plenty + of grass and fuel. + + 12. Branch.--Road crosses a divide and strikes another branch. + + 5. Small branch of the Umatilah River.--Good road, with plenty + of wood and grass. + + 16. Branch of Wallah Wallah River.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 18. Wallah Wallah River.--Wood, water, and grass. Columbia River + at Fort Wallah Wallah.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 10. Butler Creek.--Good camp. + + 18. Wells's Spring.--Good camp. + + 12. Willow Creek.--Good camp. + + 13. Cedar Spring.--Good camp. + + 6. John Day's River.--Good camp. + + 5. Forks of Road.--No camping. Left-hand road for wagons, and + right-hand for pack trains. This itinerary takes the left. + + 10. Ouley's Camp.--Good camp. + + 19. Soot's River.--Good camp. + + 6. Fall River.--Good camp. + + 10. Utah's River.--Good camp. + + 18. Soot's River.--Good camp. + + 6. Soot's River.--Good camp. Road follows up the river, crossing + it several times. + + 16. Sand River Fork.--Good grass a mile and a half to the left + of the road. + + 8. Good Camp. + + 15. Royal Hill Camp.--Good camp. + + 7. Sandy River.--But little grass. + + 45. Down the River.--Good camps all the distance. + + 25. Oregon City.--Good camps all the distance. + + 75. Salem.--Good camps all the distance. + + * * * * * + +XII.--_Route for pack trains from John Day's River to Oregon City._ + +Miles. + + John Day's River to + + 17. Columbia River.--From John Day's River to the forks of the + road, and thence by the right-hand fork to the + Columbia. Good camp. + + 2-1/2. Soot's River Ferry.--Good camp. + + 15. Dalles.--Good camp. + + 25. Dog River.--Good camp. + + 15. Cascade Mountains.--One bad place. + + 9. Ouley's Rock.--Good camp. + + 20. Image Plain Ferry.--Good camp. + + 15. Portland.--Good camp. + + 12. Oregon City.--Good camp. + + * * * * * + +XIII.--_From Indianola and Powder-horn to San Antonio, Texas._ + +Miles. + + Powder-horn to + + 4. Indianola, Texas.--Steamers run from New Orleans five times + a week to Powder-horn. + + 14. Chocolate Creek.--Good grass and water; fuel scarce. Road + passes over a low, flat country, which in wet weather + is heavy and muddy. + + 12. Grove.--Grove of oak; good water and grass. The road passes + over a hog-wallow prairie, which is very muddy, and almost + impassable for loaded teams after rains. The grass is abundant + every where in this section. + + 12-1/2. Victoria.--The road is good, passing along near the east + bank of the Guadalupe River. The country is thickly settled + with farmers, who sell grain at reasonable rates. Grass + abundant, also fuel. + + 34. Yorktown.--Road crosses the Guadalupe River on a bridge; + toll one dollar for a six-mule team. It then crosses a + low bottom for three miles; from thence the road is + good, over a rolling country, with plenty of wood, + water, and grass. + + 33. Cibello River.--Good road; wood, water, and grass plenty. + + 35. San Antonio.--Good road, with plenty of wood, water, and + grass along the road. The Cibello is fordable at + ordinary stages. The traveler can procure any thing he + may need at Victoria and at San Antonio. + + * * * * * + +XIV.--_Wagon-road from San Antonio, Texas, to El Paso, N.M., and +Fort Yuma, Cal._ + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + San Antonio to + + 6.41. Leona. + + 18.12. Castroville. + + 11.00. Hondo. + + 14.28. Rio Seco. + + 12.50. Sabinal. + + 13.46. Rio Frio. + + 15.12. Nueces. + + 10.27. Turkey Creek. + + 15.33. Elm Creek.--All good camps, with abundance of wood, water, + and grass. Country mostly settled, and the road very + good, except in wet weather, from San Antonio to Elm + Creek. + + 7.00. Fort Clarke.--Good grass, wood, and water. Road level and + good. + + 7.00. Piedra Pinta,--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 8.86. Maverick's Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 12.61. San Felipé.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 10.22. Devil's River.--First crossing. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 18.27. California Springs.--Grass and water poor. + + 18.39. Devil's River.--Second crossing. Grass poor. + + 19.50. Devil's River.--Good camp. The only water between Devil's + River and Live Oak Creek is at Howard's Springs. The + road is very rough in places. + + 44.00. Howard's Springs.--Grass scarce; water plenty in winter; + wood plenty. + + 30.44. Live Oak Creek.--Good water and grass. The road passes + within 1-1/2 miles of Fort Lancaster. + + 7.29. Crossing of Pecos River.--Bad water and bad camp. The water + of the Pecos can be used. + + 5.47. Las Moras.--Good water, grass, and wood. The road is rough + on the Pecos. + + 32.85. Camp on the Pecos River.--Wood and grass scarce. + + 16.26. Escondido Creek.--At the crossing. Water good; little + grass or wood. + + 8.76. Escondido Spring.--Grass and water good; little grass. + + 19.40. Comanche Creek.--Grass and water good; little grass. + + 8.88. Leon Springs.--Grass and water good; no wood. + + 33.86. Barela Spring.--Grass and water good; wood plenty. + + 28.00. Fort Davis.--Good camp. From Fort Davis to Eagle Springs + there is an ascent, and one of the very best of roads. + + 18.42. Barrel Springs.--Water good; grass and wood fair. + + 13.58. Dead Man's Hole.--Good wood and water; grass scarce. + + 32.83. Van Horne's Wells.--No grass or wood, but they will be + found two miles back. + + 19.74. Eagle Springs.--Grass and wood poor; water about half a + mile from camp, in a narrow cañon. + + 32.03. Mouth of Cañon "de los Camenos."--The road is rather rough. + From here to Fort Bliss, opposite El Paso, the road + runs near the river, and camps may be made any where. + The wood, water, and grass are good at all points. + + 61.13. San Eluzario.--Mexican town. + + 9.25. Socorro.--Mexican town. + + 15.00. Fort Bliss, at El Paso.--United States military post and + Mexican town. + +Total distance from San Antonio to El Paso, 654.27 miles. + + * * * * * + +Miles. + + El Paso to + + 22. Cottonwood.--From El Paso to Messilla Valley, in the Gadsden + Purchase, the road runs up the east bank of the Rio + Grande to Fort Fillmore (N.M.), where it crosses the + river into the Messilla Valley. + + 22. Fort Fillmore. + + 6. La Messilla. + + 65. Cook's Spring.--From Messilla Valley to Tucson the road is + remarkably good, with good grass and water. The streams + on this section are the Mimbres and San Pedro, both + fordable, and crossed with little trouble. The Apache + Indians are generally met with in this country. There + is a flouring-mill two miles below El Paso, where flour + can be purchased at very reasonable prices. + + 18. Rio Mimbres. + + 17. Ojo la Vaca. + + 10. Ojo de Ynez. + + 34. Peloncilla. + + 18. San Domingo. + + 23. Apache Springs. + + 9. Cabesas Springs. + + 26. Dragon Springs. + + 18. Quercos Cañon.--Bunch-grass will be found sufficient for + traveling purposes along this section of the road + between El Paso and Tucson. + + 6. San Pedro Crossing. + + 20. Cienega. + + 13. Cienega Creek. + + 20. Mission of San Navier. + + 8. Tucson.--Total distance from El Paso to Tucson, 305 miles. + + 5. Pico Chico Mountain. + + 35. First Camp on Gila River. + + 29. Maricopa Wells.--The Maricopa Wells are at the western + extremity of a fertile valley occupied by Pincos + Indians, who cultivate corn and other grain. + + 40. Tezotal.--Across Jornada. There is but little grass here, + but in the season the mesquite leaves are a good substitute. + + 10. Ten Mile Camp. + + 15. Oatman's Flat.--First crossing of the Gila River. + + 25. Second Crossing of the Gila.--The traveler can generally + find sufficient grass in the hills along the valley of + the Gila. + + 32. Peterman's Station. + + 20. Antelope Peak. + + 24. Little Corral. + + 16. Fort Yuma. + +The distance from El Paso to Fort Yuma is 644 miles. + +[Illustration: WELL IN THE DESERT.--ALAMO MOCHO.] + + * * * * * + +XV.--_From Fort Yuma to San Diego, California._ + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + Fort Yuma to + + 10.00. Los Algodones.--Along the Colorado. + + 10.00. Cook's Wells.--Here commences the great desert; water + nowhere good or reliable until arriving at Carizo + Creek. The points named are where deep wells have been + dug. "New River," though usually set down, is a dry + arroyo. The surface of the desert for seven miles on + the eastern side is drifting sand and heavy for wagons. + Then comes a section in the centre of the desert that + is hard and level. On the west side there is about + three miles of a mud flat. + + 21.90. Alamo Rancho. + + 16.40. Little Laguna. + + 4.50. New River. + + 5.80. Big Laguna. + + 26.40. Carizo Creek.--Water good; cane and brush for fuel, and + they afford some forage for the animals; no grass. + + 16.60. Vallecito.--Grass poor; wood and water sufficient. + + 17.80. San Felipe.--Grass poor; wood scarce; water good. + + 15.80. Warner's Ranch.--The road passes through a beautiful oak + grove, where there is an abundance of grass and water. + This is the summit of the mountain. At the Ranch the + grass is poor, and no wood. The water is good. The oak + grove terminates six miles from Warner's. + + 10.30. Santa Isabel.--Good grass, wood, and water. This was an + old Spanish mission, but is now occupied by some + Americans and Indians. + + 11.40. Laguna.--Two miles from last camp is a good camping-place. + The road passes over some steep hills, not high. This + is the best camp on the road. + + 12.00. San Pasquel.--For the first nine miles the road is level + and good to the top of the mountain, where there is a + good camping-place, with wood, water, and grass; thence + the road descends a very steep hill. The camp is on the + east side of the brook, near Soto's house. + + 18.80. Parrasquitas.--The road passes a good camp three miles + from San Pasqual. Wood, Water, and grass at Parrasquitas. + + 8.00. Fisher's House.--The road passes over several hills, and + at four miles is a good camping-place. Wood, water, and + grass at camp. + + San Diego, California.--When animals are to be kept a + considerable time at San Diego, they should be taken + four or five miles up the river, as the grass is poor + near the town. + +Total distance from Fort Yuma to San Diego, 217 miles. + + * * * * * + +XVI.--_From El Paso, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California_, via _Santa +Cruz._ + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + From El Paso to + + 26.10. Samalayuca.--Spring, with grass and wood. + + 38.00. Salado.--Bad water, with little grass and wood. + + 24.75. Santa Maria.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 27.50. Mines of San Pedro.--Bad water; little grass or water. + + 19.20. Correlitos.--Good water, grass, and wood. + + 20.00. Janos.--Good water, grass, and wood. + + 12.00. Pelatudo.--Good water, grass, and wood. + + 30.00. San Francisco.--Water half a mile south of the road. + + 18.00. San Louis.--Good water, grass, and wood. + + 35.00. San Bernardino.--Good water, grass, and wood. + + 30.00. Ash Creek.--Grass, wood, and water. + + 37.00. Head of San Pedro.--Grass and water. + + 24.00. Santa Cruz.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 31.00. Cocospe.--Much grass; 10 or 12 miles without water. Leave + Santa Cruz River at old Rancho San Lazaro. No water till + reaching the head of San Ignacio, except at nine miles, a + spring one mile west of the road. + + 26.00. Hemores.--From Cocospe to Santa Anna follow down the San + Ignacio, and in many places there is wood and grass. Grass + is much better at three miles from the river. At the foot + of the hills there is an abundance of grama-grass. + + 5.00. Terrenati. + + 4.00. San Ignacio. + + 5.20. Madina. + + 5.20. San Lorenzo. + + 2.60. Santa Marta. + + 5.20. Santa Anna. + + 26.00. Alamita.--Plenty of grass. Leave the river 10 or 12 miles + from Santa Anna, and no water thence to Alamita, which is a + small rancho. + + 31.20. Altar.--No water; grass abundant. + + 13.00. Laguna.--Small water-hole; grass scanty and poor. + + 52.00. Sonia.--Sometimes water is found 25 miles from the Laguna, + south of the road. There is a well at Sonia in the town, + and sometimes water in a hole 300 yards south of the town, + 100 yards west of the road. + + 10.40. El Paso.--Well at El Paso supplying 100 animals; water + muddy and brackish; grass poor. + + 52.00. Sonorita.--No water on the road; at Sonorita are several + brackish springs. Grass poor; bad camping-place; saltpetre + at the springs. + + Quita Oaquita.--No water on the road. Saline spring at camp, + better than at Sonorita, but the grass is not so good. + + 10.40. Agua Salado.--Water uncertain; grass poor. + + 23.40. Los Pleyes.--Water only in the rainy season, one mile west + of the road, hidden by bushes and difficult to find. Grass + pretty good. + + 28.60. Cabeza Prieta.--Natural tenajas in a ravine two miles from + the road; follow a wagon-track up this ravine between a + black and a red mountain. The water is good and abundant; + grass tolerable. + + 31.00. Poso.--No water on the road until reaching Poso. Here it + is abundant on the east side of the road; grass good one + mile west. + + 13.00. Rio Gila.--But little good grass. + + 26.00. Fort Yuma, at the crossing of the Colorado River.--But + little good grass for several miles. + +Total distance from El Paso to Fort Yuma, 756 miles. + + * * * * * + +XVII.--_From Westport, Missouri, to the gold diggings at Pike's Peak +and "Cherry Creek" N.T._, via _the Arkansas River._ + +Miles. + + Westport to + + 4-3/4. Indian Creek.--The road runs over a beautiful country. + Indian Creek is a small wooded stream, with abundance + of grass and water. + + 8-3/4. Cedar Creek.--The road passes over a fine country, and + there is a good camping-place at Cedar Creek. + + 8-1/2. Bull Creek.--The road is smooth and level, with less wood + than before. Camping good. + +[Illustration: Sketch of the country in the vicinity of the Gold +Region near Pike's Peak and Cherry Creek.] + + 9-1/2. Willow Springs.--At nine miles the road passes "Black Jack + Creek," where there is a good camping-place. The road has + but little wood upon it at first, but it increases toward + the end of the march. The road is level for some distance, + but becomes more rolling, and the country is covered with + the finest grass. Good camp at one mile from the main road. + + 20-1/4. 110-Mile Creek.--The road traverses the same character of + country as yesterday, but with less woodland, is very smooth, + and at 9 and 12 miles passes "Rock Creeks," which have no + running water in a dry season. Good camp. + + 22-1/2. Prairie Chicken Creek.--At eight miles the road crosses + Dwissler Creek, which is a fine little stream; four miles + farther First Dragoon Creek, and at one mile farther the + Second Dragoon Creek, both fine streams, well wooded, and + good camping-places. Good camp. + + 20. "Big Rock Creek."--At one mile the road crosses a small wooded + branch. Three miles beyond it crosses "Elm Creek," where + a good camping-place may be found. At 7 miles it crosses + 142-Mile Creek, and at 13 miles it crosses Bluff Creek, where + there is a good camping-place. Good camp. + + 20. "Council Grove," on Elm Creek.--Road passes "Big John Spring" + at 13 miles, and is smooth and good. A fine camp is found + three fourths of a mile beyond the "Grove," on Elm Creek, + with abundance of wood, water, and grass. + + 16. Diamond Spring.--At-eight miles the road crosses Elm Creek, + and passes over a section similar to that east of Council + Grove. It is fine in dry weather, but muddy after heavy + rains. Good camp at Diamond Spring. + + 16. Lost Spring.--One mile from camp the road passes a wooded + creek. From thence there is no more wood or permanent water + until arriving at camp. Take wood here for cooking, as there + is not a tree or bush in sight from Lost Spring. The country + becomes more level, with grass every where. The road is muddy + in wet weather. + + 15-3/4. Cottonwood Creek.--Road continues over a prairie country, + sensibly rising and improving. Wood, water, and grass at + camp. + + 22. Turkey Creek.--The road is good, and at 18 miles passes + Little Turkey Creek. No wood, and the water poor at camp; + grass good. + + 23. Little Arkansas River.--The road runs over a level prairie, + and at 3-1/2 miles passes "Big Turkey Creek," with the + Arkansas River Valley in sight all day. After rains there + are frequent pools of water along the road. Good camp. + + 20. "Big Cow" Creek.--The road passes for ten miles over a level + prairie, to Charez Creek, which is a bushy gully; thence six + miles to Little Cow Creek, which is a brushy stream, with + here and there a tree. Good camp here to the left of the + road, near a clump of trees. "Prairie-dog towns" commence + to be seen. Road very level. Buffalo-grass here. + + 20. Big Bend of the Arkansas.--The road at 12 miles strikes the + sand-hills of the Arkansas River. They are soon passed, + however, and the level river bottom is reached. The river + has a rapid current flowing over a quicksand bed. The road + is generally good from the last camp. Wood, water, and grass + at camp. + + 7. Walnut Creek.--The road is good. Cool springs at this camp; + good grass and wood. + + 21. Head of Coon Creek.--At five miles the road forks, one + following the river, the other a "short cut" "dry route" + to Fort Atkinson, where they unite on the river. The country + rises for ten miles on the dry route, then descends to the + river, and is covered with the short buffalo-grass. No wood + at camp. + + 18. Arkansas River.--The road passes over an undulating and + uninteresting prairie, with but little vegetation. The water + in dry weather is in pools. + + 19. Arkansas River, at Fort Atkinson.--The road runs over a + similar country to that of yesterday, with no wood near; + plenty of buffalo-chips for cooking, and good grass. + + 18-3/4. Arkansas River.--At 4-1/2 miles the road ascends a bluff + covered with thick buffalo-grass. On the river is heavy + bottom-grass. At 17 miles pass a ford. Grass good at camp. + + 19-1/4. Arkansas River.--The road is sandy for 14 miles, but not + deep except in places; thence to camp it is good. Good camp. + + 22. Arkansas River.--Country prairie, covered with short + buffalo-grass. Good camp. + + 22. Arkansas River.--The road is fine, crossing several dry-beds + of creeks, along which are seen a few scattering trees. Good + camp on a dry creek near the river. + + 24. Arkansas River.--The road runs over a barren plain at the + foot of the main plateau, and crosses two dry creeks near + the camp, on which are cottonwood-trees. Plenty of wood at + camp. + + 21. Arkansas River.--The road follows the base of the hills at + from one to three miles from the river. Good camp. + + 20. Arkansas River.--At seven miles the road strikes the "Big + Timbers," where there is a large body of cottonwood; thence + for three miles the road is heavy sand. Good camps along + here. + + 13. Arkansas River.--At one mile the road passes some old houses + formerly used as a trading-post. Here terminates the "Big + Timbers." Coarse grass at the camp. + + 15. Arkansas River.--At three miles the road passes the mouth of + Purgatoire Creek. Camp is below Bent's Fort. Good grass here. + + 24. Arkansas River.--Pass Bent's Fort. The grass is excellent in + the vicinity of the fort, but after this it is not so good. + The road runs over a high and considerably broken country. + Good camp. + + 11. Arkansas River.--Opposite the mouth of the Apishpa Creek; + good camp. The Huerfano Mountains and Spanish Peaks are in + sight from the camp. The "Cherokee Trail" comes in from + Arkansas near Bent's Fort, and leads to the gold diggings + at Cherry Creek. + + 9. Arkansas River.--Opposite the mouth of the Huerfano Creek. + Good camp, and a ford opposite Charles Audebee's house. + + 12. Arkansas River.--At this point the Cherokee trail bears to + the right and leaves the river. The left-hand, or river road, + runs up to the old pueblo at the mouth of the Fontaine qui + Bouille Creek. The right-hand road leads to the gold diggings. + +[Illustration: SANGRE DE CRISTO PASS.] + + 15-3/4. Fontaine qui Bouille.--The road strikes in a northwest + course over the rolling country, and comes upon the creek + at a most beautiful camp, where there is a great abundance + of good wood, water, and grass. The wood, water, and grass + are good at all points on the Fontaine qui Bouille, and + travelers can camp any where upon this stream. + + 17-1/2. Fontaine qui Bouille.--Here the road forks, one running + up the river, and the other striking directly across to the + divide of the Arkansas and Platte. I prefer the left-hand + road, as it has more water and better grass upon it. + + 6-1/2. Forks of the "Fontaine qui Bouille."--The road to Cherry + Creek here leaves the "Fontaine qui Bouille" and bears to the + right. There is a large Indian trail which crosses the main + creek, and takes a northwest course toward "Pike's Peak." By + going up this trail about two miles a mineral spring will be + found, which gives the stream its name of "_The Fountain + that Boils_." This spring, or, rather, these springs, as + there are two, both of which boil up out of solid rock, are + among the greatest natural curiosities that I have ever seen. + The water is strongly impregnated with salts, but is + delightful to the taste, and somewhat similar to the + Congress-water. It will well compensate any one for the + trouble of visiting it. + + 17-1/2. Black Squirrel Creek.--This creek is near the crest of the + high divide between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers. It is a + small running branch, but always affords good water. There is + pine timber here, and the grass is good on the prairies to + the east. This is a locality which is very subject to severe + storms, and it was here that I encountered the most severe + snow-storm that I have ever known, on the first day of May, + 1858. I would advise travelers to hasten past this spot as + rapidly as possible during the winter and spring months, as a + storm might prove very serious here. + + 14. Near the head of Cherry Creek.--The road crosses one small + branch at four miles from Black Squirrel Creek; it then takes + up to an elevated plateau, which in a rainy season is very + muddy. The camp is at the first timber that is found, near + the road, to the left. There is plenty of wood, water, and + grass here. There is also a good camping-place at the small + branch that is mentioned. + + 10. On Cherry Creek.--There is good grass, wood, and water + throughout the valley of Cherry Creek. The mountains are from + five to ten miles distant, on the left or west of the road, + and when I passed there was a great abundance of elk, deer, + antelope, bear, and turkeys throughout this section. + + 7. On Cherry Creek.--Good camp. + + 11. On Cherry Creek.--Good camp. + + 17. Mouth of Cherry Creek, at the South Platte.--Good camp, and + a town built up since I passed, called "_Denver City_." + +Total distance from Westport to the gold diggings, 685-1/4 miles. + + * * * * * + +XVIII.--_From St. Paul's, Min., to Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon._ + +Miles. + + St. Paul's to + + 17-1/4. Small Brook.--The wood, water, and grass are abundant as far + as the "Bois des Sioux" River. + + 20-1/4. Cow Creek.--This stream is crossed on a bridge. + + 23-1/4. Small Lake.--North of the road. The road passes over a + rolling prairie, and crosses Elk River on a bridge. + + 17. Near Sauk Rapids.--The road crosses Elk River twice on + bridges; Mississippi River near. + + 18. Russel's.--Ferry across the Mississippi River, then follow + the Red River trail. Camp is on a cold spring brook. + + 6. Cold Spring Brook.--Cross Sauk River, 300 feet wide, 4-1/2 + feet deep. + + 19-1/2. Lake Henry.--Road good. + + 18-3/4. Lightning Lake.--Cross Cow River in a ferry-boat; water 4-1/2 + feet deep. + + 17-1/2. Lake.--One mile from Red River trail. Pass White Bean Lake. + + 9-1/2. Pike Lake.--Pass the South Branch of the Chippeway River. + Road runs over rolling prairie, and crosses a small branch. + + 19-1/4. Small Lake.--Cross Chippeway River in a boat. Road passes + numerous lakes and the best grass. + + 9-3/4. Small Lake.--Road passes rolling prairies, and crosses + Rabbit River. + + 27. "Bois des Sioux" River.--Cross Bois des Sioux Prairie; + rolling ground. + + 11. Wild Rice River.--Cross "Bois des Sioux" River, 70 feet wide + and 4 to 7 feet deep, muddy bottom and banks. Wood, water, + and grass at all camps between this and Maple River. + + 4-1/2. Small Creek.--Cross Wild Rice River on a bridge. + + 26-1/2. Sheyene River.--Smooth prairie road. + + 16-1/2. Maple River.--Cross Sheyene River on a bridge, and several + small branches. + + 20. Small Creek.--Smooth road; no wood. + + 20. Pond.--Wet and marshy; numerous ponds in sight; no wood. + + 15. Pond.--No wood; approaching Sheyene River. + + 13-1/2. Sheyene River.--Prairie more rolling; camp in the river + bottom. Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 7. Slough.--Cross Sheyene River, 50 feet wide, 3-1/2 feet deep. + No wood. + + 10. Lake.--Rolling prairie, with many marshes. Wood, water, and + grass. + + 10-1/2. Pond.--Low, wet prairie; no wood; plenty of grass and water. + + 18-1/4. Marsh.--Smooth prairie, generally dry. + + 20. "Rivière à Jaques."--Smooth prairie, with marshes. Road + crosses the river several times. Wood, water, and grass. + + 21-1/2. Pond.--Hilly and marshy prairie, with small ponds, and no + wood. + + 12. Small Branch.--Marshy prairie, filled with ponds, with a + thin, short grass, and no wood. + + 19-3/4. Lake.--On a high knoll. Road crosses the South Fork of + Sheyene River; good crossing; thence rolling prairie, + passing "Balto de Morale," also a narrow lake 4-1/2 miles + long. + + 16-1/2. Pond.--Marshy prairie, ponds, and knolls; cross a small + branch at 7-3/4 miles. No wood. + + 17-3/4. Pond.--Rolling prairie. Cross Wintering River, a deep, + muddy stream 100 feet wide, also marshy prairies and ponds. + No wood. + + 16. Small Branch.--Tributary of Mouse River. Road skirts the + valley of Mouse River, crossing the ravines near their + heads. + + 15-1/4. Pond.--Undulating prairie with occasional marshes; the road + then turns up the high ridge called "Grand Coteau." No wood. + + 20-1/4. Lake.--Hilly road approaching Grand Coteau. No wood. + + 20. Lake.--Rolling prairie; smooth, good road; no wood. + + 15-1/2. Pond.--Road passes Grand Coteau at 11 miles, and runs + between two lakes. No wood, but plenty of "bois de vache" + for fuel. + + 19-1/4. Branch of White Earth River.--Country rolling and hilly. + Road passes wood at eight miles from camp. + + 23-1/4. Pond.--For two miles the road passes over a low, flat + country, after which the country is hilly. No wood. + + 23-1/2. Pond.--Rolling and hilly country, with rocky knobs. At 18 + miles cross branch of Muddy Creek 15 feet wide. Wood in + ravines near this stream. No wood at camp. + + 20. Pond.--Rolling country. At 11 miles there is water in a + ravine. To the left there is more water, but the country + is rough. No wood. + + 16-1/4. Fort Union.--Road descends a hill to the fort; before this + it passes over high, firm prairie. Good grass near in the + hills. + + 6-1/2. Pond.--No wood; good grass. + + 6. Little Muddy River.--Good camp. + + 15-1/2. Creek.--Two good camps between this and the last. Wood, + water, and grass. + + 10. Big Muddy River.--Drift-wood for fuel. + + 11. Marsh near Missouri.--Good camp. + + 18. Poplar River.--Good camp. One or two good camps between + this and the last camp. + + 23-1/2. Creek near Missouri.--Good camp. + + 15. Slough near Missouri.--Good camp. + + 17-1/2. Milk River.--One good camp between this and the last camp. + + 13-1/2. Milk River.--Several good camps passed. + + 17-1/2. Milk River.--Good camp. + + 19-1/2. Milk River.--Several good camps passed. + + 17-3/4. Milk River.--At the crossing. The road follows a trail on + the bluffs, and descends again to the river. + + 7-1/2. Lake.--No wood; grass and water plenty. + + 12-1/2. Milk River.--Second crossing. Good camp. + + 12. Milk River.--Good camp. + + 15-1/2. Milk River.--Good camps between this and the last camp. + + 10-3/4. Milk River.--Good camp. + + 20. Milk River.--Good camp. + + 16. Milk River.--Good camp. + + 18. Milk River.--At the third crossing.--Good camp. + + 7-1/2. Branch of Milk River.--Good camp. + + 17-1/2. Branch of Milk River.--Several good camps between this and + the last camp. + + 6. Branch of Milk River.--Good camp. + + 19-1/4. Prairie Spring.--No wood; water and grass plenty. + + 13-3/4. Teton River.--Road crosses "Marias River." + + 8-3/4. Teton River, at Fort Benton.--A trading-post. + + 2-1/2. Small Creek.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 18-3/4. Missouri River.--Good camp. + + 20-1/2. Missouri River.--Above the falls. Road much broken into + ravines. Wood, water, and grass. + + 16-3/4. Missouri River.--Road crosses first tributary above Fort + Benton at ten miles. + + 17. Missouri River.--The road becomes very bad after fourteen + miles, but is better on the north side of the Missouri. + + 6. Missouri River.--The road is exceedingly rough and broken; + crosses the river.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 11. Tributary of the Missouri.--The most difficult part of the + road is passed, but the country is still hilly. + + 18-1/2. Tributary of the Missouri.--The road follows up the + last-mentioned stream to near its head. Good camps. + + 15. Near the summit of Little Blackfoot Pass, on a broad Indian + trail; excellent road. + + 14-3/4. Little Blackfoot River.--Road crosses the summit of the Rocky + Mountains. Good road for wagons, with many camping-places. + + 17-1/2. Little Blackfoot River.--Road good, descending along the + river. Near the camp a large fork comes in. + + 28-1/2. Little Blackfoot River.--Good road, which follows the broad, + open valley for 14 miles. Good camps. + + 19-1/2.-Little Blackfoot River.--The valley contracts so that wagons + will be forced to take the bed of the river in some places. + The river is fordable, and the trail crosses it five times + during the day. + + 22-1/2. Blackfoot River.--Sixteen miles from the last camp "Blackfoot" + and "Hell Gate" River's enter, and about one mile of this + distance is impassable for wagons; they would have to cross + the river, which is fordable. Good camps. + + 27-1/2. Fort Owen.--Road runs up the St. Mary's River to Fort Owen + over a broad, good trail in the valley. + + 40. St. Mary's River.--The south Nez Percés trail leaves the + main trail, which ascends the St. Mary's Valley to the Forks, + and follows the southwest fork to its source. To the Forks + the valley of the St. Mary's is open, and admits wagons. + + 24. Southwest Fork of St. Mary's River.--The road follows a + narrow trail, crossing the river frequently, and is not + passable for wagons. The valley is narrow, and shut in by + hills. + + 5-1/2. Kooskooskia River.--Road leaves the St. Mary's River, passing + over a high ridge to the Kooskooskia River. + + 10. Branch.--Road runs over wooded hills. + + 14. Creek.--Road runs over wooded hills. + + 9. Small Creek.--This is the best camp between the St. Mary's + River and the Nez Percés country. + + 15. Small Creek.--Road passes over wooded hills. + + 9. Small Branch.--Road passes over wooded hills, is very rough + and difficult. Poor camp. + + 14. Small Creek.--Ten miles from last camp the road passes a high + divide, ascending rapidly, though not difficult. Good grass + on the summit, but no water. + + 13. Small Creek.--Good camp where the trail emerges from the woods + on to the high plateau. + + 7. Clear Water River.--Large tributary. Road runs over high + table-land, and descends to the valley of the river. + + 43. Lapwai River.--The road follows a broad trail down the river + six miles, when it leaves the river bottom and ascends the + plateau, which extends to Craig's house, on the Lapwai, + fifteen miles from the river. + + 23. Tributary Snake River.--The trail runs over high ground from + Craig's to Lapwai River, 15 miles. This river is 450 feet + wide. No wood. Indians are generally found here, who ferry + over travelers. The trail follows Snake River for several + miles. + + 26-1/4. Tchannon River.--The trail passes 5-1/2 miles up the bottom + of a small creek; then runs over a steep hill to another + small creek, 8 miles; then along the valley of this stream + 10-1/2 miles; thence over a high hill to camp on Tchannon + River, 3 miles. + + 11-1/2. Touchet River.--The trail crosses the Tchannon River, and + ascends to a high plain, which continues to camp. + + 32-1/2. Touchet River.--Road follows a good trail along the valley, + where good camps are found any where, with wood, water, and + grass. + + 19-1/2. Fort Wallah Wallah.--Leaving Touchet River, the trail passes + over again to the plains, when there is neither wood, water, + or grass to Fort Wallah Wallah. + +Total distance from St. Paul's to Fort Union, 712-1/2 miles. +Total distance from Fort Union to Fort Benton, 377-1/2 " +Total distance from Fort Benton to Fort Owen, 255 " +Total distance from Fort Owen to Fort Wallah Wallah, 340-3/4 " + -------- +Total distance from St. Paul's, Min., to +Fort Wallah Wallah, Oregon, 1685-3/4 miles. + + * * * * * + +XIX.--_Lieutenant_ E. F. BEALE'S _route from Albuquerque to the +Colorado River._ + +[Distances is miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + Albuquerque to + + 2.10. Atrisco.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 20.63. Rio Puerco.--Water in pools; wood and grass. + + 19.41. Near Puta.--Abundance of wood, water, and grass. + + 13.12. Covera.--Water and grass abundant; wood scarce. + + 13.06. Hay Camp.--Wood, water, and grass plenty. + + 25.37. Agua Frio.--Wood, water, and grass plenty. + + 16.28. Inscription Rock.--Small spring; grass and wood plenty. + + 16.32. Ojo del Pescado.--Water and grass plenty; wood for camp. + + 15.13. Zuñi.--Grass and water plenty; wood scarce. + + 6.19. Indian Well.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 14.43. No. 1.--Wood and grass; no water. + + 11.93. Jacob's Well.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 6.57. No. 2, Navajo Spring.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 13.62. Noon Halt.--Water by digging; grass and wood scarce. + + 6.13. No. 3.--Grass abundant. + + 7.75. Noon Halt.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 7.25. No. 4.--Water in holes; grass and fuel plenty. + + 3.60. Three Lakes.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 1.75. Crossing Puerco.--Wood, water, and grass abundant as far as + Leroux Spring. + + 11.25. No. 5. + + 18.50. No. 6. + + 10.17. No. 7. + + 13.25. No. 8. + + 19.35. Cañon Diablo. + + 14.75. No. 10. + + 13.50. Near Cosnino Caves. + + 17.32. San Francisco Spring. + + 9.06. Leroux Spring. + + 8.48. No. 13.--Wood and grass, but no water. + + 11.13. Breckenridge Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 8.07. No. 14.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 6.50. Cedar Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 10.50. No. 15.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 19.75. Alexander's Cañon.--Wood and grass plenty; not much water. + + 8.05. Smith's Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 8.75. Pass Dornin.--Wood and grass abundant; no water. + + 13.50. No. 19.--Wood and grass abundant; no water. + + 16.35. No. 20.--Water two miles from camp; wood and grass plenty. + + 4.06. Hemphill's Spring.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 21.25. No. 21.--Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 9.75. No. 22.--Wood and grass; spring one mile distant. + + 5.50. No. 23.--Wood and grass plenty; no water. + + 8.45. No. 24.--Wood and grass; spring three miles off. + + 16.75. No. 25.--Wood and grass; no water. + + 7.25. Sabadras Spring.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 13.25. No. 26.--Wood; no grass or water. + + 8.75. Spring.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 1.25. No. 27.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 3.17. No. 28.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 1.25. No. 29.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 3.11. No. 30.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 3.25. No. 31.--East bank of Colorado River; wood. + + No. 32.--West bank; water and grass abundant. + + * * * * * + +XX.--_Captain_ WHIPPLE'S _Route from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to San +Pedro, California._ + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + Albuquerque to + + 0.88. Atrisco.--Permanent running water. + + 12.16. Isleta.--Permanent running water. + + 22.78. Rio Puerco.--Water in holes. + + 18.30. Rio Rita.--Permanent running water. + + 13.77. Covera.--Permanent running water. + + 14.66. Hay Camp.--Permanent running water. + + 17.71. Sierra Madre.--No water. + + 8.06. Agua Frio.--Permanent running water. + + 17.49. Inscription Rock.--El Moro. Permanent springs. + + 14.23. Ojo del Pescado.--Permanent springs. + + 11.74. Zuñi.--Permanent running water. + +[Illustration: SAN FRANCISCO MOUNTAIN. +Upon Captain Whipple's trail from Albuquerque to the Colorado River.] + + 8.83. Arch Spring.--Permanent spring. + + 10.77. ....--No water. + + 19.69. Jacob's Well.--Permanent water-hole. + + 7.04. Navajo Spring.--Permanent springs. + + 12.13. Willow Creek.--Rio de la Jara. Water in holes. + + 10.87. Rio Puerco of the West.--Water in holes. + + 11.59. Lithodendron Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 11.99. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 14.42. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 8.63. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 4.94. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 1.35. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 4.90. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 10.99. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 15.88. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 4.44. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 1.51. Colorado Chiquito.--Permanent running water. + + 29.72. Colinino Caves.--Permanent water-holes. + + 11.81. Near San Francisco Spring.--No water; water 4 miles from + camp. + + 10.46. Leroux's Spring.--Permanent water. + + 8.23. ....--No water. + + 6.17. ....--No water. + + 8.54. New Year's Spring.--Permanent spring. + + 9.77. Lava Creek.--Water in hole. + + 9.89. Cedar Creek.--Water in holes. + + 13.26. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes. + + 3.89. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes. + + 13.52. Partridge Creek.--Water in holes. + + 0.87. Picacho Creek.--Water in holes. + + 7.45. ....--No water. + + 8.69. Turkey Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 5.71. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 6.67. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent water in holes. + + 5.98. Pueblo Creek.--Permanent water in holes. + + 5.80. Cañon Creek.--Permanent water in holes. + + 12.16. Cañon Creek.--Permanent water in holes. + + 0.30. Cañon Creek.--Water in holes. + + 11.29. Cañon Creek.--Water in holes. + + 9.64. Cactus Pass.--Permanent running water. + + 7.97. White Cliff Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 11.60. Big Horn Springs.--Permanent spring. + +[Illustration: CAÑON ON BILL WILLIAMS'S FORK.] + + 12.83. Mouth of Cañon Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 9.21. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 4.35. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 6.21. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 4.08. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 6.10. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 5.56. "Big Sandy" Creek.--Permanent running water. + + 6.44. Mouth of Big Sandy Creek.--Permanent running water as far + as the Colorado River. + + 6.52. Rio Santa Maria. + + 8.97. Rio Santa Maria. + + 6.85. Rio Santa Maria. + + 7.22. Rio Santa Maria. + + 3.90. Rio Santa Maria. + + 8.69. Rio Santa Maria. + + 4.33. Mouth of Rio Santa Maria. + + 4.74. On Colorado River. + + 5.02. On Colorado River. + + 9.06. On Colorado River. + + 11.39. On Colorado River. + + 29.87. On Colorado River. + +[Illustration: ARTILLERY PEAK.] + + 1.02. Mojave Villages. + + 9.46. Crossing of the Colorado River. + + 0.33. On Colorado River. + + 2.78. On Colorado River. + + 20.71. ....--The road, on leaving the Colorado, runs up over a + gravelly ridge to a barren niesa, and descends the bed of + the Mojave 4 or 5 miles above its mouth, and at 9-1/2 miles + it passes springs near the point where the road turns around + the western base of a mountain. There is no water at the + camp, but grass in an arroya. + + 9.00. Pai-Uté Creek.--This is a fine stream, with good water and + grass. + + 13.00. Arroyo.--Grass and wood; water is found by digging. + + 7.00. Fine Spring.--Good water and grass. The wagon-road passes + around the hills, but an Indian trail leads through the + ravine where the spring is. + + 19.00. Marl Spring.--This is a small but constant spring; excellent + grass, and greasewood for fuel. + + 30.00. Lake.--The road follows a ridge for some distance, then + descends to an arroyo, and in a few miles emerges into a + sandy plain, where there is the dry bed of a lake, which is + firm, and makes a smooth, good road. The camp is at some + marshy pools of water. Good grass, and greasewood for fuel. + + 12.00. Mojave River.--Road passes through a valley of drifted sand, + and at the camp strikes the river, which is here a beautiful + stream of fresh water, 10 to 12 feet wide and a foot deep, + with a hard, gravelly bottom. Grass in the hills near. + + 13.00. Mojave River.--The road ascends the river, the banks of which + are covered with fine grass and mesquite wood. Good camps + along here. + + 20.00. Mojave River.--The road leads up the river for a short + distance, when it turns into an arroyo, and ascends to a low + mésa, and continues along the border of a level prairie + covered with fine bunch-grass. It then enters the river + bottom again, which is here several miles wide, and well + wooded. Grass good. + + 20.00. Mojave River.--Six miles from camp the road strikes the Mormon + road, and crosses the stream near a Mormon camping-place. The + trail runs along the river, which gets larger and has more + timber on its banks as it is ascended. Good grass, wood, and + water. + + 22.00. Mojave River.--A short distance from camp the valley contracts, + but the road is good. It leaves the valley and crosses a + gravelly ridge, but enters it again. Good grass, wood, and + water. + + 15.00. Mojave River.--Road continues along the right bank of the + river, in a southwest course, and crosses the river at camp. + Good wood, water, and grass. + + 29.50. Cajou Creek.--The road leaves the river at the crossing, and + runs toward a break in the San Bernadino Mountains; it + ascends a sharp hill and enters a cedar thicket; it then + ascends to the summit of the Cajou Pass; thence over a spur + of the mountains into an arroyo or creek in a ravine; thence + along the dry channel of the Cajou Creek for two miles, where + the water begins to run, and from thence the road is rough to + camp. + + 7.00. Cajou Creek.--Road continues along the creek to camp, and is + rough. Wood, water, and grass at camp. + + 20.00. Cocomouga's Ranch.--On a pretty stream of running water. The + road runs for six miles down the Cajou Creek, along its steep + and rocky bed. It is here a good-sized stream. Captain + Whipple's road here leaves the San Bernadino road, and turns + to the west along the base of the mountains toward Los + Angeles; it then crosses a prairie and strikes the ranch of + Cocomouga. Wood, water, and grass. + + 24.00. Town of El Monté.--The road runs upon the northern border of + a basin which is watered by many small streams, and is + settled. The camp is on the pretty stream of San Gabriel, + where there is a good camping-place. + + 14.25. City of Los Angeles.--The road passes the Mission of San + Gabriel, then enters a ravine among hills and broken ground; + it then descends and crosses the river which waters the + valley, and enters the city. There is a good camp upon the + point of a ridge on the left bank of the river. + + 23.00. San Pedro.--Good camp. + + * * * * * + +XXI.--_From Fort Yuma to Benicia, California._ From Lieutenant R. S. +WILLIAMSON'S Report. + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + Fort Yuma, on Rio Colorado, to + + 6.51. Pilot Knob. + + 5.06. Algodones. + + 11.18. Cook's Wells. + + 21.11. Alamo Mocho. + + 14.16. Little Laguna. + + 10.29. Big Laguna. + + 12.92. Forks of Road.--The left-hand road leads to San Diego, + 139.94 miles, the right-hand to San Francisco. + + 17.62. Salt Creek. + + 28.94. Water in the Desert.--Below point of rocks. + + 12.60. Cohuilla Village. + + 15.82. Deep Well. + + 10.62. Hot Spring. + + 7.36. East base of San Gorgonio Pass. + + 18.29. Summit of Pass. + + 27.10. San Bernadino.--Mormon town. + + 17.60. Sycamore Grove. + + 14.00. Qui-qual-mun-go Ranch. + + 26.60. San Gabriel River.--At crossing. + + 6.70. Mission of San Gabriel. + + 9.00. Los Angeles. + + 10.20. Cahuengo Ranch.--At the crossing of a branch of Los + Angeles River. + + 10.70. Mission of San Fernando. + + 5.90. Summit of San Fernando Pass. + + 7.15. Santa Clara River, southeast fork. + + 15.80. Summit of Coast Range.--In San Francisquito Pass. + + 18.00. Eastern base of Sierra Nevada. + + 6.70. Summit of Tejon Pass. + + 13.10. Dépôt Camp in the Tejon. + + 31.00. Kern River.--At the crossing. + + 10.80. Dépôt Camp on Pose Creek, or "O-co-ya." + + 24.30. White Creek. + + 14.90. More's Creek. + + 5.10. Tulé River. + + 22.00. Deep Creek.--Deep Creek is the first of four creeks, crossed + by the wagon-road, into which the "Pi-pi-yu-na" divides + itself after emerging from the Sierra. These streams are + commonly known as the "Four Creeks." + + 0.29. Cameron Creek.--The second of the "Four Creeks." + + 3.30. Kah-wee-ya River.--The third and principal one of the "Four + Creeks." + + 0.89. St. John's Creek.--The last of the "Four Creeks." At the + crossing. + + 28.13. Pool's Ferry.--On King's River. + + 12.32. Slough of King's River. + + 25.73. Fort Miller.--On San Joaquin River, in the foot-hills of the + Sierra Nevada. + + 9.40. Cottonwood Creek. + + 7.72. Fresno River. + + 12.15. Chowchilla River.--Sometimes known as "Big Mariposa." + + 10.39. Mariposa River. + + 6.03. Bear Creek. + + 18.33. Merced River. + + 18.87. Davis's Ferry.--Tuolumne River. + + 28.85. Grayson.--A ferry on the San Joaquin River. + + 27.54. Elk Horn.--The distance is by the wagon-road, and is + circuitous. + + 6.90. Summit of Livermore Pass. + + 7.20. Egress from Livermore Pass. + + 40.42. Martinez.--On the Straits of Carquives, opposite Benicia, + California. + +Total distance from Fort Yuma to Benicia, 800.45 miles. + + * * * * * + +XXII.--_A new route from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, opened by +Captain_ J. H. SIMPSON, U.S.A., _in_ 1858. + +Miles. + + Fort Bridger to + + 6. Branch of Black's Fork.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 7-1/4. Cedar on Bluffs of Muddy.--Grass and wood all the way up the + ravine from the Muddy, and water at intervals. + + 5-1/2. Last water in ravine after leaving the Muddy.--Wood, water, + and grass. + + 5-3/4. East Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. Junction + of Fort Supply road. + + 1/2. Middle Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Sage, Water, and grass. + + 3. West Branch of Sulphur Creek.--Willow, water, and grass; + spring a mile below. + + 5-1/4. East Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 1/4. Middle Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 2-3/4. Main Branch of Bear River.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 9-3/4. First Camp on White Clay Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 5-1/4. White Clay Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 15. White Clay Creek.--Good camps all along the valley of White + Clay Creek. + + 3/4. Commencement of Cañon.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 1/2. White Clay Creek.--Good camps all along the valley of White + Clay Creek to the end of the lower cañon. + + 12. Weber River.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 6. Parley's Park Road.--Wood, water, and grass. Pass over the + divide. + + 3-3/4. Silver Creek.--Willows, water, and grass. + + 6. Timpanogos Creek.--Wood, water, and grass. Cross over the + divide. + + 1. Commencement of Cañon.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 24-1/2. Cascade in Cañon.--Good camps at short intervals all along + Timpanogos Cañon. + + 4-1/4. Mouth of Cañon.--Wood and water. + + 6-1/4. Battle Creek Settlement.--Purchase forage. + + 3-1/4. American Fork Settlement.--Purchase forage. + + 3. Lehi (town).--Purchase forage. Grass near. + + 2-3/4. Bridge over Jordan.--Grass and water; wood in the hills + 1-1/2 miles distant. + + 14. Camp Floyd.--Wood, water, and grass. + +Total distance from Fort Bridger to Camp Floyd, 155 miles. + +NOTE.--Captain Simpson says this wagon-route is far superior to the old +one in respect to grade, wood, water, and grass, and in distance about +the same. + + * * * * * + +XXIII.--_From Fort Thorne, New Mexico, to Fort Yuma, California._ + +[Distances in miles and hundredths of a mile.] + +Miles. + + Fort Thorne, N.M., to + + 14.30. Water Holes.--One mile west of hole in rock. Water uncertain; + no wood. + + 9.19. Mule Creek.---Water at all seasons a little up the creek; + wood plenty. + + 12.00. Cook's Spring.--Water sufficient for camping; mesquite + bushes on the hills. + + 19.50. Rio Mimbres.--Water and wood abundant. + + 16.30. Ojo de la Vaca.--Water and wood. + + 12.00. Spring.--Constant small streams two miles up the cañon; + water at the road uncertain. + + 44.40. Rancho.--Pond of brackish water one mile to the right, four + miles before reaching here. + + 13.90. Rio St. Simon.--Constant water a few miles up, and mesquite + wood. + + 18.40. Pass in the Mountains.--Water on the left about two miles + after entering the Pass. + + 6.40. Arroya.--Wood one mile up; water uncertain; small stream + crossing the road 1-1/2 miles from last camp. + + 26.30. Nugent's Spring.--Large spring.--Excellent water one mile + south, at Playa St. Domingo. + + 17.20. Cañon.--To the left of the road. Water 1-1/2 miles up the + canon, two miles from the road. + + 17.00. Rio San Pedro.--Water and wood abundant. + + 16.30. San Pedro.--Water abundant; wood distant. + + 20.80. Cienequilla.--Water and wood abundant. + + 7.30. Along Cienequilla.--Water and wood abundant; road rough. + + 21.80. Mission of San Xavier.--Large mesquite, and water plenty in + Santa Cruz River. + + 8.00. Tucson.--Village on Santa Cruz River. Tucson is the last + green spot on the Santa Cruz River. The best camping-ground + is two miles beyond the village, where the valley widens, + and good grass and water are abundant. + + 7.20. Mud Holes.--The road passes over arroyas, but is rather level. + + 65.00. Agua Hermal.--Road passes over a desert section, and is hard + and level. Water is found in most seasons, except in early + summer, in natural reservoirs on an isolated mountain about + midway, called "Picapo;" poor water and tall, coarse grass + at the mud-holes. Road here strikes the Rio Gila. + + 15.10. Los Pimos.--Road follows the river bottom. Lagoon of bad + water near camp. Grass good; plenty of cottonwood and + mesquite. + + 13.20. Los Maricopas.--Road takes the river bottom, and passes + through cultivated fields; soil and grass good. The Indian + village is on a gravelly hill. The road is good. + + 40.00. El Tegotal.--The road leaves the river and crosses the + desert. No water between this and the last camp at the + Maricopas' village. Road is good. The calita abounds here, + and the mules are fond of it. + + 10.50. Pega del Rio.--Road runs in the river bottom, and is level. + + Rincon de Vega.--Road runs in the river bottom, and is level. + Good grass. + + 10.50. Mal Pais.--Road continues near the river, but over low + gravel-hills and through a short cañon of deep sand. + + 9.50. Mil Flores.--Pass over a very steep precipice to an elevated + plateau, thence over gravel-hills 4-1/2 miles to camp, where + there is excellent grass and wood. + + 13.70. Santado.--Road keeps the river bottom until within four + miles of camp, when it turns over the plateau. Good grass. + + 16.70. Las Lonas.--Road follows the river bottom. Scattered + bunch-grass on the hills. + + 11.40. Vegas.--Road follows along the river bottom. Grass poor. + + 16.80. Metate.--Road runs along at the foot of a rugged mountain. + Excellent grass at the camp. + + 14.70. El Horral.--Road ascends to the plateau, which it follows + for seven miles over a level country, then descends over + gravelly hills to the river. Camp on the river bank near the + desert. Wood plenty. + + 20.80. Los Algodones.--Road runs along at the foot of the hills or + spurs of the desert; small rugged hills, vegetation dwarf + mesquit, cacti, etc. Good grass at camp. + + 7.40. Fort Yuma, on the Rio Colorado. + +Total distance from Fort Thorne, N.M., to Fort Yuma, 571 miles. + + * * * * * + +XXIV.--_Lieutenant_ BRYAN'S _Route from the Laramie Crossing of the +South Platte to Fort Bridger_, via _Bridger's Pass._ + +Miles. + + Laramie Crossing to + + 14. Bryan's Crossing.--Road runs on the south side of the Platte. + Good grass and water. + + 12. First Crossing of Pole Creek.--Pole Creek is a rapid stream, + sandy bed, 15 feet wide, and two feet deep. Good grass on the + creek, and wood three miles off on the bluffs. + + 37. Second Crossing of Pole Creek.--Road runs along the creek. + Good grass and good camps at any point. Good road. + + 17-1/4. Third Crossing of Pole Creek.--Good camp. Wood on the bluffs. + + 20-1/2. Fourth Crossing of Pole Creek.--Creek dry for three miles. + Good grass. + + 20-1/4. Bluffs covered with dead pines.--Creek is crossed several + times. Road runs over a rough, broken country. Good grass. + + 14-1/2. Road from Fort Laramie to New Mexico.--Road rather rough. + The valley opens out into a wide plain. Plenty of grass. + + 10-1/2. On Pole Creek.--Good road; good camp. + + 20. On Pole Creek.--Road crosses several ravines, most of which + can be avoided by keeping on the bluffs; the valley is narrow. + Grass not very good. + + 17-1/2. Cheyenne Pass.--Road passes over a rolling country. Good + grass; willows for fuel. Military post established here. + + 14-1/2. Summit of Black Hills.--Source of Pole Creek. Grass poor. + + 10-1/4. East Fork of Laramie River.--Good camp. + + 16. West Fork of Laramie River.--Good camp. Cherokee trail comes + in here. + + 14. Cooper's Creek.--Wood and grass. + + 10-1/2. East Fork of Medicine Bow Creek.--Wood and grass as far as + Pass Creek. + + 2-1/2. Small Creek. + + 6. Birch Creek. + + 5-1/4. West Fork of Medicine Bow Creek. + + 2. Flint's Creek. + + 3. Elm Creek. + + 7. Rattlesnake Creek. + + 5. Pass Creek. + + 14-1/2. North Fork of the Platte.--Good road over high prairie. Five + miles before reaching the river the Cherokee trail turns to + the left, and crosses three miles above. Good camps on the + river. + + 3-1/2. First Crossing of Sage Creek.--Good road. Grass not plenty. + + 10-1/2. Second Crossing of Sage Creek.--Road runs through Sage Creek + Valley; hilly, broken, and sterile country, covered with + sage-brush. Grass not abundant. Cherokee trail leaves three + miles back. + + 4. Third Crossing of Sage Creek.--Road continues through + sage-brush. Grass gets better. + + 3. Fourth Crossing of Sage Creek.--Good grass, wood, and water. + + 9. Bridger's Pass.--Road runs over a hilly country, crossing + several small branches, with a little grass upon their banks; + country covered with sage. + + 3-1/2. Muddy Creek.--The valley of the "Muddy" is deep and narrow + at first, and afterward opens out. The crossings of this + creek were either bridged or paved by the troops in 1858. + But little grass in this valley. + + 20-1/2. Near Muddy Creek.--Very little grass; poor camp. + + 16-1/2. Bridger's Fork of the Muddy Creek.--The road for thirteen + miles runs over a rolling country, then over a rough, broken + country, with deep ravines. No water in this fork in a dry + season; small springs of brackish water near the crossing. + Grass poor. + + 4. Small Spring.--Water bad; grass poor. + + 2-1/2. Small Spring.--In the bluff. Water bad; grass poor. + + 1. Haystack.--Clay butte. Spring in the dry bed of the creek. + Bunch-grass. + + 5-1/2. Small Springs.--In bluffs on the right of the road. Grass + poor and water bad. + + 7-1/2. Springs.--There is a fine spring at the foot of a steep hill + on the south side of the road. Very little grass; rushes on + the creek. + + 3-1/2. South Fork of Bitter Creek.--Good grass and water. + + 14-3/4. On Bitter Creek.--Country hilly, and intersected with deep + ravines. South Fork is a fine stream of good water. + + 16. Sulphur Springs.--Road very hilly, crossing many deep ravines. + Grass and sage plenty. + + 9. Bitter Creek Crossing.--No grass at the crossing. Water bitter + when the creek is down, but tolerable in high water. Road rough, + with numerous ravines. + + 18-1/2. North Fork of Bitter Creek.--Cherokee trail enters near the + crossing. Road good, but little grass except in spots. Sage + for fuel. + + 4. Bluffs.--Springs of good water in the elevated bluffs on the + right of the road in the cottonwood groves. Grass good and + abundant at the base of the bluffs. + + 11-3/4. Green River.--Road is very rough and hilly, and winds along + the valley of the creek. Good camp on the river, with plenty + of wood and grass. + + 15-3/4. Crossing of Black's Fork.--Road runs up through Rabbit Hollow, + which is steep and sandy; it then passes over rolling prairie + to Black's Fork. Bunch-grass on the hills, and good camp at + the crossing. + + 11-1/4. Fort Laramie Road.--Rolling country; good road through sage + bushes. Good camps along the creek. + + 5-3/4. Ham's Fork.--Good camp on either side of the creek. United + States bridge here; good road. + + 3/4. Black's Fork Crossing.--Good ford except in high water, when + the right-hand road on the north bank of the creek is generally + traveled. + + 14-1/2. Fourth Crossing of Black's Fork.--Good road; fine camp; plenty + of wood, water, and grass. + + 2-3/4. Fifth Crossing of Black's Fork.--Good camp; good road. + + 2-3/4. Smith's Fork.--Good camp; good road. + + 11-3/4. Fort Bridger.--Good camp near; good road. + +Total distance from the Laramie Crossing of the South Platte to Fort +Bridger, 520-1/2 miles. By the Fort Laramie road the distance is 569 +miles. + + * * * * * + +XXV.--_Wagon-route from Denver City, at the Mouth of Cherry Creek, +to Fort Bridger, Utah._ + +Miles. + + Denver City to + + 5. Vasquez Fork.--Good road and fine camp. + + 19-1/2. Thompson's Fork.--Road crosses three creeks about five miles + apart, is good, and the camp is well supplied with water + and grass, but wood is scarce. + + 16-1/2. Bent's Fork.--Road crosses two streams about five miles + apart; no wood on the first. Good camp. + + 26. Cashe la Poudre River.--Excellent road crossing two streams + at ten and twenty-three miles from the last camp; good + camps on both. Cashe la Poudre is a fine large stream which + issues from the mountains near the road, and is difficult + to cross in high water. It has a firm bottom. Good camps + along this stream, with plenty of wood and grass. + + 16. Beaver Creek.--Road turns to the left and enters the hills, + ascending very gradually between two lines of bluffs, and + is good except in wet weather. Good camp. + + 19. Small Branch.--Road crosses Beaver Creek three times, + affording good camps. Road is hilly, but not very rough, + passing for a portion of the distance through a timbered + region. Elk and mountain sheep are abundant in this + section. The camp is near the summit of the divide. Grass + short. + + 17-1/2. Tributary of Laramie River.--Good road on the divide. Grass + and water plenty, but wood not abundant. + + 18-1/2. Tributary of Laramie River.--Road passes Laramie Fork three + miles from the last camp. Good camp. + + 21. Tributary of Laramie River.--Road crosses a small creek at + 14 miles from last camp. Fine camp. + + 17. Medicine Bow Creek.--At twelve miles the road crosses + Sulphur Spring Creek, and at the West Fork of the Laramie + Lieutenant Bryan's road enters. At ten miles from the last + camp there are two roads--one, Bryan's, leading north of + the Medicine Bow Butte, and the other to the south of it. + The former is the best. Good camp. + + 17-1/2. Prairie Creek.--Fine camp. A portion of the road is very + rough. It crosses several small branches upon which good + camps may be had. Fine game section, with bear, elk, etc., + in great abundance. + + 12-1/2. North Fork of the Platte.--Excellent camp. Leave Bryan's + road four miles back, taking the left, which is altogether + the best of the two. The crossing of the Platte is good + except in high water, when it is very rapid. A flat-boat + was left here by Colonel Loring's command in 1858. + + 12-1/2. Clear Creek.--Sage for fuel; grass short. + + 23. Dry Creek.--Road leaves Bryan's trail to Bridger's Pass, + and bears to the right, passing over a smooth country + covered with sage and poorly watered; passes a pond of + milky water at thirteen miles. There is water in Dry Creek + except in a very dry season. Two miles from the creek, on + the old trail, there is a fine spring on the left of the + road, which runs down into the road, and here is the best + grass after leaving the Platte, with plenty of fuel. + + 10-1/2. Muddy Creek.--Road leaves the old Cherokee trail at Dry + Creek, and bears to the left. Good camp for a limited + number of animals; fine grass along near the bank of the + creek. Bad crossing. Buffalo seen here. + + 19-1/2. Lake.--Old trail enters near this camp. Road passes a + brackish spring four miles back. The road may be shortened + by bearing to the left and skirting the hills for about six + miles before reaching the lake. The water in the lake is + not good, but drinkable, and will be abundant except in the + very dryest part of the summer. Grass is good on the hills. + The road from Dry Creek is shorter than the old road by 30 + miles. + + 24-1/2. Red Lakes.--Road is good, but traverses a very dry and + sterile region. The water is not good in the lakes, but + drinkable, and may go dry in midsummer. Grass tolerable. + + 22. Seminoes Spring.--After passing the flats at the Red Lakes + the road is smooth and good, and there is a good camp at + Seminoes Spring. + + 12-1/2. Bitter Creek.--New road to the left, cutting off ten or + twelve miles. Good camp; water a little saline, but drinkable. + + 25. Sulphur Spring.--Road runs along the valley of Bitter Creek, + where there is but little grass until reaching camp. + Animals should be driven across the creek into the hills, + where the best grass is found. + + 17. Green River.--Road leaves Bitter Creek at Sulphur Spring, + and passes near, some high bluffs, where there are small + springs and good grass. Excellent camp at Green River. From + here the road runs over the same track as Bryan's road to + Fort Bridger. From all the information I have been able to + obtain regarding Lieutenant Bryan's road from Sage Creek + through Bridger's Pass, and thence down the Muddy Creek, I + am inclined to believe that the road we traveled is much + the best. It is said that Lieutenant Bryan's route from + Bridger's Pass to Green River has a scarcity of grass. The + water is brackish, and the supply limited, and may fail + altogether in a dry season. The road passes through deep + valleys and cañons, crossing muddy creeks and deep ravines. + The creeks have been bridged and the ravines cut down so as + to form a practicable road; but freshets will probably + occur in the spring, which will destroy a great deal of the + work, and may render the road impassable.--_Lieutenant + Duane's Notes._ + + The other road is for the greater part of the distance + smooth, and has a sufficiency of grass in places, but the + water may become scarce in a very dry season. + + * * * * * + +XXVI.--_From Nebraska City, on the Missouri, to Fort Kearney._ + +Nebraska City, on the Missouri River, is a point from whence a large +amount of the supplies for the army in Utah are sent, and one of the +contractors, Mr. Alexander Majors, speaks of this route in the +following terms: "The military road from Fort Leavenworth crosses very +many tributaries of the Kansas River, the Soldier, the Grasshopper, +etc., etc., which are at all times difficult of passage. There are no +bridges, or but few, and those of but little service. From Nebraska +City to Fort Kearney, which is a fixed point for the junction of all +roads passing up the Platte, we have but one stream of any moment to +cross. That one is Salt Creek, a stream which is now paved at a +shallow ford with solid rock. + +"There is no other stream which, even in a high freshet, would stop a +train a single day. Again, upon this route we have an abundance of +good grazing every foot of the way to Fort Kearney. The route from +Nebraska City is about 100 miles shorter to Fort Kearney than that +from Fort Leavenworth, the former being less than 200 miles and the +latter about 300 miles." + +From Nebraska City to Salt Creek is...... 40 miles. +From Salt Creek to Elm Creek is.......... 60 " +From Elm Creek to Fort Kearney is........ 100 " + +Upon the entire route there is an abundance of wood, water, and grass, +and camping-places frequent. + + * * * * * + +XXVII.--_From Camp Floyd, Utah, to Fort Union, New Mexico._ By +Colonel W. W. LORING, U.S.A. + +Miles. + + Camp Floyd to + + 23. Goshen.--The road runs through Cedar Valley; is level and + good for 11 miles, to where the road forks. The left runs + near the lake, and has good camps upon it. Thence to a fine + spring, where there is a good camp, is 3 miles. Grass + continues good to the camp near Goshen. Wood, water, and + grass abundant. + + 14. Salt Creek.--Road runs over a mountain in a direct course to + a fine spring branch, which runs into Salt Creek at 3-1/2 + miles, where is a good camp; thence through a meadow to a + small branch 3 miles, striking the old Mormon road again + opposite a mud fort, where there is a fine spring and good + camp; thence into the valley of Salt Creek, where there are + good camps. + + 18. Pleasant Creek.--Near the last camp the road forks, one + running to Nephi, a small Mormon village, the other to Salt + Creek Cañon, which is the one to be taken. The road runs up + the cañon 5 miles; thence up its small right-hand fork to a + spring, 3 miles; thence to camp. Good camps can be found any + where after crossing Salt Creek, with abundance of wood, + water, and grass. + + 19-1/2. Willow Creek.--Road at 6-1/2 miles passes a fine spring; + half a mile farther is another spring, where the road forks. + Take the right through a meadow; it is 3 or 4 miles shorter. + To the crossing is 3 miles; thence to the main road again 3 + miles; to the village of Ephraim 5 miles. Good camp. + + 12. Lediniquint Creek.--At 6 miles pass Manti; thence to Salt + and Sulphur Springs is 3 miles. Good camp, with a fine + spring, wood, and grass. + + 15. Lediniquint Creek.--Road passes over a rugged country for 4 + miles, to a creek; thence one mile it crosses another creek; + thence 2-1/2 miles up the creek, where there is a good camp. + The road improves, and for 8 or 9 miles camps can be found + by leaving the creek a short distance. The creek on which + the camp is muddy, with narrow channel. + + 18. Onapah Creek, or Salt Creek.--Road is good over a barren + country to the pointed red hills near the entrance to + Wasatch Pass, 7 miles. From the red hills cross Salt Creek 3 + times in 4 miles; grass fair at 2d crossing; very good at 3d + crossing, and a good camp. Road rough for 3 miles after + leaving the creek. The road then enters a fine valley, with + plenty of blue and bunch grass. Road is level to within a + mile of the camp. Wood, water, and grass abundant at camp. + + 7-1/2. Head of Branch of Salt Creek.--Road runs over a ridge at + 2 miles, thence one mile to a small branch. Grass abundant. + Road runs along the branch 3 miles; in places very rough, + with some sand; ascends the entire distance, and the camp is + very elevated. Good spring at camp. + + 5-3/4. Salt Creek.--Road passes over a ridge 2-1/2 miles to a + spring. Good camp at this spring. Colonel Loring worked the + road at this place. It crosses the creek 6 times within the + 5-3/4 miles. Good camp, with abundance of wood, water, and + grass. + + 6-1/2. Silver Creek.--Road traverses a rolling section, is good, + passes several springs where there are good camps, and + crosses several trails which lead from California to New + Mexico. + + 17-1/2. Media Creek.--At two miles the road passes the dividing + ridge between the waters of Salt Lake and Green River; + thence two miles' descent to Shipley Creek, where is a good + camp. For about a mile the road is rough, but then descends + into an open plain where the road is good. The ground is + rough about the camp, and covered with sage and greasewood. + Two miles up the creek, near the cañon, is some grass, but + it is not abundant here. + + 19-3/4. St. Raphael Creek.--Road passes a rolling section for 5 + miles; thence 1-1/2 mile to Garamboyer Creek, where there is + a good camp; thence, with the exception of a short distance, + the road is good to the Knobs, 9 miles, when it is broken + for 4-1/2 miles. Good camp. + + 11-3/4. San Matio Creek.--For 3 miles the road is over a rolling + section, with steep hills, to a creek, where is a good camp; + thence, for 3 miles along the creek, soft soil and heavy + road; thence 5 miles to another creek, some grass, but not + plenty; thence to camp the road is rough in places. Good + camp. + + 14-1/4. In the Hills.--Road runs over a rolling country 2-1/2 + miles to San Marcos, or Tanoje Creek, where there is good + grass and water, with sage. Two miles farther over a + gravelly road, then a good plain road for 9-3/4 miles to + camp. Good wood, water, and grass. + + 23. Spring.--Road for the first ten miles is rocky, when it + strikes a spring, where there is a good camp; thence 2 miles + to water in a tank, not permanent; thence the road is on a + ridge for 6 miles, and is good; thence 3 miles the road is + sandy. The spring at camp is large, with plenty of wood, but + the grass is scarce. Down the creek it is more abundant. + + 18. Green River.--For 5 miles the road is sandy; thence the road + is good for the remainder of the distance to camp, where + there is plenty of wood, water, and grass. + + 13. 13-Mile Spring.--Green River can be forded at ordinary + stages. Road runs among several arroyas for a few miles, and + is then straight and good to camp. Good grass a mile to the + east of camp. + + An Arroya.--Road runs between two rocky buttes, and strikes + the Mormon trail, which leaves Green River at the same + place, but is very tortuous. Water not permanent here; good + grass three fourths of a mile from camp. + + 20-1/4. Cottonwood Creek.--Road passes over a broken country to a + water-hole, 9 miles; grass abundant; thence there is sand + in places: crosses several arroyas. Camp is between two + mountains. Wood, water, and grass abundant. + + 12. Grand River.--Road is over a rolling country; in places + light sand and heavy for wagons. Good camp. + + 13. Grand River.--Road is rolling and sandy. The Mormon road + runs nearer the mountains, and Colonel Loring thinks it is + better than the one he traveled. Good camp. + + 16-3/4. 1-1/2 mile from Grand River.--The first 3 miles is level, + then the road passes over a very elevated ridge, and + descends into the valley. Grand River runs through a cañon, + and can not be reached with the animals. Road in places + sandy. Good camp. + + 9-1/2. Grand River.--At two miles strike Salt Creek, where the + Mormon road passes up a dry creek toward Gray Mountain. Road + skirts the mountains along Grand River, and is rough in + places, passing over abrupt hills. Good camp. + + 16-3/4. Grand River.--Road runs over a level and firm section, with + good camps at any point along the river. Cross the Mormon + and other trails. Good ford at the crossing except in high + water. Good camp. + + 18-1/2. On an Arroya.--Road runs over an undulating surface, crossing + several small streams issuing from Elk Mountain, affording + good camps at almost any place, and strikes Marcy's and + Gunnison's trails. Good camp. + + 15-1/4. Grand River.--Rolling country; high ridges with abrupt slopes + for 6-1/4 miles; thence into a plain for 7-1/4 miles to + Double Creek. Good camps. + + 12. Oncompagre River.--Good ford except in high water. At 6 miles + cross a dry creek; thence 3 miles over a high, level, and + firm road; strike a large trail; descend a hill with gentle + slope into the Valley of Oncompagre, where there are fine + camps. Winter resort for Uté Indians. + + 14-1/2. Oncompagre River.--Road runs along the valley of the + Oncompagre, is good, and camps may be found at any point, + with plenty of wood, water, and grass. + + 13. Cedar Creek.--Road leaves the Oncompagre, and bears to the + east up Cedar Creek to the gap in the mountains, 6 miles; + thence up the valley of Cedar Creek to camp, where are wood, + water, and grass. The Gap is the first opening in the + mountains above the mouth of the Oncompagre. + + 8-3/4. Devil's Creek.--Road runs to the head of Cedar Creek, over + the divide, into the valley of Devil's Creek, and is rough, + with a steep descent. Camp is near a narrow cañon called + Devil's Gate, with high perpendicular bluffs. Good camp. + + 3. North Fork of Devil's Creek.--Road very rocky, and worked by + Colonel Loring. Marcy's and Gunnison's trails pass here. Good + camp. + + 7-3/4. Cebola Creek.--Road passes over abrupt hills covered with + pine. Good camp. + + 5-1/2. Ruidos Creek.--Road rough, with abrupt ascents and descents. + Fine creek 5 feet wide, and good camp. + + 13. Grand River.--Road rather smooth for the first 3 miles, then + rough and rocky, crossing several creeks, and descending + into the valley of the Grand or Eagle-tail River, where is a + good camp. Plenty of brook trout in all the streams in this + section. + + 14-1/2. Grand River.--Road crosses the river three times; bottom + wide; grass and wood abundant. Cross several beautiful + streams, upon which are good camps. Some sand and rough + places, but generally good road. Game and brook trout + abundant in this region. Indians resort to this section a + great deal. + + 18. Cutebetope Creek.--At about 5 miles the Cutebetope Creek + enters, forming at the confluence a beautiful valley, which + the road crosses, and strikes the creek near the Point of + Rocks, where the valley is only 40 yards wide, but after + passing the Point it opens again. The course of the creek is + nearly north. Good camps. + + 20. Spring near Beaver Creek.--Road crosses several small creeks, + where are good camping-places. Good camp. + + 16-3/4. Sawatch Creek.--Road runs over a very rough and mountainous + section for 14 miles to the summit of the Rocky Mountains; + thence it descends to camp, where grass, wood, and water are + abundant. + + 21-1/2. Sawatch Creek.--Road rough and rocky in places; strikes the + main Sawatch Creek at 9-1/2 miles; crosses numerous small + branches, where are grass, wood, and good water in abundance. + + 25-1/2. Camero Creek.--Road for 7 miles, to Sawatch Buttes, is good; + thence 1-1/2 mile to the last crossing of the Sawatch, where + is a good camping-place. Good camp at Camero Creek. + + 3-1/2. Garita Creek.--Good road and good camp. + + 16-1/2. Rio Grande.--Road level and good. Good camps along the + river at almost any point. + + 6. Rio Grande.--Good road and camp. + + 17-1/2. Fort Garland, Hay Camp.--Road continues down the river, and + is good. For six miles there is timber, but after this + willow is the only wood to camp. Good road. Hay is cut at + this place for Forts Massachusetts and Garland. + + 16. Culebra Creek.--At 4-3/4 miles cross Trinchera Creek, where + is a good camp. Road rather sandy. Good camps any where on + Culebra Creek. + + 24-3/4. Latos Creek.--Road tolerable to Costilla Creek, 10-3/4 + miles. Good camp. + + 14. Ascequia, near Lama Creek.--Road crosses several small + branches. At 9-1/2 miles strike Red River. Grass at camp + good, but not abundant. + + 19-3/4. Meadow near Indian Puebla.--At 6 miles the road crosses + the San Christobal; thence over another ridge into the valley + of the Rio Hondo. Camp 2 miles from Taos. + + 2. Taos, New Mexico.--Good road. At Taos are several stores, + where goods of all descriptions can be had at fair prices. + + 13. Taos Creek Cañon.--Road passes through the settlement, where + grain and vegetables can be obtained. It then enters the Taos + Cañon at 3 miles, and crosses the Cañon Creek frequently to + camp. Good camp. + + 29. Gaudelapepita.--At 5 miles the road ascends to the dividing + ridge, and is tolerable; thence in 4 miles cross the + mountain, and reach a fine spring branch, where is a fine + camp. Thence the road passes short ridges for 9 miles to + Black Lake. Good camp. + + Fort Union.--Road follows Coyote Cañon 3 miles; thence one + mile to Mexican settlement; thence 19-1/2 miles over the + prairie to the fort. + + * * * * * + +Colonel Loring came over the route from Camp Floyd to Fort Union with +a large train of wagons. He, however, found the road in many places +upon the mountains very rough, and it will require working before it +will be suitable for general travel with loaded wagons. It is an +excellent route for summer travel with pack trains, and is well +supplied with the requisites for encamping. + +From Fort Union to Fort Garland the road passes through a settled +country, where supplies of grain and vegetables can at all times be +purchased at reasonable prices, and there are small towns met with +during almost every day's march where small shops supply such articles +of merchandise as the traveler needs. + + * * * * * + +XXVIII.--_Wagon-route from Guaymas, New Mexico, to Tubac, Arizona._ +From Captain STONE'S Journal. + +Miles. + + Guaymas to + + 10-1/4. Rancho del Cavallo.--Good wood, water, and grass. + + 9. Rancho de la Noche Buena.--Good wood and grass, but no water + for animals in May and June. + + 19-5/8. Rancho de la Cuneguinta.--Good wood, water, and grass the + year round; water in tanks and wells. + + 15-3/4. Rancho del Posito.--Good wood and grass the year round; + water for men at all times, and for animals except in the + months of May and June. + + 8. Rancho de la Palma.--Wood, water, and grass at all times. + + 16-3/8. Rancho de la Paza.--Good wood, water, and grass at all + seasons. + + 16. Hermosillo.--This is a town of 10,000 inhabitants, on Sonora + River, where all supplies may be procured. + + 13. Hacienda de Alamito.--Plenty of running water, wood, grass, + and grain. + + 8. Hacienda de la Labor.--Plenty of running water, grass, and + grain. + + 28. Rancho de Tabique.--Roughest part of the road, but not + difficult for wagons. Wood, water, and grass. From + Hermosillo to this place there is water at short intervals + along the road. + + 36. Rancho Querebabi.--Wood and grass; water in tanks. + + 12. Barajita.--Small mining village. Bad water; good wood and + grass. + + 13. Santa Aña.--Village on the River San Ignacio. Plenty of + wood, water, and grass. + + 12. La Magdalena.--Thriving town, where all supplies can be + procured. + + 5. San Ignacio.--Village on the river. Good wood, water, and + grass. + + 6-3/4. Imuris.--Village on the river. Wood, water, and grass. + + 11-1/2. Los Alisos Rancho.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 3-1/2. La Casita.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 3-1/2. Cíbuta.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 11-1/4. Agua Zarca.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 23-1/4. Rancho de las Calabasas.--Wood, water, and grass. + + 13. Tubac.--Silver mines at this place. + +Total distance from Guaymas to Tubac, 295 miles. + +NOTE.--During the months of July, August, and September, water will be +found at almost any part of the road from La Casita to Hermosillo. +There is no lack of wood or grass on any part of the road from Guaymas +to the frontier. The only difficulty in encamping at almost any point +upon the road is that of obtaining water in the dry season, _i.e._, +from February to the first of July. The remarks for each place apply +to the most unfavorable seasons. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +A. _Portable Boat._ + +A boat has been invented by Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of the army, which +has been used in several expeditions in Oregon and in Washington +Territory, and has been highly commended by several experienced +officers who have had the opportunity of giving its merits a practical +service test. + +It consists of an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow +boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by hinges, the +different sections folding into so small a compass as to be +conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet of +stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord +running diagonally back and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper +edge. + +When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, but the canvas +soon swells so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical +purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat +is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to +the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are +liable to rise above a fording stage, and where the allowance of +transportation is small. + +It may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes, +and one mule suffices to transport a boat, with all its appurtenances, +capable of sustaining ten men. + +Should the canvas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a +patch, and it does not rot or crack like India-rubber or gutta-percha; +moreover, it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature. + + +B. _Winter Traveling._ + +In traveling through deep snow, horses will be found much better than +mules, as the latter soon become discouraged, lie down, and refuse to +put forth the least exertion, while the former will work as long as +their strength holds out. + +When the snow is dry, and not deeper than 2-1/2 feet, horses in good +condition, will walk through it without much difficulty, and throw +aside the snow so as to open quite a track. If there are several horses +they should be changed frequently, as the labor upon the leading one is +very severe. When the snow is deeper than 2-1/2 feet, it becomes very +difficult for animals to wade through it, and they soon weary and give +out. The best plan, under such circumstances (and it is the one I +adopted in crossing the Rocky Mountains, where the snow was from two to +five feet upon the ground), is to place all the disposable men in +advance of the animals to break the track, requiring them to alternate +from front to rear at regular intervals of time. In this manner a track +is beaten over which animals pass with comparative ease. + +When the snow increases to about four feet, it is impossible for the +leading men to walk erect through it, and two or three of them are +compelled to crawl upon their hands and knees, all being careful to +place their hands and feet in the same holes that have been made by +those in advance. This packs the snow so that it will sustain the +others walking erect, and after 20 or 30 have passed it becomes +sufficiently firm to bear up the animals. This, of course, is an +exceedingly laborious and slow process, but it is the only alternative +when a party finds itself in the midst of very deep snows in a +wilderness. Animals, in walking over such a track as has been +mentioned, will soon acquire the habit of placing their feet in the +holes that have been made by the men; and, indeed, if they lose the +step or miss the holes, they will fall down or sink to their bellies. + +Early in the winter, when the snow first falls in the Rocky Mountains, +it is so light and dry that snow-shoes can not be used to advantage. We +tried the experiment when we crossed the mountains in December and +January, but found it impossible to walk upon them. + +Should a party, in a country where the snow is deep, have the +misfortune to lose its animals by freezing, the journey can not be +continued for any great length of time without devising some method of +transporting subsistence besides that of carrying it upon the backs of +the men, as they are unable to break a track through deep snow when +loaded down in this way. + +The following plan has suggested itself to me as being the most +feasible, and it is the one I resolved to adopt in the event of losing +our mules faster than we required them for subsistence when we passed +the Mountains. + +Take willow, or other flexible rods, and make long sleds, less in width +than the track, securing the cross-pieces with rawhide thongs. Skin the +animals, and cut the hides into pieces to fit the bottom of the sleds, +and make them fast, with the hair on the upper side. Attach a raw-hide +thong to the front for drawing it, and it is complete. In a very cold +climate the hide soon freezes, becomes very solid, and slips easily +over the snow. The meat and other articles to be transported are then +placed upon the sled so as not to project over the sides, and lashed +firmly. Lieutenant Cresswell, who was detached from Captain M'Clure's +ship in the Arctic regions in 1853, says his men dragged 200 pounds +each upon sledges over the ice. They could not, of course, pull as much +over deep snow, but it is believed that they would have no difficulty +in transporting half this amount, which would be sufficient to keep +them from starvation at least fifty days. + +I am quite confident that a party of men who find themselves involved +in deep snows, dependent solely upon their own physical powers, and +without beasts of burden, can prolong their lives for a greater time, +travel farther, and perform more labor by adopting the foregoing +suggestions than in any other way. + + +C. _Indian Signals._ + +When Indians are pursued by a large force, and do not intend to make +resistance, they generally scatter as much as possible, in order to +perplex and throw off those who follow their trail, but they have an +understanding where they are to rendezvous in advance. Sometimes, +however, circumstances may arise during a rapid flight making it +necessary for them to alter these plans, and turn their course in +another direction. When this happens, they are in the habit of leaving +behind them some well-understood signals to indicate to their friends +in the rear the change in their-movements. + +For instance, they will sometimes leave a stick or other object to +attract attention, and under this bury an arrow pointing in the new +direction they intend to take. They will then continue on for a time in +the course they have been pursuing, until they get upon hard ground, +where it is difficult to see their tracks, then gradually turn their +course in the new direction. + + +THE END. + + +[Illustration: SKETCH of the DIFFERENT ROADS.] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prairie Traveler, by Randolph Marcy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER *** + +***** This file should be named 23066-8.txt or 23066-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/0/6/23066/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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