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diff --git a/23635.txt b/23635.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c43006 --- /dev/null +++ b/23635.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1376 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Wampum + A Paper Presented to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society + of Philadelphia + +Author: Ashbel Woodward + +Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23635] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + WAMPUM, + + A PAPER PRESENTED TO + + THE NUMISMATIC AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY + + OF PHILADELPHIA. + + + BY + + ASHBEL WOODWARD, M.D., + + OF FRANKLIN, CONN., + + CORRESPONDING MEMBER. + + + ALBANY, N. Y.: + J. MUNSELL, PRINTER. + 1878. + + + + + Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1878, + by ASHBEL WOODWARD, + in the Library of Congress. + + + + +At a Stated Meeting of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of +Philadelphia, held January 2, 1868, the following resolutions were +unanimously adopted: + +_Resolved_, That the thanks of this Society are due and are hereby +tendered to Ashbel Woodward, M.D., of Franklin, Conn., for his very able +and interesting research upon "Wampum" this evening read before the +Society. + +_Resolved_, That said paper be referred to the Publication Committee. + + Attest, + HENRY PHILLIPS, JR., + _Corresponding Secretary._ + + + + +NOTE. + + +The following pages constitute an Essay read before the Numismatic and +Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia in January 1868. It was intended for +publication in the second volume of the Transactions of the Society, but +as the appearance of this volume has been unexpectedly delayed, it has +been thought best to allow the Essay to appear separately. + +_Franklin, Conn._, January, 1878. + + + + +WAMPUM. + + +When Columbus, on his second voyage to the New World, landed upon Cape +Cabron, Cuba, the cacique of the adjacent country meeting him upon the +shore offered him a string of beads made of the hard parts of shells as +an assurance of welcome. Similar gifts were often made to the great +discoverer, whenever the natives sought to win his favor or wished to +assure him of their own good will. These shell beads were afterwards +found to be in general use among the tribes of the Atlantic coast. At +the close of the sixteenth century the English colonists found them in +Virginia, as did the Dutch at the commencement of the following century +in New York, the English in New England and the French in Canada. The +pre-historic inhabitants of the Mississippi valley were also evidently +acquainted with their manufacture, as remains of shell beads have been +found in many of the mounds which survive as the only memorials of that +mysterious people. + +These Indian beads were known under a variety of names among the early +colonists, and were called, _wampum_, _wampom-peage_, or _wampeage_, +frequently _peage_ or _peake_ only, and in some localities _sewan_ or +_zewand_. But generally sewan prevailed among the Dutch, and wampum +among the English. These names were applied without distinction to all +varieties of beads. This confusion arose naturally enough from the +scanty acquaintance of the whites with the Indian language. The word +wampum [wompam],[1] which has since become a general term, was +restricted by the Indians to the white beads. It was derived from +_wompi_, "white." The other or dark beads were called _suckauhock_, a +name compounded of _sucki_, "dark colored," and _hock_, "shell." The +name _Mowhakes_, compounded of _mowi_, "black," and _hock_, "shell," was +also sometimes applied to the dark beads. It thus appears that the +Indians divided their beads into two general classes, the _wompam_, or +white beads, and _suckauhock_, or dark beads. Both white and black +consisted of highly polished, testaceous cylinders, about one-eighth of +an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long, drilled length-wise +and strung upon fibres of hemp or the tendons of wild beasts. +_Suckauhock_ was made from the stem of the _Venus mercenaria_, or common +round clam, popularly known as the quauhaug; _wampum_ from the column +and inner whorls of the _Pyrula carica_ and _Pyrula caniculata_[2] +[Lam.], species known as Winkles or Periwinkles among fishermen, and the +largest convoluted shells of our New England coast.[3] These shells +were found in great abundance along the sea shore, lying either upon the +mud, or just beneath the surface, and were wrought in the following +manner. The desirable portions of the shells were first broken out into +small pieces of the form of a parallelopiped; these were then drilled +and afterwards ground and polished. Possessing no better tools, the +Indians made shift to bore them with stone drills,[4] implements which +hardly correspond with the delicacy and exactness exhibited by the +specimens of original wampum that have come down to us. The process of +polishing and shaping was equally painful and laborious, for rubbing +with the hand over a smooth stony surface, was the only method which the +rudeness of the Aborigines could devise. Yet the finished beads, whether +attached in thick masses to garments, or strung in long flexible rows, +were very comely and without a trace of the tawdriness, which is so +characteristic of uncivilized peoples. The suckauhock with its varying +shades of purple was particularly beautiful. Its value was double that +of the white and the darker its color, the more highly it was prized. +But the laborious method of production imparted no trivial value to both +varieties. + +It seems almost incredible that the Indian could produce so clever an +article with his rude implements. Some have conjectured that the +specimens produced before the natives obtained awl blades from the +colonists were very inferior to their later productions. One writer[5] +even goes so far as to suggest, that, before the advent of Europeans, +Indian beads consisted mostly of small pieces of wood, stained white or +black. The fact is, however, that the manufacture of wampum dates back +at least to the time of the mound builders, for quantities of beads +similar in form to the more modern article, and proved by chemical +tests and structural peculiarities to be similar in material, have been +exhumed from the ancient mounds of the west.[6] + +Other species besides the wampum and suckauhock crept into local use +among the different tribes. The Iroquois in their civil and religious +ceremonies employed a variety named _otekoa_, and made from spiral fresh +water shells of the genus _unio_. This as may be inferred from its uses +was held in the highest esteem, and no other could be employed in the +different stages of the ceremonial.[7] In New England and perhaps +elsewhere, an inferior kind made evidently from shells too small and +thin to be wrought into the cylindrical beads, circulated to a limited +extent. The separate pieces were round and flat, about an eighth of an +inch broad and a sixteenth of an inch thick, white and black were strung +alternately, but the strings, though arranged with considerable nicety, +lacked wholly the finish and flexibility of the regular article. In +Virginia _roenoke_ was current. This consisted of small rough fragments +of cockle shells, which were drilled and strung. The last two varieties +were only used to a limited extent, even in the region of their +manufacture. Here, as elsewhere, the cylindrical wampum was the +standard, and the dearest to the Indian of all his treasures. Indeed +such was the value set upon it, that attempts were often made to +counterfeit it, an unallowed shell being fraudulently used in the +manufacture of the white, while the black was imitated from a kind of +stone. Yet the habitual caution and keenness of the Indian made it +difficult to palm off the spurious article upon him. + +As wampum was made from marine shells,[8] it was naturally manufactured +by the sea shore tribes, and in localities determined by the abundance +of raw material. Here the shells were stored up in some convenient spot +during summer, to be worked out in winter when the rigors of the season +should deter the men from their ordinary out door pursuits.[9] Probably +but little was produced north of the Narragansetts [Rhode Island], as +the necessary shells were scarce beyond Cape Cod. The Narragansetts were +themselves great producers, and tradition claimed for their tribe the +honor of the invention of wampum. But the Long Island Indians were by +far the greatest producers along our northern coast. Their sandy flats +and marshes teemed with sea life, and, when the Dutch first came to New +Amsterdam, their island went by the name of _sewan hacky_, or the "land +of the sewan shell," so numerous were the sewan manufactories upon it. +Without doubt production was stimulated beyond its natural limits by the +demand from powerful tribes from the main land, who found it easier to +exact wampum as tribute from their weak neighbors, than personally to +engage in its laborious coinage. Hazard, in his collection of state +papers, states, that the Narragansetts frequently compelled large +tributes in wampum from the Long Island Indians. The Pequots also for +many years prior to 1637, exacted large annual contributions from the +same tribes while they were still further subject to the levies of the +imperious Mohawks. Thus the mint of wealth at their very doors became to +its possessors the source of untold misery. Constant fear kept them +toiling at the mines, while the scanty proceeds of their labor only +quickened the greed of their savage masters. The number and extent of +the sewan manufactories upon Long Island may be inferred from the +frequent and immense shell heaps left by the Indians in all of which +scarcely a whole shell is to be found. Occasionally the whole shells +were carried over to the main land and there wrought. From Sewan-Hacky +down the Atlantic coast and along the gulf, the shaded covers and quiet +banks were doubtless dotted with wampum manufactories, for there was a +great demand constantly to be met. + +The inland tribes were of course unable to produce their own wampum, and +depended for their supply upon the coast tribes. A brisk trade thus +arose between the coast and interior. Hides and furs were brought down +to clothe the denser population of the shore, and wampum carried back +in exchange.[10] Often, however, the inland tribes were able to pounce +down and wring this precious material from its carriers in the form of +tribute. + +Wampum is often spoken of as "Indian money." This expression if +referring to colonial times is perfectly proper, but must be received +with caution in the consideration of ante-colonial days. The barbarian, +dwelling in independent isolation, satisfies the majority of his wants +by direct effort and not by an interchange of services, nor till +civilization has considerably advanced can we look for any general +system of exchanges with the mutual dependence and mutual benefits which +such a system involves. So attractive an article as wampum was doubtless +eagerly sought in barter, and would readily procure for its possessor +whatever else he might desire. Indeed we know that it was the means of +an extensive trade between the coast and the interior, the inland +Indians bringing down hides and furs to be exchanged for the wampum of +the shore. All this, however, was in the way of barter, and we cannot +hence infer that the idea of a medium or money crept into the limited +circle of the redman's wants and satisfactions. His circumstances did +not demand and would not therefore suggest it. Wampum was the gold of +the aborigine. But he had yet to learn that the value of gold resides +not alone in its glitter. The ancient Peruvians dwelt amid mountains of +gold, but the idea of a circulating medium never dawned upon them. In +like manner, the Indian had never learned that use of his golden wampum +which was the first to suggest itself to the white man. He made and +valued it for other purposes. + +A fondness for personal display and decoration are characteristic of +uncivilized life, and wampum was well adapted to satisfy this weakness +of the Indian. It was every where used for adornment of the person. The +humblest proudly wore his trifle, while the more favored ones were wont +to decorate themselves in countless gay and fantastic ways. It was +oftenest worn about the neck in strings of the length of a rosary, the +number of strings being determined by the means or social position of +the wearer.[11] Bracelets and necklaces were other forms in which it was +frequently displayed. With the females, head-dresses, consisting of +bands of wampum twined about the head and gathering up their abundant +tresses, were an especial delight. A border of beads greatly enhanced +the value of any garment, and outer clothing was usually thus +ornamented. Indeed the wealthy and powerful wore cloaks, as also aprons +and caps, thickly studded with wampum wrought into various fantastic +forms and figures. Says that old voyager, John Josselyn, "Prince +Phillip, a little before I came to England [1671], coming to Boston, had +on a coat and buskins thick set with these beads in pleasant wild +works." The moccasin was also, as at the present day, the recipient of +much taste and skill. + +More of a luxury and confined mostly to sachems and sagamores was the +wampum belt, alternate white and purple strings attached in rows to a +deerskin base, and worn as a belt about the waist, or thrown over the +shoulders like a scarf. Ordinary belts consisted of twelve rows of one +hundred and eighty beads each, but they increased in length and breadth +with the social importance of the wearer. As many as ten thousand beads +are known to have been wrought into a single war belt four inches wide. +The regular alternation of white and purple rows was not always adopted, +but birds and beasts and such other rustic fantasies as suited the +owner's taste, were often interwoven with the different colors. One of +King Philip's belts surrendered by the Sagamore Annawon to Capt. Church, +was nine inches wide, of sufficient length when placed about Capt. +Church's shoulders to reach to his ancles, and curiously inwrought with +figures of birds, beasts and flowers. From another belt of no less +exquisite workmanship and designed to be worn about the head, two flags +fell in graceful folds upon the shoulders. A third and smaller one had a +star embroidered upon its end, and was to be worn upon the breast. The +haughty old chief was wont to adorn his person with these insignia when +he sat in state among his subjects. They symbolized, by striking +emblems, his might and prowess, and kindled in beholders feelings and +emotions that royal pomp and purple could not awake. The idea of +gaudiness is apt to associate itself in our minds with Indian trappings, +but we must confess that the simple grace and force of these rustic +adornments would put to shame many a glittering article of more modern +wear. + +But wampum strings and belts subserved other equally important uses. +They were among the Indian race the universal bonds of nations and +individuals, the inviolable and sacred pledges of word and deed. No +promise was binding unless confirmed by gifts of wampum. The young +warrior declared his passion for his Indian maid, by presenting wampum +chains and belts, and her acceptance of the proffered present sealed the +marriage compact.[12] Like tokens accompanied every weighty message, +and little reliance was put upon the messenger who brought not with him +such assurances of good faith.[13] They cemented friendships, confirmed +alliances, sealed treaties, and effectually effaced the memory of +injuries.[14] A curious ceremonial had grown up in their presentation on +state occasions. When ambassadors set out for another nation, they bore +before them the calumet, or pipe of peace, in evidence of their pacific +purpose and to secure protection for their journey, and also belts of +wampum to be submitted in confirmation of their proposals, or, if their +people had been worsted in battle to atone for injuries and purchase +peace. In the great council assembled to receive them, the orator of the +embassy rose and unfolded the object of their visit, corroborating each +important statement and proposal at its close by laying down wampum +belts. If his words were pleasing, and the presents taken from the +ground in evidence thereof, similar presents were given in return, and +the contract sealed with the smoking of the calumet and the burial of +the hatchet in the midst. Among the Six Nations, whenever the council +failed to adjust the difficulty or when for any other reason peace was +to be interrupted, war was proclaimed by striking a tomahawk painted red +and ornamented with black wampum, into the war post in each village of +the league.[15] + +To illustrate what we have said, we subjoin the following account of an +interview between Sir William Johnson, the noted Indian agent and the +Six Nations, among whom this ceremony survived even after their decline. +"At a meeting of the Six Nations and their allies at Fort Johnson, Feb. +18, 1756, Sir William Johnson said: + + + _Brethren of the Six Nations_, + + I have heard with great concern that a war party of the Senecas, the + most remote nation of the confederacy, have had a considerable + misunderstanding with their brethren the English to the southward, + which has been fatal to some of that nation. I am extremely unable + to express my sorrow for that unhappy affair, and as the hatchet + remains fixed in your heads, I do with the greatest tenderness and + affection remove it thence. + + A belt. + + + _Brethren_, + + With this belt I cleanse and purify the beds of those who fell in + that unfortunate affair from the defilement they have contracted. + + A belt. + + + _Brethren_, + + I am informed that on that occasion you lost three of your powerful + warriors. I do with this belt cover their dead bodies that they may + not offend our sight any more and bury the whole affair in oblivion. + + A belt. + + + ANSWER OF THE SIX NATIONS AND THEIR ALLIES. + + _Brother Warraghiyagey_, + + We the sachems and warriors of the Seneca nation return to you our + sincere thanks for your great affection in drying our tears and + driving sorrow from our hearts, and we in return perform the same + ceremony to you with the like hearty affection. + + A string of wampum. + + + _Brother Warraghiyagey_, + + We are sensible of your goodness expressed to us in removing the + cause of our grief and tenderly taking the axe out of our heads. + + A belt. + + + After several more speeches and presentations by the Senecas, the + other nations in turn presented belts. In 1748, the general had + given them a large belt upon which was an emblem of the Six Nations + joined hand in hand with the English. This the speaker then took and + said: + + + _Brother Warraghiyagey_, + + Look with all attention on this belt and remember the solemn and + mutual engagements we entered into when you first took upon you the + management of our affairs. Be assured we look upon them as sound and + shall on our part punctually perform them as long as we remain a + people. + + A prodigious large belt. + + + Taking up another large belt formerly given them by the governor of + New York, he said: + + + _Brother Warraghiyagey_, + + We hope our brethren, the English, will seriously remember the + promises made us by this belt and exactly perform them, and we + promise to do the same though we have no record but our memories. + + A very large belt."[16] + + +The belts received at treaties, councils and other assemblies were +entrusted for presentation to the care of one individual, usually the +sachem, who was expected to keep in mind the occasion and purport of +each, which he could readily do by the aid of the devices emblematic of +the event it signalized that were traced upon each.[17] Thus a belt +presented to Sir Wm. Johnson by the Six Nations, had wrought upon it the +sun, the emblem of light, and symbols of the Six Nations. It signified +that their minds were now illumined by the clear bright light of truth +and their intention to abide in the light.[17] In a belt presented at +Easton, His Majesty King George was figured taking hold of the king of +the Six Nations with one hand, and the king of the Delawares with the +other. A belt presented by the Indians of Eastern Maine as a pledge of +their friendship and fidelity to the United States and the king of +France was explained as follows: The belt was thirteen rows wide to +represent the United States, and had upon it a cross indicating France, +and several white figures denoting the different Indian villages.[18] +The Indian like other young languages drew closer to nature than the +dusty abstractions of civilization. It was highly figurative and the +majority of its words referred directly to familiar external sights. The +tribes of each nation of the Iroquois were known respectively as the +Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron and Hawk. The significant +names of chiefs are known to all, and whoever is familiar with Indian +oratory will readily recollect its garb of bold and striking metaphors. +These features, while imparting energy to the language, at the same +time made it easy to convey its meaning by picture writing or +symbolism, the only mode of writing which the aborigine possessed.[19] +Thus, too, it was easy to put upon a belt a few significant characters +which by the principle of mental association should clearly depict the +salient features of an event or of a series of events. Such belts +carefully preserved served as the annals of a nation. They were the only +authentic history of the past, recalling the treaties, councils, +triumphs and domestic celebrations of former generations. At stated +times their custodian, the sachem, was accustomed to gather the younger +warriors about him, and unfolding to them the secrets locked up in +these mysterious records, instruct them in the history and engagements +of their tribe. The old soldier's breast glowed with honest pride, as he +recounted to his young braves the exploits of their sires, or exhibited +the proud tokens of submission forced from some ancient enemy, and most +of all when he came to dwell upon scenes conspicuous for his own valor +and reddened by his blood. And as the impetuous youths drank in the +glorious story of their father's might and valor on the war path, there +sprang up within them a patriotism "that grew by what it fed on." In the +extensive confederation of the Iroquois, Hono Wenato, an Onondaga +sachem, was the hereditary keeper of the wampum. Whenever the grand +council met to fill a vacancy in the sachemship of a tribe of any +nation, it was his duty publicly to repeat to the new sachem their +ancient laws and usages, and to unfold to him the structure and +principles of the league, as recorded in the belts committed to his +charge.[20] + +Wampum played an important part in religious as well as civil +ceremonies. On occasions of great public calamities, it formed the most +acceptable sacrifice that could be offered to the terrible Hobbamocko, +the author of evil, and it entered largely into the mystic rites of all +those weird assemblies that gathered under the shades of the forest. +When evil threatened or its farther progress was to be stayed, as also +after great triumphs and abundant harvests, the Indians gathered from +far and near to celebrate their mysteries. They danced for days, painted +and clad in hideous guise, about a great fire, the throne of the +divinity, and with wild and frantic yells cast from time to time into +the flames furs and weapons, and that choicest of their treasures the +costly wampum. Nay it was even whispered in the early time, that little +children gaily adorned with wampum were led into the midst and thrust +into the fiery embrace of the hissing god.[21] The practice of the +Iroquois was less fearful, among whom a string of white wampum was hung +around the neck of a white dog suspended to a pole and offered as a +sacrifice to the mighty Haweuneyn. The wampum was a pledge of their +sincerity, and white an emblem of purity and of faith. In the same +nation, previous to "giving thanks to the Maple," and their other stated +festivals, the people assembled for the mutual confession of their sins. +"The meeting was opened by one of the 'keepers of the faith,' with an +address upon the propriety and importance of acknowledging their evil +deeds to strengthen their minds against future temptations. He then took +a string of white wampum in his hand, and set the example by a +confession of his own faults, after which he handed the string to the +one nearest to him, who received it, made his confession in like manner, +and passed it to another. In this way the wampum went around from hand +to hand, and those who had confessions to make, stated wherein they had +done wrong, and promised to do better in the future. Old and young, men, +women and even children, all united in this public acknowledgment of +their faults, and joined in the common resolution of amendment. On some +occasions the string of wampum was placed in the centre of the room, and +each one advanced in turn to perform the duty as the inclination seized +him. A confession and promise without holding the wampum would be of no +avail. It was the wampum which recorded their words and gave their +pledge of sincerity. The object of the confession was future +amendment."[22] + +Wampum was the tribute paid by the vanquished in war, as also the means +by which threatened wars were often averted. The Long Island Indians for +many years paid an annual tribute to the Pequots, a powerful tribe +dwelling in Eastern Connecticut.[23] It is commonly supposed that these +tribes were also tributary to the Six Nations. To the same great power +were subject the clans between the Hudson and the Connecticut, and every +year two aged but haughty Mohawks might be seen going from village to +village to collect the tribute that was their due. It is asserted that +as late as 1756, a small tribe near Sugar Loaf Mountain made an annual +payment to this nation of L20 in wampum. Individual as well as national +obligations were similarly satisfied. Like the early German, the Indian +set a marketable value on human life, and a suitable present of wampum +on the part of the murderer, if accepted, freed him from the vengeance +of the dead man's friends, for the wampum belt washed away all traces of +the bloody stain.[24] Perhaps desire for another's wampum sometimes +prompted him to such foul deeds, as it did the white man,[25] though +happily the Indian seldom stooped to theft. + +Thus in the rude civilization of the aborigine wampum filled a space +accorded to no one article in our own. Through life it faithfully met +all his varied wants, and when he came to die, his friends placed it +about his dead body,[26] that it might befriend him on his journey to +the spirit land, and on his arrival there gain for him admission to the +realms of the god Kiehtan, the abode of the blessed. + +The shrewd commercial instinct of the Dutch colonists was quick to +profit by wampum in their dealings with the aborigines. Happily its most +extensive producers dwelt at their very doors. They obtained from the +Long Island tribes in return for knives, scissors, hatchets and the +like, great quantities of this novel coinage, and then exchanged it with +the Indians of the mainland for hides and furs, often plunging far into +the interior and drawing thence products which gold could never have won +from their possessors. Did common trifles fail, wampum was the unfailing +reserve whose charms the savage was powerless to resist. With such an +adjutant trade became doubly flourishing and lucrative. Posts sprang up +along the Hudson, in the valley of the Connecticut and as far south as +the Schuylkill, through all of which ceaseless revenues poured into the +coffers of the Dutch West India Company. Connecticut, alone, annually +furnished to her traders ten thousand beaver skins.[27] In all this +traffic wampum played a leading part, so much so in fact that fur trade +and wampum trade became synonymous terms. + +Toward the close of September, 1627, Isaac de Rasieres was dispatched +from New Amsterdam on an embassy to the English colony at New Plymouth. +Being of a trading turn, he carried with him in his vessel among other +merchandise about L50 in wampum which he managed to dispose of +there.[28] Wampum was as yet comparatively unknown in Massachusetts Bay, +and the colonists were ignorant of its uses. This purchase made with +great reluctance, they sent to their trading house at Kennebeck, where +"when the inland Indians came to know it, they could scarce procure +enough for many years together." Everywhere in New England, as in the +Dutch provinces, wampum soon became a leading article in the Indian +trade, and added greatly to its profits. Seven years after its +introduction to Kennebeck, Mr. Winslow carried thence into England about +twenty hogsheads of beaver, "the greater part whereof was traded for +wampampeage" during the year. By 1636 this trade had grown to such +proportions in Massachusetts colony that the standing colony were +authorized to farm it out for the increase of the public revenues, and +to establish the severest penalties for any infringement of the +privileges thus granted. The traders of New England were now ranging the +forests in all directions and often plunged into them for hundreds of +miles to the great alarm of the Dutch who feared that the English would +monopolize all the profits of the trade, and that "they should be +obliged to eat oats out of English hands."[29] From the north the French +descended in great numbers, eager to share in the gains of this traffic, +and often encroached upon the domains of other nations. The solitudes of +the wilderness thus resounded every where to the tread of the +adventurous white man, who, lured on by the hope of gain, thought not of +the dangers that beset his path. It doubtless afforded the Indian no +little satisfaction to welcome the haughty foreigner to his wigwam, and +while dictating his own terms, to receive in payment the honored +currency of his fathers. When he took his pay, he measured it off after +his own fashion, the unit being the distance from the elbow to the end +of the little finger. According to one authority it made no difference +whether a short or tall man measured it.[30] Adrian Van Tiedhoven, clerk +of the court at the South river, however tells a different story, +complaining bitterly "because the Indians always take the largest and +tallest among them to trade with us." + +But hides and furs were not the only articles which wampum purchased +from the natives. It was a frequent consideration in early Indian deeds. +In the records of Windsor, Conn., is preserved a deed, which conveys +territory lying between the Podunk and Scantic rivers, and extending a +day's march into the country, the price paid for which was fifteen +fathoms of wampum and twenty cloth coats. Most of the present towns of +Warwick and Coventry in Rhode Island, were purchased of Miantinomi, +sachem of the Narragansetts, for one hundred and forty-four fathoms of +wampum.[31] + +In New England the limits of the trade were considerably extended by the +quantities of wampum tribute which poured into the hands of the colonial +authorities. Wampum was the commodity in which tribute was universally +paid, and the stern justice of our fathers imposed this with no sparing +hand upon their weak and erring neighbors. In 1634, the Pequots were +fined 400 fathoms of wampum, and two years afterwards 600 fathoms +more.[32] After 1637, the Long Island Indians paid a large yearly +tribute to the united commissioners,[33] as did also the Block +Islanders. It is often difficult, as in the present case, to see the +justice of such exactions. These Indians had been guilty of no +unfriendly act, and the utmost urged in extenuation of the imposition +was the flimsy pretence that but for an alleged protection the same sums +would have gone in fealty to their red brethren. In 1644, the +Narragansetts were fined 2000 fathoms, and doomed to pay yearly +thereafter a fathom for every Pequot man, half a fathom for every youth +and a hand breadth for every child in the tribe. As late as 1658,[34] +the Pequots were fined ten fathoms a man, and one of their number +imprisoned for offering refuse wampum in part payment.[35] This tribe +had suffered so many and severe exactions that they were obliged to +search in all directions for the material out of which to manufacture +their wampum, and occasionally crossed over to Long Island for this +purpose. The Montauk sachem fearing that his shores would be exhausted +of their shelly wealth, opposed these visits, until the Pequots +succeeded in securing the interposition of the united commissioners in +their behalf.[36] In 1663, the assessment upon this tribe was fixed at +80 fathoms. Such are a few of the many instances to be found in the +records, showing the enormous amount of wampum paid as tribute by the +natives to the early authorities of New England. + +The Dutch supply was augmented in a different manner. They soon found +the native manufactories inadequate to the demand and erected mints of +their own, and by introducing steel drills and polishing lathes won a +great advantage over the original wearisome hand processes. The French +sought a still greater advantage by substituting porcelain for shells, +but the Indians were not to be thus easily imposed upon, and the +manufacture of earthen money was soon given up.[37] It is sometimes +asserted that the English engaged in making wampum, though the statement +appeared to be without foundation. The Dutch, however, produced it in +large quantities, and were thereby enabled to enlarge the circle of +their own posts; and also to furnish liberal supplies to the traders, +north and south, who ranged over the entire Atlantic coast from the St. +Lawrence to the gulf. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and later in Georgia, +wampum was the chief medium employed in the fur trade. + +The poverty of the early settlers, added to that short sighted and now +obsolete policy of Europe in the seventeenth century, which jealously +sought to keep all specie within her borders, produced a general dearth +of the precious metals in the currency of the New World, and all kinds +of shifts were made to eke out the scanty supply. Corn, wheat, oats, +peas, poultry and the like sufficed to satisfy any obligation. But then, +though answering well in cases of barter, where two mutual desires met, +were far too bulky and unwieldy for general use. Naturally then recourse +was had to an article in extensive use among the traders, and possessing +in a measure the portability of gold and silver, and _wampum_ became a +constituent part of the currency. In one feature at least, the old +civilization held its own beside the new. As early as 1637, wampum was +made a legal tender in Massachusetts for any sum under 12_d._, at the +rate of six beads for a penny.[38] The same year it became a legal +tender in Connecticut for any amount. The general court declaring it +receivable for taxes "at fousen (4) a penny."[39] + +But coin grew scarcer in Massachusetts and shell money increased in +value, till in 1640, the authorities were compelled to adopt the +valuation of Connecticut, ordering that the white pass at four and the +"bleuse" at two a penny, "and not above 12_d._ at a time except the +receiver desire more."[40] The public needs soon required another +change, and the legality of shell currency rose to L10.[41] This novel +coinage, thus regulated from time to time, answered well for money +throughout the colonies, till after a while trouble arose from an +unexpected source. The enormous demand at length brought upon the market +beads of stone or unallowed shells, as also many rough, ill-strung +specimens of the genuine article. The disorder was aggravated, because +the Indians, who best understood the qualities of their wampum, would +take only the genuine from the traders, while the refuse was thrown back +into the circulation of the colonies. The commissioners of the United +Colonies being appealed to for a remedy recommended to the separate +governments to suppress this poor "peage" by law. Accordingly in 1648, +the general courte of Connecticut ordered "that no peage, white or +black, be paid or received, but what is strung and in some measure +strung suitably, and not small and great, uncomely and disorderly mixt, +as formerly it hath beene."[42] A similar order was passed in +Massachusetts, where it was further enacted to prepare this Indian money +for ready use, that it be "suitably strung in eight known parcells, +1_d._ 3_s._ 12_d._ 5_s._ in white; 2_d._ 6_s._ 6_d._ and 10_s._ in +blacke."[43] Another favorite length was the fathom, containing 360 +beads and current at about 10_s._ Thus during these years shell money +was current throughout New-England, and constituted, doubtless, the best +and most convenient portion of the currency. The government received it +for taxes, the farmer for his produce, the merchant for his wares, and +the laborer for his hire. It formed a frequent item in the inventories +of deceased colonists, being often the only cash mentioned. It even +found its way into the coffers of Harvard college, for we read that the +lease of the wampum trade in Massachusetts was attended with the +obligation to take from the college the wampum which it might have on +hand from time to time.[44] In the forest, likewise, it now circulated +as money, for the Indian was quick to copy the white man's use of his +beads. + +Toward the middle of the century wampum reached its highest value in +New-England. Thereafter the increasing prosperity of the colonies, the +domestic coinage of silver, and perhaps the too extensive manufacture of +the shell money, gradually diminishing its value, drove it from +circulation. In 1650, it was refused in payment of country rates in +Massachusetts.[45] This action of the government naturally created +distrust among the people, to counteract which it was ordered that +"peage" should still "remagne pawable from man to man, according to the +law in force." Close upon this followed another decree, limiting it as a +legal tender to 40 shillings.[46] These laws continued in force till +1661, when wampum was declared to be no longer a legal tender in +Massachusetts.[47] Rhode Island passed a similar decree the next +year[48] and Connecticut, probably, soon afterwards. But though wampum +now ceased to be legally current, it lingered among the people for years +and constituted in great part the small change of the community. As late +as 1704, it was a common mode of payment in country places.[49] + +Shell money was used extensively and for a long time in the Dutch +colonies. Here for a while absolutely no coin was in circulation, and +wampum being the feasible substitute was universally adopted. So great +was the popular demand, that even the unstrung wampum, prohibited in the +eastern colonies, passed at but a trifling discount.[50] For many years +the easy-going government at New Amsterdam does not seem to have +regulated the currency by law, as did its more thorough neighbors, and +the amount of wampum requisite to make a stiver, was left to be +determined by the parties concerned. Such a course was fraught with +inconvenience to the public, and frequent petitions were made for the +establishment of some uniform rate.[51] + +The rate, however, which obtained by common consent, was four of the +strung and six of the loose beads for a stiver.[52] But in 1641, there +came from foreign parts an inundation of "nasty, rough" sewan, which +drove the better sort out of circulation, "nay," so runs the record, +"threatened the ruin of the country," and legislation was imperatively +demanded. This inferior article was therefore condemned to pass five +for a stiver during the following month, and afterwards six, at which +rate the loose, unstringed wampum, which served the community as change, +subsequently circulated.[53] The importance of wampum during these years +is well illustrated by the fact that the opulent West India Company in +1664, sought to negotiate a loan of five or six thousand guilders in it, +wherewith to pay the laboring people, the obligation to be satisfied +with _good negroes_ or other goods.[54] The Dutch succumbed to superior +force, but wampum still held its own. It continued to be the chief +currency not only in New York, but in the many settlements to the west +and south, which were then under the control of the authorities at New +York. In 1672, the inhabitants of Hoanskill and New Castle on the +Delaware, having been plundered by Dutch privateers were permitted by +the government at New York to lay an impost of four guilders, in wampum, +upon each anker of strong rum imported or sold there.[55] A guilder, +which was about six pence currency or four pence sterling, consisted of +twenty stivers, and eight beads were reckoned equal to one stiver. As +heretofore there was little or no certain coin in circulation and wampum +passed for current payment in all cases. Indeed the country was so +drained of even this currency by the Indian trade, that there was +difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency. To remedy this state of affairs, +the governor and council of New York were in 1673 constrained to issue +their proclamation which was published at Albany, Esopus, Delaware, Long +Island and the adjacent parts, commanding that "instead of eight white +and four black (beads), six white and three black should pass for a +stiver; and three times so much the value of silver."[56] + +The contributions in the churches were for many years made in wampum, +and the first church on the Jersey shore was built with funds +contributed in this way from Sabbath to Sabbath. As late as 1683, "the +schoolmaster in Flatbush was paid his salary in wheat, wampum value: He +was bound to provide a basin of water for the purpose of baptism, for +which he received from the parents or sponsors twelve stivers in +wampum."[57] Nor ten years later had the money of the aborigines become +wholly supplanted by gold and silver, for we learn that "in 1693, the +ferriage of each single person from New York to Brooklyn was eight +stivers in wampum, or a silver two-pence."[58] Further than this we are +unable to trace, though we have good reason to believe that it +circulated, to a limited extent, for some time thereafter. + +Thus while the Indian declined in power his simple coinage passed from +hand to hand, among his conquerors, in the haunts where unnumbered +generations of his ancestors had trafficked it in rude barter, or +offered it with solemn ceremonial, their costliest offering, to their +country's gods. It was for about a quarter of a century a legal tender +in New England, while among the Dutch it was during half a century often +the only circulating medium, and among both Dutch and English it filled +a more or less important part in the currency for nearly an entire +century. + +When at length the increasing wealth of the people drove wampum out of +common use, it still remained an important article in commerce. It was +manufactured at New York until the commencement of the present century +to be used in traffic with the Indians, for whom it had lost none of its +charms, and to be carried by our whalers into the northern seas. + +Treaties and compacts between the different tribes and the states, and +later the general government, continued to be ratified by the +interchange of wampum belts. The records of the eighteenth century +abound with instances of this character. The last occasion of the kind +is believed to have been at Prairie du Chien in 1825.[59] + +Among the Indians of the present day wampum is unknown. The name still +remains, but the trifles to which it is applied bear no resemblance to +the ancient article. The glass beads now current as wampum and the +original wampum are not less unlike, than the squalid Blackfoot of our +western plains, and the proud and imperious Mohawk, beside his native +stream. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Trumbull in his notes in the Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger +Williams's _Key_, says: "_Wom pam_ was the name of the white beads +collectively; when strung or wrought in girdles they constituted +_wanom-peg_ [Roger Williams], the _wampon-peage_ of Wood and other early +writers." + +_Peage_ or _peake_ signified simply "strung beads," and _wampom-peage_ +accordingly signified "strings of white beads." + +The English were doubtless led to consider _wampum_ a generic word, +because they heard it oftenest used, _wampum_ being much more abundant +than _suckauhock_. Their error has however long since received the +sanction of usage. But as far as our own knowledge extends there was no +comprehensive word for all shell beads in use among the Indians. _Sewan_ +had perhaps very nearly such a use in certain localities, but the real +meaning of the word _sewan_ appears from the following note in the +Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger Williams's _Key_:--"_Seahwhoog_, +'they are scattered' [Elliot]. From this word the Dutch traders gave the +name of _sewared_ or _zeewand_ [the participle, _seahwhoun_, +'scattered,' 'loose'], to _all_ shell money just as the English called +all _peage_, or string beads, by the name of the white or _wampom_." + +[2] Sometimes from the _Buccinum undulatum_ [Moell], found from Nantucket +to Labrador, and occasionally perhaps from the _Natica heros_ [Say] +found from New York to Labrador, and the _Natica duplicata_ found from +Florida to Massachusetts Bay. + +In this connection the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness to Hon. +J. Hammond Trumbull, a gentleman who has given much time and talent to +the investigation of matters of Indian history. + +[3] Many writers have asserted that wampum was worked out of the inside +of the Great Conque shell. This view is evidently erroneous, as the +Great Conque, _Strombus gigas_ [Linn.], is not found on the Atlantic +coast, north of Florida and the West Indies, except in the fossil state. + +The assertion that wampum is an Iroquois word, meaning a "muscle," is +doubtless equally unfounded. + +Roger Williams [_Key_, chap. xxiv], who certainly had fine opportunities +for observation, and our other most trustworthy authorities, state that +the _Suckauhock_ was made from the clam shell, and the _wampum_ from the +shells of the Periwinkle, and such was unquestionably the case. + +[4] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv. + +[5] Gordon, _Hist. of Penn._, Appendix F. + +[6] See Schoolcraft's report on the Grove Creek Mound in vol. I, of +_Transactions of the Am. Ethnological Soc._ + +[7] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120. + +[8] The otekoa of the Iroquois was the only exception of which we know. + +[9] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv. + +[10] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv. + +[11] For an excellent illustration of the different modes of wearing +wampum, see the plates in that admirable work, _Harriot's Virginia_, +written in 1586, and published in 1590, in the first volume of De Bry's +_Voyages_. + +[12] Trumbull's _Hist. of Connecticut_, I, p. 50. + +[13] "It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with Indian +affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of what +consequence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings or belts of +wampum, which they look upon as we our letters or rather +bonds."--_Letter of Sir Wm. Johnson_, 1753. _Doc. Hist. of N. Y._, vol. +II, p. 624. + +[14] As late as 1720, a belt was brought into Connecticut from some +place at the south called Towattowan, and circulated very generally +among the Indians, to the alarm of the colony, "the assembly caused some +inquiries to be made into the mystery, and an Indian, named +Tapanranawko, testified that the belt was in token that at each place +where it was accepted, captive Indians would be received and sold. He +said that it would be sent back to Towattowan, which was a great way to +the south, and was inhabited by a large tribe of Indians. The assembly +resolved that the Indians should be directed to send it back whence it +came, and should be charged not to receive such presents in future +without giving notice to the magistrates."--DeForest's _Hist. of Indians +of Conn._, p. 349. + +[15] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 339. + +[16] Documents relating to the _Colonial History of New York_, vol. VII, +p. 44. + +[17] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120. + +[18] _Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia in the Revolution_, Kidder, p. 286. + +[19] It is interesting in this connection to notice the manner in which +the chiefs affixed their names to early deeds. In the deed of New Haven +given by the Quinnipiacs [see Appendix IV, DeForest's Indians of Conn.], +may be seen as autographs, an arrow, a bow, a drawn bow, a war club, a +tobacco pipe, a snake, a wolf (apparently), a wild fowl, etc., etc. + +[20] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 119. + +[21] President Stiles's _Itinerary_, unpublished. + +[22] _League of the Iroquois_, page 188. + +[23] Thomson's _Long Island_, p. 62. + +[24] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 331. + +[25] It is stated in _Winthrop's Journal_ [p. 147 and after], that four +servants of Plymouth were condemned and hung upon their own confession +of having murdered an Indian to obtain his wampum. + +[26] In the tomb, apparently of a chief, in the Grove Creek Mound, 1700 +beads were found around the remains of a skeleton, and such deposits are +frequently found in opening old graves. + +[27] Winthrop, I, 113. + +[28] Bradford's _Letters_, _Mass. Hist. Collections_, III, 54. + +[29] _Doc. Rel. to Colonial History of New York_, I, 459. + +[30] Lawson's _History of North Carolina_, ed. of 1714, page 315. + +[31] Rhode Island _Colonial Records_, I, 130. + +[32] _Winthrop_, pages 147, 149 and 192. + +[33] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 62. + +[34] _Hazard_, II, page 413. + +[35] _Hazard_, III, page 44. + +[36] _Hazard_, II, pages 387 and 388. + +[37] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 60. + +[38] _Records of Mass._, I, 238. Where only one rate is mentioned, as +here, we are probably to understand the white, and deduct one-half for +the black or blue. + +[39] _Colonial Records of Conn._, I, 12. + +[40] _Records of Mass._, I, p. 302. + +[41] _Ibid._, p. 329. + +[42] _Col. Records of Conn._, I, 179. + +[43] _Records of Mass._, II, 261. + +[44] _Records of Mass._, I, 323. + +[45] _Records of Mass._, II, 279. + +[46] _Ibid._, IV, p. 36. + +[47] _Records of Mass._, IV, part 2, pages 4, 5. + +[48] _R. Island Colonial Records_, I, page 474. + +[49] Madam Knight's _Journal_, written in 1704, page 43. + +[50] _Doc. Relating to the Colonial Hist. of New York_, I, 474. + +[51] _Ibid._, p. 336. + +[52] _Ibid._, p. 425. + +[53] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 230. + +[54] _Doc. Col. Hist. of New York_, II, p. 371. + +[55] Proud's _Hist. of Pennsylvania_, I, page 133. + +[56] Hazzard's _Annals of Pennsylvania_. + +[57] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 61. + +[58] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, _ibid._ + +[59] Schoolcraft's _Notes on the Iroquois_. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Archaic spellings have been retained. Abbreviations have been + normalised. Minor typographical errors have been corrected without + note, whilst more significant amendments are listed below: + + P. 10, "Pyrula canicalata" to _Pyrula caniculata_. + + P. 11n, "Great Congue" to _Great Conque_, could be amended to + _Great Conch_ however the former seems more in keeping with the + original intent. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM *** + +***** This file should be named 23635.txt or 23635.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/6/3/23635/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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