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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Textiles, by William H. Dooley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Textiles
+       For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those Engaged in Wholesale and Retail Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and Dressmaker's Trades
+
+
+Author: William H. Dooley
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 30, 2007  [eBook #24077]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Sam W., and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 24077-h.htm or 24077-h.zip:
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+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/0/7/24077/24077-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the
+      original (=bold=).
+
+      Additional notes will be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILES
+
+For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic
+Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those
+Engaged in Wholesale and Retail
+Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and
+Dressmaker's Trades
+
+
+by
+
+WILLIAM H. DOOLEY
+Principal Lowell Industrial School
+Lowell, Mass.
+
+Revised Edition
+With Experiments
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+D. C. Heath & Company
+Boston  New York  Chicago
+
+Copyright, 1910, 1912, and 1914, by
+D. C. Heath and Company
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PLANT]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author established and since its inception has been in charge of
+the first industrial school for boys and girls in Massachusetts. At an
+early date he recognized the need of special text-books to meet the
+demand of young people who are attending vocational schools. There are
+plenty of books written on textiles for technical school students and
+advanced workers. But the author has failed to find a book explaining
+the manufacture and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
+domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those who have just
+entered the textile or allied trades. This book is written to meet
+this educational need. Others may find the book of interest,
+particularly the chapters describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk
+fabrics.
+
+The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W. Hobbs, treasurer of
+the Arlington Mills, for permission to use illustrations and
+information from literature published by the Arlington Mills; to Mr.
+S. H. Ditchett, editor of _Dry Goods Economist_, for permission to use
+information from his publication, "Dry Goods Encyclopedia"; to the
+editor of the _Textile Mercury_; to Frank P. Bennett, of the _American
+Wool and Cotton Reporter_, for permission to use information from
+"Cotton Fabrics Glossary"; and to the instructors of the Lawrence
+Industrial School for valuable information. In addition, information
+has been obtained from the great body of textile literature, which the
+author desires to acknowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FIBERS
+                                                                  PAGE
+  Animal Fibers--Wool, Silk, Mohair. Vegetable--Cotton,
+  Flax, Jute, Hemp. Mineral--Asbestos, Tinsel, Metallic.
+  Remanufactured Material--Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract,
+  and Flocks. Artificial Fibers--Spun Glass, Artificial
+  Silk, Slag Wool. Structure of Wool. Characteristics of
+  Wool. Classification of Wool. Carpet and Knitting Wools.
+  Sheep Shearing. Variation in Weight of Fleeces. Shipping
+  the Fleeces. Value of Wool Business. Saxony and Silesian
+  Wool, Australian Wool, Port Philip Wool, Sydney Wool,
+  Adelaide Wool, Van Wool from Tasmania, New Zealand Wool,
+  Cape Wools, Wools from South America, Russian Wool, Great
+  Britain Wools, Lincoln, Leicester, Southdown, Shropshire;
+  Cashmere Wools, Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools, Cheviot
+  Wool, Welsh Wools, Shetland Wools, Irish Wools, Mohair,
+  Alpaca Wool. How Wool is Marketed                                  1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WOOL SORTING
+
+  Sorting. Classing Grades of Wool. Merino Wool. Difference
+  between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool. Pulled Wool. Delaine
+  Wool. Wool Sorter. Wool Washing, Wool Drying, Oiling.
+  Burring and Carbonizing. Bur Picker, Blending                     16
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
+
+  Wool Substitutes and Waste Remanufactured--Noils, Shoddy,
+  and Mungo. Methods of Producing Shoddy and Mungo--Dusting,
+  Sorting, Seaming, Oiling, Grinding. Extract Wool. Flocks          32
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORSTED YARN
+
+  Carding, Combing. Worsted Tops--Gill Boxes. Different
+  methods of Spinning--Bradford or English System, French
+  System. Structure of Worsted Yarn. Uses of Worsted Yarn.
+  Counts of Worsted Yarn                                            39
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WOOLEN YARN
+
+  Operations in Producing Woolen Yarn--Washing, Carding,
+  Spinning, Mule Spinning. Counts of Woolen Yarn. Uses of
+  Woolen Yarn                                                       50
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+WEAVING
+
+  Preparatory to Weaving--Warp. Weaving--Weaving Processes,
+  Classes of Weave--Plain or Homespun Weave, Twill, Satin
+  Weaves, Figure Weaving (Jacquard apparatus), Double Cloth,
+  Pile Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Lappet Weaving                       53
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DYEING AND FINISHING
+
+  Dyeing. Wool Dyeing, Piece Dyed, Cross Dyed, Yarn Dyed.
+  Style--Designing, Finishing, Perching, Burling, Mending,
+  Fulling, Crabbing, Tentering, Napping, Pressing. Theories
+  of Coloring in Textile Design. Various Methods of
+  Employing Fancy Shades. Adulteration                              65
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS
+
+  Albatross, Alpaca, Corded Alpaca, Angora, Astrakhan,
+  Bandanna, Beaver (Fur Beaver), Bedford Cord, Beige,
+  Bindings, Bombazine, Bottany, Boucle, Broadcloth, Bunting,
+  Caniche, Cashmere, Cashmere Double, Cassimere, Castor,
+  Challis, Cheviot (Diagonal or Chevron), Chinchilla,
+  Chudah, Corduroy, C�te Cheval, Coupure, Covert, Delaine,
+  Doeskin, Drap d'�t�, Empress Cloth, �pingline, Etamine,
+  Felt, Flannel, Dress Flannel, French Flannel, Shaker
+  Flannel, Indigo Blue, Mackinaw, Navy Twilled Flannel, Silk
+  Warp, Baby Flannel. Florentine, Foule, Frieze, Gloria,
+  Granada, Grenadine, Henrietta Cloth, Homespun, Hop
+  Sacking, Jeans, Kersey, Kerseymere, Linsey Woolsey,
+  Melrose, Melton, Meltonette, Merino, Mohair Brilliantine,
+  Montagnac, Orleans, Panama Cloth, Prunella, Sacking,
+  Sanglier, Sebastopol, Serge, Shoddy, Sicilian, Sultane,
+  Tamise, Tartans, Thibet, Tricot, Tweed, Veiling, Venetian,
+  Vigogne (Vicu�a), Vigoureux, Voiles, Whipcord, Worsted
+  Diagonals, Zephyr, Zibeline                                       83
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+COTTON
+
+  Rough Peruvian, East Indian, Egyptian, Sea Island.
+  American Crop--Planting, Picking, Ginning--Roller Gins,
+  Saw Gins. Cotton Gin. Information on the Leading Growths
+  of Cotton. Grades--Full Grades, Half Grades, Quarter
+  Grades. Varieties--Sea Island (selected), Sea Island
+  (ordinary), Florida Sea Island, Georgia, Egyptian, Peeler,
+  Orleans or Gulf Upland, Texas                                    105
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
+
+  Picker Room, Carding Machine, Combing, Drawing. Flyer
+  Frames--Intermediate Frame, Roving Frame, Fine or Jack
+  Frame Spinning--Mule Spinning, Ring Spinning                     125
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
+
+  Manufacturing Processes. Thread Numbers. Sizing. Cotton
+  Finishing--Bleaching, Starching, Calendering, Mercerizing.
+  Characteristics of fine Cotton Cloth                             139
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+KNITTING
+
+  Knitting Machines. Stripe Knitting, Knitting Cotton,
+  Knitting Silk, Hosiery Manufacture, Finishing Process            153
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+LACE
+
+  Needlepoint Lace. Pillow Lace. Lace Terms Defined                164
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+COTTON FABRICS
+
+  Albatross, Awning, Batiste, Bourrette, Bedford Cord,
+  Buckram, Calico, Cambric, Canvas, Chambray, Cheesecloth,
+  Chin�, Chintz, Cotton Flannel, Crash, Cr�pe, Crepon,
+  Cretonne, Crinoline, Damask, Denim, Diaper, Dimity, Domet,
+  Duck, Drill, Eolienne, Etamine, Flannelette, Fustian,
+  Galatea Cloth, Gauze, Gingham, Italian Cloth, Jaconet,
+  Khaki, Lawn, Lingerie, Linon, Long Cloth, Madras, Moreen,
+  Mull, Mummy, Muslin, Nainsook, Organdie, Osnaburg,
+  Percale, Percaline, Piqu�, Poplin, Plumetis, Rep, Sateen,
+  Scrim, Silesia, Souffle, Swiss, Tape, Tarletan, Terry
+  Cloth, Zephyr Gingham                                            173
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FLAX
+
+  Physical Structure. Uses. Mechanical Processes--Crushing
+  or Beating, Breaking, Scutching, Hackling, Bleaching.
+  Characteristics of Good Linen, Notes on Table Linen              193
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HEMP
+
+  Bast Fibers, Sisal Hemp, Manila Hemp, Ramie, Jute                199
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SILK
+
+  Cocoons. Raw Silk. Silk-producing Countries--China, Japan,
+  Italy, Southern France, Greece, Turkey, Western Asia.
+  Throwing. Thrown Silk--Tram, Cr�pe Yarn. Embroidery Silk.
+  Sewing Silk. Silk Waste, Spun Silk, Floss Silk. Ribbons,
+  Silk Thread, Silk Cord. Dyeing Yarns. Silk Dyeing. Logwood
+  Black Silk Dyeing--(1) Boiling Off, (2) Mordanting, (3)
+  Blue Bottoming, (4) "Weighting" Bath, (5) Mordanting, (6)
+  Dyeing. Colored Silks. Mixed Silk Fabrics. Ribbons,
+  Velvets, Printing, Finishing, Waterproofing                      203
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS
+
+  Alma, Bar�ge, Bengaline, Berber, Brocade, Brocatel,
+  Bombazine, Chenille, Chiffon, China Silk, Cr�pe, Cr�pe de
+  Chine, Eolienne, Foulard, Glac�, India Silk, Japanese
+  Silk, Jersey Cloth, Meteor, Moire, Mozambique, Organzine,
+  Panne, Peau de Soie, Plush, Pongee, Popeline, Poplin,
+  Figured Poplin, Terry Poplin, Sarsenet, Satin, Soleil,
+  Taffeta, Tulle, Velour, Velvet, Velveteen, Tabby Velvet,
+  Voile                                                            219
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+  Silk Cotton, Artificial Silk, Tests                              230
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON
+
+  Wool Pulp, Ramie, Pineapple Fibers, Spun Glass, Metallic
+  Threads, Slag Wool, Asbestos                                     232
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+  Determining Style of Weave. Tests for Strength and
+  Elasticity. Determining Count of Warp and Filling,
+  Shrinkage, Weight. Tests for Constituents of Warp and
+  Filling, for Vegetable and Animal Fibers. Acid Test.
+  Cotton Distinguished from Linen, Silk from Wool,
+  Artificial Silk from Silk. Test for Shoddy. Determination
+  of Dressing. Test for Permanence of Dyes                         235
+
+  History of Textiles. History of the Organization of
+  Textile Industries. History of Manufacturing. History of
+  Lace                                                             245
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS
+
+  Experiments 1 to 62                                              267
+
+Sources of Supply                                                  319
+
+Index                                                              323
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILES
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FIBERS
+
+
+All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are called
+_textiles_ and are made of either long or short fibers. These fibers
+can be made into a continuous thread. When two different sets of
+threads are interlaced, the resulting product is called cloth.
+
+The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends entirely upon the
+possession of such qualities as firmness, length, curl, softness,
+elasticity, etc., which adapt it for spinning. The number of fibers
+that possess these qualities is small, and may be classified as
+follows:
+
+_Animal Fibers:_ Wool, Silk, Mohair.
+
+_Vegetable Fibers:_ Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.
+
+_Mineral Fibers:_ Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metallic fibers.
+
+_Remanufactured Material:_ Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract, and Flocks.
+
+_Artificial Fibers:_ Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and Slag Wool.
+
+=The Structure of Wool.= A large part of the people of the world have
+always used wool for their clothing. Wool is the soft, curly covering
+which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as
+the goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under the microscope is
+seen to consist roughly of three parts:
+
+1st. Epidermis, or outer surface, which is a series of scales lying
+one upon the other.
+
+2d. Cortex, or intermediate substance, consisting of angular,
+elongated cells, which give strength to the wool.
+
+3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL FIBER
+
+Highly magnified]
+
+=Difference between Wool and Hair.= Not all animal fibers are alike.
+They vary in fineness, softness, length, and strength, from the finest
+Merino wool to the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At just what point
+it can be said that the animal fiber ceases to be wool and becomes
+hair, is difficult to determine, because there is a gradual and
+imperceptible gradation from wool to hair.[1] The distinction between
+wool and hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
+delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly serrated
+surface--upon which the luster of the wool depends.
+
+=Characteristics of Wool.= The chief characteristic of wool is its
+felting or shrinking power. This felting property from which wool
+derives much of its value, and which is its special distinction from
+hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon
+the scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales or points
+are exceedingly minute, ranging from about 1,100 to the inch to nearly
+3,000. The stem of the fiber itself is extremely slender, being less
+than one thousandth of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools the
+scales are more perfect and numerous, while inferior wools generally
+possess fewer serrations, and are less perfect in structure.
+
+In the process of felting the fibers become entangled with one
+another, and the little projecting scales hook into one another and
+hold the fibers closely interlocked. The deeper these scales fit into
+one another the closer becomes the structure of the thread.
+
+=Classification of Wool.= The various kinds of wool used in commerce
+are named either from the breed of the sheep or from the country or
+locality in which the sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
+Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian wools are named
+from the respective countries. As the result of cross breeding of
+different sheep in different parts of the world, under different
+climatic conditions, physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a
+great many varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided into
+three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool (also called
+carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of two to four inches; (2)
+long wool or combing wool, varying from four to ten inches; (3) carpet
+and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.
+
+The distinction between clothing or carding wools on the one hand, and
+combing wools on the other, is an old one. Combing wools are so
+called because they are prepared for spinning[2] into yarn by the
+process of "combing"--that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
+with one another preparatory to being spun into thread. Carding
+wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are
+shorter than combing wools, and in addition they possess to a much
+greater degree the power of felting--that is, of matting together in a
+close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other hand, are not only
+longer than the carding wools, but they are also harder, more wiry,
+and less inclined to be spiral or kinky. It must be understood,
+however, that under the present methods of manufacture, short wools
+may be combed and spun by the French method of spinning just as the
+long wools are combed and spun by the Bradford or English system.
+
+Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest, and harshest
+sorts of wools. They come principally from Russia, Turkey, China,
+Greece, Peru, Chili, etc., and from the mountain districts of England
+and Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair than other
+wools. The only staple of this class produced in the United States is
+grown on the original Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of
+these Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved by cross
+breeding, but they constitute the foundation stock of most of our
+Western flocks, which now produce superior clothing and combing wool.
+
+=Sheep Shearing.= In order to get an idea of the importance of the
+sheep industry in the United States, one must take a glance at its
+condition in the big states of the West. Wyoming has more than
+4,600,000 sheep within its borders. Montana, which held the record
+until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with 2,500,000,
+Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list until the nation's
+total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-fifths of which are west of the
+Missouri river.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP SHEARING]
+
+To harvest the wool from such an enormous number of backs is a task
+that calls for expert shearers, men who can handle the big shears of
+the machine clippers with a skill that comes from long practise. The
+shearing must be done at the right time of the year. If the wool is
+clipped too early, the sheep suffer from the cold; if the shearing
+comes too late, the sheep suffer from intense heat, and in either case
+are bound to lose weight and value.
+
+To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has risen expert in the
+sheep-shearing business. These shearers begin work in southern and
+middle California, Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the
+great sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon, where they
+find steady employment until July, when they go to the ranges of
+Canada. In this way the shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at
+high wages.
+
+The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand shears, though this
+form of clipping is being done away with, owing to the installation of
+power plants for machine shearing. These plants are installed at
+various points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are erected and
+shafting extends down both sides of the shearing place. Twenty or more
+shearers will be lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
+clipping machine connected with the shafting. The sheep are brought in
+from the range in bands of 2,500 or more, and are put in the corrals
+adjoining the shearing sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
+shearers.
+
+A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him and pulls out a
+sheep. With a dexterous fling the animal is put in a sitting posture
+between the shearer's knees, and then the steel clippers begin
+clipping off the wool. The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it
+gets closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly. In fact,
+some sheep owners say that the increased weight of their fleeces at
+each shearing is enough to pay the extra expense of running a power
+plant.
+
+As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers they are run along
+a narrow chute and each one is branded. The branding mark is usually a
+letter painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly seen
+when they are coming through a chute. The mark remains on the fleece
+and is always easily distinguished.
+
+=Fleece.= There is a great variation in the weight of fleeces. Some
+sheep, such as those on the best ranges in Oregon, Montana, and
+Wyoming, will average an eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while
+sheep from the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will not
+average much more than five pounds of wool.
+
+The shearing season on the plains is much like the threshing season in
+agricultural communities. With a crew of first-class shearers working
+in a shearing shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool.
+Boys are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into compact
+bundles, and throwing them to the men who have been assigned to the
+task of filling the wool sacks. These sacks, which hold about 400
+pounds, are suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
+fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the sacks will not
+hold a pound more. Most of the sacks are shipped to warehouses in such
+wool centers as Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
+place being the greatest wool shipping center in the world. Here they
+are sold to Eastern buyers, who examine the clips at their leisure and
+make their bids.
+
+=Value of Wool Business.= Some idea of the fortunes at stake in the
+wool business can be gathered from the fact that the total wool
+product of the country in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is
+expected that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good year
+will pay all a sheepman's running expenses, such as hire of herders,
+cost of shearing, etc. He then has the sale of his lambs as clear
+profit. Enormous fortunes are being made in the sheep business in the
+west, owing to the high price of wool and mutton.
+
+=Saxony and Silesian Wool.= Among wools of all classes the Saxony and
+Silesian take the first place, and for general good qualities,
+fineness, and regularity of fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is
+short in staple, possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
+elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture of cloths where
+much milling[3] is required, such as superfines and dress-faced
+fabrics.
+
+=Australian Wools.= Australia furnishes wools of a superior character,
+and some of the choicest clips rival the Saxony and Silesian wools.
+They are used both for worsted[4] and woolen yarns. They are generally
+strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous serrations, and
+are of good color, with good felting properties. The principal
+Australian wools are Port Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These
+are the best brands imported from that country.
+
+=Port Philip Wool.= Port Philip wool is suitable for either worsted or
+woolen yarns. The fiber is not quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a
+good thread, is fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and
+color. It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of this wool
+is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and will spin up to 130's
+counts.[5] The sheep are descendants of the original Spanish Merino.
+Cross bred Port Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
+Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound fiber and
+good quality for spinning counts from 40's to 56's. The yarn has a
+bright, clear appearance.
+
+=Sydney Wools.= Sydney wools are moderately fine in fiber and of
+medium length. They are rather deficient in strength, uneven in color,
+and often contain yellow locks which make them undesirable when
+required for dyeing light shades. They are used for nearly the same
+purpose as Port Philip wools, but do not spin quite as far in worsted
+yarns, nor are they equal in milling qualities.
+
+=Adelaide Wool.= Adelaide wool has a reputation for sound Merinos,
+the average quality being a little lower than for the Port Philip and
+Sydney wools. Its fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length;
+its color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of yolk.[6]
+Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods, weft (filling)[7] yarn
+up to 60's, and certain worsted warps.[7] It is used for medium
+fancy woolens.
+
+=Van Wool from Tasmania.= The climate of this island is well suited to
+the growing of wool, and produces excellent qualities, fine in fiber,
+of good length, and strong in the staple, which will spin as high
+counts as 70's and 80's worsted. This wool is useful for mixing with
+other good wools. Its color is very white, which makes it a useful
+wool for dyeing light shades. Its milling properties are good, and the
+shorter sorts are suitable for woolens.
+
+=New Zealand Wools= are very supple, which make them valuable to the
+spinner. These wools are suitable for almost all classes of Merino and
+crossbred yarns. They are of good length, sound staple, have good
+felting properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
+blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these remanufactured
+materials that springy, bulky character which they lack.
+
+=Cape Wools.= Cape Colony and Natal produce merino wool that is
+somewhat short in staple, rather tender, and less wavy than some other
+wools. The sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
+of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the ground very sandy,
+and this makes the fleece heavy and dirty. Its color is fair, but it
+lacks elasticity. It is used chiefly to cheapen blends[8] of 60's
+top.[9] The short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and
+hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where felting is not
+an essential feature.
+
+[Illustration: MERINO SHEEP]
+
+=Wools from South America.= These wools are of the same standard of
+excellence as the Australian wools, but they are generally deficient
+in strength and elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
+fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity, and are
+deficient in milling properties; they are also burry. The climate
+suits the sheep well, and the feed is good, but the careless methods
+of classing and packing have earned for these wools a poor reputation
+that is well deserved.
+
+The best 60's wool is combed in oil, but a large portion of the
+shorter is combed and used in thick counts,--20's to 36's worsted for
+the hosiery trade.
+
+=Russian Wool.= The staple of this is generally strong, and the fibers
+are of a medium thickness; the color is milky white. It is useful to
+blend with Australian or other good wools. It produces a good yarn,
+and is very often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics that
+require to be finished in the natural color.
+
+=Great Britain Wools.= These may be divided into three groups: (1)
+long wools, of which the Lincoln and Leicester are typical examples;
+(2) short wools, which include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and
+others; and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep, such
+as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish, and Welsh.
+
+=Lincoln Wool= is a typical wool obtained from the long wool sheep,
+and noted for its long, lustrous fiber, which is silky and strong. The
+staple varies from ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average
+fleece will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.
+
+=Leicester Wool= has a somewhat finer fiber than Lincoln. It is a
+valuable wool, of good color, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with
+good, bright luster and no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown
+extensively in England, they also grow in Indiana and Kentucky, and
+are commonly known in the trade as braid wool.
+
+=Southdown= is one of the most valuable of short staple wools. It
+possesses a fine hair, is close and wavy, and fairly sound in staple,
+but rather deficient in milling qualities. The shorter varieties are
+carded and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while the
+longer qualities are used in the production of worsted goods. The
+weight of a Southdown fleece averages from four to five pounds.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES]
+
+=Shropshiredown= wool is of good quality, with strong, fine, lustrous
+fiber, of good length. It resembles Southdown, but is not as lustrous
+as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
+fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
+
+=Cashmere Wool= is the fine, woolly, extremely soft, white or gray fur
+of the Cashmere goat which is bred in Thibet. There are two kinds of
+fiber obtained: one, which is really the outer covering, consists of
+long tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of commerce,
+a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint, with a fine, silky fiber.
+It is used for making the costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the
+finest wraps.
+
+=The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools= are fairly fine in fiber and
+soft, but slightly deficient in strength and elasticity.
+
+=Cheviot Wool= may be taken as representative of the hilly breeds of
+sheep. It is an average wool, with staple of medium length, soft, and
+with strong and regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
+possesses desirable milling properties, being used for both woolen and
+worsted, but chiefly in the fancy woolen trade. The average weight of
+the fleece is about 4-1/2 pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
+yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than the Cheviot, and
+varying much in quality. It is almost all used in the production of
+rugs, carpets, and blankets.
+
+=Welsh Wools= lack waviness and fineness of fiber. They are chiefly
+used for flannels.
+
+=Shetland Wools= are similar in character to Welsh wools, but slightly
+finer in fiber and softer. They are used in the manufacture of knitted
+goods, such as shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.
+
+=Irish Wools= possess a strong, thick hair of moderate length and fine
+color. They are similar in many respects to the Welsh wools, and are
+often classed with them. They are used in the production of low and
+medium tweeds--fancy woolen cloths not requiring small yarns or
+milling qualities.
+
+=Mohair= is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora goat, which
+derives its name from the district of Asia Minor from which it comes.
+These animals have also been successfully bred in Spain and France.
+The hair is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and possesses
+a high luster. It is used in making plushes, velvets, astrakhans, and
+curled fabrics, also half silk goods and fine wraps.
+
+=Alpaca Wool= is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep, which is a species
+of llama. The staple is of good length and soft, but is not quite as
+lustrous as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black,
+brown, or fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
+
+=How Wool is Marketed.= The bulk of the wool of commerce comes into
+the market in the form of fleece wool, the product of a single year's
+growth, and cut from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
+The first and finest clip, called lamb's wool, may be taken from the
+young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months. All subsequently cut
+fleeces are known as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
+value than the first clip.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hair is straight and glossy, stronger and smoother than wool, and
+grows sometimes as long as twenty inches.
+
+[2] Spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted
+into a continuous thread.
+
+[3] A process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to
+make the cloth stronger and firmer.
+
+[4] See footnote, page 39.
+
+[5] The size of yarn is technically called the "counts" and is based
+on the number of 560 yard lengths required to weigh one pound. In this
+case 130's count = 130 � 560, or 72,800 yards of yarn to a pound.
+
+[6] An encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece.
+
+[7] See page 54.
+
+[8] Mixtures.
+
+[9] After wool fibers are combed they are called top.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WOOL SORTING
+
+
+Fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in bundles and must
+be sorted. This process consists in sorting and classifying the fibers
+of the fleece. Not only do the various species of sheep furnish widely
+different qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained from
+the same animal, according to the part of the body from which the wool
+is taken. This variation in some instances is very marked, and
+sometimes is greater than that which separates the wools of the
+different breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of wool
+become necessary for the production of good, sound yarn of even
+quality.
+
+An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result in the
+spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory yarns. As many as
+twelve or fourteen sorts may be obtained from one fleece (by very fine
+sorting), but generally not more than five or seven are made. The
+following table shows the relative qualities of wools from the various
+parts of a Merino sheep:
+
+1 and 2. _Head_ (_top and sides_): The wools grown on these parts are
+remarkable for length of staple, softness, and uniformity of
+character. They are usually the choicest wools in the fleece.
+
+3. _Upper part of the back:_ This also is a wool of good, sound
+quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but not as soft or as
+fine of fiber.
+
+4. _Loin and back:_ The staple here is comparatively short, not as
+fine, but generally of unvarying character, sometimes rather tender.
+
+[Illustration: SORTING ROOM]
+
+5. _Upper parts of legs:_ This wool is medium in length but coarse of
+fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose, open locks. It is
+generally sound, but likely to contain vegetable matter.
+
+6. _Upper portion of the neck:_ The staple clipped from this part of
+the neck is of an inferior quality, frequently faulty and irregular in
+growth, and contains twigs, thorns, etc.
+
+7. _Central part of the neck:_ This wool is similar to No. 6 but
+rather tender in staple.
+
+8. _Belly:_ This wool is from under the sheep, between the fore and
+hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in quality, and generally
+tender.
+
+9. _Root of tail:_ In this wool the fibers are coarse, short, and
+glossy.
+
+10. _Lower parts of the legs:_ This wool is generally dirty and
+greasy, the staple having no wave and lacking fineness. It is
+generally burry and contains much vegetable matter.
+
+11. _Front of Head_; 12. _Throat_; 13. _Chest:_ The wools from these
+parts are sometimes classed together, all having the same
+characteristics. The fiber is stiff, straight, coarse, and covered
+with fodder.
+
+14. _Shins:_ This is another short, thick, straight wool of glossy
+fiber, commonly known as shanks.
+
+=Classing.= Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and is usually, but
+not always, a process preliminary to sorting. It is an important part
+of sorting, and when well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
+uniform matchings.
+
+=Grades of Wool.= In the grading of wool no set standard of quality
+exists. The same classification may be applied in different years, or
+in different localities, to qualities of wool showing much variation,
+the best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for the lower
+grades. The highest quality of wool in the United States is found on
+full-blooded Merino sheep.
+
+=Merino Wool.= The Merino sheep was bred for wool and not mutton. The
+fleece of this breed is fine, strong, elastic, and of good color; it
+also possesses a high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
+grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The Merino sheep is a
+native of Spain, and Spain was for a long period the chief country of
+its production. It was also in past centuries extensively bred in
+England and English wool owes much to the Merino for the improvement
+it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds of English sheep. It
+was also introduced into Saxony and was highly bred there, and Saxony
+soon came to surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
+properties. The Merino was introduced into the United States at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century. By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had
+been imported and these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the
+fine wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.
+
+The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter blood refer to
+the full-blooded Merino standard. As the scale descends the wool
+becomes coarser, the wool of a quarter blood usually being a
+comparatively coarse fiber. The general classifications of fine,
+medium, coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
+combing wools. These distinctions naturally overlap according to the
+opinion of the parties in transactions. Picklock XXX and XX represent
+the highest grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X, and
+then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in connection with the
+locality from which the wool is grown, as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New
+York No. 1, etc.
+
+=Difference Between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool.= One of the first points
+to be understood in wool sorting is the difference between the wool of
+lambs and one-year-old sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
+Lamb's wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it has never been
+clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett wool, and is more valuable when
+longer, of about fourteen months' growth. It is finer in quality and
+possesses more waviness, which is a help in the process of spinning.
+
+The wool of sheep two or more years old is known as wether. The ends
+of the fiber from such sheep are thick and blunted, on account of
+having been previously cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once
+a hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two ways: by
+examining the ends of the fiber to see if they are pointed; or by
+pulling a staple out of the fleece. If it is wether, the staple will
+come out clean, without interfering to any extent with those around
+it; but if hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
+being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt, moss, straw,
+and other vegetable matter.
+
+=Dead Wool= is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep that have died.
+
+=Pulled Wool.= Pulled wool is wool from the pelts[10] as they come
+from the slaughter-houses of large packing plants. These pelts are
+thrown into vats of water and left to soak for twenty-four hours to
+loosen the dirt which has become matted into the wool. From these
+vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which the wool
+issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts are next freed from any
+particles of flesh or fat which may have adhered to them, and are then
+taken to the "painting" room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
+carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the roots of the
+wool. This preparation is allowed to remain on the pelts for
+twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned off and the pelts taken to the
+"pulling" room. Each wool puller stands before a small wooden
+framework over which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all
+thoroughly loosened by the "paint" preparation, is easily and quickly
+pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled it is thrown into barrels
+conveniently arranged according to grade and length.
+
+When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large room across
+which are several rows of wire netting, raised about three feet from
+the floor. Each sheet of netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool
+is piled on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
+forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile it is worked over
+by men with rakes, and soon dries. When thoroughly dry, it is raked up
+and taken to the storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it
+usually remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold, when
+it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find their way to the woolen
+mill or sampling house. Sometimes the fleece will retain its fleece
+form, but usually it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
+specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime from
+absorbing the cleansing substances used for scouring the wool.
+
+=Delaine Wool= is a variety of fine, long combing wool.
+
+=Cotty Wool=, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have been exposed to
+severe weather and lack of nourishment, and for these reasons have
+failed to throw off the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result
+it becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and brittle and
+almost worthless.
+
+=Wool Sorter.= The sorter begins by placing the fleece upon his board
+or table, always arranging it so that he faces the north, as this
+gives the most constant light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus
+spread out shows a definite dividing line through the center. The
+sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze their different
+qualities. The number of sorts is determined by the requirements of
+the manufacturer who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
+will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present use, and
+that leave in stock the smallest number of sorts and least weight for
+which he has no immediate use. The sorter then removes all extraneous
+matter adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds, and
+cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint, which, if not removed
+at this time, will dissolve in the scouring process and stain the
+wool. With these preliminaries finished, he proceeds to cast out the
+locks, according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided for that
+purpose. After skirting or taking off the outside edges of the fleece,
+usually known as brokes, and the legs and tail, known as breech, he
+separates the other portions from the better qualities.
+
+[Illustration: SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
+DEGREASING PLANT]
+
+Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights, seconds, breech,
+etc., are some of the terms used. Picklock comprises the choicest
+qualities; prime is similar to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice
+is true staple, but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice,
+but as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior sorts from
+this part of the sheep; downrights come from the lower parts of the
+sides; seconds consist of the best wool clipped from the throat and
+breast; breech, the short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting
+and edgings of the fleece.
+
+In the worsted trade different names are used. The terms generally
+adopted are: blue, from the neck; fine, from the shoulders; neat, from
+the middle of the sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
+breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the breech is very
+strong; brokes, from the lower part of the front legs and belly, which
+are classed as super, middle, and common.
+
+Fine, short wools are sorted according to the number of counts of yarn
+they are expected to spin, as 48's, 60's, 70's, and so on. Thus we see
+there are different methods of indicating qualities in different
+districts, and also of indicating differences of qualities between the
+woolen and worsted branches of the trade.
+
+It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies in the same way as
+the quality of the flesh. The shoulder is finest in grain and most
+delicate, so the wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear
+for the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence the wool is
+longer and stronger; about the neck the wool is short, to prevent the
+sheep from being weighted down while eating, etc.; the wool on the
+back becomes rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From the
+foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity for careful
+sorting, in order to insure obtaining an even running yarn, and
+subsequently a uniform quality of fabrics.
+
+=Wool Washing.= Fleece wool as it comes into the market is either in
+the "grease," that is, unwashed and with all the dirt which gathers on
+the surface of the greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the
+washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep shearing. Wool,
+unlike cotton, cannot be worked into yarn without being thoroughly
+cleansed of its impurities. These impurities consist of greasy and
+sweaty secretions, of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Combined
+with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool, these secretions form
+an encrusting compound, known as yolk, which acts as a natural
+preservative to the wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound,
+with other extraneous matter, must be removed before the wool is in a
+workable condition. The amount of yolk varies, the greatest amount
+being found in fine, short wools from the warm climates. In
+long-staple wool the amount of yolk is comparatively small.
+
+[Illustration: WASHING ROOM]
+
+Various methods of removing these impurities have been tried; one is
+the use of absorbent substances, such as fossil meal, alumina, etc.,
+to withdraw the greasy matter, so that the remaining impurities can be
+easily removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or similar
+solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool fats. This is followed
+by washing in tepid water to dissolve the potash salts, leaving the
+dirt to fall away when the other substances are no longer present. To
+work this method with safety requires a costly and intricate plant
+with skilled supervision. The method which is practically in universal
+use is washing the wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which
+combine with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion which is
+easily washed off from the wool.
+
+Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the washing
+process, as the luster may be destroyed and a brownish-yellow tint
+given to the wool, the spinning properties very seriously injured, the
+softness destroyed, or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to
+wash, requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature; other wools
+are cleansed with great difficulty. A note, therefore, should be made
+of any particular brand or class of wool requiring special attention,
+to serve as a guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
+in using unsuitable agents,--hard water, excessive temperatures,
+strong reagents, etc.
+
+Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on wool as they eat
+into it and destroy its vitality. Carbonate alkalies are less severe.
+Whatever cleansing substances are used, it is essential that they
+should be free from anything that is likely to injure the wool--that
+they remove the impurities and still preserve all the qualities in the
+wool. If the washing is properly performed the alkaline portion of the
+yolk is removed, leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber.
+If the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as "unmerchantable
+washed." "Tub washed" is the term applied to fleeces which are broken
+up and washed more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
+warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in cold water until
+nothing remains but the clean fiber.
+
+[Illustration: DEGREASING PLANT--REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL]
+
+An improved method of washing wool by hand is to have a series of
+tanks with pressing rollers attached to each tank: the wool is
+agitated by means of forks, and then passed to the pressing rollers
+and into each tank in succession. The tanks are usually five in
+number, and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the upper to
+the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing rollers the excess of water
+is driven off in a hydro extractor[11] and the wool is beaten into a
+light, fluffy condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.
+
+=Wool Drying.= The process of drying wool is not intended to be
+carried to such an extent that the wool will be in an absolutely dry
+state, for in such a condition it would be lusterless, brittle, and
+discolored. It is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
+moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it entirely would
+result in partial disintegration of the fibers. Buyers and sellers
+have a recognized standard of moisture, 16 per cent. If, on the other
+hand, it is left too wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain
+in the succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so unduly
+stretched that they have lost their elasticity.
+
+The theory which underlies the drying process is that dry air is
+capable of absorbing moisture, hence by circulating currents of dry
+air in and around wet wool, the absorbing power of the air draws off
+the moisture. For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
+as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and incapable of
+taking up more moisture. Warming the air increases its capacity to
+absorb moisture; thus a higher temperature is capable of drying the
+wool much quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
+temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100 degrees F., evenly
+distributed, and with ample provision for the escape of the saturated
+air, is essential for good work.
+
+=Oiling.= After being scoured wool generally has to be oiled before it
+is ready for the processes of spinning, blending, etc. As delivered
+from the drying apparatus, the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat
+harsh and wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk which is
+its natural lubricant. To render it soft and elastic, and to improve
+its spinning qualities, the fiber is sprinkled with lard oil or olive
+oil. As the oil is a costly item, it is of consequence that it be
+equally distributed and used economically. To attain this end various
+forms of oiling apparatus have been invented, which sprinkle the oil
+in a fine spray over the wool, which is carried under the sprinkler by
+an endless cloth.
+
+=Burring and Carbonizing.= After wool has been washed and scoured it
+frequently happens that it cannot be advanced to the succeeding
+operations of manufacture because it is mixed with burs, seeds,
+leaves, slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
+pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spinning qualities of
+the stock, for if a bur or other foreign substance becomes fastened in
+the strand of yarn while it is being spun, it either causes the thread
+to break or renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs, etc.,
+from the wool two methods are pursued: the one purely mechanical, the
+other chemical, and known respectively as burring and carbonizing.
+
+=Bur Picker.= For the mechanical removing of burs a machine called the
+bur picker is employed. In this machine the wool is first spread out
+into a thin lap or sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly,
+beat upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into pieces. The
+pieces fall down into the dust box or upon a grating beneath the
+machine, and are ejected together with a good deal of the wool
+adhering to them. Often the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and
+these are scattered through the stock.
+
+=Process of Carbonizing.= For the complete removal of all foreign
+vegetable substances from wool the most effective process is
+carbonizing, in which the burs, etc., are burned out by means of acid
+and a high degree of heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
+wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric or
+hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the acid bath being placed
+in cement cisterns or in large lead-lined tubs and not made strong
+enough to injure the fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock
+is frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then placed in an
+enclosed chamber and subjected to a high temperature (75 degrees C.).
+The result of this process is that all the vegetable matter contained
+in the wool is "carbonized" or burned to a crisp, and on being
+slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This dust is removed
+from the wool by various simple processes. The carbonizing process was
+first introduced in 1875, though it made but slight headway against
+the old burring method until after 1880.
+
+=Blending.= Pure wool of but one quality is not often used in the
+production of woven fabrics, so, before the raw material is ready for
+spinning into yarn, or for other processes by which it is worked into
+useful forms, it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons (among
+which cheapness figures prominently), the added materials consisting
+usually of shoddy, mungo, or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however,
+blending has for its object the securing of a desired quality or
+weight of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
+determines blending operations, natural colored wools being frequently
+intermixed to obtain particular shades for dress goods, tweeds,
+knitting yarns, etc. Stock dyed wools are also blended for the
+production of mixed colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is
+practically no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable by
+mixing two or more colors of wool together. The various quantities of
+wool to be blended are spread out in due proportion in the form of
+thin layers, one on top of the other, and then passed through a
+machine called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination of
+large and small rollers, thickly studded with small pins, which open
+the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly intermix it. A blast of air
+constantly plays upon the wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and
+pins in opening out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
+operation several times and is finally delivered in a soft, fleecy
+condition, ready to be spun into yarn.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Skins.
+
+[11] A wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high
+speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
+
+
+=Remanufactured= wool substitutes are extensively used in the
+manufacture of woolen and worsted goods. There is no need for the
+prejudice that is sometimes met regarding these reclaimed materials,
+for by their use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed. If
+the immense quantity of these materials were wasted, countless persons
+would be unable to afford proper clothing, as it is difficult to
+estimate what the price of wool would be; and it is also doubtful if a
+sufficient quantity could be produced to supply the need. In almost
+all instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special purpose
+of producing cloths at a much lower price.
+
+The cloths made from waste products, such as noils, are not much
+inferior in quality to those produced from the wool from which the
+noils are obtained; but the great majority of cloths made from other
+waste products are much inferior. The following are the most important
+substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool, and flocks.
+
+=Noils= are the rejected fibers from the process of combing the
+different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are from the sheep, mohair
+noils from the Angora goat, and alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.
+
+Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool noils, short or
+fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca noils. They are all obtained
+in the process of combing, that is, the process which separates the
+long from the short fibers; the former are known as the "top," and are
+used in worsted and in the production of mohair and alpaca yarns;
+while the latter are used to advantage in the production of many
+different kinds of woolen fabrics. With the exception of length, noils
+are practically of the same quality as the tops from which they are
+taken.
+
+Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools as Leicester and
+similar wools. These noils, like the wool from which they are
+obtained, are much coarser in quality and fiber than the short-wool
+noils. Occasionally, when strength is required in the fabric, these
+noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool noils. Many of
+the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively of these noils. They are also
+mixed with shoddy and cotton in the production of dark-colored
+fabrics, and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a fibrous
+appearance they are extremely useful.
+
+Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and are obtained from
+combing Australian and other fine wools. The number and variety of
+uses to which they are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
+in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufacture of shawls and
+plain woolens of a soft nature, and are also suitable for mixing with
+cotton in the production of twist threads.
+
+Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing of these
+materials. They are lacking in felting properties, but are lustrous
+and possess strength, and are most valuable in the manufacture of
+fabrics where strength and luster are required. These noils are used
+in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets, as yarns for
+these carpets must possess strength, brightness, and thickness of
+fiber. They are also used in combination with shoddy and cotton to
+produce weft or filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.
+
+=Shoddy= and =Mungo= are in reality wool products, or wool fiber which
+has previously passed through the processes of manufacture whereby its
+physical structure has been considerably mutilated. These were first
+produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in value than mungo.
+The value and quality of the waste or rags from which it is made
+determine the quality or value of the material. Shoddy is derived from
+waste or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
+stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.
+
+=Mungo= is made from rags of hard or milled character and is much
+shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length, varying from one-quarter to
+three-quarters of an inch, can be regulated by the treatment the rags
+receive, and by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
+machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided into classes. Mungo is
+divided into two classes, namely, new and old mungo. New mungo is made
+from rags chiefly composed of tailor's clippings, unused pattern-room
+clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off garments, etc. By a
+careful selection of the rags previous to grinding, it is possible to
+make a large number of qualities, and a great variety of colors and
+shades without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and mungo are
+used in cloths of low and medium qualities. Shoddies are utilized in
+fabrics of the cheviot class and in the production of backing yarns.
+Mungoes of the best quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in
+both warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.
+
+=Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo.= Before the fibrous mungo is
+obtained, the rags have to pass through the following necessary
+preliminary operations:
+
+_A. Dusting._ This is carried on in a shaking machine, which consists
+of a cylinder possessing long and strong spikes, which are enclosed,
+having underneath a grating to allow the dust to pass through. The
+dust is then driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
+purpose.
+
+_B. Sorting._ All rags, both old and new, must be sorted, and
+considerable care must be exercised in this operation, as on this work
+alone depends the obtaining of different qualities and shades, as well
+as the securing of the production of a regular and uniform product.
+
+_C. Seaming._ This is only necessary with the rags procured from
+garments. It is simply removing the cotton threads from the seams, and
+any metallic or hard substances from the rags.
+
+_D. Oiling._ The rags are oiled to soften them and make them more
+pliable, and thus to facilitate the grinding.
+
+_E. Grinding._ This is the principal operation, and the rags are made
+fibrous in this process. The machine by which this is effected is made
+up of the following parts: feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a
+funnel for conveying the material out of the machine. The principal
+features of the machine are the swift and its speed. The swift is
+enclosed in a framework, and is about forty-two inches in diameter and
+eighteen inches wide, thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square
+inches, containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes. The
+speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolutions per minute. The
+rags are fed by placing them on the traveling feed apron, and are thus
+conveyed to the fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
+are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth, moving with
+exceedingly high surface velocity, they are torn thread from thread
+and fiber from fiber. The fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags
+are held while the swift carries out this operation. By means of the
+strong current of air created by the high speed of the swift, the
+mungo is expelled from the machine through the funnel into a specially
+arranged receptacle. If by any chance the machine should be
+overcharged, that is, if too many rags are passing through the
+rollers, the top fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply
+carried, or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the opposite side
+of the machine without being subjected to the tearing process. The top
+roller is weighted by levers with weights attached to keep it in
+position, thus bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is
+driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the feed rollers in
+relation to the swift, the length of the fiber may be varied to a
+small degree.
+
+=Extract Wool.= This is obtained from union cloths, that is, from
+cloths having a wool weft and warp of cotton, etc., also from cloths
+having the same material for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo
+warp or filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. Therefore
+the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted from it by the process
+of carbonizing. To effect this, the tissue or rags are steeped in a
+solution of sulphuric acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
+enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the acid in a
+concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton, converting it into
+powder. The powder readily becomes separated, and thus the cotton is
+eliminated. The material that is left is well washed to remove all
+acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder, to impart to
+it the appearance of a woolly and a softer fabric.
+
+=Flocks.= These are of three kinds, and are waste products of the
+milling, cropping, and raising operations. The most valuable are those
+derived from the fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
+are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture of low grade
+cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks are suitable for blending with
+wool, and as a rule command a fair price. Raising flocks are those
+obtained from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
+purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are used. Cutting
+or cropping flocks are the short fibers which are removed from the
+cloths in this operation. They are practically of no value to the
+textile manufacturer, being unfit for yarn production, but are used
+chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing "flock-papers," which
+are papers with raised figures resembling cloth, made of poor wool,
+and attached with a gluey varnish.
+
+[Illustration: CARD ROOM
+
+  1. Automatic Feed.
+  2. Bur Guards.
+  3. Bur Tray.
+  4. 1st Top Divider.
+  5. 2d Top Divider.
+  6. Workers.
+  7. Strippers.
+  8. Doffer Cylinder.
+  9. Main Cylinders.
+ 10. Main Card Drive on 2d Main Cylinder Shaft.
+ 11. 1st Lickerin.
+ 12. 2d Lickerin.
+ 13. 3d Lickerin.
+ 14. 4th Lickerin.
+ 15. Fancy Hood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORSTED YARNS
+
+
+=Carding.= After the wool is washed it undergoes a number of
+operations before it is finished into worsted or woolen yarn.[12] The
+first step in the manufacturing of worsted yarn is to pass the washed
+wool through a worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
+covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The effect of these
+cylinders on the wool is to disengage the wool fibers, make them
+straight, and form a "sliver" or strand. It is now ready for the
+combing machine.
+
+=Combing.= The process of combing consists of subjecting the card
+sliver to the operations of the automatic wool comber, which
+straightens the fibers and removes all short and tufted pieces of
+wool. Combing is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies
+perfectly straight, and that all fibers follow one after the other in
+regular order.
+
+=Comb.= A comb is a complicated machine. The principal feature is a
+large metal ring with rows of fine steel pins (pin circles), which is
+made to revolve horizontally within the machine. By various devices
+the wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of tufts. The
+fibers of the tufts by an intricate process are separated into long
+and short lengths, and a set of rollers draws each out separately and
+winds it into a continuous strand called "tops." On leaving the
+comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and foreign
+substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lustrous appearance. The
+short combed-out wool is called noils, and is used in making carpet
+yarns, ground up into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy
+yarns.
+
+=Worsted Tops.= American textile manufacturers are finding it
+advantageous to have their combing done by those who make the work a
+specialty rather than to do it themselves. In the manufacture of tops
+all varieties of combing wools are used: Australian, Merino, and
+Crossbred wools, South American Merino and Crossbred wools, Cape
+Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools grown in the United States,
+the lustrous wools of pure English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey,
+and Alpaca from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries.[13]
+Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools, either sorted or
+unsorted as they may desire, to a combing mill, where the wool is put
+into top at a lower price than that at which most spinneries can do
+their own combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger amount of
+top from a given amount of wool can be secured than by any other
+process, and in addition, a top in better condition for drawing and
+spinning.
+
+[Illustration: COMB ROOM
+
+  1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).
+  3. Boxes containing bevel gears.
+  4. Pillars.
+  5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.
+  6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism.
+  7. Dabbing brushes.
+  8. Star or stroker wheels.
+  9. Large circle containing rows of pins.
+ 10. Drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle.
+ 11. Brass boxes or conductors.
+ 12. Guides for comb ball ends.
+ 13. Comb balls (4 ends each).
+ 14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest.
+ 15. Comb leg (4 in number).
+ 16. Foundation plate.]
+
+In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single fiber lies across
+the strand; all lie in the direction of the length. This order is
+preserved until the fibers have been converted into yarn, which is
+accomplished by passing through "gill boxes." These gill boxes are
+machines with bars of iron having upon their surface two rows of
+minute steel pins, by this means kept perfectly straight. The bars on
+which they are placed are worked on screws between two sets of
+rollers. The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and, as it
+passes through, is caught by one of these gills that is raised up for
+the purpose, being succeeded by others as the rollers revolve. These
+gills are moved forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
+rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber perfectly
+straight. The second set of rollers is termed the draught rollers,
+since by them the wool, after passing through the front rollers, is
+drawn out and reduced in thickness. This is accomplished because the
+second rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
+rollers, the speed being regulated according to the length of the
+wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be produced. These gills are
+used in the production of worsted yarn until the size of the rope of
+wool has been so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
+fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness. A worsted
+yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a yarn produced from
+perfectly straight fibers.
+
+[Illustration: GILLING
+
+  1. Cans containing Comb Ends or Sliver.
+  2. Balling Head.
+  3. Stock from Balling Head No. 2.
+  4. Screws for applying pressure to Back Rollers.
+  5. Screws for applying pressure to Front Rollers.
+  6. Faller Screws situated between No. 4 and No. 5.
+  7. Guard for covering gears which drive Back Rollers.
+  8. Guard covering gears which drive Balling Head.
+  9. Balling Head.]
+
+The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some cases, although
+such a yarn is not in common use. When combing is dispensed with, the
+gills, in connection with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers
+straight, and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has a
+tendency to be uneven and knotty.
+
+Before the wool can be spun it must be made into roving of a suitable
+thickness. This is done by passing it, after being combed, through a
+series of operations termed drawing, whose functions are to produce a
+gradual reduction in thickness at each stage. Although the number of
+machines varies according to the kind of wool to be treated, still the
+same principle applies to all.
+
+=Spinning.= The process of spinning is the last in the formation of
+yarn or thread, the subsequent operations having for their object the
+strengthening of the yarn by combining two or more strands and
+afterward arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for which the
+yarn is required. It is also the last time that the fibers are
+mechanically drawn over each other or drafted, and this is invariably
+done from a single roving. The humidity and temperature of the
+spinning room must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is provided
+with a wet and dry thermometer so that the best temperature can be
+ascertained. The most suitable heat and humidity can only be obtained
+by comparison and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere causes the
+wool to become charged with electricity and then the fibers repel each
+other.
+
+[Illustration: WORSTED SPINNING. "BRADFORD SYSTEM"
+
+  1. Bobbins containing Worsted Yarn.
+  2. Conical shape caps placed on top of spindles.
+  3. Tin Wings fastened to Eyeboard.
+  4. Eyeboard containing pot eyes, through which yarn passes to the bobbin.
+  5. Scratch fluted front rollers.
+  6. Leather covered Pressing Rollers for No. 5 Rollers.
+  7. Smooth metal Pressing Rollers for Back Rollers.
+  8. Large Front Roller Gear.
+  9. Pulley for driving Twist gear.
+ 10. Spools of Roving held by a series of pegs.
+ 11. Spindle bands.
+ 12. Sifter plate or rail.]
+
+Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods known respectively as
+the Bradford or English system and the French system. The difference
+in these systems of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing
+and spinning processes, a radically different class of machinery being
+used for each. The combing process is practically the same in both
+cases, but the wool is combed dry for the French system, and by the
+English method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being combed. The
+result of the English method is the production of a smooth level yarn
+in which the fibers lie nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made
+according to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more woolly. On
+account of the absence of oil, the shrinkage of French spun worsted is
+considerably less than that made by the Bradford system.
+
+=Characteristics of Worsted Yarn.= The unique structure of worsted
+yarn makes it invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which
+luster and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics. The
+methods by which worsted is formed render it capable of sustaining
+more tension in proportion to its size than the pure woolen yarn. This
+feature, combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent
+position in the manufacture of fine coatings, dress goods, etc. The
+method of arranging the fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is
+such as to produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and fibrous
+surface, which destroys to a large degree the clearness of the pattern
+effect in the woven piece. In the construction of worsted yarn the
+fibers are arranged in a parallel relationship to each other,
+resulting in the production of a smooth, hard yarn having a
+well-defined surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or marked
+type is possible by its use. There is, in a word, more scope for
+pattern effects, since the level and regular structure of the yarn
+imparts a distinction to every part of a woven design. From this
+peculiarity arises the great variety of effects seen in the worsted
+dress fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored patterns
+and in fabrics of one shade throughout.
+
+[Illustration: SPOOL ROOM
+
+  1. Jack Spooler frame.
+  2. Drum upon which Jack Spool rests.
+  3. Jack Spool.
+  4. Guides for spool ends.
+  5. Spools containing yarn.
+  6. Pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends.
+  7. Spool creel.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH SPINNING
+
+  1. Balling heads.
+  2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound.
+  3. Rub or condenser aprons.
+  4. Gearing for driving rub motion.
+  5. Shipper rod and handles.
+  6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.
+  7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.]
+
+Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a rule, the wool used in
+the English system is of fairly good length and uniform staple, for if
+otherwise it is only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun
+straight. Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
+system, and this is the reason why the French system of spinning is
+being introduced. On the other hand, in the spinning of woolen yarns
+great length of staple is not essential, for the machinery employed
+will work the small fibers.
+
+=Uses of Worsted Yarn.= Worsted yarn may be used in any of the
+following fabrics:
+
+1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework and knitting, as Berlin,
+Zephyr, and Saxony wools.
+
+2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified according to material.
+
+    _a._ Fabrics of all wool--serge, bunting, rep, dress
+    goods, with weave effects.
+
+    _b._ Wool and Cotton--union goods, serge linings,
+    lathing.
+
+    _c._ Wool and Silk--rich poplin, pongee, henrietta,
+    bombazine.
+
+    _d._ Alpaca and Mohair--alpaca, mohair dress goods,
+    lusters, braids, laces.
+
+=Counts.= Yarn is measured by a system of "counts"--the number of
+yards of yarn to the pound. The counts of worsted yarn are based on
+the number of hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards. Thus
+No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560 yards each, or 16,800
+yards to the pound.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] The distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that
+worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel, while the fibers of
+woolen yarn run in all directions. The worsted yarn is stronger.
+
+[13] Mills that manufacture worsted yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WOOLEN YARN
+
+
+In manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation is performed
+to arrange the wool fibers so that they will lie smoothly and parallel
+to each other. In the case of woolen yarn every operation is performed
+so as to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
+overlap each other.
+
+To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of machinery entirely
+different from that used in worsted manufacture is necessary. The wool
+is carded, but no attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The
+reduction in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon the
+so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame where the drawing and
+twisting are done at the same operation. As neither combs nor gills
+are employed, there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
+possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance that makes the
+woolen yarn so valuable.
+
+The operation is as follows:
+
+=Carding.= After washing the material for woolen yarn, it is passed
+through three carding processes, and from the last of them is taken
+direct to the spinning frame to be made into yarn. The object of
+woolen carding is different from carding in any other textile
+manufacture.
+
+In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected to a "combing"
+principle, and the aim is to lay the fibers parallel. Woolen carding
+aims to open the raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose
+condition, without leaning toward any definite arrangement.
+
+The carding machines are called, respectively, first, second, and
+third breaker. Each machine consists of a complicated series of
+card-covered cylinders of different sizes, running at different rates
+of speed--sometimes in the same and sometimes in an opposite
+direction. These rollers take the wool from one another in regular
+order until it is finally delivered from the third breaker in a soft,
+fluffy rope or roll called a sliver. This sliver is wound on a bobbin,
+and taken from the card to the mule spinning frame.
+
+The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to the mule spinning
+frame where it is passed through rolls, and the sliver attenuated by
+means of a traveling carriage.
+
+=Count.= In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous systems for
+denoting the count, varying with the locality in which it is spun and
+the character of the product. In the United States there are two
+systems employed, but the one in most general use is known as
+"American run counts." This is based on the number of "runs," each
+containing 1,600 yards to the pound. Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards
+to the pound is called a 5 "run" yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the
+pound is equal to a 3-1/4 "run."
+
+In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based on the "cut,"
+each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the count is the number of cuts
+in a pound. Thus, No. 30 cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the
+pound. No. 15 contains 4,500 yards to the pound.
+
+Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings are blended
+and the fibers napped, as exemplified in tweed, cheviot, doeskin,
+broadcloth, beaver, frieze, chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+=Preparatory to Weaving.= Yarn is wound on bobbins on the ring or mule
+spinning frame. These bobbins are transferred to a machine called a
+spooler where the yarn is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making
+the warp.
+
+A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of threads (called
+ends), usually in a precisely designed order of given length, and
+allowing the ends to wind over a cylinder called a beam. In order to
+do this it is necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
+in a frame called a creel.
+
+Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to weave or interlace
+it with filling it must be sized. This is necessary for all single
+twist warp yarns. Its primary object is to increase the strength and
+smoothness of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the strain and
+friction due to the weaving operation. Other objects of sizing are the
+increase of weight and bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
+of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it over a roller
+and through a bath of a starch mixture. The machine for sizing is
+called a slasher. The warp is now ready to have the ends drawn in and
+placed in the loom.
+
+=Weaving.= Every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct
+systems of threads, known as the warp and filling (weft), which are
+interlaced with each other to form a fabric. The warp threads run
+lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
+side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling threads
+interlace with each other is known as the weave. When the word "end"
+is used in connection with weaving it always signifies the warp
+thread, while each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of
+the cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to the inch.
+The fabrics produced by weaving are named by the manufacturers or
+merchants who introduce them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing
+under new names, usually with some slight modification to suit the
+public taste.
+
+=Weaving Processes.= In order to understand the different kinds of
+weaves it is necessary to know, or at least to understand, the process
+of forming cloth, called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
+loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam, the
+cloth-roll, the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam
+is a wooden cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound. The
+threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the
+front of the loom, and are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or
+group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) of a
+heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more
+groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the
+motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of
+the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means
+of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are
+controlled by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
+the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made
+between the threads of warp, through which the shuttle is thrown.
+
+[Illustration: A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM
+
+Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed]
+
+The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is fastened in the
+shuttle and which permits the yarn to unwind as it passes to and fro.
+As fast as each filling thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed
+close to the previous one by means of a reed which advances toward and
+recedes from the cloth after each passage of the shuttle. This is done
+to make the cloth firm. There are various movements on the loom for
+controlling the tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
+the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in the case of
+breakage of the warp thread or the running out of the filling thread.
+
+Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms or by steam-power in
+power-looms, but the arrangements for both are to a certain extent the
+same. A great number of different kinds of power-looms are
+manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles in use at
+the present time. These looms are distinguished by the name of the
+material which they are designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom,
+blanket-loom, burlaps- and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
+loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-loom, etc.
+
+Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping, and braiding,
+which are operations depending on the interlacing of a single thread,
+or single set of threads, while weaving is done with two distinct and
+separate sets of threads.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN WEAVE ROOM
+
+  1. Warp beam containing warp.
+  2. Lease Rods.
+  3. Harnesses.
+  4. Dobby Head motion to lift harnesses.
+  5. Jacquard Head motion.
+  6. Cards containing design--working in connection with Jacquard Head
+     motion.
+  7. Whip Roll.]
+
+=Classes of Weave.= The character of the weave offers the best basis
+for classification of woven goods. Nearly all the varieties of cloth
+may be classified from the following weaves:
+
+  (1) Plain-weaving,
+  (2) Twill-weaving,
+  (3) Satin-weaving,
+  (4) Figure-weaving,
+  (5) Double-cloth-weaving,
+  (6) Pile-weaving,
+  (7) Gauze-weaving,
+  (8) Lappet-weaving.
+
+=Plain or Homespun Weave.= Plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can
+be woven. In this weave one series of threads (filling) crosses
+another series (warp) at right angles, passing over one and under one
+in regular order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads.
+This combination makes a strong and firm cloth, but does not give a
+close or a heavy fabric, as the threads do not lie as close and
+compact as they do in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or
+shrunk in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large or
+small openings according to the size or twist of yarn used. If heavy
+or coarse threads are used the perforations will be large; if finer
+threads, the perforations will be smaller.
+
+This weave is used in the production of sheeting, muslin, lawn,
+gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In plain weaving it is possible to
+produce stripes by the use of bands of colored warp, and checks where
+both warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is commonly used when
+the cloth is intended to be ornamented with printed patterns. In
+weaving cloth of only one color but one shuttle is used, while for the
+production of checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.
+
+[Illustration: GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED AND
+HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM
+
+  A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame]
+
+=Twill Weave.= A twill weave has diagonal lines across the cloth. In
+this class of weaves the filling yarn or threads pass over 1 and under
+2, or over 1 and under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2,
+3, or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling thread does
+not pass under and over the same set of warp threads, as this would
+not give the desired interlacings. Instead the order of interlacing
+moves one thread to the right or left with each filling thread that is
+woven. If there are the same number of threads to an inch in warp and
+filling, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if the warps
+are closer together than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if
+the filling threads are closer together the lines will approach more
+nearly the horizontal. Different effects are obtained in patterns by
+variation in the sizes of the yarn and twist, by the use of heavy
+threads to form cords, ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored
+materials in the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
+another to produce a fancy twill-weave. The object of the
+twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a fabric, or to
+ornament it. The disposition of the threads permits the introduction
+of more material into the cloth, and hence renders it heavier, and of
+closer construction than in the case of plain-weaving.
+
+=Satin Weaves.= The object of a satin weave is to distribute the
+interlacings of the warp and filling in such a manner that no trace of
+the diagonal (twill) line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In
+weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under 1 and
+over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin is required. The
+raising of the warp end to allow the filling to pass under is done in
+such a way as to prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
+result is that practically all of the filling is on the face of the
+cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave. A warp-face satin
+weave may be produced by reversing the order; in this case practically
+all of the warp is brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a
+worsted warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically
+all of the warp would show on the cloth, and give it the appearance of
+a worsted fabric. A number of classes of silk goods are made in this
+way, with a silk filling covering a cotton warp.
+
+This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface, capable of
+reflecting the light to the best advantage, and having a lustrous
+appearance which makes it resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of
+silk using a satin weave.
+
+Satin weaves are used very largely in producing different styles of
+cotton and silk fabrics, and are also frequently found in woolen
+goods. They are more extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
+table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin stripes are
+frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress goods in connection
+with plain and figured weaves.
+
+=Figure Weaving.= To produce complicated and irregular patterns in the
+loom a large number of different openings (sheds) must be made in the
+warp, and to secure such a large number an attachment is placed on top
+of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The Jacquard is merely an
+apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads, by which each
+separate one can be made to move independently of any of the others.
+It is provided with weighted strings attached to each of the warp
+threads. The weighted strings are controlled by wire needles which are
+in turn controlled by perforated cards. Each motion of the loom
+changes their position and allows some needles to go through the holes
+in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others strike the card
+and leave the warp down. In this way the perforations of the cards
+determine the figure of the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to
+produce patterns of great width in which all or most of the threads
+in the pattern move independently. For the weaving of elaborate
+effects and flowing lines it is practically indispensable. All
+elaborate designs are classed under the name of Jacquards.
+
+=Double Cloth.= Double cloth is a descriptive term applied in weaving
+to fabrics produced by combining two single cloths into one. Each one
+of these single cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
+filling, the combination being effected in the loom by interlacing
+some of the warp or filling threads of one cloth into the other cloth
+at certain intervals, thus fastening them securely together. The
+reasons for making double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to
+reduce the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials for
+the cloth forming the back; again it may be to produce double-face
+fabric; it allows great freedom for the formation of colored patterns
+which may or may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
+basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making pillow cases,
+pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.; more frequently, the object is to
+increase the bulk or strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as
+heavy overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich silk,
+etc.
+
+=Pile Weave.= A pile weave is a general term under which are classed
+numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface, as plush,
+velvet, velveteen, and carpeting of various kinds. Turkish towels are
+an excellent illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a closely
+set, elastic face covering various kinds of woolen, silk, and cotton
+fabrics, and consists of threads standing close together, either in
+the form of loops or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
+form a uniform and even surface. In the production of a pile fabric a
+third thread is introduced into the weaving and formed into loops
+usually by carrying it over the wires laid across the breadth of the
+cloth. The wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops standing;
+the loops may then be cut so as to form a cut pile, as in velvet and
+plush, or they may be left in their original form as in Brussels
+carpet and Turkish towels.
+
+=Gauze Weaving.= In gauze weaving all the warp threads are not
+parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or less among
+themselves, thereby favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in
+which many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained. Two sets
+of warp threads are used, one being the ground warp and the other the
+"douping," the latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
+especially characterized by its openness and yields the lightest and
+strongest fabric with the least material. When gauze is combined with
+plain weaving it is styled "leno." Gauze fabrics are designed for
+women's summer gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.
+
+=Lappet Weaving.= Lappet weaving, really a form of embroidery, is used
+for producing small designs on cloth by means of needles placed in a
+sliding-frame, the figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate
+figures are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there are many
+small effects that can be economically produced in this manner, such
+as the detached spots in dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous
+figures running more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
+imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DYEING AND FINISHING
+
+
+=Dyeing.= When a fabric or fiber is impregnated with a uniform color
+over its whole surface, it is said to be "simply dyed." On the other
+hand, if distinct patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
+impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.
+
+Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the coal tar dyes have
+been discovered the latter are used entirely. Over fourteen thousand
+colors have been produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
+attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool and silk attract
+better than cotton and linen.
+
+=Wool Dyeing.= The methods of dyeing wool differ considerably from
+those employed for cotton and other vegetable fibers. They may be
+divided into three parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.
+
+Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray or natural state,
+and then cleansed and dyed in the piece to such colors as are
+required. They are woven in plain weaves and in a great variety of
+twills--in fact, in all styles of weaves--and are also made on the
+Jacquard loom. The principal fabrics in this classification are all
+wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings, satines, prunellas,
+whipcords, melroses, Venetian broadcloths, zibelines, rainproof
+cloths; nun's veiling, canvases, grenadines, albatrosses, cr�pes, and
+French flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes. Whenever
+it is possible, it is better to dye textile fabrics in the form of
+woven pieces than in the yarn. During the process of weaving it is
+impossible to avoid getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
+scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color used in
+weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method of applying color to
+textiles. The chief fault of piece dyeing is the danger of cloud
+spots, stains, etc., which do not appear in the other two methods.
+Then again in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff does
+not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior remains nearly white.
+
+The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller into a dye vat.
+Small pieces or "swatches" are taken from the ends of the fabric, and
+compared with the pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
+of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and cottons of
+different growths and seasons vary greatly, so that the use of a fixed
+quantity of dye to a given amount of goods will not always give the
+exact shade. In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are placed
+side by side below the eyes (reflected light), and then held up to the
+light and the eye directed along the surface. A judgment must be
+formed quickly, as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
+unable to perceive fine shades of difference.
+
+[Illustration: DYE ROOM
+
+  1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.
+  2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.
+  3. Cloth leaving dye tub--being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.]
+
+=Cross Dyed.= Cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with
+black or colored cotton warps and wool or worsted filling and
+afterwards dyed in the piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction
+for dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric woven
+with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be identical in depth of
+color, tone, and brightness. In some cases it is possible to dye a
+mixed fabric at a single operation, but the usual process is to dye
+the wool in yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the color
+of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation the wool is thrown
+to the surface. In another method the warp is dyed and woven with a
+white wool or worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
+that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton does not take
+the wool dye, but retains its original color. This class of work is
+generally used in mohair, alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the
+natural brilliancy of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the
+filling is not impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the
+goods were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven. The
+principal cloths in this classification are cotton, warp figured
+melroses, Florentines, glac�s, brilliantines, lusters, alpacas, and
+mohairs; rainproof cloths, and fancy waistings, and in these may be
+found the same great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be
+found in the piece-dyed goods already described.
+
+=Yarn Dyed.= Yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously described in
+that they are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven, or yarns
+spun from dyed wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece),
+slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dyeing is preferable for goods intended to
+stand friction, and that in spite of wear and tear must preserve their
+color. It is preferred for dark colored goods where much friction is
+to be encountered, but is seldom used for light colors, since these
+would be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture. In this
+case every fiber is colored uniformly all over. The yarn from this
+wool and the cloth woven from it are dyed through and through and do
+not become grayish or whitish by wear and tear.
+
+Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the dyestuff
+penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if unevenly dyed, the
+subsequent operations equalize most thoroughly the irregularities in
+color.
+
+Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids, and suitings,
+and in their manufacture the drop box loom (a loom with two or more
+shuttles) is used. Goods manufactured under this classification
+include cotton warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mixture
+coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof cloths. These goods
+are made in a great variety of weaves, the effect in each being
+secured by the color and the weave.
+
+Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by
+unraveling threads of each kind. In the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the
+dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of
+piece-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
+completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.
+
+=Textile Printing.= Printed fabrics such as print cloths can generally
+be distinguished by observing the back side of the cloth. If the
+figure or pattern on the face of the cloth does not penetrate through
+to the back but only shows the outline, the fabric has been printed.
+Fabrics are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers on
+which the pattern is engraved.
+
+The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally feebler than that
+of wool or silk. Few of the natural dyestuffs attach themselves
+permanently without use of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which
+has an affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be colored,
+and which possesses the power of combining with the dyestuff and thus
+forming an insoluble compound upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an
+unspun state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank or
+skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a considerable
+extent it is also dyed in the piece.
+
+=Styles.= Since styles and designs are constantly changing it is
+necessary for the mills to meet this demand by producing new styles.
+Some of the patterns which are at this time considered to be in the
+best style would have appeared much out of date two or three years
+ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the patterns which are now
+almost obsolete will, with some changes, become the most popular
+sellers of the season. As the mill officials or designers are not out
+among the trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
+patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This information is
+obtained by the "styler" of the selling house. The styler receives all
+the latest foreign samples and fashion papers from abroad, and often
+goes or sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what goods,
+designs, and colors are taking well over there. The selling agent or
+styler then supplies the designing department of the mill with all the
+samples, information, and suggestions necessary in getting out the
+samples.
+
+=Construction of Cloth.= In reproducing a sample of cloth in the mill
+it is necessary that the construction of the cloth be first known,
+that is, there must be ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per
+inch, the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the number
+that is used for the filling, and the number of ounces per yard or
+yards per pound. Then the interlacings of the threads in the sample
+must be picked out in order to get the design or weave on the design
+paper, from which the data are obtained for regulating the movement of
+the harness or heddles. Design paper is paper ruled by lines into a
+number of squares. An imitation of the cloth can be produced on this
+paper by showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This is
+done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil marks, while
+the others are left empty. In practical work it is the general custom
+to make a cross with a pencil to indicate the squares that are to be
+filled in, thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
+thread at this point. When a square is left blank it shows that the
+warp thread is under the filling at this point. When a warp thread is
+up on a certain pick, the harness which controls this thread must be
+raised on this pick.
+
+=Finishing.= The fabric as it comes from the loom is in an imperfect
+condition for use. When worsted fabrics leave the loom they require
+but few and simple finishing operations, and in this respect differ
+much from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing operations.
+The finishing processes of woolen and worsted cloths are similar. The
+following description of processes and machines gives a clear idea of
+the necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or worsted
+cloth; for particular styles of finish the processes must be varied in
+accordance with the particular requirements of the style of fabric in
+hand.
+
+=Perching.= The fabric as it comes from the loom receives a perching
+and measuring inspection at the weave room before leaving for the
+finishing room. This examination is to detect quickly such
+imperfections as require prompt attention at the loom.
+
+=Burling.= Every knot that has been tied in the threads during
+winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving, must be looked for and felt
+for during burling, carefully drawn to the surface of the cloth, and
+then clipped off with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so
+that no space without a thread will occur. Threads which are found
+loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by the weaver having tied
+in a broken end, should be cut off and not pulled off. All places
+where threads are not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
+(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is subjected to perching
+again. It is examined for imperfections, and when these are found,
+they are marked with chalk to call the attention of the menders to
+such places.
+
+=Mending.= The object of darning or mending is to make all repairs in
+the structure of the cloth before the process of fulling. The mender
+must have a good eye for colors necessary to produce various effects
+and for the interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
+for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing afterward,
+than in dealing with a face finish fabric, where the nap is to be
+raised and will cover many imperfections so that they will never be
+noticed in the finished cloth.
+
+=Fulling.= The object of fulling is to render woolen and worsted
+goods stronger and firmer in body. Fulling is similar to felting, the
+principal object of each being to condense the fibers, thereby
+increasing the firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled
+nearly one-half their original width and length. The process of
+fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and condensing the
+fibers of the cloth. The object of scouring is to get rid of oil used
+preparatory to spinning, and to remove from the cloth stains and the
+sizing used in dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with
+hot water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between the
+slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to eighteen hours,
+according to the character of goods and the amount of shrinkage
+desired. The more prolonged the operation, the more the material
+shrinks. When sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to
+free it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first, but
+gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked in cold water.
+Next the cloth is stretched uniformly in all directions, so that it
+may dry evenly without wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is
+placed in a hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
+shrinking is effected by the application of moisture, heat, and
+pressure. Every one is familiar with the fact that woolen blankets,
+flannels, and hosiery tend to contract with frequent washings, gaining
+in thickness and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrinkage
+is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously in hot water and
+then allowed to cool suddenly. This change is due to the physical
+properties of the wool fiber.
+
+Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy cassimeres are
+seldom fulled more than one-sixth of their woven width, while worsted
+goods are shrunk but a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
+of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many varieties of
+cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth, doeskin, and all nap finished
+woolens, the fulling is carried to a point where the fibers become
+densely matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving the
+cloth the appearance of felt.
+
+=Crabbing.= After the cloth has been dried in the hydro extractor,
+where it throws off superfluous moisture, it must be stretched full
+width for the future finishing processes, and "set" at this width.
+
+Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosening process, then
+the setting process. Goods are run on a cylinder, then passed over
+several rolls, and are kept tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The
+cylinders are immersed in hot water and the goods are allowed to
+rotate in this water for about twenty minutes, after which they are
+taken out for one or two hours. They are then returned to the machine
+for about twenty-five minutes and are subjected to boiling and also to
+additional pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
+additional pressure gives the desired finish.
+
+=Tentering.= The object of tentering[14] is to straighten and level
+the fabric. After the cloth leaves the tentering machine it has lost
+its natural moisture, and is not at all fitted, as far as fiber
+condition is concerned, for the napping. To bring it into a fit state
+for this operation it is passed through a trough containing a brush
+which gives it the desired moisture. It is then ready for napping.
+
+=Napping.= Most cloths at this stage of finishing are more or less
+unsightly on account of long and irregular fibers on the surface. A
+nap may be raised on the surface of a fabric for various reasons: in
+order to render the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
+touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended to be worn
+next to the body; or for the purposes of increasing the durability of
+the fabric, as in the case of melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar
+goods; or a nap may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
+from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern of the
+cloth well defined and free from hairiness. The covering of nap over
+the surface of the fabric tends to conceal many defects caused by
+imperfect yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at best
+produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth constructed of such
+threads is finished with a fine, delicate nap the surface takes on a
+softer and richer appearance. Not only are the defects in the
+structure concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly and
+desirable and appears to be more expensive than it really is.
+
+The operation of napping is performed by passing the cloth in a
+tightly stretched condition over a revolving cylinder covered with
+teasels or steel hooks. These thousands of little hooks scratch the
+entire surface of the cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering
+the whole with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it is
+necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then pass it through the
+shearing machine in order to make an even and uniform length. The
+shearing machine acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either
+cuts the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth is cleaned
+by passing through a brushing machine.
+
+=Pressing Machine.= The fabric now requires consolidating and lustering,
+or "smarting up" in appearance--practically pressing--before it is
+forwarded to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth over a
+pressing roll heated to a high temperature. Having obtained a
+satisfactory luster, it is necessary to fix this by winding the cloth on
+rollers and allowing dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a
+permanent luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as to prevent
+shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and sent to the jobbers or tailors to
+be cut up into suits.
+
+=Theories of Coloring in Textile Design.= The three primary elements
+of textile design are weave, combination of form, and blend of colors.
+They enter either separately or in connection with each other into
+every species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to the build
+or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable factor in any type
+of cloth. Schemes of weaves will produce in one operation an even and
+firm cloth, decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists of
+minute parts but which is pronounced and decided in combination.
+Combination of forms is a surface decoration obtained by uniting
+straight and curved lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities
+of the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades would diminish
+the elegance of the design and impoverish its appearance and would
+practically destroy the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be
+stripe, check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its outline
+and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In worsted there is a
+larger diversity of weave design than in woolen; but still colors are
+very extensively employed to develop effects due to weave and form,
+and also to impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.
+
+Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles made entirely
+of cotton are frequently mere combinations of fancy shades, while
+fabrics composed of silk and jute materials, including silk ties,
+handkerchiefs, etc.--in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
+used--show that coloring and its combinations in all woven product
+embellished with design, are elements which give tone and character to
+the styles. Though the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially
+made, of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack of
+brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully detracts from the
+appearance of the pattern that these qualities alone are not
+sufficient.
+
+On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods to inspection,
+color is found to have a different tone or cast in each fabric. Fancy
+colors in cotton, while decidedly firm and clear in effect, are
+non-lustrous, raw, and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the
+contrary, possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen colorings
+have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic of the
+material employed in the manufacture of woolen goods; while worsted
+colorings are bright, definite, and smart in appearance.
+
+These differences are due to the physical properties of the several
+fibers. Thus a filament of silk is transparent and shines like smooth
+glass when light falls upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in
+the center, but its exterior consists of a multitude of
+semi-transparent scales which, when of large dimensions and uniformly
+arranged--as in the best qualities of wool--reflect light with a small
+amount of dispersion and impart to the woven material a lustrous
+aspect. Cotton has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
+reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Compare three plain
+woven crimson textures made of silk, wool, and cotton respectively.
+The first literally shines; luster, brilliance, and richness are the
+elements of its coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
+depth of color which belongs to the wool product, whose millions of
+filaments, closely compounded, all tinted alike, possess a peculiar
+bloom and weight of color not to be found either in the silk or cotton
+article. Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in warmth and
+richness it seems to be, after examining the woolen and silk texture!
+It is dull and has a raw and deficient character.
+
+The various methods of employing fancy shades in patterns obtained in
+the loom may be briefly summarized:
+
+I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.
+
+    _a._ By combining or blending various colors of
+    materials.
+
+    _b._ By combining several classes of twist threads.
+
+II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs for trouserings,
+coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, costumes, flannels, shirtings,
+etc.
+
+    _a._ By introducing colors into the warp, forming
+    stripes.
+
+    _b._ By introducing colors into the filling, producing
+    spotted patterns.
+
+    _c._ By introducing colors into both warp and filling,
+    giving checks, broken styles, etc.
+
+III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.
+
+    _a._ By using one or several series of extra warp yarn.
+
+    _b._ By using one or several series of extra filling.
+
+Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes when regarded
+from the standpoint of fashion--staples and fancies. Staples are those
+fabrics which are made of the same construction year in and year out.
+They vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.
+
+The Staples are:
+
+  Brilliantines,
+  Sicilians,
+  Mohairs,
+  Imperial Serges,
+  Storm Serge,
+  Cheviots,
+  Panamas,
+  Batistes,
+  Taffetas,
+  Voile,
+  Nun's Veiling,
+  Cashmere,
+  Shepherd Checks.
+
+The Fancies are:
+
+  Produced through
+  Variation of weave,
+  Variation of color,
+  Variation of color and weave:
+    Brocades,
+    Cuspettes,
+    Meliores,
+    Hopsacking, etc.
+  Coloring includes:
+    Stripes,
+    Checks,
+    Plaids,
+    Malenges,
+    Mixtures.
+
+Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers made homespun clothes
+and wore them till they had passed their period of usefulness. The
+average consumption of wool at that time averaged not more than three
+pounds per capita. As wealth increased the home loom and
+spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted by the mill and factory. The
+different textile manufacturers at length found that competition was
+so keen that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any fabric
+that was popular. The classes of goods that are most adulterated are
+the expensive fabrics, those of wool and silk. There are such changes
+of fashion in dress at the present day that garments composed of
+materials formerly considered good enough are often thrown aside as
+old-fashioned when only half worn. Manufacturers cater to the whims
+and fancies of people and import to this country foreign styles. The
+rapidly changing styles cause people to throw upon the market a great
+amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.
+
+[Illustration: SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE SELLING AGENT OF A LARGE MILL]
+
+The result is that there is not wool enough to provide the public
+with clothing made of new wool. The requirement per capita has risen
+to six pounds. The immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does
+not find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the shoddy
+mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again, or where part of
+the fiber is mixed with good wool to make "pure wool" cloth. In other
+words, the rapidly changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
+wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration which is being
+practised in modern cloth manufacture. This adulteration furthermore
+is becoming more and more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid
+improvements made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture.
+Hence the necessity for people to know how and why adulteration
+occurs, how it affects prices, and what are the means of detecting it.
+Shoddy is considered a legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted
+goods. The following adulterations are not legitimate unless sold as
+such:
+
+1. Cotton combed with wool.
+
+2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during the process of
+drawing.
+
+3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or worsted used as
+filling or warp.
+
+4. Cotton veneered with wool.
+
+5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in weaving.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[14] Tentering is carried on in the English mills.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS[15]
+
+
+=Albatross.= A dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling; of
+open texture and fancy weaves.
+
+=Alpaca.= A thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an
+animal of the llama species; mixed with silk or with cotton. It is
+usually woven with cotton warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all
+cotton are manufactured and sold under this name.
+
+=Corded Alpaca.= Corded weave, lengthwise of the piece, cotton warp
+alpaca filling; one of the first products of the American loom.
+
+=Angora.= The fiber of this goat is commercially known as mohair. The
+skins are largely used in the making of children's muffs, for the
+scalps of dolls, and for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
+claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly one foot in
+length, makes them beautiful and serviceable. The fiber enters largely
+into that class of goods known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes,
+Brilliantines, Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
+usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the mode of
+preparing the stock before spinning into yarn. It is found in the
+finest of silk and worsted fabrics for ladies' wear, also in linings,
+mittens, and fine cloaking and overcoating. It is noted especially for
+its water repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not so
+much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which wool stands
+unequalled.
+
+=Astrakhan.= A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan fiber; of a curly,
+wavy surface applied to a curly faced cloth resembling Astrakhan
+fleece.
+
+=Bandanna.= From the Indian _bandanna_, to bind or tie. In dyeing, the
+cloth is tied in knots when dipped, and thus has a clouded effect.
+
+=Beaver.= A heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool, with a finish on
+the surface to resemble the fur of the animal by that name.
+
+=Fur Beaver.= Similar in many respects to Beaver, but having on its
+surface a long, dense nap, in imitation of the fur of the Beaver. Used
+for overcoats, cloaks, and capes.
+
+=Bedford Cord.= A fine woolen fabric, with fine recesses running with
+the piece, and extensively used for ladies' dress goods. An all wool
+cloth of close texture for gentlemen's clothing. The recesses may also
+be made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.
+
+=Beige.= Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name is the French word
+for "natural."
+
+=Bindings.= A species of narrow fabric of silk, worsted or cotton, for
+binding the edges of garments, the bottom of dress skirts, etc.
+
+=Bombazine.= A twilled fabric of which the warp is silk and the
+filling is worsted.
+
+=Bottany.= A term applied to worsted yarns made from bottany wool. It
+is considered the finest of all worsted yarns, and is used for fine
+fabrics of close texture.
+
+=Boucle.= Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in such a way as to
+show the curl makes boucle. The word is French for curl.
+
+=Broadcloth.= Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven material with a
+satin finish. The best qualities are called satin broadcloth.
+
+The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times, the first
+historical mention of it being made in 1641. In America, among the
+first products manufactured by the colonial woolen mills were black
+and colored broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the
+distinctive character of American woolen fabrics at that time. They
+were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered Saxony wool, and sold as high
+as $6.50 per yard.
+
+The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that the web (cloth)
+will shrink or full evenly. The stock is generally dyed in the raw
+state when used for men's wear. When taken from the loom it does not
+have the smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive feature.
+It is rough and dull colored, with the threads showing plainly. To
+improve its appearance it is first subjected to the action of the
+fulling mill, with the result that the fibers of the warp and weft
+become entangled to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
+the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close, in order to
+produce a smooth, even surface. Next it is successively wetted,
+steamed, calendered, and hot pressed for the purpose of bringing out
+the luster. It is commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain,
+finished with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must have a
+bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in the weave.
+
+The broadcloth used for women's clothing is of a lighter weight and is
+generally piece dyed. It is used for ladies' suits, coats, and
+gentlemen's evening dress suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is
+expensive; prices range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies'
+broadcloth, and higher for men. The price depends on the quality of
+wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection of the finish.
+
+=Bunting.= A plain even thread weave of mohair, wool, or worsted, used
+mostly for making flags. The name is from German, _bunt_, meaning
+variegated or gay colored.
+
+=Caniche.= A name given to curled wool fabric showing the effect of
+the coat of the caniche, a French dog.
+
+=Cashmere.= A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmere goat. The face
+of the fabric is twilled, the twills being uneven and irregular
+because of the unevenness of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand
+spun. The goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere in
+the Himalaya Mountains.
+
+=All Wool Cashmere.= As no material by this name exists there can be
+no definition. When the term is used in defining a fabric, it is a
+delusion and a snare.
+
+=Cashmere Double.= A cloth having Cashmere twill on one side or face
+and poplin cord on the reverse.
+
+=Cassimere.= The name is a variation of Cashmere. Cassimere, when
+properly made, is of Cashmere wool. Usually a twill weave.
+
+=Castor.= Same as beaver, of a light weight.
+
+=Challis.= (Also spelled _challie_.) A name given to a superior dress
+fabric of silk and wool first manufactured at Norwich, England, in
+1832. In texture the original material was soft, thin, fine, and
+finished without gloss. When first introduced it ranked among the best
+and most elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was composed
+of fine materials, and instead of giving it a glossy surface, such as
+is usually produced from silk and fine wool, the object was to make it
+without luster. The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
+summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool, or a mixture
+of these fabrics. In structure it is both plain woven and figured, the
+ornamental patterns being produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or
+printed. It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essentially
+from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most challis patterns are
+copied from the French silks, and this accounts in part for their
+tasteful designs and artistic effects. French challis is a material
+similar to the above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
+finish.
+
+=Cheviot.= A descriptive term of somewhat loose application, being
+used indiscriminately of late years to denote almost any sort of stout
+woolen cloth finished with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the
+fabric known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong, coarse
+wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.
+
+It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of cheviot or "pulled
+wool," slightly felted, with a short even nap on the surface and a
+supple feel. Worsted cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects,
+are manufactured from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made from
+carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of goods in carded
+yarns contains little or no new wool in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo,
+and a liberal mixture of cotton to hold it together, blended in the
+many colorings, help to cover the deception. Prices range from 50
+cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven, and has many of
+the qualities of serge.
+
+The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the grade of cloth, is
+the finish, of which there are two kinds. One is known as the "rough"
+finish, and the other as the "close" finish. Real cheviot is a
+rough-finished fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and fulled to
+a considerable degree. The process of finishing cheviot is simple, and
+practically the same methods are followed for both the "rough" and the
+"close" styles. On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap
+and water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it may contain.
+It is then fulled, which consists in shrinking the cloth both in
+length and breadth, thus rendering the texture heavier and denser.
+Next it is "gigged" or napped. This is accomplished by passing the
+face of the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp
+pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the yarn. This
+operation is continued until a nap more or less dense is raised over
+the entire surface.
+
+From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine, the revolving
+blades of which cut the long, irregular nap down to a uniform level.
+Sometimes the style of finish called for is that approaching a
+threadbare cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
+prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the rough finish the nap,
+although sparingly raised, is comparatively long. Having been napped
+and sheared, the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
+then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When measured, rolled, and
+steamed, it is ready for market, and is used mostly for ladies' and
+gentlemen's suitings. The pattern and design are light stripes and
+checks of small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many materials
+used for suiting.
+
+=Chinchilla.= Heavy coating with rough wavy face. The name is Spanish
+for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species.
+
+=Chudah.= Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color. Chudah is the
+Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.
+
+=Corduroy.= Heavy corded cotton material used for servants' livery.
+The name is from the French _Corde du Roi_--king's cords.
+
+=C�te Cheval.= In France corded cloth for riding costumes, such as
+Bedford cord, is called c�te cheval, the application being through
+_cheval_, horse; _c�te_, ribbed or lined.
+
+=Coupure.= Coupure is French for cut through. Coupure or cut cashmere
+is a cashmere weave showing lines cut through the twills lengthwise of
+the piece.
+
+=Covert.= Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed shades, used in
+England for men's overcoats worn while riding to covert in fox
+hunting.
+
+=Delaine.= From the French "of wool"; applies to the most primitive
+weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty years ago delaine was the staple
+dress goods stock. It was made in solid colors.
+
+=Diagonal Cheviot.= Same as cheviot, only in the weaving the pattern
+is marked by zigzag lines or stripes.
+
+=Doeskin.= Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny napped face, soft
+finish, as the pelt of a doe.
+
+=Drap d'�t�.= A heavy cashmere or double warp merino, with the back
+teasled or scratched, used mostly for clergymen's clothing and in
+lighter weights for women's dresses. The name is French for "cloth of
+summer."
+
+=Empress Cloth.= Similar to poplin; made of hard twisted worsted
+filling and cotton warp. Was made a success in the early seventies of
+the last century by the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was a
+staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.
+
+=�pingline.= A fine corded fabric of wool or silk, showing the cords
+woven close together and appearing as if lined with a pin point. This
+application is from _�pingle_, French for pin.
+
+=Etamine.= French name for bolting or sifting cloth, made of silk for
+sifting flour; applied to mesh or net weaves in America.
+
+=Felt.= Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass or mixture of
+wool into a flat mat. The name is from the process. To felt is to mix
+and press into shape.
+
+=Flannel.= Wales appears to have been the original home of flannel,
+and history informs us that this was the only textile produced in that
+country for hundreds of years. It is constructed either of cotton or
+wool, or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-threaded,
+loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or less spongy and elastic,
+with an unfinished, lusterless surface. Generally speaking all grades
+of plain colored flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the
+goods permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the web as
+in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several finishing operations,
+such as fulling, teaseling, pressing, and stretching. Flannels do not
+require a great deal of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to
+give a degree of stability and body to the goods.
+
+=Dress Flannel.= All wool fabric used chiefly for women's winter
+dresses; also called flannel suiting. It has a diversity of qualities,
+colors, and styles of finish. It is commonly put up in double fold,
+width from twenty-six to fifty inches.
+
+=French Flannel.= A fine, soft twill, woven variety dyed in solid
+shades, and also printed with patterns after the manner of calico;
+used for morning gowns, dressing sacques, waists, etc.
+
+=Shaker Flannel.= A variety of white flannel finished with
+considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and woolen weft.
+
+=Indigo Blue.= A superior all wool grade used in the manufacture
+of men's suits and particularly for the uniform of members of the
+G. A. R.
+
+=Mackinaw.= The name applied to an extra heavy blanket-like material
+used in cold climates by miners and lumbermen for shirts and
+underwear.
+
+=Navy Twilled Flannel.= A heavy all wool variety commonly dyed indigo
+blue, commonly used in the manufacture of overshirts for out-door
+laborers, firemen, sailors, and miners.
+
+=Silk Warp Flannel.= A high grade, pure variety of flannel woven with
+a silk warp and a fine woolen weft. It is a very soft, light-weight,
+loosely woven flannel and runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven
+inches. If the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the texture
+is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing its softness and
+elasticity. In the teaseling process it is necessary for the nap to be
+raised only slightly, and this is commonly done in the direction of
+the grain or twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
+lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in its full, rich
+softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared, but more often it is pressed
+down flat upon the face of the cloth. After a thorough drying, and
+careful examination for defects, the goods are rolled on boards, and
+are ready for market. It is used for infants' wear and shawls, for
+undergarments, bed coverings, and also to some extent for outer
+garments in weights and styles adapted for that purpose.
+
+=Baby Flannel.= A very light-weight variety woven of fine, soft wool,
+smooth finish, bleached pure white.
+
+=Florentine.= A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men's wear which is
+sold largely to Italy and Spain. The name is from Florence, Italy.
+
+=Foule.= A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face appears to be
+unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness in a slight degree. The cloth
+when woven in the gray is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in
+soapsuds and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes in
+a steel plate. The name is from _fouler_, French, to full or shrink.
+
+=Frieze.= Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly surface and
+made at first of lamb's wool. It is now made from coarse grades of
+wool. It is thick and heavily napped, and is used in the manufacture
+of warm outer garments, particularly for men's wear. It was named
+after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th century, and is
+famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish frieze has extraordinary
+durability, and the fibers are the longest and strongest made. The
+weave is plain, small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid
+color it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the raw
+state. The wool is dyed in the raw state in mass, then doubled after
+spinning.
+
+=Gloria.= Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and cotton; first
+made for umbrella covering. Name means bright.
+
+=Granada.= Popular weave of mohair, made in coating weight for
+Spanish trade. Granada is a city in Spain.
+
+=Grenadine.= Originally a plain, openwork, net-like fabric of silk,
+mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grenadines in Jacquards and in set
+patterns. The name is an adaptation of Granada.
+
+=Henrietta Cloth.= A twilled cashmere of light weight and high finish,
+originally made with silk warp and wool filling in Yorkshire, England.
+The name was given in honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of
+Charles I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced about
+the year 1660.
+
+=Homespun.= A rough, loosely woven material made from coarse yarn. It
+is soft but rather clumsy. A general term used to designate cloth spun
+or wrought at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen fabric
+in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before the introduction of
+textile machinery. It is made of a coarse, rough, and uneven thread;
+usually of plain weave and no felting. It was woven by the early
+settlers of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as woolen
+suiting for men's wear and in various kinds of coarse, spongy, shaggy
+cloth for women's gowns.
+
+=Hop Sacking.= A coarse bagging made commonly of a combination of hemp
+and jute, used for holding hops during transportation. The name hop
+sacking is also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made from
+different classes of yarn. It is made of carded woolen fabric of the
+plainest kind. The cloth is characterized by an open weave, and a
+square check-like mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that
+of the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is usually dyed
+in solid colors, and is used for women's and children's dresses.
+
+=Jeans.= Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In cotton used for
+linings, in wool for men's cheap clothing. The name is from a Genoese
+coin, relating to the price of the cloth; so much for one jean.
+
+=Kersey.= A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen cloth made with
+the cotton weave or cross twill for face, and cotton weave or four
+harness satin for back. It was originally made with fine Merino lamb's
+wool for face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper grades
+are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and shoddy, with low grades
+of shoddy and mungo for back. It is named from an English town,
+Kersey, where from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large
+woolen trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a coarse
+cloth, known under different names, and before knitting was used for
+stockings. In the construction of Kersey the cloth is woven a few
+inches wider in the loom (and correspondingly longer) than it is to
+appear in the finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
+may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering of threads.
+Previous to fulling, however, the face of the cloth is gigged to
+produce a good covering for the threads by forming a light nap, which
+is fitted in. In the fulling operation, which comes next, the cloth is
+shrunk to its proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering
+it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads, so
+closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed by gigging, and
+in this process a nap more or less heavy is raised on the face of the
+goods by means of teasels. The cloth is run through the gig several
+times and then sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
+short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exercised in the
+shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite close and yet not expose
+the threads or cut the face. The next operation is scouring or
+steaming, in which live steam is forced through every part of the
+goods for the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool. In
+case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing follows scouring.
+After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly matted and gigged again, care
+being taken to avoid stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and
+the nap briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in one
+direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and primed, face up.
+The result of this treatment is the production of a texture firm, yet
+pliable, with a highly lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough
+or threadbare. Kersey is used for overcoats.
+
+=Kerseymere.= Light weight twilled worsted; same derivative of name as
+Kersey.
+
+=Linsey Woolsey.= Coarse cloth of linen and wool used as skirtings by
+the British peasantry. The name is from the components of the cloth.
+
+=Melrose.= Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named for Melrose, a
+town on the Tweed, in Scotland.
+
+=Melton.= A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short nap, feeling
+somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm in the loom. The weaves for
+single cloth meltons are usually plain, and three or four harness
+twill. For double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with a
+plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All trace of the weave
+is destroyed in the finishing. The colors usually black or dark blue.
+
+=Meltonette.= A cloth of the same general appearance as melton, of
+light weight, for women's wear.
+
+=Merino.= A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino sheep, twilled on
+both sides, the twill being uneven. Merino resembles cashmere.
+
+=Mohair Brilliantine.= A dress fabric resembling alpaca, of superior
+quality, and sometimes finished on both sides. The name is from the
+Arabic _mukayyan_, cloth of goat's hair. It is made from the long,
+silky hair of the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
+introduced into the United States. The fabric has a hard, wiry feel,
+and if made from the pure material has a high luster. It has cotton
+warp and luster worsted filling. The weave is plain ground, or with a
+small Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is wanted, the
+warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling yarn. The warp and
+filling yarns are dyed previous to weaving. They may be of the same
+color or different colors. The contrast of colors in connection with
+the weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made with dyed
+yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is, simply run through the
+press and cylinder heated, after which they are rolled and then
+packed. Those made with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed,
+after which they are run through a rotary press with fifty or sixty
+pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is used for dress goods.
+
+=Montagnac= is heavy overcoating. The French _montagne_, for mountain,
+is the origin of the name, being for mountain wear.
+
+=Orleans.= Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool fulling, made in
+Orleans, France. Many of the so-called alpacas and mohairs of to-day
+are Orleans. These fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics
+with warp and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
+cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glac� effects.
+
+=Panama Cloth= is a plain weave worsted fabric of no uniform
+construction or finish. Fabrics sold under this name vary
+considerably. They are of solid colors, usually piece dyed, and are
+used for suitings.
+
+=Prunella.= From the French _prunelle_, which means plum, a stout
+worsted material named from its color, which is a purplish shade
+similar to that of a ripe plum. The name was originally applied to a
+kind of lasting of which clergymen's gowns were made. It is now used
+to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth employed for
+women's dresses. The fibers are worsted. Prunella is dyed either in
+piece or yarn state and is hand finished.
+
+=Sacking.= Plain solid color flannel in special shades for women's
+dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric made of hemp for grain sacks.
+
+=Sanglier.= A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair yarn, closely
+woven, with a rough finished surface. Sanglier is French for wild
+boar, the hairy, wiry cloth resembling the coat of the animal.
+
+=Sebastopol.= A twill-faced cloth named from Sebastopol, the Russian
+fortified town captured by the English and French in 1855.
+
+=Serge.= Under this name are classed a large number of fabrics of
+twill construction. In weight and texture a modern serge resembles
+flannel, except that it is twill woven and composed of fine yarn
+finished with a smoother surface. Serge comes from the Italian word
+_sergea_, meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are woven of
+worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and variously dyed, finished, and
+ornamented, as silk serge, serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge,
+etc. Worsted serges of various kinds and degrees have been known since
+the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to have come into general
+use as a material for men's wear in the sixteenth century. Modern
+serges vary but little from those made two centuries ago. They are
+dyed in a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the cloth is
+washed and scoured with soap and water to remove the dirt and oil (if
+these remain the cloth will not take the dye properly). After dyeing,
+it is passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure, which
+renders the surface more regular and even and of a better luster. This
+process accomplishes more than is required, for it produces a bloom on
+the surface which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it is
+allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order to make storm
+serge it is necessary to remove part of the bloom, and to accomplish
+this the cloth is steamed sufficiently to neutralize the effect of
+pressing. Steaming deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
+showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge are good, but it
+gets a shine easily. It is used for dress goods and suitings. Serge
+suiting used for men's clothing is a variety of light, wiry, worsted
+yarn woven with a flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue,
+fifty-four inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton warp
+and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width. This is dyed in a
+variety of colors and largely used as lining material for women's
+clothes, men's coats, and overcoats. Storm serge, designed to
+withstand exposure to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted
+dress goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities. The
+twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface rougher and
+cleaner than that of ordinary serge. Iridescent serge is a variety of
+worsted dress goods woven with warp and filling of different colors,
+causing a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a fine
+twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture, dyed black and
+in colors, and is used for women's gowns, men's summer suits, etc.
+Serge de Barry is a high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine
+twill, and wiry feel.
+
+=Shoddy= is made from old woolen stockings or rags, shredded or picked
+by hand or machine, to render the yarn suitable for spinning a second
+time, or to give a fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or
+cotton warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-believe.
+
+=Sicilian.= Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. Sicilienne,
+the proper name, was made in the Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed,
+all silk fabric.
+
+=Sultane.= Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in the rough, not
+singed or sheared. The name is from Sultana, the first wife of the
+Sultan.
+
+=Tamise.= Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh, made first of
+silk and wool. _Tamis_ is French for sieve.
+
+=Tartans.= Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men in the Highlands
+of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened on one shoulder and crossing
+the body. Each clan had a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was
+adapted from the French _tiretaine_, a thin woolen checked cloth.
+
+=Thibet.= Heavy, coarse weave of goat's hair, made by the Thibetans in
+Asia for men's wear.
+
+=Tricot.= A heavy, compound fabric characterized by a line effect
+running warp way or filling way of the piece, usually produced with
+either woolen or worsted yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to
+fabrics made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is the
+French word meaning knitting. The term was later applied to materials
+made on a knitting frame and now known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the
+name tricot has been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave
+of which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted fabric.
+The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted fibers, sometimes with
+cotton warp woven so as to hide the cotton in finishing. The tricot
+line is similar to the rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is
+not so pronounced. All tricots are constructed with two sets of warp
+thread and are characterized by a texture which, while dense, is
+singularly elastic, in this respect being somewhat similar to heavy
+jersey cloth. Tricots are commonly dyed in plain colors, and are
+finished clear so as to show the filling. When intended for trousers
+they are ornamented with small, neat patterns.
+
+=Tweed.= A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible
+texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more
+shades; originally the product of the weavers on the bank of the river
+Tweed in Scotland. The face of the cloth presents an unfinished
+appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.
+
+=Veiling= includes light weight, usually plain weave fabrics of
+various constructions; generally made with singed or polished yarns.
+They are in solid colors. The use is designated by the name.
+
+=Venetian.= Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton warp and worsted
+filling; named from Venetia, a country around Venice. The warp yarns
+are firmly twisted, the twist being in the opposite direction to the
+twist in the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide
+application, in use since early times as a descriptive title for
+various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many varieties is
+a species of twill weaving in which the lines or twills are of a
+rounded form and arranged in a more or less upright position, hence a
+closely woven worsted cloth. The name is also applied to other
+fabrics, as a twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
+worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in plain colors and
+is piece or yarn dyed for men. For women's wear it has light weight
+and plain colors with mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is
+finished smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Venetian cloth
+has not so much felting as broadcloth; it shows the weave more, but
+has the same lustrous finish.
+
+=Vigogne= or =Vicu�a=. A soft wool cloth of the cheviot order, with
+teasled face, made from the wool of the vicu�a, a South American
+animal. Vigogne is the French name for the animal.
+
+=Vigoureux.= A name applied to a plain or twill mixture, woven of
+undyed natural wool yarns. The French spinners found that the
+strongest yarns were those of the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more
+shades or tones are spun into one thread. The name is French for
+strong.
+
+=Voiles.= Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made with hard
+twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible is secured in finishing,
+the cloth being singed or sheared closely if the yarns are not made
+comparatively free from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are
+dyed in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.
+
+=Whipcord.= Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid or mixed colors.
+The name is from the hard twisted lash of a whip.
+
+=Worsted Diagonals= are characterized by prominent weave effects
+running diagonally across the cloth. The goods are usually of a solid
+color, and are given a finish which brings the weave into prominence.
+Diagonals are used for suitings.
+
+=Unfinished worsted= is a fabric woven with yarn with very little
+twist in it, and finished so as to make it appear covered with loose
+fibers, concealing the twill effect. After leaving the loom the cloth
+is placed in a fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus
+increasing the density. It is then passed over hot presses after a
+slight shearing.
+
+=Finished Worsted= is woven with yarn with a considerable twist, and
+finished in such a way as to show the construction of the cloth
+clearly. The finishing consists simply of scouring the cloth and not
+fulling it and then passing it through hot water baths between heavy
+rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared and pressed.
+
+=Zephyr.= Light worsted yarn, also light weight cotton gingham. Zephyr
+is Greek for the light west wind.
+
+=Zibeline.= A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb's wool for warp, and
+a light wool mixed with camel's hair for filling; or, worsted warp and
+camel's hair for filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a
+mixture of wool, camel's hair, and fine cashmere for filling. The long
+cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used for ladies' tailor-made
+coats or suits, according to weight. The name is derived from the
+Latin word _sabellum_, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
+variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the same as sable.
+Zibeline has long hairs on its right side, some grades being almost
+like fur.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[15] SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In connection with the study of fabrics
+the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in a blank
+book a sample of the fabric they are studying. In this way the pupil
+can examine both the filling (weft) and warp threads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+COTTON
+
+
+=Cotton.= Cotton is the most important vegetable fiber used in
+spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft, downy substance which grows
+around the cotton seed. When examined under the microscope it appears
+as a long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-plant yields
+so readily to the varying conditions of soil and climate, there is a
+large variety of cottons, each having some peculiarity which is
+considered enough to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the
+number of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the fact
+that the United States Department of Agriculture has recorded about
+one hundred and thirty varieties. The most important varieties are:
+_Gossypium herbaceum_, _G. arboreum_, _G. hirsutum_, _G. barbadense_,
+and _G. peruvianum_. The botanical name of a plant is divided into two
+parts: first the family name, followed by the species name.
+
+The _Gossypium herbaceum_ grows from four to six feet in height and
+bears a yellow flower. The seeds are covered with a short gray down.
+The fiber it bears is classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia
+Minor, Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety of Egyptian
+cotton is from this species.
+
+The _G. arboreum_ when full grown attains a height from fifteen to
+twenty feet. The seed is covered with a greenish fur and is enveloped
+in a fine, silky down, yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt,
+Arabia, and China.
+
+The _G. hirsutum_ is a shrubby plant, its maximum height being about
+six feet. The young pods are hairy, and the seeds are numerous and
+covered with a firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this is
+the original of the green-seeded cotton which is now cultivated so
+extensively in the Southern States of America, and which forms the
+bulk of the supply from that source.
+
+The _G. peruvianum_ is similar to the _G. barbadense_. The Brazilian
+and Peru cottons are from this species.
+
+The _G. barbadense_ grows from six to fifteen feet high; its flowers
+are yellow and its seeds black and smooth, being quite destitute of
+the hair that distinguishes other members of the species. It is a
+native of Barbadoes or has been cultivated there for a long time.
+Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species--Sea Island and
+Florida cottons--from which our finest yarns are spun, and it is used
+chiefly in the manufacture of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
+several other varieties are said to be from this stock.
+
+=Cotton Growing Countries.= The most suitable situation for growing
+cotton is between 35 degrees north and 40 degrees south of the
+equator. The chief cotton growing countries of the world in order of
+importance are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton is
+also grown in the following countries, but in no quantity or quality
+comparable with the four named above--West Indies, west coast of
+Africa, Asia Minor, China, and Queensland.
+
+The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or sandy soil, which
+receives and retains the heat, and at the same time preserves a good
+supply of moisture. Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth,
+while deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The best
+climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost and snow are of
+short duration, dews are heavy, and the sun bright, warm, and regular.
+New soils generally produce the best cotton. The character of the
+cotton fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the plant,
+the nature of the soil, and the locality in which it is grown.
+
+=Rough Peruvian.= The nature of this cotton is harsh and wiry and
+resembles wool so nearly that it is almost exclusively used to mix
+with woolen fabrics. The staple is rough and generally strong, and is
+of a springy tendency, _i.e._, it does not lie close like American.
+
+=East Indian.= India depends upon the monsoon for its moisture, and
+the success or failure of the crop is decided by that phenomenon of
+nature. Indian cottons as a rule are coarser and shorter than American
+cottons. The land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon, and
+the planting begins after it. There is not the same care bestowed upon
+the cultivation of the Indian cotton, nor are such improved methods
+practised as in America. The ancient routine of past generations
+still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre is less than
+one-half that of America. Moreover the acreage planted is only about
+two-thirds that of America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
+were once largely used in this country for filling, owing to their
+good color and cleanliness; but of late years the consumption has
+steadily decreased, owing chiefly to the increased takings by the
+Indian mills, also to the exports to China and Japan, and to the
+preference shown by English spinners for American cotton.
+
+=Egyptian Cotton.= Egyptian cotton, on account of its long staple and
+silky gloss, is imported in considerable quantities. Egyptian is
+largely used in the manufacture of hosiery, and also for mixing with
+worsted yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with silk, and
+on account of its strength it is made into the finer sewing threads.
+Egyptian cotton is sometimes so charged with grease that it has a
+greasy smell; and to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it
+with whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven (or piled)
+with Egyptian filling do not finish as well as when picked with yarns
+made from American cotton, the reason for this being that the greasy
+nature of the Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
+different shades in the finished goods. This greasy nature is said to
+be due to two things: (1) the fertility of the soil; (2) the extent to
+which the cell walls of the fibers are developed.
+
+In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt--rice, sugar,
+beans, barley, onions, etc.--and the acreage devoted to cotton is
+regulated to some extent by the prospects as to which crops are likely
+to pay best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of the area
+is usually devoted to cotton.
+
+=Sea Island Cotton.= This is the finest growth of cotton, and it
+commands the highest price. The staple, which is long and silky,
+varies in length from one and a half to two and a half inches. It is
+used for making fine muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics,
+and is also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton was
+first introduced into America in 1786 from the Bahama Islands, whither
+it had been brought from the West Indies. It was first cultivated in
+Georgia, where it was found that the small islands running along the
+coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name "Sea Island."
+It was also grown on the uplands of Georgia, but although remaining
+good, the quality deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are
+occasionally spun in Sea Island cotton.
+
+=Other Varieties.= Cotton grown in the Southern States under widely
+varying conditions of the soil, climate, and care in cultivation,
+naturally varies in length, strength, and other qualities of staple.
+Cotton known as "Uplands" or "Boweds" varies in length from
+three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is used for filling;
+this is grown in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
+and Tennessee. Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple varies from
+one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In the swampy and bottom
+lands in some of the states (notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+and Arkansas), cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
+one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition to these, there
+are especially long stapled growths, known as "Extras," "Allen Seed,"
+and "Peelers," which measure one and three-eighths to one and
+five-eighths inches. Of late there has been an extensive demand for
+long-stapled American cotton (one and three-sixteenths to one and
+one-half inches), owing to the development of fine spinning.
+
+=Cotton Raising.= Cotton is planted with a machine, which puts it
+under the ground about one and one-half to two inches. It is not
+planted as corn is, that is, dropped so far apart, but is planted in a
+continuous stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground, when
+it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary labor with a
+hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned. This is called "chopping out"
+and is for the purpose of removing the inferior or weak plants until
+only one strong plant is left. The distance between the plants depends
+on the nature of the plant, frequently about twelve inches being left
+between them.
+
+=The American Crop.= The first step taken is the preparation of the
+ground for planting. This begins in the southern part of Texas as
+early as the middle of January, in Florida about the third week; in
+Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the beginning of
+February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South Carolina from about the
+middle of February to the beginning of March. Actual planting begins
+according to latitude, principally from the middle of March to the
+middle of April, and ends in the first half of May. These dates,
+however, are dependent upon the state of the weather. When the weather
+is unusually wet the start is late. The plant suffers from the rank
+growth of grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
+fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after rains, the
+plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls, which fall off,
+whereupon replanting becomes necessary. In addition to injuries by the
+weather the cotton-plant is subject to depredations by insects. Of
+late years the greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.
+
+The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after planting. An early
+bloom is taken as a sign of good crops. When the crop is an early one,
+picking may commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
+latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning of August,
+following on in the various districts in succession until the early
+part of September. The plant goes on fruiting as long as the weather
+is mild and open. It finishes in the early regions about the beginning
+of December, the others following through December and closing in the
+later regions about the middle of January. Frosts play an important
+part in the ultimate yield. An early killing frost over the entire
+belt would curtail the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season,
+as was the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were planted.
+Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to the cotton-plant; in
+fact it is contended that the late frosts do much good under certain
+conditions of the crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
+open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings. The effect
+of frost upon the lint so picked is to produce tinged and stained
+cotton. Early killing frosts occur in some seasons in the early part
+of November, when much of the yield may be curtailed. When killing
+frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting is practically
+over, it has little or no effect upon the yield except as regards the
+color.
+
+The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages, the bolls nearest
+the ground maturing first, then those around the middle of the plant,
+and lastly the top crop. Pods half ripe are often forced open and the
+fiber sent on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly charged
+with unripe cotton than American. The work of picking is not heavy,
+but becomes tedious from its sameness. Each hand as he goes to the
+field is supplied with a large basket and a bag. The basket is left at
+the head of the cotton row, the bag being suspended from the picker's
+shoulder by a strap, and used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from
+the boll. When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and this
+routine continued throughout the day. Each hand picks from 140 to 180
+pounds of cotton per day. The average yield in the South varies from
+500 to 600 pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
+resembling unground coffee; when these have been removed by the gin,
+there remains about one-third the weight of the boll in clean cotton.
+
+[Illustration: PICKING COTTON]
+
+=Ginning.= The next operation to which cotton is subjected is that of
+ginning, or separating the seeds from the fiber. This work was
+formerly accomplished by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds
+that frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman in separating
+them from one pound of cotton. At the present day the devices for
+separating the lint from the seed are of two classes: roller gins and
+saw gins. The former device is the more ancient, having been used from
+the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its simplest form it consists of
+two rollers made of metal or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through
+which the cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process. An
+improved form of the roller gin is at present used for cleaning the
+long-staple Sea Island cotton. The saw gin, which works on an entirely
+different principle, is the machine which, with its improvements and
+modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost exclusively
+for one hundred years of American cotton growing. In this machine the
+seed cotton is fed into a box, one side of which is formed of a
+grating of metal strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening
+from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these openings a
+row or "gang" of thin circular saws project mounted upon a revolving
+mandrel. The long, protruding teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly,
+catch the fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter, being
+too large to pass through the openings of the grating, roll downward
+and out of the machine. The lint, removed from the row of saws by a
+revolving brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
+machine in the form of a lap or bat.
+
+This machine is responsible for much of the "nep" (or knots) found in
+American cotton, which is caused when the machine is overcharged. The
+Whitney gin will turn through more cotton than any other type of
+machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per hour. When the
+machine is running at high speed the tendency is to string and knot
+the cotton.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON GIN
+
+The upper figure shows Whitney's invention. The lower figure shows a
+later form.]
+
+The working of the ordinary gin is as follows: The wagon loaded with
+cotton is driven under a galvanized spout called the sucker, through
+which there is a suction of air which draws the cotton into the gins.
+In each of the gins there are seventy circular saws revolving on one
+shaft. These saws are about one inch apart, and the teeth go through
+the gin breast, much as if one were to put the teeth of one comb into
+the teeth of another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
+seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the lint flute,
+into the condenser, and into the box, where it is revolved and made
+into a bale. While the lint is going through this process, the seeds,
+being heavier and smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
+an auger which is operated by a belt, and then are dropped into a
+conveyor and carried to the seed pile or houses. The lint goes in one
+direction and the seed in another.
+
+When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin, it is covered with
+a lint of cotton. In order to remove this the seeds are put through a
+delinter, which takes off the small, short fiber from the seeds,
+leaving them clean. This seed is then put through a huller which takes
+off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel is then put through a
+hydraulic press, which squeezes the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves
+the "meal." Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as making
+olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc. Of late an experiment
+has been made with the meal for use in the place of flour, and has
+been pronounced a success. Seed crushing has now become an important
+industry, with the cotton crop each year amounting to between
+12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales of 450 pounds each.
+
+=The Cotton Gin.= The cotton gin was invented in 1792 by Eli Whitney,
+a citizen of Georgia, but a native of Massachusetts. The importance of
+this invention to the cotton industry of the world cannot be
+overestimated. It was the one thing needed to insure a sufficient
+supply of raw material to meet the requirements of newly invented
+machinery for spinning and weaving. The result of Whitney's invention
+was the rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United
+States, and its permanent establishment as one of the leading staples
+of the country.
+
+=Cotton Bales.= After the cotton is ginned and baled it is shipped to
+the mill. The standard size of a cotton bale in the United States is
+54 � 27 � 27 inches, and contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this
+bale over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The bales are
+wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with sheet-iron bands, this
+covering adding about twenty-five pounds to the weight of the bale.
+
+The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a self-feeding press,
+which receives the lap of lint from the gin between two heavy rollers.
+The fiber is rolled upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press
+out nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform shape and size
+throughout, having a diameter of fourteen to sixteen inches. The bales
+are covered with cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It
+is claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this process that
+the bales are practically fireproof and waterproof.
+
+Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar to the American
+bale, but the average weight is over 700 pounds.
+
+The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed than the American,
+usually weigh 400 pounds.
+
+Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the shape of a bale.
+The method is to purchase from cotton brokers, samples being furnished
+to the buyer from which to make selection.
+
+[Illustration: STOREHOUSES]
+
+The commercial value of cotton is determined by its length, fineness,
+strength, pliability, smoothness, regularity, color, and cleanliness.
+As a rule, the cotton that is the longest is also the finest, but by
+no means the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest staple
+with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an Indian cotton) is much
+inferior to it in both respects. The strength of the latter, however,
+is 50 per cent greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
+every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance over Hinganghat
+cotton. It is the most valuable, especially for the production of fine
+yarns.
+
+The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the length of the staple
+varies only a small fraction of an inch. In consequence of this there
+is less loss in working Orleans than is the case with the other
+cottons, owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.
+
+=The Leading Growths of Cotton.= In order to purchase the raw material
+of the cotton manufacture, to arrange the "mixing" or have much to do
+with the raw material in any other capacity, one should know as much
+as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance may cause much
+trouble and no little loss to those who have to spin the cotton. Each
+crop differs from the previous one to a greater or less degree, as it
+depends entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season there is
+a "droughty crop" which, while it may be (and generally is) clean and
+well up in class, will be weak, short, and of irregular fiber. In
+order to obtain the desired length and strength of staple the buyer
+will have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may be termed
+a normal season.
+
+[Illustration: FANCY COTTON LOOM]
+
+Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that may have been
+caused by too much rain in the early or middle stages of its growth,
+or by unfavorable weather for the production of cotton of good grade,
+the staple will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
+small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain his usual grade,
+especially if he requires it for good filling. Then there are seasons
+when the crop turns out fairly well in class and staple, but the
+cotton is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case the
+buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in calculating the extra
+loss that will ensue.
+
+The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance of 4 per cent for
+tares. That is, a bale of cotton weighing 400 pounds would be paid for
+as 384 pounds, or should the buyer have reason to believe that the
+tares are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the actual
+tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales and weighing the
+covering and the hoops, which means considerable work, and although it
+is at the option of the buyer, it is an exception rather than the
+rule.
+
+As a result of these causes we find cotton divided into the following
+grades:
+
+=Full Grades of Cotton.= Egyptian cotton is graded as follows: extra
+fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good fair, fair, middling fair,
+middling.
+
+Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine, fully good, good,
+fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.
+
+Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good fair, fair, middling
+fair, middling.
+
+American cotton has seven grades: fair, middling fair, good middling,
+middling, low middling, good ordinary, and ordinary.
+
+In addition to the full grades there are half and quarter grades. The
+American cottons are graded as follows:
+
+ _Full Grades._       _Half Grades._            _Quarter Grades._
+
+ Fair,                Strict middling fair,     Barely fair,
+ Middling fair,       Strict good middling,     Fully middling fair,
+ Good middling,       Strict middling,          Barely middling fair,
+ Middling,            Strict low middling,      Fully good middling,
+ Low middling,        Strict good ordinary,     Barely good middling,
+ Good ordinary,       Strict ordinary.          Fully middling,
+ Ordinary.                                      Barely middling,
+                                                Fully low middling,
+                                                Barely low middling,
+                                                Fully good ordinary,
+                                                Barely good ordinary.
+
+The following are a few of the leading varieties of cotton, with the
+numbers of yarn they will make:
+
+ _Cotton._                   _Length._         _Warp._       _Filling._
+
+ Sea Island (selected)       1-3/4  to 2-1/4   up to 200     250 to 300
+ Sea Island (ordinary)       1-3/4  to 2             150         220
+ Florida Sea Island          1-3/4  to 2             150         220
+ Georgia                     1-1/2  to 1-7/8         120         180
+ Egyptian                    1-1/4  to 1-1/2          70         120
+ Peeler                      1-1/4  to 1-3/8          50          70
+ Orleans or Gulf             1-1/16 to 1-1/4          40          60
+ Upland                      1      to 1-1/8          30          45
+ Texas                         7/8  to 1-1/16         25          35
+
+During the last few years considerable discussion has taken place
+among mill men, both in this country and abroad, bearing upon the
+subject of moisture contained in baled cotton. Of course the natural
+moisture in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from year
+to year, according to the character of the season during the picking.
+The standard of moisture is based upon what is known as regain, that
+is, if 100 parts of absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they
+will absorb about 8-1/2 per cent of moisture, although a much higher
+per cent is sometimes found.
+
+In some of the small Southern mills located in the cotton raising
+section, the cotton is delivered by team direct from the gin, without
+going through the compress. In this way they save the greater part of
+transportation expense. They also save in the strength of the cotton
+fiber itself, since the process of compression injures the fiber. They
+get better cotton, being nearer the source of supply and having better
+opportunities for selection.
+
+When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is necessary to cut
+ties and loosen up the cotton before use. This may be done in two
+ways. One method being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other
+to pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine, which loosens up
+the cotton by means of beaters. It now starts on a continuous journey
+through successive machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is
+made into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling yarn to
+make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.
+
+Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn, for certain
+conditions are necessary to manufacture good yarn. If the atmosphere
+is too warm or too dry, the fibers will become brittle and will not
+twist well; if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
+England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton spinning. It
+has just the right climate, a moist temperature, and copious water
+supply. There are hills on the east of the valley, forming a water
+shed, and the town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay,
+that holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough to
+keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the fibers for
+weaving. Countries that have not these conditions are obliged to
+produce them by artificial means--humidifying, etc.
+
+[Illustration: PICKER ROOM
+
+  1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.
+  2. "Lap" showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.
+  3. Picker Machine (complete).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
+
+
+[Illustration: PICKER ROOM--SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER
+
+  1. Lap of Cotton.]
+
+=Picker Room.= The first step in the conversion of the bale of cotton
+into yarn consists in giving the cotton fibers a thorough cleaning.
+This is accomplished by feeding the cotton to a series of picker
+machines called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and automatic
+feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and finisher picker.
+These machines pull to shreds the matted locks and wads of cotton (as
+we find them in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
+finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon the cylinders;
+this batting passes from one machine to another until it issues from
+the finisher picker as a downy roll or lap.
+
+(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)
+
+[Illustration: CARD ROOM
+
+  1. Roving Can--receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it
+     is transferred to either ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.
+  2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form
+     of a web.]
+
+=Carding Machine.= When the lap of cotton leaves the picker it goes to
+the carding machine, where it is combed into parallel fibers by means
+of a revolving cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.
+As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or lap from
+the picker, it is supposed to have been freed from a considerable
+quantity of sand, seed, etc., but there still remain nep, fine leaf,
+and short fibers, which are removed during carding.
+
+On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a gossamer-like web
+thirty-nine inches broad. This web next passes through small "eyes,"
+which condense it into a narrow band about an inch in width, known as
+card sliver.
+
+When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it should weigh a
+given number of ounces per yard. The method of ascertaining the weight
+is to make each lap a standard number of yards in length and weigh
+each lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the desired
+weight per yard.
+
+=Combing.= When an extremely fine and strong yarn is required, in
+addition to carding, the fibers are also subjected to the process of
+"combing." This may be said to be merely a continuation of the carding
+process to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract all
+fibers below a certain required length, and cast them aside as
+"waste." This is done in order to secure the very best fibers
+calculated to give the strongest and best results in the spun yarn.
+
+The process of combing follows carding. The card delivers the cotton
+in the form of a sliver or strand, while the combing machine requires
+the fibers to be delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
+inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card slivers and
+forming a lap of them by passing the sliver through a sliver lap
+machine. The laps are passed through the comber. This machine consists
+essentially of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
+By the action of these, the short fibers are separated and combed out,
+and the long ones arranged in parallel order in the form of a thin,
+silky strand, in which condition it is sent to the drawing frames to
+be drawn out. Of course it must be understood that a combing machine
+is used by only a small percentage of cotton spinners. For ordinary
+purposes a sufficiently good quality can be made without a comber. As
+there is from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
+readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the production
+of the very best and finest yarns, such as those intended for sewing
+or machine thread, fine hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation
+silks, and fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines that
+comb short staple cotton.
+
+=Drawing.= The cans containing the slivers are taken from the card or
+combing machine (as the case may be) to the drawing frame. The object
+of this machine is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
+of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly. The
+condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb is such that a
+slight pull will lay them perfectly straight or parallel, and this
+pull is given by the drawing frame rollers. Of course the fibers
+coming from the comb are parallel, but it is necessary to alternate
+them by the drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting of a
+number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a greater speed
+than the rear ones.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON COMB ROOM
+
+  1. The cotton in the form of a "lap" ready to pass through the comb.]
+
+The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same weight per
+yard, are combined together in the drawing and emerge from the pair of
+front rollers as one sliver weighing the same number of grains per
+yard as a single sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated
+two or three times, according to requirements, the material then being
+referred to as having passed through so many "heads" of drawing. It is
+not unusual to pass Indian and American cotton through three
+deliveries.
+
+The object of all the processes thus far described has been that of
+cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers in a parallel position
+to each other, making uniform, and drawing out the stock. In every
+case the stock delivered from a machine is lighter than when fed into
+it, and contains just twist enough to hold it together and prevent its
+being stretched or strained when unwound from the bobbin, and fed into
+the next machine. The minimum amount of twist in roving is desirable
+for the reason that it permits the stock to be drawn out more easily
+and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the roving by the
+slubber being practically eliminated when it is passed through the
+rolls of the intermediate. The same applies in the case of the roving
+passing from the roving to the spinning frame.
+
+=Fly Frames.= The process in the manufacture of yarn after the cotton
+has passed through the drawing frame consists of further attenuation
+of the sliver, but as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as
+is possible without breakage, a small amount of "twist" is introduced
+to allow of the continued drawing out of the sliver.
+
+From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through two, three, or four
+fly frames, according to the number of yarn to be made. All these
+machines are identical in principle and construction, and differ only
+in the size of some of the working parts. They are the slubber,
+intermediate, roving,--and fine or jack frame-fine, and the function
+of each is to draw and twist.
+
+[Illustration: ROVING DEPARTMENT
+
+  1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the
+     rolls and then given a twist while it is wound on the bobbin.]
+
+=Intermediate Frame.= The function of the intermediate frame is to
+receive the slightly twisted rove from the slubber and add thereto a
+little more twist and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to
+one spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends to insure
+strength and uniformity. The principle of the machine is in other
+respects the same as that of the slubbing frame.
+
+=Roving Frame.= The function of the roving frame is to receive the
+twisted rove from the intermediate and add more twist and draft,
+thereby further attenuating the rove. As in the intermediate frame the
+rove is generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
+
+=Fine or Jack Frame.= This machine is used when fine yarns have to be
+made. It is built on the same principle as the preceding frames, the
+only difference being that a finer rove is made from which finer
+numbers of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate, and
+roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
+
+=Spinning.= In the manufacture of single ply yarn the final process is
+that of spinning, which consists in drawing out the cotton roving to
+the required size, and giving it the proper amount of twist necessary
+to make the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning frame is
+built on entirely different principles from the roving, intermediate,
+or slubber frame, the object of each machine is the same as that of
+the spinning frame. The principal point of difference is the amount of
+twist imparted to the cotton roving.
+
+[Illustration: ROVING ROOM
+
+  1. A drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the
+     machine.
+  2. A slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins.
+  3. Roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through
+     the roller to another.]
+
+The objects of the spinning process are:
+
+1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving to the required
+size.
+
+2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give the thread
+produced strength.
+
+Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue wear and tear on
+the machine.
+
+There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning and mule spinning.
+The mule spinning is the older form. There are but few mule frames in
+operation in this country.
+
+=Mule Spinning.= The function of mule spinning is to spin on the bare
+spindle, or upon the short paper tubes, when such are required to form
+a base for the cop bottom. The mule will spin any counts of yarn
+required, and is especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
+"cover" are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced on the ordinary
+cotton mule and are very soft spun.
+
+The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the back of the
+machine, the stands of roving being passed through the rolls and drawn
+out in the same manner as at the roving frame. The spindles are
+mounted on a carriage which moves backward and forward in its relation
+to the rolls, the distance roved being about five feet. When the
+spindles are moving away from the frame the stock is being delivered
+by the rolls, the speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
+being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension. The twist is
+put in the yarn at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING ROOM. COTTON DEPARTMENT
+
+  1. Humidifier--an apparatus to give off moisture.
+  2. Spinning frames--showing the cotton as it comes from the roving
+     frame and passes through the spinning frame.]
+
+When the spindles reach their greatest distance from the rolls, the
+latter are automatically stopped and the direction of the motion of
+the spindle carriage reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while
+the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the motion of the
+rolls being stopped in the meanwhile, the spindles revolving only fast
+enough to wind up the thread that has been spun during the outward
+move of the carriage.
+
+The mule is a much more complicated machine than the ring frame, its
+floor space is much greater, and more skilled help is required for its
+operation. Under ordinary conditions it is not practical to spin finer
+yarn than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said to have
+been spun on a mule. The same number of yarn can be spun on a mule
+with less twist than on the ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.
+
+Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has greater production
+and requires less labor than mule spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used
+for warp purposes.
+
+=Ring Spinning.= The function of ring spinning is to draw out the rove
+and spin it into yarn on a continuous system. The yarn made is spun
+upon bobbins.
+
+The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having the carriage
+replaced by a ring, from which the machine takes its name. The ring is
+from one and one-half to three inches in diameter, grooved inside and
+out, and is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter D,
+called the "traveller." Its office is to constitute a drag upon the
+yarn, by means of which the latter is wound upon a bobbin. Its size
+and weight depend on the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns
+demand the largest ring and heaviest traveller.
+
+[Illustration: MULE ROOM
+
+  1. Stocks from Finisher ready to be spun upon the mule.
+  2. Front Rollers with weight levers.
+  3. Clearers for Front Rollers.
+  4. Faller shafts containing Sickles.
+  5. Spindles.
+  6. Spun Yarn wound on cops.
+  7. Covers for carriage.
+  8. Body of carriage.
+  9. Drawing out band.
+ 10. One of the wheels for the carriage.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
+
+
+=Thread.= In general a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk,
+etc., spun out to considerable length, is called thread. In a specific
+sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns
+firmly united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds of weaving,
+but its principal use is for sewing, for which purpose it is composed
+of either silk, cotton, or flax. Thread made of silk is technically
+known as sewing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
+while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool
+cotton. These distinctions, while generally observed by trade, are not
+always maintained by the public.
+
+The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade from that made
+before the sewing machine came into general use. The early thread was
+but three cord, and contained such a large number of knots, thin
+places, etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
+machines, so manufacturers were called upon to produce a thread that
+would be of the same thickness in every twist. This was effected by
+making the thread of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
+smoother and more uniform strand.
+
+=Manufacturing Processes.= The raw cotton for the manufacture of
+thread must be of long staple. If the fiber is short the thread made
+of it will be weak, and hence unsuited for the purposes required of
+it. Ordinary cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the better
+grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness of its fiber.
+Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are used because they have a much
+longer fiber and are softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the
+factory packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for some
+months before it is used. The first step in the conversion of the bale
+of cotton into thread consists in giving the fiber a thorough
+cleaning. This is accomplished by feeding it to a series of pickers
+which pull the matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt and
+seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting upon cylinders until
+it issues from the finisher lap machines as a downy roll or lap.
+
+The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms, where it is combed
+into parallel fibers by means of a revolving cylinder covered with
+fine wire teeth, sometimes 90,000 of them to the square foot. On
+leaving the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like web
+thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed through a small
+"eye" which condenses it into a narrow band about an inch in width,
+known as the sliver. By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that
+one yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the sliver. The
+sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it were spun it would not make
+good thread. It is necessary to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as
+possible, so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
+strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and short fibers
+must be removed and the knots and kinks in the fibers straightened
+out. To accomplish these objects the cotton must be "combed." First,
+the slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each set
+moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands are drawn out
+fine and thin. In this condition the cotton passes to a doubling
+frame, and from thence to the lapping frame, a device combining six
+laps into one and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
+lap.
+
+[Illustration: WARP ROOM
+
+  1. Beam on which the warp is wound.
+  2. Warp.
+  3. Creel.
+  4. Spools in the creel.]
+
+The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the impurities and
+short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-fifth of the material; next,
+it combines six of these fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A
+number of these rolls are then drawn out by another machine twelve
+times as long as they were before and twisted together on a slubbing
+frame. This last drawing reduces the roll to about the thickness of
+zephyr yarn. After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
+roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes by means of
+hundreds of spindles and wheels what the housewife once did with her
+spinning wheel. The mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000
+hand spinners and takes up much less space. On this machine 900
+spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins, and by means of
+accelerating rollers and a carriage draw out and twist it to the
+proper fineness for the size of thread wanted. Having passed through
+the complex processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and spinning,
+the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various sizes, and the real
+work of thread making, which is a distinct art from yarn making,
+begins.
+
+The thread-making process is briefly as follows: The yarn is doubled
+and twisted; then three of such yarns are twisted together, which give
+the six-fold combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord thread
+three yarns are twisted together. After the twisting is completed the
+thread is reeled into skeins having a continuous length of 4,000 to
+12,000 yards, according to the size, and is then sent to the
+examining department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand is
+looked over, and any found to be defective are laid aside, so that
+when the thread is put on the market it shall be as perfect as care
+and skill can make it.
+
+At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are of the pale cream
+color common to all unbleached cotton goods, and are technically known
+as "in the gray." They therefore have to be bleached pure white or
+dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether intended for white or colored
+thread, are first placed in large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled.
+Here the thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six or
+seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but still retains the
+brownish gray color of unbleached cotton. It then goes into a bath of
+chloride of lime and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
+drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride. Another
+boiling, another bleaching, a bath of soapsuds, and the final rinsing,
+complete the cleansing and whitening process. Those skeins intended
+for colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and placed in tanks
+filled with suitably prepared dyeing solutions.
+
+[Illustration: TWISTING ROOM
+
+  1. Humidifier.
+  2. Twister machine.
+  3. Boxes containing spools of cotton, ready to be put in creel and
+     form warp.]
+
+From the bleaching and dyeing departments the skeins of thread go
+back to the mill to be wound on the bobbins, and from the bobbins
+finally on the small wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
+be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The small spools are
+fastened on pivots, the thread from the bobbins fastened on the
+spools, and the machines set in motion. At the required number of
+yards the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of cotton thread
+contains 200 yards, and when this has been wound on, the thread is cut
+with a knife by an attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim
+of the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread. Thread mills
+commonly print their own labels, and these are affixed to the spools
+by special machinery with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling
+machine the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one for
+imperfections, and any that are found faulty are discarded. When
+packed in pasteboard boxes or in cabinets the thread is ready for
+market.
+
+=Thread Numbers.= Spool cotton for ordinary use is made in sizes
+ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200 fine. In cotton yarn numbering,
+the fineness of the spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks,
+each containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh one pound, as
+illustrated in the following table:
+
+ When   1 hank of cotton yarn (   840 yds.) weigh 1 lb. it is No.   1
+  "    10   "   "    "     "  ( 8,400 yds.)   "    "      "    "   10
+  "    16   "   "    "     "  (13,440 yds.)   "    "      "    "   16
+  "    30   "   "    "     "  (25,200 yds.)   "    "      "    "   30
+  "    50   "   "    "     "  (42,000 yds.)   "    "      "    "   50
+  "   100   "   "    "     "  (84,000 yds.)   "    "      "    "  100
+
+The early manufactured thread was three cord, and took its number from
+the size of the yarn from which it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60
+thread, though in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
+would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands combined
+together. When the sewing machine came into the market as the great
+consumer of thread, spool cotton had to be made a smoother and more
+even product than had previously been necessary for hand needles. This
+was accomplished by using six strands instead of three, the yarns
+being twice as fine. As thread numbers were already established, they
+were not altered for the new article, and consequently at the present
+time No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord are identical
+in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord is formed of No. 120 yarns.
+It is relatively smoother, more even, and stronger than the three-cord
+grade. All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each of
+the latter being twice as fine as the number of the thread as
+designated by the label. Three-cord spool cotton is made of three
+strands of yarn, each of the same number as the thread.
+
+=Sizing.= In textile manufacturing, sizing is the process of
+strengthening warp yarns by coating them with a preparation of starch,
+flour, etc., in order that they may withstand the weaving process
+without chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also often
+resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton and linen fabrics,
+which are sized or dressed with various mixtures in order to create an
+appearance of weight and strength where these qualities do not exist,
+or, if present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing warp yarn
+before weaving is to enable that process to be performed with the
+minimum of threads breaking. Judicious sizing adds to the strength of
+the yarn by filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
+the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main part. In order
+to accomplish this a number of ingredients are used in the size
+preparation, as no single material used alone gives satisfactory
+results. The filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
+adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with sufficient
+hardness to resist the continual chafing of the shuttles, reeds, and
+harnesses during the process of weaving. Flour and starch in a liquid
+state are used for this purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew,
+flour is not so much used as starch. Both of these materials, however,
+make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients are combined with them to
+overcome the brittleness. For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing
+has been found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight goods the
+softener giving the most general satisfaction is paraffin.
+
+When properly made the size preparation is a smooth mass of uniform
+consistence, free from lumps of any kind, and from all sediment and
+odor. Starch--the principal material which gives body to any
+size--requires the most careful treatment. It is first mixed with cold
+water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is slowly poured into the
+necessary quantity of boiling water until a clear, uniform paste is
+formed. Then the softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
+fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred in and some
+form of preservative, usually chloride of zinc or salicylic acid. The
+mass is then thoroughly stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with
+mechanical stirrers. The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or
+cold. When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling up
+every space between the fibers, binding all together, and forming a
+hard coating on the surface of the thread. A thorough washing or
+steaming serves to remove all the size from the woven fabric.
+
+[Illustration: FINISHING ROOM]
+
+=Cotton Finishing.= Cotton fabrics, like other textiles, after leaving
+the loom must be subjected to various finishing processes so as to
+bring them into commercial condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the
+finishing is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each class
+of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In some cases weighting
+materials are added to the fabric so as to hide more or less its
+actual construction. Cotton fabrics just from the loom present a soft
+and open structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it is
+necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes which will
+fill up the openings or interstices as produced in the fabric by the
+interlacing of warp and filling, and at the same time give to the
+fabric a certain amount of stiffness. Of course this finish will
+disappear during wear or washing, it having been imparted to the
+fabric to bring the latter into a salable condition.
+
+Cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to the following
+sub-processes of finishing:
+
+Inspecting, Burling and Trimming, Bleaching, Washing, Scutching,
+Drying.
+
+After the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed; then it passes over to
+the inspection table in an upward receding direction, so that the eye
+of the operator can readily detect imperfections. The ends of two or
+more pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string for
+convenient handling in the bleaching.
+
+=Bleaching.= The object of bleaching is to free the cotton from its
+natural color. The ancient method of bleaching by exposure to the
+action of the sun's rays and frequent wetting has been superseded by a
+more complicated process involving the use of various chemicals.
+Pieces of cloth are tacked together (sewed) to form one continuous
+piece of from three to one thousand yards in length. The cloth is next
+passed over hot cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all
+the fine, loose down from the surface. The goods are then washed and
+allowed to remain in a wet condition for a few hours, after which they
+are passed through milk of lime under heavy pressure, followed by
+rinsing in clear water. The goods are next "scoured" in water
+acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and boiled in a solution of soda,
+then washed as before in clear water. Next they are chlorined by being
+laid in a stone cistern containing a solution of chloride of lime and
+allowed to remain a few hours. This operation requires great care in
+the preparation of the chloride of lime, for if the smallest particle
+of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed to come in contact with and
+remain upon the cloth it is liable to produce holes. The goods are
+then boiled for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda,
+after which they are washed. They are again chlorined as before and
+washed. The long strips are finally scoured in hydrochloric acid,
+washed, and well squeezed between metal rollers covered with cloth.
+After squeezing and drying, the cloth, if required for printing, needs
+no further operation, but if intended to be marketed in a white state,
+it must be finished, that is, starched or calendered.
+
+=Starching.= The starch is applied to the cloth by means of rollers
+which dip into a vat containing the solution, while other rollers
+remove the excess. Sometimes the cloth is artificially weighted with
+fine clay or gypsum, the object being to render the cloth solid in
+appearance.
+
+=Calendering.= The cloth is now put through the calendering machine,
+the object of which is to give a perfectly smooth and even surface,
+and sometimes a superficial glaze; the common domestic smoothing iron
+may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil. The cloth is first
+passed between the cylinders of a machine two, three, or four times,
+according to the finish desired. The calender finishes may be classed
+as dull, luster, glazed, watered or moire, and embossed. The calender
+always flattens and imparts a luster to the cloth passed through it.
+With considerable pressure between smooth rollers a soft, silky luster
+is given by equal flattening of all the threads. By passing two folds
+of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the threads of one
+make an impression upon the other, and give a wiry appearance. The
+iron rollers are sometimes made hollow for the purpose of admitting
+steam or gas in order to give a glaze finish. Embossing is produced by
+passing the cloth under heated metal rollers upon which are engraved
+suitable patterns, the effect of which is the reproduction of the
+pattern upon the surface of the cloth.
+
+=Mercerizing.= This is a process of treating cotton yarn or fabrics
+with caustic soda and sulphuric acid whereby they are made stronger
+and heavier, and given a silky luster and feel. The luster produced
+upon cotton is due to two causes, the change in the structure of the
+fiber, and the removing of the outer skin of the fiber. The swelling
+of the fiber makes it rounder, so that the rays of light as they fall
+upon the surface are reflected instead of being absorbed. The quality
+and degree of luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely
+upon the grade of cotton used. The long-staple Egyptian and Sea Island
+cotton, so twisted as to leave the fibers as nearly loose and parallel
+as possible, show the best results. If the yarn is singed the result
+is a further improvement. Yarns and fabrics constructed of the
+ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to advantage. The cost
+of producing high-grade mercerized yarn is about three times that of
+an unmercerized yarn of the same count, spun from the commoner
+qualities of cotton.
+
+Mercerized yarn is employed in almost every conceivable manner, not
+only in the manufacture of half-silk and half-wool fabrics, and in
+lustrous all-cotton tissues, but also in the production of figures and
+stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds. Mercerized yarn
+used in connection with silk is difficult to detect except by an
+expert eye.
+
+=Characteristics of a good piece of Cotton Cloth.= A perfect cotton
+fiber has little convolutions in it which give the strong twist and
+spring to a good thread. In this respect the Sea Island cotton is the
+best. There are five things requisite for cotton cloth to be good,
+viz.:
+
+1. The cloth must be made of good fiber, that is ripe and long.
+
+2. The fiber must be carefully prepared. All the processes must be
+well performed--for the very fine thread fiber must be combed to
+remove poor fiber. The combing, however, is not always done.
+
+3. The warp and woof threads must be in good proportion.
+
+4. The cloth must be soft, so that it will not crease easily.
+
+5. It must be carefully bleached--the chemicals used must not be
+strong.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+KNITTING
+
+
+The art and process of forming fabrics by looping a single thread,
+either by hand with slender wires or by means of a machine provided
+with hooked needles, is called knitting. Crocheting is an analogous
+art, but differs from knitting in the fact that the separate loops are
+thrown off and finished by hand successively, whereas in knitting the
+whole series of loops which go to form one length or round are
+retained on one or more needles, while a new series is being formed on
+a separate needle. Netting is performed by knotting threads into
+meshes that cannot be unraveled, while knitting can be unraveled and
+the same thread applied to any other use. Knitting is really carried
+on without making knots; thus, the destruction of one loop threatens
+the destruction of the whole web, unless the meshes are reunited.
+
+The principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of weaving. In
+the weaving of cloth the yarns of one system cross those of another
+system at right angles, thus producing a solid, firm texture. The
+great elasticity of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the
+chief feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs. The nature
+of the loop formed by the knitting needle favors elongation and
+contraction without marring in the least the general structure of the
+goods. Builders of weavers' looms have at times endeavored to secure
+this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechanism of the
+loom, but as yet nothing approaching the product of the knitter has
+been made. The elastic feature of a knitted texture renders it
+peculiarly adapted for all classes and kinds of undergarments, for it
+not only fits the body snugly, but expands more readily than any other
+fabric of similar weight.
+
+=Knitting Machines.= There are various machines for knitting. The
+circular knitting machine produces a circular web of various degrees
+of fineness, and in sizes ranging from a child's stocking to a man's
+No. 50 undershirt. The circular fabric made in this manner has to be
+cut up and joined together by some method to make a complete garment.
+The knitting frame for producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip,
+narrowing and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the
+shape of the foot, leg, or body. These strips then have to be joined
+by sewing or knitting to form a garment. Fashioning machines are
+indispensable for knitting the Niantic and French foot, and also for
+the production of stripes, fancy openwork, and lace hosiery.
+
+[Illustration: KNITTING MACHINE FOR HOSIERY]
+
+All plain machines of any class produce only plain knitted fabrics,
+while ribbed machines make only ribbed fabrics. Still, many garments
+in their make-up include both kinds of knitting; therefore, many
+machines produce only certain parts of particular garments. In the
+case of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top, or in underwear a
+ribbed cuff, and these may be made either of circular web or full
+fashioned. In each case the ribbed portion is first knit and then
+transferred to a plain machine, and being placed upon the needles is
+worked on to the rest of the garment. In some instances the heel is
+made by the machine working the leg, though there are numerous
+knitters specially designed for turning out only this particular part.
+
+Among other knitting machines in modern use are the drawers machine;
+machines for hose and half-hose with apparatus for making the instep,
+finishing off the toe, splicing or thickening the heels, etc.;
+machines for producing the bottoms or soles of hose separately, and
+also the instep separately; circular stocking machines for producing a
+tubular web afterwards cut into suitable lengths for all varieties of
+hose; circular sleeve machines, circular body machines, as well as
+circular web machines for making both body and sleeves of undershirts,
+jerseys, sweaters, etc. Special machines are also made for knitting
+both plain and ribbed plaited goods, that is, with both sides wool
+while the center is of cotton, or with a silk or worsted face on one
+side and the back of an inferior yarn. In the form of auxiliary
+appliances are produced many kinds of stitching machines; circular
+latch-needle machines for plain ribbed, mock seam, and striped goods;
+steam presses; hose rolling machines; hose cutting and welting
+machines, and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture.
+
+[Illustration: KNITTING MACHINE FOR UNDERWEAR]
+
+At present fully one-third of the knit underwear used in this country
+is of the ribbed description. It is made in all the materials that
+the older flat goods are composed of, including silk, silk mixtures,
+linen, wool, lisle, and cotton. Rib work is ordinarily stronger and
+more lasting than plain. It is also invaluable for many purposes on
+account of its tendency to contract and expand in the direction of the
+circumference without altering its length. This feature makes it
+indispensable for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts, mittens,
+gloves, etc., and for the production of heavy garments such as
+cardigans and sweaters. The expense of knitting rib work is higher
+than plain knitting, owing to the fact that the machines cannot turn
+out so great a quantity within a given time.
+
+The formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique in its principle.
+The effect is produced by reversing the stitch. In place of making the
+stitch work appear entirely upon one side of the fabric, as in plain
+work, the needles are so arranged that every alternate row, or two
+rows alternately, are reversed, thus making both sides alike. Plain
+work is done with a single bank of needles, while rib work requires
+two banks, the function of the second one being to pull and loop the
+yarn in an opposite direction, thus producing a thicker and more
+elastic web.
+
+Double work in knitting consists merely in running two threads where
+one is commonly used. The work is done readily and with but little
+extra cost for labor. Coarser and heavier needles are required, also a
+wider gauge for the needle cylinder. Fancy effects in double work are
+produced by running two colors instead of one. The tendency is for one
+thread to twine about the other, thus making attractive
+double-and-twist work. Lumbermen's socks and like goods are often
+knitted on this plan, though for the most part double work is for the
+heels, toes, and soles of ordinary hose.
+
+=Stripe Knitting.= The process of striping knitted fabrics is
+accomplished automatically by a system of changing the yarns when
+delivered by the feeds. Circular machines knitting a tubular web
+cannot be utilized for this purpose, hence the work is done on
+fashioning or stocking frames. It has only been within recent years
+that makers of knitting machinery have been able to offer machines on
+which more than one kind of yarn could be knit at one time. There are
+now in use, however, machines that will readily knit several colors of
+yarn at the same time.
+
+=Knitting Cotton.= A variety of loosely twisted, four-ply cotton yarn,
+dyed in various plain and mixed colors, employed for knitting hosiery,
+tidies, mats, etc., by hand. It is numbered from 8, coarse, to 20,
+fine, and commonly put up sixteen balls in a box, each box containing
+two pounds, manufacturer's weight.
+
+=Knitting Silk.= A loosely twisted silk thread of domestic manufacture
+employed for knitting mittens, stockings, and other articles by hand.
+It is also much used for crochet work. Knitting silk is put up in the
+form of balls, each containing one-half ounce of thread. It is made in
+but two sizes, No. 300, coarse, and No. 500, fine; each ball of the
+former number contains 150 yards of silk; of the latter 250 yards. No.
+500 is manufactured only in white, cream, and black; the No. 300 is
+fast dyed in a great variety of colors.
+
+=Hosiery Manufacture.= According to the particular method by which
+socks and stockings are made, of whatever kind, quality, or material,
+they are classed as cut goods, seamless, or full fashioned. Of the
+three methods of manufacturing the first named is the least expensive.
+Cut goods are made of round webbing knitted on what is called a
+circular knitting machine. The web has the appearance of a long roll
+of cloth about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed flat. The
+first operation consists in cutting off pieces the length of the
+stocking desired, these lengths, of course, being the same (unshaped)
+from end to end. The shaping of the leg is effected either by cutting
+out enough of the stocking from the calf to the heel to allow part to
+be sewn up and shaped to fit the ankle, or by shrinking. In the
+heeling room where the pieces next go, the cutters are furnished with
+gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a slit for the
+insertion of the heel, generally of a different color. When the heel
+is sewn in, the stocking begins to assume its rightful shape. The toe
+is now put on and the stocking is practically finished. In the case of
+socks the final operation consists in attaching the ribbed top, which
+tends to draw the upper part of the leg together, thus causing it to
+assume a better shape. The final work includes scouring, dyeing, and
+shaping. The cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per dozen
+than when knit seamless. While some very creditable hose are produced
+in this way, yet the existence of the heavy seam is an objection which
+confines them to the poorest class of trade. Cut goods are made in
+all sizes and kinds for men, women, and children.
+
+Seamless hose are made on a specially constructed machine which
+produces the entire stocking, but leaves the toe piece to be joined
+together by a looping attachment. On half-hose the leg is made the
+same size down to the ankle, but on ladies' hose the stocking is
+shaped somewhat in the machine. Seamless hose are not, strictly
+speaking, entirely seamless, inasmuch as all stockings made on a
+circular knitting machine must have a seam somewhere. There must be a
+beginning and an ending. In the case of the stocking the ending is at
+the toe, and the opening left can only be closed with a seam. In some
+mills this opening is automatically stitched together on special
+machines; in others, girls do it by hand with needle and thread.
+Neither by machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with exactly
+the same stitch as that made by the needles of the power knitter.
+However, the seam is of small proportions, and when the goods are
+scoured, pressed, and finished the presence of the seam is a minor
+item, as it neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance of
+the stocking. Seamless goods are made in a great variety of qualities,
+ranging from cotton half-hose at fifty cents per dozen to the fine
+worsted stockings at $6.00 per dozen. A notable and very commendable
+feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the heel, which
+fits that portion of the foot as though really fitted to it. As far as
+comfort and fit are concerned, the manufacture of seamless hosiery has
+now reached such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to
+the full-fashioned variety.
+
+Full-fashioned hose are produced by means of complicated and expensive
+knitting frames, which automatically drop the requisite number of
+stitches at the ankle so as gradually to narrow the web down and give
+the stocking the natural shape of the leg. The toe is produced in the
+same way, and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought about in like
+manner. Hence, the goods are called full-fashioned, because so
+fashioned as to conform to the proportions of the leg and foot. Hose
+and underwear made by this method are knit in flat strips and then
+seamed either by hand or machine. Generally special machines are used,
+which take up and complete the selvedges, thus avoiding objectionable
+seams with raw edges.
+
+The knitting frames used for making full-fashioned goods are large,
+intricate, expensive, and slow in operation; they are difficult to
+keep in order and require skilful operators. The largest ones knit
+from fourteen to eighteen stockings at once, using as many as four
+threads of different colors in the production of patterns. The first
+operation consists in knitting the leg down to the foot; then the legs
+are transferred by expert workmen to another frame which knits the
+foot. Next they go to another department where, with the aid of a
+special looping machine, the heels and toes are stitched together.
+Then the stockings or socks are handed over to expert women operators,
+who seam up the legs on a machine especially adapted for the purpose.
+After being sorted they are taken to be dyed, boarded, stitched,
+dried, and finally subjected to heat and pressure to give them a
+finished appearance. It usually requires two weeks from the time the
+manufacturing operations begin, for a stocking to emerge from the
+factory in a finished form. Full-fashioned hose are made in all shades
+and grades of silk and cotton, in lisle thread, and in all kinds of
+cashmere, merino, and woolen goods. They are likewise knitted plain,
+ribbed, and with fancy stripes and embroidery effects. In the United
+States there are numerous important plants engaged in the production
+of full-fashioned goods, while large quantities are annually imported
+from Germany and France.
+
+=Finishing Process.= When socks and stockings are taken off of the
+knitting machines they present an unfinished appearance, being loose,
+puckered, dirty, and generally shapeless. Scouring, dyeing, shaping,
+and pressing serve to improve their looks, and these finishing
+operations constitute a distinct branch of the industry. While still
+in a moist state the hose are shaped. This is effected by the use of
+forming-boards made of wood and about one-half of an inch in
+thickness. The sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the "form"
+while damp, and then placed in a heated chamber and allowed to dry.
+The goods assume the shape of the wooden "form," and will always hold
+it if the work has been carefully and thoroughly done. After they have
+been taken from the drying chamber and the boards removed the hose are
+pressed between heavy metal plates or rollers, looked over for
+defects, and when boxed or bundled are ready for market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+LACE
+
+
+=Lace.= Lace is the name applied to an ornamental open work of threads
+of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or silver, and occasionally of mohair or
+aloe fiber. The latter are used by the peasants of Italy and Spain.
+
+Lace consists of two parts, the ground and the flower. The threads may
+be looped, plaited, or twisted in one of three ways. First, with a
+needle, when the work is known as "needlepoint lace." Second, when
+bobbins, pins, and a pillow or cushion are used; this is called
+"pillow lace." Third, by machinery, when imitations of both point and
+pillow lace patterns are produced.
+
+Special patterns for these laces date from the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. The early productions of the art had some analogy
+to weaving; the patterns were stiff and geometrical, sometimes cut out
+of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed surface, but
+more frequently they were darned in, the stitches being counted in, as
+in tapestry. This kind was known as darned netting. With the
+development of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and
+figure subjects were introduced and worked in.
+
+Whether of needlepoint or pillow make, both the ornament and the
+ground are produced by the lace maker. Needlepoint is made by first
+stitching the net with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on
+paper or parchment, thus producing a skeleton thread pattern. This
+threadwork serves as a foundation for the different figures which are
+formed in the lace.
+
+Bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving. The threads are
+fixed upon a circular or square pillow, placed variously to suit the
+methods of manufacture in vogue in different countries. The object of
+using the pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace. One end
+of each thread is fastened to the cushion with a pin, the main supply
+of thread being twined around a small bobbin of wood, bone, or ivory.
+The threads are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker, who
+throws the bobbins over and under each other. The operation is fairly
+simple, since children of eight or nine years of age can be trained to
+it successfully. It demands, however, considerable dexterity with the
+fingers.
+
+The design for pillow lace must of course be adapted to the technical
+requirements of the process, and cannot therefore be the same as one
+for needlepoint, which has a better appearance and greater strength
+than pillow lace. For this reason it was in former times generally
+preferred for wear on occasions of state. On the other hand, pillow
+lace has the quality of charming suppleness, and for use in mantillas,
+veils, and fichus it is better than needlepoint, lending itself with
+delicate softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the head
+and shoulders of women.
+
+
+LACE TERMS DEFINED
+
+    _Alen�on (Point d')._--Fine needlepoint lace with the
+    ground of double-twist thread in a semi-net effect. Is
+    usually worked with horsehair on the edges to give
+    firmness to the cordonnet. Called after the city in
+    France where it is made.
+
+    _Allover._--Name for all wide laces used for flouncing,
+    yokes, and entire waists. Usually the lace is over
+    eighteen inches in width.
+
+    _American Laces._--A general term formerly used to
+    distinguish lace made in this country, the development
+    of the industry having now rendered the term nearly
+    obsolete.
+
+    _Angleterre (Point d')._--Fine Brussels pillow lace,
+    distinguished by a rib of raised and plaited threads
+    worked in the lace. Shown in floral, ornithological, and
+    geometrical designs.
+
+    _Antique._--Hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread
+    in a large, open, rectangular knotted mesh. Used for
+    curtains, bed sets, draperies.
+
+    _Antwerp._--Bobbin lace, resembling early Alen�on. Shows
+    a "pot"--that is, a vase or basket effect--in the
+    design.
+
+    _Appliqu�._--Any lace in which the body and the design
+    are made separately. The body is usually silk and the
+    design cotton or linen.
+
+    _Appliqu� Brussels._--Name sometimes given to Brussels
+    appliqu� laces.
+
+    _Arabe (Point d')._--Coarse bobbin lace made in Belgium
+    and France as well as Arabia. Shows a large, bold
+    pattern, cable edged, and is almost invariably in a deep
+    �cru tone. Used for curtains and draperies.
+
+    _Arabian._--Same as above.
+
+    _Argentine._--Similar to Alen�on, the mesh being a
+    trifle larger.
+
+    _Arras._--Very strong, inexpensive, white bobbin lace,
+    of simple pattern, somewhat resembling Mechlin.
+    Distinguished by its light, single thread ground. Named
+    after the city in France where it is made.
+
+    _Aurillac._--Somewhat resembles Angleterre. Bobbin lace
+    made in Aurillac, France.
+
+    _Auvergne._--Any kind of bobbin lace made in Auvergne,
+    France. Different makes and patterns.
+
+    _Ave Maria._--A narrow edging lace.
+
+    _Baby Lace._--Light and simple edging lace made in
+    England.
+
+    _Battenberg._--Same as Renaissance. Designs confined to
+    flower patterns.
+
+    _Bayeux._--Bobbin lace, usually an imitation of Spanish
+    point. Also a black, rich lace made in large pieces for
+    shawls, head scarfs, etc.
+
+    _Binche._--Fine pillow lace, without cordonnet. Ground
+    resembles a spider-web with small dots. Made in Binche,
+    Belgium.
+
+    _Bisette._--Coarse, narrow French peasant lace in simple
+    designs. Name often applied to cheap bordering laces.
+
+    _Blonde._--So called, being originally a bobbin lace
+    made of unbleached silk, though now shown in black,
+    white, and colors. Made with two different sizes of
+    thread; fine thread for the ground, coarse for the
+    design. Usually takes some floral form. Very lustrous.
+
+    _Bobbin Lace._--Imitation of pillow lace. Made in
+    England and France.
+
+    _Bobbinet._--The same.
+
+    _Bone Lace._--An obsolete term once given to Honiton
+    bobbin lace.
+
+    _Bone Point Lace._--Applied to laces having no regular
+    ground or mesh, such as Renaissance.
+
+    _Border Lace._--Practically synonymous with edging.
+
+    _Bourdon._--A machine lace made of both silk and cotton.
+    Show scroll-like patterns cable-edged on a regular mesh.
+    Usually dyed black, but sometimes bleached. The outline
+    is of a heavy lustrous thread. Used chiefly for dress
+    trimming and millinery.
+
+    _Brettone._--Cheap narrow edging.
+
+    _Bride Lace._--Lace with the pattern connected with
+    brides. Same as bone point lace.
+
+    _Brides._--Slender threads connecting different parts of
+    a pattern.
+
+    _Brussels Net._--Plain net made originally in Brussels,
+    but now produced in all lace manufacturing countries.
+
+    _Brussels Pillow._--Fine pillow lace with the patterns
+    joined together by little loops on their edges.
+
+    _Brussels Point._--Shows an open pattern, made partly in
+    open, partly in closed, stitch, giving the appearance of
+    shading.
+
+    _Carrickmacross._--Tiny Irish cambric drawn work,
+    appliqu� on net.
+
+    _Cartisane._--Guipure or passementerie made with thin
+    silk or gilt-covered strips of parchment.
+
+    _Chantilly._--Pillow lace very similar to blonde. Comes
+    from Chantilly, France. Made in both silk and cotton and
+    usually seen in black. Non-lustrous, and looks as if
+    made from black linen thread.
+
+    _Chiffon Lace._--Chiffon embroidered in twist silk.
+
+    _Cluny._--Coarse-thread bobbin lace, made in both linen
+    and cotton. Shows a close-stitch pattern darned on an
+    open ground. Used for dress trimmings and the
+    manufacture of curtains.
+
+    _Cork Lace._--A sweeping term used to designate all
+    laces of Irish make.
+
+    _Cotton Lace._--All lace made of cotton.
+
+    _Craponne._--Cheap, stout thread furniture guipure.
+
+    _Crochet Lace._--Any point lace made with the crochet
+    hook.
+
+    _Darned Lace._--A comprehensive term taking in all net
+    effects with the pattern applied in needlework.
+
+    _Devonshire Lace._--Lace made in this part of England,
+    and especially Honiton imitation.
+
+    _Dieppe._--Fine needlepoint lace made in Dieppe, France.
+    Resembles Valenciennes. Made with a regular ground of
+    squares of small meshes alternating with open squares
+    upon which the pattern is applied in close stitch.
+
+    _Duchesse._--Pillow lace with fine net ground with the
+    patterns in raised work, volants, and the like.
+
+    _Dutch Lace._--Practically a coarse Valenciennes.
+
+    _English Point._--See Angleterre.
+
+    _Escurial._--Heavy silk lace made in imitation of Rose
+    point. Patterns outlined with cable edge.
+
+    _Esprit (Point d')._--Dotted bobbinet with the dots
+    either singly or in clusters.
+
+    _Filet Lace._--Any lace made with a square mesh net.
+
+    _Flemish Point._--Needlepoint lace made in Flanders.
+
+    _Footing._--Simple insertion of Brussels net from one to
+    three inches in width.
+
+    _Galloon._--Irregular band with a fancy edge. Entire
+    piece often in zigzag or scallop form.
+
+    _Gaze (Point de)._--Flemish point lace resembling point
+    d'Alen�on, though much softer, being without horsehair.
+
+    _G�ne (Point de)._--Openwork embroidery made on a wool
+    ground which is afterwards eaten away by acid.
+
+    _Genoa._--Heavy lace made of aloe fiber. Another name
+    for macram�.
+
+    _Gimp._--See Guipure.
+
+    _Gold Lace._--Gimp or braid covered with gold or
+    imitation gold thread.
+
+    _Grammont._--White pillow lace used for shawls and the
+    like. Black silk lace nearly resembling blonde.
+
+    _Guipure._--Fancy trimming of wire cord whipped round
+    with silk or cotton threads, and the small patterns
+    stitched together.
+
+    _Guipure d'Art._--Linen net upon which raised
+    intersecting patterns are worked.
+
+    _Guipure de Flanders._--A pillow lace made separately,
+    having flowers connected by bars and brides.
+
+    _Hand Embroidered._--Heavy point lace, usually of Plauen
+    manufacture, with fancy floral or other figures
+    embroidered on the design.
+
+    _Honiton._--English bobbin lace, famed for the beauty of
+    its designs. Named for the city where it was first
+    manufactured. Now made in Belgium, Holland, and France.
+    Sprays sometimes made separately, and then worked on a
+    net--Honiton appliqu�.
+
+    _Honiton Braid._--Narrow machine-made braid of
+    ornamental oval figures connected by narrow bars. Used
+    for collars, handkerchiefs, and tidies.
+
+    _Honiton Guipure._--Large flower-pattern lace on very
+    open ground, the sprays held together with brides or
+    bars.
+
+    _Imitation Lace._--A term used to designate any
+    machine-made lace in contrast with hand-made.
+
+    _Insertion._--Any narrow lace with a plain edge on
+    either side that admits of its being inserted in a
+    fabric.
+
+    _Irish Crochet._--Heavy hand-made lace, remarkable for
+    the beauty and distinctness of its patterns, and the
+    startling whiteness of the linen thread used in its
+    manufacture.
+
+    _Irish Lace._--A general term used to designate all lace
+    made by the Irish peasantry.
+
+    _Irish Point._--Hybrid combination of appliqu�, cut
+    work, and embroidery on net with elaborate needle
+    stitching in the higher grades.
+
+    _Irish Trimming._--Simple, woven lace, used on white
+    wear.
+
+    _Knotted Lace._--Frequently referred to as knotting. A
+    fancy weave of twisted and knotted threads in close
+    imitation of some old hand laces.
+
+    _Lille (Also Lile)._--French lace named after the town
+    where it is made. Somewhat resembles Mechlin. Shows a
+    very clear, light ground and is the most beautiful of
+    all simple thread laces.
+
+    _Limerick Lace._--A form of embroidery on net or muslin.
+
+    _Luxeuil._--A general term for hand-made laces of
+    Luxeuil, France. More specifically those of a stout,
+    heavy nature. Used for tidies, curtains, draperies.
+
+    _Macram�._--Knotted hand-made lace, made of a very heavy
+    cord. Shown principally in geometrical designs. Very
+    popular in deep �cru.
+
+    _Maline._--Fine silk net. Sometimes also applied to
+    Mechlin lace with a diamond mesh.
+
+    _Maltese._--Coarse machine-made cotton lace, resembling
+    torchon. Has no regular ground, the patterns being
+    usually connected with heavy stitch work.
+
+    _Mechlin._--Light pillow lace with the pattern outlined
+    by a fine but very distinct thread or cord. Real Mechlin
+    generally has the ground pattern woven together, the
+    latter running largely to flowers, buds, etc.
+
+    _Medallion._--Single, detached pattern.
+
+    _Medici._--Special kind of torchon edging, with one edge
+    scalloped.
+
+    _M�lange._--Hand-made silk pillow lace, showing a
+    combination of conventional Chantilly with Spanish
+    designs.
+
+    _Mignonette._--Light bobbin lace, made in narrow strips.
+    Resembles tulle.
+
+    _Miracourt._--Sprig effects of bobbin-lace applied on
+    net ground.
+
+    _Mexican Drawnwork._--Little round medallions either
+    single or in strips, the threads drawn to form a
+    cartwheel. Mexican and Teneriffe drawnwork are
+    practically the same. Machine imitations made in
+    Nottingham, Calais, and St. Gall.
+
+    _Motif._--See Medallion.
+
+    _Nanduly._--South American fiber-lace, made by needle in
+    small squares, which are afterward joined together.
+    Design very beautiful and of remarkable durability.
+
+    _Needlepoint Lace._--See Point Lace.
+
+    _Normandy Lace._--See Valenciennes.
+
+    _Nottingham._--A general term including all the
+    machine-made laces turned out in that great
+    lace-producing center of England.
+
+    _Oriental Lace._--Really an embroidery, being produced
+    on the Schiffli machine, the pattern being then either
+    cut or eaten out. Also applied to point d'Arabe and
+    certain filet effects.
+
+    _Oyah Lace._--A crocheted guipure shown in ornate
+    patterns.
+
+    _Passementerie._--A decorative edging or trimming,
+    especially gimp or braid.
+
+    _Picots._--Infinitesimal loops on brides and other
+    strands.
+
+    _Pillow Lace (Bobbin Lace)._--Made on a pillow with
+    bobbins and pins. Machine-made imitations retain the
+    name.
+
+    _Plauen._--Applied to all laces emanating from that
+    section of Saxony and including imitations of nearly all
+    point laces, which are embroidered on a wool ground,
+    this being afterward dissolved in acid and the cotton or
+    silk design left intact.
+
+    _Point de Gaze._--Fine gauze-like needle-lace.
+
+    _Point d'Irelande._--Coarse machine lace, made in
+    imitation of real Venetian point.
+
+    _Point de Milan._--A variety of guipure, having a ground
+    of small meshes, and a pattern consisting of bold,
+    flowing scroll devices.
+
+    _Point de Paris._--A variety of cheap machine lace,
+    cotton, of simple design.
+
+    _Point Kant._--Flemish pillow lace, with a net ground
+    and the design running largely to "pot" effects--pot
+    lace.
+
+    _Point Lace._--Lace made by hand with needle and single
+    thread. Needlepoint the same. Point d'Alen�on, point de
+    Venise, etc., are all variations of point lace and will
+    be found classified under their initials.
+
+    _Point Plat._--Point lace without raised design.
+
+    _Renaissance._--Modern lace, made of narrow tape or
+    braid formed into patterns, held together by brides, the
+    brides forming subsidiary designs. Battenberg is the
+    same thing.
+
+    _Repouss�._--Applied to the design, being a pattern that
+    has the effect of being stamped in.
+
+    _Rococo._--Italian lace, bearing the rococo design.
+
+    _Rose Point._--See Venetian point.
+
+    _Seaming Lace._--Narrow, openwork insertion.
+
+    _Seville._--Variety of torchon.
+
+    _Spanish Lace._--A comprehensive term. Convent-made,
+    needlepoint lace. Cut drawnwork effects, also
+    convent-made. Needlepoint lace in large squares. Black
+    silk lace in floral designs.
+
+    _Spanish Point._--Ancient embroidery of gold, silver,
+    and silk passementerie.
+
+    _Swiss Lace._--Swiss embroidered net in imitation of
+    Brussels.
+
+    _Tambour._--Variety of Limerick.
+
+    _Tape Lace._--Hand-made needle lace, similar to
+    Renaissance.
+
+    _Thread Lace._--Made of linen thread, as distinguished
+    from cotton and silk laces.
+
+    _Torchon._--Coarse, open bobbin lace of stout but
+    loosely twisted thread in very simple patterns. Much
+    seen in imitations, usually in narrow widths.
+
+    _Van Dyke Points._--Applied to laces with a border made
+    in large points.
+
+    _Valenciennes._--Commonly called Val. Bobbin lace, seen
+    mostly in cheap insertions and in the form of narrow
+    edgings.
+
+    _Venetian Point._--Point de Venise. Needlepoint lace in
+    floral pattern with the designs very close together and
+    connected by brides ornamented with picots.
+
+    _Wood Fiber._--Applied to all laces made of wood silk.
+
+    _Yak._--Machine-made worsted lace. Used for trimming for
+    shawls, petticoats, and undergarments.
+
+    _Youghal._--Needlepoint lace of coarse thread, made
+    exclusively in Ireland.
+
+    _Ypres._--Bobbin lace, somewhat coarser than Val.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+COTTON FABRICS[16]
+
+
+=Albatross.= Cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made in imitation of a
+worsted fabric of the same name. It has a fleecy surface. The name is
+taken from the bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric
+resembles. The warp is usually 28s cotton, the filling 36s cotton. It
+is a plain weave. Filling and warp count 48 picks per inch. The goods
+are finished by being burled, sheared, washed, singed, dyed, rinsed,
+dried, and pressed, care being taken not to press too hard. Sometimes
+singeing is omitted. Albatross cloth is generally in white, black, or
+solid colors. It is not often printed. It is light in weight, and is
+used for dress goods.
+
+=Awning.= A cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter from sun rays.
+
+=Batiste.= Batiste is of French origin, and is a light, transparent
+cloth, made from a fine quality of combed cotton yarn. There is a
+gradual variation in quality ranging from a comparatively coarse to a
+very fine fabric. The variety of qualities will suggest some idea of
+the utility of the fabric. Its uses are even more varied than are the
+qualities. The finer grades are used for dress goods and all kinds of
+lingerie for summer wear, etc., while the cheaper grades are used for
+linings in washable and unwashable shirt waists. Batiste is woven in
+the gray, that is, with yarn direct from the spinning frame, with the
+exception that the warp yarn is well sized, in order to stand better
+the strain to which it is subjected during the weaving process.
+
+=Bourrette.= A light weight, single cloth fabric, with two-ply cotton
+warp and wool or a combination of cotton and shoddy filling, made with
+the plain weave and in appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric
+with fancy effects in twist scattered about it. It is used principally
+for ladies' fall suitings.
+
+=Bedford Cord.= This is one of the most popular types of fabrics, the
+distinguishing effect being a line or cord running lengthwise of the
+cloth, the cord being more or less prominent. The cloth is made of
+cotton, or sometimes of worsted. The face effect of the Bedford cord
+is generally plain. Occasionally twill-faced cords are used. The cords
+vary in width from about one twentieth to one quarter of an inch. To
+get extra weight without altering the appearance of the face, extra
+warp yarns, termed wadding ends, are inserted between the face weave
+and the filling, floating at the back of the rib. When these wadding
+ends are coarse, they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the
+cord. They run from 88 to 156 picks to an inch.
+
+=Buckram.= Buckram is derived from Bokhara. It may be described as a
+coarse, glue-sized fabric, and is made of cotton, hemp, linen, or
+cotton and hair (coarse) yarns, usually from 10s to 25s. Made of a
+double cloth warp, 22s cotton, 34 picks to the inch, for the face or
+top fabric 1/12's[17]; weight from loom 2.22 ozs. per yard. Bottom
+fabric 1/12's cotton; filling 1/16's cotton; 12 picks to the inch.
+Weight per yard, 1.8 ounces. These fabrics depend a great deal on the
+finishing. The men's wear requires less sizing on account of the hair
+it contains. The goods are piece dyed. Buckram is used principally for
+stiffening garments, and to give them shape or form. It is placed
+between the lining and the surface cloth of the garment in particular
+parts, such as the lapels, etc. It is used in the millinery trade, and
+is made into hats. Millinery buckram is sized two or three times.
+
+=Calico= takes its name from Calicut, a city in India, where cloth was
+first printed. The majority of inexpensive cotton fabrics are
+constructed on the one up, one down system, or plain weave. Calico is
+no exception to this rule. The printed designs on calicoes may be
+somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geometrical figures. In
+order, however, to comply with the true principles of art, such
+fabrics as calicoes should have but simple geometrical figures for
+their ornamental features. New styles and combinations of colors are
+produced every month and faster and lighter color printed each season.
+Most of the designs for calicoes and cotton cloth printing are made in
+Paris. At present the steam styles are most prominent; they are the
+fastest and lightest to be obtained. Calico is a printed cloth, the
+printing being done by a printing machine which has a rotating
+impression cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out.
+The cloth in passing through the machine comes in contact with the
+impression cylinder. The cylinder revolving in a color trough takes up
+the color and leaves the impression of the design on the cloth.
+Calicoes may be seen in almost any color. The printing machine is
+capable of printing several colors in one design. Calicoes, however,
+are usually in two colors, that is, one color for ground and the other
+for figure. The ground color in most cases is effected by dyeing the
+cloth in some solid color. After the cloth is dyed the design is
+printed on it. The cloth, after it comes from the loom, is singed and
+bleached, then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint, and then
+sent to the dye house. The first process there is to boil it, after
+which it is immersed in the dye tub. Calicoes are usually given what
+may be termed a "cheap cotton dye." By "cheap cotton dye" is meant
+that the colors are not fast, but will run or fade when subjected to
+water. After the fabric is dyed, it is given to the printer, who
+ornaments the face of the cloth with some geometrical design; then it
+is practically ready for the merchant. After printing, the cloth is
+dried and steamed to fix the color, afterwards soaped, washed,
+finished, and folded. The printing machine turns out about 400 to 800
+fifty-yard pieces a day. Calico is used for inexpensive dresses,
+shirtwaists, wrappers, etc.
+
+=Cambric.= Cambric is a heavy, glazed cotton fabric with a smooth
+finish. It was first made in Cambrai, France. It has a plain weave
+and a width of thirty-six inches. Cambrics are dyed in a jig machine.
+After dyeing they are run through a mangle containing the sizing
+substance, then dried, dampened, and run through a calender machine.
+The glossy effect is obtained in this last finishing process. Cambric
+is used for shirtwaists, dress goods, etc. The finer grades are made
+from hard twisted cotton of good quality.
+
+=Canvas.= This is a term applied to heavy, plain weave cloths made
+with ply cotton yarn. They are used for mail bags, covering for boats,
+etc.
+
+=Chambray.= Chambray is a staple fabric of many years standing, being
+next in rank among cotton goods after the better grade of gingham.
+Chambray is a light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven
+with a plain weave, and always has a white selvedge. In effect it is a
+cloth having but one color in the warp, and woven with a white
+filling, this combination producing a solid color effect, the white
+filling reducing any harshness of warp color in the cloth. It is
+composed of one warp and one filling, either all cotton, cotton and
+silk, or all silk. It is twenty-seven to thirty inches in width and
+single 30s cotton warp to single 60s silk, the count of yarn being
+governed by the weight per yard desired. The weight per finished yard
+is two to three and one-half ounces. Good colors for the warp are navy
+blue, dark brown, lavender, black, nile green, etc. When made of
+cotton warp and filling the fabric receives a regular gingham finish.
+The loom width can be restored by tentering or running the goods over
+a machine fitted underneath with a series of coils of steam pipe. The
+top of this machine is fitted with an endless chain with a row of
+steel needles standing erect upon its face. Chains are adjusted to the
+width desired, and as the machine runs, both selvedges are caught by
+the needles and the cloth stretched to the required width.
+
+=Cheese Cloth.= This is a thin cotton fabric of light weight and low
+counts of yarn, which ranks among the cheapest in cotton goods. It is
+used for innumerable purposes. The bleached fabric is used for
+wrapping cheese and butter after they are pressed. It is also much in
+demand for bunting for festival occasions, light curtains, masquerade
+dresses, etc. When used for bunting, draperies, and the like it is
+usually in colors, red, blue, cream, and yellow seeming to have the
+greatest demand. The weave is one and one or plain weave.
+
+=Chin�.= Sometimes applied to glac� silk, or cotton two-toned effects.
+The name is French, meaning woven so as to have a mottled effect.
+
+=Chintz.= Printed cotton cloth, with large, many-colored designs, used
+for furniture covering. The Hindoo wears it as a body covering. Chintz
+is the Hindoo word meaning variegated.
+
+=Cotton Flannel.= Napped cotton flannel. Made first for trade in
+Canton, China.
+
+=Crash.= A plain fabric for outing suits, towels, etc.
+
+=Cr�pe.= A fine, thin fabric of open texture made of cotton.
+
+=Crepon.= Large designs in figured cr�pe. The name applies to the
+crispiness of the finish and is from the French word _cr�per_, to make
+crisp.
+
+=Cretonne.= Heavy cotton cloth printed in large designs, for drapery
+and furniture use. Cretonne was a Frenchman who first made the cloth.
+
+=Crinoline.= Crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton warp, horsehair
+filling, or all cotton yarns. It is sold in varying widths, and is
+used by tailors and dress-makers in stiffening clothing. It is a cheap
+cloth of low texture and simple construction, the distinguishing
+feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly glazed
+face on the cloth.
+
+=Damask.= A cloth of silk and cotton, silk and linen, silk and wool,
+or all linen in flowered or geometrical designs for drapery or table
+covering. The weaves used are mostly twills and sateens. It takes its
+name from Damascus, where it was first made.
+
+=Denim.= This is a strong fabric usually made with a two up and one
+down twill. It is used for overalls, furniture covering, and floor
+covering.
+
+=Diaper.= A figured cotton or linen fabric, which gets its name from
+the Greek _diapron_, meaning figured. It is generally of good quality
+as it is subject to excessive washing.
+
+=Dimity.= A light-weight cotton fabric, the distinguishing feature of
+which is the cords or ribs running warpwise through the cloth, and
+produced by doubling the warp threads in either heddle or reed in
+sufficient quantity to form the rib desired. The name is from a Greek
+word meaning two-threaded. Dimity is a ladies' summer dress fabric,
+and is made of regular cotton yarn, from 1/60's to the finest counts
+in both warp and filling. It is made in both white and colors, solid
+white being used in the most expensive grades. Colors are often
+printed upon the face of the fabric after it has been woven in the
+white.
+
+=Domet.= This cloth is napped similar to a cotton flannel. It is used
+for shirts, pajamas, etc., and made with bright colored stripes and
+check patterns. The name is from domestic, home made.
+
+=Duck.= Duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of coarse two-ply
+yarn and of a plain weave. It derives its name from its resemblance to
+a duck's skin. It is of a lighter weight than canvas. In finishing
+duck is taken from the loom and washed and sized, then dried and
+pressed. If a fancy solid color is desired the goods are dyed in the
+piece after the first washing. Duck is used in the manufacture of
+sails, tents, car curtains, and for any purpose requiring a good
+water-tight fabric, which will withstand rough usage. Duck has a stiff
+hard feel, and excellent wearing qualities. The lighter weights are
+used for ladies' shirtwaist suits, men's white trousers, etc.
+
+=Drill.= A cotton fabric of medium weight generally made with the two
+up and one down twill. It is extensively used for shoe linings.
+
+=Eolienne= is the name applied to a fine dress fabric characterized by
+having the filling of a much coarser count than the warp, thus
+producing a corded effect across the breadth of the goods. This class
+of goods is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or worsted
+filling, with the warp ends per inch greatly in excess of picks per
+inch. The goods are made up in gray, then dyed in the piece in any
+color the trade desires. The darker shades find most favor for fall
+and winter use, while the lighter shades are preferred for summer
+wear. The width is from twenty-seven to fifty inches, and the price
+per yard varies from 85 cents to $1.25.
+
+=Etamine.= An etamine is a thin, glossy fabric used principally for
+women's dress goods. Being a common and popular material for summer
+wear, it is usually made as a piece-dyed fabric. A good reason for
+making it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than if the
+yarn is dyed previous to the weaving. Etamines were originally made
+with worsted yarns, which of course are more expensive; however, if a
+good quality of cotton is used, there is little difference in
+appearance between worsted and cotton etamine. The difference is
+chiefly in the wearing quality, worsted being more durable. The
+principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp, glossy, and open
+structure.
+
+=Flannelette= is a narrow, light-weight fabric composed of all cotton
+yarn, the filling being soft spun to permit of the raising of a very
+slight nap on the back of the goods. The cloth is woven with bleached
+yarn (warp and filling), the color effects being afterwards printed
+upon the face of the goods by the printing machine. Flannelette is
+made with simple one or two colored stripe patterns, either black and
+white or indigo blue and white, and in imitation of a Jacquard
+pattern. The finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight
+cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard, are twenty-seven inches
+wide, and are used very extensively in the manufacture of ladies'
+wrappers, kimonos, etc., for house wear.
+
+=Fustian.= A corded fabric made on the order of corduroy and used in
+England for trouserings, etc. First made at Fustat, a town on the
+Nile, near Cairo. Velveteen and cordings in the lower, coarser grades
+were sometimes called Fustian.
+
+=Galatea Cloth.= Galatea cloth has been somewhat in demand in recent
+years by women requiring serviceable and neat-appearing cotton fabrics
+at a medium price. It is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide and
+retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard. It is shown in
+plain colors as well as in figures, and in dotted and striped designs
+on white and colored grounds. The patterns are obtained by printing.
+Some manufacturers have found that they can take a standard type of
+fabric and extend its use by varying the process of finishing. The
+base of the cloth--that is, the fabric previous to dyeing or printing
+or bleaching--is nothing more than an ordinary 5-end warp sateen of
+fair quality.
+
+=Gauze.= A veiling net, made in Gaza in Palestine.
+
+=Gingham.= Gingham is a single cloth composed entirely of cotton, and
+always woven with a plain weave. It is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks
+and was originally of Indian make. It is the most widely known fabric
+on the market and is made in various grades, having from fifty to
+seventy-six ends per inch in the reed, and of 1/26's to 1/40's cotton
+yarns in both warp and filling. It is a wash fabric, made in both
+check and plaid patterns into which an almost unlimited variety of
+color combinations are introduced. Ginghams are made with from two
+colors, warp and filling, to eight colors in warp and six in filling.
+Ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture of ladies' and
+children's summer dresses and aprons.
+
+=Italian Cloth= is a light, glossy fabric made from cotton and
+worsted, cotton and wool, cotton and mohair, and all cotton. It is
+used for linings for the heavier styles of ladies' dresses, also for
+underskirts, fancy pillow backs, etc. The cloth is woven in the gray
+undyed yarns. In the finer grades the warp is sized so as to
+facilitate the weaving process.
+
+=Jaconet.= A thin cotton fabric, heavier than cambric. If properly
+made one side is glazed. Derived from the French word _jaconas_.
+
+=Khaki.= Twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color, first used for
+men's clothing in India. The word _khaki_ is Indian for earth, or
+dust-colored.
+
+=Lawn.= Lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash fabric, weighing from
+one and one fourth to two and one fourth ounces per yard, and in
+widths from thirty-six to forty inches finished. It is composed of all
+cotton yarns (bleached) from 1/40's to 1/100's, and is always woven
+with a plain weave, one up, one down. The name is from Laon, a place
+near Rheims, France, where lawn was extensively made. Plain lawn is
+made of solid white or bleached yarn in both warp and filling. The
+fancier grades, or those having color effects, are produced by
+printing vines, floral stripes, small flowers, etc., in bright colors
+in scattered effects on the face of the goods. The patterns are always
+printed, never woven. Lawn, when finished, should have a soft, smooth
+feel. Therefore the finishing process includes brushing, very light
+starching or sizing, then calendering or pressing. Lawns have to be
+handled carefully in the bleaching process, starched with an ordinary
+starch mangle (the sizing containing a little blueing), finished on
+the Stenter machine, and dried with hot air. Lawns are often tinted
+light shades of blue, pink, cream, pearl, green, and other light
+tints, with the direct colors added to the starch. It is used
+principally in the manufacture of ladies' and children's summer
+dresses, sash curtains, etc.
+
+=Lingerie.= This relates to all sorts of ladies' and children's
+undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts, infants' short dresses,
+chemises, night robes, drawers, corset covers, etc.
+
+=Linon= is a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well known for its
+excellent wearing and washing qualities. It is made from combed cotton
+yarns of long-stapled stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine
+linen fabrics. The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.
+
+=Long Cloth= is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality, made with a
+fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. Originally the fabric was
+manufactured in England, and subsequently imitated in the United
+States. The fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which it
+derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to some extent
+resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and cambric. It is
+distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave, and
+when finished the fabric possesses a whiter appearance, due to the
+closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used
+as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appearance, which
+is similar in all respects to fabrics which we have been accustomed to
+see used solely for lingerie, nightgowns, etc.
+
+=Madras= is a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed of all cotton
+or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing qualities. It was at
+first a light-colored checked or striped plain-faced cotton-silk
+fabric, made in Madras, India, for sailors' head-dress. It is
+twenty-seven inches wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from
+two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons of the year.
+It is used by ladies for summer skirts, shirtwaists, suits, etc., and
+by men in shirts. It is known by the white and colored narrow-stripe
+warp effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from 1/26 to 1/80
+warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends per inch. The
+utility of madras for nearly all classes of people permits the
+greatest scope in creating both harmonious and contrasting color and
+weave combinations.
+
+The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and delicate shades
+of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender, and bright red; for
+prominent hair-line effects black, navy blue, dark green, royal blue,
+and cherry red. Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric.
+If inferior colors are used, they will surely spread during the
+finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe where a distinct
+one was intended.
+
+=Moreen.= Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton cloth, with worsted
+or moire face. The making of moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth
+is placed in a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This
+finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the layers sheets
+of manila paper; the contents of the trough are then saturated with
+water; a heavy weighted roller is then passed over the wetted paper
+and cloth, the movement of the roller giving the cloth a watered face.
+It can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking of moreen is
+different on every piece. Moreen was at first made for upholstery and
+drapery use. It was found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so
+was taken up for underskirts. The name is from the French _moire_,
+meaning watering.
+
+=Mull.= A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made first in India,
+later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo is _mal_, meaning soft,
+pliable.
+
+=Mummy.= A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Originally the winding
+cloth of the Egyptian mummified dead.
+
+=Muslin.= A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally made in Mosul,
+a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.
+
+=Nainsook.= Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized for various
+purposes, such as infants' clothes, women's dress goods, lingerie,
+half curtains, etc. The striped and plaid nainsook are used for the
+same purposes. When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants'
+clothes the English fabric is selected because of its softness. When
+intended for dress or curtain fabric, the French-finished fabric is
+chosen. The latter finish consists of slightly stiffening and
+calendering the cloth. The fabric may be distinguished from fine
+lawns, fine batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not as
+firm construction or as much body, and the finish is not as smooth or
+as stiff, but inclines to softness, as the fabric has not the body to
+retain the finishing material.
+
+=Organdie.= An organdie may be defined as a fine, translucent muslin
+used exclusively for dress goods. The fabric is made in a variety of
+qualities as regards the counts of yarn used, and in a variety of
+widths ranging from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is
+popular in pure white, although considerable quantities are dyed in
+the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while the figured organdies
+are usually bleached pure white, then printed with small floral
+designs. The printed design is in from two to four colors, and in
+delicate shades in conformity with the material. Organdie considered
+in relation to cost as wearing material is rather expensive. The
+reason for this is that it has a finish peculiar to itself, so that
+when washed it does not have the same appearance as before. It loses
+its crisp feeling altogether.
+
+=Osnaburg.= A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in America of cotton,
+in checks or plaids, and used for furniture covering and mattress
+making. The town of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.
+
+=Percale.= Percale is a closely woven fabric made with a good quality
+of cotton yarn. The finer qualities are used for handkerchiefs,
+aprons, etc., and when used for these purposes are not printed, but
+bleached after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly used
+for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is generally printed
+on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, although other
+colors may be seen. The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to
+the printing operations.
+
+=Percaline.= Percaline is a highly finished and dressed percale. The
+first process to which the cloth is subjected is to boil it off, that
+is, to soak it in boiling water so as to relieve it from foreign
+matter that it may have gathered during the weaving, and at the same
+time to prepare it for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it,
+and also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it is ready
+for the calender. In order to give it the highest gloss the cloth is
+doubled lengthwise or the pieces are put together back to back, and as
+it passes through the rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well
+heated and tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for
+feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petticoats, etc.
+These purposes require that the cloth shall be solid color, the darker
+colors being preferred, as blue, green, and black. Sometimes it is
+seen in lighter shades of brown and tan. The most attention is given
+to the finishing process.
+
+=Piqu�.= Piqu� is a heavy cotton material woven in corded or figured
+effects. The goods are used for such purposes as ladies' tailor-made
+suits, vestings, shirt fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It
+was originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate quilting.
+The name is French for quilting. The plainest and most common fabrics
+of piqu� are those in which the pattern consists of straight cords
+extending across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the
+construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp are required,
+and the cords are produced by all the back warp threads being raised
+at intervals of six, eight, or more picks over two or more picks of
+the face cloth, which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of
+the fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors are ever
+used. The face warp threads are generally finer than the back warp
+threads, and are in the proportion of two threads for the face and one
+thread for the back. On the heavier and better grades of piqu� coarse
+picks called wadding are used to increase the weight, and also to give
+more prominence to the cord effect. They are introduced between the
+face and back cloths. In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any
+wadding nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp threads
+float on the back of the fabric except when raising over the face
+picks to form the cord. In the figured piqu� the binding of the back
+warp threads into the face cloth is not done in straight lines as in
+plain piqu�, but the binding points are introduced so as to form
+figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and the figures are
+purely the result of binding the face and back cloths together.
+
+=Poplin.= Poplin or popeline is a name given to a class of goods
+distinguished by a rib or cord effect running width way of the piece.
+It referred originally to a fabric having a silk warp and a figure of
+wool filling heavier than the warp. At the present time it refers more
+to a ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular combination of
+materials. Cotton poplin is usually made with a plain weave, the rep
+effect being obtained either by using a fine warp as compared with the
+filling, or a large number of ends as compared with picks per inch on
+both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of poplin, sometimes
+called single poplin, and is celebrated for its uniformly fine and
+excellent wearing qualities. It is principally made in Dublin.
+
+=Plumetis.= Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having raised dots or figures
+in relief on plain ground. The design shows a feathery effect, as in
+embroidery tambour. The name is French for this kind of embroidery,
+and is derived from _plume_, French for feather.
+
+=Rep.= A fabric having a surface of a cord-like appearance. The name
+is probably corrupted from rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and
+skirts.
+
+=Sateen.= Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished to imitate
+silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp sateen and filling sateen.
+
+=Scrim.= Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains and linings.
+The name is from scrimp, referring to economy in weaving.
+
+=Silesia= is a light-weight single cloth fabric, having a rather high
+texture, and weighing about three ounces per yard. It is composed of
+all cotton yarn, and is used principally as a lining for ladies' and
+men's clothing. Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is
+dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue, brown, drab,
+slate, steel, etc. An important feature is the highly glazed or
+polished face of the goods, which is due to the action of the heated
+roller in the calendering machine upon the sizing.
+
+=Souffle.= The largest designs of crepon show a raised or puffed
+appearance. Souffle is from the French and means puffed.
+
+=Swiss.= From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net and figured
+cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall district.
+
+=Tape.= Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of cotton or linen
+yarns in warp and filling, and usually made with a point or broken
+twill weave, the break in the weave occurring in the center of the
+tape, and the twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction.
+It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing, also as a
+binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by the roll, each roll
+containing a certain number of yards. It is made of all bleached and
+of regular yarns about 1/26's to 1/30's and 1/40's cotton.
+
+=Tarletan.= An open mesh of coarse cotton, used mostly in fruit
+packing, sometimes for dress and drapery. The name is from
+_tarlantanna_, Milanese for coarse weave of linen and wool.
+
+=Terry Cloth or Turkish Toweling= is a cotton pile fabric. It is woven
+in such a way as to permit the forming of a series of loops on each
+side of the cloth in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece
+is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods are dried on
+a tenter frame, given a light starching to add weight, run through a
+rubber rolled mangle and again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is
+used in the manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turkish
+toweling is the original terry. The name is from the French _tirer_,
+to draw or pull.
+
+=Zephyr Gingham= is the finest grade of gingham made and is a
+light-weight cotton fabric, composed of 1/40's to 1/60's cotton warp
+and filling yarns. It is woven with either the plain weave or a small
+all-over dobby effect. It is made in attractive patterns by using good
+fast colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent wearing
+qualities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] This information is from the leading authority, "The Cotton
+Fabrics Glossary," published by the _American Wool and Cotton
+Reporter_, Boston, Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness
+of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.
+
+[17] 1/12's cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12's. 2/12's cotton
+signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12's twisted together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FLAX
+
+
+=Flax.= Flax or linen occupies the first position in the group of stem
+fibers,[18] being not only the oldest, but next to cotton the most
+important vegetable spinning material known. Its value is increased by
+the fact that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various
+conditions of soil and climate, and in consequence has gained access
+to northerly districts and cool highlands. Although flax has lost some
+of its importance from the successful competition of cotton,
+nevertheless it still forms one of the chief articles of an industry
+which merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and proves
+highly profitable.
+
+=The Physical Structure of Flax.= Flax, when seen under the
+microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube of uniform thickness,
+with lumina so small as to be visible only as straight black lines
+lengthwise of the fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse
+cracks. It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies from
+pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. The difference in color
+is due chiefly to the process of "retting." Its average length is
+about twenty inches, and its tensile strength is superior to that of
+cotton. It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the standard
+allowance made.
+
+Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn, twist, string
+fabric, and lace. In its composition it is almost purely an
+unlignified cellulose, and its specific gravity is 1.5.
+
+Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence linen goods
+always feel colder than cotton goods.
+
+Russia produces more than one-half the world's supply of flax, but
+that from Belgium and Ireland is of the best quality. Italy, France,
+Holland, and Egypt are other important producers. The plant is an
+annual, of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is ripe,
+the proper time being indicated by the changing of the color from
+green to brown. At the time of gathering the whole plant is uprooted,
+dried on the ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate
+the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.
+
+The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the stalk. To separate
+this valuable commercial product from the woody matter the stalks are
+first subjected to a process termed retting, which is steeping them in
+water until they are quite soft. Then follow the mechanical processes
+to further the production of the fiber and free it from all useless
+matter.
+
+These are as follows:
+
+1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breaking the woody matter
+with the aid of mallets or in stamping mills.
+
+2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a series of horizontal
+rollers to break further the woody matter and at the same time
+separate the greater part of it from the fiber.
+
+3. Scutching. The object of this process is to remove completely the
+woody matter, and it is done by means of rapidly revolving wooden arms
+or blades, which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently
+cleaned and separated.
+
+4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through iron combs which still
+further open the fiber. Fineness of fiber depends upon the number of
+times it is hackled, each time with a finer and finer instrument,
+which secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the fibers
+are sorted and classified as to length and quality and laid in
+parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture into linen.
+
+[Illustration: PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA]
+
+=Bleaching.= Linen is bleached in the form of yarn, thread, and
+cloth. This is a difficult and long process owing to the large amount
+of natural impurities present in flax fiber, and the difficulty of
+removing or dissolving them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by
+chemical processes, and when chemicals are used great care must be
+taken about their strength and about the time the cloth is allowed to
+remain in them. In olden times sour buttermilk was applied to linen
+and rubbed in, and then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and
+rain. "Unbleached" linen is treated in the same way as bleached, only
+the process is not carried to such an extent. In Ireland, famous for
+its bleaching, chemicals are used in the earlier stages of this
+process, and then fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve
+their color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals used. After
+bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched, and put through heavy
+machines to give it a glossy finish, and it is then made up in pieces
+for sale.
+
+=Characteristics of Good Linen.= Linen is noted for its smoothness of
+texture, its brilliancy--which laundering increases--its wearing
+qualities, and its exquisite freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is
+the most valuable staple in the market, and on account of its fineness
+and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains an
+unapproachable excellence because the best processes are used
+throughout the entire manufacture. Linen is less elastic and pliable
+than cotton and bleaches and dyes readily.
+
+Flax from all countries is woven into table linen, though very fine
+linen must have carefully prepared fiber. Linen should be soft,
+yielding, and elastic, with almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen
+does not always determine good wearing qualities.
+
+Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00. Irish linen has a
+good bleach. French and Belgian linens, while fine in thread, are not
+as serviceable as Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but
+not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now used more than
+other kinds.
+
+[Illustration: STACKS OF FLAX IN BELGIUM
+
+Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.]
+
+
+_Sources of Flax_
+
+  Russia,
+  Holland,
+  Belgium,
+  Germany,
+  Ireland,
+  Canada,
+  U. S. (for seed only).
+
+
+_Sources of Manufactured Linens_
+
+  Scotland,
+  Ireland,
+  Germany,
+  Austria,
+  Belgium,
+  France,
+  Russia,
+  United States.
+
+
+MANUFACTURED LINENS
+
+  _Damasks and Napkins_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    Belgium.
+
+  _Towelings_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    United States,
+    Russia.
+
+  _Glass Checks_
+    Ireland.
+
+  _Canvas_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland.
+
+  _Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces_
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    France.
+
+  _Towels_
+    Germany,
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Austria,
+    U. S. (union).
+
+  _Linen Sheetings_
+    Ireland,
+    Belgium,
+    France,
+    Scotland.
+
+  _Blouse or Dress Linens_
+    Ireland,
+    Scotland.
+
+  _Bleached Waist Linens_
+    Ireland,
+    France,
+    Belgium.
+
+  _Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc._
+    Germany,
+    France,
+    Japan,
+    Madeira Islands,
+    Island of Teneriffe.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[18] The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers,
+and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be
+taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are
+severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and
+forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HEMP
+
+
+[Illustration: LOADING HEMP IN MANILA]
+
+=Hemp= is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant. It grows
+principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy, Asia, India, the
+Philippines, Japan, and some parts of the United States--Kentucky,
+Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country
+of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that part near the
+Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment is similar to that for the flax
+plant, except that most of the work is done by machinery. Considered
+chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains a
+considerable amount of woody matter, differing in this respect from
+cotton. Its properties are color (pearl gray, with green or yellow
+tints), fineness (which depends upon the quality of the hemp; it is
+usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile strength (which is
+considerable and greater than that of flax). Its best qualities are
+its slight luster and its ability to resist to a great extent the
+tendency to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is difficult to
+bleach, it is used chiefly in making string, cord, ropes, etc.
+
+=Sisal Hemp.= Sisal hemp is a variety that grows extensively in
+Central America and the West Indies. The plant, the _agava rigida_, is
+similar to what is known in this country as the century plant. The
+fiber is found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks. The
+common hemp on the other hand is found closely surrounding the woody
+part of the stem. The fiber of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away
+the fleshy part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by machines.
+
+=Manila Hemp.= Manila hemp is obtained in the Philippines. The plant
+belongs to the banana family and grows as large as a small tree. The
+hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the trunk
+of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but stronger than
+Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp is the strongest; that of
+Italian hemp the finest.
+
+[Illustration: FIELD OF SISAL HEMP]
+
+=Jute.= Jute is the name given to the fibers found in certain plants
+which grow principally in India, and the East Indian Islands. The
+common jute comes principally from the province of Bengal, India,
+where it was first known to science in 1725. The term jute was first
+applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The plant is cut just
+about the time when it appears in full flower. The stalks are then
+bundled and retted by steeping in pools of stagnant water.
+
+Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable fibers in the
+manufacturing scale, being inferior to cotton and flax. Hemp is
+stronger than jute. Jute becomes weak when exposed to dampness.
+
+It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton, flax, hemp, and
+woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties are made into coarse
+fabrics--sacks, packing cloth, etc., while the finer varieties, in
+which the undesirable quality of growing darker with age is less
+apparent, are used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes,
+for which they are very suitable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SILK
+
+
+=Silk.= The silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of several
+species of insects. These insects resemble strongly the ordinary
+caterpillars. At a certain period of its existence the silkworm gives
+off a secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on exposure to
+the air as the worm forces it out and winds it about its body.
+
+[Illustration: MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS]
+
+It takes about three days for the worm to form the cocoon. After the
+cocoon has been formed the silkworm passes from the form of a
+caterpillar into a moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and
+flies away. It is very important that the moth should not be allowed
+to escape from the cocoon; the mere breaking of the cocoon greatly
+decreases the value of the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing
+the chrysalis by heat.
+
+There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but few of them
+secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render them of commercial
+value. The principal species is the mulberry silkworm which produces
+most of the silk in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry
+leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are not capable of
+being cultivated and are called wild silkworms. The silk produced by
+the wild worms of China and India is called "tussah" (or "tussur").
+The silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms and is
+used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet, plush, etc.
+
+The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of the European cocoons
+are bright yellow, though some are white. The Eastern cocoons, on the
+other hand, are mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks
+are for the most part �cru color, though some are pale green. The
+color, except in the wild silks, is derived from the gum which is
+secreted by the worm, and with which the fibers are stuck together.
+This gum comprises from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is removed
+by boiling in soap and water before the silk is dyed. All silks except
+the wild silks, after the gum is removed, are from white to cream in
+color. The tussah, or wild silks, remain an �cru color.
+
+[Illustration: REELING RAW SILK]
+
+The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in the care of the
+moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons--this being the succession of
+changes. That is, the moth lays eggs which are collected and kept cool
+till the proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm during
+the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about the person of the
+raiser. After a time these eggs hatch out worms, tiny things hardly
+larger than the head of a pin. After the worms are hatched they
+require constant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves till
+they reach maturity. They are then about three inches in length, and
+spin their cocoons from a fiber and gum which they secrete. When the
+cocoons are spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them. The
+cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises killed, generally by
+heat, before they can again become moths.
+
+=Raw Silk.= The cocoons are next sent to the reelers or filatures. A
+number of cocoons, greater or less, according to the size of thread
+desired, are placed in a basin of hot water, which softens the gum.
+After the outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free, the
+ends are collected through a guide and are wound upon a reel. As the
+silk cools and dries, the gum hardens, sticking the fibers from the
+different cocoons together in one smooth thread varying in size
+according to the number of cocoons used. After the silk has been
+reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks and sent to America and
+other countries as raw silk.
+
+Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in China, Japan, and
+Italy. It is also produced to a large extent in Italy, Turkey, and
+Greece, also France and Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only
+carried on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government to
+the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.
+
+Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms in the United
+States. All have failed on account of the high price of labor
+necessary to feed the worms.
+
+=Throwing.= The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk.
+We import our raw silk chiefly from Italy, China, and Japan. It is
+handled here first by the "throwster," who winds it from the skein and
+makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.
+
+Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and called singles is
+often used to make warps (that is, the threads running lengthwise of a
+piece of cloth) for piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the
+gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed. Singles are also
+sometimes used for filling (that is, cross threads) in very thin
+fabrics.
+
+Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two kinds, "tram"
+and "organzine." Tram silk is made by twisting two or more loosely
+twisted threads. It is heavier than organzine and is used for filling.
+Organzine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly twisted
+threads. It is used for warp. Cr�pe yarn is used in making cr�pe,
+chiffon, and for other purposes. It is very hard twisted thread,
+generally tram, from forty to eighty turns per inch.
+
+Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk, putting a large
+number of ends together, giving them a slack twist, then doubling and
+twisting in the reverse direction with a slack twist.
+
+Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the raw product, then
+twisting into tram, giving it a slack twist, doubling and twisting in
+the reverse direction under tension. Machine twist is similar, but
+three ply.
+
+The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin, plush, chenille,
+cr�pe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade, pongee, and ribbons. Silk
+thread and cord are also extensively used. The United States is among
+the leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.
+
+=Silk Waste.= When the cocoons are softened for reeling a certain
+portion of the silk is found to consist of waste and broken threads.
+The tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss. The
+residue after reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as
+frisonnets. Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack twisted
+tram, generally composed of a large number of threads of singles.
+
+=Spun Silk.= There is another class of threads made from waste silk by
+spinning and known as spun silk. Waste silks include the pierced
+cocoons, that is, those from which the moth has come out by making the
+hole and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the waste made
+in the filatures in producing raw or reeled silk, chiefly the outside
+fiber of the cocoon and the inside next the chrysalis; and also the
+waste made in manufacture. The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the
+gum is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by macerating or
+retting, or by chemical reagents.
+
+After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are opened and combed,
+most of the chrysalis shell being removed. The remainder, with other
+foreign matter, is picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk
+is put through a number of drawing frames to get the fibers even on
+the roving frames, where it first takes the form of thread, then on
+the spinning frames, where it is twisted. If it is to be used as
+singles, the manufacture ends here. In two- or three-ply yarns, the
+singles are doubled, twisted again, singed by running through a gas
+flame, cleaned by friction, controlled, that is, the knots and lumps
+taken out, and then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.
+
+=Spun Numbers.= There are two methods in general use for numbering
+spun silk. In the French system, the number is based on the singles,
+by the meters per kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half,
+one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate. Thus--
+
+  No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.
+  No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.
+  No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.
+
+The other system which is more generally used in this country, is the
+English system. The hank is 840 yards, and the number of hanks in one
+pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. It is based on the
+finished yarn, and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number
+all have the same yards per pound. Thus--
+
+  No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.
+  No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.
+  No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.
+
+=Dyeing Yarns.= Generally speaking there are two large classes into
+which silk goods may be divided, those in which the threads are
+colored before weaving and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or
+printed after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods. In
+dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned by boiling in
+soap and water, then washed in cold water. If the thread is to be
+weighted, as is frequently done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy
+material is deposited on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious,
+making the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more weighting
+than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hot liquors, aniline colors
+being the ones in most common use to-day, though other dyes are used
+for special purposes. Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some with a
+part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are washed in cold water,
+dried, and wound on spools.
+
+=Silk Dyeing.= Silk occupies in several respects an intermediate
+position between the animal and vegetable fibers. Like wool, it is a
+highly nitrogenous body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up
+many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable fiber by the aid
+of the mordants. This is particularly the case with reference to a
+large number of aniline colors, which require merely to be dissolved
+and mixed with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great
+attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing
+exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and especially black,
+are in many cases exceedingly complex, the main object of the dyer
+being not so much to color the silk as to increase its weight.
+
+Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most important branch of
+silk dyeing, and it has probably received more attention than any
+other branch, in consequence of which it has been brought to a high
+degree of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from natural
+and artificial coloring matters, the former having, so far, retained
+their pre-eminence despite the recent discoveries of chemists. For
+various reasons coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing
+black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood blacks have
+formed the staple of the black-silk dyer, who has carried their
+production to a high degree of excellence. But unfortunately, besides
+aiming at a high state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation,
+the black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight of the
+dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him to receive ten
+pounds of raw silk and to send out fifty pounds of black silk, the
+extra forty pounds being additions made in the process of dyeing.
+
+[Illustration: WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS]
+
+Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of alternate dippings
+in separate baths with the mordant and dyestuffs suitable for
+producing the required color and weight. The number of dippings and
+the length of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity of
+the black wanted and the amount of weighting which is desired. The
+chief substances used for weighting are lead salts, catechu, iron, and
+nut-galls, with soap and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of
+the fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of the
+operations are practically the same for all kinds of logwood blacks
+(raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.), the method for producing one
+will suffice for all. The process involves several distinct
+operations, as follows:
+
+1. =The Boiling Off.= This is the removal of the gum and natural
+coloring matter in the silk. It is accomplished by boiling the skeins
+of silk in water and good olive oil soap for about one hour. This
+dissolves the gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.
+
+2. =Mordanting.= This is done in a bath of nitrate of iron, in which
+the skeins of silk are allowed to remain one hour. The silk gains some
+in weight in this operation by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the
+bath. After having been dipped in the first bath three or four times,
+it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which it is repeatedly
+immersed, the operation causing a deposit of iron-soap on the fiber
+which adds to its weight, but at the same time does not lessen its
+flexibility and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap bath
+increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.
+
+3. =Blue Bottoming.= The next operation is to dye the silk blue, which
+is done by immersing it in a solution of potash. In this it is worked
+for half an hour, when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then
+taken out, and after rinsing is ready for the "weighting" operations.
+
+4. ="Weighting" Bath.= A catechu bath is now prepared, in which the
+silk is entered and worked for an hour, and then allowed to steep over
+night. The result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and the
+goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase in weight from
+35 to 40 per cent. This bath is the most important one in the dyeing
+of "weighted" black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of
+the bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase the weight
+of the silk to an astonishing degree. The proportion of tin crystals
+used is regulated by the number of iron baths that have previously
+been given the silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent
+of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and so on. The
+action of these chemicals is somewhat complex. All that is known is
+that by reason of some peculiar quality possessed by silk it is
+enabled to combine with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air
+after the baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers,
+thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent. Silk,
+according to its quality and weight, will take up of these substances
+from 50 to 200 per cent without creating much suspicion. Instances
+have been known in which silk has been increased nine times its own
+weight. All the operations thus far have had for their object the
+weighting of the silk, although the blueing and the catechu baths have
+some influence on the finished result. After these come the dyeing
+operations proper, two in number, mordanting and dyeing.
+
+5. =Mordanting.= A bath of iron liquor heated to 130 degrees F. is
+provided. The silk is entered, worked well for one hour, then wrung
+out and hung up to "age" for two hours, after which it is ready for
+the logwood dye.
+
+6. =Dyeing.= A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to which is added 10
+per cent of fustic, and the solution is brought to a temperature of
+150 degrees F. In this the silk is entered and worked for an hour,
+then taken out and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come up
+full enough, and in such cases the bath is repeated.
+
+7. The final operation has for its object the restoration of the
+luster and suppleness of the silk, which has to some extent
+deteriorated from the many operations through which it has passed. The
+brightening and softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the
+silk in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In this the
+silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated with the oil, when
+it is taken out and wrung dry, after which it is ready for the loom.
+Practically the same process is followed in piece dyeing, though only
+inferior grades of silk are dyed in the web.
+
+=Colored Silks.= This class of silks is generally purer than black and
+sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so easy to weight the former as
+the latter, for the reason that there are but few substances capable
+of giving weight which do not interfere with the effect of light
+colored dyes. The weighting agents most generally used are sugar and
+acetate of lead. The weighting by sugar is done after the silk is
+dyed. A solution is made of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large
+copper pan with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath the
+silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and finished; or, the
+dipping process may be repeated several times if desired. One dipping
+will weight the silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and
+three about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each
+dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these may be
+repeated as often as it is wished. In this case the weighting is
+generally done on the undyed, boiled-off silk, although it may be done
+on the dyed silk if the color is such as will stand the acid.
+
+=Mixed Silk Fabrics.= Until lately silk was invariably dyed in the
+state of yarn. When the silk was to be woven into mixed fabrics, such
+as satin, gloria, etc., it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly
+the same shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the cotton and
+silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken to match them as closely
+as possible. The weaving of dyed yarns of different fibers is open to
+the objection that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a
+wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they may have
+matched in the beginning.
+
+=Ribbons.= Ribbons are woven several pieces in one loom, with a
+separate shuttle for each piece. The shuttle is carried through the
+shed or warp by a rack and pinion, instead of being thrown through as
+in broad goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.
+
+=Velvets.= Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven in two pieces,
+one over the other, with the pile threads woven back and forth between
+them. A knife travels between the two pieces cutting the pile threads
+so as to leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to be woven
+over wires and cut by hand, but this method is practically obsolete.
+
+=Piece Dyeing.= If the goods are woven with the gum still in the silk,
+it must be taken out afterward, and the goods either dyed in the piece
+or prepared for printing.
+
+=Printing.= The most primitive method of printing is by the use of
+stencils. It is the method employed by the Japanese and Chinese. Next
+came block printing, which is still extensively used in Europe. The
+pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color taken up from
+pads, one block for each color. The results are good, but the work is
+very slow. Most silk goods are to-day machine printed. The design is
+engraved or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for each color;
+the color thickened with gum is supplied by rolls running against the
+cylinders, and the surplus is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving
+only that in the engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After
+printing, the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then washed in
+order to remove the gum used to thicken the colors for printing.
+
+[Illustration: JACQUARD SILK LOOM]
+
+=Finishing.= All silk goods, whether yarn dyed or piece dyed or
+printed, are given some kind of finish; sometimes it is no more than
+is necessary to smooth out the wrinkles. There are many finishing
+processes by which goods may be treated. They are run through gas
+flames to singe off loose fiber, and over steam cylinders to dry and
+straighten them, over a great variety of sizing machines to stiffen
+them with starch or glue. There are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth
+and iron them, steam presses of great power to press them out,
+breaking and rubbing machines to soften them, and tentering machines
+to stretch them to uniform width. There are also moireing or watering,
+embossing, and various other machines for special purposes.
+
+=Waterproofing.= One of the worst difficulties with which the
+manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk goods has to contend is
+the ease with which they become spotted with water, and for a number
+of years many people have tried to prevent this by various processes.
+There are no less than two hundred such processes patented. None of
+them have met with much success, as they injured the feel or strength
+of the goods. After goods are finished they are carefully inspected
+for imperfections, measured, and wrapped in paper and packed in cases
+for shipment. The complexity and number of processes for treating silk
+goods may be realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed fabric
+is handled its entire length between fifty and one hundred times after
+it comes from the loom, sometimes even more.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS
+
+
+=Alma.= Cloth, double twilled from left to right diagonally, first
+made in black only as a mourning fabric. The name is from the
+Egyptian, as applied to a mourner or a singer at a funeral.
+
+=Bar�ge.= Sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling, named from the
+town of Bar�ges, in France.
+
+=Bengaline.= An imitation of an old silk fabric made for many
+centuries in Bengal, India, whence the name. The weave is similar to
+that of ordinary rep or poplin, being a simple round-corded effect.
+The cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen weft which is
+so closely covered by the silk warp threads that it is not exposed
+when examined from the wrong side. The same weave is also found in
+all-silk goods, under the designation of all-silk bengaline. When
+cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool the fabric is
+known as cotton bengaline, although the cotton is in the filling only.
+
+=Berber.= Satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth. It came into favor
+about the time of the defeat of the Berbers by General Gordon in his
+campaign against the Mahdi in North Africa.
+
+=Brocade.= Raised figures on a plain ground.
+
+=Brocatel.= A kind of brocade used for draperies and upholstery;
+usually raised wool figures on a silk ground.
+
+=Bombazine.= Silk warp, wool weft, fine twilled cloth; originally made
+in black only for mourning. It is used largely for mourning hat bands.
+The root of the name is _bombyx_, the Latin for silkworm.
+
+=Chenille.= Cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face; woven of cotton, silk, or
+wool; used sometimes for dress goods; more generally for curtains and
+table covers. _Chenille_ is the French word for caterpillar, which the
+single thread of the cloth resembles.
+
+=Chiffon.= A thin, transparent silk muslin. Although one of the
+thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics, it is relatively strong
+considering its lightness. To convey an idea of the fineness of the
+thread used in its manufacture, it is stated that one pound of it will
+extend a distance of eight miles. In the process of finishing the
+fabric receives a dressing of pure "size." There are two styles of
+finish, called respectively the demi- or half size and the full size.
+Chiffon finished by full sizing is comparatively stiff; while the
+demi-finish produces a softer and lighter texture. It is dyed in a
+great variety of colors, and sometimes is printed in delicate
+patterns. It is especially adapted for home and evening wear, and is
+used for neck and sleeve trimming, drapery over silk foundations,
+fancy work, and millinery.
+
+=China Silk.= A term applied to plain woven silks manufactured in
+China. The term China silk has been adopted in the United States in
+recent years for a class of machine-woven silks made in imitation of
+the hand-loom product. These imitations are narrow in width and lack
+the soft, lustrous quality of Eastern fabrics, and are also free from
+the uneven threads. China silks are distinguished by their irregular
+threads, caused by some of the threads being heavier than others, and
+their extreme softness.
+
+The warp and filling are identical in size and color, and being woven
+evenly produce a beautiful natural luster. It is generally plain
+color, although the figured goods are printed in much the same manner
+as calico. It is used for gowns, waists, underclothing, etc. It
+launders as well as white cotton.
+
+=Cr�pe.= A thin, gauzy fabric, woven in loose even threads of silk,
+heavily sized or gummed, crimped or cr�ped in the dyeing. Cr�pe was
+first used in black only as a badge of mourning. It is now an accepted
+dress fabric, made in colors and white and of many materials. The name
+signifies to crimp or cr�pe with a hot iron.
+
+=Cr�pe de Chine.= A soft, lustrous silk cr�pe, the surface of which is
+smoother than that of the ordinary varieties. It is woven as a plain
+weave with part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest left
+twisted. It is dyed almost any color and figured or printed.
+
+=Eolienne.= Sheer cloth of silk, silk and wool, or silk and cotton,
+woven in fine card effect. The name comes from the Greek �olus, god of
+the winds.
+
+=Foulard.= Plain silk cloth, sold as dress goods; originally made for
+handkerchiefs only. The name is French for silk handkerchief.
+
+=Glac�.= Plain, lustrous silk, yarn dyed, with warp of one color, and
+weft of another. The name is applied to all fabrics having two tones.
+Glac� is French for icy, having an icy appearance.
+
+=India Silk.= A name applied to the plain woven silks manufactured in
+India on the primitive hand looms. The warp and weft are woven evenly
+and produce a beautiful natural luster. It is similar to China and
+Japanese silk. In fact most of these fabrics come from China and
+Japan, India silk being almost unknown in this country as so little of
+it is exported. The durability of these silks is about the same, and
+there is little difference in the prices.
+
+=Japanese Silk.= A term applied to the plain woven silk manufactured
+in Japan. The warp and filling of this fabric are identical in size
+and color, and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster.
+The weave is smooth and soft in quality. It is dyed in plain colors.
+The figured goods are printed in much the same way as calico. It is
+used for waists, gowns, and fancy underwear.
+
+=Jersey Cloth.= Silk jersey cloth is popular at present. It is a
+knitted silk fabric, not woven, and is generally dyed in plain colors.
+It is expensive and is used for women's dresses, wraps, and silk
+gloves.
+
+=Meteor.= Cr�pe de meteor was originally a trade name for cr�pe de
+chine, but now applied to a fabric which is distinguishable from cr�pe
+de chine.
+
+=Moire.= Moire is a waved or watered effect produced upon the surface
+of various kinds of textile fabrics, especially on grosgrain silk and
+woolen moreen. This watered effect is produced by the use of engraved
+rollers and high pressure on carded material. The object of developing
+upon woven textiles the effect known as moire is the production of a
+peculiar luster resulting from the divergent reflection of the light
+rays on the material, a divergence brought about by compressing and
+flattening the warp and filling threads in places, and so producing a
+surface the different parts of which reflect the light differently.
+The moire effect may be obtained on silk, worsted, or cotton fabrics,
+though it is impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine
+corded weave. The pressure applied to the material being uneven, the
+grained surface is flattened in the parts desired. In the Middle Ages
+moire was held in high esteem, and continues to enjoy that distinction
+down to the present day. It is used for women's dresses, capes, and
+for facings, trimmings, etc.
+
+=Mozambique.= Grenadines, with large colored flower designs in relief.
+
+=Organzine.= Silk fabric, made with warp and filling of the same size.
+Organzine is the name given the twisted silk thread in Italy, where it
+is made.
+
+=Panne.= This name is applied to a range of satin-faced velvet or silk
+fabrics which show a high luster produced by pressure. The word
+_panne_ is the French for plush.
+
+=Peau de Soie.= Literally, skin of silk. A variety of heavy,
+soft-finished, plain-colored dress silk, woven with a pattern of fine
+close ribs extending weftwise of the fabric. An eight-shaft satin with
+one point added to the original spots on the right or left, imparting
+to the fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. The best grades of peau de
+soie present the same appearance on both sides, being reversible. The
+lower grades are finished on one side only.
+
+=Plush.= Long piled fabric of the velvet order. _Peluch�_, the origin
+of the name, is French for shaggy.
+
+=Pongee.= Said to be a corruption of Chinese _punchi_, signifying home
+made or home woven. Another suggestion is that the word is a
+corruption of _pun-shih_, a native or wild silk. A soft, unbleached,
+washable silk, woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm, which
+feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. Immense quantities in a raw
+state are annually shipped from China to this country and Europe,
+where they are bleached, dyed, and ornamented with various styles of
+designs. The name is also applied to a variety of dress goods woven
+with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft.
+
+=Popeline.= A French name. The French fabric is said to have been
+first introduced during the early part of the sixteenth century at
+Avignon, then a papal diocese, and to have been so called in
+compliment to the reigning pope. A fabric constructed with a silk warp
+and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it a corded
+surface. Poplin manufacture was introduced into Ireland in 1693 by a
+colony of fugitive French Huguenots. The industry concentrated at
+Dublin, where it has since remained. The Irish product has been
+celebrated for its uniformly fine quality. It is always woven on hand
+looms, which accounts for the high price it commands in English and
+American markets. The wool used is a fine grade of Cape or Australian,
+which is the most suitable in texture and length of fiber. The silk is
+unweighted Chinese organzine. The result is a rich, handsome fabric
+resembling whole silk goods in appearance, but inferior to them in
+durability and produced at a much less cost. It is used for ladies'
+waists, wraps, and gowns.
+
+=Figured Poplin.= A stout variety, ornamented in the loom with
+figures. The ground is composed of clear, sharp cords extending across
+the web. It is sometimes woven entirely of silk, but oftener of silk
+and wool. Used for high-class upholstery purposes, and for curtains
+and hangings.
+
+=Terry Poplin.= A silk and wool dress fabric in the construction of
+which the alternate warps are thrown upon the surface in the form of
+minute loops.
+
+=Sarsenet.= A thin, soft-finished silk fabric of a veiling kind, now
+used as millinery lining. The name comes from the Arab Saracens, who
+wore it in their head-dress.
+
+=Satin.= When satin first appeared in trade in Southern Europe it was
+called _aceytuin_. The term slipped through early Italian lips into
+_zetain_, and coming westward the _i_ was dropped, and smoothed itself
+into satin. There is evidence that the material was known as early as
+the fourteenth century in England, and probably in France and Spain
+previous to that time, though under other names.
+
+In the weaving of most silk fabrics the warp and filling intersect
+each other every alternate time (as in plain weaving), or every third
+or fourth time (as in ordinary twill weaving) in regular order; but in
+weaving satin the fine silk warp only appears upon the surface, the
+filling being effectually covered up and hidden. Instead of making the
+warp pass under and over the filling every alternate time, or over two
+or three filling threads in regular order, it is made to pass over
+eight, ten, twelve or more filling threads; then under one and over
+eight more, and so on. In passing over the filling, however, the warps
+do not interweave at regular intervals, which would produce a twill,
+but at irregular intervals, thus producing an even, close, smooth
+surface, and one capable of reflecting the light to the best
+advantage. The filling of low grade satin is generally cotton, while
+in the better goods it is silk. Common satin is what is technically
+known as an eight-leaf twill, the order in which the filling thread
+rises being once in eight times. Rich satins may consist of
+sixteen-leaf to twenty-leaf twills. The cheap qualities of cotton-back
+satin, particularly those that sell at wholesale for fifty cents and
+under, are not made to any extent in this country, our manufacturers
+being unable to compete with foreign mills in these lines.
+
+Satins are woven with the face downward, because in weaving, say a
+sixteen-leaf satin, it would be necessary, were the surface upward, to
+keep fifteen heddles raised and one down, whereas with the face of
+the cloth under, only one heddle has to be raised at a time. When
+first taken from the loom the face of satin is somewhat flossy and
+rough, and hence requires to be dressed. This operation consists of
+passing the pieces over heated metal cylinders which remove the minute
+fibrous ends, and also increase the natural brilliance of the silk.
+Cotton-back satins are used by coffin manufacturers, fancy box makers,
+fan makers, and by the cutting-up trade. Rich satins are used in
+making ladies' gowns and waists.
+
+=Soleil.= Satin-faced cloth, woven with a fine line, a stripe running
+lengthwise of the piece. It is usually made in solid colors and piece
+dyed. _Soleil_ is French for sun, and applies to the brightness of the
+finished cloth.
+
+=Taffeta.= Derived from Persian _taftah_. Taffeta is one of the oldest
+weaves known, silk under this name having been in constant use since
+the fourteenth century. During this long period the term has been
+applied at different times to different materials. It is a thin,
+glossy silk of plain texture or woven in lines so fine as to appear
+plain woven. The weave is capable of many effects in the way of shot
+and changeable arrangements, which are produced by threads of
+different colors rather than by any special disposition of warp and
+filling. Taffeta has the same appearance on both sides. It is piece
+dyed in numberless plain colors, and also produced in a great variety
+of ornamental patterns, such as fancy plaids, cords, and stripes (both
+printed and woven). The following considerations contribute chiefly
+to the perfection of taffetas, viz.: the silk, the water, and the
+fire. The silk must not only be of the finest kind, but it must be
+worked a long time before it is used. The watering, which is given
+lightly by any acidulous fluid, is intended to produce the fine
+luster, and lastly, the fire and pressure which have a particular
+manner of application. Its wearing qualities are not of the best. The
+cloth cracks or breaks, especially if plaited. It is used for gowns,
+shirtwaists, linings, petticoats, etc.
+
+=Tulle.= Openwork silk net; made on the pillow as lace by young women
+of Tulle, France.
+
+=Velour.= French for velvet. A trade term of somewhat loose
+application, being used indiscriminately to describe a great variety
+of textures so constructed or finished as to present a velvet-like
+surface. It is usually a velvety fabric made of coarse wool yarn and
+silk. Velour is woven with a coarse stiff pile after the manner of
+plush; while at present it is made of jute, cotton, and worsted, it
+was originally constructed of linen. It is produced in numberless
+forms, both plain and in fancy effects.
+
+=Velvet.= From the Italian _velluto_, feeling woolly to the touch, as
+a woolly pelt or hide. Fine velvet is made wholly of silk.
+
+=Velveteen.= An imitation velvet, made of cotton, usually with plain
+back, not twilled, as silk velvet.
+
+=Tabby Velvet.= The lowest grade of cotton velvet, used for covering
+cheap coffin lining cases, sold by the inch in widths which range from
+sixteen to thirty-two inches. Originally made in Bagdad for wall
+covering, its name being derived from a section of that city.
+
+=Voile.= From the French _voile_, meaning a veil, a light fabric
+usually more or less transparent, intended to conceal the features in
+whole or in part or to serve as a screen against sunlight, dust,
+insects, etc., or to emphasize or preserve the beauty. The custom of
+wearing veils had its origin in the early ages in the desire of
+semi-savage man to hide away the woman of his choice, and is a
+survival of the ancient custom of hiding women that is found even down
+to the present day in Eastern countries. Voile is a transparent, wiry
+material with a square mesh.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+
+=Silk Cotton.= On account of the high price of silk various attempts
+have been made to find satisfactory substitutes for it. There are
+certain seed coverings of plants that contain very fine hair-like
+fibers with a luster almost equal to silk, but the staples are short,
+and the texture weak. The Kapok plant furnishes most of the commercial
+silk cotton on the market. The fibers of Kapok are thin and
+transparent. They are extremely light, and the length is less than
+half an inch. Silk cotton has a smooth surface and therefore cannot be
+spun like true cotton which has corded edges.
+
+=Artificial Silk.= Since seed hairs are composed, like all vegetable
+fibers, of cellulose, attempts have been made to prepare an artificial
+silk product from waste paper--that is, by treating waste paper or
+wood or cotton fibers with various chemicals in order to obtain pure
+cellulose. This artificial silk is perhaps the most interesting of
+artificial fibers, but its manufacture is dangerous, owing to the ease
+with which it catches fire and explodes. Cellulose, chemically
+treated, can be transformed into a fluid solution known as collodion.
+The collodion is placed in steel cylinders and expelled by pressure
+through capillary tubes. After drying, denitration, and washing, it
+may be spun and dyed like natural silk. Colored threads may be
+produced by the addition of certain dyes.
+
+Artificial silk bears a deceptive resemblance to the natural article,
+and has nearly the same luster. It lacks the tensile strength and
+elasticity, and is of higher specific gravity than true silk.
+
+=Tests.= A simple way of recognizing artificial silk is by testing the
+threads under moisture, as follows: First, unravel a few threads of
+the suspected fabric, place them in the mouth and masticate them
+vigorously. Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and
+breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers
+shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural silk,
+no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength.
+The artificial silk offers no resistance to the teeth, which readily
+go through it; whereas natural silk resists the action of the teeth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON
+
+
+On account of the high price of cotton various experiments have been
+made in an effort to replace it with fiber from wood pulp, grasses,
+leaves, and other plants.
+
+=Wood Pulp.= A Frenchman has discovered a process, _la soyeuse_, of
+making spruce wood pulp into a substitute for cotton. Although it is
+called a substitute, the samples show that it takes dye, bleaching,
+and finishing more brilliantly than the cotton fiber. It resists
+boiling in water or caustic potash solution for some minutes, and does
+not burn more quickly than cotton. The fiber can be made of any
+length, as is also the case with artificial silk. The strength of the
+yarn apparently exceeds cotton, and the cost of manufacture is much
+lower. Arrangements are being made in Europe for the extensive
+production of this fiber.
+
+=Ramie.= Ramie or China grass is a soft, silky, and extremely strong
+fiber. It grows in southwestern Asia, is cultivated commercially in
+China, Formosa, and Japan, and is a fiber of increasing importance.
+Ramie is a member of the nettle family and attains a height of from
+four to eight feet. After the stalks are cleaned of a gummy substance,
+insoluble in water, it is known as China grass, and is used in China
+for summer clothing. In Europe and America by the use of modern
+machinery and chemical processes the fiber is cleaned effectively and
+cheaply. After it is bleached and combed it makes a fine silky fiber,
+one-half the weight of linen, and three times stronger than hemp. It
+is used in Europe to make fabrics that resemble silk, and is also used
+in making underwear and velvets. With other fabrics it is employed as
+a filling for woolen warps. It will probably be used widely in the
+United States as soon as cheaper methods of cleaning are devised.
+
+=Pineapple and Other Fibers.= Other fibers, of which that from the
+pineapple is the most important, are used for textile purposes in
+China, South America, parts of Africa, Mexico, and Central America.
+Their use has not been extensive on account of high cost of
+production. The silk from the pineapple is very light and of excellent
+quality.
+
+=Spun Glass.= When a glass rod is heated in a flame until perfectly
+soft it can be drawn out in the form of very fine threads which may be
+used in the production of handsome silky fabrics. Spun glass can be
+produced in colors; but on account of the low elasticity of these
+products, their practical value is small, though the threads are
+exceedingly uniform and have beautiful luster. Spun glass is used by
+chemists for filtering strong acid solutions.
+
+A kind of glass wool is produced by drawing out to a capillary thread
+two glass rods of different degrees of hardness. On cooling they curl
+up, in consequence of the different construction of the two
+constituent threads.
+
+=Metallic Threads.= Metallic threads have always been used for
+decorating, particularly in rich fabrics. Fine golden threads, as well
+as silver gilt threads, and silver threads and copper wire, have been
+used in many of the so-called Cyprian gold thread fabrics, so renowned
+for their beauty and permanence in the Middle Ages. These threads are
+now produced by covering flax or hemp threads with a gilt of fine
+texture.
+
+=Slag Wool.= Slag wool is obtained by allowing molten slag (generally
+from iron) to run into a pan fitted with a steam injector which blows
+the slag into fibers. The fibers are cooled by running them through
+water, and the finished product is used as a packing material.
+
+=Asbestos.= Asbestos is a silicate of magnesium and lime, containing
+in addition iron and aluminum. It is found in Savoy, the Pyrenees,
+Northern Italy, Canada, and some parts of the United States. Asbestos
+usually occurs in white or greenish glassy fibers, sometimes combined
+in a compact mass, and sometimes easily separable, elastic, and
+flexible. Canadian asbestos is almost pure white, and has long fibers.
+Asbestos can be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn, but
+as it is difficult to spin these fibers alone, they are generally
+mixed with a little cotton, which is afterwards disposed of by heating
+the finished fabric to incandescence. Because of its incombustible
+nature asbestos is used where high temperatures are necessary, as in
+the packing of steam joints, steam cylinders, hot parts of machines,
+and for fire curtains in theatres, hotels, etc. It is difficult to
+dye.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+=Testing Textile Fabrics.= This is an age of adulteration, and next to
+food there is probably no commodity that is adulterated as much as the
+clothing we wear. Large purchasers of textile fabrics and various
+administrative bodies, such as army clothing departments, railway
+companies, etc., have adopted definite specifications to ensure having
+good material and workmanship. Before the fabrics are accepted they
+are examined carefully by certain tests to see if they meet the
+requirements. Wholesale and retail merchants insist on various
+conditions when purchasing fabrics in order to conform to the
+increasing needs of the public. Hence every manufacturer, buyer, or
+dealer in fabrics should be familiar with the tests used to determine
+the quality of goods he is about to buy.
+
+The tests used are as follows:
+
+1. Identification of the style of weaving.
+
+2. Testing the breaking strength and the elasticity by the dynamometer.
+
+3. Determining the "count" of warp and filling.
+
+4. Determining the shrinkage.
+
+5. Testing the constituents of warp and of filling.
+
+6. Testing the finish and dressing materials.
+
+7. Testing the fastness of the dye.
+
+=Directions for Determining the Style of Weave.= In examining a
+fabric for the weave it is first necessary to determine the direction
+of the warp and filling threads. This is a very simple matter in a
+great many fabrics that have a selvedge--the warp must be parallel to
+the selvedge.
+
+In fabrics that have been fulled, raised, and cropped, as buckskin,
+flannel, etc., the direction of the nap will indicate the direction of
+the warp, since the nap runs in this direction.
+
+In the case of fabrics with doubled and single threads, the doubled
+threads are always found in the warp.
+
+In fabrics composed of cotton and woolen threads running in different
+directions, the cotton yarn usually forms the warp and the woolen yarn
+the filling. Then again the warp threads of all fabrics are more
+tightly twisted than the filling threads, and are separated at more
+regular intervals.
+
+Sometimes in stiffened or starched goods threads running in only one
+direction can be seen. In this case they are the warp threads.
+
+If one set of threads appears stiffer and straighter than the other,
+the former may be regarded as warp, while the rough and crooked
+threads are the filling. The yarn also gives one a hint, since the
+better, longer, and higher number material constitutes the warp, while
+the thicker yarn the filling.
+
+The direction of the twist of the thread is conclusive; if one set has
+a strong right twist and the other a left twist the first is the warp.
+
+After determining the direction of the warp and filling, the next
+point is to determine the interlacing of the warp and filling
+threads--the weave. This may be done by inspection or by means of a
+pick-glass and needle. The weave may be plotted on design paper
+(plotting paper), the projecting warp threads being indicated by
+filling up the corresponding square, and leaving those referring to
+the filling threads blank. In this way the weaving pattern of the
+sample is obtained, and serves as a guide to the weaver in making the
+fabric, as well as for the preparation of the pattern cards for the
+Jacquard loom.
+
+=Testing the Strength and Elasticity of a Fabric.= The old-fashioned
+plan of testing cloth by tearing it by the hand is unreliable, because
+tearing frequently requires only a certain skilled knack whereby the
+best material can be pulled in two. In this way an experienced man may
+tell good from bad cloth, but he cannot determine slight differences
+in quality, because he has exerted his strength so often that his
+capacity to distinguish the actual force has disappeared.
+
+The best means of determining the strength of a fabric is by means of
+a mechanical dynamometer,[19] which expresses the tensile strength of
+the fabric in terms of weight. The machine is very useful to the
+manufacturer because it enables him to compare accurately his various
+products with those of his competitors. The value of these tests is
+sufficiently proved by the fact that all army clothing departments,
+etc., require their supplies of cloth, etc., to pass a definite test
+for strength.
+
+Breaking tests also afford the most certain proof to bleachers of
+cotton and linen goods as to whether the bleaching has burned or
+weakened the goods. The same test will quickly determine whether a
+fabric has been improperly treated in the laundry.
+
+=Determining the Count of Warp and Filling Threads.= Every fabric must
+contain a certain count of warp and filling threads--a definite number
+within a certain space for each strength of yarn employed. A fabric is
+not up to the standard of density when less than the requisite number
+of warp or filling threads per inch is found. For example, if a buyer
+was told that a fabric is 80 square, that is, eighty warp threads and
+eighty filling threads to the inch, and on examination found only 72
+square, he would immediately reject the goods.
+
+The count of warp and filling is determined by means of a
+pick-glass--a small mounted magnifying glass--the base of which
+contains an opening of one-half inch by one quarter inch, or one
+quarter inch by one quarter inch. If the pick-glass is placed on the
+fabric the number of warp and filling threads may be counted, and the
+result multiplied by either two or four, so as to give the number of
+threads to the inch. For example, if I count twenty picks and twenty
+threads on a one quarter-inch edge, there are eighty picks and eighty
+threads to the inch. A more accurate result can be obtained by using a
+pick-glass with a one-inch opening.
+
+=Determination of Shrinkage.= A very important factor in the value of
+a fabric is the shrinkage. The extent of this may be determined by
+pouring hot water over a sample of about twelve by twenty inches, and
+leaving the fabric immersed over night, then drying it at a moderate
+temperature without stretching. The difference in length gives the
+shrinkage, which is usually expressed in percentage.
+
+=Determination of Weight.= Buyers and sellers of dry goods, when
+traveling, are anxious to determine the weight of fabrics they
+examine. This may be done by means of small pocket balances so
+constructed as to give the number of ounces to the yard of a fabric.
+
+=Testing the Constituents of the Warp and Filling.= Take a sample
+piece of the cloth to be examined--the piece must be large enough to
+contain specimens of all the different kinds of yarn present in the
+material--and separate all the filling and warp threads. Be sure that
+all double threads are untwisted.
+
+=Combustion Test; Test for Vegetable and Animal Fibers.= Burn
+separately a sample of the untwisted warp and filling threads. If one
+or both burn quickly without a greasy odor, they are vegetable fibers,
+cotton or linen. If one or both burn slowly and give off a greasy
+odor, they are animal fibers, wool or silk. This test is not
+conclusive, and further chemical examination--acid test--must be made
+to ascertain whether wool is pure or mixed with cotton.
+
+=Acid Test.= The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, are distinguished
+from those of animal origin by their behavior in the presence of
+acids and alkalies. The vegetable are insoluble when boiled with a 4
+per cent sodium hydrate solution, but readily clear or carbonize when
+saturated with a 3 per cent sulphuric acid solution and allowed to dry
+at a high temperature in a hot closet. Wool on the other hand is not
+affected by the action of weak sulphuric acid.
+
+=Cotton Distinguished from Linen.= If the fibers are vegetable, cotton
+may be distinguished from linen by staining the fibers with fuchsine.
+If the fibers turn red, and this coloration disappears on the addition
+of ammonia, they are cotton, if the red color remains the fibers are
+linen. Whenever cotton yarn is used to adulterate other fabrics, it
+wears shabby and loses its brightness. When it is used to adulterate
+linen, it becomes fuzzy through wear. One may detect it in linen by
+rolling the goods between thumb and finger. Linen is a heavier fabric,
+and wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has
+an exquisite freshness that is not noticed in cotton fabrics.
+
+=Silk Distinguished from Wool.= Place the fabric or threads containing
+animal fibers in cold, concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is
+present it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.
+
+=Artificial Silk from Silk.= On account of the low value of the
+artificial and the high value of genuine silk, there is a tendency to
+offer the artificial instead of the pure article. Test: When
+artificial silk is boiled in 4 per cent potassium hydrate solution it
+produces a yellow solution, while pure silk gives a colorless
+solution.
+
+A common test is to put the artificial silk in water, where it will
+pull apart as though rotten; or to take out one strand of the silk,
+hold it between the finger and thumb of each hand and wet the middle
+of the strand with the tongue, when it will pull apart as though
+rotten.
+
+Artificial silk is inferior in strength and elasticity to pure silk.
+Then again it is lacking in the crackling feeling noticed in handling
+the genuine article.
+
+=Test for Shoddy.= It is no easy matter to detect shoddy in woolen
+fabrics; the color of the shoddy threads is the best evidence. Many
+parcels of rags are of one single color, but for the most part they
+are made of various colored wools; therefore, if on examination of a
+fabric with a magnifying glass a yarn of any particular color is found
+to contain a number of individual fibers of glaring colors, the
+presence of shoddy can be assumed with certainty.
+
+Woolen goods containing cotton are seldom made from natural wool.
+Shoddy yarns, especially in winter goods, are found in the
+under-filling at the reverse side of the cloth, as thick, tightly
+twisted yarns, curlier than those from the pure wool.
+
+=Determination of the Dressing.= During the various operations of
+washing, bleaching, etc., the goods lose in weight, and to make up
+this deficit a moderate amount of dressing or loading is employed.
+Dressing is not regarded as an adulteration, but as an embellishment.
+
+Various dressing materials are used, such as starch, flour, mineral
+matters, to give the goods stiffness and feel on one hand, and on the
+other to conceal defects in the cloth, and to give a solid appearance
+to goods of open texture. The mineral substances used serve chiefly
+for filling and weighting, and necessitate the employment of a certain
+quantity of starch, etc. In order that the latter may not render the
+cloth too stiff and hard, further additions of some emollient, such as
+glycerine, oils, etc., are necessary.
+
+When a fabric filled in this manner is placed in water and rubbed
+between the hands, the dressing is removed, and the quantity employed
+can be easily determined.
+
+By holding fabrics before the light dressing will be recognized, and
+such goods, if rubbed between the fingers, will lose their stiffness.
+Loading is revealed by the production of dust on rubbing, and by the
+aid of the magnifying glass it can be easily ascertained whether the
+covering or dressing is merely superficial or penetrates into the
+substance of the fabric.
+
+=The tests of permanence of dyes on fabrics are as follows:=
+
+=Washing Fastness.= Fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well
+as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing
+operation. In order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be
+placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary
+household, and heated to 131 degrees F. The treatment should be
+repeated several times. If the color fails to run it is fast to
+washing.
+
+=Fastness Under Friction.= Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs,
+and all fabrics intended to be worn next to the skin must be
+permanent under friction, and must not rub off, stain, or run, that
+is, the dyed materials must not give off their color when worn next to
+the human epidermis (skin), or in close contact with colored articles
+of clothing, as in the case of underwear.
+
+The simplest test is to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched
+cotton fabric. In comparing the fastness of two fabrics it is
+necessary to have the rubbing equal in all cases.
+
+=Resistance to Perspiration.= With fabrics coming in contact with the
+human skin it is necessary in addition to fastness under friction that
+they should withstand the excretions of the body. The acids of
+perspiration (acetic, formic, and butyric) often become so
+concentrated that they act on the fiber of the fabric.
+
+In order to test the fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath
+of 30 per cent dilute acetic acid (one teaspoonful to a quart of
+water) warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6 degrees F. The
+sample should be dipped a number of times, and then dried without
+rinsing between parchment paper.
+
+=Fastness against Rain.= Silk and woolen materials for umbrella
+making, raincoats, etc., are expected to be rainproof. These fabrics
+are tested by plaiting with undyed yarns and left to stand all night
+in cold water.
+
+=Resistance to Street Mud and Dust.= Ladies' dress goods are expected
+to withstand the action of mud and dust. In order to test a fabric for
+this resistance the sample should be moistened with lime and water
+(10 per cent solution), dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per
+cent solution of soda, drying, brushing, and noting any changes in
+color.
+
+=Fastness to Weather, Light, and Air.= Various people have attempted
+to set up standard degrees of fastness--for every shade of color is
+affected by the action of sun, light, and air--and as a result fabrics
+that remain without appreciable alteration for a month of exposure to
+direct summer sunlight are classified as "fast," and those undergoing
+slight appreciable change under the same conditions as "fairly fast."
+"Moderately fast" colors are those altering considerably in fourteen
+days; and those more or less completely faded in the same time
+(fourteen days) are designated as "fleeting."
+
+=Directions for testing fastness of Color in Sunlight.= Cover one end
+of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose the fabric to
+the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth each day in
+the dark and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when
+compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken
+the sunlight to change the color.
+
+    Brown in woolen materials is likely to fade. Brown holds
+    its color in all gingham materials.
+
+    Dark blue is an excellent color for woolens and
+    ginghams. Light blues on the other hand usually change.
+
+    Black, gray, and black with white. These colors are very
+    satisfactory for woolen materials.
+
+    Black is not a color which wears very well with cotton
+    fabrics, as it shows the starch (sizing) and often
+    fades.
+
+    Red is an excellent color for all woolen materials. It
+    looks attractive and wears well.
+
+    Red is a very poor color for cotton. It loses its
+    brilliancy and frequent washing spoils it.
+
+    A deep pink is an excellent color for all ginghams for
+    it fades evenly and leaves a pretty shade.
+
+    Green is a poor color for both cotton and woolen
+    materials unless it is high priced.
+
+    Lavender fades more than any other color in textiles.
+
+
+HISTORY OF TEXTILES
+
+The three fundamental industries that have developed from necessity
+are the feeding, sheltering, and clothing of the human race. These
+primary wants were first gratified before such conveniences as
+transportation and various lines of manufacture were even considered.
+Next to furnishing our food supply, the industry of supplying clothing
+is the oldest and the most widely diffused. It is in the manufacture
+of textiles--including all materials used in the manufacturing of
+clothing--that human ingenuity is best illustrated.
+
+The magnitude of the textile industry in the United States is evident
+when we consider that it gives employment to a round million of
+people, paying them nearly five hundred million dollars annually in
+wages and salaries, producing nearly one and three-quarters billion
+dollars in gross value each year, and giving a livelihood to at least
+three millions of our population.
+
+Wool, cotton, flax, and silk have been used since early times. Even in
+the earlier days these fibers were woven with great skill. It is not
+known which fiber was the first to be used in weaving. It is probable,
+however, that the possession of flocks and herds led to the spinning
+and weaving of wool before cotton, flax, or silk fibers were thus
+used.
+
+=Wool.= The date at which prehistoric man discarded the pelt of skins
+for the woven fabric of wool marks the origin of the textile industry.
+Primitive sheep were covered with hair and the wool which now
+characterizes them was then a downy under-coat. As time went on and
+the art of spinning and weaving developed, the food value of sheep
+decreased, while the wool value increased. The hairy flocks were bred
+out, and the sheep with true wool, like the merino, survived. Sheep
+were bred principally for the wool and not for the mutton. Woolen
+fabrics were worn by the early inhabitants of Persia and Palestine.
+The Persians were noted for the excellent fabrics they wove from wool.
+Even the Hebrews of an early date were very skilful in weaving
+woolens.
+
+The early Romans were a race of shepherds and the women of the higher
+classes wove the cloth in their own homes. When Caesar invaded
+England, he found in the southern part of the island people acquainted
+with the spinning and weaving of wool and linen. With the downfall of
+Rome, the art of weaving cloth in Europe was almost lost, and people
+again wore furs and skins.
+
+By the end of the eleventh century English cloth manufacturing had
+begun to revive. In the northern part of Italy certain Italians had
+flocks of sheep and obtained very fine wool, and the people of
+Flanders continued to develop skill in weaving during the Dark Ages.
+
+In the twelfth century the woolen manufacturers of Flanders had grown
+to be of great importance, and some of the finest goods were shipped
+from there to many countries.
+
+In England, up to the time of Edward III, in the fourteenth century,
+the wool produced was exported to the Netherlands, there to be woven
+into cloth. Edward III invited many of the Flemish weavers to come to
+England to teach the English people how to make their own clothes.
+Edward was called the "Royal Wool Merchant" and also the "Father of
+English Commerce." During Elizabeth's reign in the sixteenth century
+the chief article of export was woolen cloth. In 1685 the Huguenots,
+who were driven from France, went to England to settle. These people
+were noted for their skill in weaving.
+
+Patient effort in care and breeding of sheep showed a steady increase
+in the quantity and quality of wool until 1810, and the proportion of
+sheep to the population was then greater than at the present time.
+
+Our own climate is highly favorable for sheep breeding, and it is
+certain that the American sheep has no superior in any wool growing
+country, in constitutional vigor and strength of wool-fiber, and no
+wools make more durable or more valuable clothing.
+
+The obstacles to sheep husbandry in certain parts of the United
+States, like New England, are mainly climatic. The natural home of the
+only races of sheep which can be herded in large flocks is an elevated
+tableland, like the steppes of Russia and the great plains of Asia,
+Argentina, Montana, Wyoming, and others of our western states where
+an open air range is possible for nearly twelve months in the year. In
+these elevated lands there are grasses which are more nutritious in
+winter than in summer. The climate of New England does not permit the
+growth of such grasses. Every grass which will grow in New England
+becomes in the cold months frozen wood fiber. Then again there is the
+frigid and penetrating atmosphere which necessitates housing the sheep
+in winter, and these animals cannot be closely housed without
+engendering a variety of parasitic diseases.
+
+=Cotton.= Long before history was written, cotton was used in making
+fabrics in India and China. Cotton has been for thousands of years the
+leading fabric of the East. The Hindoos have for centuries maintained
+almost unapproachable perfection in their cotton fabrics. It was the
+Arabian caravans that brought Indian calicoes and muslins into Europe.
+
+Cotton was first cultivated in Europe by the Moors in Spain in the
+ninth century. In 1430 it was imported into England in large
+quantities. The section of England about Manchester became in time the
+seat of the great cotton industry; this was due to the settlement of
+spinners and weavers from Flanders.
+
+During the reign of Elizabeth, the East Indies Trading Company was
+established. Not only was cotton imported, but also India muslins.
+This caused trouble because of the decrease in the demand for woolen
+goods manufactured in England. A law was passed prohibiting the
+importing of cotton goods and later the manufacturing of them, but
+this law was repealed on account of the great demand for cotton
+materials.
+
+Columbus found cotton garments worn by the natives of the West Indies.
+Later Cortez found that cotton was used in Mexico; hence, cotton is
+indigenous to America. In 1519 Cortez made the first recorded export
+of cotton from America to Europe.
+
+In 1734 cotton was planted in Georgia. Bales of cotton were sent to
+England, and the manufacturing of cloth was soon under way. While the
+colonies were trying to gain independence, England imposed a fine on
+anyone sending cotton machinery to America, and restrictions were put
+on manufacturing and imports of any kind. After the War of
+Independence many of the southern states began to raise cotton in
+larger quantities.
+
+The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney was one of the great
+inventions of the age. While only two pounds of cotton could be seeded
+by hand by one person in a day, the gin made it possible to do several
+hundred pounds. At the time of the Civil War the greater part of the
+cotton used by English manufacturers was imported from the southern
+states. The closing of the southern ports during the war affected the
+cotton industry throughout the world. Large mills in England were
+closed, and thousands of people were out of employment. Steps were
+then taken to encourage people of India, Egypt, Central and South
+America to increase their production of cotton, and from that time on,
+cotton from these countries has been found in the general market.
+Cotton is now cultivated in nearly all countries within the limits 45�
+north and 35� south of the equator.
+
+At the present time the United States ranks first in the production
+and export of cotton. Of all the states, Texas and Georgia produce the
+largest amount. About one-third of the entire crop is used in our own
+mills; $250,000,000 worth of cotton is annually exported, principally
+through New Orleans, New York, Savannah, and Galveston. Three-fifths
+of this quantity goes to mills in England; Germany, France, and
+Switzerland take a large part of the remainder.
+
+The value of cotton is shown by the fact that about one-half the
+people of the earth wear clothing made entirely of cotton, and the
+other half (with the exception of some savage tribes) use it in part
+of the dress.
+
+=Linen.= Linen has always been held in great esteem. The garments of
+the Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman priests were made of the finest
+linen.
+
+During the Middle Ages, Italy, Spain, and France were celebrated for
+their linen fabrics. Religious intolerance in France drove 300,000 of
+her best textile workers into England, Ireland, and Scotland. Irish
+linen weaving began as early as the eleventh century.
+
+Linen has never been largely woven in America except in the coarser
+forms of crash and toweling, although linen weaving was one of the
+Puritan domestic industries. The reason America has not been able to
+equal Europe in its production of fine linens is because the process
+for separating the fiber from the stalk requires the cheapest form of
+labor to make it profitable, hence most of the American-grown flax is
+raised only for seed.
+
+=Silk.= Silk was used in the East as a fabric for the nobility. It was
+first used in China and later in India. It was brought into Europe
+about the sixth century. Up to that time the Chinese had a monopoly of
+the industry. By the tenth and eleventh centuries silk fabrics were
+made in Spain and Italy. At the close of the sixteenth century silk
+was being produced at Lyons, France. It was afterwards introduced into
+England, and the English silk for a long time replaced the French in
+the European market.
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES
+
+The development of the textile industry may be divided into four
+stages or periods: first, the family system; second, the guild system;
+third, the domestic system; and fourth, the factory system.
+
+=The Family System.= Under the family system the work of spinning and
+weaving was carried on by members of a household for the purpose of
+supplying the family with clothing. There were no sales of the
+product. Each class in society, from the peasant class to that of the
+nobleman, had its own devices for making clothing. This was the system
+that existed up to about the tenth century.
+
+=The Guild System.= As communities became larger and cities sprang up,
+the textile industry became more than a family concern. There was a
+demand for better fabrics, and to meet this demand it became
+necessary to have a large supply of different parts of looms. The
+small weaver who owned and constructed his own loom was not able to
+have all these parts, so he began to work for a more prosperous
+weaver. The same conditions applied to spinning, and as early as 1740
+spinning was carried on by a class distinct from the weavers. As a
+result the small weaver was driven out by the growth of organized
+capital, and a more perfect organization, called the guild system,
+arose. By this system the textile industry was carried on by a small
+group of men called masters, employing two, three or more men
+(distinguished later as journeymen and apprentices). The masters
+organized associations called guilds and dominated all the conditions
+of the manufacture to a far greater extent than is possible under
+present conditions.
+
+It was the family system that existed in the American colonies at the
+beginning of the settlement, and for many years after. The guild
+system was not adopted in America because it was going out of
+existence on the Continent.
+
+=The Domestic Period.= By the middle of the eighteenth century the
+textile industry began to break away from the guilds and spread from
+cities to the rural districts. The work was still carried on in the
+master's house, although he had lost the economic independence that he
+had under the old guild system where he acted both as merchant and
+manufacturer. He now received his raw material from the merchant and
+disposed of the finished goods to a middleman, who looked after the
+demands of the market.
+
+=The Factory System.= The domestic period was in turn crowded out of
+existence by the factory system. A factory is a place where goods are
+produced by power for commercial use. The factory system first came
+into prominence after the invention of the steam engine. No record has
+been found showing its existence prior to this invention.
+
+English weavers and spinners became very skilful and invented
+different mechanical aids for the production of yarn and cloth. These
+mechanical aids not only enabled one man to do twenty men's work, but
+further utilization was made of water and steam power in place of
+manual labor. Then began the organization of the industry on a truly
+gigantic scale, combining capital and machinery and resulting in what
+is known as the factory system.
+
+Previous to the development of the factory system there was no reason
+why any industry should be centered in one particular district. Upon
+the utilization of steam power the textile industry became subdivided
+into a number of industries, each one becoming to a great extent
+localized in convenient and suitable portions of the country. Thus in
+Bradford the wool of Yorkshire (England) meets the coal of Yorkshire
+and makes Bradford the great woolen and worsted center of the world.
+The same thing took place in Manchester, where the cotton of America
+meets the coal of England under satisfactory climatic conditions, and
+around Manchester is the greatest cotton manufacturing of the world.
+
+The same is true in America. Lawrence became a large worsted center on
+account of the great fall of water and the use of the river to deposit
+wool washings. Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford became large cotton
+centers for similar reasons.
+
+
+HISTORY OF MANUFACTURING
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING WHORL
+
+One of the earliest devices used for spinning]
+
+=Spinning.= Spinning and weaving are two of the earliest arts
+practised by man. Yarn for the making of cloth was spun in the
+earliest times by the use of the distaff and spindle. The spindle was
+a round stick of wood a foot or less in length, tapering at each end.
+A ring of stone or clay was placed on the spindle to give it
+steadiness and momentum when it revolved. At the top of the spindle
+was a slit or notch in which the yarn was caught. The distaff was a
+larger, stouter stick, around one end of which the material to be spun
+was wound in a loose ball. The spinner fixed the end of the distaff
+under her left arm so that the coil of material was in a convenient
+position for drawing out to form the yarn. The end of the yarn, after
+being prepared, was inserted in the notch, and the spindle was set in
+motion by rolling it with the right hand against the leg. Then the
+spinner drew from the distaff an additional amount of fiber, which
+was formed by the right hand into uniform strands. After the yarn was
+twisted, it was released from the notch and wound around the lower
+part of the spindle.
+
+In order to spin yarn by the primitive spinner, it was necessary for
+the fiber to have sufficient length to enable it to be manipulated,
+drawn over, and twisted by the fingers. It is noted that the yarns for
+the gossamer-like Dacca muslins of India were so fine that one pound
+of cotton was spun into a thread 253 miles long. This was accomplished
+with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much bigger than a darning
+needle, which was lightly weighted with a pellet of clay. Since such a
+slender thread could not support even the weight of so slight a
+spindle, the apparatus was rotated upon a piece of hollow shell. It
+thus appears that the primitive spinners with distaff and spindle had
+nothing to learn in point of fineness from even the most advanced
+methods of spinning by machinery.
+
+[Illustration: HAND SPINNING
+
+From a Fourteenth Century MS. in the British Museum]
+
+Certain rude forms of the spinning wheel seem to have been known from
+time immemorial. The use of the wheel in Europe cannot, however, be
+dated back earlier than the fifteenth century. In the primitive wheel
+the spindle, having a groove worked in its whorl, was mounted
+horizontally in a framework fixed to the end of a bench. A band
+passed around the whorl and was carried around a large wheel fixed
+farther back on the bench, and this wheel, being turned by the hand of
+the spinner, gave a rapid rotation to the spindle.
+
+[Illustration: AN ANCIENT LOOM
+
+From an Egyptian Monument]
+
+The fibers to be spun were first combed out by means of carding
+boards--an implement of unknown antiquity, consisting of two boards
+with wire teeth set in them at a uniform angle. The fiber to be carded
+was thinly spread upon one of the boards, and then the other was
+pushed backward and forward across it, the teeth of the two
+overlapping at opposite angles, until the fibers were combed out and
+laid straight in parallel lines. The fibers were then scraped off the
+boards in rollers or "cardings" about twelve inches long and
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter. An end of the carding was then
+attached to the spindle and the wheel set in motion. The carding
+itself was held in the hand of the spinner and gradually drawn out and
+twisted by the rotation of the spindle. As soon as a sufficient length
+had been attenuated and twisted to the required fineness, the thread
+so produced was held at right angles to the spindle and allowed to
+wind up on it. But for fine spinning two operations of the wheel were
+generally necessary. By the first spinning the fibers were drawn out
+and slightly attenuated into what was called a roving, and by the
+second spinning the roving itself passed through a similar cycle of
+operations to bring it to the required degree of attenuation and
+twist.
+
+Many improvements in the primitive wheel were introduced from time to
+time. In its later developments two spindles were employed, the
+spinner being thus enabled to manipulate two threads at once, one in
+each hand. This was the latest form of the spinning-wheel, and it
+survived until it was superseded in the eighteenth century by the
+great series of inventions which inaugurated the industrial revolution
+and led in the nineteenth century to the introduction of the factory
+system.
+
+[Illustration: EARLIER SPINNING AND WEAVING
+
+From a Fifteenth Century MS. in the British Museum]
+
+=Weaving.= When or where man first began to weave cloth is not known,
+nor is it known whether this art sprang from one common center or was
+invented by many who dwelt in different parts of the world. There is
+such a sameness in the early devices for spinning and weaving that
+among some men of science it is thought that the art must have come
+from a common center.
+
+Fabrics were made on the farms two or three hundred years ago in the
+following manner: the men of the household raised the flocks, while
+the women spun the yarn and wove the fabrics. In this way the industry
+prospered, giving occupation and income to thousands of the
+agricultural class. You might say that in England fabrics were a
+by-product of agriculture. As time went on, farmers of certain
+sections of England became more expert in the art, and the weaving
+became separated from the spinning. The weavers became clustered in
+certain towns on account of the higher skill required for the finer
+fabrics. The rough work of farming made the hands of the weaver less
+skilful. This, coupled with the fact that the looms became more
+complicated with improvements, called for a more experienced man.
+Great inventions brought about a more rapid development of the
+factory.
+
+Richard Arkwright, who has been called the "father of the factory
+system," built the first cotton mill in the world in Nottingham in
+1769. The wheels were turned by horses. In 1771 Arkwright erected at
+Crawford a new mill which was turned by water power and supplied with
+machinery to accomplish the whole operation of cotton spinning in one
+mill, the first machine receiving the cotton as it came from the bale
+and the last winding the cotton yarn upon the bobbins. Children were
+employed in this mill, as they were found to be more dexterous in
+tying the broken ends. As the result of this great invention,
+factories sprang up everywhere in England, changing the country scene
+into a collection of factories, with tall chimneys, brick buildings,
+and streets.
+
+From 1730 to the middle of the nineteenth century the development of
+inventions was rapid:
+
+    1730--First cotton yarn spun in England by machinery by
+    Wyatt.
+
+    1733--English patent granted John Kay for the invention
+    of the fly shuttle.
+
+    1738--Patent granted Lewis Paul for the spinning
+    machinery supposed to have been invented by Wyatt.
+
+    1742--First mill for spinning cotton built at
+    Birmingham; moved by asses; but not successful.
+
+    1748--Patent on a cylinder card as first used by hand,
+    granted Lewis Paul.
+
+    1750--Fly shuttle in general use in England.
+
+    1756--Cotton velvets and quiltings first made in
+    England.
+
+    1760--Stock cards first used for cotton by J. Hargreave.
+    Drop box invented by Kay.
+
+    1762-67--Spinning-jenny invented by Hargreave.
+
+    1769--Arkwright obtains his first patent on spinning.
+
+    1774--Bill passed in England to prevent the export of
+    cotton machinery.
+
+    1775--Second patent of Arkwright on carding, drawing,
+    and spinning.
+
+    1779--Mule spinning invented by Crompton. Peele's patent
+    on carding, roving, and spinning.
+
+    1782--Date of Watt's patent for the steam-engine.
+
+    1783--Bounty granted in England for the export of
+    certain cotton goods.
+
+    1785--Power loom invented by Cartwright. Cylinder
+    printing invented by Bell. A warp stop-motion described
+    in Cartwright's patent.
+
+    1788--First cotton factory built in the United States,
+    at Beverly.
+
+    1789--Sea Island cotton first planted in the United
+    States. Samuel Slater starts cotton machinery in New
+    York.
+
+    1790--First cotton factory built in Rhode Island by
+    Slater.
+
+    1792--First American loom patent granted to Kirk and
+    Leslie.
+
+    1794--Cotton-gin patented by Eli Whitney.
+
+    1801--Date given for invention of the Jacquard machine
+    in France.
+
+    1803--Dressing machine and warper invented in England by
+    Radcliffe, Ross, and Johnson.
+
+    1804--First cotton mill built in New Hampshire, at New
+    Ipswich.
+
+    1805--Power loom successfully introduced in England
+    after many failures.
+
+    1806--First cotton mill built in Connecticut, at
+    Pomfret.
+
+    1809--First cotton mill built in Maine, at Brunswick.
+
+    1812--First cotton mill built at Fall River.
+
+    1814--Cotton opener with lap attachment invented in
+    England by Creighton.
+
+    1815--Power loom introduced into the United States at
+    Waltham.
+
+    1816--First loom temple of Ira Draper patented in the
+    United States.
+
+    1818--Machinery for preparing sewing cotton invented in
+    England by Holt.
+
+    1822--First cotton factory erected at Lowell.
+
+    1823--Differential motion for roving frames patented by
+    Arnold. First export of raw cotton from Egypt to
+    England.
+
+    1824--Tube frame or speeder patented by Danforth.
+
+    1825--Self-acting mule patented in England by Roberts.
+
+    1828--Ring spinning patented by John Thorpe. Cap
+    spinning patented by Danforth.
+
+    1829--Revolving loom temple improvements patented by Ira
+    Draper.
+
+    1832--Stop-motion for drawing frames invented by
+    Bachelder.
+
+    1833--Ring spinning frames first built by William
+    Mason.
+
+    1834--Weft fork patented in England by Ramsbottom and
+    Hope. Shuttle-changing loom by Reid and Johnson.
+
+    1840--Automatic loom led off. Important temple
+    improvement.
+
+    1849--First cotton mill erected in Lawrence.
+
+Through this great change from hand to power work, thousands were
+thrown out of employment in the great textile centers, and much
+suffering occurred, which led to the smashing of machinery.
+
+=Knitting Machinery.= Like many other industries, the hosiery trade
+owes its first and most important impetus to the genius of one who was
+not connected with the business in a practical way. This event took
+place when the Rev. William Lee invented the hand frame. He was
+married early in life, and his wife was obliged, on account of the
+slender family finances, to knit continuously at home. Struck with the
+monotony and toil involved in knitting with the hand pins, Mr. Lee
+evolved a means of knitting by machinery and brought out the hand
+stocking-frame, which to-day preserves its chief features very much as
+Lee invented them. When knitting by hand, one must form each loop
+separately, and loop follows loop laboriously until the width of
+fabric has been worked. Lee contrived to make the whole row of loops
+across the width simultaneously by arranging a needle for each loop
+and placing in connection with each needle a sinker and other
+apparatus for completing the formation of the loop. First of all, the
+yarn is laid over the needles, which are arranged horizontally, and
+the sinkers come down on the yarn and cause it to form partial loops
+between the needles. The old loops of the previous course are now
+brought forward and the new yarn is drawn through them in the same way
+as is done on the hand pins. Thus the new yarn of one course is drawn
+through the loops of the preceding one, and so the whole fabric is
+built up. This frame of Lee's held its own in the great centers until
+some thirty years ago.
+
+Lee's hand frame gave way to what is termed the jack and sinker rotary
+frame, which was like the hand frame in its chief features, but with
+the advantage that all the motions were brought about by power. The
+various operations were put under the control of a set of cams[20] and
+made to perform their movements in exactly the same way as in the case
+of the hand frame. In the first power machine for knitting, the
+machine builder used the cam mechanism, and in examining the latest
+machines we find that he has persisted in this course throughout. The
+cam movement is characterized by great smoothness of working and
+absence of vibration, which is very necessary in a machine of the
+delicate adjustment of the knitting frame. It is usual to connect some
+of the parts with two of these cams, one of which controls the
+up-and-down motion and the other the out-and-in movement. When these
+two cams work in conjunction, we obtain all the possible degrees of
+harmonic motion.
+
+From the jack and sinker frame the next really important step was
+taken when William Cotton brought out his famous Cotton's patent
+frame. In his machine the frame was in a sense turned on its back, for
+the parts, such as the needles, which had been horizontal, were made
+vertical and _vice versa_. He also reduced the number of the moving
+parts and perfected the cam arrangement. Another very important
+development of the machine was when it was built in a number of
+divisions so as to work a number of articles side by side at one time.
+At present there are knitting frames which can make twelve full-sized
+garments at one and the same time.
+
+Another important improvement was effected when the fashioning
+apparatus was supplied to the machine, by means of which the garments
+could be shaped according to the human form by increasing or
+decreasing the width as desired.
+
+
+HISTORY OF LACE
+
+Lace, like porcelain, stained glass, and other artistic things, has
+always been an object of interest to all classes. Special patterns of
+laces date from the sixteenth century. The church and court have
+always encouraged its production. While the early lace work was
+similar to weaving, in that the patterns were stiff and geometrical,
+sometimes the patterns were cut out of linen, but with the development
+of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and figures were
+introduced and worked in.
+
+The lace industry first took root in Flanders and Venice, where it
+became an important branch of industry. Active intercourse was
+maintained between the two countries, so that intense rivalry existed.
+France and England were not behind Venice and Flanders in making lace.
+The king of France, Henry III, encouraged lace work by appointing a
+Venetian to be pattern maker for varieties of linen needlework and
+lace for his court. Later, official aid and patronage were given to
+this art by Louis V. Through the influence of these two men the demand
+for lace was increased to such an extent that it became very popular.
+
+Under the impulse of fashion and luxury, lace has received the stamp
+of the special style of each country. Italy furnishes its Point of
+Venice; Belgium its Brussels and Mechlin; France its Valenciennes,
+etc.
+
+Very little is known of the early lace manufacturers of Holland. The
+laces of Holland were overshadowed by the richer products of their
+Flemish neighbors. The Dutch, however, had one advantage over other
+nations in their Haarlem thread, once considered the best thread in
+the world for lace.
+
+In Switzerland, the center of the lace trade, the work was carried on
+to such a degree of perfection as to rival the laces of Flanders, not
+alone in beauty, but also in quality.
+
+Attempts have been made at various times, both during this century and
+the last, to assist the peasantry of Ireland by instruction in
+lace-making. The finest patterns of old lace were procured, and the
+Irish girls showed great skill in copying them. Later a better style
+of work, needlepoint, was modeled after old Venetian lace--the
+exquisite productions for which Americans pay fabulous prices at the
+present day.
+
+The lace manufacturers of Europe experienced a serious set-back in
+1818 when bobbinet was first made in France. Fashion, always fleeting,
+adopted the new material. Manufacturers were forced to lower prices,
+but happily a new channel for export was opened in the United States.
+
+The machine-made productions of the Nottingham looms, as triumphs of
+mechanical ingenuity, deserve great praise.
+
+The first idea of the lace-making machine is attributed to a common
+factory hand, Hammond Lindy, who, when examining the lace on his
+wife's cap, conceived a plan by which he could copy it on his loom.
+Improvements followed, and in 1810 a fairly good net was produced.
+
+Perhaps the most delicate textile machine known, in its sensitiveness
+to heat and cold, is a lace machine. A machine can be made to run in
+any climate, provided it is so installed as to be protected from
+either extreme of temperature.
+
+The various substitutes for hand-made lace are legion; for what the
+inventor cannot achieve in one way he can in another. There remains
+however the fact that the productions of machinery can never possess
+the charm of the real hand-made work. Machine-made lace is stiffer
+than hand-made lace.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] The testing apparatus may be obtained from any textile
+manufacturing company, such as Alfred Suter, 487 Broadway, New York.
+
+[20] A cam is a device consisting of a special shaped wheel attached
+to a machine to give a special kind of motion or movement.
+
+
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS
+
+
+=Experiment 1--Construction of Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin,[21] foot-rule.
+    Materials: 4 square inches of burlap.
+    References: _Textiles._ See page 54, Weaving; page 1, Fibers.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Look at the cloth under the pick glass and describe the appearance
+and structure of its interlacing threads, called weave.
+
+2. With a pin separate the interlacing threads of the cloth which are
+called _warp_ and _filling_. _Warp_ is composed of yarn running in the
+direction of the length of the cloth. _Filling_ is composed of yarn
+running at right angles to the warp.
+
+    _a._ What are the interlacing threads of cloth called?
+
+    _b._ Of what is warp composed and in what direction do
+    the warp threads extend? filling?
+
+3. Notice the appearance of the individual threads (called _yarn_) of
+the warp and filling. Test the strength of the yarn by trying to break
+it.
+
+4. Untwist one of the warp threads and one of the filling threads.
+Notice whether the yarn becomes stronger or weaker as it is untwisted.
+What effect has twist on the yarn?
+
+5. After untwisting one of the threads what remains? Measure the
+length of several of these ends called _fibers_. Describe the
+appearance of the fiber as to curl, feel, fineness, etc.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Of what does yarn consist?
+
+2. What causes the fibers to cling together?
+
+3. What is the process called by which two sets of threads interlace?
+
+4. When two sets of threads interlace or are woven what is produced?
+
+
+=Experiment 2--Plain or Homespun Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom,[22] two pencils, scissors.
+    Material: Yarn of two colors.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 58.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Make a warp on the hand loom with green yarn by having parallel
+threads running the longest way of the loom to the notches.
+
+2. A _harness_ is a framework on a loom used for raising certain warp
+threads. Use a pencil as a harness and raise the 1st, 3d, and 5th warp
+threads. A _shed_ will in this way be formed through which the shuttle
+carrying the filling thread will pass. Use the red yarn for filling
+and attach it at one end before passing it through the shed.
+
+3. With a second pencil to act as a second harness raise the 2d, 4th,
+and 6th warp threads. Pass the filling through the shed thus formed.
+
+4. Repeat twice Directions 2 and 3.
+
+5. Tie all ends, cut the woven sample away from the loom, and mount in
+note-book.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What part of a loom is the harness?
+
+2. What is meant by a shed?
+
+3. What carries the filling thread through the shed on a loom?
+
+4. What is the principle of plain weaving?
+
+5. Name some fabrics produced by plain weaving? See _Textiles_, page
+58.
+
+
+=Experiment 3--Twill Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom, four pencils, scissors.
+    Materials: White cotton warp, colored yarn filling.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 58.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. On the hand loom make a warp by threading four white warp threads
+to a notch until there are six sets of warp threads.
+
+2. Using a pencil as a harness (See Exp. 2) raise the first thread of
+each set of warp threads and pass the filling thread through the shed
+thus formed.
+
+3. With another pencil as a second harness raise the second thread of
+each set of warp threads and pass the filling.
+
+4. With a third pencil raise the third thread of each set of warp
+threads and pass the filling.
+
+5. With still another pencil to act as a fourth harness raise the
+fourth thread of each set and again pass the filling.
+
+6. Repeat the above directions (2 to 5) several times. Notice that the
+moving of the filling thread, one warp thread to the left, each time
+it is woven is causing a diagonal line or rib to form, called _twill_.
+
+7. Cut the woven sample away from the loom and mount.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is this weave called a twill weave?
+
+2. How is the diagonal line or twill formed?
+
+3. Why would this kind of weaving be spoken of as 4-harness weave?
+
+4. What popular dress fabric is of twill weave?
+
+
+=Experiment 4--Comparison of Plain and Twill Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin, foot-rule.
+    Material: 4 sq. in. of burlap, 4 sq. in. of serge.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 58, 59, 60.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine the burlap under the pick glass, noting the structure and
+number of threads to the inch in the warp (called _ends_) and the
+number of threads to the inch in the filling (called _picks_). Verify
+with foot-rule.
+
+2. Repeat the above, using serge.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by a number of "ends to the inch"? a number of "picks
+to the inch"?
+
+2. How many ends to the inch in the burlap? How many picks to the
+inch?
+
+3. How many ends to the inch in the serge? How many picks?
+
+4. Note several differences between cloth produced by plain weaving
+and cloth produced by twill weaving.
+
+
+=Experiment 5--Pile Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom, two pencils, scissors.
+    Materials: White cotton warp, filling yarn of two colors.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 62.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Thread the loom two warp threads to a notch until there are 20 ends
+(warp threads).
+
+2. Use a pencil as a harness. Raise the 1st, 3d, 5th, 7th, and 9th
+sets of warp threads.
+
+3. Fasten securely the green filling yarn at one end and pass it
+through the shed formed by carrying out Direction 2. Draw the filling
+thread tight and wind once or twice around the outside warp end.
+
+4. Use a second pencil as a harness and raise the sets of warp threads
+that are now down, forming a new shed.
+
+5. Fasten the red filling yarn at one end and pass it through the
+shed. Wind once or twice about the outside warp end.
+
+6. Raise the red filling to form a loop in each place where it (the
+red filling) has passed over a warp end.
+
+7. Form a shed by raising the first harness and pass through the green
+filling thread, drawing it tight to hold the red filling above it in
+place. Wind about the outside warp end.
+
+8. Repeat Directions 2-7 several times, each time raising the red
+filling to form loops and each time drawing the green filling tight to
+hold the red in place.
+
+9. Cut with scissors the loops formed by raising the red filling.
+
+10. As well as you can with scissors, shear the pile (the soft, thick
+covering on the face) to make a fairly even surface.
+
+11. Cut the sample away from the loom and mount.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What are some varieties of cloth that are woven with a pile
+surface?
+
+2. Sometimes the loops of the pile are cut and sometimes left as
+loops. What fabrics are examples of cut pile? uncut pile?
+
+3. What is meant by the _pile_ of velvet or carpet?
+
+
+=Experiment 6--Other Classes of Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
+    Materials: Samples of satin, voile, lace curtaining, double cloth,
+               carpeting.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 58-64.
+
+
+_Satin Weave_
+
+1. Examine the sample of satin under the pick glass. Notice that the
+warp and filling interlace in such a way that there is no trace of the
+diagonal on the face of the cloth.
+
+    _a._ Is satin of a close or loose weave?
+
+    _b._ What can you say of the surface of satin?
+
+    _c._ What effect has this smooth surface on light?
+
+    _d._ This is called a satin weave. Why?
+
+    _e._ What is the most extensive use of the satin weave?
+    (See _Textiles_, page 1.)
+
+NOTE.--Sometimes fabrics of other weaves will have a satin stripe.
+
+
+_Gauze Weave_
+
+2. Examine the sample of voile under the pick glass. This is a type of
+what is known as gauze weave.
+
+    _a._ What is the chief characteristic of the gauze
+    weave?
+
+    _b._ Name several gauze fabrics.
+
+
+_Lappet Weave_
+
+3. Examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass.
+
+    _a._ If the fancy figures were not present, of what
+    weave would this sample be?
+
+    Simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze
+    fabrics by machinery to imitate embroidery. This style
+    of weave is known as lappet weave.
+
+    _b._ On fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving
+    used?
+
+    _c._ What is lappet weaving?
+
+
+_Jacquard Weave_
+
+4. Examine a piece of carpet. Notice the elaborate designs or patterns
+and the number of colors used. When the figures are elaborate they
+cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving. A special attachment
+called the _Jacquard_ apparatus is placed on top of the loom. This
+apparatus controls the warp threads so that a great many sheds may be
+formed and elaborate figures woven into fabrics. This is called
+Jacquard weaving.
+
+    _a._ What must be added to a loom for Jacquard weaving?
+
+    _b._ What is the use of the Jacquard apparatus?
+
+    _c._ When is the Jacquard weave used instead of lappet
+    weave?
+
+5. Read _Textiles_, page 61.
+
+
+_Double Cloth Weave_
+
+6. Examine the sample of double cloth. Notice that there are two
+single cloths. They are combined into one by here and there lacing the
+warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and filling of the other.
+In this way they are fastened together securely.
+
+    _a._ What color is the sample on one side? the other?
+
+    _b._ Of what is double cloth composed?
+
+    _c._ How are the single cloths combined into one?
+
+    _d._ Read _Textiles_, page 62. What are some of the uses
+    of double cloth?
+
+
+_Classes of Weave_
+
+7. How many classes of weave have been studied?
+
+8. Name the classes of weave.
+
+9. Name a fabric to illustrate each weave.
+
+
+=Experiment 7--Fibers=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
+
+    Materials: Samples of broadcloth, mohair, silk, cotton cloth,
+    linen.
+
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 1; 97, Mohair; 203, Silk; 105,
+    Cotton; 193, Linen; 199, Hemp; 201, Jute; 232, Ramie; 233,
+    Pineapple.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Read _Textiles_, page 1, paragraph 1. What are textiles?
+
+2. Cloth is composed of yarn. Yarn in its turn is composed of many
+small ends called fibers.
+
+3. Look at the sample of broadcloth. If you did not know this to be
+broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods. Detach from the
+sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These are woolen
+fibers.
+
+4. Examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread into
+fibers. This takes the name mohair from the fibers which compose it.
+Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat.
+
+5. Examine a sample of silk, also a detached filling thread. The silk
+fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm.
+
+6. Wool, mohair, and silk fibers are obtained from the animals, the
+sheep, goat, and silk worm, hence they are called animal fibers.
+
+7. Detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and
+separate it into fibers. These are cotton fibers and are obtained from
+the cotton plant.
+
+8. Examine the sample of linen, a filling thread and its fibers. Linen
+is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant.
+
+9. Cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants, and are called
+vegetable fibers. There are other vegetable fibers such as jute, hemp,
+ramie, pineapple, etc., but cotton and linen are the most important.
+
+10. Name the most valuable fibers for textile use.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Of what is cloth composed?
+
+2. Of what does yarn consist?
+
+3. How are the fibers made to join in one long thread? (See
+Experiment 1.)
+
+4. Of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed?
+
+5. Of what animal is wool the covering?
+
+6. Of what fibers is mohair composed?
+
+7. From what animal is mohair obtained?
+
+8. Of what does the silk fiber consist?
+
+9. What are the animal fibers?
+
+10. Why are they called animal fibers?
+
+11. Of what fibers is cotton cloth composed?
+
+12. From what plant are cotton fibers obtained?
+
+13. From what plant is the linen fiber obtained?
+
+14. What are the most important vegetable fibers?
+
+15. Name four other vegetable fibers.
+
+16. Why are these fibers called vegetable fibers?
+
+
+=Experiment 8--Wool Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, microscope, 2 pine cones, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Raw wool, woolen yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter i.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers. Examine both these
+fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool. Would you describe these
+fibers as coarse or fine?
+
+2. How do the fibers feel to touch?
+
+3. Test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them.
+
+4. Measure the length of several fibers.
+
+5. Why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them?
+
+6. Extend the fiber to its full length, then release. How does this
+prove the fiber to be elastic?
+
+7. Examine the fibers under the microscope. Describe. Notice that the
+wool fiber is cylindrical in shape. Notice that it is covered with
+scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof or the spines of a
+pine cone.
+
+8. Hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward. With the spines
+of the other pointing downward press the second cone down on the
+first. What happens? Just so the scales or points of the wool fibers
+hook into one another and interlock. These scales or serrations give
+to the wool fiber its chief characteristic which is the power of
+interlocking known as _felting_ or _shrinking_.
+
+9. See _Textiles_, page 2, the drawing of a magnified wool fiber. Make
+a drawing of a wool fiber.
+
+10. Examine under the microscope a hair from your head. Wool is only a
+variety of hair. Notice that the scales on the hair lie close to the
+stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber, hence hair fibers
+cannot interlock as wool fibers do. The scales lying close to the hair
+give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster a characteristic.
+
+11. Compare the wool fiber with hair, noting two differences.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. With what is the wool fiber covered?
+
+2. Of what advantage are these scales or points?
+
+3. What is the chief characteristic of wool?
+
+4. What is meant by the shrinking or felting power?
+
+5. Name five characteristics of the wool fiber.
+
+
+=Experiment 9--Mohair Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Wool fibers, mohair fibers, sample of mohair brilliantine.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 1, 37, 97.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Pull a mohair fiber from the fleece. Hold it up to the light.
+Describe the fiber as you see it.
+
+2. Hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light.
+Note the differences.
+
+3. Measure several mohair fibers.
+
+4. Examine the mohair fiber under the microscope. The fiber is covered
+with scales, but they lie close to the fiber and do not project in
+points as do the scales on the wool fiber, hence mohair will not felt
+to any degree.
+
+5. The Angora goat of Asia Minor furnishes the mohair. This goat is
+being raised in the western states of the United States now.
+
+6. Detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread; a
+filling thread. Which is mohair? Which is cotton?
+
+7. What word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine? the
+appearance?
+
+8. What are the characteristics of the mohair fiber?
+
+9. What are the uses of mohair? Mohair is used in the manufacture of
+plushes, dress fabrics, and imitation furs.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why will mohair not felt as wool does?
+
+2. The scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on the
+surface of the fiber?
+
+3. What effect will a smooth surface have on light?
+
+4. What characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that the
+smooth surface reflects light?
+
+5. From what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity?
+
+6. Where is mohair being grown in the United States?
+
+
+=Experiment 10--Cotton Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Tuft of cotton fibers, cotton ball, seeds.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter ix, page 105.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and thumb
+of each hand and pull apart with a jerk. What is your judgment of the
+strength of the _staple_ (fiber)?
+
+2. Loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled apart.
+What is the feel of cotton? the appearance as you hold it to the
+light?
+
+3. Detach several fibers one by one. How does the length compare with
+that of the wool and mohair? Measure and record the length of three
+fibers.
+
+4. How do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers?
+
+5. Compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool.
+
+6. Examine the cotton fibers under the microscope. Observe that the
+enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon. When the fiber was growing
+it was cylindrical in shape. When ripe the plant drew back its
+life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and twisted like a
+corkscrew. The twist is peculiar to the cotton, being present in no
+other fiber. The twist makes the cotton fiber suitable for spinning,
+helping to hold the short fibers together.
+
+7. Read of the cotton plant from _Textiles_, chapter ix.
+
+8. The four chief cotton producing countries are the United States,
+Egypt, India, Brazil.
+
+9. There are several classifications of cotton. The most common are
+Sea Island (in the lead); Egyptian (a close second); Uplands (that of
+the United States, southern part); and Peruvian.
+
+10. Uplands is the most common cotton of our South.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recognized
+under the microscope?
+
+2. Why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spinning?
+
+3. What are the characteristics of the cotton fiber?
+
+4. Why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber?
+
+5. Name the chief cotton producing countries.
+
+6. What are the most common classifications of cotton?
+
+7. What is the finest growth of cotton? (Sea Island commands at the
+present time $1.00 a lb., while Middling Uplands brings 15 cents.)
+
+8. Where is cotton known as Upland Cotton grown?
+
+
+=Experiment 11--Silk Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Tripod, alcohol lamp, small pan of water, lead pencil.
+    Material: Silk cocoon.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xvii, page 203.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Place the cocoon in a small pan of water. Apply heat to the pan
+until the water boils. The cocoon is placed in hot water to soften the
+glue which holds the fibers together.
+
+2. Remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled. This
+tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called _floss_.
+
+3. Brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends. Unwind
+carefully until you find a continuous end. Wind or _reel_ the silk
+fiber over a lead pencil.
+
+4. The silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers.
+
+5. Hold the cocoon to the light as you reel. How does the silk fiber
+compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers?
+
+6. The silk fiber is from 1000 to 4000 feet long. Unlike the other
+fibers the silk fiber is already a thread.
+
+7. How does light effect the silk fiber? When the gum is thoroughly
+washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief
+characteristic.
+
+8. Break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity. Notice how
+the fiber springs back. Extend and release again. What characteristic
+does this illustrate?
+
+9. Examine the silk fiber under the microscope. Notice that it is
+round and smooth and resembles a glass rod. It shows what appear to be
+two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same time that the fiber
+was formed. Describe the silk fiber as it appears under the
+microscope.
+
+10. Silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw silk
+and thus exported.
+
+11. The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk. It is
+handled here first by the _throwster_ who winds it from the skein and
+makes different varieties of thread.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water?
+
+2. What is known as floss?
+
+3. What is meant by silk reeling?
+
+4. What can you say of the length of the silk fiber?
+
+5. In what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers?
+
+6. What is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber?
+
+7. What are other characteristics of the silk fiber?
+
+8. In what form is silk exported?
+
+9. In what countries is most of the raw silk produced? (See
+_Textiles_, page 206.)
+
+10. With what does the silk manufacture in the United States begin?
+
+11. Who is the _throwster_ and what is his work?
+
+
+=Experiment 12--Linen Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope.
+    Material: Flax fibers.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xv, page 193.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. The linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant. Certain fibers,
+such as flax, jute, and ramie, are obtained from the stem of the
+plant, hence are known as _bast_ fibers, and flax is the most
+important bast fiber.
+
+2. It is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody
+part of the stem. The process is called _retting_, which is really
+rotting by soaking the stem in water.
+
+3. Before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the
+plant they undergo the processes of beating, breaking, scutching,
+hackling, etc.
+
+4. Read the account of each process. See _Textiles_, pages 194, 195.
+
+5. Measure and record the length of two linen fibers.
+
+6. Test the strength by trying to break the fiber.
+
+7. Test for elasticity.
+
+8. What is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the light?
+
+9. What is the color of the fiber? What is the process called by which
+linen is whitened? (Bleaching.)
+
+10. Examine the flax fibers under the microscope. Observe that the
+fibers look like long cylindrical tubes. Describe the appearance of
+linen fibers under the microscope.
+
+11. The best flax is grown in Belgium and Ireland.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. From what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained?
+
+2. Name some bast fibers.
+
+3. What is the most important bast fiber?
+
+4. What is retting?
+
+5. For what purpose is linen subjected to retting?
+
+6. Through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before it is
+free?
+
+7. Where is the best flax grown?
+
+
+=Experiment 13--Carding=
+
+    Apparatus: A pair of hand cards.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 39 and 50.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine the hand cards. Notice that there is a foundation of
+several layers of leather. Notice that this foundation is covered with
+staples of steel wire. Notice that the staples are shaped like the
+letter U with the points turned one way. The covering of the hand
+cards is called _card clothing_.
+
+2. Hold one hand card in the left hand, face up, wires pointing to the
+left. Spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card.
+
+3. Hold the other card in the right hand, face down, with the wires
+pointing to the right. Bring the pointed wires of this card down on
+the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the other card.
+Repeat several times.
+
+4. You have been _carding_ wool. The sharp points have been tearing
+the wool apart or disentangling the fibers. Carding brushes the fibers
+out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel. It forms them into a thin
+sheet.
+
+5. The wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently
+disentangled for drawing and spinning. In order to card again the hand
+card must be _stripped_ of the wool so that it may be dragged again
+through the staples.
+
+6. Hold the hand card, which is in your right hand, erect. Notice that
+the wires point downward. Move the other hand downward over the
+wires. Notice that the surface is smooth. The points do not prick as
+they will if you try to brush the hand upwards over the wires.
+
+7. Hold the card in the left hand in a similar position. Raise and
+bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface of the
+other card and strip it of its wool.
+
+8. Card again, then strip again. Repeat several times until the fibers
+are thoroughly disentangled.
+
+9. This carding and stripping, once done by hand, is now done in the
+mill by a power machine called the _card_. (See picture, _Textiles_,
+page 38.) Notice that instead of cards this machine consists of
+rollers or cylinders. Some are carding cylinders and some are
+stripping cylinders. The principle is the same as that of the hand
+cards. The wool is carded and stripped again and again and is finally
+delivered in a soft, fluffy rope called a _sliver_ ready for drawing
+and spinning.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the covering of the hand card called?
+
+2. Describe card clothing.
+
+3. What does carding do to the wool?
+
+4. When the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed wires
+of another cylinder what is the action on the wool?
+
+5. If the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface of
+another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder?
+
+6. In what form does the wool finally leave the machine? What name is
+given to this fluffy rope?
+
+7. How was carding done in the early days? How is it done now?
+
+8. In what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as that of
+the card of the mill?
+
+
+=Experiment 14--Drawing and Spinning=
+
+    Apparatus: Foot-rule, elastic band.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 4, 44, 134; Sections: Spinning: Mule
+                Spinning.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Observe the mass of wool fibers. The wool was clipped from the
+sheep, _washed_, and _oiled_ to make it smooth and pliable.
+
+2. With the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool fibers.
+In the mill this is done by a machine called the _card_. (See picture,
+_Textiles_, page 38.) And the process itself is called _carding_.
+
+3. Gently _draw_ out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it into
+one long strand.
+
+4. Draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to break.
+
+5. This process in the mill is known as _drawing_. The wool passes
+through machine after machine, which gradually reduces the thickness
+of the strand.
+
+6. You have now a strand called _roving_, but not a thread with which
+you could weave. What is called the strand? Why could you not weave
+with it as it is? If you pulled the roving apart it would separate
+into a number of small ends. What name is given to these ends?
+
+7. It is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread. Hold the
+roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers out
+several inches. As you draw, twist the roving between the fingers and
+thumb. The _twisting_ is called _spinning_.
+
+8. When you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end of a
+foot-rule, do so. Give a whirl to the ruler, which is taking the place
+of the old-time _spindle_, and let it drop. Continue to whirl the
+ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting. When well
+twisted, wind the yarn on the ruler. There was a hook on the old-time
+spindle. Instead of the hook, hold the wound yarn in place by an
+elastic band. Draw out several inches again and repeat.
+
+9. With the spindle a _distaff_ was used. It held the roving which you
+now hold in your left hand. (See picture of distaff and spindle.)
+
+10. Define spinning; see _Textiles_, page 4, footnote. The early use
+of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day. In what two ways is
+the spindle of use?
+
+11. The improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning wheel.
+Now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. After shearing, through what two processes does wool pass?
+
+2. Why is it necessary to oil wool?
+
+3. What is the work of the _card_?
+
+4. Explain the process called _drawing_. Why is it necessary to repeat
+the operation several times?
+
+5. What followed the distaff and spindle in the development of
+spinning?
+
+6. On what is the spinning done now in the mill? See _Textiles_,
+picture, pages 135, 137.
+
+
+=Experiment 15--Gilling and Combing=
+
+    Apparatus: Coarse comb, fine comb.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 39-44.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Open up the wool a little with the fingers. Do this in place of
+carding, as you need but a small quantity.
+
+2. You comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel, side by side, in
+place. Combs are used on wool for just the same purpose, but the first
+process of combing is not known as such. It is called _gilling_, and
+the combs themselves are called _fallers_. The machines are known as
+_gill boxes_. See _Textiles_, page 43.
+
+3. Hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the strand.
+With the coarse comb in the right hand, comb and thus straighten the
+fibers first at one end then at the other. This is _gilling_. The
+principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more nearly
+parallel and to draw them out into more even strands.
+
+4. The coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel. A fine comb will
+further straighten the hairs, but it will also remove the snarled,
+tangled, short hairs. Again wool is to be treated like hair. Hold the
+strand in the middle as before. Comb each end with the fine comb.
+Notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and leaving the
+long fibers between the fingers. This is the second process of
+combing, and is called _combing_.
+
+5. The long fibers are called _tops_ and the short fibers are known
+as _noils_.[23] Combing is the process which separates the long fibers
+known as _tops_ from the short fibers known as _noils_.
+
+6. The combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one. See
+picture, _Textiles_, page 41.
+
+7. Gill and comb several strands of wool.
+
+8. Top is too delicate, as it comes from the comb, to be handled. The
+next process is to combine several strands into one. Combine the
+several strands you have gilled and combed. Comb this one end with the
+coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are perfectly parallel.
+
+9. You gilled, combed, and gilled again. So it is in the mill. After
+combing, the wool is gilled again by machines known as _finisher gill
+boxes_, and wound into a ball called _a top_.
+
+10. _A top_ differs from _top_. _Top_ is the strand of long fibers
+which comes from the comb. _A top_ is the ball of combed wool as it
+comes from the finisher gill boxes. It weighs from 7 to 12 lbs. and
+contains 200 to 250 yds.
+
+11. The wool is now ready for the next processes--those of drawing and
+spinning.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is the hair combed? Why is wool combed?
+
+2. What is the first process of combing called? What name is given to
+the combs used in gilling? What are the machines called?
+
+3. What is the principle of gilling?
+
+4. How does a fine comb act on the hair?
+
+5. When you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened?
+
+6. What are the long fibers called? the short? Of which are there
+more?
+
+7. What is the second process of combing called?
+
+8. Why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one end?
+
+9. Why is it necessary to gill again after combing?
+
+10. In what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill boxes?
+
+11. What is a top?
+
+12. What two processes follow carding?
+
+13. For what two processes is wool now ready?
+
+
+=Experiment 16--Raw Wool to Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand cards, coarse and fine combs, pencil.
+    Material: Scoured wool.
+    Reference: The preceding experiments.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. This wool has already been subjected to the three operations of
+shearing, scouring, and oiling.
+
+2. Card the wool. What does carding do to the wool?
+
+3. Strip the cards. Rub the sheet of fibers between the palms of the
+hands into the form of a strand. It is in this form that it leaves the
+card of the mill, and it is known as a _sliver_ of wool.
+
+4. Pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform upon it
+the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse comb.
+
+5. Follow the gilling by the operation of _combing_, which you will do
+by combing again, this time with a fine comb.
+
+6. Pull about three inches again from the sliver. Continue to gill and
+comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and combed.
+
+7. Combine several strands into one and subject the one strand to a
+second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side by
+side.
+
+8. Gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known as top. As
+you draw, spin. As you spin, wind on a lead pencil. The fineness of
+the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and twisting.
+
+9. What is the source of wool? You began with wool, covering of the
+sheep's body, and after subjecting it to a series of operations you
+have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving.
+
+10. Name the operations in order, through which raw wool passes before
+it finally becomes yarn.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What are the first three processes through which wool passes? What
+is shearing? scouring?
+
+2. Why is wool oiled?
+
+3. What is meant by a sliver of wool?
+
+4. What does gilling do to the wool?
+
+5. What does combing do to the wool?
+
+6. Why is there another operation of gilling after combing?
+
+7. What is meant by _drawing_? _spinning_?
+
+8. What name is given to the wool wound on the pencil?
+
+9. On what does the fineness of the yarn depend?
+
+
+=Experiment 17--Difference between Woolen and Worsted Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 50 and 51.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn from
+either the warp or filling. Do the same with a piece of woolen fabric.
+Notice the appearance of each piece of yarn. Which is smoother? What
+effect would friction have on the worsted yarn? the woolen yarn? Which
+sample of yarn would shine and reflect the light?
+
+
+=Experiment 18--Burling and Mending=
+
+    Apparatus: Chalk, scissors, dissecting pin, needle, pick glass.
+    Material: 4 square inches of cloth from the loom.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 71.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product. It must
+pass through several processes before it is finished. These processes
+are known as _finishing_.
+
+2. What is the feel of this cloth?
+
+3. Hold the cloth to the light and look through it. Note the
+imperfections and chalk them. What defects did you notice?
+
+4. Place the cloth on the desk, face down. Rub the fingers over the
+back of the cloth. When the fingers locate a knot, raise it with the
+dissecting needle to be cut off later.
+
+5. Reverse the cloth. Rub the fingers over the face. When a knot is
+found, force it through to the back with the dissecting needle. All
+the knots are on one side now. Clip them off with the scissors. This
+is called _burling_ and is the first process of finishing.
+
+6. Hold the cloth to the light. Notice where an entire filling thread
+is missing. This is known as a _full miss pick_. When part of a
+filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a _half miss pick_. In
+general what does a miss pick mean?
+
+7. Unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth. With it
+thread a needle and replace the missing pick. Follow the weave
+closely, using a pick glass as an aid. You are performing the second
+process of finishing, that of mending.
+
+8. If a warp end is missing replace it.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by _finishing_?
+
+2. What is the first process of finishing? What is burling?
+
+3. What is a full miss pick? a half miss pick?
+
+4. What is the second process of finishing? What is mending? Of what
+must the mender be careful?
+
+
+=Experiment 19--Removal of Stains=
+
+    Material: Stained fabrics.
+
+Textiles are easily stained, therefore it is necessary to know
+something about the character of stains and the methods of removal.
+Stains may be roughly divided into the following classes:
+
+    _a._ Stains from foods, such as grease and fruit acids.
+
+    _b._ Stains from machinery, as wheel grease and oils.
+
+    _c._ Blood stains.
+
+    _d._ Inks.
+
+    _e._ Chemicals, such as acids, alkalies.
+
+Food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup, meat,
+milk, etc., or to sugar contained in candies or preserves, or to fruit
+acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces.
+
+Wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts of
+machines, like elevators, street cars, etc. After the cloth leaves the
+loom it often contains spots of grease, oil, or dirt stains due to
+drippings from the loom or overhead machinery. These are removed by
+means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain. Ether is the
+principal solvent used in the mill to remove small stains.
+
+Very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat, unless
+carried out of a house, will condense and settle on fabrics in the
+form of a film which collects a great deal of dust. (A bad grease spot
+usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation.) In order to
+break up this film it is necessary to separate the entangled dust.
+This is performed by some mechanical means, such as shaking and
+brushing.
+
+The most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle of
+absorbent material[24] around the spot to take up the excess of
+liquid. A white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb the
+solvent and show when the goods are clean. Then apply the solvent with
+a cloth of the same color and texture (satin is excellent as it does
+not grow linty) and rub from outside the spot to the center to prevent
+spreading. It is necessary to rub very carefully as excessive rubbing
+will remove the nap and change the color. One of the great dangers in
+removing a stain is that you may spoil the fabric. Therefore great
+care must be exercised.
+
+The principal solvents are ether, chloroform, alcohol, turpentine,
+benzene, and naphtha. Each solvent may be used to best advantage on
+certain fabrics.
+
+The commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities that
+leave a brown ring after evaporation. This brown ring is very
+objectionable. Turpentine is used only in removing stains from coarse
+fabrics. Chloroform, benzene, and naphtha are used on ordinary silks
+and linens. Ether and chloroform are used to best advantage in
+removing stains from delicate silk, as they seldom affect colors and
+evaporate very quickly. Of course it must be borne in mind that when a
+stain is removed from a fabric that portion that contained the stain
+loses some coloring matter and feels rougher than the other part.
+
+
+_Grease Spots on Heavy Goods that cannot be Laundered_
+
+It is usually desirable to use the following method in removing grease
+from a heavy fabric, such as carpets or colored fabrics. In case the
+grease is fresh, place over the stain a piece of clean blotting paper
+or a piece of butcher's brown wrapping paper and underneath absorbent
+paper or oil cloth, and then press the spot with a warm iron. As heat
+often affects the shades of certain colors such as blues, greens, and
+reds, it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric and see if the
+grease is melted.
+
+Remove a stain from a piece of carpet.
+
+
+_Removal of Grease and Blood_
+
+_Ordinary Fabrics (wash goods)._ Wash the fabric containing grease or
+blood stain with tepid water and soap.
+
+_Delicate Fabrics._ As strong soap will spoil some colors and textures
+it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is stained.
+
+Remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric.
+
+
+_Removal of Wheel Grease and Lubricants on Fine Fabrics_
+
+Wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite. Apply benzene to the
+wheel grease spot. This will dissolve the oil, leaving the coloring
+matter (graphite) on the cloth, and this may be collected on the white
+cloth on the other side.
+
+Remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric.
+
+
+_Removal of Acids_
+
+Fruit acids and all others, except nitric acid may be removed by
+putting ammonia on the spot. This will neutralize the acid, forming a
+salt which may be either brushed or washed off. In the case of nitric
+acid the fibers of the cloth are actually destroyed and no amount of
+ammonia will restore the original condition of the fabric.
+
+Remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist.
+
+
+_Removal of Blood_
+
+Blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with cold or
+tepid water. Never use hot water, as hot water coagulates the albumen
+of the blood. After removing the blood soap and warm water may be
+used. In case the fabric is a thick cloth, the blood may be removed by
+applications of moist starch.
+
+Take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids,
+soup, wheel grease, ink, and blood and remove them. Exercise great
+care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring.
+
+Remove blood from a fabric.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is a solvent? an absorbent?
+
+2. What is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from silks,
+coarse goods, and linens? from delicate silks?
+
+3. Why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain?
+
+4. How may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods?
+
+5. What is wheel grease? How may it be removed?
+
+6. How will ammonia remove acid stains?
+
+7. Does it remove all? Why not?
+
+8. Explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth.
+
+
+=Experiment 20--Dyeing Wool=
+
+    Apparatus: Large porcelain dish or casserole, filter.
+    Materials: Undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric, undyed yarn,
+               and undyed raw cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+diamond dye (green or red) in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
+Place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid and boil ten
+minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff
+washes off or not.
+
+2. Repeat the experiment, using the same weight of undyed woolen yarn.
+Repeat with worsted yarn.
+
+3. Repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver.
+
+4. Notice which has the deeper color. The degree of color depends on
+the amount of twist in yarn. Which sample has absorbed the greatest
+amount of dyestuff from the liquid?
+
+    _a._ Why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed?
+
+    _b._ Why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or
+    yarn dyed?
+
+
+=Experiment 21--Dyeing Cotton=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
+    Material: Piece of cotton cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 67.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of
+cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed
+fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth that has
+been previously washed in common alum.[25] Note the effect. Which has
+the greater attraction for dyestuffs, cotton or wool? Why is alum
+used?
+
+3. Repeat the same experiment, using first the same weight of cotton
+yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver. Notice the results.
+
+Which piece of cotton holds the dye best, that which was dipped in
+alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution?
+
+
+=Experiment 22--Weighting Silk.--Affinity of Metallic Salts for Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dishes.
+    Material: Silk yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 212-214.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein No. 1
+by looping some cotton thread into it. Prepare a tepid bath containing
+10 gm. strong sumach extract in 400 cc. water. Enter the skeins of
+silk and work for 15 to 20 minutes, meanwhile slowly raising the
+temperature to about 150� F. Remove, squeeze, rinse with water,
+squeeze, and dry skein No. 1 for weighing.
+
+2. Meanwhile prepare another bath containing 4 gm. of copperas
+(ferrous sulphate) in 400 cc. cold water. Work skein No. 2 in bath for
+10 minutes cold. Remove, and rinse well; save the iron bath. Repeat
+the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several times more, finally
+wash the sumach iron skein in 1 per cent hot soap solution; rinse,
+squeeze, and dry. Weigh each dried and cooled skein and note the
+increase in weight of each. Save sample for Experiment 23 and note the
+effect of weighting on the yarn.
+
+
+=Experiment 23--Dyeing Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
+    Material: Piece of silk yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 210.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of
+silk skein, from Experiment 22, in the liquid and boil ten minutes.
+Then wash the dyed silk and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or
+not.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk yarn
+without weighing it. Compare the results.
+
+
+=Experiment 24--Test to Distinguish Piece-Dyed from Yarn-Dyed Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pen knife.
+    Materials: Woolen and cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 66-68.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Unravel threads of the suspected sample, and with a blade of pen knife
+note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn as noted by
+the depth of color in the interior of the yarn. In case there is the
+same depth of color in the interior as on the surface, the fabric is
+yarn-dyed. If on the other hand, the interior of the yarn is not so
+highly colored as the exterior, it is piece-dyed.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by yarn-dyed fabric?
+
+2. What is meant by piece-dyed fabric?
+
+3. How may the two be distinguished?
+
+
+=Experiment 25--Test to Distinguish Dyed from Printed Fabrics=
+
+    Apparatus: Knife-blade.
+    Materials: Cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.
+
+Printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing the back
+side of the cloth, and noting whether or not the pattern on the face
+of the cloth penetrates through to the back, or only the outline
+shows. In case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the fabric,
+it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread of the
+suspected sample, and by the means of a knife-blade attempting to
+scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread. If the dyestuff
+has penetrated into the interior of the thread, it is _not_ printed.
+
+Generally speaking, printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics by the
+fact that the former have the design printed on the face of the cloth.
+This is called _direct printing_. The best dyed fabrics are obtained
+by dyeing in what is called a _jig_, and the whole fabric is saturated
+with color. Most, if not all the cloths which you see in the retail
+dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in the jig. Some
+of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded in a mangle, but
+there has been a very small quantity of these goods on the market for
+many years.
+
+Printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics; it all depends
+upon the process by which the goods are converted. Within the past few
+years great headway has been made in dyeing with what are termed _vat_
+colors. Indanthrene is a vat color and a great many mills have used
+this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades. This is what
+would be termed a _fast_ color in every sense of the word. There are a
+number of dyestuff makers in Europe who put vat colors on the market,
+but they all call them by different names. Vat colors have been used
+with success in printing during the past year or two, especially on
+shirting fabrics, and these colors are fast to both light and washing.
+Most direct colors used for printing or dyeing are equally fast to
+light and washing, but of course they will not stand the test as well
+as the vat colors mentioned above.
+
+The essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to
+withstand exposure to light and washing. In printing, of course, a
+greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dyeing, in
+fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the market the
+effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in any other way
+than by printing. At the same time, although the field in designing
+for dyed fabrics is limited, some very handsome effects can be
+obtained.
+
+It will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed and
+dyed fabrics put on the market, both foreign and domestic, will be in
+the vat colors which, as stated above, are very fast. Even at the
+present time there are many mills that are using this class of colors
+entirely, especially the mills which manufacture woven fabrics.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. In printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the back
+of the cloth?
+
+2. If the fabric is printed on both sides, how may this fact be
+proved?
+
+3. What is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 26--Bleaching by Sulphur Dioxide=
+
+    Apparatus: A quart bottle.
+    Material: Sulphur, worsted or silk fabric.
+
+Bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers such as
+woolen and silk fabrics. It injures the fibers and at the same time
+leaves them yellow.
+
+Animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous solution of
+sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning sulphur.
+
+Wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a quart
+bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur.[26] The fumes of burning
+sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter--dyestuff. The fumes
+(called sulphur dioxide) do not in most cases destroy the coloring
+matter as chlorine does, but simply combine with it to form colorless
+compounds which can be destroyed. The color can be restored by
+exposing the bleached fabric to dilute sulphuric acid.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be
+bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes?
+
+2. What becomes of the coloring matter?
+
+
+=Experiment 27--Bleaching by Bleaching Powder=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
+    Material: Piece of calico.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 148.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart bottle
+containing a pint of water.[27] Then place a piece of calico in the
+water containing the bleaching powder. What is the effect on the
+calico? Then remove cloth to another bottle filled with dilute
+hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. What is the effect on the
+color? Then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in water.
+
+Why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through two
+baths in bleaching? What is contained in the first bath? in the second
+bath?
+
+
+=Experiment 30--Determining Style of Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Different fabrics.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 56-58, etc.
+
+Examine different samples of cloth and classify them according to the
+seven standards given on pages 56-58, etc.
+
+
+=Experiment 31--Determining the Size of Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Yard stick.
+    Materials: Sample of cotton, woolen, and worsted yarns.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 49, 51, 52.
+
+As yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of
+thickness, it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring this
+thickness. For this purpose yarns are numbered, so that when the
+number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may be gained. It
+would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds according to one
+fixed standard, yet unfortunately this is not done. The methods of
+counting yarns are many and varied. The usual method is to estimate
+the yarn number by taking the number of hands of a definite length
+which make up some given weight. Thus in the worsted yarn, No. 1 is a
+yarn that has 560 yards to a pound. No. 2 worsted yarn has two times
+560 yards to a pound. How many yards in No. 12 worsted yarn? How many
+yards in No. 20 cotton yarn?
+
+
+=Experiment 32--Test for Twist in Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Test dial.
+    Material: Piece of yarn.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 131-132.
+
+As the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength, it is
+necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn. The
+strength increases up to a certain limit. When this limit is reached,
+increased twist does not make the thread any stronger. We may also
+have twist and strength at the expense of bulk. The test consists in
+finding out the number of turns per inch, and this is done by an
+arrangement where a certain length of yarn is stretched between two
+points on a twisting machine and the twist taken out. The number of
+turns required to take the twist completely out are registered on a
+dial at the side of the apparatus.
+
+Poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine as the
+finer cotton. The shorter the cotton the more twist is required to
+spin it, and the more twist that is put into the yarn, the less will
+be the yardage. Whereas on the finer and longer cotton there will be
+less twist put into it, and the yarn will be much stronger. Find the
+twist in different kinds of yarn.
+
+
+=Experiment 33--Determining the Direction of Warp and Filling=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.
+
+When one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine the
+direction of the warp and direction of the filling.
+
+Fabrics with Selvedge.--Examine any fabric with a selvedge and notice
+that the warp threads run in the same direction as the length (longest
+side) of the selvedge. What direction will the filling threads bear to
+the selvedge?
+
+Fabrics with a Nap.--Examine a piece of flannel and notice the
+direction of the nap. Why will the direction of the nap be the same as
+the direction of the warp? Remember the way in which the fabric enters
+the napping machine.
+
+Fabrics Containing Double Threads.--Examine a fabric containing double
+and single threads and notice that the warp contains the double
+threads. Why?
+
+Fabrics Containing Cotton and Woolen Yarn.--Examine a fabric
+containing cotton and woolen threads running in different directions
+and notice that the cotton threads form the warp. Why?
+
+Another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine warp
+and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains the
+greater twist? Why? See if they are separated at more regular
+intervals. Why?
+
+Stiffened or Starched Fabrics.--Examine stiffened or starched goods
+very closely and notice the threads. If only one set can be seen they
+are the warp threads. The stiffer and straighter threads are found in
+the warp. Why? The rough and crooked threads are seen in the filling.
+
+
+=Experiment 34--Determining the Density of a Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Samples of cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine different samples of cloth and determine the number of
+filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass.
+
+2. Then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and see
+whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density.
+
+
+=Experiment 35--Determining Weight=
+
+    Apparatus: Balances, die.
+    Materials: 4 square inches of cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Fabrics are bought and sold by the yard. In order to express the
+amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per yard is
+usually given.
+
+2. In order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth of
+definite size, usually about 4 sq. in., is stamped out by means of a
+die, or cut by means of a tin plate exactly 4 sq. in. (2 in. on the
+side). This is then weighed on very accurate balances and expressed in
+grains. Find the weight per yard. Remember 7000 grains equal 1 lb.; 16
+oz. equal 1 lb.
+
+
+=Experiment 36--Determining Shrinkage=
+
+    Apparatus: Hot water.
+    Material: Sample of woolen fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour hot
+water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it in the
+morning at a moderate temperature without stretching. Then measure its
+length and divide the difference in lengths by the original length.
+The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the per cent of shrinkage.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with a cotton
+fabric.
+
+3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?
+
+
+=Experiment 37--Test of Fastness[28] of Color under Washing=
+
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution. Materials: Cotton and woolen
+fabrics. Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action of
+washing. They require more care than white goods and should be soaked
+in cold water containing very little soap and no soda. They should be
+dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them. If it is
+necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are dried wrong
+side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five times as much as
+reflected light.
+
+2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the
+action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation. In
+order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a
+soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household, and
+heated to 131� F. The treatment should be repeated several times.
+
+3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods than
+white?
+
+2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand the
+action of soap solution?
+
+3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131� F.) affect the fastness of
+colored fabric?
+
+
+=Experiment 38--Test of Fastness of Color under Friction=
+
+    Apparatus: Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.
+    Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to
+be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand friction
+and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must
+not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis (skin),
+or in close contact with other articles of clothing, as in the case of
+underwear.
+
+In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is
+necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric.
+
+In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary to
+have the rubbing equal in all cases.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by friction?
+
+2. What is meant by the expression "fastness of color of two fabrics"?
+
+3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to withstand
+friction?
+
+
+=Experiment 39--Test of Fastness of Color against Rain=
+
+    Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.
+    Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are
+expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting with
+undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice whether the
+color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.
+
+Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on it.
+Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried. Spotting
+may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong side of the
+material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp, unroll and
+press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.
+
+Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain may
+come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color and becomes
+gray and dull.
+
+
+=Experiment 40--Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight=
+
+    Apparatus: Cardboard.
+    Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose
+the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth
+each day and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when
+compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken
+the sunlight to change the color. Does direct sunlight have any effect
+upon colored fabrics? Which is the most affected by the sun, silk,
+woolen, or cotton fabrics, dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length
+of time? Are fabrics changed any sooner by the sun than by the
+weather?
+
+
+=Experiment 41--Test of Fastness of Color to Weather, Light, and Air=
+
+    Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air by
+placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed to
+the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above away
+from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed to the weather
+with those in the house and note the number of days it takes to
+change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the fabrics are most easily
+affected by the weather, light, and air?
+
+
+=Experiment 42--Test of Fastness of Color against Street Mud and Dust=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.
+    Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+Ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and
+dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample should
+be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution), dried, and
+brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying,
+brushing, and noting any change in the color.
+
+    _a._ Is there any change in color after the lime water
+    has been removed from the cloth?
+
+    _b._ With what may the action of the lime water or soda
+    be compared?
+
+
+=Experiment 43--Testing Rubberized Fabrics=
+
+    Materials: Rubberized fabrics.
+
+A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic
+purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excellent
+rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the market
+that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing qualities
+for the service they are intended to render.
+
+Strength and Resistance to Scratching.--In order to test a rubberized
+fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand everyday use,
+see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail. Then crease
+it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread it out very carefully
+and notice whether there are any broken places. If there are it should
+be rejected.
+
+Waterproof Qualities.--A rubberized fabric should be waterproof. A
+sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and filling it with
+water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with water. Notice whether
+it cracks or leaks.
+
+Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they are
+substantial.
+
+
+=Experiment 44--Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Acid, fire.
+    Materials: Warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made of
+wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more materials,
+to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience can teach one
+much in this respect, and in many cases inspection is quite
+insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of material and
+notice how it burns.
+
+Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the warp and
+filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of filling yarn.
+Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether it burns slowly and
+curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable smell, or
+burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Describe the burning process.
+
+2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?
+
+3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?
+
+Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric
+acid. Apply heat and note the effect.
+
+What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?
+
+What is the acid test for animal fiber?
+
+Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable or
+animal fibers.
+
+
+=Experiment 45--Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics=
+
+Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands and use
+both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics absorbs the
+moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.
+
+Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice that the
+linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and launders
+much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other hand gives off
+a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless.[29]
+
+Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber. Linen
+cannot be given a cotton fabric finish.[30]
+
+Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm, and
+non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag while linen
+retains firmness and stiffness.
+
+Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?
+
+What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics? Between
+the fibers of the fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 46--Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.
+    Material: Piece of silk fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular,
+various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real silk.
+To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potassium hydrate
+solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow solution it is
+artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.
+
+Another simple way used by some workmen, although unhygienic, is to
+unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place them in the
+mouth, and masticate them vigorously. Artificial silk will soften
+under the operation and break up into a mass of pulp. Natural silk
+will retain its fibrous strength.
+
+Test various samples of cheap "silk" hosiery.
+
+
+=Experiment 47--Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.
+    Material: Silk or woolen fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected thread
+or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is present
+it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.
+
+Test various samples of silk and wool.
+
+
+=Experiment 48--Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen=
+
+    Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.
+    Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are made to
+pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes to detect
+cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb and finger,
+the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If the fibers of
+the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears upon the addition
+of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color remains, the fibers are
+linen. The most reliable test is to examine the fiber under the
+microscope and note the difference in structure.
+
+2. Test a cheap _linen_ fabric for cotton.
+
+3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy
+through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears
+shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and
+wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has an
+exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.
+
+4. Describe a chemical test for linen.
+
+5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities of
+cotton and linen?
+
+
+=Experiment 49--Test of Fabric to Withstand Ironing and Pressing=
+
+    Apparatus: Hot iron.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot iron
+(about 200� F.). Compare the sample immediately with one not ironed.
+Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks, change while
+they are hot. If the original shade returns when the fabric has
+cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?
+
+2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?
+
+3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the three
+kinds of fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 50--Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact with
+the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand the
+excretions of the body.
+
+2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of
+dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a quart
+of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6� F. The fabric
+should be dipped a number of times, and then dried, without rinsing,
+between parchment paper.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?
+
+2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration, even
+if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?
+
+
+=Experiment 51--Test for Determining Dressing=
+
+    Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.
+    Materials: Various fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain
+considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric and
+determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a small sample
+of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it together, so that
+the dressing is removed and the quantity employed may be determined.
+If much dressing has been used, dust will be produced in rubbing.
+Prick the surface with your finger nail. Notice whether the starch
+comes off. Then wet your finger and rub it on the cloth and allow it
+to dry. Does the gloss disappear?
+
+2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and notice
+whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the sample with a
+magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether the dressing is
+superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.
+
+3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss and pasty
+look?
+
+4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much dressing
+after washing.
+
+5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting in
+a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then "boil the fabric out
+in hot water,"--boiling for several hours and then drying it. The
+difference in weight after drying and before boiling gives the weight
+of sizing material per sample piece.
+
+6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large residue
+is left after burning.
+
+
+=Experiment 52--Testing the Strength of Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Dynamometer.
+    Materials: Various fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 237.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place the
+two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, holding it
+tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in one
+direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice whether
+one set is very much stronger than the other.
+
+2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an
+instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out whether
+a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and whether it
+has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are of importance
+in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn as shown should
+at least be strong enough to bear the strain of manufacture. The test
+is made by stretching a hank of yarn between the two hooks of a cloth
+testing machine. The handle at the side is now turned, so that the
+lower hook descends and puts a strain on the hank. This strain is
+increased, and at the same time the pointer moves around the dial,
+which indicates in pounds the amount of strain. When the threads of
+the hank begin to break, the strain is released, and the catch at the
+side keeps the pointer in position until the amount of strain is read
+on the dial. The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs
+is shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator
+arranged near the upper hook.
+
+Test different fabrics and yarns.
+
+
+=Experiment 53--Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 153.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and notice
+the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The single thread
+is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each other, thus giving
+the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness. Why is hosiery
+suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread of the knitted fabric
+and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by cutting it. Is the yarn
+intact?
+
+2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying the
+following sketch. (See page 310.)
+
+Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking in
+the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in the
+threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the printed
+diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen that its
+very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual loops that
+if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to return to
+the normal.
+
+The essential characteristics of good hose are:
+
+1. That they should be without seams.
+
+2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of the
+wearer.
+
+3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest wear
+comes.
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY WEAVING
+
+  _a._ Weft. _b._ Warp.]
+
+[Illustration: PLAIN STOCKING FABRIC]
+
+The essential characteristics of good underwear are:
+
+1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted
+cloth.
+
+2. It should be porous in a high degree--whether in winter weight or
+summer weight.
+
+3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing machines, with
+as little bulk as possible.
+
+
+=Experiment 54--Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections in Hosiery=
+
+    Apparatus: Magnifying glass.
+    Materials: Hosiery (seconds).
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 159.
+
+Examine a piece of hosiery called a _second_, obtained from a hosiery
+mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are present:
+
+    _a._ Yarn contains thick bits and buns.
+
+    _b._ Knots are badly tied.
+
+    _c._ Discolored yarn.
+
+    _d._ Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being
+    too coarse for the yarn.
+
+    _e._ Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.
+
+
+=Experiment 55--Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Crochet needle.
+    Material: Thread.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a fabric.
+Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only one thread is
+made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a large needle with
+a hook at the end. The chief point is that the loops are not formed in
+uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and with the greatest liberty to
+choose any part of the article already made to form a new loop. For
+this reason, crocheting adapts itself to the production of fancy
+patterns useful for ornamenting.
+
+2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting that
+a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a single
+yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks of loops,
+while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of which is
+a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached at
+intervals to itself.
+
+
+=Experiment 56--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Cotton Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 151-152.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the lowest,
+medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric. Notice how
+quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a _thick_ gloss
+loses its luster after washing.
+
+2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white lawn,
+Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric. Wash the
+samples several times.
+
+Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?
+
+What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?
+
+
+=Experiment 57--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Woolen Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different samples of woolens.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less covered face,
+with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable, and the general
+color effects are much smoother and softer than those of worsteds.
+
+2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.
+
+Defects.--If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from the start
+or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough fulled in
+width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a great many
+fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility of such
+pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.
+
+
+=Experiment 58--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Worsted Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of the
+pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is exposed to
+light should show a luster without polish.
+
+2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how many
+conform to the above requirements.
+
+3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean
+and even looking face. By clean is meant well sheared. By even is
+meant that the individual ends and picks used should be _even_ and not
+full of knots, or of any foreign matter. Of course, there are some
+exceptions, for instance, in an unfinished worsted which has more or
+less nap on the face, it could not be sheared absolutely clear, but at
+the same time, the face should be very evenly cropped.
+
+Defects.--A serious defect would be if the cloth was not well sheared
+or if it contained many uneven cords and picks, or ends and picks
+missing, or coarse ends and slubs.
+
+Examine different worsteds and notice any defects.
+
+WORSTEDS.--Speaking generally, worsteds may be divided into two
+classes, distinguishable according to the _luster_ of their surface,
+or to the softness of their feel. They are used both for ladies' and
+men's wear. Worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds. The
+coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy weave
+effects for piece dyes, marketed in variety of finish, according to
+fashion.
+
+Under this heading may be classified staple cloths, such as serges,
+clays, and fancy weave effects without any illumination. They can be
+finished in three ways:--Clear, undressed, and cheviot, used for
+ladies' dress goods or men's wear, according to weight.
+
+The finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion, but there is
+always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds, for men's
+wear.
+
+Examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them.
+
+SUITINGS.--The term suitings covers various manipulations of
+manufactured goods.
+
+1. Tennis suitings, composed of all wool, or all worsted, white or
+cream ground, decorated with solid color, silk and weave stripe
+effects.
+
+2. Piece-dyed worsteds, such as a blue ground with white silk line,
+cable cord, and fancy weave stripe effects, or any other ground shade
+color with its complementary decoration applied.
+
+3. Mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics,
+decorations applied in color; cable, silk, and weave effects in
+stripes or overline color checks, suitable for men's wear, or
+decorated suitable for woman's wear. The darker shades for fall and
+the lighter shades for spring.
+
+General weight of fabric for men's wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56
+in.; general weight of fabric for ladies' wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd.,
+54 in.
+
+4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see a fancy
+effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored mixture, in
+loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in fancy effects are
+sometimes fashionable, and at other times the cloth finish is popular.
+
+This class may be subdivided into
+
+  1. Light weight for spring or fall.
+
+  2. Heavy weight for winter.
+
+The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in lighter
+colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish from
+worsted or woolen stock for fall.
+
+The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods,
+such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and warmer
+coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy coat is
+required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.
+
+Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.
+
+TROUSERINGS.--Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings and are
+heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground shade of the better
+grade of men's wear fabrics is generally composed of twist warp yarns,
+ranging from dark slate gray to light lavender gray. An endless
+variety of broad and narrow fine line effects is produced by expert
+manipulation and combination of weave and silk decorations, producing
+the pleasing effect required for this class of goods. The filling is
+nearly always black; but sometimes a dark slate is used.
+
+The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures and
+twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better grades.
+
+OVERCOATINGS.--Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted fabrics and
+heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appearance. Whether
+thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be elastic fabrics,
+that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods can be. When hard or
+stiff they never make a graceful garment. The special goods made for
+overcoats are nearly all soft goods.
+
+Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings,
+overcoatings, trouserings, etc.
+
+
+=Experiment 59--Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric=
+
+    Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 203-218.
+
+There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The consumer
+is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders why there is
+such a difference in price. The difference in price is due to the cost
+of raw material and additional cost is due to the care in
+manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35 to $5 a pound
+according to its nature, quality, and the country from which it comes.
+The cost of throwing silks preparatory to dyeing also varies, the
+average being 55 cents a pound for organzine or warp, and 33 cents a
+pound for tram and filling. The prices here also vary according to the
+nature of the twist imparted to the silk, which is regulated by the
+kind of cloth it is to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55
+cents a pound upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye
+and the treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of
+dyeing. The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items
+necessary with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps
+average about a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths
+and range upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of
+weaving also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric
+and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.
+
+Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for weaving the
+different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly in cost; for
+instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent upon the work and
+the number of colors used, whether it is blotch printing, discharge
+work, or block printing. Different processes in finishing have widely
+varied costs. At the present time moire work is done which costs as
+high as 25 cents per yard. There are also other materials which can be
+finished for as little as 1/2 cent per yard. Some goods have to be
+finished over and over again in the dyeing and finishing while others
+are very simply done. Many printed goods are handled 150 times after
+they come from the loom.
+
+When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by
+different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which
+good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye fabrics when
+burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while those which are
+weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply char and turn white
+without losing the structure of the fabric.
+
+A fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal weight
+gives the maximum strength for the amount of material used. For the
+same weight and material, that having the most bindings of warp and
+filling will give the greater service. Fabrics with an insufficient
+number of warp or filling threads slide easily and do not give good
+service, though sometimes fashionable. A fabric having a twist in the
+warp and filling will last longer than one using the same amount of
+silk and the same binding with less twist.
+
+All of these things may be taught to women many times over, but if the
+fashion demands an article which breaks all of the above laws and is
+everything that it should not be, they will buy it in preference to a
+serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the consumer will be safest in
+buying goods produced by houses of good reputation and whose products
+are well known.
+
+A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion demand
+and is quite independent of their cost of production. For instance, at
+the present time cr�pe fabrics, brocades, and prints are commanding a
+premium while such goods as plain taffetas could not be sold for the
+cost of production.
+
+The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones are
+pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.
+
+
+=Experiment 60--How to Determine the Count of Yarn in Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Scales, ruler.
+    Material: Samples of fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 144-146.
+
+The United States Government imposes a tax on certain imported fabrics
+and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty are to be
+ascertained according to the average number of the yarns in the
+condition in which it is imported.
+
+The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance
+covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if
+continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the
+count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be
+removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of the yarn
+is the English number of 840 yd. to a lb. for a No. 1 yarn.
+
+The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling the fabric,
+and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the weight in the
+proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8-1/3 grains, which is
+equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.
+
+The following simple formula may be used:
+
+Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number of square
+inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied by 100; then
+divide the product thus obtained by the weight of the sample in grains
+multiplied by 432. The quotient will give the number of the yarn.
+
+For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which equals
+16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of 56 threads
+to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The formula applied would
+be as follows:
+
+    56 � 16 � 100 � 8.6 � 432 = 24, the number of the yarn.
+
+The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square yard of the
+cloth and dividing the number of threads per square inch by 1/300 of
+the weight per square yard in grains.
+
+Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics.
+
+
+=Experiment 61--Study of Fabrics=
+
+A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard
+fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection and
+know how to test them for adulterants.
+
+This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one by one,
+placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath the sample should
+be written the use of the fabric, the width, the different grades,
+with prices, wearing qualities, and how the fabric is made. In
+connection with this work special effort should be made to develop a
+textile vocabulary so as to be able to discriminate between the
+different fabrics, to know the types of weaves, and the different
+kinds of finish, etc. In this way develop the ability to know what
+materials and colors weave best, the prices which should be paid for
+strong materials, the amount of material necessary, and the trade
+names of fabrics which can be depended upon for substantial goods.
+
+Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the teacher
+by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that they have
+previously studied and have them give the name, approximate price or
+grade, weave, qualities, etc.
+
+Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained from the
+leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should have on
+exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics with a card
+attached giving the name and use of each.
+
+
+=Experiment 62--How to Examine a Fabric=
+
+The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics is
+the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To illustrate:
+broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap evenly laid. If the
+finish is in keeping with the character of the cloth, he next examines
+the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is composed of pure wool or
+two or more fibers in combination.
+
+Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the
+requirements.
+
+A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well dyed.
+There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain this,
+neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way is to take a
+small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing and light test.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a
+pen holder.
+
+[22] A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained
+from Hammett & Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.
+
+[23] In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are
+called _tow_, and the long fibers _line_.
+
+[24] Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of
+liquids; they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers'
+earth, rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of
+bread, powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used
+to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate
+fabrics. They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from
+spreading.
+
+[25] Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that
+will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring
+matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of
+aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.
+
+[26] Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by
+placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by
+means of a glass plate.
+
+[27] Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers
+of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been
+added). Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set
+free, which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric
+acid. The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of
+soda. They are called Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. A similar
+solution of a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de
+Javelle.
+
+[28] A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from
+_Shoemaking_, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston.
+
+[29] In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth
+4 sq. yd. is 16_d._ or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is
+1/2_d._ or 1 ct. per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of
+flax is 6_d._ or 12 cts. per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound
+of flax is 2-1/2_d._ or 5 cts. per lb.; cost of bleaching and
+finishing a pound of flax is 7_d._ or 14 cts. per lb.; $75 is spent in
+turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in turning $100
+worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning $100 worth of
+brown linen into linen for market.
+
+[30] A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to
+the light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be
+more easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present
+considerable irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric
+the nap is usually cotton and the threads more regular than the
+filling (flax). The best linen is made from fine and fairly regular
+threads; common linen from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no
+more subject to weak places in weaving than cotton, although it is
+harder to bleach and may be weakened in this process. If each
+operation is not perfect the linen will become yellow in storage.
+
+
+
+
+SOURCES OF SUPPLY
+
+
+The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are willing to
+supply schools with samples of their products. But the demand for
+samples has been so great that it is necessary in most cases to pay a
+small sum to cover the cost.
+
+The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are named
+here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.
+
+The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers may
+obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers in
+textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.
+
+
+_Catalogues of Cotton Machinery_
+
+Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton pickers.
+
+Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Faler & Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Potter & Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y.--Cotton machinery.
+
+American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Humidifiers
+and textile machinery.
+
+
+_Standard Textile Papers_
+
+American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.
+
+American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.
+
+Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory Supplies,
+published by Teachers College, Columbia University, West 120th St.,
+New York.
+
+Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.
+
+
+_Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples_
+
+American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass.--Booklets on _From Wool to Cloth_;
+samples of fabrics.
+
+Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of cotton and
+wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.
+
+S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass.--Egyptian and Peruvian cotton, etc.
+
+Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York--Ramie.
+
+Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York--Linen yarns and thread.
+
+Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarn.
+
+Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H.--Samples of cotton.
+
+Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J.--French spun worsted yarn.
+
+C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Yarns and fabrics.
+
+Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y.--Wools and shoddies.
+
+Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Foreign wools.
+
+Francis Willey & Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Top, foreign
+wools.
+
+John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Mohair, noils, and
+carpet wools.
+
+The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn.--Novelty yarns.
+
+Catlin & Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarns.
+
+Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass.--Shoddies.
+
+Parker & Wilder Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Lawrence & Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Joy, Langdon, & Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J.--Exhibit.
+
+George A. Clark & Bro., 400 Broadway, New York--Cabinet and booklet.
+
+Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn.--Silk samples, silk fabrics.
+
+Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.--Wall chart of cotton field.
+
+Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La.--Cotton postal cards.
+
+Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa.--Booklet, _All about
+Cotton_.
+
+White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C.--Stereoscopic views.
+
+Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.
+
+Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland.--Prints illustrating
+linen manufacture and samples.
+
+Jas. McCutcheon & Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York.--Flax cabinet.
+
+The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York.--Flax cabinet.
+
+Belding Bro. & Co., 526 Broadway, New York.--School exhibits of silk.
+
+Brainerd & Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.--Book and
+cabinet of silk.
+
+Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y.--Spun silk and exhibits.
+
+M. Heminway & Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn.--Booklets on silk.
+
+Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass.--Sealed cabinets and books on silk.
+
+William Skinner & Sons, 47 East 17th St., New York City.--Silks and
+satins.
+
+S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York.--Wool fiber.
+
+Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.--Sheep chart.
+
+A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York.--Raw wool by the pound.
+
+Schermerhorn & Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.--Wall chart
+illustration of sheep.
+
+L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.
+
+Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.
+
+Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga.--Samples of cotton
+plant or bolls.
+
+
+_Woolen Yarns_
+
+Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.
+
+
+_Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery_
+
+C. G. Sargent's Sons, Graniteville, Mass.--Wool machinery.
+
+Davis & Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass.--Woolen and worsted machinery.
+
+Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Worsted machinery.
+
+Crompton & Knowles, Worcester, Mass.--Worsted silk machinery.
+
+Speed & Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Textile machinery.
+
+George Gerry & Co., Athol, Mass.--Shoddy machinery.
+
+Tolhoust Machine Works, Troy, N. Y.--Hydro extractor.
+
+Parks & Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt.--Machinery.
+
+Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass.--Finishing machinery.
+
+General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass.--Pictures, showing
+textile machinery in operation by motors.
+
+Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I.--Finishing machinery.
+
+
+_Knitting Machinery_
+
+Scott & Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Nye & Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+_Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials_
+
+The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York.--Sizing materials.
+
+Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York.--Coal tar products,
+dyestuffs, and literature.
+
+Arnold Hoffman & Co., Providence, R. I.--Sizing materials.
+
+H. A. Metz & Co., 122 Hudson St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.
+
+Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Acid test, 239
+
+    Adelaide wool, 10
+
+    Adulterations of wool, 80, 82
+
+    Albatross, 83, 173
+
+    Alma, 219
+
+    Alpaca, 1, 15, 34, 83
+
+    American cotton, 110
+
+    American wool, 3
+
+    Angora, 32, 83
+
+    Animal fibers, 1
+
+    Artificial fibers, 1
+
+    Artificial silk, 1, 230
+
+    Asbestos, 1, 234
+
+    Astrakhans, 15, 84
+
+    Australian wool, 3, 8, 9
+
+    Awning, 173
+
+
+    Baling cotton, 117
+
+    Bandanna, 84
+
+    Bar�ge, 219
+
+    Bast fibers, 193
+
+    Batiste, 173
+
+    Beam, 53
+
+    Beaver cloth, 52, 84
+
+    Bedford cord, 84, 174
+
+    Beige, 85
+
+    Bengaline, 219
+
+    Berber, 219
+
+    Bindings, 84
+
+    Bleaching cotton, 148
+      flax, 196
+      thread, 141
+
+    Blending, 11, 31
+
+    Bombazine, 84, 220
+
+    Bottany, 84
+
+    Boucle, 85
+
+    Bourrette, 174
+
+    Bradford system of spinning, 44
+
+    Branding sheep, 7
+
+    Broadcloth, 52, 85
+
+    Brocade, 219
+
+    Brocatel, 220
+
+    Buckram, 174
+
+    Bunting, 85
+
+    Bur picker, 30
+
+    Burling, 72
+
+    Burring, 29, 30
+
+
+    Calendering, 149, 150
+
+    Calico, 175
+
+    Caniche, 86
+
+    Canvas, 177
+
+    Cape wools, 10
+
+    Carbonizing, 29, 30
+
+    Carding cotton, 126
+      wool, 3, 4
+
+    Carpet wools, 3, 4
+
+    Cashmere, 85, 86
+      goat, 13
+      wool, 13, 87
+
+    Castor, 87
+
+    Challis, 87
+
+    Chambray, 177
+
+    Characteristics of cotton cloth, 152
+      of linen cloth, 196
+      of woolen cloth, 50
+      of worsted cloth, 46
+
+    Cheese cloth, 178
+
+    Chenille, 220
+
+    Cheviot, 33, 35, 52, 87
+      wool, 14
+
+    Chiffon, 220
+
+    China grass, 232
+
+    China silks, 220
+
+    Chinchilla, 52, 98
+
+    Chintz, 178
+
+    Chudah, 89
+
+    Cloth-rolls, 54
+
+    Clothing wool, 3
+
+    Cocoons, 203
+
+    Combing cotton, 127
+
+    Combing wool, 4, 39
+
+    Combustion test, 239
+
+    Construction of cloth, 70, 71
+
+    Corduroy, 89
+
+    C�te cheval, 89
+
+    Cotton, 1, 105
+      carding, 126
+      combing, 127
+      drawing, 128
+      finishing, 147
+      flannel, 178
+      growing countries, 106
+      picker, 125
+      substitutes, 232
+      varieties of, 105, 106, 111, 112
+      yarns, 125, 134
+
+    Cotton-gin, 114-116
+
+    Counts of yarn, 9, 49, 51
+
+    Coupure, 90
+
+    Covert cloth, 90
+
+    Crabbing, 74
+
+    Crash, 178
+
+    Creel, 52
+
+    Cr�pe, 179, 221
+
+    Cr�pe de Chine, 221
+
+    Crepon, 179
+
+    Cretonne, 90
+
+    Crinoline, 179
+
+    Crocheting, 56, 253
+
+    Cross-dyed, 65, 67, 68
+
+    Cyprian gold, 234
+
+
+    Damask, 179
+
+    Dark colored fibers, 33
+
+    Dead wool, 20
+
+    Delaine wool, 22, 90
+
+    Denim, 179
+
+    Diaper cloth, 179
+
+    Difference between lamb's wool and sheep's wool, 20
+
+    Difference between wool and hair, 2
+
+    Difference between woolen and worsted yarns, 39
+
+    Dimity, 179
+
+    Doeskin, 52, 90
+
+    Domet, 180
+
+    Double-cloth, 58, 62
+
+    Drap d'�t�, 90
+
+    Dress faced fabrics, 8
+
+    Drill, 180
+
+    Duck, 180
+
+    Dusting operation, 35
+
+    Dyeing, 66
+      black silks, 210
+      colored silks, 210
+      cotton, 67
+      wools, 65
+      yarns, 68, 209
+
+
+    East Indian cotton, 107
+
+    Egyptian cotton, 108
+
+    Elasticity of knitted textures, 253
+
+    Embroidery silk, 207
+
+    Empress cloth, 90
+
+    Ends, 53, 54
+
+    English system of spinning, 4, 40
+
+    English wools, 3
+
+    Eolienne, 181, 221
+
+    �pingline, 90
+
+    Etamine, 91, 181
+
+    Extract-wool, 1, 32, 37
+
+
+    Fancy goods, 79
+
+    Felt, 91
+
+    Felting, 2, 4
+
+    Fibers, 1
+
+    Figure weaving, 58, 61, 62
+
+    Figured poplins, 225
+
+    Finishing, 71, 151
+
+    Finishing hosiery, 163
+
+    Flannel, 52, 91-93
+
+    Flannelette, 181
+
+    Flax, 1, 123
+      preparation, 193-195
+      sources, 194, 198
+
+    Fleece, 7
+
+    Flocks, 1, 32, 37
+
+    Florentine, 93
+
+    Fly frames, 130
+
+    Foulard, 221
+
+    Foule, 93
+
+    Frame, 54
+
+    French system of spinning, 4, 44
+
+    Frieze, 52, 93
+
+    Full blood, 19
+
+    Full grade cotton, 121
+
+    Fulling, 73
+
+    Fustian, 180
+
+
+    Galatea cloth, 182
+
+    Gauge weaving, 63
+
+    Gauze, 182
+
+    Gill boxes, 42
+
+    Gingham, 182
+
+    Ginning cotton, 114
+
+    Glac�, 222
+
+    Gloria, 94
+
+    Goat, 1
+
+    Grades of wool, 18
+
+    Granada, 94
+
+    Great Britain wools, 12
+
+    Grenadine, 94
+
+    Grinding rags, 36
+
+    Ground lace, 164
+
+
+    Hackling, 195
+
+    Hair, 2
+
+    Half blood, 19
+
+    Half-grades of cotton, 121, 122
+
+    Hand-loom, 56
+
+    Harness, 55
+
+    Heddles, 54
+
+    Hemp, 1, 199
+
+    Henrietta cloth, 94
+
+    Hoggett wool, 20
+
+    Homespun, 58, 94
+
+    Hop sacking, 94
+
+    Hosiery, 159
+
+    Hosiery manufacture, 159-163
+
+    Humidifying cotton, 124
+
+    Hydro extractor, 28
+
+
+    India silk, 204, 222
+
+    Indigo blue flannel, 92
+
+    Inspection of cloth, 123, 124
+
+    Intermediate frame, 130
+
+    Irish wools, 14
+
+    Italian cloth, 183
+
+
+    Jaconet, 183
+
+    Jacquard machine, 55
+
+    Japanese silk, 222
+
+    Jeans, 95
+
+    Jersey cloth, 222
+
+    Jute, 1
+      uses of, 201
+
+
+    Kapok, 230
+
+    Kersey, 95
+
+    Kerseymere, 96
+
+    Khaki, 183
+
+    Knitting, 253
+      cotton, 159
+      finishing, 163
+      frames, 154
+      rib, 158
+      silk, 159
+      stripe, 159
+      wool, 3
+
+
+    Lace, 164, 165
+      terms, 166-172
+
+    Lamb's wool, 15, 20
+
+    Lappet-weaving, 63, 64
+
+    Lawn, 183
+
+    Leicester wool, 12
+
+    Leno weaving, 63
+
+    Lincoln wool, 12
+
+    Linen, 196
+
+    Lingerie, 184
+
+    Linon, 184
+
+    Linsey woolsey, 96
+
+    Long cloth, 184
+      manufacture of, 194, 195
+
+    Long or clothing wool, 3
+
+    Loom, 54
+
+    Luster of wool, 26
+
+
+    Mackinaw, 92
+
+    Madras, 185
+
+    Manila hemp, 200
+
+    Melrose, 97
+
+    Melton, 97
+
+    Meltonette, 97
+
+    Mending, 72
+
+    Mercerizing, 151
+
+    Merino, 2, 3, 18, 19, 97
+
+    Metallic threads, 1, 234
+
+    Meteor, 222
+
+    Mexican Sheep, 4
+
+    Milling, 8
+
+    Mineral fibers, 1
+
+    Mohair, 1, 18, 34, 97
+
+    Moire, 223
+
+    Moisture contained in cotton, 123
+
+    Montagnac, 98
+
+    Montevideo, 11
+
+    Mordant, 69
+
+    Moreen, 186
+
+    Mozambique, 223
+
+    Mule spinning, 134
+
+    Mull, 186
+
+    Mummery, 186
+
+    Mungo, 1, 10, 32, 34
+      method of making, 32
+
+    Muslin, 186
+
+
+    Nainsook, 186
+
+    Naphtha, 26
+
+    Napping, 75
+
+    Navy twill flannel, 92
+
+    Netting, 253
+
+    New Zealand wool, 10
+
+    Noils, 1, 32, 40
+
+    Norfolkdown wool, 14
+
+
+    Oiling rags, 35
+
+    Olive oil, 29
+
+    Organdie, 186
+
+    Organzine, 223
+
+    Orleans, 98
+
+    Osnaburg, 186
+
+
+    Panama cloth, 98
+
+    Panne velvet, 223
+
+    Peau de soie, 223
+
+    Pelts, 20
+
+    Percale, 188
+
+    Percaline, 188
+
+    Perching, 72
+
+    Peruvian sheep, 15, 32
+
+    Pick, 54
+
+    Piece-dyeing, 65
+
+    Pile-weave, 62, 63
+
+    Pillow-lace, 165
+
+    Pineapple fiber, 233
+
+    Piqu�, 188
+
+    Plain weave, 58
+
+    Planting cotton, 110
+
+    Plumetis, 190
+
+    Plushes, 15, 224
+
+    Pongee, 224
+
+    Popeline, 224
+
+    Poplin, 190
+
+    Port Philip wool, 9
+
+    Pressing machine, 76
+
+    Printing textiles, 65
+
+    Prunella, 98
+
+    Pulled wool, 20
+
+
+    Quarter blood, 19
+
+
+    Ramie, 232
+
+    Raw silk, 206
+
+    Reeling silk, 205
+
+    Remanufactured material, 1, 32
+
+    Rep, 190
+
+    Rib work in knitting, 158
+
+    Ribbons, 215
+
+    Ring spinning, 134
+
+    Russian hemp, 199
+
+    Russian wool, 12
+
+
+    Sacking, 99
+
+    Sanglier, 99
+
+    Sarsenet, 225
+
+    Satin, 225
+      weaving, 58
+
+    Satine, 190
+
+    Saxony wool, 8
+
+    Scour, 27
+
+    Scrim, 190
+
+    Scutching, 195
+
+    Sea Island cotton, 109
+
+    Seaming rags, 35
+
+    Seamless hosiery, 161
+
+    Sebastopol, 99
+
+    Serges, 99
+
+    Sewing silk, 207
+
+    Shaker flannel, 93
+
+    Shawls, 33
+
+    Sheep shearing, 5, 6, 7
+
+    Shetland wool, 14
+
+    Shoddy, 1, 10, 32, 34, 101
+
+    Short wools, 3
+
+    Shrinking of wool, 2, 3
+
+    Shropshiredown wool, 13
+
+    Shuttle, 55
+
+    Sicilian, 101
+
+    Silesia, 190
+
+    Silesian wool, 8
+
+    Silk, 1
+      cotton, 230
+      dyeing, 210
+      finishing, 218
+      varieties of, 207
+      warp flannel, 92
+      waste, 207
+
+    Sisal hemp, 200
+
+    Size of yarn, 9, 49, 51
+
+    Sizing, 53
+
+    Slag wool, 1, 234
+
+    Slasher, 53
+
+    Sliver, 39
+
+    Slubber, 130, 131
+
+    Soleil, 227
+
+    Souffle, 191
+
+    South American wool, 11
+
+    Southdown wools, 13
+
+    Spinning, 4, 40, 44, 50, 134
+
+    Spooler, 53
+
+    Spun glass, 233
+      fibers, 233
+
+    Spun numbers, 209
+
+    Spun silk, 208
+
+    Staple goods, 79
+
+    Starching cotton, 149
+
+    Stripe knitting, 159
+
+    Structure of wool, 1, 2
+
+    Styles, 70
+
+    Suffolkdown wool, 14
+
+    Sultane, 101
+
+    Superfines, 8
+
+    Swiss muslin, 191
+
+    Sydney wools, 9
+
+
+    Tabby velvet, 228
+
+    Taffeta, 227
+
+    Tamise, 101
+
+    Tape, 191
+
+    Tarletan, 191
+
+    Tartans, 101
+
+    Teaser, 31
+
+    Tentering, 74
+
+    Terry cloth, 191
+
+    Terry poplin, 225
+
+    Test for animal fiber, 239
+      artificial silk from silk, 231
+      cotton from linen, 240
+      density of a fabric, 239
+      dressing, 241
+      fastness against rain, 243
+      fastness under friction, 242
+      fastness to weather, light, and air, 244
+      linen, 240
+      permanence of dyes, 242
+      resistance to perspiration, 243
+      resistance to street mud and dust, 243
+      shoddy, 241
+      silk from wool, 240
+      wasting fastness, 242
+
+    Testing constituents of filling, 239
+      constituents of warp, 239
+      count of warp, 238
+      count of warp and filling threads, 238
+      elasticity of fabric, 237
+      for shrinkage, 239
+      piece-dyed fabric, 69
+      strength of fabric, 237
+      style of weave, 236
+      yarn-dyed fabric, 69
+
+    Textile printing, 69, 70, 216
+
+    Theories of coloring in textile designs, 76-79
+
+    Thibet, 101
+
+    Thread, 138
+      bleaching, 143
+      combing, 141
+      dyeing, 143
+      numbers, 144
+      sizing, 145
+
+    Throwing, 206
+
+    Thrown silk, 207
+
+    Tinsel, 1
+
+    Top, 11, 33, 40
+
+    Tricot, 101
+
+    Tulle, 228
+
+    Tussah silk, 204
+
+    Tweed, 15, 31, 35, 102
+
+    Twill weaving, 58, 59
+
+
+    Union cloth, 37
+
+
+    Van wool from Tasmania, 10
+
+    Vegetable fibers, 1
+
+    Veiling, 102
+
+    Velour, 228
+
+    Velvet, 15, 216, 228
+
+    Velveteen, 228
+
+    Venetian cloth, 102
+
+    Vigogne (Vienna), 103
+
+    Vigoureux, 103
+
+    Voiles, 103, 229
+
+
+    Warp, 53, 54
+
+    Warp-beam, 54
+
+    Waterproofing, 218
+
+    Weaving, 53, 54, 56
+      processes, 54-56
+
+    Weft, 54
+
+    Welsh wool, 14
+
+    Wether-wool, 15, 20
+
+    Whipcord, 104
+
+    Wood-pulp, 232
+
+    Wool, 1, 2
+      carding, 50
+      classing, 3, 16, 18
+      drying, 28
+      dyeing, 76
+      fibers, 2
+      grease in, 24
+      marketing, 7, 8, 15
+      oiling, 29
+      sorting, 16-18, 22-24
+      varieties of, 3, 4
+      washing, 24-28
+
+    Woolen yarn, 33, 50
+
+    Worsted carding, 39
+      combing, 39
+      diagonal, 104
+
+    Worsted spinning, 44
+      tops, 40
+      unfinished, 104
+      yarn, 33, 46
+
+
+    Yarn, 33, 39, 46
+      dyed, 65, 68
+
+    Yolk, 10, 25
+
+
+    Zephyr gingham, 192
+      wool, 49
+
+    Zibeline, 104
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS
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+
+Elementary Science.
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+=Austin's Observation Blanks in Mineralogy.= Detailed studies of 35
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+
+=Bailey's Grammar School Physics.= Practical lessons with simple
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+=Ballard's The World of Matter.= Simple studies in chemistry and
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+cts.
+
+=Thompson's �sthetic Series of Drawing.= This series includes the
+study of Historical Ornament and Decorative Design. Book I treats of
+Egyptian art; Book II, Greek; Book III, Roman; Book IV, Byzantine;
+Book V, Moorish; Book VI, Gothic. Per dozen, $1.50. Manual, 60 cents.
+
+=Thompson's Educational and Industrial Drawing.= Primary Free-Hand
+Series (Nos. 1-4). Each No., per doz., $1.00. Manual, 40 cts. Advanced
+Free-Hand Series (Nos. 5-8.) Each No., per doz., $1.50. Model and
+Object Series (Nos. 1-3). Each No., per doz., $1.75. Manual, 35 cts.
+Mechanical Series (Nos. 1-6). Each No., per doz., $2.00. Manual, 75
+cts.
+
+=Thompson's Manual Training No. 1.= Clay modeling, stick laying, paper
+folding, color and construction of geometrical solids. Illus. 66 pp.
+25 cts.
+
+=Thompson's Manual Training No. 2.= Mechanical drawing, clay modeling,
+color, wood carving. Illus. 70 pp. 25 cts.
+
+=Thompson's Drawing Tablets.= Four Tablets, with drawing exercises and
+practice paper, for use in the earlier grades. Each No., per doz.,
+$1.20.
+
+=Drawing Models.= Individual sets and class sets of models are made to
+accompany several of the different series in the Thompson Drawing
+Courses. Descriptive circulars free on request.
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+=Anthony's Mechanical Drawing.= 98 pages of text, and 32 folding
+plates, $1.50.
+
+=Anthony's Machine Drawing.= 65 pages of text, and 18 folding plates.
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+=Anthony's Essentials of Gearing.= 84 pages of text, and 15 folding
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+
+=Daniels's Freehand Lettering.= 34 pages of text, and 13 folding
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+
+=Johnson's Lessons in Needlework.= Gives, with illustrations, full
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+$1.00. Boards, 60 cts.
+
+=Lunt's Brushwork for Kindergarten and Primary Schools.= Eighteen
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+
+=Seidel's Industrial Instruction= (Smith). A refutation of all
+objections raised against industrial instruction. 170 pages, 90 cents.
+
+=Waldo's Descriptive Geometry.= A large number of problems
+systematically arranged, with suggestions. 85 pages. 80 cents.
+
+=Whitaker's How to use Woodworking Tools.= Lessons in the uses of the
+hammer, knife, plane, rule, square, gauge, chisel, saw and auger. 104
+pages. 60 cents.
+
+=Woodward's Manual Training School.= Its aims, methods and results;
+with detailed courses of instruction in shop-work. Illustrated. 374
+pages. Octavo. $2.00.
+
+_Sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price._
+
+D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago
+
+
+Higher English.
+
+=Bray's History of English Critical Terms.= A vocabulary of 1400
+critical terms used in literature and art, with critical and
+historical data for their study, $1.00.
+
+=Cook's Judith.= With introduction, translation and glossary. Octavo.
+170 pages. $1.00.
+
+=Espenshade's Essentials of Composition and Rhetoric.= A working
+text-book for higher schools and colleges. $1.00.
+
+=Hall's Beowulf.= A metrical translation of this ancient epic. Octavo.
+Cloth, 75 cents. Paper, 30 cents.
+
+=Kluge and Lutz's English Etymology.= A select glossary for use in the
+study of historical grammar. 75 cents.
+
+=Lewis's Inductive Rhetoric.= For schools and colleges. 90 cents.
+
+=MacEwan's The Essentials of Argumentation.= A systematic discussion
+of principles, with illustrative extracts; full analysis of several
+masterpieces, and a list of propositions for debate. $1.12.
+
+=MacEwan's The Essentials of the English Sentence.= Presents a review
+of the essentials of grammar and bridges the transition to rhetoric.
+75 cents.
+
+=Meiklejohn's The English Language.= Part I--English Grammar; Part
+II--Composition and Versification; Part III--History of the English
+Language; Part IV--History of English Literature. $1.25.
+
+=Meiklejohn's English Grammar.= Contains Parts I and II of
+Meiklejohn's The English Language, with exercises. 80 cents.
+
+=O'Conor's Rhetoric and Oratory.= A manual of precepts and principles,
+with masterpieces for analysis and study. $1.15.
+
+=Pearson's The Principles of Composition.= Begins with the composition
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+this order. 50 cents.
+
+=Smith's The Writing of the Short Story.= An analytical study. 25
+cents.
+
+=Strang's Exercises in English.= Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and
+Style, for criticism and correction. New edition, revised and
+enlarged. 45 cents.
+
+=Whitcomb's The Study Of a Novel.= Analytic and synthetic work for
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+
+=William's Composition and Rhetoric.= Concise, practical, and
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+=Monographs on English.=
+ Bowen's Historical Study of the O-vowel. Cloth. 109 pp.          $1.25
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+ Hempl's Chaucer's Pronunciation. Stiff Paper. 39 pp.               .50
+ Huffcut's English in the Preparatory School. Paper. 28 pp.         .25
+ Woodward's Study of English. Paper. 25 pp.                         .25
+
+_See also our list of books in Elementary English, English Literature
+and English Classics._
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+D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago
+
+
+Heath's English Classics.
+
+=Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.= Edited by W. H. HUDSON.
+Cloth. 232 pages. Nine full-page illustrations and two maps. 35 cents.
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+Master in the Newton (Mass.) High School. Cloth. 119 pages. 20 cents.
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+ANDREW J. GEORGE. Cloth. 159 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.
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+=Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner.= Edited by ANDREW J. GEORGE.
+Cloth. 96 pages. Illustrated. 20 cents.
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+Girls' High School, New York City. Cloth. Illustrated. 659 pages. 50
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+=De Quincey's Flight of a Tartar Tribe.= Edited by G. A. WAUCHOPE,
+Professor in the University of South Carolina. Cloth. 112 pages. 25
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+the University of South Carolina. Cloth. 288 pages. Illustrated. 35
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+High School, Milwaukee. Cloth. 328 pages. Maps and illustrations. 35
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+=Macaulay's Essay on Milton.= Edited by ALBERT PERRY WALKER, Master in
+the English High School, Boston. Cloth. 146 pages. Illustrated. 25
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+=Macaulay's Essay on Addison.= Edited by ALBERT PERRY WALKER. Cloth.
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+=Macaulay's Life of Johnson.= Edited by ALBERT PERRY WALKER. Cloth.
+122 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.
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+=Milton's Paradise Lost.= Books i and ii. Edited by ALBERT PERRY
+WALKER. Cloth. 188 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.
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+=Milton's Minor Poems.= Edited by ALBERT PERRY WALKER. Cloth. 190
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+=Pope's Translation Of the Iliad.= Books i, vi, xxii, and xxiv. Edited
+by PAUL SHOREY, Professor in the Univ. of Chicago. Cloth. 172 pages.
+Illus. 25 cents.
+
+=Scott's Ivanhoe.= Edited by PORTER LANDER MACCLINTOCK. Cloth. 556
+pages. Seventeen full-page illustrations by C. E Brock. 50 cents.
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+=Scott's Lady of the Lake.= Edited by L. DUPONT SYLE, Professor in the
+University of California. Cloth. 216 pages. Illus. and map. 35 cents.
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+=Shakespeare.= See the _Arden Shakespeare_. Per vol., 25 cents.
+
+=Tennyson's Enoch Arden, and the two Locksley Halls.= Edited by CALVIN
+S. BROWN, University of Colorado. Cloth. 168 pages. 25 cents.
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+=Tennyson's Idylls of the King.= Four idylls, edited by ARTHUR BEATTY,
+University of Wisconsin. Cloth. 190 pages. Illus. and map. 25 cents.
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+=Tennyson's The Princess.= With introduction and notes by ANDREW J.
+GEORGE. Cloth. 148 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.
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+ANDREW J. GEORGE. Cloth. 55 pages. 20 cents.
+
+D. C. HEATH & CO., Boston, New York, Chicago
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor typographic errors and hyphenation and accent inconsistencies
+have been corrected without note.
+
+The footnote marker on page 267 was originally located next to the
+EXPERIMENTS heading, but the footnote itself referred to a dissecting
+pin. The marker has been moved next to the reference to a dissecting
+pin in the text.
+
+The experiments are consecutively numbered, and Experiment Nos. 28 and
+29 are missing. There do not appear to be any missing pages--the page
+numbering has no gaps, and Experiment No. 27 runs across a page
+boundary, and is then followed immediately by Experiment 30. It is
+possible that the two missing experiments were deliberately omitted
+from this edition by the author.
+
+The index entry for Berber originally read Beiber. The entry has been
+corrected, and moved to the correct place in the index.
+
+The page number in the index entry for Silk, finishing has been amended
+from 217 to 218.
+
+The index entry for Zephyr wool had no printed page number; from the
+text content, the best match appears to be a reference on page 49,
+which has been added to the index entry.
+
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Textiles, by William H. Dooley</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Textiles</p>
+<p>       For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those Engaged in Wholesale and Retail Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and Dressmaker's Trades</p>
+<p>Author: William H. Dooley</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 30, 2007  [eBook #24077]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Sam W.,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1 style="padding-top: 3em;">TEXTILES</h1>
+
+<p class="center">FOR COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND DOMESTIC<br />
+ARTS SCHOOLS; ALSO ADAPTED TO THOSE<br />
+ENGAGED IN WHOLESALE AND RETAIL<br />
+DRY GOODS, WOOL, COTTON, AND<br />
+DRESSMAKER&rsquo;S TRADES</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-top: 3em;"><b>BY</b></p>
+
+<h2>WILLIAM H. DOOLEY</h2>
+<p class="center">PRINCIPAL LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL<br />
+LOWELL, MASS.</p>
+
+
+<h3 style="padding-top: 5em;"><i>REVISED EDITION</i><br />
+<i>WITH EXPERIMENTS</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-top: 5em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; COMPANY<br />
+BOSTON<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>NEW YORK<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>CHICAGO</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-top: 5em; padding-bottom: 3em;">COPYRIGHT, 1910, 1912, AND 1914, BY<br />
+D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;">
+<img src="images/tex01.jpg" width="329" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON PLANT</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg&nbsp;v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The author established and since its inception has
+been in charge of the first industrial school for boys
+and girls in Massachusetts. At an early date he recognized
+the need of special text-books to meet the demand
+of young people who are attending vocational schools.
+There are plenty of books written on textiles for technical
+school students and advanced workers. But the
+author has failed to find a book explaining the manufacture
+and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
+domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those
+who have just entered the textile or allied trades. This
+book is written to meet this educational need. Others
+may find the book of interest, particularly the chapters
+describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W.
+Hobbs, treasurer of the Arlington Mills, for permission to
+use illustrations and information from literature published
+by the Arlington Mills; to Mr. S. H. Ditchett,
+editor of <i>Dry Goods Economist</i>, for permission to use
+information from his publication, &ldquo;Dry Goods Encyclopedia&rdquo;;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg&nbsp;vi]</a></span>
+to the editor of the <i>Textile Mercury</i>; to
+Frank P. Bennett, of the <i>American Wool and Cotton
+Reporter</i>, for permission to use information from &ldquo;Cotton
+Fabrics Glossary&rdquo;; and to the instructors of the
+Lawrence Industrial School for valuable information.
+In addition, information has been obtained from the
+great body of textile literature, which the author
+desires to acknowledge.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg&nbsp;vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">FIBERS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><span class="smcap lowercase">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Animal Fibers&mdash;Wool, Silk, Mohair. Vegetable&mdash;Cotton, Flax,
+Jute, Hemp. Mineral&mdash;Asbestos, Tinsel, Metallic. Remanufactured
+Material&mdash;Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract, and
+Flocks. Artificial Fibers&mdash;Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, Slag
+Wool. Structure of Wool. Characteristics of Wool. Classification
+of Wool. Carpet and Knitting Wools. Sheep Shearing.
+Variation in Weight of Fleeces. Shipping the Fleeces. Value
+of Wool Business. Saxony and Silesian Wool, Australian Wool,
+Port Philip Wool, Sydney Wool, Adelaide Wool, Van Wool
+from Tasmania, New Zealand Wool, Cape Wools, Wools from
+South America, Russian Wool, Great Britain Wools, Lincoln,
+Leicester, Southdown, Shropshire; Cashmere Wools, Norfolkdown
+and Suffolkdown Wools, Cheviot Wool, Welsh Wools,
+Shetland Wools, Irish Wools, Mohair, Alpaca Wool. How Wool
+is Marketed</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WOOL SORTING</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Sorting. Classing Grades of Wool. Merino Wool. Difference
+between Lamb&rsquo;s and Sheep&rsquo;s Wool. Pulled Wool. Delaine Wool.
+Wool Sorter. Wool Washing, Wool Drying, Oiling. Burring
+and Carbonizing. Bur Picker, Blending</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Wool Substitutes and Waste Remanufactured&mdash;Noils, Shoddy, and
+Mungo. Methods of Producing Shoddy and Mungo&mdash;Dusting,
+Sorting, Seaming, Oiling, Grinding. Extract Wool. Flocks</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg&nbsp;viii]</a></span>
+CHAPTER IV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WORSTED YARN</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Carding, Combing. Worsted Tops&mdash;Gill Boxes. Different methods
+of Spinning&mdash;Bradford or English System, French System.
+Structure of Worsted Yarn. Uses of Worsted Yarn. Counts
+of Worsted Yarn</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WOOLEN YARN</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Operations in Producing Woolen Yarn&mdash;Washing, Carding, Spinning,
+Mule Spinning. Counts of Woolen Yarn. Uses of Woolen Yarn</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WEAVING</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Preparatory to Weaving&mdash;Warp. Weaving&mdash;Weaving Processes,
+Classes of Weave&mdash;Plain or Homespun Weave, Twill, Satin
+Weaves, Figure Weaving (Jacquard apparatus), Double Cloth,
+Pile Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Lappet Weaving</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">DYEING AND FINISHING</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Dyeing. Wool Dyeing, Piece Dyed, Cross Dyed, Yarn Dyed. Style&mdash;Designing,
+Finishing, Perching, Burling, Mending, Fulling,
+Crabbing, Tentering, Napping, Pressing. Theories of Coloring
+in Textile Design. Various Methods of Employing Fancy
+Shades. Adulteration</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg&nbsp;ix]</a></span>
+CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Albatross, Alpaca, Corded Alpaca, Angora, Astrakhan, Bandanna,
+Beaver (Fur Beaver), Bedford Cord, Beige, Bindings, Bombazine,
+Bottany, Boucle, Broadcloth, Bunting, Caniche, Cashmere,
+Cashmere Double, Cassimere, Castor, Challis, Cheviot (Diagonal
+or Chevron), Chinchilla, Chudah, Corduroy, C&ocirc;te Cheval,
+Coupure, Covert, Delaine, Doeskin, Drap d&rsquo;&Eacute;t&eacute;, Empress Cloth,
+&Eacute;pingline, Etamine, Felt, Flannel, Dress Flannel, French Flannel,
+Shaker Flannel, Indigo Blue, Mackinaw, Navy Twilled
+Flannel, Silk Warp, Baby Flannel. Florentine, Foule, Frieze,
+Gloria, Granada, Grenadine, Henrietta Cloth, Homespun, Hop
+Sacking, Jeans, Kersey, Kerseymere, Linsey Woolsey, Melrose,
+Melton, Meltonette, Merino, Mohair Brilliantine, Montagnac,
+Orleans, Panama Cloth, Prunella, Sacking, Sanglier,
+Sebastopol, Serge, Shoddy, Sicilian, Sultane, Tamise, Tartans,
+Thibet, Tricot, Tweed, Veiling, Venetian, Vigogne (Vicu&ntilde;a),
+Vigoureux, Voiles, Whipcord, Worsted Diagonals, Zephyr, Zibeline</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">COTTON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Rough Peruvian, East Indian, Egyptian, Sea Island. American
+Crop&mdash;Planting, Picking, Ginning&mdash;Roller Gins, Saw Gins.
+Cotton Gin. Information on the Leading Growths of Cotton.
+Grades&mdash;Full Grades, Half Grades, Quarter Grades. Varieties&mdash;Sea
+Island (selected), Sea Island (ordinary), Florida Sea
+Island, Georgia, Egyptian, Peeler, Orleans or Gulf Upland, Texas</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Picker Room, Carding Machine, Combing, Drawing. Flyer Frames&mdash;Intermediate
+Frame, Roving Frame, Fine or Jack Frame
+Spinning&mdash;Mule Spinning, Ring Spinning</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg&nbsp;x]</a></span>
+CHAPTER XI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Manufacturing Processes. Thread Numbers. Sizing. Cotton Finishing&mdash;Bleaching,
+Starching, Calendering, Mercerizing. Characteristics
+of fine Cotton Cloth</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">KNITTING</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Knitting Machines. Stripe Knitting, Knitting Cotton, Knitting
+Silk, Hosiery Manufacture, Finishing Process</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">LACE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Needlepoint Lace. Pillow Lace. Lace Terms Defined</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">COTTON FABRICS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Albatross, Awning, Batiste, Bourrette, Bedford Cord, Buckram, Calico,
+Cambric, Canvas, Chambray, Cheesecloth, Chin&eacute;, Chintz, Cotton
+Flannel, Crash, Cr&ecirc;pe, Crepon, Cretonne, Crinoline, Damask,
+Denim, Diaper, Dimity, Domet, Duck, Drill, Eolienne, Etamine,
+Flannelette, Fustian, Galatea Cloth, Gauze, Gingham, Italian
+Cloth, Jaconet, Khaki, Lawn, Lingerie, Linon, Long Cloth, Madras,
+Moreen, Mull, Mummy, Muslin, Nainsook, Organdie, Osnaburg,
+Percale, Percaline, Piqu&eacute;, Poplin, Plumetis, Rep, Sateen,
+Scrim, Silesia, Souffle, Swiss, Tape, Tarletan, Terry Cloth, Zephyr Gingham</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg&nbsp;xi]</a></span>
+CHAPTER XV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">FLAX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Physical Structure. Uses. Mechanical Processes&mdash;Crushing or
+Beating, Breaking, Scutching, Hackling, Bleaching. Characteristics
+of Good Linen, Notes on Table Linen</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">HEMP</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Bast Fibers, Sisal Hemp, Manila Hemp, Ramie, Jute</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">SILK</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Cocoons. Raw Silk. Silk-producing Countries&mdash;China, Japan,
+Italy, Southern France, Greece, Turkey, Western Asia. Throwing.
+Thrown Silk&mdash;Tram, Cr&ecirc;pe Yarn. Embroidery Silk.
+Sewing Silk. Silk Waste, Spun Silk, Floss Silk. Ribbons, Silk
+Thread, Silk Cord. Dyeing Yarns. Silk Dyeing. Logwood
+Black Silk Dyeing&mdash;(1) Boiling Off, (2) Mordanting, (3) Blue
+Bottoming, (4) &ldquo;Weighting&rdquo; Bath, (5) Mordanting, (6) Dyeing.
+Colored Silks. Mixed Silk Fabrics. Ribbons, Velvets, Printing,
+Finishing, Waterproofing</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Alma, Bar&egrave;ge, Bengaline, Berber, Brocade, Brocatel, Bombazine,
+Chenille, Chiffon, China Silk, Cr&ecirc;pe, Cr&ecirc;pe de Chine, Eolienne,
+Foulard, Glac&eacute;, India Silk, Japanese Silk, Jersey Cloth, Meteor,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg&nbsp;xii]</a></span>
+Moire, Mozambique, Organzine, Panne, Peau de Soie, Plush,
+Pongee, Popeline, Poplin, Figured Poplin, Terry Poplin, Sarsenet,
+Satin, Soleil, Taffeta, Tulle, Velour, Velvet, Velveteen, Tabby
+Velvet, Voile</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">ARTIFICIAL SILK</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Silk Cotton, Artificial Silk, Tests</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Wool Pulp, Ramie, Pineapple Fibers, Spun Glass, Metallic
+Threads, Slag Wool, Asbestos</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">APPENDIX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Determining Style of Weave. Tests for Strength and Elasticity.
+Determining Count of Warp and Filling, Shrinkage, Weight.
+Tests for Constituents of Warp and Filling, for Vegetable and
+Animal Fibers. Acid Test. Cotton Distinguished from Linen,
+Silk from Wool, Artificial Silk from Silk. Test for Shoddy. Determination
+of Dressing. Test for Permanence of Dyes</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">History of Textiles. History of the Organization of Textile Industries.
+History of Manufacturing. History of Lace</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcp" colspan="2">EXPERIMENTS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Experiments 1 to 62</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">Sources of Supply</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg&nbsp;1]</a></span></p>
+<h1 style="padding-top: 3em;">TEXTILES</h1>
+
+<h2 style="padding-top: 3em;">CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2>FIBERS</h2>
+
+
+<p>All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing
+are called <em>textiles</em> and are made of either long or short
+fibers. These fibers can be made into a continuous
+thread. When two different sets of threads are interlaced,
+the resulting product is called cloth.</p>
+
+<p>The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends
+entirely upon the possession of such qualities as firmness,
+length, curl, softness, elasticity, etc., which adapt it
+for spinning. The number of fibers that possess these
+qualities is small, and may be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p><i>Animal Fibers:</i> Wool, Silk, Mohair.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Fibers:</i> Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mineral Fibers:</i> Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metallic
+fibers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Remanufactured Material:</i> Noils, Mungo, Shoddy,
+Extract, and Flocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Fibers:</i> Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and
+Slag Wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Structure of Wool.</strong> A large part of the people
+of the world have always used wool for their clothing.
+Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg&nbsp;2]</a></span>
+coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as the
+goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under
+the microscope is seen to consist
+roughly of three parts:</p>
+
+<p>1st. Epidermis, or outer surface,
+which is a series of scales lying one
+upon the other.</p>
+
+<p>2d. Cortex, or intermediate substance,
+consisting of angular, elongated
+cells, which give strength to the wool.</p>
+
+<p>3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 208px;">
+<img src="images/tex02.png" width="208" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WOOL FIBER<br />
+Highly magnified</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Difference between Wool and Hair.</strong>
+Not all animal fibers are alike. They
+vary in fineness, softness, length, and
+strength, from the finest Merino wool to
+the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At
+just what point it can be said that the animal fiber ceases
+to be wool and becomes hair, is difficult to determine,
+because there is a gradual and imperceptible gradation
+from wool to hair.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The distinction between wool and
+hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
+delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly serrated
+surface&mdash;upon which the luster of the wool depends.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Characteristics of Wool.</strong> The chief characteristic
+of wool is its felting or shrinking power. This felting
+property from which wool derives much of its value, and
+which is its special distinction from hair, depends in
+part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg&nbsp;3]</a></span>
+scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales
+or points are exceedingly minute, ranging from about
+1,100 to the inch to nearly 3,000. The stem of the fiber
+itself is extremely slender, being less than one thousandth
+of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools
+the scales are more perfect and numerous, while inferior
+wools generally possess fewer serrations, and are
+less perfect in structure.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of felting the fibers become entangled
+with one another, and the little projecting scales hook
+into one another and hold the fibers closely interlocked.
+The deeper these scales fit into one another the closer
+becomes the structure of the thread.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Classification of Wool.</strong> The various kinds of wool
+used in commerce are named either from the breed of
+the sheep or from the country or locality in which the
+sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
+Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian
+wools are named from the respective countries. As
+the result of cross breeding of different sheep in different
+parts of the world, under different climatic conditions,
+physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a great many
+varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided
+into three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool
+(also called carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of
+two to four inches; (2) long wool or combing wool, varying
+from four to ten inches; (3) carpet and knitting
+wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction between clothing or carding wools
+on the one hand, and combing wools on the other, is an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg&nbsp;4]</a></span>
+old one. Combing wools are so called because they
+are prepared for spinning<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> into yarn by the process of
+&ldquo;combing&rdquo;&mdash;that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
+with one another preparatory to being spun into thread.
+Carding wools&mdash;made to cross and interlace and interlock
+with one another&mdash;are shorter than combing wools,
+and in addition they possess to a much greater degree
+the power of felting&mdash;that is, of matting together in a
+close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other
+hand, are not only longer than the carding wools, but
+they are also harder, more wiry, and less inclined to be
+spiral or kinky. It must be understood, however,
+that under the present methods of manufacture, short
+wools may be combed and spun by the French method
+of spinning just as the long wools are combed and spun
+by the Bradford or English system.</p>
+
+<p>Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest,
+and harshest sorts of wools. They come principally
+from Russia, Turkey, China, Greece, Peru, Chili,
+etc., and from the mountain districts of England and
+Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair
+than other wools. The only staple of this class produced
+in the United States is grown on the original
+Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of these
+Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved
+by cross breeding, but they constitute the foundation
+stock of most of our Western flocks, which now
+produce superior clothing and combing wool.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg&nbsp;5]</a></span>
+<strong>Sheep Shearing.</strong> In order to get an idea of the importance
+of the sheep industry in the United States, one
+must take a glance at its condition in the big states of
+the West. Wyoming has more than 4,600,000 sheep
+within its borders. Montana, which held the record
+until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with
+2,500,000, Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list
+until the nation&rsquo;s total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-fifths
+of which are west of the Missouri river.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;">
+<img src="images/tex03.jpg" width="414" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SHEEP SHEARING</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg&nbsp;6]</a></span>
+To harvest the wool from such an enormous number
+of backs is a task that calls for expert shearers,
+men who can handle the big shears of the machine
+clippers with a skill that comes from long practise.
+The shearing must be done at the right time of the
+year. If the wool is clipped too early, the sheep suffer
+from the cold; if the shearing comes too late, the sheep
+suffer from intense heat, and in either case are bound
+to lose weight and value.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has
+risen expert in the sheep-shearing business. These
+shearers begin work in southern and middle California,
+Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the great
+sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon,
+where they find steady employment until July, when
+they go to the ranges of Canada. In this way the
+shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at high wages.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand
+shears, though this form of clipping is being done away
+with, owing to the installation of power plants for
+machine shearing. These plants are installed at various
+points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are
+erected and shafting extends down both sides of the
+shearing place. Twenty or more shearers will be
+lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
+clipping machine connected with the shafting. The
+sheep are brought in from the range in bands of 2,500
+or more, and are put in the corrals adjoining the shearing
+sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
+shearers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg&nbsp;7]</a></span>
+A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him
+and pulls out a sheep. With a dexterous fling the animal
+is put in a sitting posture between the shearer&rsquo;s knees,
+and then the steel clippers begin clipping off the wool.
+The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it gets
+closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly.
+In fact, some sheep owners say that the increased
+weight of their fleeces at each shearing is enough to pay
+the extra expense of running a power plant.</p>
+
+<p>As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers
+they are run along a narrow chute and each one
+is branded. The branding mark is usually a letter
+painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly
+seen when they are coming through a chute. The
+mark remains on the fleece and is always easily distinguished.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fleece.</strong> There is a great variation in the weight of
+fleeces. Some sheep, such as those on the best ranges
+in Oregon, Montana, and Wyoming, will average an
+eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while sheep from
+the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will
+not average much more than five pounds of wool.</p>
+
+<p>The shearing season on the plains is much like the
+threshing season in agricultural communities. With
+a crew of first-class shearers working in a shearing
+shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool. Boys
+are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into
+compact bundles, and throwing them to the men who
+have been assigned to the task of filling the wool sacks.
+These sacks, which hold about 400 pounds, are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg&nbsp;8]</a></span>
+suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
+fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the
+sacks will not hold a pound more. Most of the sacks
+are shipped to warehouses in such wool centers as
+Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
+place being the greatest wool shipping center in the
+world. Here they are sold to Eastern buyers, who
+examine the clips at their leisure and make their bids.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Value of Wool Business.</strong> Some idea of the fortunes
+at stake in the wool business can be gathered from
+the fact that the total wool product of the country
+in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is expected
+that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good
+year will pay all a sheepman&rsquo;s running expenses, such
+as hire of herders, cost of shearing, etc. He then has the
+sale of his lambs as clear profit. Enormous fortunes
+are being made in the sheep business in the west, owing
+to the high price of wool and mutton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Saxony and Silesian Wool.</strong> Among wools of all
+classes the Saxony and Silesian take the first place,
+and for general good qualities, fineness, and regularity of
+fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is short in staple,
+possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
+elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture
+of cloths where much milling<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> is required, such as
+superfines and dress-faced fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Australian Wools.</strong> Australia furnishes wools of a
+superior character, and some of the choicest clips rival
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg&nbsp;9]</a></span>
+the Saxony and Silesian wools. They are used both
+for worsted<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and woolen yarns. They are generally
+strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous
+serrations, and are of good color, with good felting
+properties. The principal Australian wools are Port
+Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These are the
+best brands imported from that country.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Port Philip Wool.</strong> Port Philip wool is suitable
+for either worsted or woolen yarns. The fiber is not
+quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a good thread, is
+fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and color.
+It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of
+this wool is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and
+will spin up to 130&rsquo;s counts.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The sheep are descendants
+of the original Spanish Merino. Cross bred Port
+Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
+Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound
+fiber and good quality for spinning counts from 40&rsquo;s to
+56&rsquo;s. The yarn has a bright, clear appearance.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sydney Wools.</strong> Sydney wools are moderately fine
+in fiber and of medium length. They are rather deficient
+in strength, uneven in color, and often contain
+yellow locks which make them undesirable when required
+for dyeing light shades. They are used for
+nearly the same purpose as Port Philip wools, but do
+not spin quite as far in worsted yarns, nor are they
+equal in milling qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg&nbsp;10]</a></span>
+<strong>Adelaide Wool.</strong> Adelaide wool has a reputation
+for sound Merinos, the average quality being a little
+lower than for the Port Philip and Sydney wools. Its
+fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length; its
+color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of
+yolk.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods,
+weft (filling)<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> yarn up to 60&rsquo;s, and certain worsted
+warps.<a name="FNanchor_7_7a" id="FNanchor_7_7a"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7a" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It is used for medium fancy woolens.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Van Wool from Tasmania.</strong> The climate of this
+island is well suited to the growing of wool, and produces
+excellent qualities, fine in fiber, of good length,
+and strong in the staple, which will spin as high counts
+as 70&rsquo;s and 80&rsquo;s worsted. This wool is useful for mixing
+with other good wools. Its color is very white,
+which makes it a useful wool for dyeing light shades.
+Its milling properties are good, and the shorter sorts
+are suitable for woolens.</p>
+
+<p><strong>New Zealand Wools</strong> are very supple, which make
+them valuable to the spinner. These wools are suitable
+for almost all classes of Merino and crossbred yarns.
+They are of good length, sound staple, have good felting
+properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
+blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these
+remanufactured materials that springy, bulky character
+which they lack.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cape Wools.</strong> Cape Colony and Natal produce
+merino wool that is somewhat short in staple, rather
+tender, and less wavy than some other wools. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg&nbsp;11]</a></span>
+sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
+of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the
+ground very sandy, and this makes the fleece heavy
+and dirty. Its color is fair, but it lacks elasticity. It
+is used chiefly to cheapen blends<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> of 60&rsquo;s top.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The
+short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and
+hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where
+felting is not an essential feature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex04.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">MERINO SHEEP</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Wools from South America.</strong> These wools are of
+the same standard of excellence as the Australian
+wools, but they are generally deficient in strength and
+elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
+fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity,
+and are deficient in milling properties; they are also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg&nbsp;12]</a></span>
+burry. The climate suits the sheep well, and the feed
+is good, but the careless methods of classing and packing
+have earned for these wools a poor reputation
+that is well deserved.</p>
+
+<p>The best 60&rsquo;s wool is combed in oil, but a large portion
+of the shorter is combed and used in thick counts,&mdash;20&rsquo;s
+to 36&rsquo;s worsted for the hosiery trade.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Russian Wool.</strong> The staple of this is generally strong,
+and the fibers are of a medium thickness; the color is
+milky white. It is useful to blend with Australian or
+other good wools. It produces a good yarn, and is very
+often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics
+that require to be finished in the natural color.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Great Britain Wools.</strong> These may be divided into
+three groups: (1) long wools, of which the Lincoln and
+Leicester are typical examples; (2) short wools, which
+include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and others;
+and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep,
+such as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish,
+and Welsh.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lincoln Wool</strong> is a typical wool obtained from the
+long wool sheep, and noted for its long, lustrous fiber,
+which is silky and strong. The staple varies from
+ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average fleece
+will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Leicester Wool</strong> has a somewhat finer fiber than Lincoln.
+It is a valuable wool, of good color, uniform and
+sound in staple, curly, with good, bright luster and
+no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown extensively
+in England, they also grow in Indiana and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg&nbsp;13]</a></span>
+Kentucky, and are commonly known in the trade as
+braid wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Southdown</strong> is one of the most valuable of short
+staple wools. It possesses a fine hair, is close and
+wavy, and fairly sound in staple, but rather deficient in
+milling qualities. The shorter varieties are carded
+and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while
+the longer qualities are used in the production of worsted
+goods. The weight of a Southdown fleece averages
+from four to five pounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex05.jpg" width="600" height="304" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Shropshiredown</strong> wool is of good quality, with strong,
+fine, lustrous fiber, of good length. It resembles Southdown,
+but is not as lustrous as mohair, the natural
+colors being either white, black, brown, or fawn. It is
+used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cashmere Wool</strong> is the fine, woolly, extremely soft,
+white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat which is bred
+in Thibet. There are two kinds of fiber obtained: one,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg&nbsp;14]</a></span>
+which is really the outer covering, consists of long
+tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of
+commerce, a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint,
+with a fine, silky fiber. It is used for making the
+costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the finest wraps.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools</strong> are fairly
+fine in fiber and soft, but slightly deficient in strength
+and elasticity.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cheviot Wool</strong> may be taken as representative of the
+hilly breeds of sheep. It is an average wool, with
+staple of medium length, soft, and with strong and
+regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
+possesses desirable milling properties, being used for
+both woolen and worsted, but chiefly in the fancy
+woolen trade. The average weight of the fleece is
+about 4&frac12; pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
+yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than
+the Cheviot, and varying much in quality. It is
+almost all used in the production of rugs, carpets, and
+blankets.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Welsh Wools</strong> lack waviness and fineness of fiber.
+They are chiefly used for flannels.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Shetland Wools</strong> are similar in character to Welsh
+wools, but slightly finer in fiber and softer. They are
+used in the manufacture of knitted goods, such as
+shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Irish Wools</strong> possess a strong, thick hair of moderate
+length and fine color. They are similar in many
+respects to the Welsh wools, and are often classed with
+them. They are used in the production of low and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg&nbsp;15]</a></span>
+medium tweeds&mdash;fancy woolen cloths not requiring
+small yarns or milling qualities.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mohair</strong> is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora
+goat, which derives its name from the district of Asia
+Minor from which it comes. These animals have also
+been successfully bred in Spain and France. The hair
+is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and
+possesses a high luster. It is used in making plushes,
+velvets, astrakhans, and curled fabrics, also half silk
+goods and fine wraps.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Alpaca Wool</strong> is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep,
+which is a species of llama. The staple is of good
+length and soft, but is not quite as lustrous as mohair,
+the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
+fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress
+goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>How Wool is Marketed.</strong> The bulk of the wool of
+commerce comes into the market in the form of fleece
+wool, the product of a single year&rsquo;s growth, and cut
+from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
+The first and finest clip, called lamb&rsquo;s wool, may be
+taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to
+twelve months. All subsequently cut fleeces are known
+as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
+value than the first clip.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Hair is straight and glossy, stronger and smoother than wool, and
+grows sometimes as long as twenty inches.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted into
+a continuous thread.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> A process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to make
+the cloth stronger and firmer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See footnote, page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The size of yarn is technically called the &ldquo;counts&rdquo; and is based
+on the number of 560 yard lengths required to weigh one pound. In
+this case 130&rsquo;s count&nbsp;=&nbsp;130&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;560, or 72,800 yards of yarn to a pound.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> An encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7a" id="Footnote_7_7a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7a"></a>
+<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See page <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Mixtures.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> After wool fibers are combed they are called top.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg&nbsp;16]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>WOOL SORTING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in
+bundles and must be sorted. This process consists in
+sorting and classifying the fibers of the fleece. Not only
+do the various species of sheep furnish widely different
+qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained
+from the same animal, according to the part of the body
+from which the wool is taken. This variation in some
+instances is very marked, and sometimes is greater
+than that which separates the wools of the different
+breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of
+wool become necessary for the production of good,
+sound yarn of even quality.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result
+in the spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory
+yarns. As many as twelve or fourteen sorts may be
+obtained from one fleece (by very fine sorting), but
+generally not more than five or seven are made. The
+following table shows the relative qualities of wools
+from the various parts of a Merino sheep:</p>
+
+<p>1 and 2. <i>Head</i> (<i>top and sides</i>): The wools grown on
+these parts are remarkable for length of staple, softness,
+and uniformity of character. They are usually the
+choicest wools in the fleece.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg&nbsp;17]</a></span>
+3. <i>Upper part of the back:</i> This also is a wool of good,
+sound quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but
+not as soft or as fine of fiber.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Loin and back:</i> The staple here is comparatively
+short, not as fine, but generally of unvarying character,
+sometimes rather tender.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex06.jpg" width="600" height="419" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SORTING ROOM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. <i>Upper parts of legs:</i> This wool is medium in length
+but coarse of fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose,
+open locks. It is generally sound, but likely to contain
+vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Upper portion of the neck:</i> The staple clipped
+from this part of the neck is of an inferior quality,
+frequently faulty and irregular in growth, and contains
+twigs, thorns, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg&nbsp;18]</a></span>
+7. <i>Central part of the neck:</i> This wool is similar to
+No. 6 but rather tender in staple.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Belly:</i> This wool is from under the sheep, between
+the fore and hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in
+quality, and generally tender.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Root of tail:</i> In this wool the fibers are coarse,
+short, and glossy.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Lower parts of the legs:</i> This wool is generally
+dirty and greasy, the staple having no wave and lacking
+fineness. It is generally burry and contains much
+vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Front of Head</i>; 12. <i>Throat</i>; 13. <i>Chest:</i> The wools
+from these parts are sometimes classed together, all
+having the same characteristics. The fiber is stiff,
+straight, coarse, and covered with fodder.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Shins:</i> This is another short, thick, straight
+wool of glossy fiber, commonly known as shanks.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Classing.</strong> Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and
+is usually, but not always, a process preliminary to
+sorting. It is an important part of sorting, and when
+well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
+uniform matchings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Grades of Wool.</strong> In the grading of wool no set
+standard of quality exists. The same classification
+may be applied in different years, or in different localities,
+to qualities of wool showing much variation, the
+best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for
+the lower grades. The highest quality of wool in the
+United States is found on full-blooded Merino sheep.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Merino Wool.</strong> The Merino sheep was bred for wool
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg&nbsp;19]</a></span>
+and not mutton. The fleece of this breed is fine,
+strong, elastic, and of good color; it also possesses a
+high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
+grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The
+Merino sheep is a native of Spain, and Spain was for a
+long period the chief country of its production. It
+was also in past centuries extensively bred in England
+and English wool owes much to the Merino for the improvement
+it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds
+of English sheep. It was also introduced into Saxony
+and was highly bred there, and Saxony soon came to
+surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
+properties. The Merino was introduced into the United
+States at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had been imported and
+these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the fine
+wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter
+blood refer to the full-blooded Merino standard. As
+the scale descends the wool becomes coarser, the wool
+of a quarter blood usually being a comparatively coarse
+fiber. The general classifications of fine, medium,
+coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
+combing wools. These distinctions naturally overlap
+according to the opinion of the parties in transactions.
+Picklock XXX and XX represent the highest
+grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X,
+and then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in connection
+with the locality from which the wool is grown,
+as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New York No. 1, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg&nbsp;20]</a></span>
+<strong>Difference Between Lamb&rsquo;s and Sheep&rsquo;s Wool.</strong>
+One of the first points to be understood in wool sorting
+is the difference between the wool of lambs and one-year-old
+sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
+Lamb&rsquo;s wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it
+has never been clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett
+wool, and is more valuable when longer, of about fourteen
+months&rsquo; growth. It is finer in quality and possesses
+more waviness, which is a help in the process
+of spinning.</p>
+
+<p>The wool of sheep two or more years old is known
+as wether. The ends of the fiber from such sheep are
+thick and blunted, on account of having been previously
+cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once a
+hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two
+ways: by examining the ends of the fiber to see if they
+are pointed; or by pulling a staple out of the fleece. If
+it is wether, the staple will come out clean, without
+interfering to any extent with those around it; but if
+hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
+being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt,
+moss, straw, and other vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Dead Wool</strong> is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep
+that have died.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pulled Wool.</strong> Pulled wool is wool from the pelts<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> as
+they come from the slaughter-houses of large packing
+plants. These pelts are thrown into vats of water and
+left to soak for twenty-four hours to loosen the dirt
+which has become matted into the wool. From these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg&nbsp;21]</a></span>
+vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which
+the wool issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts
+are next freed from any particles of flesh or fat which
+may have adhered to them, and are then taken to the
+&ldquo;painting&rdquo; room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
+carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the
+roots of the wool. This preparation is allowed to remain
+on the pelts for twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned
+off and the pelts taken to the &ldquo;pulling&rdquo; room. Each
+wool puller stands before a small wooden framework over
+which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all thoroughly
+loosened by the &ldquo;paint&rdquo; preparation, is easily
+and quickly pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled
+it is thrown into barrels conveniently arranged according
+to grade and length.</p>
+
+<p>When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large
+room across which are several rows of wire netting,
+raised about three feet from the floor. Each sheet of
+netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool is piled
+on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
+forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile
+it is worked over by men with rakes, and soon dries.
+When thoroughly dry, it is raked up and taken to the
+storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it usually
+remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold,
+when it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find
+their way to the woolen mill or sampling house. Sometimes
+the fleece will retain its fleece form, but usually
+it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
+specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg&nbsp;22]</a></span>
+from absorbing the cleansing substances used for
+scouring the wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Delaine Wool</strong> is a variety of fine, long combing wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotty Wool</strong>, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have
+been exposed to severe weather and lack of nourishment,
+and for these reasons have failed to throw off
+the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result it
+becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and
+brittle and almost worthless.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wool Sorter.</strong> The sorter begins by placing the
+fleece upon his board or table, always arranging it so
+that he faces the north, as this gives the most constant
+light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus spread
+out shows a definite dividing line through the center.
+The sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze
+their different qualities. The number of sorts is
+determined by the requirements of the manufacturer
+who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
+will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present
+use, and that leave in stock the smallest number of
+sorts and least weight for which he has no immediate
+use. The sorter then removes all extraneous matter
+adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds,
+and cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint,
+which, if not removed at this time, will dissolve in the
+scouring process and stain the wool. With these preliminaries
+finished, he proceeds to cast out the locks,
+according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided
+for that purpose. After skirting or taking off the outside
+edges of the fleece, usually known as brokes, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg&nbsp;23]</a></span>
+the legs and tail, known as breech, he separates the
+other portions from the better qualities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex07.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
+DEGREASING PLANT</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights,
+seconds, breech, etc., are some of the terms used. Picklock
+comprises the choicest qualities; prime is similar
+to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice is true staple,
+but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice, but
+as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior
+sorts from this part of the sheep; downrights come from
+the lower parts of the sides; seconds consist of the best
+wool clipped from the throat and breast; breech, the
+short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting and
+edgings of the fleece.</p>
+
+<p>In the worsted trade different names are used. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg&nbsp;24]</a></span>
+terms generally adopted are: blue, from the neck;
+fine, from the shoulders; neat, from the middle of the
+sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
+breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the
+breech is very strong; brokes, from the lower part of
+the front legs and belly, which are classed as super,
+middle, and common.</p>
+
+<p>Fine, short wools are sorted according to the number
+of counts of yarn they are expected to spin, as 48&rsquo;s,
+60&rsquo;s, 70&rsquo;s, and so on. Thus we see there are different
+methods of indicating qualities in different districts,
+and also of indicating differences of qualities between
+the woolen and worsted branches of the trade.</p>
+
+<p>It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies
+in the same way as the quality of the flesh. The
+shoulder is finest in grain and most delicate, so the
+wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear for
+the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence
+the wool is longer and stronger; about the neck the
+wool is short, to prevent the sheep from being weighted
+down while eating, etc.; the wool on the back becomes
+rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From
+the foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity
+for careful sorting, in order to insure obtaining an
+even running yarn, and subsequently a uniform quality
+of fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wool Washing.</strong> Fleece wool as it comes into the
+market is either in the &ldquo;grease,&rdquo; that is, unwashed and
+with all the dirt which gathers on the surface of the
+greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg&nbsp;25]</a></span>
+washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep
+shearing. Wool, unlike cotton, cannot be worked into
+yarn without being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.
+These impurities consist of greasy and sweaty secretions,
+of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Combined
+with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool,
+these secretions form an encrusting compound, known
+as yolk, which acts as a natural preservative to the
+wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound, with
+other extraneous matter, must be removed before the
+wool is in a workable condition. The amount of yolk
+varies, the greatest amount being found in fine, short
+wools from the warm climates. In long-staple wool
+the amount of yolk is comparatively small.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex08.jpg" width="600" height="427" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WASHING ROOM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg&nbsp;26]</a></span>
+Various methods of removing these impurities have
+been tried; one is the use of absorbent substances, such
+as fossil meal, alumina, etc., to withdraw the greasy
+matter, so that the remaining impurities can be easily
+removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or
+similar solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool
+fats. This is followed by washing in tepid water to
+dissolve the potash salts, leaving the dirt to fall away
+when the other substances are no longer present. To
+work this method with safety requires a costly and
+intricate plant with skilled supervision. The method
+which is practically in universal use is washing the
+wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which combine
+with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion
+which is easily washed off from the wool.</p>
+
+<p>Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the
+washing process, as the luster may be destroyed and a
+brownish-yellow tint given to the wool, the spinning
+properties very seriously injured, the softness destroyed,
+or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to wash,
+requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature;
+other wools are cleansed with great difficulty. A note,
+therefore, should be made of any particular brand or
+class of wool requiring special attention, to serve as a
+guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
+in using unsuitable agents,&mdash;hard water, excessive
+temperatures, strong reagents, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on
+wool as they eat into it and destroy its vitality. Carbonate
+alkalies are less severe. Whatever cleansing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg&nbsp;27]</a></span>
+substances are used, it is essential that they should be
+free from anything that is likely to injure the wool&mdash;that
+they remove the impurities and still preserve all
+the qualities in the wool. If the washing is properly
+performed the alkaline portion of the yolk is removed,
+leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber. If
+the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as
+&ldquo;unmerchantable washed.&rdquo; &ldquo;Tub washed&rdquo; is the
+term applied to fleeces which are broken up and washed
+more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
+warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in
+cold water until nothing remains but the clean fiber.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex09.jpg" width="600" height="434" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">DEGREASING PLANT&mdash;REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An improved method of washing wool by hand is to
+have a series of tanks with pressing rollers attached to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg&nbsp;28]</a></span>
+each tank: the wool is agitated by means of forks, and
+then passed to the pressing rollers and into each tank
+in succession. The tanks are usually five in number,
+and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the
+upper to the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing
+rollers the excess of water is driven off in a hydro
+extractor<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and the wool is beaten into a light, fluffy
+condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wool Drying.</strong> The process of drying wool is not
+intended to be carried to such an extent that the wool
+will be in an absolutely dry state, for in such a condition
+it would be lusterless, brittle, and discolored. It
+is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
+moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it entirely
+would result in partial disintegration of the fibers.
+Buyers and sellers have a recognized standard of moisture,
+16 per cent. If, on the other hand, it is left too
+wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain in the
+succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so
+unduly stretched that they have lost their elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>The theory which underlies the drying process is
+that dry air is capable of absorbing moisture, hence by
+circulating currents of dry air in and around wet wool,
+the absorbing power of the air draws off the moisture.
+For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
+as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and
+incapable of taking up more moisture. Warming the
+air increases its capacity to absorb moisture; thus a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg&nbsp;29]</a></span>
+higher temperature is capable of drying the wool much
+quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
+temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100
+degrees F., evenly distributed, and with ample provision
+for the escape of the saturated air, is essential for good
+work.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Oiling.</strong> After being scoured wool generally has to
+be oiled before it is ready for the processes of spinning,
+blending, etc. As delivered from the drying apparatus,
+the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat harsh and
+wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk
+which is its natural lubricant. To render it soft and
+elastic, and to improve its spinning qualities, the fiber
+is sprinkled with lard oil or olive oil. As the oil is a
+costly item, it is of consequence that it be equally distributed
+and used economically. To attain this end
+various forms of oiling apparatus have been invented,
+which sprinkle the oil in a fine spray over the wool,
+which is carried under the sprinkler by an endless cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Burring and Carbonizing.</strong> After wool has been
+washed and scoured it frequently happens that it cannot
+be advanced to the succeeding operations of manufacture
+because it is mixed with burs, seeds, leaves,
+slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
+pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spinning
+qualities of the stock, for if a bur or other foreign
+substance becomes fastened in the strand of yarn while
+it is being spun, it either causes the thread to break or
+renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs,
+etc., from the wool two methods are pursued: the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg&nbsp;30]</a></span>
+one purely mechanical, the other chemical, and known
+respectively as burring and carbonizing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bur Picker.</strong> For the mechanical removing of burs a
+machine called the bur picker is employed. In this
+machine the wool is first spread out into a thin lap or
+sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly, beat
+upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into
+pieces. The pieces fall down into the dust box or upon
+a grating beneath the machine, and are ejected together
+with a good deal of the wool adhering to them. Often
+the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and these are
+scattered through the stock.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Process of Carbonizing.</strong> For the complete removal
+of all foreign vegetable substances from wool the most
+effective process is carbonizing, in which the burs, etc.,
+are burned out by means of acid and a high degree of
+heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
+wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric
+or hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the
+acid bath being placed in cement cisterns or in large
+lead-lined tubs and not made strong enough to injure the
+fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock is
+frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then
+placed in an enclosed chamber and subjected to a high
+temperature (75 degrees C.). The result of this process
+is that all the vegetable matter contained in the wool
+is &ldquo;carbonized&rdquo; or burned to a crisp, and on being
+slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This
+dust is removed from the wool by various simple
+processes. The carbonizing process was first introduced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg&nbsp;31]</a></span>
+in 1875, though it made but slight headway against the
+old burring method until after 1880.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Blending.</strong> Pure wool of but one quality is not often
+used in the production of woven fabrics, so, before the
+raw material is ready for spinning into yarn, or for
+other processes by which it is worked into useful forms,
+it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons
+(among which cheapness figures prominently), the
+added materials consisting usually of shoddy, mungo,
+or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however, blending has
+for its object the securing of a desired quality or weight
+of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
+determines blending operations, natural colored wools
+being frequently intermixed to obtain particular shades
+for dress goods, tweeds, knitting yarns, etc. Stock
+dyed wools are also blended for the production of mixed
+colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is practically
+no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable
+by mixing two or more colors of wool together.
+The various quantities of wool to be blended are spread
+out in due proportion in the form of thin layers, one on
+top of the other, and then passed through a machine
+called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination
+of large and small rollers, thickly studded with small
+pins, which open the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly
+intermix it. A blast of air constantly plays upon the
+wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and pins in opening
+out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
+operation several times and is finally delivered in a
+soft, fleecy condition, ready to be spun into yarn.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Skins.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high
+speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg&nbsp;32]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Remanufactured</strong> wool substitutes are extensively used
+in the manufacture of woolen and worsted goods.
+There is no need for the prejudice that is sometimes
+met regarding these reclaimed materials, for by their
+use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed.
+If the immense quantity of these materials were wasted,
+countless persons would be unable to afford proper clothing,
+as it is difficult to estimate what the price of wool
+would be; and it is also doubtful if a sufficient quantity
+could be produced to supply the need. In almost all
+instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special
+purpose of producing cloths at a much lower price.</p>
+
+<p>The cloths made from waste products, such as noils,
+are not much inferior in quality to those produced from
+the wool from which the noils are obtained; but the
+great majority of cloths made from other waste products
+are much inferior. The following are the most important
+substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool,
+and flocks.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Noils</strong> are the rejected fibers from the process of combing
+the different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are
+from the sheep, mohair noils from the Angora goat, and
+alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg&nbsp;33]</a></span>
+Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool
+noils, short or fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca
+noils. They are all obtained in the process of combing,
+that is, the process which separates the long from the
+short fibers; the former are known as the &ldquo;top,&rdquo; and
+are used in worsted and in the production of mohair
+and alpaca yarns; while the latter are used to advantage
+in the production of many different kinds of woolen
+fabrics. With the exception of length, noils are practically
+of the same quality as the tops from which they
+are taken.</p>
+
+<p>Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools
+as Leicester and similar wools. These noils, like the
+wool from which they are obtained, are much coarser
+in quality and fiber than the short-wool noils. Occasionally,
+when strength is required in the fabric, these
+noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool
+noils. Many of the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively
+of these noils. They are also mixed with shoddy
+and cotton in the production of dark-colored fabrics,
+and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a
+fibrous appearance they are extremely useful.</p>
+
+<p>Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and
+are obtained from combing Australian and other fine
+wools. The number and variety of uses to which they
+are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
+in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufacture
+of shawls and plain woolens of a soft nature, and
+are also suitable for mixing with cotton in the production
+of twist threads.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg&nbsp;34]</a></span>
+Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing
+of these materials. They are lacking in felting properties,
+but are lustrous and possess strength, and are
+most valuable in the manufacture of fabrics where
+strength and luster are required. These noils are used
+in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets,
+as yarns for these carpets must possess strength, brightness,
+and thickness of fiber. They are also used in combination
+with shoddy and cotton to produce weft or
+filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Shoddy</strong> and <strong>Mungo</strong> are in reality wool products, or
+wool fiber which has previously passed through the
+processes of manufacture whereby its physical structure
+has been considerably mutilated. These were first
+produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in
+value than mungo. The value and quality of the waste
+or rags from which it is made determine the quality or
+value of the material. Shoddy is derived from waste
+or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
+stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mungo</strong> is made from rags of hard or milled character
+and is much shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length,
+varying from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch,
+can be regulated by the treatment the rags receive, and
+by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
+machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided
+into classes. Mungo is divided into two classes, namely,
+new and old mungo. New mungo is made from rags
+chiefly composed of tailor&rsquo;s clippings, unused pattern-room
+clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg&nbsp;35]</a></span>
+garments, etc. By a careful selection of the rags previous
+to grinding, it is possible to make a large number
+of qualities, and a great variety of colors and shades
+without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and
+mungo are used in cloths of low and medium qualities.
+Shoddies are utilized in fabrics of the cheviot class and in
+the production of backing yarns. Mungoes of the best
+quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in both
+warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo.</strong> Before
+the fibrous mungo is obtained, the rags have to pass
+through the following necessary preliminary operations:</p>
+
+<p><i>A. Dusting.</i> This is carried on in a shaking machine,
+which consists of a cylinder possessing long and strong
+spikes, which are enclosed, having underneath a grating
+to allow the dust to pass through. The dust is then
+driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>B. Sorting.</i> All rags, both old and new, must be
+sorted, and considerable care must be exercised in this
+operation, as on this work alone depends the obtaining
+of different qualities and shades, as well as the securing
+of the production of a regular and uniform product.</p>
+
+<p><i>C. Seaming.</i> This is only necessary with the rags
+procured from garments. It is simply removing the
+cotton threads from the seams, and any metallic or
+hard substances from the rags.</p>
+
+<p><i>D. Oiling.</i> The rags are oiled to soften them and
+make them more pliable, and thus to facilitate the
+grinding.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg&nbsp;36]</a></span>
+<i>E. Grinding.</i> This is the principal operation, and the
+rags are made fibrous in this process. The machine by
+which this is effected is made up of the following parts:
+feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a funnel for conveying
+the material out of the machine. The principal
+features of the machine are the swift and its speed.
+The swift is enclosed in a framework, and is about
+forty-two inches in diameter and eighteen inches wide,
+thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square inches,
+containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes.
+The speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolutions
+per minute. The rags are fed by placing them on
+the traveling feed apron, and are thus conveyed to the
+fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
+are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth,
+moving with exceedingly high surface velocity, they
+are torn thread from thread and fiber from fiber. The
+fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags are held
+while the swift carries out this operation. By means of
+the strong current of air created by the high speed of the
+swift, the mungo is expelled from the machine through
+the funnel into a specially arranged receptacle. If by
+any chance the machine should be overcharged, that is,
+if too many rags are passing through the rollers, the top
+fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply carried,
+or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the
+opposite side of the machine without being subjected
+to the tearing process. The top roller is weighted by
+levers with weights attached to keep it in position, thus
+bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg&nbsp;37]</a></span>
+driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the
+feed rollers in relation to the swift, the length of the
+fiber may be varied to a small degree.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Extract Wool.</strong> This is obtained from union cloths,
+that is, from cloths having a wool weft and warp of
+cotton, etc., also from cloths having the same material
+for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo warp or
+filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. Therefore
+the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted
+from it by the process of carbonizing. To effect this,
+the tissue or rags are steeped in a solution of sulphuric
+acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
+enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the
+acid in a concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton,
+converting it into powder. The powder readily
+becomes separated, and thus the cotton is eliminated.
+The material that is left is well washed to remove all
+acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder,
+to impart to it the appearance of a woolly and a
+softer fabric.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Flocks.</strong> These are of three kinds, and are waste
+products of the milling, cropping, and raising operations.
+The most valuable are those derived from the
+fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
+are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture
+of low grade cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks
+are suitable for blending with wool, and as a rule command
+a fair price. Raising flocks are those obtained
+from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
+purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg&nbsp;38]</a></span>
+used. Cutting or cropping flocks are the short fibers
+which are removed from the cloths in this operation.
+They are practically of no value to the textile manufacturer,
+being unfit for yarn production, but are used
+chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing &ldquo;flock-papers,&rdquo;
+which are papers with raised figures resembling
+cloth, made of poor wool, and attached with a gluey
+varnish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex10.jpg" width="700" height="507" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">CARD ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Automatic Feed.<br />
+2. Bur Guards.<br />
+3. Bur Tray.<br />
+4. 1st Top Divider.<br />
+5. 2d Top Divider.<br />
+6. Workers.<br />
+7. Strippers.<br />
+8. Doffer Cylinder.<br />
+9. Main Cylinders.<br />
+10. Main Card Drive on 2d Main Cylinder Shaft.<br />
+11. 1st Lickerin.<br />
+12. 2d Lickerin.<br />
+13. 3d Lickerin.<br />
+14. 4th Lickerin.<br />
+15. Fancy Hood.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg&nbsp;39]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2>WORSTED YARNS</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Carding.</strong> After the wool is washed it undergoes a
+number of operations before it is finished into worsted
+or woolen yarn.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The first step in the manufacturing
+of worsted yarn is to pass the washed wool through a
+worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
+covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The
+effect of these cylinders on the wool is to disengage the
+wool fibers, make them straight, and form a &ldquo;sliver&rdquo;
+or strand. It is now ready for the combing machine.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Combing.</strong> The process of combing consists of subjecting
+the card sliver to the operations of the automatic
+wool comber, which straightens the fibers and
+removes all short and tufted pieces of wool. Combing
+is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies perfectly
+straight, and that all fibers follow one after the
+other in regular order.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Comb.</strong> A comb is a complicated machine. The
+principal feature is a large metal ring with rows of fine
+steel pins (pin circles), which is made to revolve horizontally
+within the machine. By various devices the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg&nbsp;40]</a></span>
+wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of
+tufts. The fibers of the tufts by an intricate process
+are separated into long and short lengths, and a set of
+rollers draws each out separately and winds it into
+a continuous strand called &ldquo;tops.&rdquo; On leaving the
+comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and
+foreign substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lustrous
+appearance. The short combed-out wool is called
+noils, and is used in making carpet yarns, ground up
+into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy yarns.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Worsted Tops.</strong> American textile manufacturers are
+finding it advantageous to have their combing done by
+those who make the work a specialty rather than to do
+it themselves. In the manufacture of tops all varieties of
+combing wools are used: Australian, Merino, and Crossbred
+wools, South American Merino and Crossbred
+wools, Cape Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools
+grown in the United States, the lustrous wools of pure
+English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey, and Alpaca
+from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools,
+either sorted or unsorted as they may desire, to a combing
+mill, where the wool is put into top at a lower price
+than that at which most spinneries can do their own
+combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger
+amount of top from a given amount of wool can be
+secured than by any other process, and in addition, a
+top in better condition for drawing and spinning.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg&nbsp;41]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<img src="images/tex11.jpg" width="451" height="600" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">COMB ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).<br />
+3. Boxes containing bevel gears.<br />
+4. Pillars.<br />
+5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.<br />
+6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism.<br />
+7. Dabbing brushes.<br />
+8. Star or stroker wheels.<br />
+9. Large circle containing rows of pins.<br />
+10. Drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle.<br />
+11. Brass boxes or conductors.<br />
+12. Guides for comb ball ends.<br />
+13. Comb balls (4 ends each).<br />
+14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest.<br />
+15. Comb leg (4 in number).<br />
+16. Foundation plate.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg&nbsp;42]</a></span>
+In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single
+<!-- actual start of page 42 -->fiber lies across the strand; all lie in the direction
+of the length. This order is preserved until the
+fibers have been converted into yarn, which is accomplished
+by passing through &ldquo;gill boxes.&rdquo; These gill
+boxes are machines with bars of iron having upon their
+surface two rows of minute steel pins, by this means
+kept perfectly straight. The bars on which they are
+placed are worked on screws between two sets of rollers.
+The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and,
+as it passes through, is caught by one of these gills
+that is raised up for the purpose, being succeeded by
+others as the rollers revolve. These gills are moved
+forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
+rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber
+perfectly straight. The second set of rollers is termed
+the draught rollers, since by them the wool, after passing
+through the front rollers, is drawn out and reduced
+in thickness. This is accomplished because the second
+rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
+rollers, the speed being regulated according to the
+length of the wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be
+produced. These gills are used in the production of
+worsted yarn until the size of the rope of wool has been
+so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
+fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness.
+A worsted yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a
+yarn produced from perfectly straight fibers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg&nbsp;43]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex12.jpg" width="700" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">GILLING</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Cans containing Comb Ends or Sliver.<br />
+2. Balling Head.<br />
+3. Stock from Balling Head No. 2.<br />
+4. Screws for applying pressure to Back Rollers.<br />
+5. Screws for applying pressure to Front Rollers.<br />
+6. Faller Screws situated between No. 4 and No. 5.<br />
+7. Guard for covering gears which drive Back Rollers.<br />
+8. Guard covering gears which drive Balling Head.<br />
+9. Balling Head.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg&nbsp;44]</a></span>
+The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some
+cases, although such a yarn is not in common use.
+When combing is dispensed with, the gills, in connection
+<!-- actual start of page 44 -->with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers straight,
+and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has
+a tendency to be uneven and knotty.</p>
+
+<p>Before the wool can be spun it must be made into
+roving of a suitable thickness. This is done by
+passing it, after being combed, through a series of
+operations termed drawing, whose functions are to
+produce a gradual reduction in thickness at each
+stage. Although the number of machines varies
+according to the kind of wool to be treated, still
+the same principle applies to all.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Spinning.</strong> The process of spinning is the last in the
+formation of yarn or thread, the subsequent operations
+having for their object the strengthening of the yarn
+by combining two or more strands and afterward
+arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for
+which the yarn is required. It is also the last time that
+the fibers are mechanically drawn over each other or
+drafted, and this is invariably done from a single roving.
+The humidity and temperature of the spinning room
+must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is
+provided with a wet and dry thermometer so that the
+best temperature can be ascertained. The most suitable
+heat and humidity can only be obtained by comparison
+and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere
+causes the wool to become charged with electricity and
+then the fibers repel each other.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg&nbsp;45]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex13.jpg" width="700" height="389" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WORSTED SPINNING. &ldquo;BRADFORD SYSTEM&rdquo;</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Bobbins containing Worsted Yarn.<br />
+2. Conical shape caps placed on top of spindles.<br />
+3. Tin Wings fastened to Eyeboard.<br />
+4. Eyeboard containing pot eyes, through which yarn passes to the bobbin.<br />
+5. Scratch fluted front rollers.<br />
+6. Leather covered Pressing Rollers for No. 5 Rollers.<br />
+7. Smooth metal Pressing Rollers for Back Rollers.<br />
+8. Large Front Roller Gear.<br />
+9. Pulley for driving Twist gear.<br />
+10. Spools of Roving held by a series of pegs.<br />
+11. Spindle bands.<br />
+12. Sifter plate or rail.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg&nbsp;46]</a></span>
+Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods
+known respectively as the Bradford or English system
+and the French system. The difference in these systems
+<!-- actual start of page 46 -->of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing
+and spinning processes, a radically different class
+of machinery being used for each. The combing process
+is practically the same in both cases, but the wool
+is combed dry for the French system, and by the English
+method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being
+combed. The result of the English method is the production
+of a smooth level yarn in which the fibers lie
+nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made according
+to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more
+woolly. On account of the absence of oil, the shrinkage
+of French spun worsted is considerably less than
+that made by the Bradford system.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Characteristics of Worsted Yarn.</strong> The unique
+structure of worsted yarn makes it invaluable in
+the production of textile fabrics in which luster and
+uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics.
+The methods by which worsted is formed render it
+capable of sustaining more tension in proportion to
+its size than the pure woolen yarn. This feature,
+combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent
+position in the manufacture of fine coatings,
+dress goods, etc. The method of arranging the
+fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is such as to
+produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and
+fibrous surface, which destroys to a large degree the
+clearness of the pattern effect in the woven piece. In
+the construction of worsted yarn the fibers are arranged
+in a parallel relationship to each other, resulting in the
+production of a smooth, hard yarn having a well-defined
+<!-- actual start of page 48 -->surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or
+marked type is possible by its use. There is, in a word,
+more scope for pattern effects, since the level and regular
+structure of the yarn imparts a distinction to every
+part of a woven design. From this peculiarity arises
+the great variety of effects seen in the worsted dress
+fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored
+patterns and in fabrics of one shade throughout.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg&nbsp;47]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex14.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SPOOL ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Jack Spooler frame.<br />
+2. Drum upon which Jack Spool rests.<br />
+3. Jack Spool.<br />
+4. Guides for spool ends.<br />
+5. Spools containing yarn.<br />
+6. Pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends.<br />
+7. Spool creel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg&nbsp;48]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex15.jpg" width="700" height="492" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">FRENCH SPINNING</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Balling heads.<br />
+2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound.<br />
+3. Rub or condenser aprons.<br />
+4. Gearing for driving rub motion.<br />
+5. Shipper rod and handles.<br />
+6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.<br />
+7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a
+rule, the wool used in the English system is of fairly
+good length and uniform staple, for if otherwise it is
+only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun straight.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg&nbsp;49]</a></span>
+Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
+system, and this is the reason why the French system
+of spinning is being introduced. On the other hand, in
+the spinning of woolen yarns great length of staple is
+not essential, for the machinery employed will work
+the small fibers.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Uses of Worsted Yarn.</strong> Worsted yarn may be used
+in any of the following fabrics:</p>
+
+<p>1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework
+and knitting, as Berlin, Zephyr, and Saxony wools.</p>
+
+<p>2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified
+according to material.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> Fabrics of all wool&mdash;serge, bunting, rep, dress
+goods, with weave effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Wool and Cotton&mdash;union goods, serge linings,
+lathing.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Wool and Silk&mdash;rich poplin, pongee, henrietta,
+bombazine.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Alpaca and Mohair&mdash;alpaca, mohair dress goods,
+lusters, braids, laces.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Counts.</strong> Yarn is measured by a system of &ldquo;counts&rdquo;;&mdash;the
+number of yards of yarn to the pound. The
+counts of worsted yarn are based on the number of
+hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards.
+Thus No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560
+yards each, or 16,800 yards to the pound.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that
+worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel, while the fibers of
+woolen yarn run in all directions. The worsted yarn is stronger.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Mills that manufacture worsted yarn.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg&nbsp;50]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2>WOOLEN YARN</h2>
+
+
+<p>In manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation
+is performed to arrange the wool fibers so that they
+will lie smoothly and parallel to each other. In the
+case of woolen yarn every operation is performed so as
+to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
+overlap each other.</p>
+
+<p>To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of
+machinery entirely different from that used in worsted
+manufacture is necessary. The wool is carded, but no
+attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The reduction
+in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon
+the so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame
+where the drawing and twisting are done at the same
+operation. As neither combs nor gills are employed,
+there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
+possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance
+that makes the woolen yarn so valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The operation is as follows:</p>
+
+<p><strong>Carding.</strong> After washing the material for woolen yarn,
+it is passed through three carding processes, and from the
+last of them is taken direct to the spinning frame to be
+made into yarn. The object of woolen carding is different
+from carding in any other textile manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg&nbsp;51]</a></span>
+In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected
+to a &ldquo;combing&rdquo; principle, and the aim is to lay the
+fibers parallel. Woolen carding aims to open the
+raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose condition,
+without leaning toward any definite arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The carding machines are called, respectively, first,
+second, and third breaker. Each machine consists of a
+complicated series of card-covered cylinders of different
+sizes, running at different rates of speed&mdash;sometimes
+in the same and sometimes in an opposite direction.
+These rollers take the wool from one another in
+regular order until it is finally delivered from the third
+breaker in a soft, fluffy rope or roll called a sliver.
+This sliver is wound on a bobbin, and taken from the
+card to the mule spinning frame.</p>
+
+<p>The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to
+the mule spinning frame where it is passed through
+rolls, and the sliver attenuated by means of a traveling
+carriage.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Count.</strong> In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous
+systems for denoting the count, varying with the locality
+in which it is spun and the character of the product.
+In the United States there are two systems employed,
+but the one in most general use is known as &ldquo;American
+run counts.&rdquo; This is based on the number of
+&ldquo;runs,&rdquo; each containing 1,600 yards to the pound.
+Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards to the pound is called
+a 5 &ldquo;run&rdquo; yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the pound
+is equal to a 3&frac14; &ldquo;run.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg&nbsp;52]</a></span>
+In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based
+on the &ldquo;cut,&rdquo; each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the
+count is the number of cuts in a pound. Thus, No. 30
+cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the pound. No. 15
+contains 4,500 yards to the pound.</p>
+
+<p>Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings
+are blended and the fibers napped, as exemplified
+in tweed, cheviot, doeskin, broadcloth, beaver, frieze,
+chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg&nbsp;53]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h2>WEAVING</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Preparatory to Weaving.</strong> Yarn is wound on bobbins
+on the ring or mule spinning frame. These bobbins are
+transferred to a machine called a spooler where the yarn
+is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making the warp.</p>
+
+<p>A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of
+threads (called ends), usually in a precisely designed
+order of given length, and allowing the ends to wind
+over a cylinder called a beam. In order to do this it is
+necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
+in a frame called a creel.</p>
+
+<p>Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to
+weave or interlace it with filling it must be sized.
+This is necessary for all single twist warp yarns. Its
+primary object is to increase the strength and smoothness
+of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the
+strain and friction due to the weaving operation.
+Other objects of sizing are the increase of weight and
+bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
+of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it
+over a roller and through a bath of a starch mixture.
+The machine for sizing is called a slasher. The warp
+is now ready to have the ends drawn in and placed in
+the loom.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg&nbsp;54]</a></span>
+<strong>Weaving.</strong> Every woven piece of cloth is made up
+of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp
+and filling (weft), which are interlaced with each other
+to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways
+of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
+side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling
+threads interlace with each other is known as the
+weave. When the word &ldquo;end&rdquo; is used in connection
+with weaving it always signifies the warp thread, while
+each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of the
+cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to
+the inch. The fabrics produced by weaving are named
+by the manufacturers or merchants who introduce
+them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing under new
+names, usually with some slight modification to suit
+the public taste.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Weaving Processes.</strong> In order to understand the
+different kinds of weaves it is necessary to know, or
+at least to understand, the process of forming cloth,
+called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
+loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame,
+the warp-beam, the cloth-roll, the heddles, and their
+mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden
+cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound.
+The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from
+the warp-beam to the front of the loom, and are
+attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of
+threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye)
+of a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the
+heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg&nbsp;55]</a></span>
+automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the
+heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement
+of the heddles is controlled by &ldquo;cams&rdquo; which move up
+the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in
+larger patterns the heddles are controlled by harness
+cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
+the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening
+(shed) is made between the threads of warp,
+through which the shuttle is thrown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/tex16.jpg" width="500" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM<br />
+Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is
+fastened in the shuttle and which permits the yarn to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg&nbsp;56]</a></span>
+unwind as it passes to and fro. As fast as each filling
+thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed close to the
+previous one by means of a reed which advances toward
+and recedes from the cloth after each passage of the
+shuttle. This is done to make the cloth firm. There
+are various movements on the loom for controlling the
+tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
+the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in
+the case of breakage of the warp thread or the running
+out of the filling thread.</p>
+
+<p>Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms
+or by steam-power in power-looms, but the arrangements
+for both are to a certain extent the same. A
+great number of different kinds of power-looms are
+manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles
+in use at the present time. These looms are distinguished
+by the name of the material which they are
+designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom, blanket-loom,
+burlaps-&nbsp;and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
+loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-loom,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping,
+and braiding, which are operations depending on the
+interlacing of a single thread, or single set of threads,
+while weaving is done with two distinct and separate
+sets of threads.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg&nbsp;57]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex17.jpg" width="700" height="389" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">MAIN WEAVE ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Warp beam containing warp.<br />
+2. Lease Rods.<br />
+3. Harnesses.<br />
+4. Dobby Head motion to lift harnesses.<br />
+5. Jacquard Head motion.<br />
+6. Cards containing design&mdash;working in connection with Jacquard Head motion.<br />
+7. Whip Roll.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg&nbsp;58]</a></span>
+<strong>Classes of Weave.</strong> The character of the weave offers
+the best basis for classification of woven goods. Nearly
+all the varieties of cloth may be classified from the
+following weaves:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><!-- actual start of page 58 -->(1) Plain-weaving,<br />
+(2) Twill-weaving,<br />
+(3) Satin-weaving,<br />
+(4) Figure-weaving,<br />
+(5) Double-cloth-weaving,<br />
+(6) Pile-weaving,<br />
+(7) Gauze-weaving,<br />
+(8) Lappet-weaving.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p><strong>Plain or Homespun Weave.</strong> Plain cloth is the simplest
+cloth that can be woven. In this weave one series
+of threads (filling) crosses another series (warp) at
+right angles, passing over one and under one in regular
+order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the
+threads. This combination makes a strong and firm
+cloth, but does not give a close or a heavy fabric, as
+the threads do not lie as close and compact as they do
+in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or shrunk
+in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large
+or small openings according to the size or twist of yarn
+used. If heavy or coarse threads are used the perforations
+will be large; if finer threads, the perforations
+will be smaller.</p>
+
+<p>This weave is used in the production of sheeting,
+muslin, lawn, gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In
+plain weaving it is possible to produce stripes by the
+use of bands of colored warp, and checks where both
+warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is commonly
+used when the cloth is intended to be ornamented
+with printed patterns. In weaving cloth of only one
+color but one shuttle is used, while for the production of
+checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex18.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED
+AND HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM<br />
+A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Twill Weave.</strong> A twill weave has diagonal lines across
+the cloth. In this class of weaves the filling yarn
+or threads pass over 1 and under 2, or over 1 and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg&nbsp;59]</a></span>
+under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2, 3,
+or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling
+thread does not pass under and over the same set of
+warp threads, as this would not give the desired interlacings.
+Instead the order of interlacing moves one
+thread to the right or left with each filling thread that
+is woven. If there are the same number of threads to
+an inch in warp and filling, twill lines will form an
+angle of 45 degrees; if the warps are closer together
+than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if the filling
+threads are closer together the lines will approach
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg&nbsp;60]</a></span>
+more nearly the horizontal. Different effects are obtained
+in patterns by variation in the sizes of the yarn
+and twist, by the use of heavy threads to form cords,
+ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored materials in
+the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
+another to produce a fancy twill-weave. The object of
+the twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a
+fabric, or to ornament it. The disposition of the threads
+permits the introduction of more material into the cloth,
+and hence renders it heavier, and of closer construction
+than in the case of plain-weaving.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Satin Weaves.</strong> The object of a satin weave is to
+distribute the interlacings of the warp and filling in
+such a manner that no trace of the diagonal (twill)
+line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In weaving
+a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under
+1 and over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin
+is required. The raising of the warp end to allow
+the filling to pass under is done in such a way as to
+prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
+result is that practically all of the filling is on the face
+of the cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave.
+A warp-face satin weave may be produced by reversing
+the order; in this case practically all of the warp is
+brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a worsted
+warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically
+all of the warp would show on the cloth, and
+give it the appearance of a worsted fabric. A number
+of classes of silk goods are made in this way, with a silk
+filling covering a cotton warp.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg&nbsp;61]</a></span>
+This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface,
+capable of reflecting the light to the best advantage,
+and having a lustrous appearance which makes it
+resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of silk using a
+satin weave.</p>
+
+<p>Satin weaves are used very largely in producing different
+styles of cotton and silk fabrics, and are also
+frequently found in woolen goods. They are more
+extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
+table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin
+stripes are frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress
+goods in connection with plain and figured weaves.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Figure Weaving.</strong> To produce complicated and
+irregular patterns in the loom a large number of different
+openings (sheds) must be made in the warp, and to
+secure such a large number an attachment is placed on
+top of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The
+Jacquard is merely an apparatus for automatically selecting
+warp threads, by which each separate one can be
+made to move independently of any of the others. It
+is provided with weighted strings attached to each of
+the warp threads. The weighted strings are controlled
+by wire needles which are in turn controlled by perforated
+cards. Each motion of the loom changes their
+position and allows some needles to go through the holes
+in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others
+strike the card and leave the warp down. In this way
+the perforations of the cards determine the figure of
+the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to produce
+patterns of great width in which all or most of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg&nbsp;62]</a></span>
+threads in the pattern move independently. For the
+weaving of elaborate effects and flowing lines it is
+practically indispensable. All elaborate designs are
+classed under the name of Jacquards.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Double Cloth.</strong> Double cloth is a descriptive term
+applied in weaving to fabrics produced by combining
+two single cloths into one. Each one of these single
+cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
+filling, the combination being effected in the loom by
+interlacing some of the warp or filling threads of one
+cloth into the other cloth at certain intervals, thus fastening
+them securely together. The reasons for making
+double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to reduce
+the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials
+for the cloth forming the back; again it may be
+to produce double-face fabric; it allows great freedom
+for the formation of colored patterns which may or
+may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
+basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making
+pillow cases, pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.;
+more frequently, the object is to increase the bulk or
+strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as heavy
+overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich
+silk, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pile Weave.</strong> A pile weave is a general term under
+which are classed numerous varieties of cloth woven
+with a pile surface, as plush, velvet, velveteen, and carpeting
+of various kinds. Turkish towels are an excellent
+illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a
+closely set, elastic face covering various kinds of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg&nbsp;63]</a></span>
+woolen, silk, and cotton fabrics, and consists of threads
+standing close together, either in the form of loops
+or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
+form a uniform and even surface. In the production of
+a pile fabric a third thread is introduced into the weaving
+and formed into loops usually by carrying it over
+the wires laid across the breadth of the cloth. The
+wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops
+standing; the loops may then be cut so as to form a
+cut pile, as in velvet and plush, or they may be left in
+their original form as in Brussels carpet and Turkish
+towels.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Gauze Weaving.</strong> In gauze weaving all the warp
+threads are not parallel to each other, but are made to
+intertwist more or less among themselves, thereby
+favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in which
+many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained.
+Two sets of warp threads are used, one being
+the ground warp and the other the &ldquo;douping,&rdquo; the
+latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
+especially characterized by its openness and yields the
+lightest and strongest fabric with the least material.
+When gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled
+&ldquo;leno.&rdquo; Gauze fabrics are designed for women&rsquo;s summer
+gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lappet Weaving.</strong> Lappet weaving, really a form
+of embroidery, is used for producing small designs on
+cloth by means of needles placed in a sliding-frame, the
+figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate figures
+are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg&nbsp;64]</a></span>
+are many small effects that can be economically produced
+in this manner, such as the detached spots in
+dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous figures running
+more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
+imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and
+gauze fabrics.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg&nbsp;65]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h2>DYEING AND FINISHING</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Dyeing.</strong> When a fabric or fiber is impregnated
+with a uniform color over its whole surface, it is said
+to be &ldquo;simply dyed.&rdquo; On the other hand, if distinct
+patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
+impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the
+coal tar dyes have been discovered the latter are used
+entirely. Over fourteen thousand colors have been
+produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
+attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool
+and silk attract better than cotton and linen.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wool Dyeing.</strong> The methods of dyeing wool differ
+considerably from those employed for cotton and other
+vegetable fibers. They may be divided into three
+parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.</p>
+
+<p>Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray
+or natural state, and then cleansed and dyed in the
+piece to such colors as are required. They are woven
+in plain weaves and in a great variety of twills&mdash;in fact,
+in all styles of weaves&mdash;and are also made on the Jacquard
+loom. The principal fabrics in this classification
+are all wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings,
+satines, prunellas, whipcords, melroses, Venetian
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg&nbsp;66]</a></span>
+broadcloths, zibelines, rainproof cloths; nun&rsquo;s veiling, canvases,
+grenadines, albatrosses, cr&ecirc;pes, and French
+flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes.
+Whenever it is possible, it is better to dye textile
+fabrics in the form of woven pieces than in the yarn.
+During the process of weaving it is impossible to avoid
+getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
+scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color
+used in weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method
+of applying color to textiles. The chief fault of piece
+dyeing is the danger of cloud spots, stains, etc., which
+do not appear in the other two methods. Then again
+in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff
+does not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior
+remains nearly white.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller
+into a dye vat. Small pieces or &ldquo;swatches&rdquo; are taken
+from the ends of the fabric, and compared with the
+pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
+of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and
+cottons of different growths and seasons vary greatly,
+so that the use of a fixed quantity of dye to a given
+amount of goods will not always give the exact shade.
+In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are
+placed side by side below the eyes (reflected light),
+and then held up to the light and the eye directed
+along the surface. A judgment must be formed quickly,
+as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
+unable to perceive fine shades of difference.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex19.jpg" width="700" height="491" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">DYE ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.<br />
+2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.<br />
+3. Cloth leaving dye tub&mdash;being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Cross Dyed.</strong> Cross-dyed goods may be described
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg&nbsp;67]</a></span>
+as fabrics woven with black or colored cotton warps
+and wool or worsted filling and afterwards dyed in the
+piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction for
+dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric
+woven with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be
+identical in depth of color, tone, and brightness. In
+some cases it is possible to dye a mixed fabric at a single
+operation, but the usual process is to dye the wool in
+yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the
+color of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation
+the wool is thrown to the surface. In another method
+the warp is dyed and woven with a white wool or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg&nbsp;68]</a></span>
+worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
+that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton
+does not take the wool dye, but retains its original
+color. This class of work is generally used in mohair,
+alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the natural brilliancy
+of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the filling is not
+impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the goods
+were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven.
+The principal cloths in this classification are cotton,
+warp figured melroses, Florentines, glac&eacute;s, brilliantines,
+lusters, alpacas, and mohairs; rainproof cloths, and
+fancy waistings, and in these may be found the same
+great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be found
+in the piece-dyed goods already described.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Yarn Dyed.</strong> Yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously
+described in that they are made of yarns that
+are dyed before being woven, or yarns spun from dyed
+wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece),
+slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dyeing is preferable for goods
+intended to stand friction, and that in spite of wear and
+tear must preserve their color. It is preferred for dark
+colored goods where much friction is to be encountered,
+but is seldom used for light colors, since these would
+be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture.
+In this case every fiber is colored uniformly all over.
+The yarn from this wool and the cloth woven from it
+are dyed through and through and do not become
+grayish or whitish by wear and tear.</p>
+
+<p>Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the
+dyestuff penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg&nbsp;69]</a></span>
+unevenly dyed, the subsequent operations equalize
+most thoroughly the irregularities in color.</p>
+
+<p>Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids,
+and suitings, and in their manufacture the drop box
+loom (a loom with two or more shuttles) is used. Goods
+manufactured under this classification include cotton
+warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mixture
+coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof
+cloths. These goods are made in a great variety of
+weaves, the effect in each being secured by the color
+and the weave.</p>
+
+<p>Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed
+fabrics by unraveling threads of each kind. In
+the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has penetrated
+through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed
+fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
+completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Textile Printing.</strong> Printed fabrics such as print cloths
+can generally be distinguished by observing the back
+side of the cloth. If the figure or pattern on the face of
+the cloth does not penetrate through to the back but only
+shows the outline, the fabric has been printed. Fabrics
+are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers
+on which the pattern is engraved.</p>
+
+<p>The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally
+feebler than that of wool or silk. Few of the natural
+dyestuffs attach themselves permanently without use
+of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which has an
+affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be
+colored, and which possesses the power of combining
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg&nbsp;70]</a></span>
+with the dyestuff and thus forming an insoluble compound
+upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an unspun
+state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank
+or skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a
+considerable extent it is also dyed in the piece.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Styles.</strong> Since styles and designs are constantly
+changing it is necessary for the mills to meet this demand
+by producing new styles. Some of the patterns
+which are at this time considered to be in the best
+style would have appeared much out of date two or
+three years ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the
+patterns which are now almost obsolete will, with some
+changes, become the most popular sellers of the season.
+As the mill officials or designers are not out among the
+trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
+patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This
+information is obtained by the &ldquo;styler&rdquo; of the selling
+house. The styler receives all the latest foreign samples
+and fashion papers from abroad, and often goes or
+sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what
+goods, designs, and colors are taking well over there.
+The selling agent or styler then supplies the designing
+department of the mill with all the samples, information,
+and suggestions necessary in getting out the samples.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Construction of Cloth.</strong> In reproducing a sample of
+cloth in the mill it is necessary that the construction
+of the cloth be first known, that is, there must be
+ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per inch,
+the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the
+number that is used for the filling, and the number of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg&nbsp;71]</a></span>
+ounces per yard or yards per pound. Then the interlacings
+of the threads in the sample must be picked out
+in order to get the design or weave on the design paper,
+from which the data are obtained for regulating the
+movement of the harness or heddles. Design paper is
+paper ruled by lines into a number of squares. An
+imitation of the cloth can be produced on this paper by
+showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This
+is done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil
+marks, while the others are left empty. In practical
+work it is the general custom to make a cross with a
+pencil to indicate the squares that are to be filled in,
+thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
+thread at this point. When a square is left blank it
+shows that the warp thread is under the filling at this
+point. When a warp thread is up on a certain pick,
+the harness which controls this thread must be raised
+on this pick.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Finishing.</strong> The fabric as it comes from the loom
+is in an imperfect condition for use. When worsted
+fabrics leave the loom they require but few and simple
+finishing operations, and in this respect differ much
+from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing
+operations. The finishing processes of woolen and
+worsted cloths are similar. The following description
+of processes and machines gives a clear idea of the
+necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or
+worsted cloth; for particular styles of finish the processes
+must be varied in accordance with the particular
+requirements of the style of fabric in hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg&nbsp;72]</a></span>
+<strong>Perching.</strong> The fabric as it comes from the loom
+receives a perching and measuring inspection at the
+weave room before leaving for the finishing room.
+This examination is to detect quickly such imperfections
+as require prompt attention at the loom.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Burling.</strong> Every knot that has been tied in the
+threads during winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving,
+must be looked for and felt for during burling, carefully
+drawn to the surface of the cloth, and then clipped off
+with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so that
+no space without a thread will occur. Threads which
+are found loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by
+the weaver having tied in a broken end, should be cut
+off and not pulled off. All places where threads are
+not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
+(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is subjected
+to perching again. It is examined for imperfections,
+and when these are found, they are marked
+with chalk to call the attention of the menders to such
+places.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mending.</strong> The object of darning or mending is to
+make all repairs in the structure of the cloth before the
+process of fulling. The mender must have a good eye for
+colors necessary to produce various effects and for the
+interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
+for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing
+afterward, than in dealing with a face finish fabric,
+where the nap is to be raised and will cover many imperfections
+so that they will never be noticed in the
+finished cloth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg&nbsp;73]</a></span>
+<strong>Fulling.</strong> The object of fulling is to render woolen
+and worsted goods stronger and firmer in body. Fulling
+is similar to felting, the principal object of each
+being to condense the fibers, thereby increasing the
+firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled nearly
+one-half their original width and length. The process
+of fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and
+condensing the fibers of the cloth. The object of scouring
+is to get rid of oil used preparatory to spinning, and
+to remove from the cloth stains and the sizing used in
+dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with hot
+water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between
+the slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to
+eighteen hours, according to the character of goods and
+the amount of shrinkage desired. The more prolonged
+the operation, the more the material shrinks. When
+sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to free
+it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first,
+but gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked
+in cold water. Next the cloth is stretched uniformly
+in all directions, so that it may dry evenly without
+wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is placed in a
+hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
+shrinking is effected by the application of moisture,
+heat, and pressure. Every one is familiar with the
+fact that woolen blankets, flannels, and hosiery tend to
+contract with frequent washings, gaining in thickness
+and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrinkage
+is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously
+in hot water and then allowed to cool suddenly.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg&nbsp;74]</a></span>
+This change is due to the physical properties of the
+wool fiber.</p>
+
+<p>Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy
+cassimeres are seldom fulled more than one-sixth of
+their woven width, while worsted goods are shrunk but
+a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
+of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many
+varieties of cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth,
+doeskin, and all nap finished woolens, the fulling is
+carried to a point where the fibers become densely
+matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving
+the cloth the appearance of felt.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Crabbing.</strong> After the cloth has been dried in the
+hydro extractor, where it throws off superfluous moisture,
+it must be stretched full width for the future
+finishing processes, and &ldquo;set&rdquo; at this width.</p>
+
+<p>Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosening
+process, then the setting process. Goods are run on
+a cylinder, then passed over several rolls, and are kept
+tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The cylinders are immersed
+in hot water and the goods are allowed to rotate
+in this water for about twenty minutes, after which
+they are taken out for one or two hours. They are then
+returned to the machine for about twenty-five minutes
+and are subjected to boiling and also to additional
+pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
+additional pressure gives the desired finish.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tentering.</strong> The object of tentering<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> is to straighten
+and level the fabric. After the cloth leaves the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg&nbsp;75]</a></span>
+tentering machine it has lost its natural moisture, and is
+not at all fitted, as far as fiber condition is concerned,
+for the napping. To bring it into a fit state for this
+operation it is passed through a trough containing a
+brush which gives it the desired moisture. It is then
+ready for napping.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Napping.</strong> Most cloths at this stage of finishing are
+more or less unsightly on account of long and irregular
+fibers on the surface. A nap may be raised on the surface
+of a fabric for various reasons: in order to render
+the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
+touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended
+to be worn next to the body; or for the purposes of
+increasing the durability of the fabric, as in the case of
+melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar goods; or a nap
+may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
+from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern
+of the cloth well defined and free from hairiness.
+The covering of nap over the surface of the fabric
+tends to conceal many defects caused by imperfect
+yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at
+best produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth
+constructed of such threads is finished with a fine, delicate
+nap the surface takes on a softer and richer appearance.
+Not only are the defects in the structure
+concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly
+and desirable and appears to be more expensive than
+it really is.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of napping is performed by passing the
+cloth in a tightly stretched condition over a revolving
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg&nbsp;76]</a></span>
+cylinder covered with teasels or steel hooks. These
+thousands of little hooks scratch the entire surface of the
+cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering the whole
+with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it
+is necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then
+pass it through the shearing machine in order to make
+an even and uniform length. The shearing machine
+acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either cuts
+the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth
+is cleaned by passing through a brushing machine.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pressing Machine.</strong> The fabric now requires consolidating
+and lustering, or &ldquo;smarting up&rdquo; in appearance&mdash;practically
+pressing&mdash;before it is forwarded
+to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth
+over a pressing roll heated to a high temperature.
+Having obtained a satisfactory luster, it is necessary
+to fix this by winding the cloth on rollers and allowing
+dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a permanent
+luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as
+to prevent shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and
+sent to the jobbers or tailors to be cut up into suits.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Theories of Coloring in Textile Design.</strong> The three
+primary elements of textile design are weave, combination
+of form, and blend of colors. They enter either
+separately or in connection with each other into every
+species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to
+the build or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable
+factor in any type of cloth. Schemes of weaves
+will produce in one operation an even and firm cloth,
+decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg&nbsp;77]</a></span>
+of minute parts but which is pronounced and decided
+in combination. Combination of forms is a surface
+decoration obtained by uniting straight and curved
+lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities of
+the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades
+would diminish the elegance of the design and impoverish
+its appearance and would practically destroy
+the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be stripe,
+check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its outline
+and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In
+worsted there is a larger diversity of weave design than
+in woolen; but still colors are very extensively employed
+to develop effects due to weave and form, and also to
+impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles
+made entirely of cotton are frequently mere combinations
+of fancy shades, while fabrics composed of silk
+and jute materials, including silk ties, handkerchiefs,
+etc.&mdash;in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
+used&mdash;show that coloring and its combinations in all
+woven product embellished with design, are elements
+which give tone and character to the styles. Though
+the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially made,
+of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack
+of brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully
+detracts from the appearance of the pattern that these
+qualities alone are not sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods
+to inspection, color is found to have a different tone
+or cast in each fabric. Fancy colors in cotton, while
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg&nbsp;78]</a></span>
+decidedly firm and clear in effect, are non-lustrous, raw,
+and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the contrary,
+possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen colorings
+have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic
+of the material employed in the manufacture
+of woolen goods; while worsted colorings are bright,
+definite, and smart in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>These differences are due to the physical properties
+of the several fibers. Thus a filament of silk is transparent
+and shines like smooth glass when light falls
+upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in the center,
+but its exterior consists of a multitude of semi-transparent
+scales which, when of large dimensions and uniformly
+arranged&mdash;as in the best qualities of wool&mdash;reflect
+light with a small amount of dispersion and impart
+to the woven material a lustrous aspect. Cotton
+has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
+reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Compare
+three plain woven crimson textures made of silk,
+wool, and cotton respectively. The first literally shines;
+luster, brilliance, and richness are the elements of its
+coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
+depth of color which belongs to the wool product,
+whose millions of filaments, closely compounded, all
+tinted alike, possess a peculiar bloom and weight of
+color not to be found either in the silk or cotton article.
+Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in
+warmth and richness it seems to be, after examining
+the woolen and silk texture! It is dull and has a raw
+and deficient character.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg&nbsp;79]</a></span>
+The various methods of employing fancy shades in
+patterns obtained in the loom may be briefly summarized:</p>
+
+<p>I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> By combining or blending various colors of
+materials.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> By combining several classes of twist threads.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs
+for trouserings, coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, costumes,
+flannels, shirtings, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> By introducing colors into the warp, forming
+stripes.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> By introducing colors into the filling, producing
+spotted patterns.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> By introducing colors into both warp and filling,
+giving checks, broken styles, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> By using one or several series of extra warp yarn.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> By using one or several series of extra filling.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes
+when regarded from the standpoint of fashion&mdash;staples
+and fancies. Staples are those fabrics which are made
+of the same construction year in and year out. They
+vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The Staples are:</p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Brilliantines,<br />
+Sicilians,<br />
+Mohairs,<br />
+Imperial Serges,<br />
+Storm Serge,<br />
+Cheviots,<br />
+Panamas,<br />
+Batistes,<br />
+Taffetas,<br />
+Voile,<br />
+Nun&rsquo;s Veiling,<br />
+Cashmere,<br />
+Shepherd Checks.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg&nbsp;80]</a></span>
+The Fancies are:</p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Produced through<br />
+Variation of weave,<br />
+Variation of color,<br />
+Variation of color and weave:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brocades,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuspettes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meliores,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hopsacking, etc.</span><br />
+Coloring includes:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stripes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Checks,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plaids,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malenges,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mixtures.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers
+made homespun clothes and wore them till they had
+passed their period of usefulness. The average consumption
+of wool at that time averaged not more than
+three pounds per capita. As wealth increased the
+home loom and spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted
+by the mill and factory. The different textile manufacturers
+at length found that competition was so keen
+that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any
+fabric that was popular. The classes of goods that are
+most adulterated are the expensive fabrics, those of
+wool and silk. There are such changes of fashion in
+dress at the present day that garments composed of
+materials formerly considered good enough are often
+thrown aside as old-fashioned when only half worn.
+Manufacturers cater to the whims and fancies of people
+and import to this country foreign styles. The rapidly
+changing styles cause people to throw upon the market
+a great amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg&nbsp;81]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex20.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE SELLING AGENT OF A LARGE MILL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg&nbsp;82]</a></span>
+The result is that there is not wool enough to provide
+the public with clothing made of new wool. The
+<!-- actual start of page 82 -->requirement per capita has risen to six pounds. The
+immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does not
+find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the
+shoddy mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again,
+or where part of the fiber is mixed with good wool to
+make &ldquo;pure wool&rdquo; cloth. In other words, the rapidly
+changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
+wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration
+which is being practised in modern cloth manufacture.
+This adulteration furthermore is becoming more and
+more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid improvements
+made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture.
+Hence the necessity for people to know how and
+why adulteration occurs, how it affects prices, and what
+are the means of detecting it. Shoddy is considered a
+legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted goods.
+The following adulterations are not legitimate unless
+sold as such:</p>
+
+<p>1. Cotton combed with wool.</p>
+
+<p>2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during
+the process of drawing.</p>
+
+<p>3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or
+worsted used as filling or warp.</p>
+
+<p>4. Cotton veneered with wool.</p>
+
+<p>5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in
+weaving.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Tentering is carried on in the English mills.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg&nbsp;83]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Albatross.</strong> A dress fabric of worsted warp and
+worsted filling; of open texture and fancy weaves.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Alpaca.</strong> A thin fabric of close texture made from
+the fibers of an animal of the llama species; mixed with
+silk or with cotton. It is usually woven with cotton
+warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all cotton are
+manufactured and sold under this name.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Corded Alpaca.</strong> Corded weave, lengthwise of the
+piece, cotton warp alpaca filling; one of the first
+products of the American loom.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Angora.</strong> The fiber of this goat is commercially
+known as mohair. The skins are largely used in the
+making of children&rsquo;s muffs, for the scalps of dolls, and
+for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
+claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly
+one foot in length, makes them beautiful and serviceable.
+The fiber enters largely into that class of goods
+known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes, Brilliantines,
+Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
+usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg&nbsp;84]</a></span>
+mode of preparing the stock before spinning into yarn.
+It is found in the finest of silk and worsted fabrics for
+ladies&rsquo; wear, also in linings, mittens, and fine cloaking
+and overcoating. It is noted especially for its water
+repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not
+so much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which
+wool stands unequalled.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Astrakhan.</strong> A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan
+fiber; of a curly, wavy surface applied to a curly faced
+cloth resembling Astrakhan fleece.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bandanna.</strong> From the Indian <i>bandanna</i>, to bind or
+tie. In dyeing, the cloth is tied in knots when dipped,
+and thus has a clouded effect.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Beaver.</strong> A heavy cloth manufactured of fine
+wool, with a finish on the surface to resemble the fur of
+the animal by that name.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fur Beaver.</strong> Similar in many respects to Beaver,
+but having on its surface a long, dense nap, in imitation
+of the fur of the Beaver. Used for overcoats,
+cloaks, and capes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bedford Cord.</strong> A fine woolen fabric, with fine recesses
+running with the piece, and extensively used for
+ladies&rsquo; dress goods. An all wool cloth of close texture
+for gentlemen&rsquo;s clothing. The recesses may also be
+made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Beige.</strong> Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name
+is the French word for &ldquo;natural.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bindings.</strong> A species of narrow fabric of silk,
+worsted or cotton, for binding the edges of garments,
+the bottom of dress skirts, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg&nbsp;85]</a></span>
+<strong>Bombazine.</strong> A twilled fabric of which the warp
+is silk and the filling is worsted.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bottany.</strong> A term applied to worsted yarns made from
+bottany wool. It is considered the finest of all worsted
+yarns, and is used for fine fabrics of close texture.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Boucle.</strong> Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in
+such a way as to show the curl makes boucle. The word
+is French for curl.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Broadcloth.</strong> Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven
+material with a satin finish. The best qualities are
+called satin broadcloth.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times,
+the first historical mention of it being made in 1641.
+In America, among the first products manufactured
+by the colonial woolen mills were black and colored
+broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the distinctive
+character of American woolen fabrics at that
+time. They were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered
+Saxony wool, and sold as high as $6.50 per yard.</p>
+
+<p>The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that
+the web (cloth) will shrink or full evenly. The stock is
+generally dyed in the raw state when used for men&rsquo;s
+wear. When taken from the loom it does not have the
+smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive
+feature. It is rough and dull colored, with the threads
+showing plainly. To improve its appearance it is first
+subjected to the action of the fulling mill, with the result
+that the fibers of the warp and weft become entangled
+to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
+the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg&nbsp;86]</a></span>
+in order to produce a smooth, even surface. Next it
+is successively wetted, steamed, calendered, and hot
+pressed for the purpose of bringing out the luster. It is
+commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain, finished
+with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must
+have a bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in
+the weave.</p>
+
+<p>The broadcloth used for women&rsquo;s clothing is of a
+lighter weight and is generally piece dyed. It is used
+for ladies&rsquo; suits, coats, and gentlemen&rsquo;s evening dress
+suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is expensive; prices
+range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies&rsquo; broadcloth,
+and higher for men. The price depends on the quality
+of wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection
+of the finish.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bunting.</strong> A plain even thread weave of mohair,
+wool, or worsted, used mostly for making flags. The
+name is from German, <i>bunt</i>, meaning variegated or gay
+colored.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Caniche.</strong> A name given to curled wool fabric showing
+the effect of the coat of the caniche, a French dog.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cashmere.</strong> A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmere
+goat. The face of the fabric is twilled, the twills
+being uneven and irregular because of the unevenness
+of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand spun. The
+goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere
+in the Himalaya Mountains.</p>
+
+<p><strong>All Wool Cashmere.</strong> As no material by this name
+exists there can be no definition. When the term is
+used in defining a fabric, it is a delusion and a snare.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg&nbsp;87]</a></span>
+<strong>Cashmere Double.</strong> A cloth having Cashmere twill
+on one side or face and poplin cord on the reverse.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cassimere.</strong> The name is a variation of Cashmere.
+Cassimere, when properly made, is of Cashmere wool.
+Usually a twill weave.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Castor.</strong> Same as beaver, of a light weight.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Challis.</strong> (Also spelled <i>challie</i>.) A name given to a
+superior dress fabric of silk and wool first manufactured
+at Norwich, England, in 1832. In texture the original
+material was soft, thin, fine, and finished without gloss.
+When first introduced it ranked among the best and most
+elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was
+composed of fine materials, and instead of giving it a
+glossy surface, such as is usually produced from silk
+and fine wool, the object was to make it without luster.
+The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
+summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool,
+or a mixture of these fabrics. In structure it is both
+plain woven and figured, the ornamental patterns being
+produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or printed.
+It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essentially
+from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most
+challis patterns are copied from the French silks, and
+this accounts in part for their tasteful designs and artistic
+effects. French challis is a material similar to the
+above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
+finish.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cheviot.</strong> A descriptive term of somewhat loose
+application, being used indiscriminately of late years
+to denote almost any sort of stout woolen cloth finished
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg&nbsp;88]</a></span>
+with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the fabric
+known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong,
+coarse wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.</p>
+
+<p>It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of
+cheviot or &ldquo;pulled wool,&rdquo; slightly felted, with a short
+even nap on the surface and a supple feel. Worsted
+cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects, are manufactured
+from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made
+from carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of
+goods in carded yarns contains little or no new wool
+in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo, and a liberal mixture
+of cotton to hold it together, blended in the many colorings,
+help to cover the deception. Prices range from
+50 cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven,
+and has many of the qualities of serge.</p>
+
+<p>The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the
+grade of cloth, is the finish, of which there are two
+kinds. One is known as the &ldquo;rough&rdquo; finish, and the
+other as the &ldquo;close&rdquo; finish. Real cheviot is a rough-finished
+fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and
+fulled to a considerable degree. The process of finishing
+cheviot is simple, and practically the same methods are
+followed for both the &ldquo;rough&rdquo; and the &ldquo;close&rdquo; styles.
+On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap and
+water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it
+may contain. It is then fulled, which consists in shrinking
+the cloth both in length and breadth, thus rendering
+the texture heavier and denser. Next it is &ldquo;gigged&rdquo;
+or napped. This is accomplished by passing the face of
+the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg&nbsp;89]</a></span>
+pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the
+yarn. This operation is continued until a nap more or
+less dense is raised over the entire surface.</p>
+
+<p>From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine,
+the revolving blades of which cut the long, irregular
+nap down to a uniform level. Sometimes the style
+of finish called for is that approaching a threadbare
+cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
+prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the
+rough finish the nap, although sparingly raised, is comparatively
+long. Having been napped and sheared,
+the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
+then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When
+measured, rolled, and steamed, it is ready for market,
+and is used mostly for ladies&rsquo; and gentlemen&rsquo;s suitings.
+The pattern and design are light stripes and checks of
+small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many
+materials used for suiting.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chinchilla.</strong> Heavy coating with rough wavy face.
+The name is Spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the
+mink species.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chudah.</strong> Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color.
+Chudah is the Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Corduroy.</strong> Heavy corded cotton material used for
+servants&rsquo; livery. The name is from the French <i>Corde
+du Roi</i>&mdash;king&rsquo;s cords.</p>
+
+<p><strong>C&ocirc;te Cheval.</strong> In France corded cloth for riding
+costumes, such as Bedford cord, is called c&ocirc;te cheval,
+the application being through <i>cheval</i>, horse; <i>c&ocirc;te</i>,
+ribbed or lined.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg&nbsp;90]</a></span>
+<strong>Coupure.</strong> Coupure is French for cut through.
+Coupure or cut cashmere is a cashmere weave showing
+lines cut through the twills lengthwise of the
+piece.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Covert.</strong> Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed
+shades, used in England for men&rsquo;s overcoats worn
+while riding to covert in fox hunting.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Delaine.</strong> From the French &ldquo;of wool&rdquo;; applies to
+the most primitive weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty
+years ago delaine was the staple dress goods stock.
+It was made in solid colors.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Diagonal Cheviot.</strong> Same as cheviot, only in the
+weaving the pattern is marked by zigzag lines or
+stripes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Doeskin.</strong> Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny
+napped face, soft finish, as the pelt of a doe.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Drap d&rsquo;&Eacute;t&eacute;.</strong> A heavy cashmere or double warp
+merino, with the back teasled or scratched, used mostly
+for clergymen&rsquo;s clothing and in lighter weights for
+women&rsquo;s dresses. The name is French for &ldquo;cloth of
+summer.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><strong>Empress Cloth.</strong> Similar to poplin; made of hard
+twisted worsted filling and cotton warp. Was made
+a success in the early seventies of the last century by
+the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was
+a staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.</p>
+
+<p><strong>&Eacute;pingline.</strong> A fine corded fabric of wool or silk,
+showing the cords woven close together and appearing
+as if lined with a pin point. This application is from
+<i>&eacute;pingle</i>, French for pin.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg&nbsp;91]</a></span>
+<strong>Etamine.</strong> French name for bolting or sifting cloth,
+made of silk for sifting flour; applied to mesh or net
+weaves in America.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Felt.</strong> Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass
+or mixture of wool into a flat mat. The name is from
+the process. To felt is to mix and press into shape.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Flannel.</strong> Wales appears to have been the original
+home of flannel, and history informs us that this was
+the only textile produced in that country for hundreds
+of years. It is constructed either of cotton or wool,
+or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-threaded,
+loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or
+less spongy and elastic, with an unfinished, lusterless
+surface. Generally speaking all grades of plain colored
+flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the goods
+permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the
+web as in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several
+finishing operations, such as fulling, teaseling, pressing,
+and stretching. Flannels do not require a great deal
+of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to give a
+degree of stability and body to the goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Dress Flannel.</strong> All wool fabric used chiefly for
+women&rsquo;s winter dresses; also called flannel suiting.
+It has a diversity of qualities, colors, and styles of
+finish. It is commonly put up in double fold, width
+from twenty-six to fifty inches.</p>
+
+<p><strong>French Flannel.</strong> A fine, soft twill, woven variety
+dyed in solid shades, and also printed with patterns
+after the manner of calico; used for morning gowns,
+dressing sacques, waists, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg&nbsp;92]</a></span>
+<strong>Shaker Flannel.</strong> A variety of white flannel finished
+with considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and
+woolen weft.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Indigo Blue.</strong> A superior all wool grade used in the
+manufacture of men&rsquo;s suits and particularly for the
+uniform of members of the G.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;R.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mackinaw.</strong> The name applied to an extra heavy
+blanket-like material used in cold climates by miners
+and lumbermen for shirts and underwear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Navy Twilled Flannel.</strong> A heavy all wool variety commonly
+dyed indigo blue, commonly used in the manufacture
+of overshirts for out-door laborers, firemen, sailors,
+and miners.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silk Warp Flannel.</strong> A high grade, pure variety of
+flannel woven with a silk warp and a fine woolen weft.
+It is a very soft, light-weight, loosely woven flannel and
+runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven inches. If
+the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the
+texture is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing
+its softness and elasticity. In the teaseling process it
+is necessary for the nap to be raised only slightly, and
+this is commonly done in the direction of the grain or
+twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
+lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in
+its full, rich softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared,
+but more often it is pressed down flat upon the face of
+the cloth. After a thorough drying, and careful examination
+for defects, the goods are rolled on boards,
+and are ready for market. It is used for infants&rsquo; wear
+and shawls, for undergarments, bed coverings, and also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg&nbsp;93]</a></span>
+to some extent for outer garments in weights and
+styles adapted for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Baby Flannel.</strong> A very light-weight variety woven
+of fine, soft wool, smooth finish, bleached pure white.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Florentine.</strong> A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men&rsquo;s
+wear which is sold largely to Italy and Spain. The
+name is from Florence, Italy.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Foule.</strong> A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face
+appears to be unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness
+in a slight degree. The cloth when woven in the gray
+is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in soapsuds
+and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes
+in a steel plate. The name is from <i>fouler</i>, French, to
+full or shrink.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Frieze.</strong> Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly
+surface and made at first of lamb&rsquo;s wool. It is now made
+from coarse grades of wool. It is thick and heavily
+napped, and is used in the manufacture of warm outer
+garments, particularly for men&rsquo;s wear. It was named
+after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th
+century, and is famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish
+frieze has extraordinary durability, and the fibers are
+the longest and strongest made. The weave is plain,
+small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid color
+it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the
+raw state. The wool is dyed in the raw state in mass,
+then doubled after spinning.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Gloria.</strong> Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and
+cotton; first made for umbrella covering. Name means
+bright.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg&nbsp;94]</a></span>
+<strong>Granada.</strong> Popular weave of mohair, made in coating
+weight for Spanish trade. Granada is a city in
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Grenadine.</strong> Originally a plain, openwork, net-like
+fabric of silk, mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grenadines
+in Jacquards and in set patterns. The name is an
+adaptation of Granada.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Henrietta Cloth.</strong> A twilled cashmere of light weight
+and high finish, originally made with silk warp and wool
+filling in Yorkshire, England. The name was given in
+honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of Charles
+I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced
+about the year 1660.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Homespun.</strong> A rough, loosely woven material made
+from coarse yarn. It is soft but rather clumsy. A
+general term used to designate cloth spun or wrought
+at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen
+fabric in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before
+the introduction of textile machinery. It is made of
+a coarse, rough, and uneven thread; usually of plain
+weave and no felting. It was woven by the early settlers
+of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as
+woolen suiting for men&rsquo;s wear and in various kinds of
+coarse, spongy, shaggy cloth for women&rsquo;s gowns.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Hop Sacking.</strong> A coarse bagging made commonly
+of a combination of hemp and jute, used for holding
+hops during transportation. The name hop sacking is
+also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made
+from different classes of yarn. It is made of carded
+woolen fabric of the plainest kind. The cloth is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg&nbsp;95]</a></span>
+characterized by an open weave, and a square check-like
+mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that of
+the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is
+usually dyed in solid colors, and is used for women&rsquo;s
+and children&rsquo;s dresses.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Jeans.</strong> Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In
+cotton used for linings, in wool for men&rsquo;s cheap clothing.
+The name is from a Genoese coin, relating to the
+price of the cloth; so much for one jean.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Kersey.</strong> A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen
+cloth made with the cotton weave or cross twill for
+face, and cotton weave or four harness satin for back.
+It was originally made with fine Merino lamb&rsquo;s wool for
+face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper
+grades are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and
+shoddy, with low grades of shoddy and mungo for
+back. It is named from an English town, Kersey, where
+from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large woolen
+trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a
+coarse cloth, known under different names, and before
+knitting was used for stockings. In the construction of
+Kersey the cloth is woven a few inches wider in the loom
+(and correspondingly longer) than it is to appear in the
+finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
+may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering
+of threads. Previous to fulling, however, the face of the
+cloth is gigged to produce a good covering for the threads
+by forming a light nap, which is fitted in. In the fulling
+operation, which comes next, the cloth is shrunk to its
+proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg&nbsp;96]</a></span>
+it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads,
+so closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed
+by gigging, and in this process a nap more or less heavy
+is raised on the face of the goods by means of teasels.
+The cloth is run through the gig several times and then
+sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
+short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exercised
+in the shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite
+close and yet not expose the threads or cut the face.
+The next operation is scouring or steaming, in which
+live steam is forced through every part of the goods for
+the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool.
+In case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing follows
+scouring. After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly
+matted and gigged again, care being taken to avoid
+stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and the nap
+briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in
+one direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and
+primed, face up. The result of this treatment is the
+production of a texture firm, yet pliable, with a highly
+lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough or threadbare.
+Kersey is used for overcoats.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Kerseymere.</strong> Light weight twilled worsted; same
+derivative of name as Kersey.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Linsey Woolsey.</strong> Coarse cloth of linen and wool
+used as skirtings by the British peasantry. The name
+is from the components of the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Melrose.</strong> Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named
+for Melrose, a town on the Tweed, in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Melton.</strong> A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg&nbsp;97]</a></span>
+nap, feeling somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm
+in the loom. The weaves for single cloth meltons are
+usually plain, and three or four harness twill. For
+double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with
+a plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All
+trace of the weave is destroyed in the finishing. The
+colors usually black or dark blue.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Meltonette.</strong> A cloth of the same general appearance
+as melton, of light weight, for women&rsquo;s wear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Merino.</strong> A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino
+sheep, twilled on both sides, the twill being uneven.
+Merino resembles cashmere.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mohair Brilliantine.</strong> A dress fabric resembling alpaca,
+of superior quality, and sometimes finished on both
+sides. The name is from the Arabic <i>mukayyan</i>, cloth
+of goat&rsquo;s hair. It is made from the long, silky hair of
+the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
+introduced into the United States. The fabric has a
+hard, wiry feel, and if made from the pure material has
+a high luster. It has cotton warp and luster worsted
+filling. The weave is plain ground, or with a small
+Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is
+wanted, the warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling
+yarn. The warp and filling yarns are dyed previous to
+weaving. They may be of the same color or different
+colors. The contrast of colors in connection with the
+weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made
+with dyed yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is,
+simply run through the press and cylinder heated, after
+which they are rolled and then packed. Those made
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg&nbsp;98]</a></span>
+with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed, after
+which they are run through a rotary press with fifty
+or sixty pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is
+used for dress goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Montagnac</strong> is heavy overcoating. The French
+<i>montagne</i>, for mountain, is the origin of the name, being
+for mountain wear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Orleans.</strong> Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool
+fulling, made in Orleans, France. Many of the so-called
+alpacas and mohairs of to-day are Orleans. These
+fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics with warp
+and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
+cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glac&eacute;
+effects.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Panama Cloth</strong> is a plain weave worsted fabric of no
+uniform construction or finish. Fabrics sold under
+this name vary considerably. They are of solid colors,
+usually piece dyed, and are used for suitings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Prunella.</strong> From the French <i>prunelle</i>, which means
+plum, a stout worsted material named from its color,
+which is a purplish shade similar to that of a ripe plum.
+The name was originally applied to a kind of lasting of
+which clergymen&rsquo;s gowns were made. It is now used
+to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth
+employed for women&rsquo;s dresses. The fibers are worsted.
+Prunella is dyed either in piece or yarn state and is
+hand finished.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sacking.</strong> Plain solid color flannel in special shades
+for women&rsquo;s dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric
+made of hemp for grain sacks.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg&nbsp;99]</a></span>
+<strong>Sanglier.</strong> A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair
+yarn, closely woven, with a rough finished surface.
+Sanglier is French for wild boar, the hairy, wiry cloth
+resembling the coat of the animal.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sebastopol.</strong> A twill-faced cloth named from
+Sebastopol, the Russian fortified town captured by the
+English and French in 1855.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Serge.</strong> Under this name are classed a large number
+of fabrics of twill construction. In weight and texture
+a modern serge resembles flannel, except that it is twill
+woven and composed of fine yarn finished with a smoother
+surface. Serge comes from the Italian word <i>sergea</i>,
+meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are
+woven of worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and
+variously dyed, finished, and ornamented, as silk serge,
+serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge, etc. Worsted
+serges of various kinds and degrees have been known
+since the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to
+have come into general use as a material for men&rsquo;s wear
+in the sixteenth century. Modern serges vary but little
+from those made two centuries ago. They are dyed in
+a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the
+cloth is washed and scoured with soap and water to
+remove the dirt and oil (if these remain the cloth
+will not take the dye properly). After dyeing, it is
+passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure,
+which renders the surface more regular and even and of
+a better luster. This process accomplishes more than
+is required, for it produces a bloom on the surface
+which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg&nbsp;100]</a></span>
+is allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order
+to make storm serge it is necessary to remove part of the
+bloom, and to accomplish this the cloth is steamed
+sufficiently to neutralize the effect of pressing. Steaming
+deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
+showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge
+are good, but it gets a shine easily. It is used for dress
+goods and suitings. Serge suiting used for men&rsquo;s clothing
+is a variety of light, wiry, worsted yarn woven with a
+flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue, fifty-four
+inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton
+warp and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width.
+This is dyed in a variety of colors and largely used as
+lining material for women&rsquo;s clothes, men&rsquo;s coats, and
+overcoats. Storm serge, designed to withstand exposure
+to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted dress
+goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities.
+The twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface
+rougher and cleaner than that of ordinary serge.
+Iridescent serge is a variety of worsted dress goods
+woven with warp and filling of different colors, causing
+a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a
+fine twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture,
+dyed black and in colors, and is used for women&rsquo;s
+gowns, men&rsquo;s summer suits, etc. Serge de Barry is a
+high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine twill,
+and wiry feel.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Shoddy</strong> is made from old woolen stockings or rags,
+shredded or picked by hand or machine, to render the
+yarn suitable for spinning a second time, or to give a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg&nbsp;101]</a></span>
+fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or cotton
+warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-believe.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sicilian.</strong> Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled
+cloth. Sicilienne, the proper name, was made in the
+Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed, all silk fabric.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sultane.</strong> Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in
+the rough, not singed or sheared. The name is from
+Sultana, the first wife of the Sultan.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tamise.</strong> Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh,
+made first of silk and wool. <i>Tamis</i> is French for sieve.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tartans.</strong> Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men
+in the Highlands of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened
+on one shoulder and crossing the body. Each clan had
+a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was adapted
+from the French <i>tiretaine</i>, a thin woolen checked cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Thibet.</strong> Heavy, coarse weave of goat&rsquo;s hair, made
+by the Thibetans in Asia for men&rsquo;s wear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tricot.</strong> A heavy, compound fabric characterized by
+a line effect running warp way or filling way of the
+piece, usually produced with either woolen or worsted
+yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to fabrics
+made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is
+the French word meaning knitting. The term was later
+applied to materials made on a knitting frame and now
+known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the name tricot has
+been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave of
+which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted
+fabric. The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted
+fibers, sometimes with cotton warp woven so as to hide
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg&nbsp;102]</a></span>
+the cotton in finishing. The tricot line is similar to the
+rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is not so pronounced.
+All tricots are constructed with two sets of
+warp thread and are characterized by a texture which,
+while dense, is singularly elastic, in this respect being
+somewhat similar to heavy jersey cloth. Tricots are
+commonly dyed in plain colors, and are finished clear so
+as to show the filling. When intended for trousers they
+are ornamented with small, neat patterns.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tweed.</strong> A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and
+flexible texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of
+yarn of two or more shades; originally the product of
+the weavers on the bank of the river Tweed in Scotland.
+The face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance
+rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Veiling</strong> includes light weight, usually plain weave
+fabrics of various constructions; generally made with
+singed or polished yarns. They are in solid colors.
+The use is designated by the name.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Venetian.</strong> Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton
+warp and worsted filling; named from Venetia, a country
+around Venice. The warp yarns are firmly twisted,
+the twist being in the opposite direction to the twist in
+the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide application,
+in use since early times as a descriptive title for
+various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many
+varieties is a species of twill weaving in which the lines
+or twills are of a rounded form and arranged in a more
+or less upright position, hence a closely woven worsted
+cloth. The name is also applied to other fabrics, as a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg&nbsp;103]</a></span>
+twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
+worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in
+plain colors and is piece or yarn dyed for men. For
+women&rsquo;s wear it has light weight and plain colors with
+mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is finished
+smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Venetian
+cloth has not so much felting as broadcloth; it
+shows the weave more, but has the same lustrous finish.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Vigogne</strong> or <strong>Vicu&ntilde;a.</strong> A soft wool cloth of the cheviot
+order, with teasled face, made from the wool of the
+vicu&ntilde;a, a South American animal. Vigogne is the
+French name for the animal.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Vigoureux.</strong> A name applied to a plain or twill mixture,
+woven of undyed natural wool yarns. The French
+spinners found that the strongest yarns were those of
+the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more shades or
+tones are spun into one thread. The name is French
+for strong.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Voiles.</strong> Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made
+with hard twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible
+is secured in finishing, the cloth being singed or sheared
+closely if the yarns are not made comparatively free
+from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are dyed
+in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Whipcord.</strong> Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid
+or mixed colors. The name is from the hard twisted
+lash of a whip.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Worsted Diagonals</strong> are characterized by prominent
+weave effects running diagonally across the cloth. The
+goods are usually of a solid color, and are given a finish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg&nbsp;104]</a></span>
+which brings the weave into prominence. Diagonals
+are used for suitings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Unfinished worsted</strong> is a fabric woven with yarn with
+very little twist in it, and finished so as to make it
+appear covered with loose fibers, concealing the twill
+effect. After leaving the loom the cloth is placed in a
+fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus increasing
+the density. It is then passed over hot presses
+after a slight shearing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Finished Worsted</strong> is woven with yarn with a considerable
+twist, and finished in such a way as to show
+the construction of the cloth clearly. The finishing
+consists simply of scouring the cloth and not fulling it
+and then passing it through hot water baths between
+heavy rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared
+and pressed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Zephyr.</strong> Light worsted yarn, also light weight cotton
+gingham. Zephyr is Greek for the light west wind.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Zibeline.</strong> A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb&rsquo;s
+wool for warp, and a light wool mixed with camel&rsquo;s
+hair for filling; or, worsted warp and camel&rsquo;s hair for
+filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a mixture
+of wool, camel&rsquo;s hair, and fine cashmere for filling.
+The long cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used
+for ladies&rsquo; tailor-made coats or suits, according to
+weight. The name is derived from the Latin word
+<i>sabellum</i>, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
+variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the
+same as sable. Zibeline has long hairs on its right side,
+some grades being almost like fur.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Suggestions To Teachers</span>. In connection with the study of
+fabrics the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in
+a blank book a sample of the fabric they are studying. In this way
+the pupil can examine both the filling (weft) and warp threads.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg&nbsp;105]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h2>COTTON</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Cotton.</strong> Cotton is the most important vegetable
+fiber used in spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft,
+downy substance which grows around the cotton seed.
+When examined under the microscope it appears as a
+long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-plant
+yields so readily to the varying conditions of soil
+and climate, there is a large variety of cottons, each
+having some peculiarity which is considered enough
+to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the number
+of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the
+fact that the United States Department of Agriculture
+has recorded about one hundred and thirty varieties.
+The most important varieties are: <i>Gossypium herbaceum</i>,
+<i>G. arboreum</i>, <i>G. hirsutum</i>, <i>G. barbadense</i>, and <i>G. peruvianum</i>.
+The botanical name of a plant is divided into
+two parts: first the family name, followed by the
+species name.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Gossypium herbaceum</i> grows from four to six
+feet in height and bears a yellow flower. The seeds are
+covered with a short gray down. The fiber it bears is
+classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia Minor,
+Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety
+of Egyptian cotton is from this species.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg&nbsp;106]</a></span>
+The <i>G. arboreum</i> when full grown attains a height
+from fifteen to twenty feet. The seed is covered with
+a greenish fur and is enveloped in a fine, silky down,
+yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt, Arabia,
+and China.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>G. hirsutum</i> is a shrubby plant, its maximum
+height being about six feet. The young pods are
+hairy, and the seeds are numerous and covered with a
+firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this
+is the original of the green-seeded cotton which is
+now cultivated so extensively in the Southern States
+of America, and which forms the bulk of the supply
+from that source.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>G. peruvianum</i> is similar to the <i>G. barbadense</i>.
+The Brazilian and Peru cottons are from this species.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>G. barbadense</i> grows from six to fifteen feet high;
+its flowers are yellow and its seeds black and smooth,
+being quite destitute of the hair that distinguishes
+other members of the species. It is a native of Barbadoes
+or has been cultivated there for a long time.
+Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species&mdash;Sea
+Island and Florida cottons&mdash;from which our finest
+yarns are spun, and it is used chiefly in the manufacture
+of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
+several other varieties are said to be from this stock.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Growing Countries.</strong> The most suitable situation
+for growing cotton is between 35 degrees north and
+40 degrees south of the equator. The chief cotton
+growing countries of the world in order of importance
+are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg&nbsp;107]</a></span>
+is also grown in the following countries, but in no
+quantity or quality comparable with the four named
+above&mdash;West Indies, west coast of Africa, Asia Minor,
+China, and Queensland.</p>
+
+<p>The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or
+sandy soil, which receives and retains the heat, and at
+the same time preserves a good supply of moisture.
+Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth, while
+deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The
+best climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost
+and snow are of short duration, dews are heavy, and the
+sun bright, warm, and regular. New soils generally
+produce the best cotton. The character of the cotton
+fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the
+plant, the nature of the soil, and the locality in which
+it is grown.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Rough Peruvian.</strong> The nature of this cotton is harsh
+and wiry and resembles wool so nearly that it is almost
+exclusively used to mix with woolen fabrics. The
+staple is rough and generally strong, and is of a springy
+tendency, <i>i.e.</i>, it does not lie close like American.</p>
+
+<p><strong>East Indian.</strong> India depends upon the monsoon for
+its moisture, and the success or failure of the crop is
+decided by that phenomenon of nature. Indian cottons
+as a rule are coarser and shorter than American cottons.
+The land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon,
+and the planting begins after it. There is not the
+same care bestowed upon the cultivation of the Indian
+cotton, nor are such improved methods practised as in
+America. The ancient routine of past generations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg&nbsp;108]</a></span>
+still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre
+is less than one-half that of America. Moreover the
+acreage planted is only about two-thirds that of
+America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
+were once largely used in this country for filling, owing
+to their good color and cleanliness; but of late years
+the consumption has steadily decreased, owing chiefly
+to the increased takings by the Indian mills, also to
+the exports to China and Japan, and to the preference
+shown by English spinners for American cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Egyptian Cotton.</strong> Egyptian cotton, on account of
+its long staple and silky gloss, is imported in considerable
+quantities. Egyptian is largely used in the manufacture
+of hosiery, and also for mixing with worsted
+yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with
+silk, and on account of its strength it is made into the
+finer sewing threads. Egyptian cotton is sometimes
+so charged with grease that it has a greasy smell; and
+to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it with
+whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven
+(or piled) with Egyptian filling do not finish as well
+as when picked with yarns made from American cotton,
+the reason for this being that the greasy nature of the
+Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
+different shades in the finished goods. This greasy
+nature is said to be due to two things: (1) the fertility
+of the soil; (2) the extent to which the cell walls of the
+fibers are developed.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt&mdash;rice,
+sugar, beans, barley, onions, etc.&mdash;and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg&nbsp;109]</a></span>
+acreage devoted to cotton is regulated to some extent
+by the prospects as to which crops are likely to pay
+best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of
+the area is usually devoted to cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sea Island Cotton.</strong> This is the finest growth of cotton,
+and it commands the highest price. The staple,
+which is long and silky, varies in length from one and a
+half to two and a half inches. It is used for making fine
+muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics, and is
+also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton
+was first introduced into America in 1786 from the
+Bahama Islands, whither it had been brought from the
+West Indies. It was first cultivated in Georgia, where
+it was found that the small islands running along the
+coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name
+&ldquo;Sea Island.&rdquo; It was also grown on the uplands of
+Georgia, but although remaining good, the quality
+deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are occasionally
+spun in Sea Island cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Other Varieties.</strong> Cotton grown in the Southern States
+under widely varying conditions of the soil, climate,
+and care in cultivation, naturally varies in length,
+strength, and other qualities of staple. Cotton known
+as &ldquo;Uplands&rdquo; or &ldquo;Boweds&rdquo; varies in length from
+three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is
+used for filling; this is grown in North and South
+Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Tennessee.
+Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple
+varies from one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg&nbsp;110]</a></span>
+the swampy and bottom lands in some of the states
+(notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas),
+cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
+one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition
+to these, there are especially long stapled growths,
+known as &ldquo;Extras,&rdquo; &ldquo;Allen Seed,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Peelers,&rdquo;
+which measure one and three-eighths to one and five-eighths
+inches. Of late there has been an extensive
+demand for long-stapled American cotton (one and
+three-sixteenths to one and one-half inches), owing
+to the development of fine spinning.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Raising.</strong> Cotton is planted with a machine,
+which puts it under the ground about one and one-half
+to two inches. It is not planted as corn is, that is,
+dropped so far apart, but is planted in a continuous
+stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground,
+when it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary
+labor with a hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned.
+This is called &ldquo;chopping out&rdquo; and is for the purpose
+of removing the inferior or weak plants until only one
+strong plant is left. The distance between the plants
+depends on the nature of the plant, frequently about
+twelve inches being left between them.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The American Crop.</strong> The first step taken is the
+preparation of the ground for planting. This begins
+in the southern part of Texas as early as the middle of
+January, in Florida about the third week; in Alabama,
+Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the beginning
+of February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South
+Carolina from about the middle of February to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg&nbsp;111]</a></span>
+beginning of March. Actual planting begins according
+to latitude, principally from the middle of March to
+the middle of April, and ends in the first half of May.
+These dates, however, are dependent upon the state of
+the weather. When the weather is unusually wet the
+start is late. The plant suffers from the rank growth of
+grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
+fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after
+rains, the plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls,
+which fall off, whereupon replanting becomes necessary.
+In addition to injuries by the weather the cotton-plant
+is subject to depredations by insects. Of late years the
+greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after
+planting. An early bloom is taken as a sign of good
+crops. When the crop is an early one, picking may
+commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
+latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning
+of August, following on in the various districts in succession
+until the early part of September. The plant
+goes on fruiting as long as the weather is mild and open.
+It finishes in the early regions about the beginning of
+December, the others following through December and
+closing in the later regions about the middle of January.
+Frosts play an important part in the ultimate yield.
+An early killing frost over the entire belt would curtail
+the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season, as was
+the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were
+planted. Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to
+the cotton-plant; in fact it is contended that the late
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg&nbsp;112]</a></span>
+frosts do much good under certain conditions of the
+crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
+open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings.
+The effect of frost upon the lint so picked is to
+produce tinged and stained cotton. Early killing frosts
+occur in some seasons in the early part of November,
+when much of the yield may be curtailed. When
+killing frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting
+is practically over, it has little or no effect upon the
+yield except as regards the color.</p>
+
+<p>The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages,
+the bolls nearest the ground maturing first, then those
+around the middle of the plant, and lastly the top crop.
+Pods half ripe are often forced open and the fiber sent
+on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly
+charged with unripe cotton than American. The work
+of picking is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its
+sameness. Each hand as he goes to the field is supplied
+with a large basket and a bag. The basket is
+left at the head of the cotton row, the bag being suspended
+from the picker&rsquo;s shoulder by a strap, and
+used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from the boll.
+When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and
+this routine continued throughout the day. Each
+hand picks from 140 to 180 pounds of cotton per day.
+The average yield in the South varies from 500 to 600
+pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
+resembling unground coffee; when these have been removed
+by the gin, there remains about one-third the
+weight of the boll in clean cotton.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg&nbsp;113]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex21.jpg" width="700" height="390" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">PICKING COTTON</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg&nbsp;114]</a></span>
+<strong>Ginning.</strong> The next operation to which cotton is
+subjected is that of ginning, or separating the seeds
+from the fiber. This work was formerly accomplished
+by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds that
+frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman
+in separating them from one pound of cotton. At the
+present day the devices for separating the lint from
+the seed are of two classes: roller gins and saw gins.
+The former device is the more ancient, having been
+used from the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its
+simplest form it consists of two rollers made of metal
+or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through which the
+cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process.
+An improved form of the roller gin is at present used
+for cleaning the long-staple Sea Island cotton. The
+saw gin, which works on an entirely different principle,
+is the machine which, with its improvements and
+modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost
+exclusively for one hundred years of American cotton
+growing. In this machine the seed cotton is fed into a
+box, one side of which is formed of a grating of metal
+strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening from
+one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these
+openings a row or &ldquo;gang&rdquo; of thin circular saws project
+mounted upon a revolving mandrel. The long, protruding
+teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly, catch the
+fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter,
+being too large to pass through the openings of the
+grating, roll downward and out of the machine. The
+lint, removed from the row of saws by a revolving
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg&nbsp;115]</a></span>
+brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
+machine in the form of a lap or bat.</p>
+
+<p>This machine is responsible for much of the &ldquo;nep&rdquo;
+(or knots) found in American cotton, which is caused
+when the machine is overcharged. The Whitney gin
+will turn through more cotton than any other type of
+machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per
+hour. When the machine is
+running at high speed the
+tendency is to string and knot
+the cotton.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 287px;">
+<img src="images/tex22.png" width="287" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON GIN<br />
+The upper figure shows Whitney&rsquo;s invention.
+The lower figure shows a later
+form.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The working of the ordinary
+gin is as follows: The wagon
+loaded with cotton is driven
+under a galvanized spout
+called the sucker, through
+which there is a suction of
+air which draws the cotton
+into the gins. In each of
+the gins there are seventy
+circular saws revolving on
+one shaft. These saws are
+about one inch apart, and
+the teeth go through the gin breast, much as if one
+were to put the teeth of one comb into the teeth of
+another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
+seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the
+lint flute, into the condenser, and into the box, where
+it is revolved and made into a bale. While the lint is
+going through this process, the seeds, being heavier and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg&nbsp;116]</a></span>
+smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
+an auger which is operated by a belt, and then are
+dropped into a conveyor and carried to the seed pile
+or houses. The lint goes in one direction and the
+seed in another.</p>
+
+<p>When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin,
+it is covered with a lint of cotton. In order to remove
+this the seeds are put through a delinter, which takes
+off the small, short fiber from the seeds, leaving them
+clean. This seed is then put through a huller which
+takes off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel
+is then put through a hydraulic press, which squeezes
+the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves the &ldquo;meal.&rdquo;
+Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as
+making olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc.
+Of late an experiment has been made with the meal
+for use in the place of flour, and has been pronounced
+a success. Seed crushing has now become
+an important industry, with the cotton crop each year
+amounting to between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales
+of 450 pounds each.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Cotton Gin.</strong> The cotton gin was invented in
+1792 by Eli Whitney, a citizen of Georgia, but a native
+of Massachusetts. The importance of this invention
+to the cotton industry of the world cannot be overestimated.
+It was the one thing needed to insure a
+sufficient supply of raw material to meet the requirements
+of newly invented machinery for spinning and
+weaving. The result of Whitney&rsquo;s invention was the
+rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg&nbsp;117]</a></span>
+States, and its permanent establishment as one of the
+leading staples of the country.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Bales.</strong> After the cotton is ginned and baled
+it is shipped to the mill. The standard size of a cotton
+bale in the United States is 54&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;27&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;27 inches, and
+contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this bale
+over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The
+bales are wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with
+sheet-iron bands, this covering adding about twenty-five
+pounds to the weight of the bale.</p>
+
+<p>The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a
+self-feeding press, which receives the lap of lint from
+the gin between two heavy rollers. The fiber is rolled
+upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press out
+nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform
+shape and size throughout, having a diameter of fourteen
+to sixteen inches. The bales are covered with
+cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It is
+claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this
+process that the bales are practically fireproof and
+waterproof.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar
+to the American bale, but the average weight is over
+700 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed
+than the American, usually weigh 400 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the
+shape of a bale. The method is to purchase from
+cotton brokers, samples being furnished to the buyer
+from which to make selection.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg&nbsp;118]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex23.jpg" width="700" height="391" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">STOREHOUSES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg&nbsp;119]</a></span>
+The commercial value of cotton is determined by
+its length, fineness, strength, pliability, smoothness,
+regularity, color, and cleanliness. As a rule, the cotton
+that is the longest is also the finest, but by no means
+the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest
+staple with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an
+Indian cotton) is much inferior to it in both respects.
+The strength of the latter, however, is 50 per cent
+greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
+every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance
+over Hinganghat cotton. It is the most valuable,
+especially for the production of fine yarns.</p>
+
+<p>The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the
+length of the staple varies only a small fraction of an
+inch. In consequence of this there is less loss in working
+Orleans than is the case with the other cottons,
+owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Leading Growths of Cotton.</strong> In order to purchase
+the raw material of the cotton manufacture, to
+arrange the &ldquo;mixing&rdquo; or have much to do with the raw
+material in any other capacity, one should know as
+much as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance
+may cause much trouble and no little loss to those
+who have to spin the cotton. Each crop differs from the
+previous one to a greater or less degree, as it depends
+entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season
+there is a &ldquo;droughty crop&rdquo; which, while it may be
+(and generally is) clean and well up in class, will be weak,
+short, and of irregular fiber. In order to obtain the
+desired length and strength of staple the buyer will
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg&nbsp;120]</a></span>
+have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may
+be termed a normal season.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/tex24.jpg" width="500" height="477" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">FANCY COTTON LOOM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that
+may have been caused by too much rain in the early
+or middle stages of its growth, or by unfavorable weather
+for the production of cotton of good grade, the staple
+will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
+small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain
+his usual grade, especially if he requires it for good
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg&nbsp;121]</a></span>
+filling. Then there are seasons when the crop turns
+out fairly well in class and staple, but the cotton
+is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case
+the buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in
+calculating the extra loss that will ensue.</p>
+
+<p>The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance
+of 4 per cent for tares. That is, a bale of cotton
+weighing 400 pounds would be paid for as 384 pounds,
+or should the buyer have reason to believe that the tares
+are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the
+actual tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales
+and weighing the covering and the hoops, which means
+considerable work, and although it is at the option of
+the buyer, it is an exception rather than the rule.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of these causes we find cotton divided
+into the following grades:</p>
+
+<p><strong>Full Grades of Cotton.</strong> Egyptian cotton is graded
+as follows: extra fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good
+fair, fair, middling fair, middling.</p>
+
+<p>Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine,
+fully good, good, fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.</p>
+
+<p>Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good
+fair, fair, middling fair, middling.</p>
+
+<p>American cotton has seven grades: fair, middling fair,
+good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary,
+and ordinary.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the full grades there are half and
+quarter grades. The American cottons are graded as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg&nbsp;122]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="American cotton grades">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdci">Full Grades.</td>
+    <td class="tdci">Half Grades.</td>
+    <td class="tdci">Quarter Grades.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Fair,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict middling fair,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely fair,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Middling fair,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict good middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Fully middling fair,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Good middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely middling fair,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict low middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Fully good middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Low middling,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict good ordinary,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely good middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Good ordinary,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Strict ordinary.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Fully middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Ordinary.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Fully low middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely low middling,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Fully good ordinary,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Barely good ordinary.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following are a few of the leading varieties of
+cotton, with the numbers of yarn they will make:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Numbers of yarn from different cottons">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdci">Cotton.</td>
+    <td class="tdci" colspan="3">Length.</td>
+    <td class="tdci">Warp.</td>
+    <td class="tdci" colspan="3">Filling.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Sea Island (selected)</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac34;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">2&frac14;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">up to 200</td>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">250 to 300</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Sea Island (ordinary)</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac34;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">2</td>
+    <td class="tdr">150</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">220</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Florida Sea Island</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac34;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">2</td>
+    <td class="tdr">150</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">220</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Georgia</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac12;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1<span class="fractop">7</span>/<span class="fracbot">8</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">120</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">180</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Egyptian</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac14;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac12;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">70</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">120</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Peeler</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac14;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1<span class="fractop">3</span>/<span class="fracbot">8</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">50</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">70</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Orleans or Gulf</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">16</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1&frac14;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">40</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">60</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Upland</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1</td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">8</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">30</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">45</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Texas</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="fractop">7</span>/<span class="fracbot">8</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">to</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">16</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">25</td>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">35</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>During the last few years considerable discussion
+has taken place among mill men, both in this country
+and abroad, bearing upon the subject of moisture contained
+in baled cotton. Of course the natural moisture
+in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from
+year to year, according to the character of the season
+during the picking. The standard of moisture is based
+upon what is known as regain, that is, if 100 parts of
+absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they will
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg&nbsp;123]</a></span>
+absorb about 8&frac12; per cent of moisture, although a much
+higher per cent is sometimes found.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the small Southern mills located in the
+cotton raising section, the cotton is delivered by team
+direct from the gin, without going through the compress.
+In this way they save the greater part of transportation
+expense. They also save in the strength of
+the cotton fiber itself, since the process of compression
+injures the fiber. They get better cotton, being nearer
+the source of supply and having better opportunities
+for selection.</p>
+
+<p>When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is
+necessary to cut ties and loosen up the cotton before
+use. This may be done in two ways. One method
+being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other to
+pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine,
+which loosens up the cotton by means of beaters. It
+now starts on a continuous journey through successive
+machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is made
+into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling
+yarn to make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.</p>
+
+<p>Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn,
+for certain conditions are necessary to manufacture
+good yarn. If the atmosphere is too warm or too dry,
+the fibers will become brittle and will not twist well;
+if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
+England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton
+spinning. It has just the right climate, a moist temperature,
+and copious water supply. There are hills
+on the east of the valley, forming a water shed, and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg&nbsp;124]</a></span>
+town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay, that
+holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough
+to keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the
+fibers for weaving. Countries that have not these conditions
+are obliged to produce them by artificial means&mdash;humidifying,
+etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex25.jpg" width="700" height="489" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">PICKER ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.<br />
+2. &ldquo;Lap&rdquo; showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.<br />
+3. Picker Machine (complete).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg&nbsp;125]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h2>MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex26.jpg" width="700" height="502" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">PICKER ROOM&mdash;SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Lap of Cotton.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Picker Room.</strong> The first step in the conversion of
+the bale of cotton into yarn consists in giving the cotton
+fibers a thorough cleaning. This is accomplished
+by feeding the cotton to a series of picker machines
+called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and automatic
+feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg&nbsp;126]</a></span>
+finisher picker. These machines pull to shreds the
+matted locks and wads of cotton (as we find them
+in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
+finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon
+the cylinders; this batting passes from one machine to
+another until it issues from the finisher picker as a
+downy roll or lap.</p>
+
+<p>(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex27.jpg" width="700" height="505" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">CARD ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Roving Can&mdash;receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it is transferred to either
+ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.<br />
+2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form of a web.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Carding Machine.</strong> When the lap of cotton leaves
+the picker it goes to the carding machine, where it is
+combed into parallel fibers by means of a revolving
+cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg&nbsp;127]</a></span>
+As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or
+lap from the picker, it is supposed to have been freed
+from a considerable quantity of sand, seed, etc., but
+there still remain nep, fine leaf, and short fibers, which
+are removed during carding.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a
+gossamer-like web thirty-nine inches broad. This web
+next passes through small &ldquo;eyes,&rdquo; which condense it
+into a narrow band about an inch in width, known
+as card sliver.</p>
+
+<p>When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it
+should weigh a given number of ounces per yard. The
+method of ascertaining the weight is to make each lap
+a standard number of yards in length and weigh each
+lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the
+desired weight per yard.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Combing.</strong> When an extremely fine and strong yarn
+is required, in addition to carding, the fibers are also
+subjected to the process of &ldquo;combing.&rdquo; This may be
+said to be merely a continuation of the carding process
+to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract
+all fibers below a certain required length, and cast them
+aside as &ldquo;waste.&rdquo; This is done in order to secure the
+very best fibers calculated to give the strongest and best
+results in the spun yarn.</p>
+
+<p>The process of combing follows carding. The card
+delivers the cotton in the form of a sliver or strand,
+while the combing machine requires the fibers to be
+delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
+inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg&nbsp;128]</a></span>
+slivers and forming a lap of them by passing the sliver
+through a sliver lap machine. The laps are passed
+through the comber. This machine consists essentially
+of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
+By the action of these, the short fibers are separated
+and combed out, and the long ones arranged in parallel
+order in the form of a thin, silky strand, in which condition
+it is sent to the drawing frames to be drawn
+out. Of course it must be understood that a combing
+machine is used by only a small percentage of cotton
+spinners. For ordinary purposes a sufficiently good
+quality can be made without a comber. As there is
+from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
+readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the
+production of the very best and finest yarns, such as
+those intended for sewing or machine thread, fine
+hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation silks, and
+fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines
+that comb short staple cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Drawing.</strong> The cans containing the slivers are taken
+from the card or combing machine (as the case may
+be) to the drawing frame. The object of this machine
+is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
+of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly.
+The condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb
+is such that a slight pull will lay them perfectly straight
+or parallel, and this pull is given by the drawing frame
+rollers. Of course the fibers coming from the comb are
+parallel, but it is necessary to alternate them by the
+drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting
+<!-- actual start of page 130 -->of a number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a
+greater speed than the rear ones.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg&nbsp;129]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex28.jpg" width="700" height="389" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON COMB ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. The cotton in the form of a &ldquo;lap&rdquo; ready to pass through the comb.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg&nbsp;130]</a></span>
+The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same
+weight per yard, are combined together in the drawing
+and emerge from the pair of front rollers as one sliver
+weighing the same number of grains per yard as a single
+sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated two
+or three times, according to requirements, the material
+then being referred to as having passed through so
+many &ldquo;heads&rdquo; of drawing. It is not unusual to pass
+Indian and American cotton through three deliveries.</p>
+
+<p>The object of all the processes thus far described has
+been that of cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers
+in a parallel position to each other, making uniform, and
+drawing out the stock. In every case the stock delivered
+from a machine is lighter than when fed into it, and contains
+just twist enough to hold it together and prevent
+its being stretched or strained when unwound from the
+bobbin, and fed into the next machine. The minimum
+amount of twist in roving is desirable for the reason
+that it permits the stock to be drawn out more
+easily and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the
+roving by the slubber being practically eliminated
+when it is passed through the rolls of the intermediate.
+The same applies in the case of the roving passing from
+the roving to the spinning frame.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fly Frames.</strong> The process in the manufacture of
+yarn after the cotton has passed through the drawing
+frame consists of further attenuation of the sliver, but
+as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg&nbsp;131]</a></span>
+possible without breakage, a small amount of &ldquo;twist&rdquo;
+is introduced to allow of the continued drawing out of
+the sliver.</p>
+
+<p>From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through
+two, three, or four fly frames, according to the number
+of yarn to be made. All these machines are identical
+in principle and construction, and differ only in the
+size of some of the working parts. They are the slubber,
+intermediate, roving,&mdash;and fine or jack frame-fine,
+and the function of each is to draw and twist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex29.jpg" width="700" height="487" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">ROVING DEPARTMENT</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the rolls and then given a
+twist while it is wound on the bobbin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Intermediate Frame.</strong> The function of the intermediate
+frame is to receive the slightly twisted rove
+from the slubber and add thereto a little more twist
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg&nbsp;132]</a></span>
+and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to one
+spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends
+to insure strength and uniformity. The principle of
+the machine is in other respects the same as that of
+the slubbing frame.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Roving Frame.</strong> The function of the roving frame
+is to receive the twisted rove from the intermediate
+and add more twist and draft, thereby further attenuating
+the rove. As in the intermediate frame the rove is
+generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fine or Jack Frame.</strong> This machine is used when
+fine yarns have to be made. It is built on the same
+principle as the preceding frames, the only difference
+being that a finer rove is made from which finer numbers
+of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate,
+and roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins
+for one spindle.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Spinning.</strong> In the manufacture of single ply yarn
+the final process is that of spinning, which consists in
+drawing out the cotton roving to the required size, and
+giving it the proper amount of twist necessary to make
+the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning
+frame is built on entirely different principles from the
+roving, intermediate, or slubber frame, the object of each
+machine is the same as that of the spinning frame. The
+principal point of difference is the amount of twist
+imparted to the cotton roving.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg&nbsp;133]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex30.jpg" width="700" height="387" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">ROVING ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">1. A drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the machine.<br />
+2. A slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins.<br />
+3. Roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through the roller to another.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg&nbsp;134]</a></span>
+The objects of the spinning process are:</p>
+
+<p>1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving
+to the required size.</p>
+
+<p><!-- actual start of page 134 -->2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give
+the thread produced strength.</p>
+
+<p>Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue
+wear and tear on the machine.</p>
+
+<p>There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning
+and mule spinning. The mule spinning is the older
+form. There are but few mule frames in operation in
+this country.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mule Spinning.</strong> The function of mule spinning is to
+spin on the bare spindle, or upon the short paper tubes,
+when such are required to form a base for the cop bottom.
+The mule will spin any counts of yarn required, and is
+especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
+&ldquo;cover&rdquo; are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced
+on the ordinary cotton mule and are very soft spun.</p>
+
+<p>The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the
+back of the machine, the stands of roving being passed
+through the rolls and drawn out in the same manner as
+at the roving frame. The spindles are mounted on a
+carriage which moves backward and forward in its
+relation to the rolls, the distance roved being about five
+feet. When the spindles are moving away from the
+frame the stock is being delivered by the rolls, the
+speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
+being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension.
+The twist is put in the yarn at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg&nbsp;135]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex31.jpg" width="700" height="392" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SPINNING ROOM. COTTON DEPARTMENT</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Humidifier&mdash;an apparatus to give off moisture.<br />
+2. Spinning frames&mdash;showing the cotton as it comes from the roving frame and passes through the spinning frame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg&nbsp;136]</a></span>
+When the spindles reach their greatest distance
+from the rolls, the latter are automatically stopped and
+the direction of the motion of the spindle carriage
+reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while the
+<!-- actual start of page 136 -->carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the
+motion of the rolls being stopped in the meanwhile,
+the spindles revolving only fast enough to wind up
+the thread that has been spun during the outward
+move of the carriage.</p>
+
+<p>The mule is a much more complicated machine than
+the ring frame, its floor space is much greater, and more
+skilled help is required for its operation. Under ordinary
+conditions it is not practical to spin finer yarn
+than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said
+to have been spun on a mule. The same number of
+yarn can be spun on a mule with less twist than on the
+ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.</p>
+
+<p>Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has
+greater production and requires less labor than mule
+spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used for warp purposes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ring Spinning.</strong> The function of ring spinning is to
+draw out the rove and spin it into yarn on a continuous
+system. The yarn made is spun upon bobbins.</p>
+
+<p>The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having
+the carriage replaced by a ring, from which the machine
+takes its name. The ring is from one and one-half to
+three inches in diameter, grooved inside and out, and
+is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter
+D, called the &ldquo;traveller.&rdquo; Its office is to constitute a
+drag upon the yarn, by means of which the latter is
+wound upon a bobbin. Its size and weight depend on
+the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns demand
+the largest ring and heaviest traveller.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg&nbsp;137]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex32.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">MULE ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Stocks from Finisher ready to be spun upon the mule.<br />
+2. Front Rollers with weight levers.<br />
+3. Clearers for Front Rollers.<br />
+4. Faller shafts containing Sickles.<br />
+5. Spindles.<br />
+6. Spun Yarn wound on cops.<br />
+7. Covers for carriage.<br />
+8. Body of carriage.<br />
+9. Drawing out band.<br />
+10. One of the wheels for the carriage.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg&nbsp;138]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h2>THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Thread.</strong> In general a twisted strand of cotton,
+flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length,
+is called thread. In a specific sense, thread is a compound
+cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly
+united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds
+of weaving, but its principal use is for sewing, for
+which purpose it is composed of either silk, cotton,
+or flax. Thread made of silk is technically known as
+sewing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
+while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly
+called spool cotton. These distinctions, while generally
+observed by trade, are not always maintained by
+the public.</p>
+
+<p>The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade
+from that made before the sewing machine came into
+general use. The early thread was but three cord, and
+contained such a large number of knots, thin places,
+etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
+machines, so manufacturers were called upon to produce
+a thread that would be of the same thickness in
+every twist. This was effected by making the thread
+of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
+smoother and more uniform strand.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg&nbsp;139]</a></span>
+<strong>Manufacturing Processes.</strong> The raw cotton for the
+manufacture of thread must be of long staple. If the
+fiber is short the thread made of it will be weak, and
+hence unsuited for the purposes required of it. Ordinary
+cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the
+better grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness
+of its fiber. Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are
+used because they have a much longer fiber and are
+softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the factory
+packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for
+some months before it is used. The first step in the
+conversion of the bale of cotton into thread consists
+in giving the fiber a thorough cleaning. This is accomplished
+by feeding it to a series of pickers which pull the
+matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt
+and seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting
+upon cylinders until it issues from the finisher lap
+machines as a downy roll or lap.</p>
+
+<p>The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms,
+where it is combed into parallel fibers by means of a
+revolving cylinder covered with fine wire teeth, sometimes
+90,000 of them to the square foot. On leaving
+the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like
+web thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed
+through a small &ldquo;eye&rdquo; which condenses it into a narrow
+band about an inch in width, known as the sliver.
+By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that one
+yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the
+sliver. The sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it
+were spun it would not make good thread. It is necessary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg&nbsp;140]</a></span>
+to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as possible,
+so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
+strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and
+short fibers must be removed and the knots and kinks
+in the fibers straightened out. To accomplish these
+objects the cotton must be &ldquo;combed.&rdquo; First, the
+slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each
+set moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands
+are drawn out fine and thin. In this condition the
+cotton passes to a doubling frame, and from thence to
+the lapping frame, a device combining six laps into one
+and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
+lap.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex33.jpg" width="700" height="493" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WARP ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Beam on which the warp is wound.<br />
+2. Warp.<br />
+3. Creel.<br />
+4. Spools in the creel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg&nbsp;141]</a></span>
+The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the
+impurities and short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-fifth
+of the material; next, it combines six of these
+fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A number of
+these rolls are then drawn out by another machine
+twelve times as long as they were before and twisted
+together on a slubbing frame. This last drawing reduces
+the roll to about the thickness of zephyr yarn.
+After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
+roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes
+by means of hundreds of spindles and wheels what the
+housewife once did with her spinning wheel. The
+mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000 hand
+spinners and takes up much less space. On this
+machine 900 spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins,
+and by means of accelerating rollers and a carriage
+draw out and twist it to the proper fineness for the size
+of thread wanted. Having passed through the complex
+processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and
+spinning, the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various
+sizes, and the real work of thread making, which is a
+distinct art from yarn making, begins.</p>
+
+<p>The thread-making process is briefly as follows:
+The yarn is doubled and twisted; then three of such
+yarns are twisted together, which give the six-fold
+combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord
+thread three yarns are twisted together. After the
+twisting is completed the thread is reeled into skeins
+having a continuous length of 4,000 to 12,000 yards,
+according to the size, and is then sent to the examining
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg&nbsp;142]</a></span>
+department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand
+is looked over, and any found to be defective are laid
+aside, so that when the thread is put on the market it
+shall be as perfect as care and skill can make it.</p>
+
+<p>At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are
+of the pale cream color common to all unbleached
+cotton goods, and are technically known as &ldquo;in the
+gray.&rdquo; They therefore have to be bleached pure
+white or dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether
+intended for white or colored thread, are first placed in
+large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled. Here the
+thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six
+or seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but
+still retains the brownish gray color of unbleached
+cotton. It then goes into a bath of chloride of lime
+and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
+drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride.
+Another boiling, another bleaching, a bath of
+soapsuds, and the final rinsing, complete the cleansing
+and whitening process. Those skeins intended for
+colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and
+placed in tanks filled with suitably prepared dyeing
+solutions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg&nbsp;143]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/tex34.jpg" width="700" height="390" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">TWISTING ROOM</span>
+<p class="caplist">
+1. Humidifier.<br />
+2. Twister machine.<br />
+3. Boxes containing spools of cotton, ready to be put in creel and form warp.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg&nbsp;144]</a></span>
+From the bleaching and dyeing departments the
+skeins of thread go back to the mill to be wound on the
+bobbins, and from the bobbins finally on the small
+wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
+be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The
+small spools are fastened on pivots, the thread from
+the bobbins fastened on the spools, and the machines
+<!-- actual start of page 144 -->set in motion. At the required number of yards
+the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of
+cotton thread contains 200 yards, and when this has
+been wound on, the thread is cut with a knife by an
+attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim of
+the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread.
+Thread mills commonly print their own labels, and
+these are affixed to the spools by special machinery
+with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling machine
+the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one
+for imperfections, and any that are found faulty are
+discarded. When packed in pasteboard boxes or in
+cabinets the thread is ready for market.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Thread Numbers.</strong> Spool cotton for ordinary use is
+made in sizes ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200
+fine. In cotton yarn numbering, the fineness of the
+spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks, each
+containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh
+one pound, as illustrated in the following table:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Cotton yarn numbering">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">When</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1</td>
+    <td class="tdl">hank</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of</td>
+    <td class="tdl">cotton</td>
+    <td class="tdl">yarn</td>
+    <td class="tdr">( &nbsp; &nbsp; 840 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdl">weigh</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1 lb.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">it is</td>
+    <td class="tdl">No.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">(&nbsp; 8,400 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">16</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">(13,440 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">16</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">30</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">(25,200 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">30</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">50</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">(42,000 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">100</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">(84,000 yds.)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&ldquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">100</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The early manufactured thread was three cord, and
+took its number from the size of the yarn from which
+it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60 thread, though
+in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
+would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg&nbsp;145]</a></span>
+combined together. When the sewing machine came
+into the market as the great consumer of thread, spool
+cotton had to be made a smoother and more even
+product than had previously been necessary for hand
+needles. This was accomplished by using six strands
+instead of three, the yarns being twice as fine. As thread
+numbers were already established, they were not altered
+for the new article, and consequently at the present time
+No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord
+are identical in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord
+is formed of No. 120 yarns. It is relatively smoother,
+more even, and stronger than the three-cord grade.
+All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each
+of the latter being twice as fine as the number of the
+thread as designated by the label. Three-cord spool
+cotton is made of three strands of yarn, each of the
+same number as the thread.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sizing.</strong> In textile manufacturing, sizing is the
+process of strengthening warp yarns by coating them
+with a preparation of starch, flour, etc., in order that
+they may withstand the weaving process without
+chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also
+often resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton
+and linen fabrics, which are sized or dressed with various
+mixtures in order to create an appearance of weight
+and strength where these qualities do not exist, or, if
+present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing
+warp yarn before weaving is to enable that process to
+be performed with the minimum of threads breaking.
+Judicious sizing adds to the strength of the yarn by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg&nbsp;146]</a></span>
+filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
+the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main
+part. In order to accomplish this a number of ingredients
+are used in the size preparation, as no single
+material used alone gives satisfactory results. The
+filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
+adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with
+sufficient hardness to resist the continual chafing of the
+shuttles, reeds, and harnesses during the process of weaving.
+Flour and starch in a liquid state are used for this
+purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew, flour is
+not so much used as starch. Both of these materials,
+however, make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients
+are combined with them to overcome the brittleness.
+For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing has been
+found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight
+goods the softener giving the most general satisfaction
+is paraffin.</p>
+
+<p>When properly made the size preparation is a smooth
+mass of uniform consistence, free from lumps of any
+kind, and from all sediment and odor. Starch&mdash;the
+principal material which gives body to any size&mdash;requires
+the most careful treatment. It is first mixed
+with cold water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is
+slowly poured into the necessary quantity of boiling
+water until a clear, uniform paste is formed. Then the
+softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
+fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred
+in and some form of preservative, usually chloride of
+zinc or salicylic acid. The mass is then thoroughly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg&nbsp;147]</a></span>
+stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with mechanical stirrers.
+The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or cold.
+When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling
+up every space between the fibers, binding all together,
+and forming a hard coating on the surface of the thread.
+A thorough washing or steaming serves to remove all
+the size from the woven fabric.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex35.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">FINISHING ROOM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Finishing.</strong> Cotton fabrics, like other textiles,
+after leaving the loom must be subjected to various
+finishing processes so as to bring them into commercial
+condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the finishing
+is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each
+class of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In
+some cases weighting materials are added to the fabric
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg&nbsp;148]</a></span>
+so as to hide more or less its actual construction. Cotton
+fabrics just from the loom present a soft and open
+structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it
+is necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes
+which will fill up the openings or interstices
+as produced in the fabric by the interlacing of warp
+and filling, and at the same time give to the fabric a
+certain amount of stiffness. Of course this finish will
+disappear during wear or washing, it having been imparted
+to the fabric to bring the latter into a salable
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to
+the following sub-processes of finishing:</p>
+
+<p>Inspecting, Burling and Trimming, Bleaching, Washing,
+Scutching, Drying.</p>
+
+<p>After the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed; then it
+passes over to the inspection table in an upward receding
+direction, so that the eye of the operator can readily
+detect imperfections. The ends of two or more
+pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string
+for convenient handling in the bleaching.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bleaching.</strong> The object of bleaching is to free the
+cotton from its natural color. The ancient method of
+bleaching by exposure to the action of the sun&rsquo;s rays
+and frequent wetting has been superseded by a more
+complicated process involving the use of various chemicals.
+Pieces of cloth are tacked together (sewed) to
+form one continuous piece of from three to one thousand
+yards in length. The cloth is next passed over hot
+cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg&nbsp;149]</a></span>
+fine, loose down from the surface. The goods are then
+washed and allowed to remain in a wet condition for a
+few hours, after which they are passed through milk of
+lime under heavy pressure, followed by rinsing in clear
+water. The goods are next &ldquo;scoured&rdquo; in water acidulated
+with hydrochloric acid, and boiled in a solution
+of soda, then washed as before in clear water. Next
+they are chlorined by being laid in a stone cistern containing
+a solution of chloride of lime and allowed to remain
+a few hours. This operation requires great care in
+the preparation of the chloride of lime, for if the smallest
+particle of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed
+to come in contact with and remain upon the cloth it
+is liable to produce holes. The goods are then boiled
+for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda,
+after which they are washed. They are again chlorined
+as before and washed. The long strips are finally
+scoured in hydrochloric acid, washed, and well squeezed
+between metal rollers covered with cloth. After squeezing
+and drying, the cloth, if required for printing, needs
+no further operation, but if intended to be marketed
+in a white state, it must be finished, that is, starched or
+calendered.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Starching.</strong> The starch is applied to the cloth by
+means of rollers which dip into a vat containing the
+solution, while other rollers remove the excess. Sometimes
+the cloth is artificially weighted with fine clay or
+gypsum, the object being to render the cloth solid in
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Calendering.</strong> The cloth is now put through the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg&nbsp;150]</a></span>
+calendering machine, the object of which is to give a
+perfectly smooth and even surface, and sometimes a
+superficial glaze; the common domestic smoothing iron
+may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil.
+The cloth is first passed between the cylinders of a
+machine two, three, or four times, according to the finish
+desired. The calender finishes may be classed as dull,
+luster, glazed, watered or moire, and embossed. The
+calender always flattens and imparts a luster to the
+cloth passed through it. With considerable pressure
+between smooth rollers a soft, silky luster is given by
+equal flattening of all the threads. By passing two folds
+of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the
+threads of one make an impression upon the other, and
+give a wiry appearance. The iron rollers are sometimes
+made hollow for the purpose of admitting steam
+or gas in order to give a glaze finish. Embossing is
+produced by passing the cloth under heated metal rollers
+upon which are engraved suitable patterns, the effect
+of which is the reproduction of the pattern upon the
+surface of the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mercerizing.</strong> This is a process of treating cotton
+yarn or fabrics with caustic soda and sulphuric acid
+whereby they are made stronger and heavier, and
+given a silky luster and feel. The luster produced upon
+cotton is due to two causes, the change in the structure
+of the fiber, and the removing of the outer skin of the
+fiber. The swelling of the fiber makes it rounder, so that
+the rays of light as they fall upon the surface are reflected
+instead of being absorbed. The quality and degree of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg&nbsp;151]</a></span>
+luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely
+upon the grade of cotton used. The long-staple Egyptian
+and Sea Island cotton, so twisted as to leave the
+fibers as nearly loose and parallel as possible, show the
+best results. If the yarn is singed the result is a further
+improvement. Yarns and fabrics constructed of the
+ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to
+advantage. The cost of producing high-grade mercerized
+yarn is about three times that of an unmercerized
+yarn of the same count, spun from the commoner
+qualities of cotton.</p>
+
+<p>Mercerized yarn is employed in almost every conceivable
+manner, not only in the manufacture of half-silk
+and half-wool fabrics, and in lustrous all-cotton
+tissues, but also in the production of figures and
+stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds.
+Mercerized yarn used in connection with silk is difficult
+to detect except by an expert eye.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Characteristics of a good piece of Cotton Cloth.</strong>
+A perfect cotton fiber has little convolutions in it
+which give the strong twist and spring to a good
+thread. In this respect the Sea Island cotton is the
+best. There are five things requisite for cotton cloth
+to be good, viz.:</p>
+
+<p>1. The cloth must be made of good fiber, that is
+ripe and long.</p>
+
+<p>2. The fiber must be carefully prepared. All the
+processes must be well performed&mdash;for the very fine
+thread fiber must be combed to remove poor fiber.
+The combing, however, is not always done.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg&nbsp;152]</a></span>
+3. The warp and woof threads must be in good proportion.</p>
+
+<p>4. The cloth must be soft, so that it will not crease
+easily.</p>
+
+<p>5. It must be carefully bleached&mdash;the chemicals
+used must not be strong.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg&nbsp;153]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h2>KNITTING</h2>
+
+
+<p>The art and process of forming fabrics by looping
+a single thread, either by hand with slender wires
+or by means of a machine provided with hooked
+needles, is called knitting. Crocheting is an analogous
+art, but differs from knitting in the fact that the separate
+loops are thrown off and finished by hand successively,
+whereas in knitting the whole series of loops
+which go to form one length or round are retained on
+one or more needles, while a new series is being formed
+on a separate needle. Netting is performed by knotting
+threads into meshes that cannot be unraveled,
+while knitting can be unraveled and the same thread
+applied to any other use. Knitting is really carried on
+without making knots; thus, the destruction of one
+loop threatens the destruction of the whole web, unless
+the meshes are reunited.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of
+weaving. In the weaving of cloth the yarns of one
+system cross those of another system at right angles,
+thus producing a solid, firm texture. The great elasticity
+of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the chief
+feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs.
+The nature of the loop formed by the knitting needle
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg&nbsp;154]</a></span>
+favors elongation and contraction without marring in
+the least the general structure of the goods. Builders
+of weavers&rsquo; looms have at times endeavored to secure
+this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechanism
+of the loom, but as yet nothing approaching the product
+of the knitter has been made. The elastic feature
+of a knitted texture renders it peculiarly adapted for all
+classes and kinds of undergarments, for it not only fits
+the body snugly, but expands more readily than any
+other fabric of similar weight.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Knitting Machines.</strong> There are various machines
+for knitting. The circular knitting machine produces
+a circular web of various degrees of fineness, and in
+sizes ranging from a child&rsquo;s stocking to a man&rsquo;s No. 50
+undershirt. The circular fabric made in this manner
+has to be cut up and joined together by some method
+to make a complete garment. The knitting frame for
+producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip, narrowing
+and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the
+shape of the foot, leg, or body. These strips then have
+to be joined by sewing or knitting to form a garment.
+Fashioning machines are indispensable for knitting the
+Niantic and French foot, and also for the production
+of stripes, fancy openwork, and lace hosiery.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg&nbsp;155]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<img src="images/tex36.jpg" width="289" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">KNITTING MACHINE FOR HOSIERY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg&nbsp;156]</a></span>
+All plain machines of any class produce only plain
+knitted fabrics, while ribbed machines make only ribbed
+fabrics. Still, many garments in their make-up include
+both kinds of knitting; therefore, many machines produce
+only certain parts of particular garments. In the case
+of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top, or in
+<!-- actual start of page 156 -->underwear a ribbed cuff, and these may be made either
+of circular web or full fashioned. In each case the
+ribbed portion is first knit and then transferred to a
+plain machine, and being placed upon the needles is
+worked on to the rest of the garment. In some instances
+the heel is made by the machine working the
+leg, though there are numerous knitters specially
+designed for turning out only this particular part.</p>
+
+<p>Among other knitting machines in modern use are the
+drawers machine; machines for hose and half-hose with
+apparatus for making the instep, finishing off the toe,
+splicing or thickening the heels, etc.; machines for producing
+the bottoms or soles of hose separately, and also
+the instep separately; circular stocking machines for
+producing a tubular web afterwards cut into suitable
+lengths for all varieties of hose; circular sleeve machines,
+circular body machines, as well as circular web
+machines for making both body and sleeves of undershirts,
+jerseys, sweaters, etc. Special machines are
+also made for knitting both plain and ribbed plaited
+goods, that is, with both sides wool while the center is
+of cotton, or with a silk or worsted face on one side and
+the back of an inferior yarn. In the form of auxiliary
+appliances are produced many kinds of stitching machines;
+circular latch-needle machines for plain ribbed,
+mock seam, and striped goods; steam presses; hose
+rolling machines; hose cutting and welting machines,
+and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/tex37.jpg" width="387" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">KNITTING MACHINE FOR UNDERWEAR</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At present fully one-third of the knit underwear
+used in this country is of the ribbed description. It
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg&nbsp;157]</a></span>
+is made in all the materials that the older flat goods are
+composed of, including silk, silk mixtures, linen, wool,
+lisle, and cotton. Rib work is ordinarily stronger and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg&nbsp;158]</a></span>
+more lasting than plain. It is also invaluable for
+many purposes on account of its tendency to contract
+and expand in the direction of the circumference without
+altering its length. This feature makes it indispensable
+for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts,
+mittens, gloves, etc., and for the production of heavy
+garments such as cardigans and sweaters. The expense
+of knitting rib work is higher than plain knitting, owing
+to the fact that the machines cannot turn out so great
+a quantity within a given time.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique
+in its principle. The effect is produced by reversing
+the stitch. In place of making the stitch work appear
+entirely upon one side of the fabric, as in plain work,
+the needles are so arranged that every alternate row,
+or two rows alternately, are reversed, thus making
+both sides alike. Plain work is done with a single
+bank of needles, while rib work requires two banks,
+the function of the second one being to pull and loop
+the yarn in an opposite direction, thus producing a
+thicker and more elastic web.</p>
+
+<p>Double work in knitting consists merely in running
+two threads where one is commonly used. The work
+is done readily and with but little extra cost for labor.
+Coarser and heavier needles are required, also a wider
+gauge for the needle cylinder. Fancy effects in double
+work are produced by running two colors instead of
+one. The tendency is for one thread to twine about
+the other, thus making attractive double-and-twist
+work. Lumbermen&rsquo;s socks and like goods are often
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg&nbsp;159]</a></span>
+knitted on this plan, though for the most part double
+work is for the heels, toes, and soles of ordinary hose.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Stripe Knitting.</strong> The process of striping knitted
+fabrics is accomplished automatically by a system of
+changing the yarns when delivered by the feeds. Circular
+machines knitting a tubular web cannot be utilized
+for this purpose, hence the work is done on
+fashioning or stocking frames. It has only been within
+recent years that makers of knitting machinery have
+been able to offer machines on which more than one
+kind of yarn could be knit at one time. There are now
+in use, however, machines that will readily knit several
+colors of yarn at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Knitting Cotton.</strong> A variety of loosely twisted, four-ply
+cotton yarn, dyed in various plain and mixed colors,
+employed for knitting hosiery, tidies, mats, etc., by
+hand. It is numbered from 8, coarse, to 20, fine, and
+commonly put up sixteen balls in a box, each box
+containing two pounds, manufacturer&rsquo;s weight.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Knitting Silk.</strong> A loosely twisted silk thread of
+domestic manufacture employed for knitting mittens,
+stockings, and other articles by hand. It is also much
+used for crochet work. Knitting silk is put up in the
+form of balls, each containing one-half ounce of thread.
+It is made in but two sizes, No. 300, coarse, and No.
+500, fine; each ball of the former number contains 150
+yards of silk; of the latter 250 yards. No. 500 is manufactured
+only in white, cream, and black; the No. 300 is
+fast dyed in a great variety of colors.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Hosiery Manufacture.</strong> According to the particular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg&nbsp;160]</a></span>
+method by which socks and stockings are made, of
+whatever kind, quality, or material, they are classed
+as cut goods, seamless, or full fashioned. Of the three
+methods of manufacturing the first named is the least
+expensive. Cut goods are made of round webbing
+knitted on what is called a circular knitting machine.
+The web has the appearance of a long roll of cloth
+about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed
+flat. The first operation consists in cutting off pieces
+the length of the stocking desired, these lengths,
+of course, being the same (unshaped) from end to
+end. The shaping of the leg is effected either by cutting
+out enough of the stocking from the calf to the
+heel to allow part to be sewn up and shaped to fit the
+ankle, or by shrinking. In the heeling room where
+the pieces next go, the cutters are furnished with
+gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a
+slit for the insertion of the heel, generally of a different
+color. When the heel is sewn in, the stocking begins
+to assume its rightful shape. The toe is now put on
+and the stocking is practically finished. In the case
+of socks the final operation consists in attaching the
+ribbed top, which tends to draw the upper part of the
+leg together, thus causing it to assume a better shape.
+The final work includes scouring, dyeing, and shaping.
+The cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per
+dozen than when knit seamless. While some very
+creditable hose are produced in this way, yet the existence
+of the heavy seam is an objection which confines
+them to the poorest class of trade. Cut goods are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg&nbsp;161]</a></span>
+made in all sizes and kinds for men, women, and
+children.</p>
+
+<p>Seamless hose are made on a specially constructed
+machine which produces the entire stocking, but leaves
+the toe piece to be joined together by a looping attachment.
+On half-hose the leg is made the same size
+down to the ankle, but on ladies&rsquo; hose the stocking is
+shaped somewhat in the machine. Seamless hose are
+not, strictly speaking, entirely seamless, inasmuch as
+all stockings made on a circular knitting machine must
+have a seam somewhere. There must be a beginning
+and an ending. In the case of the stocking the ending
+is at the toe, and the opening left can only be closed with
+a seam. In some mills this opening is automatically
+stitched together on special machines; in others, girls
+do it by hand with needle and thread. Neither by
+machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with
+exactly the same stitch as that made by the needles of
+the power knitter. However, the seam is of small proportions,
+and when the goods are scoured, pressed, and
+finished the presence of the seam is a minor item, as it
+neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance
+of the stocking. Seamless goods are made in a great
+variety of qualities, ranging from cotton half-hose at
+fifty cents per dozen to the fine worsted stockings at
+$6.00 per dozen. A notable and very commendable
+feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the
+heel, which fits that portion of the foot as though really
+fitted to it. As far as comfort and fit are concerned,
+the manufacture of seamless hosiery has now reached
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg&nbsp;162]</a></span>
+such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to
+the full-fashioned variety.</p>
+
+<p>Full-fashioned hose are produced by means of complicated
+and expensive knitting frames, which automatically
+drop the requisite number of stitches at the ankle so as
+gradually to narrow the web down and give the stocking
+the natural shape of the leg. The toe is produced in the
+same way, and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought
+about in like manner. Hence, the goods are called full-fashioned,
+because so fashioned as to conform to the proportions
+of the leg and foot. Hose and underwear made
+by this method are knit in flat strips and then seamed
+either by hand or machine. Generally special machines
+are used, which take up and complete the selvedges,
+thus avoiding objectionable seams with raw edges.</p>
+
+<p>The knitting frames used for making full-fashioned
+goods are large, intricate, expensive, and slow in operation;
+they are difficult to keep in order and require
+skilful operators. The largest ones knit from fourteen
+to eighteen stockings at once, using as many as four
+threads of different colors in the production of patterns.
+The first operation consists in knitting the leg down to
+the foot; then the legs are transferred by expert workmen
+to another frame which knits the foot. Next they
+go to another department where, with the aid of a
+special looping machine, the heels and toes are stitched
+together. Then the stockings or socks are handed over
+to expert women operators, who seam up the legs on a
+machine especially adapted for the purpose. After
+being sorted they are taken to be dyed, boarded, stitched,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg&nbsp;163]</a></span>
+dried, and finally subjected to heat and pressure to
+give them a finished appearance. It usually requires
+two weeks from the time the manufacturing operations
+begin, for a stocking to emerge from the factory in
+a finished form. Full-fashioned hose are made in all
+shades and grades of silk and cotton, in lisle thread,
+and in all kinds of cashmere, merino, and woolen goods.
+They are likewise knitted plain, ribbed, and with fancy
+stripes and embroidery effects. In the United States
+there are numerous important plants engaged in the
+production of full-fashioned goods, while large quantities
+are annually imported from Germany and France.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Finishing Process.</strong> When socks and stockings are
+taken off of the knitting machines they present an unfinished
+appearance, being loose, puckered, dirty, and
+generally shapeless. Scouring, dyeing, shaping, and
+pressing serve to improve their looks, and these finishing
+operations constitute a distinct branch of the industry.
+While still in a moist state the hose are shaped.
+This is effected by the use of forming-boards made of
+wood and about one-half of an inch in thickness. The
+sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the &ldquo;form&rdquo;
+while damp, and then placed in a heated chamber and
+allowed to dry. The goods assume the shape of the
+wooden &ldquo;form,&rdquo; and will always hold it if the work
+has been carefully and thoroughly done. After they
+have been taken from the drying chamber and the
+boards removed the hose are pressed between heavy
+metal plates or rollers, looked over for defects, and
+when boxed or bundled are ready for market.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg&nbsp;164]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h2>LACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Lace.</strong> Lace is the name applied to an ornamental
+open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or
+silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fiber. The
+latter are used by the peasants of Italy and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Lace consists of two parts, the ground and the
+flower. The threads may be looped, plaited, or twisted
+in one of three ways. First, with a needle, when the
+work is known as &ldquo;needlepoint lace.&rdquo; Second, when
+bobbins, pins, and a pillow or cushion are used; this
+is called &ldquo;pillow lace.&rdquo; Third, by machinery, when
+imitations of both point and pillow lace patterns are
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>Special patterns for these laces date from the beginning
+of the sixteenth century. The early productions
+of the art had some analogy to weaving; the
+patterns were stiff and geometrical, sometimes cut out
+of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed
+surface, but more frequently they were darned in, the
+stitches being counted in, as in tapestry. This kind
+was known as darned netting. With the development
+of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and
+figure subjects were introduced and worked in.</p>
+
+<p>Whether of needlepoint or pillow make, both the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg&nbsp;165]</a></span>
+ornament and the ground are produced by the lace
+maker. Needlepoint is made by first stitching the net
+with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on
+paper or parchment, thus producing a skeleton thread
+pattern. This threadwork serves as a foundation for the
+different figures which are formed in the lace.</p>
+
+<p>Bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving.
+The threads are fixed upon a circular or square pillow,
+placed variously to suit the methods of manufacture
+in vogue in different countries. The object of using the
+pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace.
+One end of each thread is fastened to the cushion with
+a pin, the main supply of thread being twined around
+a small bobbin of wood, bone, or ivory. The threads
+are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker, who
+throws the bobbins over and under each other. The
+operation is fairly simple, since children of eight or nine
+years of age can be trained to it successfully. It demands,
+however, considerable dexterity with the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The design for pillow lace must of course be adapted
+to the technical requirements of the process, and cannot
+therefore be the same as one for needlepoint, which
+has a better appearance and greater strength than
+pillow lace. For this reason it was in former times
+generally preferred for wear on occasions of state. On
+the other hand, pillow lace has the quality of charming
+suppleness, and for use in mantillas, veils, and fichus
+it is better than needlepoint, lending itself with delicate
+softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the
+head and shoulders of women.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg&nbsp;166]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>LACE TERMS DEFINED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Alen&ccedil;on (Point d&rsquo;).</i>&mdash;Fine needlepoint lace with the ground of double-twist
+thread in a semi-net effect. Is usually worked with horsehair
+on the edges to give firmness to the cordonnet. Called
+after the city in France where it is made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allover.</i>&mdash;Name for all wide laces used for flouncing, yokes, and entire
+waists. Usually the lace is over eighteen inches in width.</p>
+
+<p><i>American Laces.</i>&mdash;A general term formerly used to distinguish lace
+made in this country, the development of the industry having
+now rendered the term nearly obsolete.</p>
+
+<p><i>Angleterre (Point d&rsquo;).</i>&mdash;Fine Brussels pillow lace, distinguished by a
+rib of raised and plaited threads worked in the lace. Shown in
+floral, ornithological, and geometrical designs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antique.</i>&mdash;Hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread in a large, open,
+rectangular knotted mesh. Used for curtains, bed sets, draperies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antwerp.</i>&mdash;Bobbin lace, resembling early Alen&ccedil;on. Shows a &ldquo;pot&rdquo;&mdash;that
+is, a vase or basket effect&mdash;in the design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appliqu&eacute;.</i>&mdash;Any lace in which the body and the design are made separately.
+The body is usually silk and the design cotton or linen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appliqu&eacute; Brussels.</i>&mdash;Name sometimes given to Brussels appliqu&eacute; laces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabe (Point d&rsquo;).</i>&mdash;Coarse bobbin lace made in Belgium and France
+as well as Arabia. Shows a large, bold pattern, cable edged, and
+is almost invariably in a deep &eacute;cru tone. Used for curtains and
+draperies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabian.</i>&mdash;Same as above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Argentine.</i>&mdash;Similar to Alen&ccedil;on, the mesh being a trifle larger.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arras.</i>&mdash;Very strong, inexpensive, white bobbin lace, of simple
+pattern, somewhat resembling Mechlin. Distinguished by its
+light, single thread ground. Named after the city in France
+where it is made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aurillac.</i>&mdash;Somewhat resembles Angleterre. Bobbin lace made in
+Aurillac, France.</p>
+
+<p><i>Auvergne.</i>&mdash;Any kind of bobbin lace made in Auvergne, France.
+Different makes and patterns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ave Maria.</i>&mdash;A narrow edging lace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baby Lace.</i>&mdash;Light and simple edging lace made in England.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg&nbsp;167]</a></span>
+<i>Battenberg.</i>&mdash;Same as Renaissance. Designs confined to flower
+patterns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bayeux.</i>&mdash;Bobbin lace, usually an imitation of Spanish point.
+Also a black, rich lace made in large pieces for shawls, head
+scarfs, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binche.</i>&mdash;Fine pillow lace, without cordonnet. Ground resembles
+a spider-web with small dots. Made in Binche, Belgium.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bisette.</i>&mdash;Coarse, narrow French peasant lace in simple designs.
+Name often applied to cheap bordering laces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blonde.</i>&mdash;So called, being originally a bobbin lace made of unbleached
+silk, though now shown in black, white, and colors. Made with
+two different sizes of thread; fine thread for the ground, coarse
+for the design. Usually takes some floral form. Very lustrous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bobbin Lace.</i>&mdash;Imitation of pillow lace. Made in England and
+France.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bobbinet.</i>&mdash;The same.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bone Lace.</i>&mdash;An obsolete term once given to Honiton bobbin lace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bone Point Lace.</i>&mdash;Applied to laces having no regular ground or
+mesh, such as Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Border Lace.</i>&mdash;Practically synonymous with edging.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bourdon.</i>&mdash;A machine lace made of both silk and cotton. Show
+scroll-like patterns cable-edged on a regular mesh. Usually
+dyed black, but sometimes bleached. The outline is of a heavy
+lustrous thread. Used chiefly for dress trimming and millinery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brettone.</i>&mdash;Cheap narrow edging.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bride Lace.</i>&mdash;Lace with the pattern connected with brides. Same
+as bone point lace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brides.</i>&mdash;Slender threads connecting different parts of a pattern.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brussels Net.</i>&mdash;Plain net made originally in Brussels, but now produced
+in all lace manufacturing countries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brussels Pillow.</i>&mdash;Fine pillow lace with the patterns joined together
+by little loops on their edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brussels Point.</i>&mdash;Shows an open pattern, made partly in open, partly
+in closed, stitch, giving the appearance of shading.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carrickmacross.</i>&mdash;Tiny Irish cambric drawn work, appliqu&eacute; on net.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cartisane.</i>&mdash;Guipure or passementerie made with thin silk or gilt-covered
+strips of parchment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg&nbsp;168]</a></span>
+<i>Chantilly.</i>&mdash;Pillow lace very similar to blonde. Comes from Chantilly,
+France. Made in both silk and cotton and usually seen in
+black. Non-lustrous, and looks as if made from black linen thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chiffon Lace.</i>&mdash;Chiffon embroidered in twist silk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cluny.</i>&mdash;Coarse-thread bobbin lace, made in both linen and cotton.
+Shows a close-stitch pattern darned on an open ground. Used
+for dress trimmings and the manufacture of curtains.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cork Lace.</i>&mdash;A sweeping term used to designate all laces of Irish make.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cotton Lace.</i>&mdash;All lace made of cotton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Craponne.</i>&mdash;Cheap, stout thread furniture guipure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crochet Lace.</i>&mdash;Any point lace made with the crochet hook.</p>
+
+<p><i>Darned Lace.</i>&mdash;A comprehensive term taking in all net effects with
+the pattern applied in needlework.</p>
+
+<p><i>Devonshire Lace.</i>&mdash;Lace made in this part of England, and especially
+Honiton imitation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dieppe.</i>&mdash;Fine needlepoint lace made in Dieppe, France. Resembles
+Valenciennes. Made with a regular ground of squares of small
+meshes alternating with open squares upon which the pattern
+is applied in close stitch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duchesse.</i>&mdash;Pillow lace with fine net ground with the patterns in
+raised work, volants, and the like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dutch Lace.</i>&mdash;Practically a coarse Valenciennes.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Point.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_166"><b>Angleterre</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Escurial.</i>&mdash;Heavy silk lace made in imitation of Rose point. Patterns
+outlined with cable edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Esprit (Point d&rsquo;).</i>&mdash;Dotted bobbinet with the dots either singly or
+in clusters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filet Lace.</i>&mdash;Any lace made with a square mesh net.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flemish Point.</i>&mdash;Needlepoint lace made in Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Footing.</i>&mdash;Simple insertion of Brussels net from one to three inches
+in width.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galloon.</i>&mdash;Irregular band with a fancy edge. Entire piece often in
+zigzag or scallop form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gaze (Point de).</i>&mdash;Flemish point lace resembling point d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on,
+though much softer, being without horsehair.</p>
+
+<p><i>G&ecirc;ne (Point de).</i>&mdash;Openwork embroidery made on a wool ground
+which is afterwards eaten away by acid.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg&nbsp;169]</a></span>
+<i>Genoa.</i>&mdash;Heavy lace made of aloe fiber. Another name for macram&eacute;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gimp.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_169"><b>Guipure</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold Lace.</i>&mdash;Gimp or braid covered with gold or imitation gold thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grammont.</i>&mdash;White pillow lace used for shawls and the like. Black
+silk lace nearly resembling blonde.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guipure.</i>&mdash;Fancy trimming of wire cord whipped round with silk
+or cotton threads, and the small patterns stitched together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guipure d&rsquo;Art.</i>&mdash;Linen net upon which raised intersecting patterns
+are worked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guipure de Flanders.</i>&mdash;A pillow lace made separately, having flowers
+connected by bars and brides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hand Embroidered.</i>&mdash;Heavy point lace, usually of Plauen manufacture,
+with fancy floral or other figures embroidered on the design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honiton.</i>&mdash;English bobbin lace, famed for the beauty of its designs.
+Named for the city where it was first manufactured. Now made
+in Belgium, Holland, and France. Sprays sometimes made
+separately, and then worked on a net&mdash;Honiton appliqu&eacute;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honiton Braid.</i>&mdash;Narrow machine-made braid of ornamental oval
+figures connected by narrow bars. Used for collars, handkerchiefs,
+and tidies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honiton Guipure.</i>&mdash;Large flower-pattern lace on very open ground,
+the sprays held together with brides or bars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imitation Lace.</i>&mdash;A term used to designate any machine-made lace
+in contrast with hand-made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Insertion.</i>&mdash;Any narrow lace with a plain edge on either side that
+admits of its being inserted in a fabric.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irish Crochet.</i>&mdash;Heavy hand-made lace, remarkable for the beauty
+and distinctness of its patterns, and the startling whiteness of
+the linen thread used in its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irish Lace.</i>&mdash;A general term used to designate all lace made by the
+Irish peasantry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irish Point.</i>&mdash;Hybrid combination of appliqu&eacute;, cut work, and embroidery
+on net with elaborate needle stitching in the higher grades.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irish Trimming.</i>&mdash;Simple, woven lace, used on white wear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Knotted Lace.</i>&mdash;Frequently referred to as knotting. A fancy weave
+of twisted and knotted threads in close imitation of some old
+hand laces.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg&nbsp;170]</a></span>
+<i>Lille (Also Lile).</i>&mdash;French lace named after the town where it is
+made. Somewhat resembles Mechlin. Shows a very clear,
+light ground and is the most beautiful of all simple thread laces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limerick Lace.</i>&mdash;A form of embroidery on net or muslin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Luxeuil.</i>&mdash;A general term for hand-made laces of Luxeuil, France.
+More specifically those of a stout, heavy nature. Used for
+tidies, curtains, draperies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Macram&eacute;.</i>&mdash;Knotted hand-made lace, made of a very heavy
+cord. Shown principally in geometrical designs. Very popular in deep
+&eacute;cru.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maline.</i>&mdash;Fine silk net. Sometimes also applied to Mechlin lace
+with a diamond mesh.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maltese.</i>&mdash;Coarse machine-made cotton lace, resembling torchon.
+Has no regular ground, the patterns being usually connected with
+heavy stitch work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mechlin.</i>&mdash;Light pillow lace with the pattern outlined by a fine but
+very distinct thread or cord. Real Mechlin generally has the
+ground pattern woven together, the latter running largely to
+flowers, buds, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medallion.</i>&mdash;Single, detached pattern.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medici.</i>&mdash;Special kind of torchon edging, with one edge scalloped.</p>
+
+<p><i>M&eacute;lange.</i>&mdash;Hand-made silk pillow lace, showing a combination of
+conventional Chantilly with Spanish designs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mignonette.</i>&mdash;Light bobbin lace, made in narrow strips. Resembles
+tulle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Miracourt.</i>&mdash;Sprig effects of bobbin-lace applied on net ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mexican Drawnwork.</i>&mdash;Little round medallions either single or in
+strips, the threads drawn to form a cartwheel. Mexican and
+Teneriffe drawnwork are practically the same. Machine imitations
+made in Nottingham, Calais, and St. Gall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Motif.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_170"><b>Medallion</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nanduly.</i>&mdash;South American fiber-lace, made by needle in small
+squares, which are afterward joined together. Design very
+beautiful and of remarkable durability.</p>
+
+<p><i>Needlepoint Lace.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_171"><b>Point Lace</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Normandy Lace.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_172"><b>Valenciennes</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg&nbsp;171]</a></span>
+<i>Nottingham.</i>&mdash;A general term including all the machine-made laces
+turned out in that great lace-producing center of England.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oriental Lace.</i>&mdash;Really an embroidery, being produced on the Schiffli
+machine, the pattern being then either cut or eaten out. Also
+applied to point d&rsquo;Arabe and certain filet effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oyah Lace.</i>&mdash;A crocheted guipure shown in ornate patterns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Passementerie.</i>&mdash;A decorative edging or trimming, especially gimp
+or braid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Picots.</i>&mdash;Infinitesimal loops on brides and other strands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pillow Lace (Bobbin Lace).</i>&mdash;Made on a pillow with bobbins and
+pins. Machine-made imitations retain the name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plauen.</i>&mdash;Applied to all laces emanating from that section of Saxony
+and including imitations of nearly all point laces, which are
+embroidered on a wool ground, this being afterward dissolved in
+acid and the cotton or silk design left intact.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point de Gaze.</i>&mdash;Fine gauze-like needle-lace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point d&rsquo;Irelande.</i>&mdash;Coarse machine lace, made in imitation of real
+Venetian point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point de Milan.</i>&mdash;A variety of guipure, having a ground of small
+meshes, and a pattern consisting of bold, flowing scroll devices.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point de Paris.</i>&mdash;A variety of cheap machine lace, cotton, of simple
+design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point Kant.</i>&mdash;Flemish pillow lace, with a net ground and the design
+running largely to &ldquo;pot&rdquo; effects&mdash;pot lace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point Lace.</i>&mdash;Lace made by hand with needle and single thread.
+Needlepoint the same. Point d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on, point de Venise, etc.,
+are all variations of point lace and will be found classified under
+their initials.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point Plat.</i>&mdash;Point lace without raised design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Renaissance.</i>&mdash;Modern lace, made of narrow tape or braid formed
+into patterns, held together by brides, the brides forming subsidiary
+designs. Battenberg is the same thing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Repouss&eacute;.</i>&mdash;Applied to the design, being a pattern that has the effect
+of being stamped in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rococo.</i>&mdash;Italian lace, bearing the rococo design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rose Point.</i>&mdash;See <a href="#Page_172"><b>Venetian point</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seaming Lace.</i>&mdash;Narrow, openwork insertion.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg&nbsp;172]</a></span>
+<i>Seville.</i>&mdash;Variety of torchon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spanish Lace.</i>&mdash;A comprehensive term. Convent-made, needlepoint
+lace. Cut drawnwork effects, also convent-made. Needlepoint
+lace in large squares. Black silk lace in floral designs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spanish Point.</i>&mdash;Ancient embroidery of gold, silver, and silk passementerie.</p>
+
+<p><i>Swiss Lace.</i>&mdash;Swiss embroidered net in imitation of Brussels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tambour.</i>&mdash;Variety of Limerick.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tape Lace.</i>&mdash;Hand-made needle lace, similar to Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thread Lace.</i>&mdash;Made of linen thread, as distinguished from cotton
+and silk laces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Torchon.</i>&mdash;Coarse, open bobbin lace of stout but loosely twisted
+thread in very simple patterns. Much seen in imitations, usually
+in narrow widths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Van Dyke Points.</i>&mdash;Applied to laces with a border made in large
+points.</p>
+
+<p><i>Valenciennes.</i>&mdash;Commonly called Val. Bobbin lace, seen mostly in
+cheap insertions and in the form of narrow edgings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Venetian Point.</i>&mdash;Point de Venise. Needlepoint lace in floral pattern
+with the designs very close together and connected by brides
+ornamented with picots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wood Fiber.</i>&mdash;Applied to all laces made of wood silk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yak.</i>&mdash;Machine-made worsted lace. Used for trimming for shawls,
+petticoats, and undergarments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Youghal.</i>&mdash;Needlepoint lace of coarse thread, made exclusively in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ypres.</i>&mdash;Bobbin lace, somewhat coarser than Val.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg&nbsp;173]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h2>COTTON FABRICS<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Albatross.</strong> Cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made
+in imitation of a worsted fabric of the same name.
+It has a fleecy surface. The name is taken from the
+bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric resembles.
+The warp is usually 28s cotton, the filling 36s
+cotton. It is a plain weave. Filling and warp count
+48 picks per inch. The goods are finished by being
+burled, sheared, washed, singed, dyed, rinsed, dried, and
+pressed, care being taken not to press too hard. Sometimes
+singeing is omitted. Albatross cloth is generally
+in white, black, or solid colors. It is not often printed.
+It is light in weight, and is used for dress goods.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Awning.</strong> A cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter
+from sun rays.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Batiste.</strong> Batiste is of French origin, and is a light,
+transparent cloth, made from a fine quality of combed
+cotton yarn. There is a gradual variation in quality
+ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine
+fabric. The variety of qualities will suggest some
+idea of the utility of the fabric. Its uses are even more
+varied than are the qualities. The finer grades are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg&nbsp;174]</a></span>
+used for dress goods and all kinds of lingerie for summer
+wear, etc., while the cheaper grades are used for linings
+in washable and unwashable shirt waists. Batiste is
+woven in the gray, that is, with yarn direct from the
+spinning frame, with the exception that the warp yarn
+is well sized, in order to stand better the strain to
+which it is subjected during the weaving process.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bourrette.</strong> A light weight, single cloth fabric, with
+two-ply cotton warp and wool or a combination of cotton
+and shoddy filling, made with the plain weave and in
+appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric with fancy
+effects in twist scattered about it. It is used principally
+for ladies&rsquo; fall suitings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bedford Cord.</strong> This is one of the most popular types
+of fabrics, the distinguishing effect being a line or cord
+running lengthwise of the cloth, the cord being more
+or less prominent. The cloth is made of cotton, or
+sometimes of worsted. The face effect of the Bedford
+cord is generally plain. Occasionally twill-faced cords
+are used. The cords vary in width from about one
+twentieth to one quarter of an inch. To get extra
+weight without altering the appearance of the face,
+extra warp yarns, termed wadding ends, are inserted
+between the face weave and the filling, floating at the
+back of the rib. When these wadding ends are coarse,
+they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the cord.
+They run from 88 to 156 picks to an inch.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Buckram.</strong> Buckram is derived from Bokhara. It
+may be described as a coarse, glue-sized fabric, and is
+made of cotton, hemp, linen, or cotton and hair (coarse)
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg&nbsp;175]</a></span>
+yarns, usually from 10s to 25s. Made of a double cloth
+warp, 22s cotton, 34 picks to the inch, for the face or
+top fabric <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">12</span>&rsquo;s<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>; weight from loom 2.22 ozs. per yard.
+Bottom fabric <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">12</span>&rsquo;s cotton; filling <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">16</span>&rsquo;s cotton; 12 picks
+to the inch. Weight per yard, 1.8 ounces. These fabrics
+depend a great deal on the finishing. The men&rsquo;s wear
+requires less sizing on account of the hair it contains.
+The goods are piece dyed. Buckram is used principally
+for stiffening garments, and to give them shape or form.
+It is placed between the lining and the surface cloth
+of the garment in particular parts, such as the lapels,
+etc. It is used in the millinery trade, and is made
+into hats. Millinery buckram is sized two or three times.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Calico</strong> takes its name from Calicut, a city in India,
+where cloth was first printed. The majority of inexpensive
+cotton fabrics are constructed on the one up,
+one down system, or plain weave. Calico is no exception
+to this rule. The printed designs on calicoes may
+be somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geometrical
+figures. In order, however, to comply with the
+true principles of art, such fabrics as calicoes should
+have but simple geometrical figures for their ornamental
+features. New styles and combinations of colors
+are produced every month and faster and lighter color
+printed each season. Most of the designs for calicoes
+and cotton cloth printing are made in Paris. At present
+the steam styles are most prominent; they are the fastest
+and lightest to be obtained. Calico is a printed cloth,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg&nbsp;176]</a></span>
+the printing being done by a printing machine which
+has a rotating impression cylinder on which the design
+has been stamped or cut out. The cloth in passing
+through the machine comes in contact with the impression
+cylinder. The cylinder revolving in a color trough
+takes up the color and leaves the impression of the
+design on the cloth. Calicoes may be seen in almost
+any color. The printing machine is capable of printing
+several colors in one design. Calicoes, however, are
+usually in two colors, that is, one color for ground and
+the other for figure. The ground color in most cases is
+effected by dyeing the cloth in some solid color. After
+the cloth is dyed the design is printed on it. The cloth,
+after it comes from the loom, is singed and bleached,
+then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint, and
+then sent to the dye house. The first process there
+is to boil it, after which it is immersed in the dye tub.
+Calicoes are usually given what may be termed a &ldquo;cheap
+cotton dye.&rdquo; By &ldquo;cheap cotton dye&rdquo; is meant that
+the colors are not fast, but will run or fade when subjected
+to water. After the fabric is dyed, it is given to
+the printer, who ornaments the face of the cloth with
+some geometrical design; then it is practically ready
+for the merchant. After printing, the cloth is dried and
+steamed to fix the color, afterwards soaped, washed,
+finished, and folded. The printing machine turns out
+about 400 to 800 fifty-yard pieces a day. Calico is
+used for inexpensive dresses, shirtwaists, wrappers, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cambric.</strong> Cambric is a heavy, glazed cotton fabric
+with a smooth finish. It was first made in Cambrai,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg&nbsp;177]</a></span>
+France. It has a plain weave and a width of thirty-six
+inches. Cambrics are dyed in a jig machine. After
+dyeing they are run through a mangle containing
+the sizing substance, then dried, dampened, and run
+through a calender machine. The glossy effect is obtained
+in this last finishing process. Cambric is used
+for shirtwaists, dress goods, etc. The finer grades are
+made from hard twisted cotton of good quality.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Canvas.</strong> This is a term applied to heavy, plain
+weave cloths made with ply cotton yarn. They are
+used for mail bags, covering for boats, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chambray.</strong> Chambray is a staple fabric of many
+years standing, being next in rank among cotton goods
+after the better grade of gingham. Chambray is a
+light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven
+with a plain weave, and always has a white selvedge.
+In effect it is a cloth having but one color in the warp,
+and woven with a white filling, this combination producing
+a solid color effect, the white filling reducing
+any harshness of warp color in the cloth. It is composed
+of one warp and one filling, either all cotton,
+cotton and silk, or all silk. It is twenty-seven to thirty
+inches in width and single 30s cotton warp to single
+60s silk, the count of yarn being governed by the
+weight per yard desired. The weight per finished yard
+is two to three and one-half ounces. Good colors for
+the warp are navy blue, dark brown, lavender, black,
+nile green, etc. When made of cotton warp and filling
+the fabric receives a regular gingham finish. The loom
+width can be restored by tentering or running the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg&nbsp;178]</a></span>
+goods over a machine fitted underneath with a series
+of coils of steam pipe. The top of this machine is
+fitted with an endless chain with a row of steel needles
+standing erect upon its face. Chains are adjusted
+to the width desired, and as the machine runs, both
+selvedges are caught by the needles and the cloth
+stretched to the required width.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cheese Cloth.</strong> This is a thin cotton fabric of light
+weight and low counts of yarn, which ranks among the
+cheapest in cotton goods. It is used for innumerable
+purposes. The bleached fabric is used for wrapping
+cheese and butter after they are pressed. It is also
+much in demand for bunting for festival occasions,
+light curtains, masquerade dresses, etc. When used
+for bunting, draperies, and the like it is usually in colors,
+red, blue, cream, and yellow seeming to have the greatest
+demand. The weave is one and one or plain weave.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chin&eacute;.</strong> Sometimes applied to glac&eacute; silk, or cotton
+two-toned effects. The name is French, meaning woven
+so as to have a mottled effect.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chintz.</strong> Printed cotton cloth, with large, many-colored
+designs, used for furniture covering. The
+Hindoo wears it as a body covering. Chintz is the
+Hindoo word meaning variegated.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Flannel.</strong> Napped cotton flannel. Made first
+for trade in Canton, China.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Crash.</strong> A plain fabric for outing suits, towels, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cr&ecirc;pe.</strong> A fine, thin fabric of open texture made of
+cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Crepon.</strong> Large designs in figured cr&ecirc;pe. The name
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg&nbsp;179]</a></span>
+applies to the crispiness of the finish and is from the
+French word <i>cr&ecirc;per</i>, to make crisp.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cretonne.</strong> Heavy cotton cloth printed in large
+designs, for drapery and furniture use. Cretonne was a
+Frenchman who first made the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Crinoline.</strong> Crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton
+warp, horsehair filling, or all cotton yarns. It is sold
+in varying widths, and is used by tailors and dress-makers
+in stiffening clothing. It is a cheap cloth of
+low texture and simple construction, the distinguishing
+feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly
+glazed face on the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Damask.</strong> A cloth of silk and cotton, silk and linen,
+silk and wool, or all linen in flowered or geometrical
+designs for drapery or table covering. The weaves
+used are mostly twills and sateens. It takes its name
+from Damascus, where it was first made.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Denim.</strong> This is a strong fabric usually made with a
+two up and one down twill. It is used for overalls, furniture
+covering, and floor covering.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Diaper.</strong> A figured cotton or linen fabric, which gets
+its name from the Greek <i>diapron</i>, meaning figured. It
+is generally of good quality as it is subject to excessive
+washing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Dimity.</strong> A light-weight cotton fabric, the distinguishing
+feature of which is the cords or ribs running
+warpwise through the cloth, and produced by doubling
+the warp threads in either heddle or reed in sufficient
+quantity to form the rib desired. The name is from a
+Greek word meaning two-threaded. Dimity is a ladies&rsquo;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg&nbsp;180]</a></span>
+summer dress fabric, and is made of regular cotton
+yarn, from <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">60</span>&rsquo;s to the finest counts in both warp and
+filling. It is made in both white and colors, solid
+white being used in the most expensive grades. Colors
+are often printed upon the face of the fabric after it
+has been woven in the white.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Domet.</strong> This cloth is napped similar to a cotton
+flannel. It is used for shirts, pajamas, etc., and made
+with bright colored stripes and check patterns. The
+name is from domestic, home made.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Duck.</strong> Duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of
+coarse two-ply yarn and of a plain weave. It derives
+its name from its resemblance to a duck&rsquo;s skin. It is of
+a lighter weight than canvas. In finishing duck is taken
+from the loom and washed and sized, then dried and
+pressed. If a fancy solid color is desired the goods are
+dyed in the piece after the first washing. Duck is used
+in the manufacture of sails, tents, car curtains, and for
+any purpose requiring a good water-tight fabric, which
+will withstand rough usage. Duck has a stiff hard feel,
+and excellent wearing qualities. The lighter weights
+are used for ladies&rsquo; shirtwaist suits, men&rsquo;s white trousers,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Drill.</strong> A cotton fabric of medium weight generally
+made with the two up and one down twill. It is extensively
+used for shoe linings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Eolienne</strong> is the name applied to a fine dress fabric
+characterized by having the filling of a much coarser
+count than the warp, thus producing a corded effect
+across the breadth of the goods. This class of goods
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg&nbsp;181]</a></span>
+is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or
+worsted filling, with the warp ends per inch greatly
+in excess of picks per inch. The goods are made
+up in gray, then dyed in the piece in any color the
+trade desires. The darker shades find most favor
+for fall and winter use, while the lighter shades are
+preferred for summer wear. The width is from twenty-seven
+to fifty inches, and the price per yard varies
+from 85 cents to $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Etamine.</strong> An etamine is a thin, glossy fabric used
+principally for women&rsquo;s dress goods. Being a common
+and popular material for summer wear, it is usually
+made as a piece-dyed fabric. A good reason for making
+it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than
+if the yarn is dyed previous to the weaving. Etamines
+were originally made with worsted yarns, which of course
+are more expensive; however, if a good quality of cotton
+is used, there is little difference in appearance between
+worsted and cotton etamine. The difference is chiefly
+in the wearing quality, worsted being more durable.
+The principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp,
+glossy, and open structure.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Flannelette</strong> is a narrow, light-weight fabric composed
+of all cotton yarn, the filling being soft spun to permit
+of the raising of a very slight nap on the back of the
+goods. The cloth is woven with bleached yarn (warp
+and filling), the color effects being afterwards printed
+upon the face of the goods by the printing machine.
+Flannelette is made with simple one or two colored stripe
+patterns, either black and white or indigo blue and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg&nbsp;182]</a></span>
+white, and in imitation of a Jacquard pattern. The
+finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight
+cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard, are
+twenty-seven inches wide, and are used very extensively
+in the manufacture of ladies&rsquo; wrappers, kimonos, etc.,
+for house wear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fustian.</strong> A corded fabric made on the order of corduroy
+and used in England for trouserings, etc. First
+made at Fustat, a town on the Nile, near Cairo. Velveteen
+and cordings in the lower, coarser grades were sometimes
+called Fustian.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Galatea Cloth.</strong> Galatea cloth has been somewhat
+in demand in recent years by women requiring serviceable
+and neat-appearing cotton fabrics at a medium
+price. It is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide
+and retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard.
+It is shown in plain colors as well as in figures, and in
+dotted and striped designs on white and colored grounds.
+The patterns are obtained by printing. Some manufacturers
+have found that they can take a standard type
+of fabric and extend its use by varying the process of
+finishing. The base of the cloth&mdash;that is, the fabric
+previous to dyeing or printing or bleaching&mdash;is nothing
+more than an ordinary 5-end warp sateen of fair quality.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Gauze.</strong> A veiling net, made in Gaza in Palestine.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Gingham.</strong> Gingham is a single cloth composed entirely
+of cotton, and always woven with a plain weave.
+It is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks and was originally of
+Indian make. It is the most widely known fabric on the
+market and is made in various grades, having from fifty
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg&nbsp;183]</a></span>
+to seventy-six ends per inch in the reed, and of <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">26</span>&rsquo;s to
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">40</span>&rsquo;s cotton yarns in both warp and filling. It is a wash
+fabric, made in both check and plaid patterns into which
+an almost unlimited variety of color combinations are
+introduced. Ginghams are made with from two colors,
+warp and filling, to eight colors in warp and six in filling.
+Ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture
+of ladies&rsquo; and children&rsquo;s summer dresses and aprons.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Italian Cloth</strong> is a light, glossy fabric made from
+cotton and worsted, cotton and wool, cotton and mohair,
+and all cotton. It is used for linings for the heavier
+styles of ladies&rsquo; dresses, also for underskirts, fancy
+pillow backs, etc. The cloth is woven in the gray
+undyed yarns. In the finer grades the warp is sized
+so as to facilitate the weaving process.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Jaconet.</strong> A thin cotton fabric, heavier than cambric.
+If properly made one side is glazed. Derived from the
+French word <i>jaconas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Khaki.</strong> Twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color,
+first used for men&rsquo;s clothing in India. The word <i>khaki</i>
+is Indian for earth, or dust-colored.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lawn.</strong> Lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash
+fabric, weighing from one and one fourth to two and one
+fourth ounces per yard, and in widths from thirty-six
+to forty inches finished. It is composed of all cotton
+yarns (bleached) from <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">40</span>&rsquo;s to <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">100</span>&rsquo;s, and is always woven
+with a plain weave, one up, one down. The name is
+from Laon, a place near Rheims, France, where lawn
+was extensively made. Plain lawn is made of solid white
+or bleached yarn in both warp and filling. The fancier
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg&nbsp;184]</a></span>
+grades, or those having color effects, are produced by
+printing vines, floral stripes, small flowers, etc., in bright
+colors in scattered effects on the face of the goods. The
+patterns are always printed, never woven. Lawn,
+when finished, should have a soft, smooth feel. Therefore
+the finishing process includes brushing, very light
+starching or sizing, then calendering or pressing. Lawns
+have to be handled carefully in the bleaching process,
+starched with an ordinary starch mangle (the sizing containing
+a little blueing), finished on the Stenter machine,
+and dried with hot air. Lawns are often tinted light
+shades of blue, pink, cream, pearl, green, and other
+light tints, with the direct colors added to the starch.
+It is used principally in the manufacture of ladies&rsquo; and
+children&rsquo;s summer dresses, sash curtains, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lingerie.</strong> This relates to all sorts of ladies&rsquo; and
+children&rsquo;s undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts,
+infants&rsquo; short dresses, chemises, night robes, drawers,
+corset covers, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Linon</strong> is a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well
+known for its excellent wearing and washing qualities.
+It is made from combed cotton yarns of long-stapled
+stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine linen fabrics.
+The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Long Cloth</strong> is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality,
+made with a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist.
+Originally the fabric was manufactured in England,
+and subsequently imitated in the United States. The
+fabric is used for infants&rsquo; long dresses, from which it
+derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to some
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg&nbsp;185]</a></span>
+extent resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and
+cambric. It is distinguished from these fabrics by the
+closeness of its weave, and when finished the fabric
+possesses a whiter appearance, due to the closeness of
+the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used
+as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appearance,
+which is similar in all respects to fabrics which we
+have been accustomed to see used solely for lingerie,
+nightgowns, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Madras</strong> is a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed
+of all cotton or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing
+qualities. It was at first a light-colored checked or
+striped plain-faced cotton-silk fabric, made in Madras,
+India, for sailors&rsquo; head-dress. It is twenty-seven inches
+wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from
+two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons
+of the year. It is used by ladies for summer skirts,
+shirtwaists, suits, etc., and by men in shirts. It is
+known by the white and colored narrow-stripe warp
+effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">26</span> to
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">80</span> warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends
+per inch. The utility of madras for nearly all classes of
+people permits the greatest scope in creating both harmonious
+and contrasting color and weave combinations.</p>
+
+<p>The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and
+delicate shades of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender,
+and bright red; for prominent hair-line effects black,
+navy blue, dark green, royal blue, and cherry red.
+Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric. If
+inferior colors are used, they will surely spread during
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg&nbsp;186]</a></span>
+the finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe
+where a distinct one was intended.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Moreen.</strong> Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton
+cloth, with worsted or moire face. The making of
+moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth is placed in
+a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This
+finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the
+layers sheets of manila paper; the contents of the trough
+are then saturated with water; a heavy weighted roller is
+then passed over the wetted paper and cloth, the movement
+of the roller giving the cloth a watered face. It
+can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking
+of moreen is different on every piece. Moreen was at
+first made for upholstery and drapery use. It was
+found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so was
+taken up for underskirts. The name is from the
+French <i>moire</i>, meaning watering.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mull.</strong> A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made
+first in India, later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo
+is <i>mal</i>, meaning soft, pliable.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mummy.</strong> A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Originally
+the winding cloth of the Egyptian mummified
+dead.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Muslin.</strong> A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally
+made in Mosul, a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Nainsook.</strong> Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized
+for various purposes, such as infants&rsquo; clothes, women&rsquo;s
+dress goods, lingerie, half curtains, etc. The striped
+and plaid nainsook are used for the same purposes.
+When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants&rsquo;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg&nbsp;187]</a></span>
+clothes the English fabric is selected because of its
+softness. When intended for dress or curtain fabric,
+the French-finished fabric is chosen. The latter finish
+consists of slightly stiffening and calendering the cloth.
+The fabric may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine
+batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not
+as firm construction or as much body, and the finish
+is not as smooth or as stiff, but inclines to softness,
+as the fabric has not the body to retain the finishing
+material.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Organdie.</strong> An organdie may be defined as a fine,
+translucent muslin used exclusively for dress goods.
+The fabric is made in a variety of qualities as regards the
+counts of yarn used, and in a variety of widths ranging
+from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is
+popular in pure white, although considerable quantities
+are dyed in the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while
+the figured organdies are usually bleached pure white,
+then printed with small floral designs. The printed
+design is in from two to four colors, and in delicate shades
+in conformity with the material. Organdie considered
+in relation to cost as wearing material is rather
+expensive. The reason for this is that it has a finish
+peculiar to itself, so that when washed it does not
+have the same appearance as before. It loses its crisp
+feeling altogether.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Osnaburg.</strong> A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in
+America of cotton, in checks or plaids, and used for
+furniture covering and mattress making. The town
+of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg&nbsp;188]</a></span>
+<strong>Percale.</strong> Percale is a closely woven fabric made
+with a good quality of cotton yarn. The finer qualities
+are used for handkerchiefs, aprons, etc., and when
+used for these purposes are not printed, but bleached
+after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly
+used for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is
+generally printed on one side with geometrical figures,
+generally black, although other colors may be seen.
+The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to the
+printing operations.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Percaline.</strong> Percaline is a highly finished and dressed
+percale. The first process to which the cloth is subjected
+is to boil it off, that is, to soak it in boiling water so as
+to relieve it from foreign matter that it may have gathered
+during the weaving, and at the same time to prepare it
+for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it, and
+also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it
+is ready for the calender. In order to give it the highest
+gloss the cloth is doubled lengthwise or the pieces are
+put together back to back, and as it passes through the
+rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well heated and
+tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for
+feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petticoats,
+etc. These purposes require that the cloth shall
+be solid color, the darker colors being preferred, as blue,
+green, and black. Sometimes it is seen in lighter shades
+of brown and tan. The most attention is given to the
+finishing process.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Piqu&eacute;.</strong> Piqu&eacute; is a heavy cotton material woven in
+corded or figured effects. The goods are used for such
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg&nbsp;189]</a></span>
+purposes as ladies&rsquo; tailor-made suits, vestings, shirt
+fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It was
+originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate
+quilting. The name is French for quilting. The
+plainest and most common fabrics of piqu&eacute; are those in
+which the pattern consists of straight cords extending
+across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the
+construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp
+are required, and the cords are produced by all the back
+warp threads being raised at intervals of six, eight, or
+more picks over two or more picks of the face cloth,
+which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of the
+fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors
+are ever used. The face warp threads are generally
+finer than the back warp threads, and are in the proportion
+of two threads for the face and one thread for the
+back. On the heavier and better grades of piqu&eacute; coarse
+picks called wadding are used to increase the weight,
+and also to give more prominence to the cord effect.
+They are introduced between the face and back cloths.
+In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any wadding
+nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp
+threads float on the back of the fabric except when raising
+over the face picks to form the cord. In the figured
+piqu&eacute; the binding of the back warp threads into the
+face cloth is not done in straight lines as in plain piqu&eacute;,
+but the binding points are introduced so as to form
+figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and
+the figures are purely the result of binding the face
+and back cloths together.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg&nbsp;190]</a></span>
+<strong>Poplin.</strong> Poplin or popeline is a name given to a
+class of goods distinguished by a rib or cord effect running
+width way of the piece. It referred originally to a fabric
+having a silk warp and a figure of wool filling heavier
+than the warp. At the present time it refers more to a
+ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular
+combination of materials. Cotton poplin is usually
+made with a plain weave, the rep effect being obtained
+either by using a fine warp as compared with the filling,
+or a large number of ends as compared with picks per
+inch on both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of
+poplin, sometimes called single poplin, and is celebrated
+for its uniformly fine and excellent wearing qualities.
+It is principally made in Dublin.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Plumetis.</strong> Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having
+raised dots or figures in relief on plain ground. The
+design shows a feathery effect, as in embroidery tambour.
+The name is French for this kind of embroidery,
+and is derived from <i>plume</i>, French for feather.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Rep.</strong> A fabric having a surface of a cord-like
+appearance. The name is probably corrupted from
+rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and skirts.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sateen.</strong> Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished
+to imitate silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp
+sateen and filling sateen.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Scrim.</strong> Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains
+and linings. The name is from scrimp, referring
+to economy in weaving.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silesia</strong> is a light-weight single cloth fabric, having
+a rather high texture, and weighing about three ounces
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg&nbsp;191]</a></span>
+per yard. It is composed of all cotton yarn, and is
+used principally as a lining for ladies&rsquo; and men&rsquo;s clothing.
+Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is
+dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue,
+brown, drab, slate, steel, etc. An important feature is
+the highly glazed or polished face of the goods, which
+is due to the action of the heated roller in the calendering
+machine upon the sizing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Souffle.</strong> The largest designs of crepon show a raised
+or puffed appearance. Souffle is from the French and
+means puffed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Swiss.</strong> From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net
+and figured cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall district.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tape.</strong> Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of
+cotton or linen yarns in warp and filling, and usually
+made with a point or broken twill weave, the break in
+the weave occurring in the center of the tape, and the
+twill lines running in a right-&nbsp;and left-hand direction.
+It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing,
+also as a binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by
+the roll, each roll containing a certain number of yards.
+It is made of all bleached and of regular yarns about
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">26</span>&rsquo;s to
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">30</span>&rsquo;s and
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">40</span>&rsquo;s cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tarletan.</strong> An open mesh of coarse cotton, used
+mostly in fruit packing, sometimes for dress and drapery.
+The name is from <i>tarlantanna</i>, Milanese for coarse
+weave of linen and wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Terry Cloth or Turkish Toweling</strong> is a cotton pile
+fabric. It is woven in such a way as to permit the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg&nbsp;192]</a></span>
+forming of a series of loops on each side of the cloth
+in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece
+is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods
+are dried on a tenter frame, given a light starching to
+add weight, run through a rubber rolled mangle and
+again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is used in the
+manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turkish
+toweling is the original terry. The name is from the
+French <i>tirer</i>, to draw or pull.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Zephyr Gingham</strong> is the finest grade of gingham made
+and is a light-weight cotton fabric, composed of <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">40</span>&rsquo;s to
+<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">60</span>&rsquo;s cotton warp and filling yarns. It is woven with
+either the plain weave or a small all-over dobby effect.
+It is made in attractive patterns by using good fast
+colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent
+wearing qualities.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This information is from the leading authority, &ldquo;The Cotton Fabrics
+Glossary,&rdquo; published by the <i>American Wool and Cotton Reporter</i>, Boston,
+Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">12</span>&rsquo;s cotton
+signifies single cotton yarn of 12&rsquo;s. <span class="fractop">2</span>/<span class="fracbot">12</span>&rsquo;s cotton
+signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12&rsquo;s twisted together.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg&nbsp;193]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h2>FLAX</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Flax.</strong> Flax or linen occupies the first position in
+the group of stem fibers,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> being not only the oldest, but
+next to cotton the most important vegetable spinning
+material known. Its value is increased by the fact
+that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various conditions
+of soil and climate, and in consequence has
+gained access to northerly districts and cool highlands.
+Although flax has lost some of its importance from the
+successful competition of cotton, nevertheless it still
+forms one of the chief articles of an industry which
+merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and
+proves highly profitable.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Physical Structure of Flax.</strong> Flax, when seen
+under the microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube
+of uniform thickness, with lumina so small as to be
+visible only as straight black lines lengthwise of the
+fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse cracks.
+It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies
+from pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg&nbsp;194]</a></span>
+difference in color is due chiefly to the process of
+&ldquo;retting.&rdquo; Its average length is about twenty inches,
+and its tensile strength is superior to that of cotton.
+It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the
+standard allowance made.</p>
+
+<p>Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn,
+twist, string fabric, and lace. In its composition it is
+almost purely an unlignified cellulose, and its specific
+gravity is 1.5.</p>
+
+<p>Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence
+linen goods always feel colder than cotton goods.</p>
+
+<p>Russia produces more than one-half the world&rsquo;s
+supply of flax, but that from Belgium and Ireland is of
+the best quality. Italy, France, Holland, and Egypt
+are other important producers. The plant is an annual,
+of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is
+ripe, the proper time being indicated by the changing
+of the color from green to brown. At the time of
+gathering the whole plant is uprooted, dried on the
+ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate
+the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.</p>
+
+<p>The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the
+stalk. To separate this valuable commercial product
+from the woody matter the stalks are first subjected to
+a process termed retting, which is steeping them in
+water until they are quite soft. Then follow the
+mechanical processes to further the production of the
+fiber and free it from all useless matter.</p>
+
+<p>These are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breaking
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg&nbsp;195]</a></span>
+the woody matter with the aid of mallets or in stamping
+mills.</p>
+
+<p>2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a
+series of horizontal rollers to break further the woody
+matter and at the same time separate the greater part
+of it from the fiber.</p>
+
+<p>3. Scutching. The object of this process is to remove
+completely the woody matter, and it is done by
+means of rapidly revolving wooden arms or blades,
+which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently
+cleaned and separated.</p>
+
+<p>4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through
+iron combs which still further open the fiber. Fineness
+of fiber depends upon the number of times it is hackled,
+each time with a finer and finer instrument, which
+secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the
+fibers are sorted and classified as to length and quality
+and laid in parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture
+into linen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex38.jpg" width="600" height="282" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg&nbsp;196]</a></span>
+<strong>Bleaching.</strong> Linen is bleached in the form of yarn,
+thread, and cloth. This is a difficult and long process
+owing to the large amount of natural impurities present
+in flax fiber, and the difficulty of removing or dissolving
+them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by chemical
+processes, and when chemicals are used great care
+must be taken about their strength and about the time
+the cloth is allowed to remain in them. In olden times
+sour buttermilk was applied to linen and rubbed in, and
+then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and rain.
+&ldquo;Unbleached&rdquo; linen is treated in the same way as
+bleached, only the process is not carried to such an
+extent. In Ireland, famous for its bleaching, chemicals
+are used in the earlier stages of this process, and then
+fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve their
+color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals
+used. After bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched,
+and put through heavy machines to give it a glossy
+finish, and it is then made up in pieces for sale.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Characteristics of Good Linen.</strong> Linen is noted for
+its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy&mdash;which laundering
+increases&mdash;its wearing qualities, and its exquisite
+freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is the most valuable
+staple in the market, and on account of its fineness
+and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains
+an unapproachable excellence because the best processes
+are used throughout the entire manufacture. Linen
+is less elastic and pliable than cotton and bleaches and
+dyes readily.</p>
+
+<p>Flax from all countries is woven into table linen,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg&nbsp;197]</a></span>
+though very fine linen must have carefully prepared
+fiber. Linen should be soft, yielding, and elastic, with
+almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen does not always
+determine good wearing qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00.
+Irish linen has a good bleach. French and Belgian
+linens, while fine in thread, are not as serviceable as
+Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but
+not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now
+used more than other kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex39.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">STACKS OF FLAX IN BELGIUM<br />
+Copyright by Underwood &amp; Underwood, N. Y.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><i>Sources of Flax</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Russia,<br />
+Holland,<br />
+Belgium,<br />
+Germany,<br />
+Ireland,<br />
+Canada,<br />
+U. S. (for seed only).<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg&nbsp;198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sources of Manufactured Linens</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Scotland,<br />
+Ireland,<br />
+Germany,<br />
+Austria,<br />
+Belgium,<br />
+France,<br />
+Russia,<br />
+United States.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>MANUFACTURED LINENS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Damasks and Napkins</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Scotland,<br />
+Ireland,<br />
+Germany,<br />
+Belgium.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Towelings</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Scotland,<br />
+Ireland,<br />
+Germany,<br />
+United States,<br />
+Russia.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Glass Checks</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Ireland.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Canvas</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Scotland,<br />
+Ireland.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Ireland,<br />
+Germany,<br />
+France.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Towels</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Germany,<br />
+Scotland,<br />
+Ireland,<br />
+Austria,<br />
+U. S. (union).<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Linen Sheetings</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Ireland,<br />
+Belgium,<br />
+France,<br />
+Scotland.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Blouse or Dress Linens</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Ireland,<br />
+Scotland.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Bleached Waist Linens</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Ireland,<br />
+France,<br />
+Belgium.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p class="list">
+Germany,<br />
+France,<br />
+Japan,<br />
+Madeira Islands,<br />
+Island of Teneriffe.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers,
+and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to
+be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these
+plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with
+the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg&nbsp;199]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h2>HEMP</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex40.jpg" width="600" height="429" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">LOADING HEMP IN MANILA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Hemp</strong> is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant.
+It grows principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy,
+Asia, India, the Philippines, Japan, and some parts of
+the United States&mdash;Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee,
+Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country
+of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg&nbsp;200]</a></span>
+part near the Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment
+is similar to that for the flax plant, except that
+most of the work is done by machinery. Considered
+chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains
+a considerable amount of woody matter, differing
+in this respect from cotton. Its properties are
+color (pearl gray, with green or yellow tints), fineness
+(which depends upon the quality of the hemp;
+it is usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile
+strength (which is considerable and greater than that
+of flax). Its best qualities are its slight luster and
+its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency
+to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is
+difficult to bleach, it is used chiefly in making string,
+cord, ropes, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sisal Hemp.</strong> Sisal hemp is a variety that grows
+extensively in Central America and the West Indies.
+The plant, the <i>agava rigida</i>, is similar to what is known
+in this country as the century plant. The fiber is
+found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks.
+The common hemp on the other hand is found closely
+surrounding the woody part of the stem. The fiber
+of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy
+part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by
+machines.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Manila Hemp.</strong> Manila hemp is obtained in the
+Philippines. The plant belongs to the banana family
+and grows as large as a small tree. The hemp is obtained
+from the leaf stalks which appear to form the
+trunk of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg&nbsp;201]</a></span>
+stronger than Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp
+is the strongest; that of Italian hemp the finest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex41.jpg" width="600" height="331" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">FIELD OF SISAL HEMP</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Jute.</strong> Jute is the name given to the fibers found in
+certain plants which grow principally in India, and the
+East Indian Islands. The common jute comes principally
+from the province of Bengal, India, where it was
+first known to science in 1725. The term jute was
+first applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The
+plant is cut just about the time when it appears
+in full flower. The stalks are then bundled and retted
+by steeping in pools of stagnant water.</p>
+
+<p>Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable
+fibers in the manufacturing scale, being inferior
+to cotton and flax. Hemp is stronger than jute. Jute
+becomes weak when exposed to dampness.</p>
+
+<p>It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton,
+flax, hemp, and woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg&nbsp;202]</a></span>
+are made into coarse fabrics&mdash;sacks, packing cloth,
+etc., while the finer varieties, in which the undesirable
+quality of growing darker with age is less apparent, are
+used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes,
+for which they are very suitable.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg&nbsp;203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h2>SILK</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Silk.</strong> The silk of commerce is obtained from the
+cocoons of several species of insects. These insects
+resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars. At a certain
+period of its existence the silkworm gives off a
+secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on
+exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds
+it about its body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex42.jpg" width="600" height="231" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It takes about three days for the worm to form the
+cocoon. After the cocoon has been formed the silkworm
+passes from the form of a caterpillar into a
+moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and
+flies away. It is very important that the moth should
+not be allowed to escape from the cocoon; the mere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg&nbsp;204]</a></span>
+breaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of
+the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing the
+chrysalis by heat.</p>
+
+<p>There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but
+few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render
+them of commercial value. The principal species is the
+mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk
+in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry
+leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are
+not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silkworms.
+The silk produced by the wild worms of China
+and India is called &ldquo;tussah&rdquo; (or &ldquo;tussur&rdquo;). The
+silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms
+and is used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet,
+plush, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of
+the European cocoons are bright yellow, though some are
+white. The Eastern cocoons, on the other hand, are
+mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks
+are for the most part &eacute;cru color, though some are pale
+green. The color, except in the wild silks, is derived
+from the gum which is secreted by the worm, and with
+which the fibers are stuck together. This gum comprises
+from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is
+removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk
+is dyed. All silks except the wild silks, after the gum
+is removed, are from white to cream in color. The
+tussah, or wild silks, remain an &eacute;cru color.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex43.jpg" width="600" height="470" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">REELING RAW SILK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in
+the care of the moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons&mdash;this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg&nbsp;205]</a></span>
+being the succession of changes. That is, the moth
+lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the
+proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm
+during the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about
+the person of the raiser. After a time these eggs hatch
+out worms, tiny things hardly larger than the head of
+a pin. After the worms are hatched they require constant
+care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves
+till they reach maturity. They are then about three
+inches in length, and spin their cocoons from a fiber
+and gum which they secrete. When the cocoons are
+spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them.
+The cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg&nbsp;206]</a></span>
+killed, generally by heat, before they can again become
+moths.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Raw Silk.</strong> The cocoons are next sent to the reelers
+or filatures. A number of cocoons, greater or less,
+according to the size of thread desired, are placed in a
+basin of hot water, which softens the gum. After the
+outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free,
+the ends are collected through a guide and are wound
+upon a reel. As the silk cools and dries, the gum
+hardens, sticking the fibers from the different cocoons
+together in one smooth thread varying in size according
+to the number of cocoons used. After the silk
+has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks
+and sent to America and other countries as raw silk.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in
+China, Japan, and Italy. It is also produced to a large
+extent in Italy, Turkey, and Greece, also France and
+Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only carried
+on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government
+to the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms
+in the United States. All have failed on account of the
+high price of labor necessary to feed the worms.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Throwing.</strong> The manufacture in the United States
+begins with raw silk. We import our raw silk chiefly
+from Italy, China, and Japan. It is handled here first
+by the &ldquo;throwster,&rdquo; who winds it from the skein and
+makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg&nbsp;207]</a></span>
+called singles is often used to make warps (that is, the
+threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth) for
+piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the
+gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed.
+Singles are also sometimes used for filling (that is, cross
+threads) in very thin fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two
+kinds, &ldquo;tram&rdquo; and &ldquo;organzine.&rdquo; Tram silk is made
+by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads. It is
+heavier than organzine and is used for filling. Organzine
+silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly
+twisted threads. It is used for warp. Cr&ecirc;pe yarn is
+used in making cr&ecirc;pe, chiffon, and for other purposes.
+It is very hard twisted thread, generally tram, from
+forty to eighty turns per inch.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk,
+putting a large number of ends together, giving them
+a slack twist, then doubling and twisting in the reverse
+direction with a slack twist.</p>
+
+<p>Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the
+raw product, then twisting into tram, giving it a slack
+twist, doubling and twisting in the reverse direction
+under tension. Machine twist is similar, but three ply.</p>
+
+<p>The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin,
+plush, chenille, cr&ecirc;pe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade,
+pongee, and ribbons. Silk thread and cord are also
+extensively used. The United States is among the
+leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silk Waste.</strong> When the cocoons are softened for reeling
+a certain portion of the silk is found to consist of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg&nbsp;208]</a></span>
+waste and broken threads. The tangled silk on the
+outside of the cocoon is called floss. The residue after
+reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as frisonnets.
+Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack
+twisted tram, generally composed of a large number of
+threads of singles.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Spun Silk.</strong> There is another class of threads made
+from waste silk by spinning and known as spun silk.
+Waste silks include the pierced cocoons, that is, those
+from which the moth has come out by making the hole
+and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the
+waste made in the filatures in producing raw or reeled
+silk, chiefly the outside fiber of the cocoon and the inside
+next the chrysalis; and also the waste made in manufacture.
+The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the gum
+is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by
+macerating or retting, or by chemical reagents.</p>
+
+<p>After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are
+opened and combed, most of the chrysalis shell being
+removed. The remainder, with other foreign matter, is
+picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk is
+put through a number of drawing frames to get the
+fibers even on the roving frames, where it first takes
+the form of thread, then on the spinning frames,
+where it is twisted. If it is to be used as singles,
+the manufacture ends here. In two-&nbsp;or three-ply
+yarns, the singles are doubled, twisted again, singed
+by running through a gas flame, cleaned by friction,
+controlled, that is, the knots and lumps taken out, and
+then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg&nbsp;209]</a></span>
+<strong>Spun Numbers.</strong> There are two methods in general
+use for numbering spun silk. In the French system,
+the number is based on the singles, by the meters per
+kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half,
+one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate.
+Thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="list">
+No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.<br />
+No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.<br />
+No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The other system which is more generally used in this
+country, is the English system. The hank is 840 yards,
+and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is
+the count of the yarn. It is based on the finished yarn,
+and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number
+all have the same yards per pound. Thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="list">
+No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.<br />
+No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.<br />
+No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><strong>Dyeing Yarns.</strong> Generally speaking there are two
+large classes into which silk goods may be divided,
+those in which the threads are colored before weaving
+and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or printed
+after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods.
+In dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned
+by boiling in soap and water, then washed in cold
+water. If the thread is to be weighted, as is frequently
+done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy material is deposited
+on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious, making
+the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more
+weighting than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hot
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg&nbsp;210]</a></span>
+liquors, aniline colors being the ones in most common
+use to-day, though other dyes are used for special purposes.
+Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some
+with a part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are
+washed in cold water, dried, and wound on spools.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silk Dyeing.</strong> Silk occupies in several respects an
+intermediate position between the animal and vegetable
+fibers. Like wool, it is a highly nitrogenous
+body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up
+many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable
+fiber by the aid of the mordants. This is particularly
+the case with reference to a large number of aniline
+colors, which require merely to be dissolved and mixed
+with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great
+attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing
+exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and
+especially black, are in many cases exceedingly complex,
+the main object of the dyer being not so much to
+color the silk as to increase its weight.</p>
+
+<p>Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most
+important branch of silk dyeing, and it has probably
+received more attention than any other branch, in consequence
+of which it has been brought to a high degree
+of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from
+natural and artificial coloring matters, the former having,
+so far, retained their pre-eminence despite the
+recent discoveries of chemists. For various reasons
+coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing
+black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood
+blacks have formed the staple of the black-silk dyer,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg&nbsp;211]</a></span>
+who has carried their production to a high degree of
+excellence. But unfortunately, besides aiming at a high
+state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation, the
+black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight
+of the dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him
+to receive ten pounds of raw silk and to send out
+fifty pounds of black silk, the extra forty pounds
+being additions made in the process of dyeing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex44.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of
+alternate dippings in separate baths with the mordant
+and dyestuffs suitable for producing the required color
+and weight. The number of dippings and the length
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg&nbsp;212]</a></span>
+of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity
+of the black wanted and the amount of weighting
+which is desired. The chief substances used for weighting
+are lead salts, catechu, iron, and nut-galls, with soap
+and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of the
+fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of
+the operations are practically the same for all kinds of
+logwood blacks (raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.),
+the method for producing one will suffice for all. The
+process involves several distinct operations, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <strong>The Boiling Off.</strong> This is the removal of the gum
+and natural coloring matter in the silk. It is accomplished
+by boiling the skeins of silk in water and good
+olive oil soap for about one hour. This dissolves the
+gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.</p>
+
+<p>2. <strong>Mordanting.</strong> This is done in a bath of nitrate
+of iron, in which the skeins of silk are allowed to remain
+one hour. The silk gains some in weight in this operation
+by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the bath.
+After having been dipped in the first bath three or four
+times, it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which
+it is repeatedly immersed, the operation causing a
+deposit of iron-soap on the fiber which adds to its
+weight, but at the same time does not lessen its flexibility
+and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap
+bath increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>3. <strong>Blue Bottoming.</strong> The next operation is to dye
+the silk blue, which is done by immersing it in a solution
+of potash. In this it is worked for half an hour,
+when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then taken
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg&nbsp;213]</a></span>
+out, and after rinsing is ready for the &ldquo;weighting&rdquo;
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>4. <strong>&ldquo;Weighting&rdquo; Bath.</strong> A catechu bath is now prepared,
+in which the silk is entered and worked for an
+hour, and then allowed to steep over night. The
+result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and
+the goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase
+in weight from 35 to 40 per cent. This bath is
+the most important one in the dyeing of &ldquo;weighted&rdquo;
+black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of the
+bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase
+the weight of the silk to an astonishing degree. The
+proportion of tin crystals used is regulated by the number
+of iron baths that have previously been given the
+silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent
+of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and
+so on. The action of these chemicals is somewhat complex.
+All that is known is that by reason of some peculiar
+quality possessed by silk it is enabled to combine
+with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air after the
+baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers,
+thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent.
+Silk, according to its quality and weight, will
+take up of these substances from 50 to 200 per cent
+without creating much suspicion. Instances have been
+known in which silk has been increased nine times its
+own weight. All the operations thus far have had for
+their object the weighting of the silk, although the
+blueing and the catechu baths have some influence
+on the finished result. After these come the dyeing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg&nbsp;214]</a></span>
+operations proper, two in number, mordanting and
+dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>5. <strong>Mordanting.</strong> A bath of iron liquor heated to
+130 degrees F. is provided. The silk is entered, worked
+well for one hour, then wrung out and hung up to &ldquo;age&rdquo;
+for two hours, after which it is ready for the logwood
+dye.</p>
+
+<p>6. <strong>Dyeing.</strong> A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to
+which is added 10 per cent of fustic, and the solution is
+brought to a temperature of 150 degrees F. In this the
+silk is entered and worked for an hour, then taken out
+and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come
+up full enough, and in such cases the bath is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>7. The final operation has for its object the restoration
+of the luster and suppleness of the silk, which has
+to some extent deteriorated from the many operations
+through which it has passed. The brightening and
+softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the silk
+in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In
+this the silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated
+with the oil, when it is taken out and wrung dry, after
+which it is ready for the loom. Practically the same
+process is followed in piece dyeing, though only inferior
+grades of silk are dyed in the web.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Colored Silks.</strong> This class of silks is generally purer
+than black and sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so
+easy to weight the former as the latter, for the reason
+that there are but few substances capable of giving
+weight which do not interfere with the effect of light
+colored dyes. The weighting agents most generally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg&nbsp;215]</a></span>
+used are sugar and acetate of lead. The weighting by
+sugar is done after the silk is dyed. A solution is made
+of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large copper pan
+with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath
+the silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and
+finished; or, the dipping process may be repeated
+several times if desired. One dipping will weight the
+silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and three
+about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each
+dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these
+may be repeated as often as it is wished. In this case
+the weighting is generally done on the undyed, boiled-off
+silk, although it may be done on the dyed silk if the
+color is such as will stand the acid.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mixed Silk Fabrics.</strong> Until lately silk was invariably
+dyed in the state of yarn. When the silk was to be
+woven into mixed fabrics, such as satin, gloria, etc.,
+it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly the same
+shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the
+cotton and silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken
+to match them as closely as possible. The weaving of
+dyed yarns of different fibers is open to the objection
+that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a
+wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they
+may have matched in the beginning.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ribbons.</strong> Ribbons are woven several pieces in one
+loom, with a separate shuttle for each piece. The
+shuttle is carried through the shed or warp by a rack
+and pinion, instead of being thrown through as in broad
+goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg&nbsp;216]</a></span>
+<strong>Velvets.</strong> Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven
+in two pieces, one over the other, with the pile threads
+woven back and forth between them. A knife travels
+between the two pieces cutting the pile threads so as to
+leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to
+be woven over wires and cut by hand, but this method
+is practically obsolete.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Piece Dyeing.</strong> If the goods are woven with the
+gum still in the silk, it must be taken out afterward,
+and the goods either dyed in the piece or prepared for
+printing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Printing.</strong> The most primitive method of printing
+is by the use of stencils. It is the method employed
+by the Japanese and Chinese. Next came block printing,
+which is still extensively used in Europe. The
+pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color
+taken up from pads, one block for each color. The
+results are good, but the work is very slow. Most silk
+goods are to-day machine printed. The design is engraved
+or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for
+each color; the color thickened with gum is supplied
+by rolls running against the cylinders, and the surplus
+is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving only that in the
+engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After printing,
+the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then
+washed in order to remove the gum used to thicken the
+colors for printing.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg&nbsp;217]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/tex45.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">JACQUARD SILK LOOM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg&nbsp;218]</a></span>
+<strong>Finishing.</strong> All silk goods, whether yarn dyed or
+piece dyed or printed, are given some kind of finish;
+sometimes it is no more than is necessary to smooth out
+<!-- actual start of page 218 -->the wrinkles. There are many finishing processes by
+which goods may be treated. They are run through gas
+flames to singe off loose fiber, and over steam cylinders to
+dry and straighten them, over a great variety of sizing
+machines to stiffen them with starch or glue. There
+are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth and iron them,
+steam presses of great power to press them out, breaking
+and rubbing machines to soften them, and tentering
+machines to stretch them to uniform width. There
+are also moireing or watering, embossing, and various
+other machines for special purposes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Waterproofing.</strong> One of the worst difficulties with
+which the manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk
+goods has to contend is the ease with which they become
+spotted with water, and for a number of years
+many people have tried to prevent this by various
+processes. There are no less than two hundred such
+processes patented. None of them have met with much
+success, as they injured the feel or strength of the goods.
+After goods are finished they are carefully inspected
+for imperfections, measured, and wrapped in paper and
+packed in cases for shipment. The complexity and
+number of processes for treating silk goods may be
+realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed
+fabric is handled its entire length between fifty and one
+hundred times after it comes from the loom, sometimes
+even more.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg&nbsp;219]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h2>PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Alma.</strong> Cloth, double twilled from left to right
+diagonally, first made in black only as a mourning
+fabric. The name is from the Egyptian, as applied to
+a mourner or a singer at a funeral.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bar&egrave;ge.</strong> Sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling,
+named from the town of Bar&egrave;ges, in France.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bengaline.</strong> An imitation of an old silk fabric made
+for many centuries in Bengal, India, whence the
+name. The weave is similar to that of ordinary rep
+or poplin, being a simple round-corded effect. The
+cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen
+weft which is so closely covered by the silk warp threads
+that it is not exposed when examined from the wrong
+side. The same weave is also found in all-silk goods,
+under the designation of all-silk bengaline. When
+cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool
+the fabric is known as cotton bengaline, although the
+cotton is in the filling only.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Berber.</strong> Satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth. It
+came into favor about the time of the defeat of the
+Berbers by General Gordon in his campaign against the
+Mahdi in North Africa.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Brocade.</strong> Raised figures on a plain ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg&nbsp;220]</a></span>
+<strong>Brocatel.</strong> A kind of brocade used for draperies and
+upholstery; usually raised wool figures on a silk ground.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bombazine.</strong> Silk warp, wool weft, fine twilled cloth;
+originally made in black only for mourning. It is used
+largely for mourning hat bands. The root of the name
+is <i>bombyx</i>, the Latin for silkworm.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chenille.</strong> Cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face; woven of
+cotton, silk, or wool; used sometimes for dress goods;
+more generally for curtains and table covers. <i>Chenille</i>
+is the French word for caterpillar, which the single
+thread of the cloth resembles.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chiffon.</strong> A thin, transparent silk muslin. Although
+one of the thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics,
+it is relatively strong considering its lightness. To
+convey an idea of the fineness of the thread used in
+its manufacture, it is stated that one pound of it will
+extend a distance of eight miles. In the process of
+finishing the fabric receives a dressing of pure &ldquo;size.&rdquo;
+There are two styles of finish, called respectively the
+demi-&nbsp;or half size and the full size. Chiffon finished by
+full sizing is comparatively stiff; while the demi-finish
+produces a softer and lighter texture. It is dyed in a
+great variety of colors, and sometimes is printed in delicate
+patterns. It is especially adapted for home and
+evening wear, and is used for neck and sleeve trimming,
+drapery over silk foundations, fancy work, and
+millinery.</p>
+
+<p><strong>China Silk.</strong> A term applied to plain woven silks
+manufactured in China. The term China silk has been
+adopted in the United States in recent years for a class
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg&nbsp;221]</a></span>
+of machine-woven silks made in imitation of the hand-loom
+product. These imitations are narrow in width
+and lack the soft, lustrous quality of Eastern fabrics,
+and are also free from the uneven threads. China
+silks are distinguished by their irregular threads, caused
+by some of the threads being heavier than others, and
+their extreme softness.</p>
+
+<p>The warp and filling are identical in size and color,
+and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural
+luster. It is generally plain color, although the figured
+goods are printed in much the same manner as calico.
+It is used for gowns, waists, underclothing, etc. It
+launders as well as white cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cr&ecirc;pe.</strong> A thin, gauzy fabric, woven in loose even
+threads of silk, heavily sized or gummed, crimped or
+cr&ecirc;ped in the dyeing. Cr&ecirc;pe was first used in black
+only as a badge of mourning. It is now an accepted
+dress fabric, made in colors and white and of many
+materials. The name signifies to crimp or cr&ecirc;pe with a
+hot iron.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cr&ecirc;pe de Chine.</strong> A soft, lustrous silk cr&ecirc;pe, the
+surface of which is smoother than that of the ordinary
+varieties. It is woven as a plain weave with
+part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest
+left twisted. It is dyed almost any color and figured or
+printed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Eolienne.</strong> Sheer cloth of silk, silk and wool, or silk
+and cotton, woven in fine card effect. The name comes
+from the Greek &AElig;olus, god of the winds.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Foulard.</strong> Plain silk cloth, sold as dress goods; originally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg&nbsp;222]</a></span>
+made for handkerchiefs only. The name is French
+for silk handkerchief.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Glac&eacute;.</strong> Plain, lustrous silk, yarn dyed, with warp
+of one color, and weft of another. The name is applied
+to all fabrics having two tones. Glac&eacute; is French for
+icy, having an icy appearance.</p>
+
+<p><strong>India Silk.</strong> A name applied to the plain woven silks
+manufactured in India on the primitive hand looms.
+The warp and weft are woven evenly and produce a
+beautiful natural luster. It is similar to China and
+Japanese silk. In fact most of these fabrics come
+from China and Japan, India silk being almost unknown
+in this country as so little of it is exported. The durability
+of these silks is about the same, and there is little
+difference in the prices.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Japanese Silk.</strong> A term applied to the plain woven
+silk manufactured in Japan. The warp and filling of
+this fabric are identical in size and color, and being
+woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster. The
+weave is smooth and soft in quality. It is dyed in plain
+colors. The figured goods are printed in much the
+same way as calico. It is used for waists, gowns, and
+fancy underwear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Jersey Cloth.</strong> Silk jersey cloth is popular at present.
+It is a knitted silk fabric, not woven, and is generally
+dyed in plain colors. It is expensive and is used for
+women&rsquo;s dresses, wraps, and silk gloves.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Meteor.</strong> Cr&ecirc;pe de meteor was originally a trade
+name for cr&ecirc;pe de chine, but now applied to a fabric
+which is distinguishable from cr&ecirc;pe de chine.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg&nbsp;223]</a></span>
+<strong>Moire.</strong> Moire is a waved or watered effect produced
+upon the surface of various kinds of textile fabrics,
+especially on grosgrain silk and woolen moreen. This
+watered effect is produced by the use of engraved rollers
+and high pressure on carded material. The object of
+developing upon woven textiles the effect known as
+moire is the production of a peculiar luster resulting
+from the divergent reflection of the light rays on the
+material, a divergence brought about by compressing
+and flattening the warp and filling threads in places,
+and so producing a surface the different parts of which
+reflect the light differently. The moire effect may be
+obtained on silk, worsted, or cotton fabrics, though it is
+impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine
+corded weave. The pressure applied to the material
+being uneven, the grained surface is flattened in the
+parts desired. In the Middle Ages moire was held in
+high esteem, and continues to enjoy that distinction
+down to the present day. It is used for women&rsquo;s
+dresses, capes, and for facings, trimmings, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mozambique.</strong> Grenadines, with large colored flower
+designs in relief.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Organzine.</strong> Silk fabric, made with warp and filling
+of the same size. Organzine is the name given the
+twisted silk thread in Italy, where it is made.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Panne.</strong> This name is applied to a range of satin-faced
+velvet or silk fabrics which show a high luster
+produced by pressure. The word <i>panne</i> is the French
+for plush.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Peau de Soie.</strong> Literally, skin of silk. A variety of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg&nbsp;224]</a></span>
+heavy, soft-finished, plain-colored dress silk, woven
+with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftwise of
+the fabric. An eight-shaft satin with one point added
+to the original spots on the right or left, imparting to the
+fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. The best grades
+of peau de soie present the same appearance on both
+sides, being reversible. The lower grades are finished
+on one side only.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Plush.</strong> Long piled fabric of the velvet order.
+<i>Peluch&eacute;</i>, the origin of the name, is French for shaggy.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pongee.</strong> Said to be a corruption of Chinese <i>punchi</i>,
+signifying home made or home woven. Another suggestion
+is that the word is a corruption of <i>pun-shih</i>, a
+native or wild silk. A soft, unbleached, washable silk,
+woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm, which
+feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. Immense quantities
+in a raw state are annually shipped from China to
+this country and Europe, where they are bleached,
+dyed, and ornamented with various styles of designs.
+The name is also applied to a variety of dress goods
+woven with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Popeline.</strong> A French name. The French fabric is
+said to have been first introduced during the early part
+of the sixteenth century at Avignon, then a papal
+diocese, and to have been so called in compliment to the
+reigning pope. A fabric constructed with a silk warp
+and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it
+a corded surface. Poplin manufacture was introduced
+into Ireland in 1693 by a colony of fugitive French
+Huguenots. The industry concentrated at Dublin,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg&nbsp;225]</a></span>
+where it has since remained. The Irish product has
+been celebrated for its uniformly fine quality. It is
+always woven on hand looms, which accounts for the
+high price it commands in English and American markets.
+The wool used is a fine grade of Cape or Australian,
+which is the most suitable in texture and length
+of fiber. The silk is unweighted Chinese organzine.
+The result is a rich, handsome fabric resembling whole
+silk goods in appearance, but inferior to them in durability
+and produced at a much less cost. It is used for
+ladies&rsquo; waists, wraps, and gowns.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Figured Poplin.</strong> A stout variety, ornamented in the
+loom with figures. The ground is composed of clear,
+sharp cords extending across the web. It is sometimes
+woven entirely of silk, but oftener of silk and wool.
+Used for high-class upholstery purposes, and for curtains
+and hangings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Terry Poplin.</strong> A silk and wool dress fabric in the
+construction of which the alternate warps are thrown
+upon the surface in the form of minute loops.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sarsenet.</strong> A thin, soft-finished silk fabric of a
+veiling kind, now used as millinery lining. The name
+comes from the Arab Saracens, who wore it in their
+head-dress.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Satin.</strong> When satin first appeared in trade in Southern
+Europe it was called <i>aceytuin</i>. The term slipped
+through early Italian lips into <i>zetain</i>, and coming westward
+the <i>i</i> was dropped, and smoothed itself into satin.
+There is evidence that the material was known as early
+as the fourteenth century in England, and probably in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg&nbsp;226]</a></span>
+France and Spain previous to that time, though under
+other names.</p>
+
+<p>In the weaving of most silk fabrics the warp and
+filling intersect each other every alternate time (as in
+plain weaving), or every third or fourth time (as in ordinary
+twill weaving) in regular order; but in weaving
+satin the fine silk warp only appears upon the surface,
+the filling being effectually covered up and hidden.
+Instead of making the warp pass under and over the
+filling every alternate time, or over two or three filling
+threads in regular order, it is made to pass over eight,
+ten, twelve or more filling threads; then under one and
+over eight more, and so on. In passing over the filling,
+however, the warps do not interweave at regular intervals,
+which would produce a twill, but at irregular
+intervals, thus producing an even, close, smooth surface,
+and one capable of reflecting the light to the best
+advantage. The filling of low grade satin is generally
+cotton, while in the better goods it is silk. Common
+satin is what is technically known as an eight-leaf twill,
+the order in which the filling thread rises being once in
+eight times. Rich satins may consist of sixteen-leaf to
+twenty-leaf twills. The cheap qualities of cotton-back
+satin, particularly those that sell at wholesale for fifty
+cents and under, are not made to any extent in this
+country, our manufacturers being unable to compete
+with foreign mills in these lines.</p>
+
+<p>Satins are woven with the face downward, because
+in weaving, say a sixteen-leaf satin, it would be necessary,
+were the surface upward, to keep fifteen heddles
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg&nbsp;227]</a></span>
+raised and one down, whereas with the face of the cloth
+under, only one heddle has to be raised at a time. When
+first taken from the loom the face of satin is somewhat
+flossy and rough, and hence requires to be dressed.
+This operation consists of passing the pieces over heated
+metal cylinders which remove the minute fibrous ends,
+and also increase the natural brilliance of the silk.
+Cotton-back satins are used by coffin manufacturers,
+fancy box makers, fan makers, and by the cutting-up
+trade. Rich satins are used in making ladies&rsquo; gowns
+and waists.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Soleil.</strong> Satin-faced cloth, woven with a fine line, a
+stripe running lengthwise of the piece. It is usually
+made in solid colors and piece dyed. <i>Soleil</i> is French
+for sun, and applies to the brightness of the finished
+cloth.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Taffeta.</strong> Derived from Persian <i>taftah</i>. Taffeta is one
+of the oldest weaves known, silk under this name having
+been in constant use since the fourteenth century.
+During this long period the term has been applied at
+different times to different materials. It is a thin,
+glossy silk of plain texture or woven in lines so fine as
+to appear plain woven. The weave is capable of many
+effects in the way of shot and changeable arrangements,
+which are produced by threads of different colors rather
+than by any special disposition of warp and filling.
+Taffeta has the same appearance on both sides. It is
+piece dyed in numberless plain colors, and also produced
+in a great variety of ornamental patterns, such as
+fancy plaids, cords, and stripes (both printed and woven).
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg&nbsp;228]</a></span>
+The following considerations contribute chiefly to the
+perfection of taffetas, viz.: the silk, the water, and the
+fire. The silk must not only be of the finest kind, but
+it must be worked a long time before it is used. The
+watering, which is given lightly by any acidulous fluid,
+is intended to produce the fine luster, and lastly, the
+fire and pressure which have a particular manner of
+application. Its wearing qualities are not of the best.
+The cloth cracks or breaks, especially if plaited. It is
+used for gowns, shirtwaists, linings, petticoats, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tulle.</strong> Openwork silk net; made on the pillow as
+lace by young women of Tulle, France.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Velour.</strong> French for velvet. A trade term of somewhat
+loose application, being used indiscriminately to
+describe a great variety of textures so constructed or
+finished as to present a velvet-like surface. It is usually
+a velvety fabric made of coarse wool yarn and
+silk. Velour is woven with a coarse stiff pile after
+the manner of plush; while at present it is made of jute,
+cotton, and worsted, it was originally constructed of
+linen. It is produced in numberless forms, both plain
+and in fancy effects.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Velvet.</strong> From the Italian <i>velluto</i>, feeling woolly to
+the touch, as a woolly pelt or hide. Fine velvet is
+made wholly of silk.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Velveteen.</strong> An imitation velvet, made of cotton,
+usually with plain back, not twilled, as silk velvet.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tabby Velvet.</strong> The lowest grade of cotton velvet,
+used for covering cheap coffin lining cases, sold by the
+inch in widths which range from sixteen to thirty-two
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg&nbsp;229]</a></span>
+inches. Originally made in Bagdad for wall covering,
+its name being derived from a section of that city.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Voile.</strong> From the French <i>voile</i>, meaning a veil, a
+light fabric usually more or less transparent, intended to
+conceal the features in whole or in part or to serve as a
+screen against sunlight, dust, insects, etc., or to emphasize
+or preserve the beauty. The custom of wearing veils
+had its origin in the early ages in the desire of semi-savage
+man to hide away the woman of his choice, and
+is a survival of the ancient custom of hiding women
+that is found even down to the present day in Eastern
+countries. Voile is a transparent, wiry material with a
+square mesh.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg&nbsp;230]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h2>ARTIFICIAL SILK</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Silk Cotton.</strong> On account of the high price of silk
+various attempts have been made to find satisfactory
+substitutes for it. There are certain seed coverings of
+plants that contain very fine hair-like fibers with a
+luster almost equal to silk, but the staples are short, and
+the texture weak. The Kapok plant furnishes most
+of the commercial silk cotton on the market. The
+fibers of Kapok are thin and transparent. They are
+extremely light, and the length is less than half an inch.
+Silk cotton has a smooth surface and therefore cannot
+be spun like true cotton which has corded edges.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Artificial Silk.</strong> Since seed hairs are composed, like all
+vegetable fibers, of cellulose, attempts have been made
+to prepare an artificial silk product from waste paper&mdash;that
+is, by treating waste paper or wood or cotton
+fibers with various chemicals in order to obtain pure
+cellulose. This artificial silk is perhaps the most interesting
+of artificial fibers, but its manufacture is
+dangerous, owing to the ease with which it catches fire
+and explodes. Cellulose, chemically treated, can be
+transformed into a fluid solution known as collodion.
+The collodion is placed in steel cylinders and expelled
+by pressure through capillary tubes. After drying,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg&nbsp;231]</a></span>
+denitration, and washing, it may be spun and dyed like
+natural silk. Colored threads may be produced by the
+addition of certain dyes.</p>
+
+<p>Artificial silk bears a deceptive resemblance to the
+natural article, and has nearly the same luster. It
+lacks the tensile strength and elasticity, and is of higher
+specific gravity than true silk.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tests.</strong> A simple way of recognizing artificial silk is
+by testing the threads under moisture, as follows: First,
+unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place
+them in the mouth and masticate them vigorously.
+Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and
+breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled
+between the fingers shows no thread, but merely a
+mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural silk, no matter how
+thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength.
+The artificial silk offers no resistance to the teeth,
+which readily go through it; whereas natural silk
+resists the action of the teeth.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg&nbsp;232]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h2>SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON</h2>
+
+
+<p>On account of the high price of cotton various experiments
+have been made in an effort to replace it with
+fiber from wood pulp, grasses, leaves, and other plants.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wood Pulp.</strong> A Frenchman has discovered a process,
+<i>la soyeuse</i>, of making spruce wood pulp into a substitute
+for cotton. Although it is called a substitute,
+the samples show that it takes dye, bleaching, and
+finishing more brilliantly than the cotton fiber. It
+resists boiling in water or caustic potash solution for
+some minutes, and does not burn more quickly than
+cotton. The fiber can be made of any length, as is also
+the case with artificial silk. The strength of the yarn
+apparently exceeds cotton, and the cost of manufacture
+is much lower. Arrangements are being made in Europe
+for the extensive production of this fiber.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ramie.</strong> Ramie or China grass is a soft, silky, and
+extremely strong fiber. It grows in southwestern Asia,
+is cultivated commercially in China, Formosa, and
+Japan, and is a fiber of increasing importance. Ramie
+is a member of the nettle family and attains a height of
+from four to eight feet. After the stalks are cleaned
+of a gummy substance, insoluble in water, it is known
+as China grass, and is used in China for summer clothing.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg&nbsp;233]</a></span>
+In Europe and America by the use of modern machinery
+and chemical processes the fiber is cleaned effectively
+and cheaply. After it is bleached and combed it makes
+a fine silky fiber, one-half the weight of linen, and three
+times stronger than hemp. It is used in Europe to make
+fabrics that resemble silk, and is also used in making
+underwear and velvets. With other fabrics it is employed
+as a filling for woolen warps. It will probably
+be used widely in the United States as soon as cheaper
+methods of cleaning are devised.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pineapple and Other Fibers.</strong> Other fibers, of which
+that from the pineapple is the most important, are used
+for textile purposes in China, South America, parts of
+Africa, Mexico, and Central America. Their use has
+not been extensive on account of high cost of production.
+The silk from the pineapple is very light and of
+excellent quality.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Spun Glass.</strong> When a glass rod is heated in a flame
+until perfectly soft it can be drawn out in the form of
+very fine threads which may be used in the production of
+handsome silky fabrics. Spun glass can be produced
+in colors; but on account of the low elasticity of these
+products, their practical value is small, though the
+threads are exceedingly uniform and have beautiful
+luster. Spun glass is used by chemists for filtering
+strong acid solutions.</p>
+
+<p>A kind of glass wool is produced by drawing out to a
+capillary thread two glass rods of different degrees of
+hardness. On cooling they curl up, in consequence of
+the different construction of the two constituent threads.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg&nbsp;234]</a></span>
+<strong>Metallic Threads.</strong> Metallic threads have always
+been used for decorating, particularly in rich fabrics.
+Fine golden threads, as well as silver gilt threads, and
+silver threads and copper wire, have been used in many
+of the so-called Cyprian gold thread fabrics, so renowned
+for their beauty and permanence in the Middle Ages.
+These threads are now produced by covering flax or hemp
+threads with a gilt of fine texture.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Slag Wool.</strong> Slag wool is obtained by allowing molten
+slag (generally from iron) to run into a pan fitted with a
+steam injector which blows the slag into fibers. The
+fibers are cooled by running them through water, and the
+finished product is used as a packing material.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Asbestos.</strong> Asbestos is a silicate of magnesium and
+lime, containing in addition iron and aluminum. It is
+found in Savoy, the Pyrenees, Northern Italy, Canada,
+and some parts of the United States. Asbestos usually
+occurs in white or greenish glassy fibers, sometimes
+combined in a compact mass, and sometimes easily
+separable, elastic, and flexible. Canadian asbestos is
+almost pure white, and has long fibers. Asbestos can
+be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn,
+but as it is difficult to spin these fibers alone, they are
+generally mixed with a little cotton, which is afterwards
+disposed of by heating the finished fabric to incandescence.
+Because of its incombustible nature asbestos
+is used where high temperatures are necessary, as in
+the packing of steam joints, steam cylinders, hot parts
+of machines, and for fire curtains in theatres, hotels,
+etc. It is difficult to dye.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg&nbsp;235]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Testing Textile Fabrics.</strong> This is an age of adulteration,
+and next to food there is probably no commodity
+that is adulterated as much as the clothing we
+wear. Large purchasers of textile fabrics and various
+administrative bodies, such as army clothing departments,
+railway companies, etc., have adopted definite
+specifications to ensure having good material and workmanship.
+Before the fabrics are accepted they are
+examined carefully by certain tests to see if they meet
+the requirements. Wholesale and retail merchants insist
+on various conditions when purchasing fabrics in
+order to conform to the increasing needs of the public.
+Hence every manufacturer, buyer, or dealer in fabrics
+should be familiar with the tests used to determine the
+quality of goods he is about to buy.</p>
+
+<p>The tests used are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Identification of the style of weaving.</p>
+
+<p>2. Testing the breaking strength and the elasticity by
+the dynamometer.</p>
+
+<p>3. Determining the &ldquo;count&rdquo; of warp and filling.</p>
+
+<p>4. Determining the shrinkage.</p>
+
+<p>5. Testing the constituents of warp and of filling.</p>
+
+<p>6. Testing the finish and dressing materials.</p>
+
+<p>7. Testing the fastness of the dye.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg&nbsp;236]</a></span>
+<strong>Directions for Determining the Style of Weave.</strong>
+In examining a fabric for the weave it is first necessary
+to determine the direction of the warp and filling threads.
+This is a very simple matter in a great many fabrics that
+have a selvedge&mdash;the warp must be parallel to the
+selvedge.</p>
+
+<p>In fabrics that have been fulled, raised, and cropped,
+as buckskin, flannel, etc., the direction of the nap will
+indicate the direction of the warp, since the nap runs in
+this direction.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of fabrics with doubled and single threads,
+the doubled threads are always found in the warp.</p>
+
+<p>In fabrics composed of cotton and woolen threads
+running in different directions, the cotton yarn usually
+forms the warp and the woolen yarn the filling. Then
+again the warp threads of all fabrics are more tightly
+twisted than the filling threads, and are separated at
+more regular intervals.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes in stiffened or starched goods threads
+running in only one direction can be seen. In this
+case they are the warp threads.</p>
+
+<p>If one set of threads appears stiffer and straighter
+than the other, the former may be regarded as warp,
+while the rough and crooked threads are the filling.
+The yarn also gives one a hint, since the better, longer,
+and higher number material constitutes the warp, while
+the thicker yarn the filling.</p>
+
+<p>The direction of the twist of the thread is conclusive;
+if one set has a strong right twist and the other
+a left twist the first is the warp.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg&nbsp;237]</a></span>
+After determining the direction of the warp and
+filling, the next point is to determine the interlacing of
+the warp and filling threads&mdash;the weave. This may
+be done by inspection or by means of a pick-glass and
+needle. The weave may be plotted on design paper
+(plotting paper), the projecting warp threads being
+indicated by filling up the corresponding square, and
+leaving those referring to the filling threads blank.
+In this way the weaving pattern of the sample is obtained,
+and serves as a guide to the weaver in making
+the fabric, as well as for the preparation of the pattern
+cards for the Jacquard loom.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Testing the Strength and Elasticity of a Fabric.</strong>
+The old-fashioned plan of testing cloth by tearing it
+by the hand is unreliable, because tearing frequently
+requires only a certain skilled knack whereby the
+best material can be pulled in two. In this way an
+experienced man may tell good from bad cloth, but
+he cannot determine slight differences in quality, because
+he has exerted his strength so often that his capacity to
+distinguish the actual force has disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The best means of determining the strength of a
+fabric is by means of a mechanical dynamometer,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> which
+expresses the tensile strength of the fabric in terms of
+weight. The machine is very useful to the manufacturer
+because it enables him to compare accurately his various
+products with those of his competitors. The value of
+these tests is sufficiently proved by the fact that all
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg&nbsp;238]</a></span>
+army clothing departments, etc., require their supplies
+of cloth, etc., to pass a definite test for strength.</p>
+
+<p>Breaking tests also afford the most certain proof to
+bleachers of cotton and linen goods as to whether the
+bleaching has burned or weakened the goods. The
+same test will quickly determine whether a fabric has
+been improperly treated in the laundry.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Determining the Count of Warp and Filling Threads.</strong>
+Every fabric must contain a certain count of warp and
+filling threads&mdash;a definite number within a certain
+space for each strength of yarn employed. A fabric
+is not up to the standard of density when less than the
+requisite number of warp or filling threads per inch is
+found. For example, if a buyer was told that a fabric
+is 80 square, that is, eighty warp threads and eighty
+filling threads to the inch, and on examination found
+only 72 square, he would immediately reject the goods.</p>
+
+<p>The count of warp and filling is determined by means
+of a pick-glass&mdash;a small mounted magnifying glass&mdash;the
+base of which contains an opening of one-half inch
+by one quarter inch, or one quarter inch by one quarter
+inch. If the pick-glass is placed on the fabric the
+number of warp and filling threads may be counted,
+and the result multiplied by either two or four, so
+as to give the number of threads to the inch. For
+example, if I count twenty picks and twenty threads
+on a one quarter-inch edge, there are eighty picks
+and eighty threads to the inch. A more accurate
+result can be obtained by using a pick-glass with a
+one-inch opening.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg&nbsp;239]</a></span>
+<strong>Determination of Shrinkage.</strong> A very important factor
+in the value of a fabric is the shrinkage. The extent
+of this may be determined by pouring hot water over a
+sample of about twelve by twenty inches, and leaving
+the fabric immersed over night, then drying it at a moderate
+temperature without stretching. The difference
+in length gives the shrinkage, which is usually expressed
+in percentage.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Determination of Weight.</strong> Buyers and sellers of dry
+goods, when traveling, are anxious to determine the
+weight of fabrics they examine. This may be done by
+means of small pocket balances so constructed as to
+give the number of ounces to the yard of a fabric.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Testing the Constituents of the Warp and Filling.</strong>
+Take a sample piece of the cloth to be examined&mdash;the
+piece must be large enough to contain specimens of all
+the different kinds of yarn present in the material&mdash;and
+separate all the filling and warp threads. Be sure
+that all double threads are untwisted.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Combustion Test; Test for Vegetable and Animal
+Fibers.</strong> Burn separately a sample of the untwisted
+warp and filling threads. If one or both burn quickly
+without a greasy odor, they are vegetable fibers, cotton
+or linen. If one or both burn slowly and give off a
+greasy odor, they are animal fibers, wool or silk. This
+test is not conclusive, and further chemical examination&mdash;acid
+test&mdash;must be made to ascertain whether
+wool is pure or mixed with cotton.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Acid Test.</strong> The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen,
+are distinguished from those of animal origin by their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg&nbsp;240]</a></span>
+behavior in the presence of acids and alkalies. The
+vegetable are insoluble when boiled with a 4 per cent
+sodium hydrate solution, but readily clear or carbonize
+when saturated with a 3 per cent sulphuric acid
+solution and allowed to dry at a high temperature in a
+hot closet. Wool on the other hand is not affected by
+the action of weak sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton Distinguished from Linen.</strong> If the fibers are
+vegetable, cotton may be distinguished from linen
+by staining the fibers with fuchsine. If the fibers turn
+red, and this coloration disappears on the addition of
+ammonia, they are cotton, if the red color remains the
+fibers are linen. Whenever cotton yarn is used to adulterate
+other fabrics, it wears shabby and loses its brightness.
+When it is used to adulterate linen, it becomes
+fuzzy through wear. One may detect it in linen by
+rolling the goods between thumb and finger. Linen is
+a heavier fabric, and wrinkles much more readily than
+cotton. It wears better, and has an exquisite freshness
+that is not noticed in cotton fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silk Distinguished from Wool.</strong> Place the fabric or
+threads containing animal fibers in cold, concentrated
+hydrochloric acid. If silk is present it will dissolve, while
+wool merely swells.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Artificial Silk from Silk.</strong> On account of the low value
+of the artificial and the high value of genuine silk, there
+is a tendency to offer the artificial instead of the pure
+article. Test: When artificial silk is boiled in 4 per
+cent potassium hydrate solution it produces a yellow
+solution, while pure silk gives a colorless solution.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg&nbsp;241]</a></span>
+A common test is to put the artificial silk in water,
+where it will pull apart as though rotten; or to take out
+one strand of the silk, hold it between the finger and
+thumb of each hand and wet the middle of the strand
+with the tongue, when it will pull apart as though rotten.</p>
+
+<p>Artificial silk is inferior in strength and elasticity to
+pure silk. Then again it is lacking in the crackling
+feeling noticed in handling the genuine article.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Test for Shoddy.</strong> It is no easy matter to detect shoddy
+in woolen fabrics; the color of the shoddy threads is the
+best evidence. Many parcels of rags are of one single
+color, but for the most part they are made of various
+colored wools; therefore, if on examination of a fabric
+with a magnifying glass a yarn of any particular color is
+found to contain a number of individual fibers of glaring
+colors, the presence of shoddy can be assumed with
+certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Woolen goods containing cotton are seldom made
+from natural wool. Shoddy yarns, especially in winter
+goods, are found in the under-filling at the reverse side
+of the cloth, as thick, tightly twisted yarns, curlier than
+those from the pure wool.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Determination of the Dressing.</strong> During the various
+operations of washing, bleaching, etc., the goods lose in
+weight, and to make up this deficit a moderate amount
+of dressing or loading is employed. Dressing is not
+regarded as an adulteration, but as an embellishment.</p>
+
+<p>Various dressing materials are used, such as starch,
+flour, mineral matters, to give the goods stiffness and
+feel on one hand, and on the other to conceal defects
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg&nbsp;242]</a></span>
+in the cloth, and to give a solid appearance to goods of
+open texture. The mineral substances used serve chiefly
+for filling and weighting, and necessitate the employment
+of a certain quantity of starch, etc. In order that
+the latter may not render the cloth too stiff and hard,
+further additions of some emollient, such as glycerine,
+oils, etc., are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>When a fabric filled in this manner is placed in
+water and rubbed between the hands, the dressing is
+removed, and the quantity employed can be easily
+determined.</p>
+
+<p>By holding fabrics before the light dressing will be
+recognized, and such goods, if rubbed between the fingers,
+will lose their stiffness. Loading is revealed by the
+production of dust on rubbing, and by the aid of the
+magnifying glass it can be easily ascertained whether
+the covering or dressing is merely superficial or penetrates
+into the substance of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The tests of permanence of dyes on fabrics are as
+follows:</strong></p>
+
+<p><strong>Washing Fastness.</strong> Fabrics should stand mechanical
+friction as well as the action of soap liquor and the
+temperature of the washing operation. In order to test
+the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a
+soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household,
+and heated to 131 degrees F. The treatment
+should be repeated several times. If the color fails to
+run it is fast to washing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fastness Under Friction.</strong> Stockings, hosiery yarns,
+corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to be worn next
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg&nbsp;243]</a></span>
+to the skin must be permanent under friction, and must
+not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must
+not give off their color when worn next to the human
+epidermis (skin), or in close contact with colored articles
+of clothing, as in the case of underwear.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest test is to rub the fabric or yarn on white
+unstarched cotton fabric. In comparing the fastness
+of two fabrics it is necessary to have the rubbing equal
+in all cases.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Resistance to Perspiration.</strong> With fabrics coming in
+contact with the human skin it is necessary in addition
+to fastness under friction that they should withstand
+the excretions of the body. The acids of perspiration
+(acetic, formic, and butyric) often become so concentrated
+that they act on the fiber of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>In order to test the fabric for resistance, place the
+sample in a bath of 30 per cent dilute acetic acid
+(one teaspoonful to a quart of water) warmed to the
+temperature of the body, 98.6 degrees F. The sample
+should be dipped a number of times, and then dried
+without rinsing between parchment paper.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fastness against Rain.</strong> Silk and woolen materials
+for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are expected to
+be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting
+with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in cold
+water.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Resistance to Street Mud and Dust.</strong> Ladies&rsquo; dress
+goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and
+dust. In order to test a fabric for this resistance the
+sample should be moistened with lime and water (10
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg&nbsp;244]</a></span>
+per cent solution), dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle
+with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying, brushing,
+and noting any changes in color.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fastness to Weather, Light, and Air.</strong> Various people
+have attempted to set up standard degrees of fastness&mdash;for
+every shade of color is affected by the action
+of sun, light, and air&mdash;and as a result fabrics that remain
+without appreciable alteration for a month of exposure
+to direct summer sunlight are classified as &ldquo;fast,&rdquo;
+and those undergoing slight appreciable change under the
+same conditions as &ldquo;fairly fast.&rdquo; &ldquo;Moderately fast&rdquo;
+colors are those altering considerably in fourteen days;
+and those more or less completely faded in the same
+time (fourteen days) are designated as &ldquo;fleeting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><strong>Directions for testing fastness of Color in Sunlight.</strong>
+Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of
+cardboard. Expose the fabric to the sunlight for a
+number of days and examine the cloth each day in the
+dark and notice whether the part exposed has changed
+in color when compared with the part covered. Count
+the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change
+the color.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Brown in woolen materials is likely to fade. Brown holds its
+color in all gingham materials.</p>
+
+<p>Dark blue is an excellent color for woolens and ginghams. Light
+blues on the other hand usually change.</p>
+
+<p>Black, gray, and black with white. These colors are very satisfactory
+for woolen materials.</p>
+
+<p>Black is not a color which wears very well with cotton fabrics, as
+it shows the starch (sizing) and often fades.</p>
+
+<p>Red is an excellent color for all woolen materials. It looks attractive
+and wears well.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg&nbsp;245]</a></span>
+Red is a very poor color for cotton. It loses its brilliancy and
+frequent washing spoils it.</p>
+
+<p>A deep pink is an excellent color for all ginghams for it fades
+evenly and leaves a pretty shade.</p>
+
+<p>Green is a poor color for both cotton and woolen materials unless
+it is high priced.</p>
+
+<p>Lavender fades more than any other color in textiles.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of Textiles</span></h3>
+
+<p>The three fundamental industries that have developed
+from necessity are the feeding, sheltering, and clothing
+of the human race. These primary wants were first
+gratified before such conveniences as transportation
+and various lines of manufacture were even considered.
+Next to furnishing our food supply, the industry of
+supplying clothing is the oldest and the most widely
+diffused. It is in the manufacture of textiles&mdash;including
+all materials used in the manufacturing of clothing&mdash;that
+human ingenuity is best illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The magnitude of the textile industry in the United
+States is evident when we consider that it gives employment
+to a round million of people, paying them nearly
+five hundred million dollars annually in wages and
+salaries, producing nearly one and three-quarters billion
+dollars in gross value each year, and giving a
+livelihood to at least three millions of our population.</p>
+
+<p>Wool, cotton, flax, and silk have been used since early
+times. Even in the earlier days these fibers were woven
+with great skill. It is not known which fiber was the
+first to be used in weaving. It is probable, however,
+that the possession of flocks and herds led to the spinning
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg&nbsp;246]</a></span>
+and weaving of wool before cotton, flax, or silk fibers were
+thus used.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wool.</strong> The date at which prehistoric man discarded
+the pelt of skins for the woven fabric of wool marks the
+origin of the textile industry. Primitive sheep were
+covered with hair and the wool which now characterizes
+them was then a downy under-coat. As time went on
+and the art of spinning and weaving developed, the food
+value of sheep decreased, while the wool value increased.
+The hairy flocks were bred out, and the sheep with true
+wool, like the merino, survived. Sheep were bred principally
+for the wool and not for the mutton. Woolen
+fabrics were worn by the early inhabitants of Persia
+and Palestine. The Persians were noted for the excellent
+fabrics they wove from wool. Even the Hebrews
+of an early date were very skilful in weaving woolens.</p>
+
+<p>The early Romans were a race of shepherds and the
+women of the higher classes wove the cloth in their own
+homes. When Caesar invaded England, he found in
+the southern part of the island people acquainted with
+the spinning and weaving of wool and linen. With the
+downfall of Rome, the art of weaving cloth in Europe
+was almost lost, and people again wore furs and skins.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the eleventh century English cloth
+manufacturing had begun to revive. In the northern
+part of Italy certain Italians had flocks of sheep and
+obtained very fine wool, and the people of Flanders
+continued to develop skill in weaving during the Dark
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century the woolen manufacturers of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg&nbsp;247]</a></span>
+Flanders had grown to be of great importance, and
+some of the finest goods were shipped from there to many
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>In England, up to the time of Edward III, in the
+fourteenth century, the wool produced was exported to
+the Netherlands, there to be woven into cloth. Edward
+III invited many of the Flemish weavers to come to
+England to teach the English people how to make their
+own clothes. Edward was called the &ldquo;Royal Wool
+Merchant&rdquo; and also the &ldquo;Father of English Commerce.&rdquo;
+During Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign in the sixteenth
+century the chief article of export was woolen cloth.
+In 1685 the Huguenots, who were driven from France,
+went to England to settle. These people were noted
+for their skill in weaving.</p>
+
+<p>Patient effort in care and breeding of sheep showed a
+steady increase in the quantity and quality of wool
+until 1810, and the proportion of sheep to the population
+was then greater than at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>Our own climate is highly favorable for sheep breeding,
+and it is certain that the American sheep has no
+superior in any wool growing country, in constitutional
+vigor and strength of wool-fiber, and no wools make more
+durable or more valuable clothing.</p>
+
+<p>The obstacles to sheep husbandry in certain parts of
+the United States, like New England, are mainly climatic.
+The natural home of the only races of sheep
+which can be herded in large flocks is an elevated tableland,
+like the steppes of Russia and the great plains of
+Asia, Argentina, Montana, Wyoming, and others of our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg&nbsp;248]</a></span>
+western states where an open air range is possible for
+nearly twelve months in the year. In these elevated lands
+there are grasses which are more nutritious in winter
+than in summer. The climate of New England does
+not permit the growth of such grasses. Every grass
+which will grow in New England becomes in the cold
+months frozen wood fiber. Then again there is the
+frigid and penetrating atmosphere which necessitates
+housing the sheep in winter, and these animals cannot
+be closely housed without engendering a variety of
+parasitic diseases.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cotton.</strong> Long before history was written, cotton was
+used in making fabrics in India and China. Cotton
+has been for thousands of years the leading fabric of
+the East. The Hindoos have for centuries maintained
+almost unapproachable perfection in their cotton fabrics.
+It was the Arabian caravans that brought Indian calicoes
+and muslins into Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton was first cultivated in Europe by the Moors
+in Spain in the ninth century. In 1430 it was imported
+into England in large quantities. The section of England
+about Manchester became in time the seat of the
+great cotton industry; this was due to the settlement
+of spinners and weavers from Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Elizabeth, the East Indies Trading
+Company was established. Not only was cotton imported,
+but also India muslins. This caused trouble
+because of the decrease in the demand for woolen goods
+manufactured in England. A law was passed prohibiting
+the importing of cotton goods and later the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg&nbsp;249]</a></span>
+manufacturing of them, but this law was repealed on
+account of the great demand for cotton materials.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus found cotton garments worn by the natives
+of the West Indies. Later Cortez found that cotton
+was used in Mexico; hence, cotton is indigenous to
+America. In 1519 Cortez made the first recorded
+export of cotton from America to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1734 cotton was planted in Georgia. Bales of
+cotton were sent to England, and the manufacturing
+of cloth was soon under way. While the colonies were
+trying to gain independence, England imposed a fine
+on anyone sending cotton machinery to America, and
+restrictions were put on manufacturing and imports
+of any kind. After the War of Independence many
+of the southern states began to raise cotton in larger
+quantities.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney was
+one of the great inventions of the age. While only
+two pounds of cotton could be seeded by hand by one
+person in a day, the gin made it possible to do several
+hundred pounds. At the time of the Civil War the
+greater part of the cotton used by English manufacturers
+was imported from the southern states. The closing
+of the southern ports during the war affected the cotton
+industry throughout the world. Large mills in England
+were closed, and thousands of people were out of employment.
+Steps were then taken to encourage people of
+India, Egypt, Central and South America to increase
+their production of cotton, and from that time on,
+cotton from these countries has been found in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg&nbsp;250]</a></span>
+general market. Cotton is now cultivated in nearly all
+countries within the limits 45&deg; north and 35&deg; south of
+the equator.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the United States ranks first in
+the production and export of cotton. Of all the states,
+Texas and Georgia produce the largest amount. About
+one-third of the entire crop is used in our own mills;
+$250,000,000 worth of cotton is annually exported,
+principally through New Orleans, New York, Savannah,
+and Galveston. Three-fifths of this quantity goes to
+mills in England; Germany, France, and Switzerland
+take a large part of the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>The value of cotton is shown by the fact that about
+one-half the people of the earth wear clothing made
+entirely of cotton, and the other half (with the exception
+of some savage tribes) use it in part of the dress.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Linen.</strong> Linen has always been held in great esteem.
+The garments of the Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, and
+Roman priests were made of the finest linen.</p>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages, Italy, Spain, and France
+were celebrated for their linen fabrics. Religious intolerance
+in France drove 300,000 of her best textile
+workers into England, Ireland, and Scotland. Irish
+linen weaving began as early as the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>Linen has never been largely woven in America except
+in the coarser forms of crash and toweling, although
+linen weaving was one of the Puritan domestic industries.
+The reason America has not been able to equal Europe
+in its production of fine linens is because the process for
+separating the fiber from the stalk requires the cheapest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg&nbsp;251]</a></span>
+form of labor to make it profitable, hence most of the
+American-grown flax is raised only for seed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Silk.</strong> Silk was used in the East as a fabric for the
+nobility. It was first used in China and later in
+India. It was brought into Europe about the sixth
+century. Up to that time the Chinese had a monopoly
+of the industry. By the tenth and eleventh centuries
+silk fabrics were made in Spain and Italy. At the close
+of the sixteenth century silk was being produced at
+Lyons, France. It was afterwards introduced into England,
+and the English silk for a long time replaced the
+French in the European market.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of the Organization of Textile
+Industries</span></h3>
+
+<p>The development of the textile industry may be
+divided into four stages or periods: first, the family
+system; second, the guild system; third, the domestic
+system; and fourth, the factory system.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Family System.</strong> Under the family system the
+work of spinning and weaving was carried on by members
+of a household for the purpose of supplying the family
+with clothing. There were no sales of the product.
+Each class in society, from the peasant class to that of
+the nobleman, had its own devices for making clothing.
+This was the system that existed up to about the tenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Guild System.</strong> As communities became larger
+and cities sprang up, the textile industry became more
+than a family concern. There was a demand for better
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg&nbsp;252]</a></span>
+fabrics, and to meet this demand it became necessary to
+have a large supply of different parts of looms. The
+small weaver who owned and constructed his own loom
+was not able to have all these parts, so he began to work
+for a more prosperous weaver. The same conditions applied
+to spinning, and as early as 1740 spinning was carried
+on by a class distinct from the weavers. As a result
+the small weaver was driven out by the growth of
+organized capital, and a more perfect organization,
+called the guild system, arose. By this system the
+textile industry was carried on by a small group
+of men called masters, employing two, three or more
+men (distinguished later as journeymen and apprentices).
+The masters organized associations called guilds
+and dominated all the conditions of the manufacture
+to a far greater extent than is possible under present
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>It was the family system that existed in the American
+colonies at the beginning of the settlement, and for many
+years after. The guild system was not adopted in
+America because it was going out of existence on the
+Continent.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Domestic Period.</strong> By the middle of the eighteenth
+century the textile industry began to break away
+from the guilds and spread from cities to the rural districts.
+The work was still carried on in the master&rsquo;s
+house, although he had lost the economic independence
+that he had under the old guild system where he acted
+both as merchant and manufacturer. He now received
+his raw material from the merchant and disposed of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg&nbsp;253]</a></span>
+the finished goods to a middleman, who looked after the
+demands of the market.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Factory System.</strong> The domestic period was in
+turn crowded out of existence by the factory system.
+A factory is a place where goods are produced by power
+for commercial use. The factory system first came into
+prominence after the invention of the steam engine.
+No record has been found showing its existence prior
+to this invention.</p>
+
+<p>English weavers and spinners became very skilful
+and invented different mechanical aids for the production
+of yarn and cloth. These mechanical aids not only
+enabled one man to do twenty men&rsquo;s work, but further
+utilization was made of water and steam power in place
+of manual labor. Then began the organization of the
+industry on a truly gigantic scale, combining capital
+and machinery and resulting in what is known as the
+factory system.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the development of the factory system
+there was no reason why any industry should be centered
+in one particular district. Upon the utilization of steam
+power the textile industry became subdivided into a
+number of industries, each one becoming to a great
+extent localized in convenient and suitable portions of
+the country. Thus in Bradford the wool of Yorkshire
+(England) meets the coal of Yorkshire and makes
+Bradford the great woolen and worsted center of the
+world. The same thing took place in Manchester,
+where the cotton of America meets the coal of England
+under satisfactory climatic conditions, and around
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg&nbsp;254]</a></span>
+Manchester is the greatest cotton manufacturing of the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>The same is true in America. Lawrence became a
+large worsted center on account of the great fall of
+water and the use of the river to deposit wool washings.
+Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford became large cotton
+centers for similar reasons.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of Manufacturing</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/tex46.png" width="400" height="233" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">SPINNING WHORL<br />
+One of the earliest devices used
+for spinning</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Spinning.</strong> Spinning and weaving are two of the
+earliest arts practised by man. Yarn for the making
+of cloth was spun in the earliest
+times by the use of the distaff
+and spindle. The spindle was
+a round stick of wood a foot
+or less in length, tapering at
+each end.
+A ring of stone or
+clay was placed on the spindle
+to give it steadiness and momentum
+when it revolved. At the top of the spindle
+was a slit or notch in which the yarn was caught.
+The distaff was a larger, stouter stick, around one end
+of which the material to be spun was wound in a loose
+ball. The spinner fixed the end of the distaff under her
+left arm so that the coil of material was in a convenient
+position for drawing out to form the yarn. The
+end of the yarn, after being prepared, was inserted
+in the notch, and the spindle was set in motion by
+rolling it with the right hand against the leg. Then
+the spinner drew from the distaff an additional amount
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg&nbsp;255]</a></span>
+of fiber, which was formed by the right hand into uniform
+strands. After the yarn was twisted, it was released
+from the notch and wound around the lower
+part of the spindle.</p>
+
+<p>In order to spin yarn by the primitive spinner, it was
+necessary for the fiber to have sufficient length to enable
+it to be manipulated, drawn over, and twisted by the
+fingers. It is noted that the yarns for the gossamer-like
+Dacca muslins of India were so fine that one pound of
+cotton was spun into a thread 253 miles long. This was
+accomplished with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much
+bigger than a darning needle, which was lightly weighted
+with a pellet of clay. Since such a slender thread could
+not support even the weight of so slight a spindle, the
+apparatus was rotated
+upon a piece of hollow
+shell. It thus appears
+that the primitive spinners
+with distaff and
+spindle had nothing to
+learn in point of fineness
+from even the most
+advanced methods of
+spinning by machinery.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/tex47.png" width="400" height="266" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">HAND SPINNING<br />
+From a Fourteenth Century MS. in the
+British Museum</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Certain rude forms of the spinning wheel seem to
+have been known from time immemorial. The use of
+the wheel in Europe cannot, however, be dated back
+earlier than the fifteenth century. In the primitive
+wheel the spindle, having a groove worked in its whorl,
+was mounted horizontally in a framework fixed to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg&nbsp;256]</a></span>
+end of a bench. A band passed around the whorl and
+was carried around a large wheel fixed farther back on
+the bench, and this wheel, being turned by the hand
+of the spinner, gave a rapid rotation to the spindle.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/tex48.png" width="400" height="281" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">AN ANCIENT LOOM<br />
+From an Egyptian Monument</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fibers to be spun were first combed out by means
+of carding boards&mdash;an implement of unknown antiquity,
+consisting of two boards with wire teeth set in
+them at a uniform angle. The fiber to be carded was
+thinly spread upon one of the boards, and then the
+other was pushed backward and forward across it, the
+teeth of the two overlapping at opposite angles, until
+the fibers were combed
+out and laid straight in
+parallel lines. The fibers
+were then scraped
+off the boards in rollers
+or &ldquo;cardings&rdquo; about
+twelve inches long and
+three-quarters of an inch
+in diameter. An end of
+the carding was then
+attached to the spindle and the wheel set in motion.
+The carding itself was held in the hand of the spinner
+and gradually drawn out and twisted by the rotation
+of the spindle. As soon as a sufficient length had
+been attenuated and twisted to the required fineness,
+the thread so produced was held at right angles to the
+spindle and allowed to wind up on it. But for fine
+spinning two operations of the wheel were generally
+necessary. By the first spinning the fibers were drawn
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg&nbsp;257]</a></span>
+out and slightly attenuated into what was called a roving,
+and by the second spinning the roving itself passed
+through a similar cycle of operations to bring it to the
+required degree of attenuation and twist.</p>
+
+<p>Many improvements in the primitive wheel were
+introduced from time to time. In its later developments
+two spindles were employed, the spinner being
+thus enabled to manipulate two threads at once, one in
+each hand. This
+was the latest form
+of the spinning-wheel,
+and it survived
+until it was
+superseded in the
+eighteenth century
+by the great series
+of inventions which
+inaugurated the industrial
+revolution
+and led in the nineteenth
+century to
+the introduction of
+the factory system.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 363px;">
+<img src="images/tex49.png" width="363" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">EARLIER SPINNING AND WEAVING<br />
+From a Fifteenth Century MS. in the British Museum</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Weaving.</strong> When or where man first began to weave
+cloth is not known, nor is it known whether this art
+sprang from one common center or was invented by
+many who dwelt in different parts of the world. There
+is such a sameness in the early devices for spinning and
+weaving that among some men of science it is thought
+that the art must have come from a common center.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg&nbsp;258]</a></span>
+Fabrics were made on the farms two or three hundred
+years ago in the following manner: the men of the
+household raised the flocks, while the women spun the
+yarn and wove the fabrics. In this way the industry
+prospered, giving occupation and income to thousands
+of the agricultural class. You might say that in England
+fabrics were a by-product of agriculture. As time
+went on, farmers of certain sections of England became
+more expert in the art, and the weaving became separated
+from the spinning. The weavers became clustered
+in certain towns on account of the higher skill
+required for the finer fabrics. The rough work of farming
+made the hands of the weaver less skilful. This,
+coupled with the fact that the looms became more
+complicated with improvements, called for a more experienced
+man. Great inventions brought about a more
+rapid development of the factory.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Arkwright, who has been called the &ldquo;father
+of the factory system,&rdquo; built the first cotton mill in the
+world in Nottingham in 1769. The wheels were turned
+by horses. In 1771 Arkwright erected at Crawford a
+new mill which was turned by water power and supplied
+with machinery to accomplish the whole operation of
+cotton spinning in one mill, the first machine receiving
+the cotton as it came from the bale and the last winding
+the cotton yarn upon the bobbins. Children were
+employed in this mill, as they were found to be more
+dexterous in tying the broken ends. As the result of
+this great invention, factories sprang up everywhere in
+England, changing the country scene into a collection
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg&nbsp;259]</a></span>
+of factories, with tall chimneys, brick buildings, and
+streets.</p>
+
+<p>From 1730 to the middle of the nineteenth century
+the development of inventions was rapid:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1730&mdash;First cotton yarn spun in England by machinery by
+Wyatt.</p>
+
+<p>1733&mdash;English patent granted John Kay for the invention of
+the fly shuttle.</p>
+
+<p>1738&mdash;Patent granted Lewis Paul for the spinning machinery
+supposed to have been invented by Wyatt.</p>
+
+<p>1742&mdash;First mill for spinning cotton built at Birmingham;
+moved by asses; but not successful.</p>
+
+<p>1748&mdash;Patent on a cylinder card as first used by hand, granted
+Lewis Paul.</p>
+
+<p>1750&mdash;Fly shuttle in general use in England.</p>
+
+<p>1756&mdash;Cotton velvets and quiltings first made in England.</p>
+
+<p>1760&mdash;Stock cards first used for cotton by J. Hargreave. Drop
+box invented by Kay.</p>
+
+<p>1762-67&mdash;Spinning-jenny invented by Hargreave.</p>
+
+<p>1769&mdash;Arkwright obtains his first patent on spinning.</p>
+
+<p>1774&mdash;Bill passed in England to prevent the export of cotton
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p>1775&mdash;Second patent of Arkwright on carding, drawing, and
+spinning.</p>
+
+<p>1779&mdash;Mule spinning invented by Crompton. Peele&rsquo;s patent
+on carding, roving, and spinning.</p>
+
+<p>1782&mdash;Date of Watt&rsquo;s patent for the steam-engine.</p>
+
+<p>1783&mdash;Bounty granted in England for the export of certain
+cotton goods.</p>
+
+<p>1785&mdash;Power loom invented by Cartwright. Cylinder printing
+invented by Bell. A warp stop-motion described
+in Cartwright&rsquo;s patent.</p>
+
+<p>1788&mdash;First cotton factory built in the United States, at
+Beverly.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg&nbsp;260]</a></span>
+1789&mdash;Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States.
+Samuel Slater starts cotton machinery in New York.</p>
+
+<p>1790&mdash;First cotton factory built in Rhode Island by Slater.</p>
+
+<p>1792&mdash;First American loom patent granted to Kirk and Leslie.</p>
+
+<p>1794&mdash;Cotton-gin patented by Eli Whitney.</p>
+
+<p>1801&mdash;Date given for invention of the Jacquard machine in
+France.</p>
+
+<p>1803&mdash;Dressing machine and warper invented in England by
+Radcliffe, Ross, and Johnson.</p>
+
+<p>1804&mdash;First cotton mill built in New Hampshire, at New
+Ipswich.</p>
+
+<p>1805&mdash;Power loom successfully introduced in England after
+many failures.</p>
+
+<p>1806&mdash;First cotton mill built in Connecticut, at Pomfret.</p>
+
+<p>1809&mdash;First cotton mill built in Maine, at Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p>1812&mdash;First cotton mill built at Fall River.</p>
+
+<p>1814&mdash;Cotton opener with lap attachment invented in England
+by Creighton.</p>
+
+<p>1815&mdash;Power loom introduced into the United States at
+Waltham.</p>
+
+<p>1816&mdash;First loom temple of Ira Draper patented in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>1818&mdash;Machinery for preparing sewing cotton invented in
+England by Holt.</p>
+
+<p>1822&mdash;First cotton factory erected at Lowell.</p>
+
+<p>1823&mdash;Differential motion for roving frames patented by
+Arnold. First export of raw cotton from Egypt to
+England.</p>
+
+<p>1824&mdash;Tube frame or speeder patented by Danforth.</p>
+
+<p>1825&mdash;Self-acting mule patented in England by Roberts.</p>
+
+<p>1828&mdash;Ring spinning patented by John Thorpe. Cap spinning
+patented by Danforth.</p>
+
+<p>1829&mdash;Revolving loom temple improvements patented by Ira
+Draper.</p>
+
+<p>1832&mdash;Stop-motion for drawing frames invented by Bachelder.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg&nbsp;261]</a></span>
+1833&mdash;Ring spinning frames first built by William Mason.</p>
+
+<p>1834&mdash;Weft fork patented in England by Ramsbottom and
+Hope. Shuttle-changing loom by Reid and Johnson.</p>
+
+<p>1840&mdash;Automatic loom led off. Important temple improvement.</p>
+
+<p>1849&mdash;First cotton mill erected in Lawrence.</p></div>
+
+<p>Through this great change from hand to power work,
+thousands were thrown out of employment in the great
+textile centers, and much suffering occurred, which led
+to the smashing of machinery.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Knitting Machinery.</strong> Like many other industries,
+the hosiery trade owes its first and most important
+impetus to the genius of one who was not connected
+with the business in a practical way. This event took
+place when the Rev. William Lee invented the hand
+frame. He was married early in life, and his wife was
+obliged, on account of the slender family finances, to
+knit continuously at home. Struck with the monotony
+and toil involved in knitting with the hand pins, Mr. Lee
+evolved a means of knitting by machinery and brought
+out the hand stocking-frame, which to-day preserves
+its chief features very much as Lee invented them.
+When knitting by hand, one must form each loop separately,
+and loop follows loop laboriously until the width
+of fabric has been worked. Lee contrived to make the
+whole row of loops across the width simultaneously by
+arranging a needle for each loop and placing in connection
+with each needle a sinker and other apparatus for
+completing the formation of the loop. First of all,
+the yarn is laid over the needles, which are arranged
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg&nbsp;262]</a></span>
+horizontally, and the sinkers come down on the yarn
+and cause it to form partial loops between the needles.
+The old loops of the previous course are now brought
+forward and the new yarn is drawn through them in the
+same way as is done on the hand pins. Thus the new
+yarn of one course is drawn through the loops of the
+preceding one, and so the whole fabric is built up. This
+frame of Lee&rsquo;s held its own in the great centers until
+some thirty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Lee&rsquo;s hand frame gave way to what is termed the
+jack and sinker rotary frame, which was like the hand
+frame in its chief features, but with the advantage
+that all the motions were brought about by power.
+The various operations were put under the control of a
+set of cams<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> and made to perform their movements in
+exactly the same way as in the case of the hand frame.
+In the first power machine for knitting, the machine
+builder used the cam mechanism, and in examining the
+latest machines we find that he has persisted in this
+course throughout. The cam movement is characterized
+by great smoothness of working and absence of
+vibration, which is very necessary in a machine of the
+delicate adjustment of the knitting frame. It is usual
+to connect some of the parts with two of these cams,
+one of which controls the up-and-down motion and the
+other the out-and-in movement. When these two cams
+work in conjunction, we obtain all the possible degrees
+of harmonic motion.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg&nbsp;263]</a></span>
+From the jack and sinker frame the next really important
+step was taken when William Cotton brought
+out his famous Cotton&rsquo;s patent frame. In his machine
+the frame was in a sense turned on its back, for the
+parts, such as the needles, which had been horizontal,
+were made vertical and <i>vice versa</i>. He also reduced the
+number of the moving parts and perfected the cam
+arrangement. Another very important development of
+the machine was when it was built in a number of divisions
+so as to work a number of articles side by side at
+one time. At present there are knitting frames which
+can make twelve full-sized garments at one and the
+same time.</p>
+
+<p>Another important improvement was effected when
+the fashioning apparatus was supplied to the machine,
+by means of which the garments could be shaped according
+to the human form by increasing or decreasing the
+width as desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of Lace</span></h3>
+
+<p>Lace, like porcelain, stained glass, and other artistic
+things, has always been an object of interest to all
+classes. Special patterns of laces date from the sixteenth
+century. The church and court have always
+encouraged its production. While the early lace work
+was similar to weaving, in that the patterns were stiff
+and geometrical, sometimes the patterns were cut out
+of linen, but with the development of the renaissance
+of art, free flowing patterns and figures were introduced
+and worked in.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg&nbsp;264]</a></span>
+The lace industry first took root in Flanders and
+Venice, where it became an important branch of industry.
+Active intercourse was maintained between the
+two countries, so that intense rivalry existed. France
+and England were not behind Venice and Flanders in
+making lace. The king of France, Henry III, encouraged
+lace work by appointing a Venetian to be
+pattern maker for varieties of linen needlework and
+lace for his court. Later, official aid and patronage were
+given to this art by Louis V. Through the influence
+of these two men the demand for lace was increased to
+such an extent that it became very popular.</p>
+
+<p>Under the impulse of fashion and luxury, lace has
+received the stamp of the special style of each country.
+Italy furnishes its Point of Venice; Belgium its Brussels
+and Mechlin; France its Valenciennes, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Very little is known of the early lace manufacturers
+of Holland. The laces of Holland were overshadowed
+by the richer products of their Flemish neighbors. The
+Dutch, however, had one advantage over other nations
+in their Haarlem thread, once considered the best thread
+in the world for lace.</p>
+
+<p>In Switzerland, the center of the lace trade, the work
+was carried on to such a degree of perfection as to rival
+the laces of Flanders, not alone in beauty, but also in
+quality.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been made at various times, both
+during this century and the last, to assist the peasantry
+of Ireland by instruction in lace-making. The finest
+patterns of old lace were procured, and the Irish girls
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg&nbsp;265]</a></span>
+showed great skill in copying them. Later a better
+style of work, needlepoint, was modeled after old
+Venetian lace&mdash;the exquisite productions for which
+Americans pay fabulous prices at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The lace manufacturers of Europe experienced a
+serious set-back in 1818 when bobbinet was first made in
+France. Fashion, always fleeting, adopted the new
+material. Manufacturers were forced to lower prices,
+but happily a new channel for export was opened in the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>The machine-made productions of the Nottingham
+looms, as triumphs of mechanical ingenuity, deserve
+great praise.</p>
+
+<p>The first idea of the lace-making machine is attributed
+to a common factory hand, Hammond Lindy, who, when
+examining the lace on his wife&rsquo;s cap, conceived a plan
+by which he could copy it on his loom. Improvements
+followed, and in 1810 a fairly good net was produced.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most delicate textile machine known, in
+its sensitiveness to heat and cold, is a lace machine. A
+machine can be made to run in any climate, provided it
+is so installed as to be protected from either extreme of
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The various substitutes for hand-made lace are legion;
+for what the inventor cannot achieve in one way he can
+in another. There remains however the fact that the
+productions of machinery can never possess the charm
+of the real hand-made work. Machine-made lace is
+stiffer than hand-made lace.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The testing apparatus may be obtained from any textile manufacturing
+company, such as Alfred Suter, 487 Broadway, New York.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> A cam is a device consisting of a special shaped wheel attached to a
+machine to give a special kind of motion or movement.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"><!-- blank page --></a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg&nbsp;267]</a></span></p>
+<h2>EXPERIMENTS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 1&mdash;Construction of Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> foot-rule.<br />
+Materials: 4 square inches of burlap.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles.</i> See page <a href="#Page_54"><b>54</b></a>, Weaving; page <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a>, Fibers.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Look at the cloth under the pick glass and describe the
+appearance and structure of its interlacing threads, called weave.</p>
+
+<p>2. With a pin separate the interlacing threads of the cloth which
+are called <em>warp</em> and <em>filling</em>. <em>Warp</em> is composed of yarn running
+in the direction of the length of the cloth. <em>Filling</em> is composed of
+yarn running at right angles to the warp.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> What are the interlacing threads of cloth called?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Of what is warp composed and in what direction do the warp
+threads extend? filling?</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Notice the appearance of the individual threads (called <em>yarn</em>)
+of the warp and filling. Test the strength of the yarn by trying
+to break it.</p>
+
+<p>4. Untwist one of the warp threads and one of the filling threads.
+Notice whether the yarn becomes stronger or weaker as it is
+untwisted. What effect has twist on the yarn?</p>
+
+<p>5. After untwisting one of the threads what remains? Measure
+the length of several of these ends called <em>fibers</em>. Describe the
+appearance of the fiber as to curl, feel, fineness, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Of what does yarn consist?</p>
+
+<p>2. What causes the fibers to cling together?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the process called by which two sets of threads
+interlace?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg&nbsp;268]</a></span>
+4. When two sets of threads interlace or are woven what is
+produced?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 2&mdash;Plain or Homespun Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hand loom,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> two pencils, scissors.<br />
+Material: Yarn of two colors.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Make a warp on the hand loom with green yarn by having
+parallel threads running the longest way of the loom to the
+notches.</p>
+
+<p>2. A <em>harness</em> is a framework on a loom used for raising certain
+warp threads. Use a pencil as a harness and raise the 1st, 3d,
+and 5th warp threads. A <em>shed</em> will in this way be formed
+through which the shuttle carrying the filling thread will pass.
+Use the red yarn for filling and attach it at one end before passing
+it through the shed.</p>
+
+<p>3. With a second pencil to act as a second harness raise the
+2d, 4th, and 6th warp threads. Pass the filling through the shed
+thus formed.</p>
+
+<p>4. Repeat twice Directions 2 and 3.</p>
+
+<p>5. Tie all ends, cut the woven sample away from the loom, and
+mount in note-book.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What part of a loom is the harness?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is meant by a shed?</p>
+
+<p>3. What carries the filling thread through the shed on a loom?</p>
+
+<p>4. What is the principle of plain weaving?</p>
+
+<p>5. Name some fabrics produced by plain weaving? See <i>Textiles</i>,
+page <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 3&mdash;Twill Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hand loom, four pencils, scissors.<br />
+Materials: White cotton warp, colored yarn filling.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg&nbsp;269]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. On the hand loom make a warp by threading four white warp
+threads to a notch until there are six sets of warp threads.</p>
+
+<p>2. Using a pencil as a harness (See Exp. <a href="#Page_268"><b>2</b></a>) raise the first thread
+of each set of warp threads and pass the filling thread through the
+shed thus formed.</p>
+
+<p>3. With another pencil as a second harness raise the second thread
+of each set of warp threads and pass the filling.</p>
+
+<p>4. With a third pencil raise the third thread of each set of warp
+threads and pass the filling.</p>
+
+<p>5. With still another pencil to act as a fourth harness raise the
+fourth thread of each set and again pass the filling.</p>
+
+<p>6. Repeat the above directions (2 to 5) several times. Notice
+that the moving of the filling thread, one warp thread to the left,
+each time it is woven is causing a diagonal line or rib to form,
+called <em>twill</em>.</p>
+
+<p>7. Cut the woven sample away from the loom and mount.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is this weave called a twill weave?</p>
+
+<p>2. How is the diagonal line or twill formed?</p>
+
+<p>3. Why would this kind of weaving be spoken of as 4-harness
+weave?</p>
+
+<p>4. What popular dress fabric is of twill weave?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 4&mdash;Comparison of Plain and Twill Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin, foot-rule.<br />
+Material: 4 sq. in. of burlap, 4 sq. in. of serge.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>,
+<a href="#Page_60"><b>60</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine the burlap under the pick glass, noting the structure
+and number of threads to the inch in the warp (called <em>ends</em>) and the
+number of threads to the inch in the filling (called <em>picks</em>). Verify
+with foot-rule.</p>
+
+<p>2. Repeat the above, using serge.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg&nbsp;270]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is meant by a number of &ldquo;ends to the inch&rdquo;? a number
+of &ldquo;picks to the inch&rdquo;?</p>
+
+<p>2. How many ends to the inch in the burlap? How many picks
+to the inch?</p>
+
+<p>3. How many ends to the inch in the serge? How many picks?</p>
+
+<p>4. Note several differences between cloth produced by plain
+weaving and cloth produced by twill weaving.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 5&mdash;Pile Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hand loom, two pencils, scissors.<br />
+Materials: White cotton warp, filling yarn of two colors.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Thread the loom two warp threads to a notch until there are
+20 ends (warp threads).</p>
+
+<p>2. Use a pencil as a harness. Raise the 1st, 3d, 5th, 7th, and
+9th sets of warp threads.</p>
+
+<p>3. Fasten securely the green filling yarn at one end and pass
+it through the shed formed by carrying out Direction 2. Draw
+the filling thread tight and wind once or twice around the outside
+warp end.</p>
+
+<p>4. Use a second pencil as a harness and raise the sets of warp
+threads that are now down, forming a new shed.</p>
+
+<p>5. Fasten the red filling yarn at one end and pass it through the
+shed. Wind once or twice about the outside warp end.</p>
+
+<p>6. Raise the red filling to form a loop in each place where it (the
+red filling) has passed over a warp end.</p>
+
+<p>7. Form a shed by raising the first harness and pass through
+the green filling thread, drawing it tight to hold the red filling above
+it in place. Wind about the outside warp end.</p>
+
+<p>8. Repeat Directions 2-7 several times, each time raising the
+red filling to form loops and each time drawing the green filling
+tight to hold the red in place.</p>
+
+<p>9. Cut with scissors the loops formed by raising the red filling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg&nbsp;271]</a></span>
+10. As well as you can with scissors, shear the pile (the soft,
+thick covering on the face) to make a fairly even surface.</p>
+
+<p>11. Cut the sample away from the loom and mount.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What are some varieties of cloth that are woven with a pile
+surface?</p>
+
+<p>2. Sometimes the loops of the pile are cut and sometimes left
+as loops. What fabrics are examples of cut pile? uncut pile?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is meant by the <em>pile</em> of velvet or carpet?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 6&mdash;Other Classes of Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.<br />
+Materials: Samples of satin, voile, lace curtaining, double cloth, carpeting.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_58"><b>58-64</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Satin Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine the sample of satin under the pick glass. Notice
+that the warp and filling interlace in such a way that there is no
+trace of the diagonal on the face of the cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> Is satin of a close or loose weave?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> What can you say of the surface of satin?</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> What effect has this smooth surface on light?</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> This is called a satin weave. Why?</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> What is the most extensive use of the satin weave? (See
+<i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Sometimes fabrics of other weaves will have a satin
+stripe.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Gauze Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>2. Examine the sample of voile under the pick glass. This is
+a type of what is known as gauze weave.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> What is the chief characteristic of the gauze weave?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Name several gauze fabrics.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg&nbsp;272]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Lappet Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>3. Examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> If the fancy figures were not present, of what weave would
+this sample be?</p>
+
+<p>Simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze fabrics
+by machinery to imitate embroidery. This style of weave
+is known as lappet weave.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> On fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving used?</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> What is lappet weaving?</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><i>Jacquard Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>4. Examine a piece of carpet. Notice the elaborate designs or
+patterns and the number of colors used. When the figures are
+elaborate they cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving.
+A special attachment called the <em>Jacquard</em> apparatus is placed
+on top of the loom. This apparatus controls the warp threads
+so that a great many sheds may be formed and elaborate figures
+woven into fabrics. This is called Jacquard weaving.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> What must be added to a loom for Jacquard weaving?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> What is the use of the Jacquard apparatus?</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> When is the Jacquard weave used instead of lappet weave?</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. Read <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_61"><b>61</b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Double Cloth Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>6. Examine the sample of double cloth. Notice that there
+are two single cloths. They are combined into one by here and
+there lacing the warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and
+filling of the other. In this way they are fastened together securely.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> What color is the sample on one side? the other?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Of what is double cloth composed?</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> How are the single cloths combined into one?</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Read <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>. What are some of the uses of
+double cloth?</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><i>Classes of Weave</i></h4>
+
+<p>7. How many classes of weave have been studied?</p>
+
+<p>8. Name the classes of weave.</p>
+
+<p>9. Name a fabric to illustrate each weave.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg&nbsp;273]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Experiment 7&mdash;Fibers</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.<br />
+Materials: Samples of broadcloth, mohair, silk,
+cotton cloth, linen.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a>; <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>,
+Mohair; <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>, Silk; <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>, Cotton;
+<a href="#Page_193"><b>193</b></a>, Linen; <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>, Hemp;
+<a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>, Jute; <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>, Ramie;
+<a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>, Pineapple.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Read <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a>, paragraph 1. What are textiles?</p>
+
+<p>2. Cloth is composed of yarn. Yarn in its turn is composed of
+many small ends called fibers.</p>
+
+<p>3. Look at the sample of broadcloth. If you did not know this
+to be broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods. Detach
+from the sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These
+are woolen fibers.</p>
+
+<p>4. Examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread
+into fibers. This takes the name mohair from the fibers which
+compose it. Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat.</p>
+
+<p>5. Examine a sample of silk, also a detached filling thread. The
+silk fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm.</p>
+
+<p>6. Wool, mohair, and silk fibers are obtained from the animals,
+the sheep, goat, and silk worm, hence they are called animal fibers.</p>
+
+<p>7. Detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and
+separate it into fibers. These are cotton fibers and are obtained
+from the cotton plant.</p>
+
+<p>8. Examine the sample of linen, a filling thread and its fibers.
+Linen is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant.</p>
+
+<p>9. Cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants, and are
+called vegetable fibers. There are other vegetable fibers such as
+jute, hemp, ramie, pineapple, etc., but cotton and linen are the
+most important.</p>
+
+<p>10. Name the most valuable fibers for textile use.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Of what is cloth composed?</p>
+
+<p>2. Of what does yarn consist?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg&nbsp;274]</a></span>
+3. How are the fibers made to join in one long thread? (See
+Experiment <a href="#Page_267"><b>1</b></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed?</p>
+
+<p>5. Of what animal is wool the covering?</p>
+
+<p>6. Of what fibers is mohair composed?</p>
+
+<p>7. From what animal is mohair obtained?</p>
+
+<p>8. Of what does the silk fiber consist?</p>
+
+<p>9. What are the animal fibers?</p>
+
+<p>10. Why are they called animal fibers?</p>
+
+<p>11. Of what fibers is cotton cloth composed?</p>
+
+<p>12. From what plant are cotton fibers obtained?</p>
+
+<p>13. From what plant is the linen fiber obtained?</p>
+
+<p>14. What are the most important vegetable fibers?</p>
+
+<p>15. Name four other vegetable fibers.</p>
+
+<p>16. Why are these fibers called vegetable fibers?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 8&mdash;Wool Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass, microscope, 2 pine cones, foot-rule.<br />
+Materials: Raw wool, woolen yarn.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, chapter <a href="#Page_1"><b>i</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers. Examine both
+these fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool. Would you
+describe these fibers as coarse or fine?</p>
+
+<p>2. How do the fibers feel to touch?</p>
+
+<p>3. Test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them.</p>
+
+<p>4. Measure the length of several fibers.</p>
+
+<p>5. Why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them?</p>
+
+<p>6. Extend the fiber to its full length, then release. How does
+this prove the fiber to be elastic?</p>
+
+<p>7. Examine the fibers under the microscope. Describe. Notice
+that the wool fiber is cylindrical in shape. Notice that it is
+covered with scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof
+or the spines of a pine cone.</p>
+
+<p>8. Hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward. With
+the spines of the other pointing downward press the second cone
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg&nbsp;275]</a></span>
+down on the first. What happens? Just so the scales or points
+of the wool fibers hook into one another and interlock. These
+scales or serrations give to the wool fiber its chief characteristic
+which is the power of interlocking known as <em>felting</em> or <em>shrinking</em>.</p>
+
+<p>9. See <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_2"><b>2</b></a>, the drawing of a magnified wool fiber.
+Make a drawing of a wool fiber.</p>
+
+<p>10. Examine under the microscope a hair from your head. Wool
+is only a variety of hair. Notice that the scales on the hair lie
+close to the stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber, hence
+hair fibers cannot interlock as wool fibers do. The scales lying
+close to the hair give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster
+a characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>11. Compare the wool fiber with hair, noting two differences.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. With what is the wool fiber covered?</p>
+
+<p>2. Of what advantage are these scales or points?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the chief characteristic of wool?</p>
+
+<p>4. What is meant by the shrinking or felting power?</p>
+
+<p>5. Name five characteristics of the wool fiber.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 9&mdash;Mohair Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.<br />
+Materials: Wool fibers, mohair fibers, sample of mohair brilliantine.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_1"><b>1</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>,
+<a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Pull a mohair fiber from the fleece. Hold it up to the light.
+Describe the fiber as you see it.</p>
+
+<p>2. Hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light.
+Note the differences.</p>
+
+<p>3. Measure several mohair fibers.</p>
+
+<p>4. Examine the mohair fiber under the microscope. The fiber
+is covered with scales, but they lie close to the fiber and do not
+project in points as do the scales on the wool fiber, hence mohair
+will not felt to any degree.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg&nbsp;276]</a></span>
+5. The Angora goat of Asia Minor furnishes the mohair. This
+goat is being raised in the western states of the United States
+now.</p>
+
+<p>6. Detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread;
+a filling thread. Which is mohair? Which is cotton?</p>
+
+<p>7. What word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine?
+the appearance?</p>
+
+<p>8. What are the characteristics of the mohair fiber?</p>
+
+<p>9. What are the uses of mohair? Mohair is used in the manufacture
+of plushes, dress fabrics, and imitation furs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why will mohair not felt as wool does?</p>
+
+<p>2. The scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on
+the surface of the fiber?</p>
+
+<p>3. What effect will a smooth surface have on light?</p>
+
+<p>4. What characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that
+the smooth surface reflects light?</p>
+
+<p>5. From what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity?</p>
+
+<p>6. Where is mohair being grown in the United States?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 10&mdash;Cotton Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.<br />
+Materials: Tuft of cotton fibers, cotton ball, seeds.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, chapter <a href="#Page_105"><b>ix</b></a>, page <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and
+thumb of each hand and pull apart with a jerk. What is your
+judgment of the strength of the <em>staple</em> (fiber)?</p>
+
+<p>2. Loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled
+apart. What is the feel of cotton? the appearance as you hold
+it to the light?</p>
+
+<p>3. Detach several fibers one by one. How does the length compare
+with that of the wool and mohair? Measure and record the
+length of three fibers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg&nbsp;277]</a></span>
+4. How do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers?</p>
+
+<p>5. Compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool.</p>
+
+<p>6. Examine the cotton fibers under the microscope. Observe
+that the enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon. When the
+fiber was growing it was cylindrical in shape. When ripe the plant
+drew back its life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and
+twisted like a corkscrew. The twist is peculiar to the cotton,
+being present in no other fiber. The twist makes the cotton fiber
+suitable for spinning, helping to hold the short fibers together.</p>
+
+<p>7. Read of the cotton plant from <i>Textiles</i>, chapter <a href="#Page_105"><b>ix</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>8. The four chief cotton producing countries are the United
+States, Egypt, India, Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>9. There are several classifications of cotton. The most common
+are Sea Island (in the lead); Egyptian (a close second);
+Uplands (that of the United States, southern part); and Peruvian.</p>
+
+<p>10. Uplands is the most common cotton of our South.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recognized
+under the microscope?</p>
+
+<p>2. Why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spinning?</p>
+
+<p>3. What are the characteristics of the cotton fiber?</p>
+
+<p>4. Why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber?</p>
+
+<p>5. Name the chief cotton producing countries.</p>
+
+<p>6. What are the most common classifications of cotton?</p>
+
+<p>7. What is the finest growth of cotton? (Sea Island commands
+at the present time $1.00 a lb., while Middling Uplands brings
+15 cents.)</p>
+
+<p>8. Where is cotton known as Upland Cotton grown?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 11&mdash;Silk Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Tripod, alcohol lamp, small pan of water, lead pencil.<br />
+Material: Silk cocoon.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, chapter <a href="#Page_203"><b>xvii</b></a>, page <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg&nbsp;278]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Place the cocoon in a small pan of water. Apply heat to the
+pan until the water boils. The cocoon is placed in hot water to
+soften the glue which holds the fibers together.</p>
+
+<p>2. Remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled. This
+tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called <em>floss</em>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends. Unwind
+carefully until you find a continuous end. Wind or <em>reel</em> the
+silk fiber over a lead pencil.</p>
+
+<p>4. The silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers.</p>
+
+<p>5. Hold the cocoon to the light as you reel. How does the silk
+fiber compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers?</p>
+
+<p>6. The silk fiber is from 1000 to 4000 feet long. Unlike the other
+fibers the silk fiber is already a thread.</p>
+
+<p>7. How does light effect the silk fiber? When the gum is thoroughly
+washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief
+characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>8. Break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity.
+Notice how the fiber springs back. Extend and release again.
+What characteristic does this illustrate?</p>
+
+<p>9. Examine the silk fiber under the microscope. Notice that
+it is round and smooth and resembles a glass rod. It shows what
+appear to be two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same
+time that the fiber was formed. Describe the silk fiber as it
+appears under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>10. Silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw
+silk and thus exported.</p>
+
+<p>11. The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk.
+It is handled here first by the <em>throwster</em> who winds it from the skein
+and makes different varieties of thread.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is known as floss?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is meant by silk reeling?</p>
+
+<p>4. What can you say of the length of the silk fiber?</p>
+
+<p>5. In what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg&nbsp;279]</a></span>
+6. What is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber?</p>
+
+<p>7. What are other characteristics of the silk fiber?</p>
+
+<p>8. In what form is silk exported?</p>
+
+<p>9. In what countries is most of the raw silk produced? (See
+<i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>10. With what does the silk manufacture in the United States
+begin?</p>
+
+<p>11. Who is the <em>throwster</em> and what is his work?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 12&mdash;Linen Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Microscope.<br />
+Material: Flax fibers.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, chapter <a href="#Page_193"><b>xv</b></a>, page <a href="#Page_193"><b>193</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. The linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant. Certain fibers,
+such as flax, jute, and ramie, are obtained from the stem of the
+plant, hence are known as <em>bast</em> fibers, and flax is the most important
+bast fiber.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody
+part of the stem. The process is called <em>retting</em>, which is really
+rotting by soaking the stem in water.</p>
+
+<p>3. Before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the
+plant they undergo the processes of beating, breaking, scutching,
+hackling, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. Read the account of each process. See <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_194"><b>194</b></a>,
+<a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>5. Measure and record the length of two linen fibers.</p>
+
+<p>6. Test the strength by trying to break the fiber.</p>
+
+<p>7. Test for elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>8. What is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the
+light?</p>
+
+<p>9. What is the color of the fiber? What is the process called by
+which linen is whitened? (Bleaching.)</p>
+
+<p>10. Examine the flax fibers under the microscope. Observe that
+the fibers look like long cylindrical tubes. Describe the appearance
+of linen fibers under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>11. The best flax is grown in Belgium and Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg&nbsp;280]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. From what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained?</p>
+
+<p>2. Name some bast fibers.</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the most important bast fiber?</p>
+
+<p>4. What is retting?</p>
+
+<p>5. For what purpose is linen subjected to retting?</p>
+
+<p>6. Through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before
+it is free?</p>
+
+<p>7. Where is the best flax grown?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 13&mdash;Carding</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: A pair of hand cards.<br />
+Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a> and
+<a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine the hand cards. Notice that there is a foundation
+of several layers of leather. Notice that this foundation is covered
+with staples of steel wire. Notice that the staples are shaped like
+the letter U with the points turned one way. The covering of
+the hand cards is called <em>card clothing</em>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Hold one hand card in the left hand, face up, wires pointing
+to the left. Spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card.</p>
+
+<p>3. Hold the other card in the right hand, face down, with the
+wires pointing to the right. Bring the pointed wires of this card
+down on the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the
+other card. Repeat several times.</p>
+
+<p>4. You have been <em>carding</em> wool. The sharp points have been
+tearing the wool apart or disentangling the fibers. Carding brushes
+the fibers out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel. It
+forms them into a thin sheet.</p>
+
+<p>5. The wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently
+disentangled for drawing and spinning. In order to card again
+the hand card must be <em>stripped</em> of the wool so that it may be
+dragged again through the staples.</p>
+
+<p>6. Hold the hand card, which is in your right hand, erect.
+Notice that the wires point downward. Move the other hand
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg&nbsp;281]</a></span>
+downward over the wires. Notice that the surface is smooth.
+The points do not prick as they will if you try to brush the hand
+upwards over the wires.</p>
+
+<p>7. Hold the card in the left hand in a similar position. Raise
+and bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface
+of the other card and strip it of its wool.</p>
+
+<p>8. Card again, then strip again. Repeat several times until
+the fibers are thoroughly disentangled.</p>
+
+<p>9. This carding and stripping, once done by hand, is now done in
+the mill by a power machine called the <em>card</em>. (See picture, <i>Textiles</i>,
+page <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.) Notice that instead of cards this machine consists of
+rollers or cylinders. Some are carding cylinders and some are
+stripping cylinders. The principle is the same as that of the hand
+cards. The wool is carded and stripped again and again and is
+finally delivered in a soft, fluffy rope called a <em>sliver</em> ready for drawing
+and spinning.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is the covering of the hand card called?</p>
+
+<p>2. Describe card clothing.</p>
+
+<p>3. What does carding do to the wool?</p>
+
+<p>4. When the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed
+wires of another cylinder what is the action on the wool?</p>
+
+<p>5. If the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface
+of another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder?</p>
+
+<p>6. In what form does the wool finally leave the machine? What
+name is given to this fluffy rope?</p>
+
+<p>7. How was carding done in the early days? How is it done
+now?</p>
+
+<p>8. In what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as
+that of the card of the mill?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 14&mdash;Drawing and Spinning</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Foot-rule, elastic band.<br />
+Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_4"><b>4</b></a>, <a href="#Page_44"><b>44</b></a>,
+<a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>; Sections: Spinning: Mule Spinning.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg&nbsp;282]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Observe the mass of wool fibers. The wool was clipped from
+the sheep, <em>washed</em>, and <em>oiled</em> to make it smooth and pliable.</p>
+
+<p>2. With the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool
+fibers. In the mill this is done by a machine called the <em>card</em>. (See
+picture, <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.) And the process itself is called <em>carding</em>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Gently <em>draw</em> out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it
+into one long strand.</p>
+
+<p>4. Draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to
+break.</p>
+
+<p>5. This process in the mill is known as <em>drawing</em>. The wool
+passes through machine after machine, which gradually reduces
+the thickness of the strand.</p>
+
+<p>6. You have now a strand called <em>roving</em>, but not a thread with
+which you could weave. What is called the strand? Why could
+you not weave with it as it is? If you pulled the roving apart it
+would separate into a number of small ends. What name is given
+to these ends?</p>
+
+<p>7. It is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread. Hold
+the roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers
+out several inches. As you draw, twist the roving between the
+fingers and thumb. The <em>twisting</em> is called <em>spinning</em>.</p>
+
+<p>8. When you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end
+of a foot-rule, do so. Give a whirl to the ruler, which is taking the
+place of the old-time <em>spindle</em>, and let it drop. Continue to whirl
+the ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting. When
+well twisted, wind the yarn on the ruler. There was a hook on the
+old-time spindle. Instead of the hook, hold the wound yarn in
+place by an elastic band. Draw out several inches again and
+repeat.</p>
+
+<p>9. With the spindle a <em>distaff</em> was used. It held the roving which
+you now hold in your left hand. (See <a href="#Page_254"><b>picture</b></a> of distaff and spindle.)</p>
+
+<p>10. Define spinning; see <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_4"><b>4</b></a>, footnote. The early
+use of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day. In what two
+ways is the spindle of use?</p>
+
+<p>11. The improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning
+wheel. Now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg&nbsp;283]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. After shearing, through what two processes does wool pass?</p>
+
+<p>2. Why is it necessary to oil wool?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the work of the <em>card</em>?</p>
+
+<p>4. Explain the process called <em>drawing</em>. Why is it necessary to
+repeat the operation several times?</p>
+
+<p>5. What followed the distaff and spindle in the development of
+spinning?</p>
+
+<p>6. On what is the spinning done now in the mill? See <i>Textiles</i>,
+picture, pages <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 15&mdash;Gilling and Combing</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Coarse comb, fine comb.<br />
+Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_39"><b>39-44</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Open up the wool a little with the fingers. Do this in place
+of carding, as you need but a small quantity.</p>
+
+<p>2. You comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel, side by side,
+in place. Combs are used on wool for just the same purpose, but
+the first process of combing is not known as such. It is called
+<em>gilling</em>, and the combs themselves are called <em>fallers</em>. The machines
+are known as <em>gill boxes</em>. See <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the
+strand. With the coarse comb in the right hand, comb and thus
+straighten the fibers first at one end then at the other. This is
+<em>gilling</em>. The principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more
+nearly parallel and to draw them out into more even strands.</p>
+
+<p>4. The coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel. A fine comb
+will further straighten the hairs, but it will also remove the snarled,
+tangled, short hairs. Again wool is to be treated like hair. Hold
+the strand in the middle as before. Comb each end with the fine
+comb. Notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and
+leaving the long fibers between the fingers. This is the second
+process of combing, and is called <em>combing</em>.</p>
+
+<p>5. The long fibers are called <em>tops</em> and the short fibers are known
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg&nbsp;284]</a></span>
+as <em>noils</em>.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Combing is the process which separates the long fibers
+known as <em>tops</em> from the short fibers known as <em>noils</em>.</p>
+
+<p>6. The combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one.
+See picture, <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>7. Gill and comb several strands of wool.</p>
+
+<p>8. Top is too delicate, as it comes from the comb, to be handled.
+The next process is to combine several strands into one. Combine
+the several strands you have gilled and combed. Comb this one
+end with the coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are perfectly
+parallel.</p>
+
+<p>9. You gilled, combed, and gilled again. So it is in the mill.
+After combing, the wool is gilled again by machines known as
+<em>finisher gill boxes</em>, and wound into a ball called <em>a top</em>.</p>
+
+<p>10. <em>A top</em> differs from <em>top</em>. <em>Top</em> is the strand of long fibers which
+comes from the comb. <em>A top</em> is the ball of combed wool as it comes
+from the finisher gill boxes. It weighs from 7 to 12 lbs. and contains
+200 to 250 yds.</p>
+
+<p>11. The wool is now ready for the next processes&mdash;those of drawing
+and spinning.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is the hair combed? Why is wool combed?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the first process of combing called? What name is
+given to the combs used in gilling? What are the machines called?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the principle of gilling?</p>
+
+<p>4. How does a fine comb act on the hair?</p>
+
+<p>5. When you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened?</p>
+
+<p>6. What are the long fibers called? the short? Of which are there
+more?</p>
+
+<p>7. What is the second process of combing called?</p>
+
+<p>8. Why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one
+end?</p>
+
+<p>9. Why is it necessary to gill again after combing?</p>
+
+<p>10. In what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill
+boxes?</p>
+
+<p>11. What is a top?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg&nbsp;285]</a></span>
+12. What two processes follow carding?</p>
+
+<p>13. For what two processes is wool now ready?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 16&mdash;Raw Wool to Yarn</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hand cards, coarse and fine combs, pencil.<br />
+Material: Scoured wool.<br />
+Reference: The preceding experiments.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. This wool has already been subjected to the three operations
+of shearing, scouring, and oiling.</p>
+
+<p>2. Card the wool. What does carding do to the wool?</p>
+
+<p>3. Strip the cards. Rub the sheet of fibers between the palms
+of the hands into the form of a strand. It is in this form that it
+leaves the card of the mill, and it is known as a <em>sliver</em> of wool.</p>
+
+<p>4. Pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform
+upon it the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse
+comb.</p>
+
+<p>5. Follow the gilling by the operation of <em>combing</em>, which you will
+do by combing again, this time with a fine comb.</p>
+
+<p>6. Pull about three inches again from the sliver. Continue to
+gill and comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and
+combed.</p>
+
+<p>7. Combine several strands into one and subject the one strand
+to a second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side
+by side.</p>
+
+<p>8. Gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known
+as top. As you draw, spin. As you spin, wind on a lead pencil.
+The fineness of the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and
+twisting.</p>
+
+<p>9. What is the source of wool? You began with wool, covering
+of the sheep&rsquo;s body, and after subjecting it to a series of operations
+you have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving.</p>
+
+<p>10. Name the operations in order, through which raw wool
+passes before it finally becomes yarn.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg&nbsp;286]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What are the first three processes through which wool passes?
+What is shearing? scouring?</p>
+
+<p>2. Why is wool oiled?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is meant by a sliver of wool?</p>
+
+<p>4. What does gilling do to the wool?</p>
+
+<p>5. What does combing do to the wool?</p>
+
+<p>6. Why is there another operation of gilling after combing?</p>
+
+<p>7. What is meant by <em>drawing</em>? <em>spinning</em>?</p>
+
+<p>8. What name is given to the wool wound on the pencil?</p>
+
+<p>9. On what does the fineness of the yarn depend?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 17&mdash;Difference between Woolen
+and Worsted Yarn</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass.<br />
+Materials: Sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a> and <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn
+from either the warp or filling. Do the same with a piece of woolen
+fabric. Notice the appearance of each piece of yarn. Which is
+smoother? What effect would friction have on the worsted yarn?
+the woolen yarn? Which sample of yarn would shine and reflect
+the light?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 18&mdash;Burling and Mending</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Chalk, scissors, dissecting pin, needle, pick glass.<br />
+Material: 4 square inches of cloth from the loom.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product.
+It must pass through several processes before it is finished. These
+processes are known as <em>finishing</em>.</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the feel of this cloth?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg&nbsp;287]</a></span>
+3. Hold the cloth to the light and look through it. Note the
+imperfections and chalk them. What defects did you notice?</p>
+
+<p>4. Place the cloth on the desk, face down. Rub the fingers over
+the back of the cloth. When the fingers locate a knot, raise it with
+the dissecting needle to be cut off later.</p>
+
+<p>5. Reverse the cloth. Rub the fingers over the face. When
+a knot is found, force it through to the back with the dissecting
+needle. All the knots are on one side now. Clip them off with the
+scissors. This is called <em>burling</em> and is the first process of finishing.</p>
+
+<p>6. Hold the cloth to the light. Notice where an entire filling
+thread is missing. This is known as a <em>full miss pick</em>. When part
+of a filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a <em>half miss pick</em>. In
+general what does a miss pick mean?</p>
+
+<p>7. Unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth.
+With it thread a needle and replace the missing pick. Follow the
+weave closely, using a pick glass as an aid. You are performing
+the second process of finishing, that of mending.</p>
+
+<p>8. If a warp end is missing replace it.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is meant by <em>finishing</em>?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the first process of finishing? What is burling?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is a full miss pick? a half miss pick?</p>
+
+<p>4. What is the second process of finishing? What is mending?
+Of what must the mender be careful?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 19&mdash;Removal of Stains</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Material: Stained fabrics.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Textiles are easily stained, therefore it is necessary to know something
+about the character of stains and the methods of removal.
+Stains may be roughly divided into the following classes:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> Stains from foods, such as grease and fruit acids.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Stains from machinery, as wheel grease and oils.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Blood stains.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Inks.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Chemicals, such as acids, alkalies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg&nbsp;288]</a></span>
+meat, milk, etc., or to sugar contained in candies or preserves, or
+to fruit acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces.</p>
+
+<p>Wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts
+of machines, like elevators, street cars, etc. After the cloth leaves
+the loom it often contains spots of grease, oil, or dirt stains due to
+drippings from the loom or overhead machinery. These are
+removed by means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain.
+Ether is the principal solvent used in the mill to remove small
+stains.</p>
+
+<p>Very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat,
+unless carried out of a house, will condense and settle on fabrics
+in the form of a film which collects a great deal of dust. (A bad
+grease spot usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation.)
+In order to break up this film it is necessary to separate the
+entangled dust. This is performed by some mechanical means,
+such as shaking and brushing.</p>
+
+<p>The most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle
+of absorbent material<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> around the spot to take up the excess of
+liquid. A white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb
+the solvent and show when the goods are clean. Then apply the
+solvent with a cloth of the same color and texture (satin is excellent
+as it does not grow linty) and rub from outside the spot to
+the center to prevent spreading. It is necessary to rub very
+carefully as excessive rubbing will remove the nap and change
+the color. One of the great dangers in removing a stain is
+that you may spoil the fabric. Therefore great care must be
+exercised.</p>
+
+<p>The principal solvents are ether, chloroform, alcohol, turpentine,
+benzene, and naphtha. Each solvent may be used to best advantage
+on certain fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg&nbsp;289]</a></span>
+that leave a brown ring after evaporation. This brown ring is
+very objectionable. Turpentine is used only in removing stains
+from coarse fabrics. Chloroform, benzene, and naphtha are used
+on ordinary silks and linens. Ether and chloroform are used to
+best advantage in removing stains from delicate silk, as they seldom
+affect colors and evaporate very quickly. Of course it must
+be borne in mind that when a stain is removed from a fabric that
+portion that contained the stain loses some coloring matter and feels
+rougher than the other part.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Grease Spots on Heavy Goods that cannot be Laundered</i></h4>
+
+<p>It is usually desirable to use the following method in removing
+grease from a heavy fabric, such as carpets or colored fabrics. In
+case the grease is fresh, place over the stain a piece of clean blotting
+paper or a piece of butcher&rsquo;s brown wrapping paper and underneath
+absorbent paper or oil cloth, and then press the spot with a warm
+iron. As heat often affects the shades of certain colors such as
+blues, greens, and reds, it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric
+and see if the grease is melted.</p>
+
+<p>Remove a stain from a piece of carpet.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Removal of Grease and Blood</i></h4>
+
+<p><i>Ordinary Fabrics (wash goods).</i> Wash the fabric containing grease
+or blood stain with tepid water and soap.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delicate Fabrics.</i> As strong soap will spoil some colors and textures
+it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is
+stained.</p>
+
+<p>Remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Removal of Wheel Grease and Lubricants on Fine Fabrics</i></h4>
+
+<p>Wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite. Apply benzene
+to the wheel grease spot. This will dissolve the oil, leaving the
+coloring matter (graphite) on the cloth, and this may be collected
+on the white cloth on the other side.</p>
+
+<p>Remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg&nbsp;290]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Removal of Acids</i></h4>
+
+<p>Fruit acids and all others, except nitric acid may be removed
+by putting ammonia on the spot. This will neutralize the acid,
+forming a salt which may be either brushed or washed off. In
+the case of nitric acid the fibers of the cloth are actually destroyed
+and no amount of ammonia will restore the original condition of
+the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>Remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Removal of Blood</i></h4>
+
+<p>Blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with
+cold or tepid water. Never use hot water, as hot water coagulates
+the albumen of the blood. After removing the blood soap and
+warm water may be used. In case the fabric is a thick cloth, the
+blood may be removed by applications of moist starch.</p>
+
+<p>Take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids,
+soup, wheel grease, ink, and blood and remove them. Exercise
+great care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring.</p>
+
+<p>Remove blood from a fabric.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is a solvent? an absorbent?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from
+silks, coarse goods, and linens? from delicate silks?</p>
+
+<p>3. Why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain?</p>
+
+<p>4. How may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods?</p>
+
+<p>5. What is wheel grease? How may it be removed?</p>
+
+<p>6. How will ammonia remove acid stains?</p>
+
+<p>7. Does it remove all? Why not?</p>
+
+<p>8. Explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 20&mdash;Dyeing Wool</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Large porcelain dish or casserole, filter.<br />
+Materials: Undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric, undyed yarn, and undyed raw cloth.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg&nbsp;291]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
+ounce of diamond dye (green or red) in a quart of water. Filter
+the solution. Place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid
+and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice
+whether the dyestuff washes off or not.</p>
+
+<p>2. Repeat the experiment, using the same weight of undyed
+woolen yarn. Repeat with worsted yarn.</p>
+
+<p>3. Repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver.</p>
+
+<p>4. Notice which has the deeper color. The degree of color
+depends on the amount of twist in yarn. Which sample has
+absorbed the greatest amount of dyestuff from the liquid?</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> Why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or yarn
+dyed?</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 21&mdash;Dyeing Cotton</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.<br />
+Material: Piece of cotton cloth.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
+ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
+Place a piece of cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes.
+Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff
+washes off or not.</p>
+
+<p>2. Repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth
+that has been previously washed in common alum.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Note the
+effect. Which has the greater attraction for dyestuffs, cotton or
+wool? Why is alum used?</p>
+
+<p>3. Repeat the same experiment, using first the same weight of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg&nbsp;292]</a></span>
+cotton yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver. Notice
+the results.</p>
+
+<p>Which piece of cotton holds the dye best, that which was dipped
+in alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 22&mdash;Weighting Silk.&mdash;Affinity of Metallic
+Salts for Silk</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dishes.<br />
+Material: Silk yarn.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_212"><b>212-214</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein
+No. 1 by looping some cotton thread into it. Prepare a tepid
+bath containing 10 gm. strong sumach extract in 400 cc. water.
+Enter the skeins of silk and work for 15 to 20 minutes, meanwhile
+slowly raising the temperature to about 150&deg; F. Remove, squeeze,
+rinse with water, squeeze, and dry skein No. 1 for weighing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Meanwhile prepare another bath containing 4 gm. of copperas
+(ferrous sulphate) in 400 cc. cold water. Work skein No. 2 in
+bath for 10 minutes cold. Remove, and rinse well; save the iron
+bath. Repeat the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several
+times more, finally wash the sumach iron skein in 1 per cent hot
+soap solution; rinse, squeeze, and dry. Weigh each dried and
+cooled skein and note the increase in weight of each. Save
+sample for Experiment <a href="#Page_292"><b>23</b></a> and note the effect of weighting on the
+yarn.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 23&mdash;Dyeing Silk</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.<br />
+Material: Piece of silk yarn.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
+ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
+Place a piece of silk skein, from Experiment <a href="#Page_292"><b>22</b></a>, in the liquid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg&nbsp;293]</a></span>
+and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed silk and notice
+whether the dyestuff washes off or not.</p>
+
+<p>2. Repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk
+yarn without weighing it. Compare the results.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 24&mdash;Test to Distinguish Piece-Dyed from
+Yarn-Dyed Fabric</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pen knife.<br />
+Materials: Woolen and cotton fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_66"><b>66-68</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Unravel threads of the suspected sample, and with a blade of
+pen knife note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the
+yarn as noted by the depth of color in the interior of the yarn.
+In case there is the same depth of color in the interior as on
+the surface, the fabric is yarn-dyed. If on the other hand, the
+interior of the yarn is not so highly colored as the exterior, it is
+piece-dyed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is meant by yarn-dyed fabric?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is meant by piece-dyed fabric?</p>
+
+<p>3. How may the two be distinguished?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 25&mdash;Test to Distinguish Dyed from
+Printed Fabrics</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Knife-blade.<br />
+Materials: Cotton fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing
+the back side of the cloth, and noting whether or not the pattern
+on the face of the cloth penetrates through to the back, or only the
+outline shows. In case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the
+fabric, it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread
+of the suspected sample, and by the means of a knife-blade attempting
+to scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread. If the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg&nbsp;294]</a></span>
+dyestuff has penetrated into the interior of the thread, it is <em>not</em>
+printed.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics
+by the fact that the former have the design printed on the face of
+the cloth. This is called <em>direct printing</em>. The best dyed fabrics
+are obtained by dyeing in what is called a <em>jig</em>, and the whole fabric
+is saturated with color. Most, if not all the cloths which you see
+in the retail dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in
+the jig. Some of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded
+in a mangle, but there has been a very small quantity of these goods
+on the market for many years.</p>
+
+<p>Printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics; it all depends
+upon the process by which the goods are converted. Within the
+past few years great headway has been made in dyeing with what
+are termed <em>vat</em> colors. Indanthrene is a vat color and a great many
+mills have used this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades.
+This is what would be termed a <em>fast</em> color in every sense of the word.
+There are a number of dyestuff makers in Europe who put vat
+colors on the market, but they all call them by different names.
+Vat colors have been used with success in printing during the past
+year or two, especially on shirting fabrics, and these colors are
+fast to both light and washing. Most direct colors used for printing
+or dyeing are equally fast to light and washing, but of course they
+will not stand the test as well as the vat colors mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>The essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to
+withstand exposure to light and washing. In printing, of course,
+a greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dyeing,
+in fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the
+market the effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in
+any other way than by printing. At the same time, although the
+field in designing for dyed fabrics is limited, some very handsome
+effects can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>It will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed
+and dyed fabrics put on the market, both foreign and domestic,
+will be in the vat colors which, as stated above, are very fast.
+Even at the present time there are many mills that are using
+this class of colors entirely, especially the mills which manufacture
+woven fabrics.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg&nbsp;295]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. In printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the
+back of the cloth?</p>
+
+<p>2. If the fabric is printed on both sides, how may this fact be
+proved?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 26&mdash;Bleaching by Sulphur Dioxide</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: A quart bottle.<br />
+Material: Sulphur, worsted or silk fabric.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers
+such as woolen and silk fabrics. It injures the fibers and at the
+same time leaves them yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous
+solution of sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning
+sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>Wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a
+quart bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> The fumes
+of burning sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter&mdash;dyestuff.
+The fumes (called sulphur dioxide) do not in most cases destroy
+the coloring matter as chlorine does, but simply combine with
+it to form colorless compounds which can be destroyed. The
+color can be restored by exposing the bleached fabric to dilute
+sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be
+bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes?</p>
+
+<p>2. What becomes of the coloring matter?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 27&mdash;Bleaching by Bleaching Powder</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish.<br />
+Material: Piece of calico.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg&nbsp;296]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart
+bottle containing a pint of water.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Then place a piece of calico in
+the water containing the bleaching powder. What is the effect
+on the calico? Then remove cloth to another bottle filled with
+dilute hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. What is the effect
+on the color? Then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in
+water.</p>
+
+<p>Why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through
+two baths in bleaching? What is contained in the first bath?
+in the second bath?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 30&mdash;Determining Style of Weave</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass.<br />
+Materials: Different fabrics.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_56"><b>56-58</b></a>, etc.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Examine different samples of cloth and classify them according
+to the seven standards given on pages <a href="#Page_56"><b>56-58</b></a>, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 31&mdash;Determining the Size of Yarn</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Yard stick.<br />
+Materials: Sample of cotton, woolen, and worsted yarns.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a>,
+<a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>As yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of
+thickness, it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring
+this thickness. For this purpose yarns are numbered, so that
+when the number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may
+be gained. It would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg&nbsp;297]</a></span>
+according to one fixed standard, yet unfortunately this is not done.
+The methods of counting yarns are many and varied. The usual
+method is to estimate the yarn number by taking the number of
+hands of a definite length which make up some given weight.
+Thus in the worsted yarn, No. 1 is a yarn that has 560 yards to
+a pound. No. 2 worsted yarn has two times 560 yards to a
+pound. How many yards in No. 12 worsted yarn? How many
+yards in No. 20 cotton yarn?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 32&mdash;Test for Twist in Yarn</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Test dial.<br />
+Material: Piece of yarn.<br />
+References: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_131"><b>131-132</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>As the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength, it is
+necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn.
+The strength increases up to a certain limit. When this limit is
+reached, increased twist does not make the thread any stronger.
+We may also have twist and strength at the expense of bulk.
+The test consists in finding out the number of turns per inch, and
+this is done by an arrangement where a certain length of yarn is
+stretched between two points on a twisting machine and the twist
+taken out. The number of turns required to take the twist completely
+out are registered on a dial at the side of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>Poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine
+as the finer cotton. The shorter the cotton the more twist is
+required to spin it, and the more twist that is put into the yarn,
+the less will be the yardage. Whereas on the finer and longer
+cotton there will be less twist put into it, and the yarn will be
+much stronger. Find the twist in different kinds of yarn.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 33&mdash;Determining the Direction of
+Warp and Filling</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Microscope.<br />
+Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>When one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine
+the direction of the warp and direction of the filling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg&nbsp;298]</a></span>
+Fabrics with Selvedge.&mdash;Examine any fabric with a selvedge
+and notice that the warp threads run in the same direction as
+the length (longest side) of the selvedge. What direction will
+the filling threads bear to the selvedge?</p>
+
+<p>Fabrics with a Nap.&mdash;Examine a piece of flannel and notice
+the direction of the nap. Why will the direction of the nap be
+the same as the direction of the warp? Remember the way in
+which the fabric enters the napping machine.</p>
+
+<p>Fabrics Containing Double Threads.&mdash;Examine a fabric containing
+double and single threads and notice that the warp contains
+the double threads. Why?</p>
+
+<p>Fabrics Containing Cotton and Woolen Yarn.&mdash;Examine a
+fabric containing cotton and woolen threads running in different
+directions and notice that the cotton threads form the warp.
+Why?</p>
+
+<p>Another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine
+warp and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains
+the greater twist? Why? See if they are separated at more
+regular intervals. Why?</p>
+
+<p>Stiffened or Starched Fabrics.&mdash;Examine stiffened or starched
+goods very closely and notice the threads. If only one set can be
+seen they are the warp threads. The stiffer and straighter
+threads are found in the warp. Why? The rough and crooked
+threads are seen in the filling.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 34&mdash;Determining the Density of a Fabric</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass.<br />
+Materials: Samples of cloth.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine different samples of cloth and determine the number
+of filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass.</p>
+
+<p>2. Then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and
+see whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg&nbsp;299]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Experiment 35&mdash;Determining Weight</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Balances, die.<br />
+Materials: 4 square inches of cloth.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Fabrics are bought and sold by the yard. In order to express
+the amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per
+yard is usually given.</p>
+
+<p>2. In order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth
+of definite size, usually about 4 sq. in., is stamped out by means of
+a die, or cut by means of a tin plate exactly 4 sq. in. (2 in. on the
+side). This is then weighed on very accurate balances and expressed
+in grains. Find the weight per yard. Remember 7000
+grains equal 1 lb.; 16 oz. equal 1 lb.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 36&mdash;Determining Shrinkage</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hot water.<br />
+Material: Sample of woolen fabric.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour
+hot water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it
+in the morning at a moderate temperature without stretching.
+Then measure its length and divide the difference in lengths by
+the original length. The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the
+per cent of shrinkage.</p>
+
+<p>2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with
+a cotton fabric.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 37&mdash;Test of Fastness<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> of Color under Washing</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution.<br />
+Materials: Cotton and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg&nbsp;300]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action
+of washing. They require more care than white goods and should
+be soaked in cold water containing very little soap and no soda.
+They should be dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them.
+If it is necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are
+dried wrong side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five
+times as much as reflected light.</p>
+
+<p>2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well
+as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing
+operation. In order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should
+be placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary
+household, and heated to 131&deg; F. The treatment should be
+repeated several times.</p>
+
+<p>3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods
+than white?</p>
+
+<p>2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand
+the action of soap solution?</p>
+
+<p>3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131&deg; F.) affect the
+fastness of colored fabric?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 38&mdash;Test of Fastness of Color under Friction</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.<br />
+Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended
+to be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand
+friction and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed
+materials must not give off their color when worn next to the human
+epidermis (skin), or in close contact with other articles of clothing,
+as in the case of underwear.</p>
+
+<p>In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg&nbsp;301]</a></span>
+necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton
+fabric.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary
+to have the rubbing equal in all cases.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is meant by friction?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is meant by the expression &ldquo;fastness of color of two
+fabrics&rdquo;?</p>
+
+<p>3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to
+withstand friction?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 39&mdash;Test of Fastness of Color against Rain</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.<br />
+Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc.,
+are expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting
+with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice
+whether the color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.</p>
+
+<p>Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on
+it. Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried.
+Spotting may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong
+side of the material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp,
+unroll and press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.</p>
+
+<p>Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain
+may come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color
+and becomes gray and dull.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 40&mdash;Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Cardboard.<br />
+Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg&nbsp;302]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard.
+Expose the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine
+the cloth each day and notice whether the part exposed has
+changed in color when compared with the part covered. Count
+the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change the color.
+Does direct sunlight have any effect upon colored fabrics? Which
+is the most affected by the sun, silk, woolen, or cotton fabrics,
+dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length of time? Are fabrics
+changed any sooner by the sun than by the weather?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 41&mdash;Test of Fastness of Color to Weather,
+Light, and Air</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air
+by placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed
+to the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above
+away from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed
+to the weather with those in the house and note the number of
+days it takes to change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the
+fabrics are most easily affected by the weather, light, and air?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 42&mdash;Test of Fastness of Color against
+Street Mud and Dust</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.<br />
+Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Ladies&rsquo; dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud
+and dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample
+should be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution),
+dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of
+soda, drying, brushing, and noting any change in the color.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg&nbsp;303]</a></span>
+<i>a.</i> Is there any change in color after the lime water has been
+removed from the cloth?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> With what may the action of the lime water or soda be
+compared?</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 43&mdash;Testing Rubberized Fabrics</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Rubberized fabrics.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic
+purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excellent
+rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the
+market that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing
+qualities for the service they are intended to render.</p>
+
+<p>Strength and Resistance to Scratching.&mdash;In order to test a rubberized
+fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand
+everyday use, see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail.
+Then crease it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread
+it out very carefully and notice whether there are any broken
+places. If there are it should be rejected.</p>
+
+<p>Waterproof Qualities.&mdash;A rubberized fabric should be waterproof.
+A sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and
+filling it with water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with
+water. Notice whether it cracks or leaks.</p>
+
+<p>Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they
+are substantial.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 44&mdash;Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Acid, fire.<br />
+Materials: Warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made
+of wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more materials,
+to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience
+can teach one much in this respect, and in many cases inspection
+is quite insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of
+material and notice how it burns.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg&nbsp;304]</a></span>
+Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the
+warp and filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of
+filling yarn. Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether
+it burns slowly and curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable
+smell, or burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Describe the burning process.</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?</p>
+
+<p>Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric
+acid. Apply heat and note the effect.</p>
+
+<p>What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?</p>
+
+<p>What is the acid test for animal fiber?</p>
+
+<p>Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable
+or animal fibers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 45&mdash;Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics</h3>
+
+<p>Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands
+and use both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics
+absorbs the moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.</p>
+
+<p>Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice
+that the linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and
+launders much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other
+hand gives off a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber.
+Linen cannot be given a cotton fabric finish.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg&nbsp;305]</a></span>
+Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm,
+and non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag
+while linen retains firmness and stiffness.</p>
+
+<p>Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?</p>
+
+<p>What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics?
+Between the fibers of the fabrics?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 46&mdash;Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.<br />
+Material: Piece of silk fabric.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular,
+various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real
+silk. To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potassium
+hydrate solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow
+solution it is artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.</p>
+
+<p>Another simple way used by some workmen, although unhygienic,
+is to unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric,
+place them in the mouth, and masticate them vigorously.
+Artificial silk will soften under the operation and break up
+into a mass of pulp. Natural silk will retain its fibrous strength.</p>
+
+<p>Test various samples of cheap &ldquo;silk&rdquo; hosiery.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 47&mdash;Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.<br />
+Material: Silk or woolen fabric.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg&nbsp;306]</a></span>
+Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected
+thread or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk
+is present it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.</p>
+
+<p>Test various samples of silk and wool.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 48&mdash;Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.<br />
+Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are
+made to pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes
+to detect cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb
+and finger, the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If
+the fibers of the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears
+upon the addition of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color
+remains, the fibers are linen. The most reliable test is to examine
+the fiber under the microscope and note the difference in structure.</p>
+
+<p>2. Test a cheap <em>linen</em> fabric for cotton.</p>
+
+<p>3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy
+through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears
+shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and
+wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and
+has an exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>4. Describe a chemical test for linen.</p>
+
+<p>5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities
+of cotton and linen?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 49&mdash;Test of Fabric to Withstand
+Ironing and Pressing</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Hot iron.<br />
+Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot
+iron (about 200&deg; F.). Compare the sample immediately with one
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg&nbsp;307]</a></span>
+not ironed. Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks,
+change while they are hot. If the original shade returns when the
+fabric has cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?</p>
+
+<p>2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?</p>
+
+<p>3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the
+three kinds of fabrics?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 50&mdash;Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish.<br />
+Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact
+with the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand
+the excretions of the body.</p>
+
+<p>2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of
+dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a
+quart of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6&deg; F.
+The fabric should be dipped a number of times, and then dried,
+without rinsing, between parchment paper.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Questions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?</p>
+
+<p>2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration,
+even if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 51&mdash;Test for Determining Dressing</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.<br />
+Materials: Various fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain
+considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg&nbsp;308]</a></span>
+and determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a
+small sample of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it
+together, so that the dressing is removed and the quantity employed
+may be determined. If much dressing has been used, dust
+will be produced in rubbing. Prick the surface with your finger
+nail. Notice whether the starch comes off. Then wet your finger
+and rub it on the cloth and allow it to dry. Does the gloss disappear?</p>
+
+<p>2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and
+notice whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the
+sample with a magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether
+the dressing is superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss
+and pasty look?</p>
+
+<p>4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much
+dressing after washing.</p>
+
+<p>5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting
+in a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then &ldquo;boil the
+fabric out in hot water,&rdquo;&mdash;boiling for several hours and then drying
+it. The difference in weight after drying and before boiling
+gives the weight of sizing material per sample piece.</p>
+
+<p>6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large
+residue is left after burning.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 52&mdash;Testing the Strength of Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Dynamometer.<br />
+Materials: Various fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place
+the two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, holding
+it tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in
+one direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice
+whether one set is very much stronger than the other.</p>
+
+<p>2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an
+instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out
+whether a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg&nbsp;309]</a></span>
+whether it has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are
+of importance in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn
+as shown should at least be strong enough to bear the strain of
+manufacture. The test is made by stretching a hank of yarn
+between the two hooks of a cloth testing machine. The handle at
+the side is now turned, so that the lower hook descends and puts
+a strain on the hank. This strain is increased, and at the same
+time the pointer moves around the dial, which indicates in pounds
+the amount of strain. When the threads of the hank begin to
+break, the strain is released, and the catch at the side keeps the
+pointer in position until the amount of strain is read on the dial.
+The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs is
+shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator
+arranged near the upper hook.</p>
+
+<p>Test different fabrics and yarns.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 53&mdash;Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Pick glass.<br />
+Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and
+notice the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The
+single thread is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each
+other, thus giving the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness.
+Why is hosiery suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread
+of the knitted fabric and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by
+cutting it. Is the yarn intact?</p>
+
+<p>2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying
+the following sketch. (See page <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking
+in the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in
+the threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the
+printed diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen
+that its very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual
+loops that if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to
+return to the normal.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg&nbsp;310]</a></span>
+The essential characteristics of good hose are:</p>
+
+<p>1. That they should be without seams.</p>
+
+<p>2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of
+the wearer.</p>
+
+<p>3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest
+wear comes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex50.png" width="600" height="278" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">ORDINARY WEAVING<br />
+<i>a.</i> Weft. <i>b.</i> Warp.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/tex51.png" width="600" height="142" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">PLAIN STOCKING FABRIC</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The essential characteristics of good underwear are:</p>
+
+<p>1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted
+cloth.</p>
+
+<p>2. It should be porous in a high degree&mdash;whether in winter
+weight or summer weight.</p>
+
+<p>3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing
+machines, with as little bulk as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 54&mdash;Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections
+in Hosiery</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Magnifying glass.<br />
+Materials: Hosiery (seconds).<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, page <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg&nbsp;311]</a></span>
+Examine a piece of hosiery called a <em>second</em>, obtained from a
+hosiery mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are
+present:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p><i>a.</i> Yarn contains thick bits and buns.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Knots are badly tied.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Discolored yarn.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being too
+coarse for the yarn.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 55&mdash;Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Crochet needle.<br />
+Material: Thread.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a
+fabric. Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only
+one thread is made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a
+large needle with a hook at the end. The chief point is that the
+loops are not formed in uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and
+with the greatest liberty to choose any part of the article already
+made to form a new loop. For this reason, crocheting adapts
+itself to the production of fancy patterns useful for ornamenting.</p>
+
+<p>2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting
+that a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a
+single yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks
+of loops, while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of
+which is a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached
+at intervals to itself.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 56&mdash;Characteristics of a Good Piece of
+Cotton Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_151"><b>151-152</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the
+lowest, medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg&nbsp;312]</a></span>
+Notice how quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a
+<em>thick</em> gloss loses its luster after washing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white
+lawn, Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric.
+Wash the samples several times.</p>
+
+<p>Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?</p>
+
+<p>What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 57&mdash;Characteristics of a Good Piece of
+Woolen Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Different samples of woolens.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_71"><b>71-82</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less
+covered face, with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable,
+and the general color effects are much smoother and softer than
+those of worsteds.</p>
+
+<p>2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.</p>
+
+<p>Defects.&mdash;If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from
+the start or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough
+fulled in width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a
+great many fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility
+of such pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 58&mdash;Characteristics of a Good Piece of
+Worsted Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_71"><b>71-82</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Directions</i></h4>
+
+<p>1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of
+the pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is
+exposed to light should show a luster without polish.</p>
+
+<p>2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how
+many conform to the above requirements.</p>
+
+<p>3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg&nbsp;313]</a></span>
+and even looking face. By clean is meant well sheared. By even is
+meant that the individual ends and picks used should be <em>even</em> and not
+full of knots, or of any foreign matter. Of course, there are some exceptions,
+for instance, in an unfinished worsted which has more or
+less nap on the face, it could not be sheared absolutely clear, but
+at the same time, the face should be very evenly cropped.</p>
+
+<p>Defects.&mdash;A serious defect would be if the cloth was not well
+sheared or if it contained many uneven cords and picks, or ends
+and picks missing, or coarse ends and slubs.</p>
+
+<p>Examine different worsteds and notice any defects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Worsteds.</span>&mdash;Speaking generally, worsteds may be divided into
+two classes, distinguishable according to the <em>luster</em> of their surface,
+or to the softness of their feel. They are used both for ladies&rsquo;
+and men&rsquo;s wear. Worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds.
+The coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy
+weave effects for piece dyes, marketed in variety of finish, according
+to fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Under this heading may be classified staple cloths, such as
+serges, clays, and fancy weave effects without any illumination.
+They can be finished in three ways:&mdash;Clear, undressed, and cheviot,
+used for ladies&rsquo; dress goods or men&rsquo;s wear, according to weight.</p>
+
+<p>The finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion, but there
+is always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds, for
+men&rsquo;s wear.</p>
+
+<p>Examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suitings.</span>&mdash;The term suitings covers various manipulations of
+manufactured goods.</p>
+
+<p>1. Tennis suitings, composed of all wool, or all worsted, white or
+cream ground, decorated with solid color, silk and weave stripe
+effects.</p>
+
+<p>2. Piece-dyed worsteds, such as a blue ground with white silk
+line, cable cord, and fancy weave stripe effects, or any other
+ground shade color with its complementary decoration applied.</p>
+
+<p>3. Mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics,
+decorations applied in color; cable, silk, and weave effects in stripes
+or overline color checks, suitable for men&rsquo;s wear, or decorated
+suitable for woman&rsquo;s wear. The darker shades for fall and the
+lighter shades for spring.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg&nbsp;314]</a></span>
+General weight of fabric for men&rsquo;s wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56 in.;
+general weight of fabric for ladies&rsquo; wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd., 54 in.</p>
+
+<p>4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see
+a fancy effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored
+mixture, in loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in
+fancy effects are sometimes fashionable, and at other times the
+cloth finish is popular.</p>
+
+<p>This class may be subdivided into</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>1. Light weight for spring or fall.</p>
+
+<p>2. Heavy weight for winter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in
+lighter colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish
+from worsted or woolen stock for fall.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods,
+such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and
+warmer coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy
+coat is required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.</p>
+
+<p>Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trouserings.</span>&mdash;Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings
+and are heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground
+shade of the better grade of men&rsquo;s wear fabrics is generally composed
+of twist warp yarns, ranging from dark slate gray to light
+lavender gray. An endless variety of broad and narrow fine line
+effects is produced by expert manipulation and combination of
+weave and silk decorations, producing the pleasing effect required
+for this class of goods. The filling is nearly always black; but
+sometimes a dark slate is used.</p>
+
+<p>The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures
+and twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better
+grades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Overcoatings.</span>&mdash;Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted
+fabrics and heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appearance.
+Whether thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be
+elastic fabrics, that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods
+can be. When hard or stiff they never make a graceful garment.
+The special goods made for overcoats are nearly all soft goods.</p>
+
+<p>Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings,
+overcoatings, trouserings, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg&nbsp;315]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Experiment 59&mdash;Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_203"><b>203-218</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The
+consumer is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders
+why there is such a difference in price. The difference in price is
+due to the cost of raw material and additional cost is due to the
+care in manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35
+to $5 a pound according to its nature, quality, and the country
+from which it comes. The cost of throwing silks preparatory to
+dyeing also varies, the average being 55 cents a pound for organzine
+or warp, and 33 cents a pound for tram and filling. The
+prices here also vary according to the nature of the twist imparted
+to the silk, which is regulated by the kind of cloth it is
+to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55 cents a pound
+upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye and the
+treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of dyeing.
+The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items necessary
+with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps average about
+a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths and range
+upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of weaving
+also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric
+and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.</p>
+
+<p>Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for
+weaving the different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly
+in cost; for instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent
+upon the work and the number of colors used, whether it is blotch
+printing, discharge work, or block printing. Different processes
+in finishing have widely varied costs. At the present time moire
+work is done which costs as high as 25 cents per yard. There are
+also other materials which can be finished for as little as &frac12; cent per
+yard. Some goods have to be finished over and over again in the
+dyeing and finishing while others are very simply done. Many
+printed goods are handled 150 times after they come from the
+loom.</p>
+
+<p>When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by
+different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg&nbsp;316]</a></span>
+good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye
+fabrics when burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while
+those which are weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply
+char and turn white without losing the structure of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>A fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal
+weight gives the maximum strength for the amount of material
+used. For the same weight and material, that having the most
+bindings of warp and filling will give the greater service. Fabrics
+with an insufficient number of warp or filling threads slide easily
+and do not give good service, though sometimes fashionable. A
+fabric having a twist in the warp and filling will last longer than
+one using the same amount of silk and the same binding with
+less twist.</p>
+
+<p>All of these things may be taught to women many times over,
+but if the fashion demands an article which breaks all of the
+above laws and is everything that it should not be, they will
+buy it in preference to a serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the
+consumer will be safest in buying goods produced by houses
+of good reputation and whose products are well known.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion
+demand and is quite independent of their cost of production.
+For instance, at the present time cr&ecirc;pe fabrics, brocades, and prints
+are commanding a premium while such goods as plain taffetas
+could not be sold for the cost of production.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones
+are pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 60&mdash;How to Determine the Count of
+Yarn in Cloth</h3>
+
+<p class="ctext">
+Apparatus: Scales, ruler.<br />
+Material: Samples of fabrics.<br />
+Reference: <i>Textiles</i>, pages <a href="#Page_144"><b>144-146</b></a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The United States Government imposes a tax on certain imported
+fabrics and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty
+are to be ascertained according to the average number of the yarns
+in the condition in which it is imported.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg&nbsp;317]</a></span>
+covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if
+continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the
+count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be
+removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of
+the yarn is the English number of 840 yd. to a lb. for a No. 1 yarn.</p>
+
+<p>The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling
+the fabric, and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the
+weight in the proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8<span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">3</span> grains,
+which is equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.</p>
+
+<p>The following simple formula may be used:</p>
+
+<p>Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number
+of square inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied
+by 100; then divide the product thus obtained by the weight of
+the sample in grains multiplied by 432. The quotient will give
+the number of the yarn.</p>
+
+<p>For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which
+equals 16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of
+56 threads to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The
+formula applied would be as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>56 &times; 16 &times; 100 &divide; 8.6 &times; 432 = 24, the number of the yarn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square
+yard of the cloth and dividing the number of threads per square
+inch by <span class="fractop">1</span>/<span class="fracbot">300</span> of the weight per square yard in grains.</p>
+
+<p>Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 61&mdash;Study of Fabrics</h3>
+
+<p>A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard
+fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection
+and know how to test them for adulterants.</p>
+
+<p>This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one
+by one, placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath
+the sample should be written the use of the fabric, the width,
+the different grades, with prices, wearing qualities, and how the
+fabric is made. In connection with this work special effort
+should be made to develop a textile vocabulary so as to be
+able to discriminate between the different fabrics, to know the
+types of weaves, and the different kinds of finish, etc. In this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg&nbsp;318]</a></span>
+way develop the ability to know what materials and colors weave
+best, the prices which should be paid for strong materials, the
+amount of material necessary, and the trade names of fabrics
+which can be depended upon for substantial goods.</p>
+
+<p>Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the
+teacher by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that
+they have previously studied and have them give the name,
+approximate price or grade, weave, qualities, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained
+from the leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should
+have on exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics
+with a card attached giving the name and use of each.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment 62&mdash;How to Examine a Fabric</h3>
+
+<p>The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics
+is the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To
+illustrate: broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap
+evenly laid. If the finish is in keeping with the character of the
+cloth, he next examines the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is
+composed of pure wool or two or more fibers in combination.</p>
+
+<p>Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p>A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well
+dyed. There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain
+this, neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way
+is to take a small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing
+and light test.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a
+pen holder.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained
+from Hammett &amp; Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are called
+<em>tow</em>, and the long fibers <em>line</em>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of liquids;
+they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers&rsquo; earth,
+rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of bread,
+powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used
+to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate fabrics.
+They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from spreading.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that
+will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring
+matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of
+aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by
+placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by
+means of a glass plate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers
+of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been added).
+Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set free,
+which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric acid.
+The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of soda.
+They are called Labarraque&rsquo;s disinfecting fluid. A similar solution of a
+mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de Javelle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from
+<i>Shoemaking</i>, published by Little, Brown &amp; Co., Boston.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth 4
+sq. yd. is 16<i>d.</i> or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is &frac12;<i>d.</i> or 1 ct.
+per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of flax is 6<i>d.</i> or 12 cts.
+per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound of flax is 2&frac12;<i>d.</i> or 5 cts. per
+lb.; cost of bleaching and finishing a pound of flax is 7<i>d.</i> or 14 cts. per
+lb.; $75 is spent in turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in
+turning $100 worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning
+$100 worth of brown linen into linen for market.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to the
+light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be more
+easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present considerable
+irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric the nap is
+usually cotton and the threads more regular than the filling (flax). The
+best linen is made from fine and fairly regular threads; common linen
+from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no more subject to weak
+places in weaving than cotton, although it is harder to bleach and may
+be weakened in this process. If each operation is not perfect the linen
+will become yellow in storage.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg&nbsp;319]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SOURCES OF SUPPLY</h2>
+
+
+<p>The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are
+willing to supply schools with samples of their products. But the
+demand for samples has been so great that it is necessary in most
+cases to pay a small sum to cover the cost.</p>
+
+<p>The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are
+named here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.</p>
+
+<p>The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers
+may obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers
+in textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Catalogues of Cotton Machinery</i></h3>
+
+<p>Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.&mdash;Cotton pickers.</p>
+
+<p>Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I.&mdash;Cotton
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Faler &amp; Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Potter &amp; Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y.&mdash;Cotton machinery.</p>
+
+<p>American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Humidifiers
+and textile machinery.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Standard Textile Papers</i></h3>
+
+<p>American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston,
+Mass.</p>
+
+<p>American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg&nbsp;320]</a></span>
+Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory
+Supplies, published by Teachers College, Columbia University,
+West 120th St., New York.</p>
+
+<p>Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples</i></h3>
+
+<p>American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Booklets on <i>From Wool
+to Cloth</i>; samples of fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Samples of
+cotton and wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass.&mdash;Egyptian and Peruvian
+cotton, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York&mdash;Ramie.</p>
+
+<p>Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York&mdash;Linen yarns and thread.</p>
+
+<p>Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Cotton yarn.</p>
+
+<p>Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H.&mdash;Samples of cotton.</p>
+
+<p>Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J.&mdash;French spun worsted yarn.</p>
+
+<p>C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Yarns and fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y.&mdash;Wools and shoddies.</p>
+
+<p>Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Foreign wools.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Willey &amp; Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Top,
+foreign wools.</p>
+
+<p>John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Mohair,
+noils, and carpet wools.</p>
+
+<p>The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn.&mdash;Novelty
+yarns.</p>
+
+<p>Catlin &amp; Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Cotton yarns.</p>
+
+<p>Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass.&mdash;Shoddies.</p>
+
+<p>Parker &amp; Wilder Co., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Samples of fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence &amp; Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Samples of
+fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Joy, Langdon, &amp; Co., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Samples of fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J.&mdash;Exhibit.</p>
+
+<p>George A. Clark &amp; Bro., 400 Broadway, New York&mdash;Cabinet
+and booklet.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg&nbsp;321]</a></span>
+Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn.&mdash;Silk samples, silk fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson &amp; Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.&mdash;Wall chart of
+cotton field.</p>
+
+<p>Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La.&mdash;Cotton postal
+cards.</p>
+
+<p>Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa.&mdash;Booklet,
+<i>All about Cotton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C.&mdash;Stereoscopic
+views.</p>
+
+<p>Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.</p>
+
+<p>Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland.&mdash;Prints illustrating
+linen manufacture and samples.</p>
+
+<p>Jas. McCutcheon &amp; Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York.&mdash;Flax
+cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York.&mdash;Flax
+cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>Belding Bro. &amp; Co., 526 Broadway, New York.&mdash;School exhibits
+of silk.</p>
+
+<p>Brainerd &amp; Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.&mdash;Book
+and cabinet of silk.</p>
+
+<p>Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y.&mdash;Spun silk and exhibits.</p>
+
+<p>M. Heminway &amp; Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn.&mdash;Booklets
+on silk.</p>
+
+<p>Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass.&mdash;Sealed cabinets and books
+on silk.</p>
+
+<p>William Skinner &amp; Sons, 47 East 17th St., New York City.&mdash;Silks
+and satins.</p>
+
+<p>S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York.&mdash;Wool fiber.</p>
+
+<p>Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.&mdash;Sheep chart.</p>
+
+<p>A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York.&mdash;Raw wool by the pound.</p>
+
+<p>Schermerhorn &amp; Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.&mdash;Wall
+chart illustration of sheep.</p>
+
+<p>L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass.&mdash;Hand cards.</p>
+
+<p>Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass.&mdash;Hand cards.</p>
+
+<p>Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga.&mdash;Samples of
+cotton plant or bolls.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg&nbsp;322]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>Woolen Yarns</i></h3>
+
+<p>Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.</p>
+
+<p>Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery</i></h3>
+
+<p>C. G. Sargent&rsquo;s Sons, Graniteville, Mass.&mdash;Wool machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Davis &amp; Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass.&mdash;Woolen and worsted
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.&mdash;Worsted machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Crompton &amp; Knowles, Worcester, Mass.&mdash;Worsted silk machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Speed &amp; Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Textile
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p>George Gerry &amp; Co., Athol, Mass.&mdash;Shoddy machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Tolhoust Machine Works, Troy, N. Y.&mdash;Hydro extractor.</p>
+
+<p>Parks &amp; Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt.&mdash;Machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass.&mdash;Finishing machinery.</p>
+
+<p>General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass.&mdash;Pictures,
+showing textile machinery in operation by motors.</p>
+
+<p>Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I.&mdash;Finishing machinery.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Knitting Machinery</i></h3>
+
+<p>Scott &amp; Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>Nye &amp; Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials</i></p>
+
+<p>The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York.&mdash;Sizing
+materials.</p>
+
+<p>Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York.&mdash;Coal tar products,
+dyestuffs, and literature.</p>
+
+<p>Arnold Hoffman &amp; Co., Providence, R. I.&mdash;Sizing materials.</p>
+
+<p>H. A. Metz &amp; Co., 122 Hudson St., New York.&mdash;Dyestuffs
+and literature.</p>
+
+<p>Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York.&mdash;Dyestuffs and
+literature.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg&nbsp;323]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />
+<a href="#A">A</a> <a href="#B">B</a> <a href="#C">C</a>
+<a href="#D">D</a> <a href="#E">E</a> <a href="#F">F</a>
+<a href="#G">G</a> <a href="#H">H</a> <a href="#I">I</a>
+<a href="#J">J</a> <a href="#K">K</a> <a href="#L">L</a>
+<a href="#M">M</a> <a href="#N">N</a> <a href="#O">O</a>
+<a href="#P">P</a> <a href="#Q">Q</a> <a href="#R">R</a>
+<a href="#S">S</a> <a href="#T">T</a> <a href="#U">U</a>
+<a href="#V">V</a> <a href="#W">W</a> <a href="#Y">Y</a>
+<a href="#Z">Z</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="A" id="A"></a>
+Acid test, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+Adelaide wool, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+Adulterations of wool, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+Albatross, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+Alma, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Alpaca, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+American cotton, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+American wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Angora, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+Animal fibers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Artificial fibers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Artificial silk, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+Asbestos, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+Astrakhans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+Australian wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+Awning, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="B" id="B"></a>
+Baling cotton, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+Bandanna, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+Bar&egrave;ge, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Bast fibers, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+Batiste, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+Beam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+Beaver cloth, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+Bedford cord, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+Beige, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+Bengaline, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Berber, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Bindings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+Bleaching cotton, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flax, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thread, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+Blending, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+Bombazine, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+Bottany, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+Boucle, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+Bourrette, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+Bradford system of spinning, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+Branding sheep, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+Broadcloth, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+Brocade, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+Brocatel, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+Buckram, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+Bunting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+Bur picker, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+Burling, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+Burring, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="C" id="C"></a>
+Calendering, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+Calico, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+Caniche, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+Canvas, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+Cape wools, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+Carbonizing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+Carding cotton, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+Carpet wools, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+Cashmere, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goat, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+Castor, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+Challis, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+Chambray, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+Characteristics of cotton cloth, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of linen cloth, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of woolen cloth, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of worsted cloth, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+Cheese cloth, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg&nbsp;324]</a></span>
+Chenille, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+Cheviot, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+Chiffon, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+China grass, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+China silks, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+Chinchilla, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+Chintz, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+Chudah, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+Cloth-rolls, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Clothing wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Cocoons, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+Combing cotton, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+Combing wool, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+Combustion test, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+Construction of cloth, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+Corduroy, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+C&ocirc;te cheval, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+Cotton, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carding, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">combing, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawing, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finishing, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flannel, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growing countries, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">picker, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">substitutes, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>,
+<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yarns, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
+Cotton-gin, <a href="#Page_114">114-116</a><br />
+Counts of yarn, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+Coupure, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Covert cloth, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Crabbing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+Crash, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+Creel, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+Cr&ecirc;pe, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+Cr&ecirc;pe de Chine, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+Crepon, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Cretonne, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Crinoline, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Crocheting, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+Cross-dyed, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+Cyprian gold, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="D" id="D"></a>
+Damask, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Dark colored fibers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+Dead wool, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Delaine wool, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Denim, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Diaper cloth, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Difference between lamb&rsquo;s wool and sheep&rsquo;s wool, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Difference between wool and hair, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+Difference between woolen and worsted yarns, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+Dimity, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+Doeskin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Domet, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+Double-cloth, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+Drap d&rsquo;&Eacute;t&eacute;, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Dress faced fabrics, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Drill, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+Duck, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+Dusting operation, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+Dyeing, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">black silks, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colored silks, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wools, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yarns, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="E" id="E"></a>
+East Indian cotton, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+Egyptian cotton, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+Elasticity of knitted textures, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+Embroidery silk, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+Empress cloth, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Ends, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+English system of spinning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+English wools, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Eolienne, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+&Eacute;pingline, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+Etamine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+Extract-wool, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="F" id="F"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg&nbsp;325]</a></span>
+Fancy goods, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+Felt, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+Felting, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+Fibers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Figure weaving, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+Figured poplins, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+Finishing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+Finishing hosiery, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+Flannel, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a><br />
+Flannelette, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+Flax, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preparation, <a href="#Page_193">193-195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sources, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+Fleece, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+Flocks, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+Florentine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Fly frames, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+Foulard, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+Foule, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Frame, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+French system of spinning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+Frieze, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Full blood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+Full grade cotton, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+Fulling, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+Fustian, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="G" id="G"></a>
+Galatea cloth, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+Gauge weaving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+Gauze, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+Gill boxes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+Gingham, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+Ginning cotton, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+Glac&eacute;, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Gloria, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Goat, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Grades of wool, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+Granada, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Great Britain wools, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+Grenadine, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Grinding rags, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+Ground lace, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="H" id="H"></a>
+Hackling, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+Hair, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+Half blood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+Half-grades of cotton, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+Hand-loom, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+Harness, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+Heddles, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Hemp, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+Henrietta cloth, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Hoggett wool, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Homespun, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Hop sacking, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+Hosiery, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+Hosiery manufacture, <a href="#Page_159">159-163</a><br />
+Humidifying cotton, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+Hydro extractor, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="I" id="I"></a>
+India silk, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Indigo blue flannel, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+Inspection of cloth, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+Intermediate frame, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+Irish wools, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Italian cloth, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="J" id="J"></a>
+Jaconet, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+Jacquard machine, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+Japanese silk, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Jeans, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+Jersey cloth, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Jute, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="K" id="K"></a>
+Kapok, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+Kersey, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+Kerseymere, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+Khaki, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+Knitting, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finishing, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frames, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rib, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silk, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg&nbsp;326]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stripe, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="L" id="L"></a>
+Lace, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">terms, <a href="#Page_166">166-172</a></span><br />
+Lamb&rsquo;s wool, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Lappet-weaving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+Lawn, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+Leicester wool, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+Leno weaving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+Lincoln wool, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+Linen, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+Lingerie, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+Linon, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+Linsey woolsey, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+Long cloth, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+Long or clothing wool, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Loom, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Luster of wool, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="M" id="M"></a>
+Mackinaw, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+Madras, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+Manila hemp, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+Melrose, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+Melton, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+Meltonette, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+Mending, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+Mercerizing, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+Merino, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+Metallic threads, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+Meteor, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+Mexican Sheep, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+Milling, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Mineral fibers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Mohair, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
+<a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+Moire, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Moisture contained in cotton, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+Montagnac, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+Montevideo, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+Mordant, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+Moreen, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Mozambique, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Mule spinning, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+Mull, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Mummery, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Mungo, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of making, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+Muslin, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="N" id="N"></a>
+Nainsook, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Naphtha, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+Napping, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+Navy twill flannel, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+Netting, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+New Zealand wool, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+Noils, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+Norfolkdown wool, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="O" id="O"></a>
+Oiling rags, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+Olive oil, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+Organdie, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+Organzine, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Orleans, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+Osnaburg, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="P" id="P"></a>
+Panama cloth, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+Panne velvet, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Peau de soie, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+Pelts, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Percale, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+Percaline, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+Perching, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+Peruvian sheep, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+Pick, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Piece-dyeing, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+Pile-weave, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+Pillow-lace, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+Pineapple fiber, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br />
+Piqu&eacute;, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+Plain weave, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+Planting cotton, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+Plumetis, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Plushes, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg&nbsp;327]</a></span>
+Pongee, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+Popeline, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+Poplin, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Port Philip wool, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+Pressing machine, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+Printing textiles, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+Prunella, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+Pulled wool, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Q" id="Q"></a>
+Quarter blood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="R" id="R"></a>
+Ramie, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+Raw silk, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+Reeling silk, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+Remanufactured material, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+Rep, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Rib work in knitting, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+Ribbons, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+Ring spinning, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+Russian hemp, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+Russian wool, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="S" id="S"></a>
+Sacking, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+Sanglier, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+Sarsenet, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+Satin, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weaving, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+Satine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Saxony wool, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Scour, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+Scrim, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Scutching, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+Sea Island cotton, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+Seaming rags, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+Seamless hosiery, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+Sebastopol, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+Serges, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+Sewing silk, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+Shaker flannel, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+Shawls, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+Sheep shearing, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+Shetland wool, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Shoddy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Short wools, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Shrinking of wool, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+Shropshiredown wool, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+Shuttle, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+Sicilian, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Silesia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+Silesian wool, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Silk, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dyeing, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finishing, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warp flannel, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">waste, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+Sisal hemp, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+Size of yarn, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+Sizing, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+Slag wool, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+Slasher, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+Sliver, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+Slubber, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+Soleil, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br />
+Souffle, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+South American wool, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+Southdown wools, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+Spinning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+Spooler, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+Spun glass, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fibers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+Spun numbers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+Spun silk, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+Staple goods, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+Starching cotton, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+Stripe knitting, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+Structure of wool, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+Styles, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+Suffolkdown wool, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Sultane, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Superfines, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+Swiss muslin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+Sydney wools, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="T" id="T"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg&nbsp;328]</a></span>
+Tabby velvet, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+Taffeta, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br />
+Tamise, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Tape, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+Tarletan, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+Tartans, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Teaser, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+Tentering, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+Terry cloth, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+Terry poplin, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+Test for animal fiber, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">artificial silk from silk, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton from linen, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">density of a fabric, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dressing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fastness against rain, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fastness under friction, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fastness to weather, light, and air, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">linen, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">permanence of dyes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance to perspiration, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance to street mud and dust, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shoddy, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silk from wool, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wasting fastness, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+Testing constituents of filling, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constituents of warp, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">count of warp, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">count of warp and filling threads, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elasticity of fabric, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for shrinkage, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">piece-dyed fabric, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strength of fabric, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">style of weave, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yarn-dyed fabric, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+Textile printing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
+Theories of coloring in textile designs, <a href="#Page_76">76-79</a><br />
+Thibet, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Thread, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bleaching, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">combing, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dyeing, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numbers, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sizing, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+Throwing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+Thrown silk, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+Tinsel, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Top, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+Tricot, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+Tulle, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+Tussah silk, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+Tweed, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+Twill weaving, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="U" id="U"></a>
+Union cloth, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="V" id="V"></a>
+Van wool from Tasmania, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+Vegetable fibers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+Veiling, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+Velour, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+Velvet, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+Velveteen, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+Venetian cloth, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+Vigogne (Vienna), <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+Vigoureux, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+Voiles, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="W" id="W"></a>
+Warp, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Warp-beam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Waterproofing, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+Weaving, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">processes, <a href="#Page_54">54-56</a></span><br />
+Weft, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+Welsh wool, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+Wether-wool, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+Whipcord, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+Wood-pulp, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+Wool, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carding, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classing, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg&nbsp;329]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drying, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dyeing, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fibers, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grease in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marketing, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
+<a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oiling, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sorting, <a href="#Page_16">16-18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22-24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">washing, <a href="#Page_24">24-28</a></span><br />
+Woolen yarn, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+Worsted carding, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">combing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diagonal, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+Worsted spinning, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tops, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unfinished, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yarn, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Y" id="Y"></a>
+Yarn, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dyed, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+Yolk, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Z" id="Z"></a>
+Zephyr gingham, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wool, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+Zibeline, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>ADVERTISEMENTS</h2>
+
+<h3>Elementary Science.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Austin&rsquo;s Observation Blanks in Mineralogy.</b> Detailed studies of 35 minerals.
+35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bailey&rsquo;s Grammar School Physics.</b> Practical lessons with simple experiments
+that may be performed in the ordinary schoolroom. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ballard&rsquo;s The World of Matter.</b> Simple studies in chemistry and mineralogy; for
+use as a text-book or as a guide to the teacher in giving object lessons. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brown&rsquo;s Good Health for Girls and Boys.</b> Physiology and hygiene for intermediate
+grades. Illustrated. 45 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brown&rsquo;s Health in the Home.</b> Illustrated. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clark&rsquo;s Practical Methods in Microscopy.</b> Gives in detail descriptions of methods
+that will lead the careful worker to successful results. Illus. $1.00</p>
+
+<p><b>Clarke&rsquo;s Astronomical Lantern.</b> Intended to familiarize students with the constellations
+by comparing them with facsimiles on the lantern face. With seventeen
+slides, giving twenty-two constellations. $4.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clarke&rsquo;s How to Find the Stars.</b> Accompanies the above and helps to an acquaintance
+with the constellations. Paper. 15 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colton&rsquo;s Elementary Physiology and Hygiene.</b> For grammar grades. 317 pages.
+Illustrated. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eckstorm&rsquo;s The Bird Book.</b> The natural history of birds, with directions for observation
+and suggestions for study. 301 pages. Illustrated. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guides for Science Teaching.</b> Teachers&rsquo; aids for instruction in Natural History.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%" summary="Titles in seris">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hyatt&rsquo;s About Pebbles. 26 pages. Paper. 10 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Goodale&rsquo;s A Few Common Plants. 61 pages. Paper. 20 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hyatt&rsquo;s Commercial and other Sponges. Illustrated. 43 pages. Paper. 20 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Agassiz&rsquo;s First Lesson in Natural History. Illus. 64 pages. Paper. 25 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hyatt&rsquo;s Corals and Echinoderms. Illustrated. 32 pages. Paper. 30 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hyatt&rsquo;s Mollusca. Illustrated. 65 pages. Paper. 30 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hyatt&rsquo;s Worms and Crustacea. Illustrated. 68 pages. Paper. 30 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Crosby&rsquo;s Common Minerals and Rocks. Illustrated. 200 pages. Paper. 40 cts. Cloth, 60 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Richards&rsquo;s First Lessons in Minerals. 50 pages. Paper. 10 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Bowditch&rsquo;s Physiology. 58 pages. Paper. 20 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XV.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Clapp&rsquo;s 36 Observation Lessons in Minerals. 80 pages. Paper. 30 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Phenix&rsquo;s Lessons in Chemistry. 20 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Pupils&rsquo; Note-book to accompany No. 15. 10 cts.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Hoag&rsquo;s Health Studies.</b> Practical hygiene for grammar grades. Cloth. Illustrated.
+75 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rice&rsquo;s Science Teaching in the School.</b> With a course of instruction in science
+for the lower grades. 46 pages. Paper. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ricks&rsquo;s Natural History Object Lessons.</b> Information on plants and their products,
+on animals and their uses, and gives specimen lessons. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ricks&rsquo;s Object Lessons and How to Give Them.</b>&mdash;Vol. II. Lessons on elementary
+science for grammar and intermediate grades. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scott&rsquo;s Nature Study and the Child.</b> A manual for teachers with outlines of lessons
+and courses, detailed studies of animal and plant life, and chapters on
+methods and the relation of nature study to expression. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sever&rsquo;s Elements of Agriculture.</b> For grammar grades. Illustrated. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shaler&rsquo;s First Book in Geology.</b> A helpful introduction to the study of modern
+text-books in geography. Illustrated. Cloth, 60 cents. Boards, 45 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spear&rsquo;s Leaves and Flowers.</b> An elementary botany for pupils under twelve.
+Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weed&rsquo;s Farm Friends and Farm Foes.</b> An elementary text-book on weeds and
+insects. Cloth. Illustrated. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wright&rsquo;s Seaside and Wayside Nature Reader, No. 4.</b> Elementary lessons in
+geology, astronomy, world life, etc. Illustrated. 50 cents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>See also our list of books in Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<h3>Science.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Barto&rsquo;s Agriculture.</b> Studies in soils and crop production. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Baskerville&rsquo;s General Inorganic Chemistry.</b> For colleges. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Baskerville and Estabrooke&rsquo;s Chemistry Problems.</b> 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Benton&rsquo;s Guide to General Chemistry.</b> A manual for the laboratory. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boyer&rsquo;s Laboratory Manual in Biology.</b> Treats of both animals and plants. 80 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boynton, Morse and Watson&rsquo;s Laboratory Manual in Chemistry.</b> 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burrage and Bailey&rsquo;s School Sanitation and Decoration.</b> Illustrated. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cheston, Gibson and Timmerman&rsquo;s Physics.</b> Theoretical and descriptive. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chute&rsquo;s Physical Laboratory Manual.</b> Revised edition. Illustrated. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chute&rsquo;s Practical Physics.</b> For schools and colleges. $1.15.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clark&rsquo;s Methods in Microscopy.</b> Detailed descriptions of successful methods, $1.60.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coit&rsquo;s Chemical Arithmetic.</b> With a short system of analysis. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coleman&rsquo;s Elements of Physics.</b> For secondary schools. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colton&rsquo;s Physiology: Practical and Descriptive.</b> Illustrated. $1.40.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colton&rsquo;s Physiology: Briefer Course.</b> For high schools. Illustrated. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colton&rsquo;s Practical Physiology.</b> A laboratory course. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colton&rsquo;s Zoology: Descriptive and Experimental.</b> Illustrated. $1.50. Part I,
+Descriptive, $1.00. Part II, Experimental. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ebbinghaus&rsquo;s Psychology.</b> A resume of modern psychology. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fisher and Patterson&rsquo;s Elements of Physics.</b> 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hyatt&rsquo;s Insecta.</b> A practical manual for students and teachers. Illustrated. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Linebarger&rsquo;s Text-Book of Physics.</b> With industrial applications. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Miller&rsquo;s Progressive Problems in Physics.</b> 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Newell&rsquo;s Descriptive Chemistry.</b> Illustrated. $1.20. Part I, Without experiments.
+$1.00. Part II, Experiments. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Newell&rsquo;s Experimental Chemistry.</b> For high schools and colleges. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p><b>Newell&rsquo;s Inorganic Chemistry for Colleges.</b> $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Orndorff&rsquo;s Laboratory Manual in Organic Chemistry.</b> Boards. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Palmer&rsquo;s Questions and Problems in Chemistry.</b> 20 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pepoon, Mitchell and Maxwell&rsquo;s Plant Life.</b> A laboratory guide. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remsen&rsquo;s Organic Chemistry.</b> Revised edition. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roberts&rsquo;s Stereo-Chemistry.</b> Its development and present aspects, $3.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sanford&rsquo;s Experimental Psychology.</b> Part I. Sensation and perception. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shaler&rsquo;s First Book in Geology.</b> Cloth, 60 cents. Boards. 45 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shepard&rsquo;s Inorganic Chemistry.</b> Descriptive and qualitative. $1.15.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shepard&rsquo;s Briefer Course in Chemistry</b>, with chapter on Organic Chemistry. 80 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shepard&rsquo;s Laboratory Note-Book.</b> Boards. 35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spalding&rsquo;s Botany.</b> Practical exercises in the study of plants. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stevens&rsquo;s Introduction to Botany.</b> Illustrated, $1.25. Key and Flora, 40 cents.
+Botany, with Key and Flora. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Venable&rsquo;s Short History of Chemistry.</b> For students and the general reader. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walters&rsquo;s Physiology and Hygiene.</b> For secondary schools. $1.20.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weed&rsquo;s Farm Friends and Farm Foes.</b> Weeds and insects. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weed and Crossman&rsquo;s Laboratory Guide in Zoology.</b> Emphasises essentials. 60c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whiting&rsquo;s Mathematical and Physical Tables.</b> Paper. 50 cents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For elementary works see our list of books in Elementary Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<h3>Mathematics.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Anthony and Ashley&rsquo;s Descriptive Geometry.</b> $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barton&rsquo;s Plane Surveying.</b> With complete tables. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barton&rsquo;s Theory Of Equations.</b> A treatise for college classes. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bauer and Brooke&rsquo;s Trigonometry.</b> Plane and spherical. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bowser&rsquo;s College Algebra.</b> A full treatment of elementary and advanced topics. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bowser&rsquo;s Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.</b> 90 cts.; with tables, $1.40.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bowser&rsquo;s Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.</b> $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bowser&rsquo;s Five-Place Logarithmic Tables.</b> 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Candy&rsquo;s Plane and Solid Analytic Geometry.</b> $1.50. With supplement, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cohen&rsquo;s Differential Equations.</b> $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cohen&rsquo;s Introduction to the Lie Theory.</b> $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fine&rsquo;s Number System in Algebra.</b> Theoretical and historical. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gilbert&rsquo;s Algebra Lessons.</b> Three numbers: No. 1, to Fractional Equations; No. 2,
+through Quadratic Equations; No. 3, Higher Algebra. Each number, per dozen, $1.44.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hopkins&rsquo;s Plane Geometry.</b> Follows the inductive method. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lyman&rsquo;s Geometry Exercises.</b> Supplementary work for drill. Per dozen, $1.60.</p>
+
+<p><b>McCurdy&rsquo;s Exercise Book in Algebra.</b> A thorough drill book. 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nichols&rsquo;s Analytic Geometry.</b> A treatise for college courses. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nichols&rsquo;s Calculus.</b> Differential and Integral. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Osborne&rsquo;s Differential and Integral Calculus.</b> Revised. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peterson and Baldwin&rsquo;s Problems in Algebra.</b> For texts and reviews. 30 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Robbins&rsquo;s Surveying and Navigation.</b> A brief and practical treatise. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waldo&rsquo;s Descriptive Geometry.</b> Contains a large number of problems. 80 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Well&rsquo;s Academic Arithmetic.</b> With or without answers. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells and Hart&rsquo;s First Year Algebra.</b> 90 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Algebra for Secondary Schools.</b> $1.20.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Text-Book in Algebra.</b> A maximum elementary course. $1.40.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Essentials of Algebra.</b> For secondary schools. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Academic Algebra.</b> With or without answers. $1.08.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s New Higher Algebra.</b> For schools and colleges. $1.32.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s University Algebra.</b> Octavo. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s College Algebra.</b> $1.50. Part II, beginning with quadratics. $1.32.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Advanced Course in Algebra.</b> $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s New Geometry.</b> $1.25. <span class="smcap">Plane</span>, 75 cts. <span class="smcap">Solid</span>, 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Essentials of Geometry.</b> $1.25. <span class="smcap">Plane</span>, 75 cts. <span class="smcap">Solid</span>, 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s New Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.</b> For colleges and technical schools.
+$1.00. With six-place tables, $1.25. With Robbins&rsquo;s Surveying and Navigation, $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Complete Trigonometry.</b> Plane and Spherical. 90 cts. With tables, $1.08.
+<span class="smcap">Plane</span>, bound separately, 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s New Six-Place Logarithmic Tables.</b> 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wells&rsquo;s Four-Place Tables.</b> 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wright&rsquo;s Exercises in Concrete Geometry.</b> 35 cts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For Arithmetics see our list of books in Elementary Mathematics.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<h3>Drawing and Manual Training.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s New Short Course in Drawing.</b> A practical, well-balanced system,
+based on correct principles. Can be taught by the ordinary teacher and learned by
+the ordinary pupil. Books I-IV, 6&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;9 inches, per dozen, $1.20. Books V-VIII, 9&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;12
+inches, per dozen, $1.75. Manual to Books I-IV, 40 cts. Manual to Books V-VIII,
+40 cts. Two-Book Course: Book A, per dozen, $1.20; Book B, per dozen, $1.75;
+Manual, 40 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s &AElig;sthetic Series of Drawing.</b> This series includes the study of
+Historical Ornament and Decorative Design. Book I treats of Egyptian art; Book II,
+Greek; Book III, Roman; Book IV, Byzantine; Book V, Moorish; Book VI, Gothic.
+Per dozen, $1.50. Manual, 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s Educational and Industrial Drawing.</b>
+Primary Free-Hand Series (Nos. 1-4). Each No., per doz., $1.00. Manual, 40 cts.
+Advanced Free-Hand Series (Nos. 5-8.) Each No., per doz., $1.50.
+Model and Object Series (Nos. 1-3). Each No., per doz., $1.75. Manual, 35 cts.
+Mechanical Series (Nos. 1-6). Each No., per doz., $2.00. Manual, 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s Manual Training No. 1.</b> Clay modeling, stick laying, paper folding,
+color and construction of geometrical solids. Illus. 66 pp. 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s Manual Training No. 2.</b> Mechanical drawing, clay modeling,
+color, wood carving. Illus. 70 pp. 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thompson&rsquo;s Drawing Tablets.</b> Four Tablets, with drawing exercises and practice
+paper, for use in the earlier grades. Each No., per doz., $1.20.</p>
+
+<p><b>Drawing Models.</b> Individual sets and class sets of models are made to accompany
+several of the different series in the Thompson Drawing Courses. Descriptive circulars
+free on request.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anthony&rsquo;s Mechanical Drawing.</b> 98 pages of text, and 32 folding plates, $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anthony&rsquo;s Machine Drawing.</b> 65 pages of text, and 18 folding plates. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anthony&rsquo;s Essentials of Gearing.</b> 84 pages of text, and 15 folding plates, $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>Daniels&rsquo;s Freehand Lettering.</b> 34 pages of text, and 13 folding plates. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Johnson&rsquo;s Lessons in Needlework.</b> Gives, with illustrations, full directions for
+work during six grades. 117 pages. Square 8vo. Cloth, $1.00. Boards, 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lunt&rsquo;s Brushwork for Kindergarten and Primary Schools.</b> Eighteen lesson
+cards in colors, with teacher&rsquo;s pamphlet, in envelope. 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Seidel&rsquo;s Industrial Instruction</b> (Smith). A refutation of all objections raised against
+industrial instruction. 170 pages, 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waldo&rsquo;s Descriptive Geometry.</b> A large number of problems systematically arranged,
+with suggestions. 85 pages. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whitaker&rsquo;s How to use Woodworking Tools.</b> Lessons in the uses of the
+hammer, knife, plane, rule, square, gauge, chisel, saw and auger. 104 pages. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Woodward&rsquo;s Manual Training School.</b> Its aims, methods and results; with
+detailed courses of instruction in shop-work. Illustrated. 374 pages. Octavo. $2.00.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<h3>Higher English.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Bray&rsquo;s History of English Critical Terms.</b> A vocabulary of 1400 critical terms used
+in literature and art, with critical and historical data for their study, $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cook&rsquo;s Judith.</b> With introduction, translation and glossary. Octavo. 170 pages. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Espenshade&rsquo;s Essentials of Composition and Rhetoric.</b> A working text-book for
+higher schools and colleges. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hall&rsquo;s Beowulf.</b> A metrical translation of this ancient epic. Octavo. Cloth, 75 cents.
+Paper, 30 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kluge and Lutz&rsquo;s English Etymology.</b> A select glossary for use in the study of historical
+grammar. 75 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lewis&rsquo;s Inductive Rhetoric.</b> For schools and colleges. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>MacEwan&rsquo;s The Essentials of Argumentation.</b> A systematic discussion of principles,
+with illustrative extracts; full analysis of several masterpieces, and a list of propositions
+for debate. $1.12.</p>
+
+<p><b>MacEwan&rsquo;s The Essentials of the English Sentence.</b> Presents a review of the essentials
+of grammar and bridges the transition to rhetoric. 75 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meiklejohn&rsquo;s The English Language.</b> Part I&mdash;English Grammar; Part II&mdash;Composition
+and Versification; Part III&mdash;History of the English Language; Part IV&mdash;History
+of English Literature. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meiklejohn&rsquo;s English Grammar.</b> Contains Parts I and II of Meiklejohn&rsquo;s The English
+Language, with exercises. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Conor&rsquo;s Rhetoric and Oratory.</b> A manual of precepts and principles, with masterpieces
+for analysis and study. $1.15.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pearson&rsquo;s The Principles of Composition.</b> Begins with the composition as a whole.
+Paragraphs, sentences and words are treated later, and in this order. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Smith&rsquo;s The Writing of the Short Story.</b> An analytical study. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Strang&rsquo;s Exercises in English.</b> Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style, for criticism
+and correction. New edition, revised and enlarged. 45 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whitcomb&rsquo;s The Study Of a Novel.</b> Analytic and synthetic work for college classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>William&rsquo;s Composition and Rhetoric.</b> Concise, practical, and thorough, with little
+theory and much practice. 90 cents.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Monographs on English.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Titles and prices">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Bowen&rsquo;s Historical Study of the O-vowel. Cloth. 109 pp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">$1.25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Genung&rsquo;s Study of Rhetoric in the College Course. Paper. 32 pp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">.25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Hempl&rsquo;s Chaucer&rsquo;s Pronunciation. Stiff Paper. 39 pp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Huffcut&rsquo;s English in the Preparatory School. Paper. 28 pp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">.25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Woodward&rsquo;s Study of English. Paper. 25 pp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr">.25</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>See also our list of books in Elementary English,
+English Literature and English Classics.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<h3>Heath&rsquo;s English Classics.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Addison&rsquo;s Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">W. H. Hudson</span>. Cloth. 232 pages.
+Nine full-page illustrations and two maps. 35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burke&rsquo;s Speech on Conciliation with America.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">A. J. George</span>, Master in
+the Newton (Mass.) High School. Cloth. 119 pages. 20 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Carlyle&rsquo;s Essay on Burns.</b> Edited, with introduction and notes, by <span class="smcap">Andrew J. George</span>.
+Cloth. 159 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coleridge&rsquo;s Rime of the Ancient Mariner.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Andrew J. George</span>. Cloth.
+96 pages. Illustrated. 20 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cooper&rsquo;s Last of the Mohicans.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">J. G. Wight</span>, Principal Girls&rsquo; High School,
+New York City. Cloth. Illustrated. 659 pages. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>De Quincey&rsquo;s Flight of a Tartar Tribe.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">G. A. Wauchope</span>, Professor in the
+University of South Carolina. Cloth. 112 pages. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dryden&rsquo;s Palamon and Arcite.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">William H. Crawshaw</span>, Professor in Colgate
+University. Cloth. 158 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>George Eliot&rsquo;s Silas Marner.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">G. A. Wauchope</span>, Professor in the University
+of South Carolina. Cloth. 288 pages. Illustrated. 35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Goldsmith&rsquo;s Vicar of Wakefield.</b> With introduction and notes by <span class="smcap">W. H. Hudson</span>.
+Cloth. 300 pages. Seventeen illustrations by C. E. Brock. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Irving&rsquo;s Life of Goldsmith.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">H. E. Coblentz</span>, South Division High School,
+Milwaukee. Cloth. 328 pages. Maps and illustrations. 35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Macaulay&rsquo;s Essay on Milton.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Albert Perry Walker</span>, Master in the
+English High School, Boston. Cloth. 146 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Macaulay&rsquo;s Essay on Addison.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Albert Perry Walker</span>. Cloth. 192 pages.
+Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Macaulay&rsquo;s Life of Johnson.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Albert Perry Walker</span>. Cloth. 122 pages.
+Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Milton&rsquo;s Paradise Lost.</b> Books i and ii. Edited by <span class="smcap">Albert Perry Walker</span>. Cloth.
+188 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Milton&rsquo;s Minor Poems.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Albert Perry Walker</span>. Cloth. 190 pages.
+Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pope&rsquo;s Translation Of the Iliad.</b> Books i, vi, xxii, and xxiv. Edited by <span class="smcap">Paul Shorey</span>,
+Professor in the Univ. of Chicago. Cloth. 172 pages. Illus. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scott&rsquo;s Ivanhoe.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Porter Lander MacClintock</span>. Cloth. 556 pages. Seventeen
+full-page illustrations by C. E Brock. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scott&rsquo;s Lady of the Lake.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">L. Dupont Syle</span>, Professor in the University of
+California. Cloth. 216 pages. Illus. and map. 35 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shakespeare.</b> See the <i>Arden Shakespeare</i>. Per vol., 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tennyson&rsquo;s Enoch Arden, and the two Locksley Halls.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">Calvin S. Brown</span>,
+University of Colorado. Cloth. 168 pages. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tennyson&rsquo;s Idylls of the King.</b> Four idylls, edited by <span class="smcap">Arthur Beatty</span>, University of
+Wisconsin. Cloth. 190 pages. Illus. and map. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tennyson&rsquo;s The Princess.</b> With introduction and notes by <span class="smcap">Andrew J. George</span>. Cloth.
+148 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Webster&rsquo;s First Bunker Hill Oration.</b> With introduction and notes by <span class="smcap">Andrew J.
+George</span>. Cloth. 55 pages. 20 cents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Boston, New York, Chicago</p>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>Minor typographic errors and hyphenation and accent inconsistencies have been corrected without note.</p>
+
+<p>Some illustrations have been moved so that they are not mid-paragraph; where these
+were full page illustrations and it has had an effect on the page numbering, the actual
+start point of the page is included as a comment in the source of the html.</p>
+
+<p>A to Z links have been added to the Index for ease of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The footnote marker on page <a href="#Page_267">267</a> was originally located next to the EXPERIMENTS heading,
+but the footnote itself referred to a dissecting pin. The marker has been moved next
+to the reference to a dissecting pin in the text.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments are consecutively numbered, and Experiment Nos. 28 and 29 are missing.
+There do not appear to be any missing pages&mdash;the page numbering has no gaps, and Experiment
+No. 27 runs across a page boundary, and is then followed immediately by Experiment 30.
+It is possible that the two missing experiments were deliberately omitted from this
+edition by the author.</p>
+
+<p>The index entry for Berber originally read Beiber. The entry has been corrected, and
+moved to the correct place in the index.</p>
+
+<p>The page number in the index entry for Silk, finishing has been amended from 217 to 218.</p>
+
+<p>The index entry for Zephyr wool had no printed page number; from the text content, the
+best match appears to be a reference on page <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, which has been added to the index entry.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES***</p>
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+*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11984 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Textiles, by William H. Dooley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Textiles
+       For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those Engaged in Wholesale and Retail Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and Dressmaker's Trades
+
+
+Author: William H. Dooley
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 30, 2007  [eBook #24077]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Sam W., and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 24077-h.htm or 24077-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/0/7/24077/24077-h/24077-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/0/7/24077/24077-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the
+      original (=bold=).
+
+      Additional notes will be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILES
+
+For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic
+Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those
+Engaged in Wholesale and Retail
+Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and
+Dressmaker's Trades
+
+
+by
+
+WILLIAM H. DOOLEY
+Principal Lowell Industrial School
+Lowell, Mass.
+
+Revised Edition
+With Experiments
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+D. C. Heath & Company
+Boston  New York  Chicago
+
+Copyright, 1910, 1912, and 1914, by
+D. C. Heath and Company
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PLANT]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author established and since its inception has been in charge of
+the first industrial school for boys and girls in Massachusetts. At an
+early date he recognized the need of special text-books to meet the
+demand of young people who are attending vocational schools. There are
+plenty of books written on textiles for technical school students and
+advanced workers. But the author has failed to find a book explaining
+the manufacture and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
+domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those who have just
+entered the textile or allied trades. This book is written to meet
+this educational need. Others may find the book of interest,
+particularly the chapters describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk
+fabrics.
+
+The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W. Hobbs, treasurer of
+the Arlington Mills, for permission to use illustrations and
+information from literature published by the Arlington Mills; to Mr.
+S. H. Ditchett, editor of _Dry Goods Economist_, for permission to use
+information from his publication, "Dry Goods Encyclopedia"; to the
+editor of the _Textile Mercury_; to Frank P. Bennett, of the _American
+Wool and Cotton Reporter_, for permission to use information from
+"Cotton Fabrics Glossary"; and to the instructors of the Lawrence
+Industrial School for valuable information. In addition, information
+has been obtained from the great body of textile literature, which the
+author desires to acknowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FIBERS
+                                                                  PAGE
+  Animal Fibers--Wool, Silk, Mohair. Vegetable--Cotton,
+  Flax, Jute, Hemp. Mineral--Asbestos, Tinsel, Metallic.
+  Remanufactured Material--Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract,
+  and Flocks. Artificial Fibers--Spun Glass, Artificial
+  Silk, Slag Wool. Structure of Wool. Characteristics of
+  Wool. Classification of Wool. Carpet and Knitting Wools.
+  Sheep Shearing. Variation in Weight of Fleeces. Shipping
+  the Fleeces. Value of Wool Business. Saxony and Silesian
+  Wool, Australian Wool, Port Philip Wool, Sydney Wool,
+  Adelaide Wool, Van Wool from Tasmania, New Zealand Wool,
+  Cape Wools, Wools from South America, Russian Wool, Great
+  Britain Wools, Lincoln, Leicester, Southdown, Shropshire;
+  Cashmere Wools, Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools, Cheviot
+  Wool, Welsh Wools, Shetland Wools, Irish Wools, Mohair,
+  Alpaca Wool. How Wool is Marketed                                  1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WOOL SORTING
+
+  Sorting. Classing Grades of Wool. Merino Wool. Difference
+  between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool. Pulled Wool. Delaine
+  Wool. Wool Sorter. Wool Washing, Wool Drying, Oiling.
+  Burring and Carbonizing. Bur Picker, Blending                     16
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
+
+  Wool Substitutes and Waste Remanufactured--Noils, Shoddy,
+  and Mungo. Methods of Producing Shoddy and Mungo--Dusting,
+  Sorting, Seaming, Oiling, Grinding. Extract Wool. Flocks          32
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORSTED YARN
+
+  Carding, Combing. Worsted Tops--Gill Boxes. Different
+  methods of Spinning--Bradford or English System, French
+  System. Structure of Worsted Yarn. Uses of Worsted Yarn.
+  Counts of Worsted Yarn                                            39
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WOOLEN YARN
+
+  Operations in Producing Woolen Yarn--Washing, Carding,
+  Spinning, Mule Spinning. Counts of Woolen Yarn. Uses of
+  Woolen Yarn                                                       50
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+WEAVING
+
+  Preparatory to Weaving--Warp. Weaving--Weaving Processes,
+  Classes of Weave--Plain or Homespun Weave, Twill, Satin
+  Weaves, Figure Weaving (Jacquard apparatus), Double Cloth,
+  Pile Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Lappet Weaving                       53
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DYEING AND FINISHING
+
+  Dyeing. Wool Dyeing, Piece Dyed, Cross Dyed, Yarn Dyed.
+  Style--Designing, Finishing, Perching, Burling, Mending,
+  Fulling, Crabbing, Tentering, Napping, Pressing. Theories
+  of Coloring in Textile Design. Various Methods of
+  Employing Fancy Shades. Adulteration                              65
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS
+
+  Albatross, Alpaca, Corded Alpaca, Angora, Astrakhan,
+  Bandanna, Beaver (Fur Beaver), Bedford Cord, Beige,
+  Bindings, Bombazine, Bottany, Boucle, Broadcloth, Bunting,
+  Caniche, Cashmere, Cashmere Double, Cassimere, Castor,
+  Challis, Cheviot (Diagonal or Chevron), Chinchilla,
+  Chudah, Corduroy, Cote Cheval, Coupure, Covert, Delaine,
+  Doeskin, Drap d'Ete, Empress Cloth, Epingline, Etamine,
+  Felt, Flannel, Dress Flannel, French Flannel, Shaker
+  Flannel, Indigo Blue, Mackinaw, Navy Twilled Flannel, Silk
+  Warp, Baby Flannel. Florentine, Foule, Frieze, Gloria,
+  Granada, Grenadine, Henrietta Cloth, Homespun, Hop
+  Sacking, Jeans, Kersey, Kerseymere, Linsey Woolsey,
+  Melrose, Melton, Meltonette, Merino, Mohair Brilliantine,
+  Montagnac, Orleans, Panama Cloth, Prunella, Sacking,
+  Sanglier, Sebastopol, Serge, Shoddy, Sicilian, Sultane,
+  Tamise, Tartans, Thibet, Tricot, Tweed, Veiling, Venetian,
+  Vigogne (Vicuna), Vigoureux, Voiles, Whipcord, Worsted
+  Diagonals, Zephyr, Zibeline                                       83
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+COTTON
+
+  Rough Peruvian, East Indian, Egyptian, Sea Island.
+  American Crop--Planting, Picking, Ginning--Roller Gins,
+  Saw Gins. Cotton Gin. Information on the Leading Growths
+  of Cotton. Grades--Full Grades, Half Grades, Quarter
+  Grades. Varieties--Sea Island (selected), Sea Island
+  (ordinary), Florida Sea Island, Georgia, Egyptian, Peeler,
+  Orleans or Gulf Upland, Texas                                    105
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
+
+  Picker Room, Carding Machine, Combing, Drawing. Flyer
+  Frames--Intermediate Frame, Roving Frame, Fine or Jack
+  Frame Spinning--Mule Spinning, Ring Spinning                     125
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
+
+  Manufacturing Processes. Thread Numbers. Sizing. Cotton
+  Finishing--Bleaching, Starching, Calendering, Mercerizing.
+  Characteristics of fine Cotton Cloth                             139
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+KNITTING
+
+  Knitting Machines. Stripe Knitting, Knitting Cotton,
+  Knitting Silk, Hosiery Manufacture, Finishing Process            153
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+LACE
+
+  Needlepoint Lace. Pillow Lace. Lace Terms Defined                164
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+COTTON FABRICS
+
+  Albatross, Awning, Batiste, Bourrette, Bedford Cord,
+  Buckram, Calico, Cambric, Canvas, Chambray, Cheesecloth,
+  Chine, Chintz, Cotton Flannel, Crash, Crepe, Crepon,
+  Cretonne, Crinoline, Damask, Denim, Diaper, Dimity, Domet,
+  Duck, Drill, Eolienne, Etamine, Flannelette, Fustian,
+  Galatea Cloth, Gauze, Gingham, Italian Cloth, Jaconet,
+  Khaki, Lawn, Lingerie, Linon, Long Cloth, Madras, Moreen,
+  Mull, Mummy, Muslin, Nainsook, Organdie, Osnaburg,
+  Percale, Percaline, Pique, Poplin, Plumetis, Rep, Sateen,
+  Scrim, Silesia, Souffle, Swiss, Tape, Tarletan, Terry
+  Cloth, Zephyr Gingham                                            173
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FLAX
+
+  Physical Structure. Uses. Mechanical Processes--Crushing
+  or Beating, Breaking, Scutching, Hackling, Bleaching.
+  Characteristics of Good Linen, Notes on Table Linen              193
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HEMP
+
+  Bast Fibers, Sisal Hemp, Manila Hemp, Ramie, Jute                199
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SILK
+
+  Cocoons. Raw Silk. Silk-producing Countries--China, Japan,
+  Italy, Southern France, Greece, Turkey, Western Asia.
+  Throwing. Thrown Silk--Tram, Crepe Yarn. Embroidery Silk.
+  Sewing Silk. Silk Waste, Spun Silk, Floss Silk. Ribbons,
+  Silk Thread, Silk Cord. Dyeing Yarns. Silk Dyeing. Logwood
+  Black Silk Dyeing--(1) Boiling Off, (2) Mordanting, (3)
+  Blue Bottoming, (4) "Weighting" Bath, (5) Mordanting, (6)
+  Dyeing. Colored Silks. Mixed Silk Fabrics. Ribbons,
+  Velvets, Printing, Finishing, Waterproofing                      203
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS
+
+  Alma, Barege, Bengaline, Berber, Brocade, Brocatel,
+  Bombazine, Chenille, Chiffon, China Silk, Crepe, Crepe de
+  Chine, Eolienne, Foulard, Glace, India Silk, Japanese
+  Silk, Jersey Cloth, Meteor, Moire, Mozambique, Organzine,
+  Panne, Peau de Soie, Plush, Pongee, Popeline, Poplin,
+  Figured Poplin, Terry Poplin, Sarsenet, Satin, Soleil,
+  Taffeta, Tulle, Velour, Velvet, Velveteen, Tabby Velvet,
+  Voile                                                            219
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+  Silk Cotton, Artificial Silk, Tests                              230
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON
+
+  Wool Pulp, Ramie, Pineapple Fibers, Spun Glass, Metallic
+  Threads, Slag Wool, Asbestos                                     232
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+  Determining Style of Weave. Tests for Strength and
+  Elasticity. Determining Count of Warp and Filling,
+  Shrinkage, Weight. Tests for Constituents of Warp and
+  Filling, for Vegetable and Animal Fibers. Acid Test.
+  Cotton Distinguished from Linen, Silk from Wool,
+  Artificial Silk from Silk. Test for Shoddy. Determination
+  of Dressing. Test for Permanence of Dyes                         235
+
+  History of Textiles. History of the Organization of
+  Textile Industries. History of Manufacturing. History of
+  Lace                                                             245
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS
+
+  Experiments 1 to 62                                              267
+
+Sources of Supply                                                  319
+
+Index                                                              323
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILES
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FIBERS
+
+
+All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are called
+_textiles_ and are made of either long or short fibers. These fibers
+can be made into a continuous thread. When two different sets of
+threads are interlaced, the resulting product is called cloth.
+
+The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends entirely upon the
+possession of such qualities as firmness, length, curl, softness,
+elasticity, etc., which adapt it for spinning. The number of fibers
+that possess these qualities is small, and may be classified as
+follows:
+
+_Animal Fibers:_ Wool, Silk, Mohair.
+
+_Vegetable Fibers:_ Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.
+
+_Mineral Fibers:_ Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metallic fibers.
+
+_Remanufactured Material:_ Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract, and Flocks.
+
+_Artificial Fibers:_ Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and Slag Wool.
+
+=The Structure of Wool.= A large part of the people of the world have
+always used wool for their clothing. Wool is the soft, curly covering
+which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as
+the goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under the microscope is
+seen to consist roughly of three parts:
+
+1st. Epidermis, or outer surface, which is a series of scales lying
+one upon the other.
+
+2d. Cortex, or intermediate substance, consisting of angular,
+elongated cells, which give strength to the wool.
+
+3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL FIBER
+
+Highly magnified]
+
+=Difference between Wool and Hair.= Not all animal fibers are alike.
+They vary in fineness, softness, length, and strength, from the finest
+Merino wool to the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At just what point
+it can be said that the animal fiber ceases to be wool and becomes
+hair, is difficult to determine, because there is a gradual and
+imperceptible gradation from wool to hair.[1] The distinction between
+wool and hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
+delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly serrated
+surface--upon which the luster of the wool depends.
+
+=Characteristics of Wool.= The chief characteristic of wool is its
+felting or shrinking power. This felting property from which wool
+derives much of its value, and which is its special distinction from
+hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon
+the scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales or points
+are exceedingly minute, ranging from about 1,100 to the inch to nearly
+3,000. The stem of the fiber itself is extremely slender, being less
+than one thousandth of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools the
+scales are more perfect and numerous, while inferior wools generally
+possess fewer serrations, and are less perfect in structure.
+
+In the process of felting the fibers become entangled with one
+another, and the little projecting scales hook into one another and
+hold the fibers closely interlocked. The deeper these scales fit into
+one another the closer becomes the structure of the thread.
+
+=Classification of Wool.= The various kinds of wool used in commerce
+are named either from the breed of the sheep or from the country or
+locality in which the sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
+Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian wools are named
+from the respective countries. As the result of cross breeding of
+different sheep in different parts of the world, under different
+climatic conditions, physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a
+great many varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided into
+three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool (also called
+carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of two to four inches; (2)
+long wool or combing wool, varying from four to ten inches; (3) carpet
+and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.
+
+The distinction between clothing or carding wools on the one hand, and
+combing wools on the other, is an old one. Combing wools are so
+called because they are prepared for spinning[2] into yarn by the
+process of "combing"--that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
+with one another preparatory to being spun into thread. Carding
+wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are
+shorter than combing wools, and in addition they possess to a much
+greater degree the power of felting--that is, of matting together in a
+close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other hand, are not only
+longer than the carding wools, but they are also harder, more wiry,
+and less inclined to be spiral or kinky. It must be understood,
+however, that under the present methods of manufacture, short wools
+may be combed and spun by the French method of spinning just as the
+long wools are combed and spun by the Bradford or English system.
+
+Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest, and harshest
+sorts of wools. They come principally from Russia, Turkey, China,
+Greece, Peru, Chili, etc., and from the mountain districts of England
+and Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair than other
+wools. The only staple of this class produced in the United States is
+grown on the original Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of
+these Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved by cross
+breeding, but they constitute the foundation stock of most of our
+Western flocks, which now produce superior clothing and combing wool.
+
+=Sheep Shearing.= In order to get an idea of the importance of the
+sheep industry in the United States, one must take a glance at its
+condition in the big states of the West. Wyoming has more than
+4,600,000 sheep within its borders. Montana, which held the record
+until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with 2,500,000,
+Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list until the nation's
+total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-fifths of which are west of the
+Missouri river.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP SHEARING]
+
+To harvest the wool from such an enormous number of backs is a task
+that calls for expert shearers, men who can handle the big shears of
+the machine clippers with a skill that comes from long practise. The
+shearing must be done at the right time of the year. If the wool is
+clipped too early, the sheep suffer from the cold; if the shearing
+comes too late, the sheep suffer from intense heat, and in either case
+are bound to lose weight and value.
+
+To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has risen expert in the
+sheep-shearing business. These shearers begin work in southern and
+middle California, Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the
+great sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon, where they
+find steady employment until July, when they go to the ranges of
+Canada. In this way the shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at
+high wages.
+
+The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand shears, though this
+form of clipping is being done away with, owing to the installation of
+power plants for machine shearing. These plants are installed at
+various points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are erected and
+shafting extends down both sides of the shearing place. Twenty or more
+shearers will be lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
+clipping machine connected with the shafting. The sheep are brought in
+from the range in bands of 2,500 or more, and are put in the corrals
+adjoining the shearing sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
+shearers.
+
+A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him and pulls out a
+sheep. With a dexterous fling the animal is put in a sitting posture
+between the shearer's knees, and then the steel clippers begin
+clipping off the wool. The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it
+gets closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly. In fact,
+some sheep owners say that the increased weight of their fleeces at
+each shearing is enough to pay the extra expense of running a power
+plant.
+
+As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers they are run along
+a narrow chute and each one is branded. The branding mark is usually a
+letter painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly seen
+when they are coming through a chute. The mark remains on the fleece
+and is always easily distinguished.
+
+=Fleece.= There is a great variation in the weight of fleeces. Some
+sheep, such as those on the best ranges in Oregon, Montana, and
+Wyoming, will average an eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while
+sheep from the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will not
+average much more than five pounds of wool.
+
+The shearing season on the plains is much like the threshing season in
+agricultural communities. With a crew of first-class shearers working
+in a shearing shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool.
+Boys are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into compact
+bundles, and throwing them to the men who have been assigned to the
+task of filling the wool sacks. These sacks, which hold about 400
+pounds, are suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
+fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the sacks will not
+hold a pound more. Most of the sacks are shipped to warehouses in such
+wool centers as Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
+place being the greatest wool shipping center in the world. Here they
+are sold to Eastern buyers, who examine the clips at their leisure and
+make their bids.
+
+=Value of Wool Business.= Some idea of the fortunes at stake in the
+wool business can be gathered from the fact that the total wool
+product of the country in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is
+expected that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good year
+will pay all a sheepman's running expenses, such as hire of herders,
+cost of shearing, etc. He then has the sale of his lambs as clear
+profit. Enormous fortunes are being made in the sheep business in the
+west, owing to the high price of wool and mutton.
+
+=Saxony and Silesian Wool.= Among wools of all classes the Saxony and
+Silesian take the first place, and for general good qualities,
+fineness, and regularity of fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is
+short in staple, possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
+elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture of cloths where
+much milling[3] is required, such as superfines and dress-faced
+fabrics.
+
+=Australian Wools.= Australia furnishes wools of a superior character,
+and some of the choicest clips rival the Saxony and Silesian wools.
+They are used both for worsted[4] and woolen yarns. They are generally
+strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous serrations, and
+are of good color, with good felting properties. The principal
+Australian wools are Port Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These
+are the best brands imported from that country.
+
+=Port Philip Wool.= Port Philip wool is suitable for either worsted or
+woolen yarns. The fiber is not quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a
+good thread, is fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and
+color. It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of this wool
+is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and will spin up to 130's
+counts.[5] The sheep are descendants of the original Spanish Merino.
+Cross bred Port Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
+Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound fiber and
+good quality for spinning counts from 40's to 56's. The yarn has a
+bright, clear appearance.
+
+=Sydney Wools.= Sydney wools are moderately fine in fiber and of
+medium length. They are rather deficient in strength, uneven in color,
+and often contain yellow locks which make them undesirable when
+required for dyeing light shades. They are used for nearly the same
+purpose as Port Philip wools, but do not spin quite as far in worsted
+yarns, nor are they equal in milling qualities.
+
+=Adelaide Wool.= Adelaide wool has a reputation for sound Merinos,
+the average quality being a little lower than for the Port Philip and
+Sydney wools. Its fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length;
+its color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of yolk.[6]
+Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods, weft (filling)[7] yarn
+up to 60's, and certain worsted warps.[7] It is used for medium
+fancy woolens.
+
+=Van Wool from Tasmania.= The climate of this island is well suited to
+the growing of wool, and produces excellent qualities, fine in fiber,
+of good length, and strong in the staple, which will spin as high
+counts as 70's and 80's worsted. This wool is useful for mixing with
+other good wools. Its color is very white, which makes it a useful
+wool for dyeing light shades. Its milling properties are good, and the
+shorter sorts are suitable for woolens.
+
+=New Zealand Wools= are very supple, which make them valuable to the
+spinner. These wools are suitable for almost all classes of Merino and
+crossbred yarns. They are of good length, sound staple, have good
+felting properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
+blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these remanufactured
+materials that springy, bulky character which they lack.
+
+=Cape Wools.= Cape Colony and Natal produce merino wool that is
+somewhat short in staple, rather tender, and less wavy than some other
+wools. The sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
+of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the ground very sandy,
+and this makes the fleece heavy and dirty. Its color is fair, but it
+lacks elasticity. It is used chiefly to cheapen blends[8] of 60's
+top.[9] The short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and
+hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where felting is not
+an essential feature.
+
+[Illustration: MERINO SHEEP]
+
+=Wools from South America.= These wools are of the same standard of
+excellence as the Australian wools, but they are generally deficient
+in strength and elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
+fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity, and are
+deficient in milling properties; they are also burry. The climate
+suits the sheep well, and the feed is good, but the careless methods
+of classing and packing have earned for these wools a poor reputation
+that is well deserved.
+
+The best 60's wool is combed in oil, but a large portion of the
+shorter is combed and used in thick counts,--20's to 36's worsted for
+the hosiery trade.
+
+=Russian Wool.= The staple of this is generally strong, and the fibers
+are of a medium thickness; the color is milky white. It is useful to
+blend with Australian or other good wools. It produces a good yarn,
+and is very often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics that
+require to be finished in the natural color.
+
+=Great Britain Wools.= These may be divided into three groups: (1)
+long wools, of which the Lincoln and Leicester are typical examples;
+(2) short wools, which include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and
+others; and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep, such
+as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish, and Welsh.
+
+=Lincoln Wool= is a typical wool obtained from the long wool sheep,
+and noted for its long, lustrous fiber, which is silky and strong. The
+staple varies from ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average
+fleece will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.
+
+=Leicester Wool= has a somewhat finer fiber than Lincoln. It is a
+valuable wool, of good color, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with
+good, bright luster and no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown
+extensively in England, they also grow in Indiana and Kentucky, and
+are commonly known in the trade as braid wool.
+
+=Southdown= is one of the most valuable of short staple wools. It
+possesses a fine hair, is close and wavy, and fairly sound in staple,
+but rather deficient in milling qualities. The shorter varieties are
+carded and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while the
+longer qualities are used in the production of worsted goods. The
+weight of a Southdown fleece averages from four to five pounds.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES]
+
+=Shropshiredown= wool is of good quality, with strong, fine, lustrous
+fiber, of good length. It resembles Southdown, but is not as lustrous
+as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
+fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
+
+=Cashmere Wool= is the fine, woolly, extremely soft, white or gray fur
+of the Cashmere goat which is bred in Thibet. There are two kinds of
+fiber obtained: one, which is really the outer covering, consists of
+long tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of commerce,
+a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint, with a fine, silky fiber.
+It is used for making the costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the
+finest wraps.
+
+=The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools= are fairly fine in fiber and
+soft, but slightly deficient in strength and elasticity.
+
+=Cheviot Wool= may be taken as representative of the hilly breeds of
+sheep. It is an average wool, with staple of medium length, soft, and
+with strong and regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
+possesses desirable milling properties, being used for both woolen and
+worsted, but chiefly in the fancy woolen trade. The average weight of
+the fleece is about 4-1/2 pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
+yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than the Cheviot, and
+varying much in quality. It is almost all used in the production of
+rugs, carpets, and blankets.
+
+=Welsh Wools= lack waviness and fineness of fiber. They are chiefly
+used for flannels.
+
+=Shetland Wools= are similar in character to Welsh wools, but slightly
+finer in fiber and softer. They are used in the manufacture of knitted
+goods, such as shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.
+
+=Irish Wools= possess a strong, thick hair of moderate length and fine
+color. They are similar in many respects to the Welsh wools, and are
+often classed with them. They are used in the production of low and
+medium tweeds--fancy woolen cloths not requiring small yarns or
+milling qualities.
+
+=Mohair= is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora goat, which
+derives its name from the district of Asia Minor from which it comes.
+These animals have also been successfully bred in Spain and France.
+The hair is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and possesses
+a high luster. It is used in making plushes, velvets, astrakhans, and
+curled fabrics, also half silk goods and fine wraps.
+
+=Alpaca Wool= is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep, which is a species
+of llama. The staple is of good length and soft, but is not quite as
+lustrous as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black,
+brown, or fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
+
+=How Wool is Marketed.= The bulk of the wool of commerce comes into
+the market in the form of fleece wool, the product of a single year's
+growth, and cut from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
+The first and finest clip, called lamb's wool, may be taken from the
+young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months. All subsequently cut
+fleeces are known as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
+value than the first clip.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hair is straight and glossy, stronger and smoother than wool, and
+grows sometimes as long as twenty inches.
+
+[2] Spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted
+into a continuous thread.
+
+[3] A process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to
+make the cloth stronger and firmer.
+
+[4] See footnote, page 39.
+
+[5] The size of yarn is technically called the "counts" and is based
+on the number of 560 yard lengths required to weigh one pound. In this
+case 130's count = 130 x 560, or 72,800 yards of yarn to a pound.
+
+[6] An encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece.
+
+[7] See page 54.
+
+[8] Mixtures.
+
+[9] After wool fibers are combed they are called top.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WOOL SORTING
+
+
+Fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in bundles and must
+be sorted. This process consists in sorting and classifying the fibers
+of the fleece. Not only do the various species of sheep furnish widely
+different qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained from
+the same animal, according to the part of the body from which the wool
+is taken. This variation in some instances is very marked, and
+sometimes is greater than that which separates the wools of the
+different breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of wool
+become necessary for the production of good, sound yarn of even
+quality.
+
+An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result in the
+spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory yarns. As many as
+twelve or fourteen sorts may be obtained from one fleece (by very fine
+sorting), but generally not more than five or seven are made. The
+following table shows the relative qualities of wools from the various
+parts of a Merino sheep:
+
+1 and 2. _Head_ (_top and sides_): The wools grown on these parts are
+remarkable for length of staple, softness, and uniformity of
+character. They are usually the choicest wools in the fleece.
+
+3. _Upper part of the back:_ This also is a wool of good, sound
+quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but not as soft or as
+fine of fiber.
+
+4. _Loin and back:_ The staple here is comparatively short, not as
+fine, but generally of unvarying character, sometimes rather tender.
+
+[Illustration: SORTING ROOM]
+
+5. _Upper parts of legs:_ This wool is medium in length but coarse of
+fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose, open locks. It is
+generally sound, but likely to contain vegetable matter.
+
+6. _Upper portion of the neck:_ The staple clipped from this part of
+the neck is of an inferior quality, frequently faulty and irregular in
+growth, and contains twigs, thorns, etc.
+
+7. _Central part of the neck:_ This wool is similar to No. 6 but
+rather tender in staple.
+
+8. _Belly:_ This wool is from under the sheep, between the fore and
+hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in quality, and generally
+tender.
+
+9. _Root of tail:_ In this wool the fibers are coarse, short, and
+glossy.
+
+10. _Lower parts of the legs:_ This wool is generally dirty and
+greasy, the staple having no wave and lacking fineness. It is
+generally burry and contains much vegetable matter.
+
+11. _Front of Head_; 12. _Throat_; 13. _Chest:_ The wools from these
+parts are sometimes classed together, all having the same
+characteristics. The fiber is stiff, straight, coarse, and covered
+with fodder.
+
+14. _Shins:_ This is another short, thick, straight wool of glossy
+fiber, commonly known as shanks.
+
+=Classing.= Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and is usually, but
+not always, a process preliminary to sorting. It is an important part
+of sorting, and when well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
+uniform matchings.
+
+=Grades of Wool.= In the grading of wool no set standard of quality
+exists. The same classification may be applied in different years, or
+in different localities, to qualities of wool showing much variation,
+the best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for the lower
+grades. The highest quality of wool in the United States is found on
+full-blooded Merino sheep.
+
+=Merino Wool.= The Merino sheep was bred for wool and not mutton. The
+fleece of this breed is fine, strong, elastic, and of good color; it
+also possesses a high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
+grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The Merino sheep is a
+native of Spain, and Spain was for a long period the chief country of
+its production. It was also in past centuries extensively bred in
+England and English wool owes much to the Merino for the improvement
+it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds of English sheep. It
+was also introduced into Saxony and was highly bred there, and Saxony
+soon came to surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
+properties. The Merino was introduced into the United States at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century. By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had
+been imported and these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the
+fine wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.
+
+The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter blood refer to
+the full-blooded Merino standard. As the scale descends the wool
+becomes coarser, the wool of a quarter blood usually being a
+comparatively coarse fiber. The general classifications of fine,
+medium, coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
+combing wools. These distinctions naturally overlap according to the
+opinion of the parties in transactions. Picklock XXX and XX represent
+the highest grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X, and
+then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in connection with the
+locality from which the wool is grown, as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New
+York No. 1, etc.
+
+=Difference Between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool.= One of the first points
+to be understood in wool sorting is the difference between the wool of
+lambs and one-year-old sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
+Lamb's wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it has never been
+clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett wool, and is more valuable when
+longer, of about fourteen months' growth. It is finer in quality and
+possesses more waviness, which is a help in the process of spinning.
+
+The wool of sheep two or more years old is known as wether. The ends
+of the fiber from such sheep are thick and blunted, on account of
+having been previously cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once
+a hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two ways: by
+examining the ends of the fiber to see if they are pointed; or by
+pulling a staple out of the fleece. If it is wether, the staple will
+come out clean, without interfering to any extent with those around
+it; but if hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
+being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt, moss, straw,
+and other vegetable matter.
+
+=Dead Wool= is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep that have died.
+
+=Pulled Wool.= Pulled wool is wool from the pelts[10] as they come
+from the slaughter-houses of large packing plants. These pelts are
+thrown into vats of water and left to soak for twenty-four hours to
+loosen the dirt which has become matted into the wool. From these
+vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which the wool
+issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts are next freed from any
+particles of flesh or fat which may have adhered to them, and are then
+taken to the "painting" room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
+carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the roots of the
+wool. This preparation is allowed to remain on the pelts for
+twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned off and the pelts taken to the
+"pulling" room. Each wool puller stands before a small wooden
+framework over which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all
+thoroughly loosened by the "paint" preparation, is easily and quickly
+pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled it is thrown into barrels
+conveniently arranged according to grade and length.
+
+When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large room across
+which are several rows of wire netting, raised about three feet from
+the floor. Each sheet of netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool
+is piled on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
+forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile it is worked over
+by men with rakes, and soon dries. When thoroughly dry, it is raked up
+and taken to the storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it
+usually remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold, when
+it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find their way to the woolen
+mill or sampling house. Sometimes the fleece will retain its fleece
+form, but usually it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
+specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime from
+absorbing the cleansing substances used for scouring the wool.
+
+=Delaine Wool= is a variety of fine, long combing wool.
+
+=Cotty Wool=, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have been exposed to
+severe weather and lack of nourishment, and for these reasons have
+failed to throw off the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result
+it becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and brittle and
+almost worthless.
+
+=Wool Sorter.= The sorter begins by placing the fleece upon his board
+or table, always arranging it so that he faces the north, as this
+gives the most constant light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus
+spread out shows a definite dividing line through the center. The
+sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze their different
+qualities. The number of sorts is determined by the requirements of
+the manufacturer who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
+will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present use, and
+that leave in stock the smallest number of sorts and least weight for
+which he has no immediate use. The sorter then removes all extraneous
+matter adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds, and
+cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint, which, if not removed
+at this time, will dissolve in the scouring process and stain the
+wool. With these preliminaries finished, he proceeds to cast out the
+locks, according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided for that
+purpose. After skirting or taking off the outside edges of the fleece,
+usually known as brokes, and the legs and tail, known as breech, he
+separates the other portions from the better qualities.
+
+[Illustration: SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
+DEGREASING PLANT]
+
+Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights, seconds, breech,
+etc., are some of the terms used. Picklock comprises the choicest
+qualities; prime is similar to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice
+is true staple, but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice,
+but as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior sorts from
+this part of the sheep; downrights come from the lower parts of the
+sides; seconds consist of the best wool clipped from the throat and
+breast; breech, the short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting
+and edgings of the fleece.
+
+In the worsted trade different names are used. The terms generally
+adopted are: blue, from the neck; fine, from the shoulders; neat, from
+the middle of the sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
+breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the breech is very
+strong; brokes, from the lower part of the front legs and belly, which
+are classed as super, middle, and common.
+
+Fine, short wools are sorted according to the number of counts of yarn
+they are expected to spin, as 48's, 60's, 70's, and so on. Thus we see
+there are different methods of indicating qualities in different
+districts, and also of indicating differences of qualities between the
+woolen and worsted branches of the trade.
+
+It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies in the same way as
+the quality of the flesh. The shoulder is finest in grain and most
+delicate, so the wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear
+for the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence the wool is
+longer and stronger; about the neck the wool is short, to prevent the
+sheep from being weighted down while eating, etc.; the wool on the
+back becomes rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From the
+foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity for careful
+sorting, in order to insure obtaining an even running yarn, and
+subsequently a uniform quality of fabrics.
+
+=Wool Washing.= Fleece wool as it comes into the market is either in
+the "grease," that is, unwashed and with all the dirt which gathers on
+the surface of the greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the
+washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep shearing. Wool,
+unlike cotton, cannot be worked into yarn without being thoroughly
+cleansed of its impurities. These impurities consist of greasy and
+sweaty secretions, of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Combined
+with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool, these secretions form
+an encrusting compound, known as yolk, which acts as a natural
+preservative to the wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound,
+with other extraneous matter, must be removed before the wool is in a
+workable condition. The amount of yolk varies, the greatest amount
+being found in fine, short wools from the warm climates. In
+long-staple wool the amount of yolk is comparatively small.
+
+[Illustration: WASHING ROOM]
+
+Various methods of removing these impurities have been tried; one is
+the use of absorbent substances, such as fossil meal, alumina, etc.,
+to withdraw the greasy matter, so that the remaining impurities can be
+easily removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or similar
+solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool fats. This is followed
+by washing in tepid water to dissolve the potash salts, leaving the
+dirt to fall away when the other substances are no longer present. To
+work this method with safety requires a costly and intricate plant
+with skilled supervision. The method which is practically in universal
+use is washing the wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which
+combine with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion which is
+easily washed off from the wool.
+
+Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the washing
+process, as the luster may be destroyed and a brownish-yellow tint
+given to the wool, the spinning properties very seriously injured, the
+softness destroyed, or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to
+wash, requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature; other wools
+are cleansed with great difficulty. A note, therefore, should be made
+of any particular brand or class of wool requiring special attention,
+to serve as a guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
+in using unsuitable agents,--hard water, excessive temperatures,
+strong reagents, etc.
+
+Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on wool as they eat
+into it and destroy its vitality. Carbonate alkalies are less severe.
+Whatever cleansing substances are used, it is essential that they
+should be free from anything that is likely to injure the wool--that
+they remove the impurities and still preserve all the qualities in the
+wool. If the washing is properly performed the alkaline portion of the
+yolk is removed, leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber.
+If the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as "unmerchantable
+washed." "Tub washed" is the term applied to fleeces which are broken
+up and washed more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
+warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in cold water until
+nothing remains but the clean fiber.
+
+[Illustration: DEGREASING PLANT--REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL]
+
+An improved method of washing wool by hand is to have a series of
+tanks with pressing rollers attached to each tank: the wool is
+agitated by means of forks, and then passed to the pressing rollers
+and into each tank in succession. The tanks are usually five in
+number, and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the upper to
+the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing rollers the excess of water
+is driven off in a hydro extractor[11] and the wool is beaten into a
+light, fluffy condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.
+
+=Wool Drying.= The process of drying wool is not intended to be
+carried to such an extent that the wool will be in an absolutely dry
+state, for in such a condition it would be lusterless, brittle, and
+discolored. It is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
+moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it entirely would
+result in partial disintegration of the fibers. Buyers and sellers
+have a recognized standard of moisture, 16 per cent. If, on the other
+hand, it is left too wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain
+in the succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so unduly
+stretched that they have lost their elasticity.
+
+The theory which underlies the drying process is that dry air is
+capable of absorbing moisture, hence by circulating currents of dry
+air in and around wet wool, the absorbing power of the air draws off
+the moisture. For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
+as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and incapable of
+taking up more moisture. Warming the air increases its capacity to
+absorb moisture; thus a higher temperature is capable of drying the
+wool much quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
+temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100 degrees F., evenly
+distributed, and with ample provision for the escape of the saturated
+air, is essential for good work.
+
+=Oiling.= After being scoured wool generally has to be oiled before it
+is ready for the processes of spinning, blending, etc. As delivered
+from the drying apparatus, the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat
+harsh and wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk which is
+its natural lubricant. To render it soft and elastic, and to improve
+its spinning qualities, the fiber is sprinkled with lard oil or olive
+oil. As the oil is a costly item, it is of consequence that it be
+equally distributed and used economically. To attain this end various
+forms of oiling apparatus have been invented, which sprinkle the oil
+in a fine spray over the wool, which is carried under the sprinkler by
+an endless cloth.
+
+=Burring and Carbonizing.= After wool has been washed and scoured it
+frequently happens that it cannot be advanced to the succeeding
+operations of manufacture because it is mixed with burs, seeds,
+leaves, slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
+pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spinning qualities of
+the stock, for if a bur or other foreign substance becomes fastened in
+the strand of yarn while it is being spun, it either causes the thread
+to break or renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs, etc.,
+from the wool two methods are pursued: the one purely mechanical, the
+other chemical, and known respectively as burring and carbonizing.
+
+=Bur Picker.= For the mechanical removing of burs a machine called the
+bur picker is employed. In this machine the wool is first spread out
+into a thin lap or sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly,
+beat upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into pieces. The
+pieces fall down into the dust box or upon a grating beneath the
+machine, and are ejected together with a good deal of the wool
+adhering to them. Often the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and
+these are scattered through the stock.
+
+=Process of Carbonizing.= For the complete removal of all foreign
+vegetable substances from wool the most effective process is
+carbonizing, in which the burs, etc., are burned out by means of acid
+and a high degree of heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
+wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric or
+hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the acid bath being placed
+in cement cisterns or in large lead-lined tubs and not made strong
+enough to injure the fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock
+is frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then placed in an
+enclosed chamber and subjected to a high temperature (75 degrees C.).
+The result of this process is that all the vegetable matter contained
+in the wool is "carbonized" or burned to a crisp, and on being
+slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This dust is removed
+from the wool by various simple processes. The carbonizing process was
+first introduced in 1875, though it made but slight headway against
+the old burring method until after 1880.
+
+=Blending.= Pure wool of but one quality is not often used in the
+production of woven fabrics, so, before the raw material is ready for
+spinning into yarn, or for other processes by which it is worked into
+useful forms, it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons (among
+which cheapness figures prominently), the added materials consisting
+usually of shoddy, mungo, or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however,
+blending has for its object the securing of a desired quality or
+weight of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
+determines blending operations, natural colored wools being frequently
+intermixed to obtain particular shades for dress goods, tweeds,
+knitting yarns, etc. Stock dyed wools are also blended for the
+production of mixed colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is
+practically no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable by
+mixing two or more colors of wool together. The various quantities of
+wool to be blended are spread out in due proportion in the form of
+thin layers, one on top of the other, and then passed through a
+machine called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination of
+large and small rollers, thickly studded with small pins, which open
+the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly intermix it. A blast of air
+constantly plays upon the wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and
+pins in opening out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
+operation several times and is finally delivered in a soft, fleecy
+condition, ready to be spun into yarn.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Skins.
+
+[11] A wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high
+speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
+
+
+=Remanufactured= wool substitutes are extensively used in the
+manufacture of woolen and worsted goods. There is no need for the
+prejudice that is sometimes met regarding these reclaimed materials,
+for by their use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed. If
+the immense quantity of these materials were wasted, countless persons
+would be unable to afford proper clothing, as it is difficult to
+estimate what the price of wool would be; and it is also doubtful if a
+sufficient quantity could be produced to supply the need. In almost
+all instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special purpose
+of producing cloths at a much lower price.
+
+The cloths made from waste products, such as noils, are not much
+inferior in quality to those produced from the wool from which the
+noils are obtained; but the great majority of cloths made from other
+waste products are much inferior. The following are the most important
+substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool, and flocks.
+
+=Noils= are the rejected fibers from the process of combing the
+different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are from the sheep, mohair
+noils from the Angora goat, and alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.
+
+Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool noils, short or
+fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca noils. They are all obtained
+in the process of combing, that is, the process which separates the
+long from the short fibers; the former are known as the "top," and are
+used in worsted and in the production of mohair and alpaca yarns;
+while the latter are used to advantage in the production of many
+different kinds of woolen fabrics. With the exception of length, noils
+are practically of the same quality as the tops from which they are
+taken.
+
+Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools as Leicester and
+similar wools. These noils, like the wool from which they are
+obtained, are much coarser in quality and fiber than the short-wool
+noils. Occasionally, when strength is required in the fabric, these
+noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool noils. Many of
+the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively of these noils. They are also
+mixed with shoddy and cotton in the production of dark-colored
+fabrics, and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a fibrous
+appearance they are extremely useful.
+
+Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and are obtained from
+combing Australian and other fine wools. The number and variety of
+uses to which they are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
+in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufacture of shawls and
+plain woolens of a soft nature, and are also suitable for mixing with
+cotton in the production of twist threads.
+
+Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing of these
+materials. They are lacking in felting properties, but are lustrous
+and possess strength, and are most valuable in the manufacture of
+fabrics where strength and luster are required. These noils are used
+in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets, as yarns for
+these carpets must possess strength, brightness, and thickness of
+fiber. They are also used in combination with shoddy and cotton to
+produce weft or filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.
+
+=Shoddy= and =Mungo= are in reality wool products, or wool fiber which
+has previously passed through the processes of manufacture whereby its
+physical structure has been considerably mutilated. These were first
+produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in value than mungo.
+The value and quality of the waste or rags from which it is made
+determine the quality or value of the material. Shoddy is derived from
+waste or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
+stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.
+
+=Mungo= is made from rags of hard or milled character and is much
+shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length, varying from one-quarter to
+three-quarters of an inch, can be regulated by the treatment the rags
+receive, and by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
+machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided into classes. Mungo is
+divided into two classes, namely, new and old mungo. New mungo is made
+from rags chiefly composed of tailor's clippings, unused pattern-room
+clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off garments, etc. By a
+careful selection of the rags previous to grinding, it is possible to
+make a large number of qualities, and a great variety of colors and
+shades without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and mungo are
+used in cloths of low and medium qualities. Shoddies are utilized in
+fabrics of the cheviot class and in the production of backing yarns.
+Mungoes of the best quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in
+both warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.
+
+=Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo.= Before the fibrous mungo is
+obtained, the rags have to pass through the following necessary
+preliminary operations:
+
+_A. Dusting._ This is carried on in a shaking machine, which consists
+of a cylinder possessing long and strong spikes, which are enclosed,
+having underneath a grating to allow the dust to pass through. The
+dust is then driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
+purpose.
+
+_B. Sorting._ All rags, both old and new, must be sorted, and
+considerable care must be exercised in this operation, as on this work
+alone depends the obtaining of different qualities and shades, as well
+as the securing of the production of a regular and uniform product.
+
+_C. Seaming._ This is only necessary with the rags procured from
+garments. It is simply removing the cotton threads from the seams, and
+any metallic or hard substances from the rags.
+
+_D. Oiling._ The rags are oiled to soften them and make them more
+pliable, and thus to facilitate the grinding.
+
+_E. Grinding._ This is the principal operation, and the rags are made
+fibrous in this process. The machine by which this is effected is made
+up of the following parts: feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a
+funnel for conveying the material out of the machine. The principal
+features of the machine are the swift and its speed. The swift is
+enclosed in a framework, and is about forty-two inches in diameter and
+eighteen inches wide, thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square
+inches, containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes. The
+speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolutions per minute. The
+rags are fed by placing them on the traveling feed apron, and are thus
+conveyed to the fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
+are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth, moving with
+exceedingly high surface velocity, they are torn thread from thread
+and fiber from fiber. The fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags
+are held while the swift carries out this operation. By means of the
+strong current of air created by the high speed of the swift, the
+mungo is expelled from the machine through the funnel into a specially
+arranged receptacle. If by any chance the machine should be
+overcharged, that is, if too many rags are passing through the
+rollers, the top fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply
+carried, or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the opposite side
+of the machine without being subjected to the tearing process. The top
+roller is weighted by levers with weights attached to keep it in
+position, thus bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is
+driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the feed rollers in
+relation to the swift, the length of the fiber may be varied to a
+small degree.
+
+=Extract Wool.= This is obtained from union cloths, that is, from
+cloths having a wool weft and warp of cotton, etc., also from cloths
+having the same material for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo
+warp or filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. Therefore
+the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted from it by the process
+of carbonizing. To effect this, the tissue or rags are steeped in a
+solution of sulphuric acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
+enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the acid in a
+concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton, converting it into
+powder. The powder readily becomes separated, and thus the cotton is
+eliminated. The material that is left is well washed to remove all
+acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder, to impart to
+it the appearance of a woolly and a softer fabric.
+
+=Flocks.= These are of three kinds, and are waste products of the
+milling, cropping, and raising operations. The most valuable are those
+derived from the fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
+are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture of low grade
+cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks are suitable for blending with
+wool, and as a rule command a fair price. Raising flocks are those
+obtained from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
+purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are used. Cutting
+or cropping flocks are the short fibers which are removed from the
+cloths in this operation. They are practically of no value to the
+textile manufacturer, being unfit for yarn production, but are used
+chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing "flock-papers," which
+are papers with raised figures resembling cloth, made of poor wool,
+and attached with a gluey varnish.
+
+[Illustration: CARD ROOM
+
+  1. Automatic Feed.
+  2. Bur Guards.
+  3. Bur Tray.
+  4. 1st Top Divider.
+  5. 2d Top Divider.
+  6. Workers.
+  7. Strippers.
+  8. Doffer Cylinder.
+  9. Main Cylinders.
+ 10. Main Card Drive on 2d Main Cylinder Shaft.
+ 11. 1st Lickerin.
+ 12. 2d Lickerin.
+ 13. 3d Lickerin.
+ 14. 4th Lickerin.
+ 15. Fancy Hood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORSTED YARNS
+
+
+=Carding.= After the wool is washed it undergoes a number of
+operations before it is finished into worsted or woolen yarn.[12] The
+first step in the manufacturing of worsted yarn is to pass the washed
+wool through a worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
+covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The effect of these
+cylinders on the wool is to disengage the wool fibers, make them
+straight, and form a "sliver" or strand. It is now ready for the
+combing machine.
+
+=Combing.= The process of combing consists of subjecting the card
+sliver to the operations of the automatic wool comber, which
+straightens the fibers and removes all short and tufted pieces of
+wool. Combing is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies
+perfectly straight, and that all fibers follow one after the other in
+regular order.
+
+=Comb.= A comb is a complicated machine. The principal feature is a
+large metal ring with rows of fine steel pins (pin circles), which is
+made to revolve horizontally within the machine. By various devices
+the wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of tufts. The
+fibers of the tufts by an intricate process are separated into long
+and short lengths, and a set of rollers draws each out separately and
+winds it into a continuous strand called "tops." On leaving the
+comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and foreign
+substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lustrous appearance. The
+short combed-out wool is called noils, and is used in making carpet
+yarns, ground up into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy
+yarns.
+
+=Worsted Tops.= American textile manufacturers are finding it
+advantageous to have their combing done by those who make the work a
+specialty rather than to do it themselves. In the manufacture of tops
+all varieties of combing wools are used: Australian, Merino, and
+Crossbred wools, South American Merino and Crossbred wools, Cape
+Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools grown in the United States,
+the lustrous wools of pure English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey,
+and Alpaca from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries.[13]
+Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools, either sorted or
+unsorted as they may desire, to a combing mill, where the wool is put
+into top at a lower price than that at which most spinneries can do
+their own combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger amount of
+top from a given amount of wool can be secured than by any other
+process, and in addition, a top in better condition for drawing and
+spinning.
+
+[Illustration: COMB ROOM
+
+  1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).
+  3. Boxes containing bevel gears.
+  4. Pillars.
+  5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.
+  6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism.
+  7. Dabbing brushes.
+  8. Star or stroker wheels.
+  9. Large circle containing rows of pins.
+ 10. Drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle.
+ 11. Brass boxes or conductors.
+ 12. Guides for comb ball ends.
+ 13. Comb balls (4 ends each).
+ 14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest.
+ 15. Comb leg (4 in number).
+ 16. Foundation plate.]
+
+In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single fiber lies across
+the strand; all lie in the direction of the length. This order is
+preserved until the fibers have been converted into yarn, which is
+accomplished by passing through "gill boxes." These gill boxes are
+machines with bars of iron having upon their surface two rows of
+minute steel pins, by this means kept perfectly straight. The bars on
+which they are placed are worked on screws between two sets of
+rollers. The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and, as it
+passes through, is caught by one of these gills that is raised up for
+the purpose, being succeeded by others as the rollers revolve. These
+gills are moved forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
+rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber perfectly
+straight. The second set of rollers is termed the draught rollers,
+since by them the wool, after passing through the front rollers, is
+drawn out and reduced in thickness. This is accomplished because the
+second rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
+rollers, the speed being regulated according to the length of the
+wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be produced. These gills are
+used in the production of worsted yarn until the size of the rope of
+wool has been so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
+fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness. A worsted
+yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a yarn produced from
+perfectly straight fibers.
+
+[Illustration: GILLING
+
+  1. Cans containing Comb Ends or Sliver.
+  2. Balling Head.
+  3. Stock from Balling Head No. 2.
+  4. Screws for applying pressure to Back Rollers.
+  5. Screws for applying pressure to Front Rollers.
+  6. Faller Screws situated between No. 4 and No. 5.
+  7. Guard for covering gears which drive Back Rollers.
+  8. Guard covering gears which drive Balling Head.
+  9. Balling Head.]
+
+The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some cases, although
+such a yarn is not in common use. When combing is dispensed with, the
+gills, in connection with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers
+straight, and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has a
+tendency to be uneven and knotty.
+
+Before the wool can be spun it must be made into roving of a suitable
+thickness. This is done by passing it, after being combed, through a
+series of operations termed drawing, whose functions are to produce a
+gradual reduction in thickness at each stage. Although the number of
+machines varies according to the kind of wool to be treated, still the
+same principle applies to all.
+
+=Spinning.= The process of spinning is the last in the formation of
+yarn or thread, the subsequent operations having for their object the
+strengthening of the yarn by combining two or more strands and
+afterward arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for which the
+yarn is required. It is also the last time that the fibers are
+mechanically drawn over each other or drafted, and this is invariably
+done from a single roving. The humidity and temperature of the
+spinning room must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is provided
+with a wet and dry thermometer so that the best temperature can be
+ascertained. The most suitable heat and humidity can only be obtained
+by comparison and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere causes the
+wool to become charged with electricity and then the fibers repel each
+other.
+
+[Illustration: WORSTED SPINNING. "BRADFORD SYSTEM"
+
+  1. Bobbins containing Worsted Yarn.
+  2. Conical shape caps placed on top of spindles.
+  3. Tin Wings fastened to Eyeboard.
+  4. Eyeboard containing pot eyes, through which yarn passes to the bobbin.
+  5. Scratch fluted front rollers.
+  6. Leather covered Pressing Rollers for No. 5 Rollers.
+  7. Smooth metal Pressing Rollers for Back Rollers.
+  8. Large Front Roller Gear.
+  9. Pulley for driving Twist gear.
+ 10. Spools of Roving held by a series of pegs.
+ 11. Spindle bands.
+ 12. Sifter plate or rail.]
+
+Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods known respectively as
+the Bradford or English system and the French system. The difference
+in these systems of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing
+and spinning processes, a radically different class of machinery being
+used for each. The combing process is practically the same in both
+cases, but the wool is combed dry for the French system, and by the
+English method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being combed. The
+result of the English method is the production of a smooth level yarn
+in which the fibers lie nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made
+according to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more woolly. On
+account of the absence of oil, the shrinkage of French spun worsted is
+considerably less than that made by the Bradford system.
+
+=Characteristics of Worsted Yarn.= The unique structure of worsted
+yarn makes it invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which
+luster and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics. The
+methods by which worsted is formed render it capable of sustaining
+more tension in proportion to its size than the pure woolen yarn. This
+feature, combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent
+position in the manufacture of fine coatings, dress goods, etc. The
+method of arranging the fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is
+such as to produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and fibrous
+surface, which destroys to a large degree the clearness of the pattern
+effect in the woven piece. In the construction of worsted yarn the
+fibers are arranged in a parallel relationship to each other,
+resulting in the production of a smooth, hard yarn having a
+well-defined surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or marked
+type is possible by its use. There is, in a word, more scope for
+pattern effects, since the level and regular structure of the yarn
+imparts a distinction to every part of a woven design. From this
+peculiarity arises the great variety of effects seen in the worsted
+dress fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored patterns
+and in fabrics of one shade throughout.
+
+[Illustration: SPOOL ROOM
+
+  1. Jack Spooler frame.
+  2. Drum upon which Jack Spool rests.
+  3. Jack Spool.
+  4. Guides for spool ends.
+  5. Spools containing yarn.
+  6. Pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends.
+  7. Spool creel.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH SPINNING
+
+  1. Balling heads.
+  2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound.
+  3. Rub or condenser aprons.
+  4. Gearing for driving rub motion.
+  5. Shipper rod and handles.
+  6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.
+  7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.]
+
+Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a rule, the wool used in
+the English system is of fairly good length and uniform staple, for if
+otherwise it is only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun
+straight. Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
+system, and this is the reason why the French system of spinning is
+being introduced. On the other hand, in the spinning of woolen yarns
+great length of staple is not essential, for the machinery employed
+will work the small fibers.
+
+=Uses of Worsted Yarn.= Worsted yarn may be used in any of the
+following fabrics:
+
+1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework and knitting, as Berlin,
+Zephyr, and Saxony wools.
+
+2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified according to material.
+
+    _a._ Fabrics of all wool--serge, bunting, rep, dress
+    goods, with weave effects.
+
+    _b._ Wool and Cotton--union goods, serge linings,
+    lathing.
+
+    _c._ Wool and Silk--rich poplin, pongee, henrietta,
+    bombazine.
+
+    _d._ Alpaca and Mohair--alpaca, mohair dress goods,
+    lusters, braids, laces.
+
+=Counts.= Yarn is measured by a system of "counts"--the number of
+yards of yarn to the pound. The counts of worsted yarn are based on
+the number of hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards. Thus
+No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560 yards each, or 16,800
+yards to the pound.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] The distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that
+worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel, while the fibers of
+woolen yarn run in all directions. The worsted yarn is stronger.
+
+[13] Mills that manufacture worsted yarn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WOOLEN YARN
+
+
+In manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation is performed
+to arrange the wool fibers so that they will lie smoothly and parallel
+to each other. In the case of woolen yarn every operation is performed
+so as to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
+overlap each other.
+
+To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of machinery entirely
+different from that used in worsted manufacture is necessary. The wool
+is carded, but no attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The
+reduction in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon the
+so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame where the drawing and
+twisting are done at the same operation. As neither combs nor gills
+are employed, there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
+possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance that makes the
+woolen yarn so valuable.
+
+The operation is as follows:
+
+=Carding.= After washing the material for woolen yarn, it is passed
+through three carding processes, and from the last of them is taken
+direct to the spinning frame to be made into yarn. The object of
+woolen carding is different from carding in any other textile
+manufacture.
+
+In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected to a "combing"
+principle, and the aim is to lay the fibers parallel. Woolen carding
+aims to open the raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose
+condition, without leaning toward any definite arrangement.
+
+The carding machines are called, respectively, first, second, and
+third breaker. Each machine consists of a complicated series of
+card-covered cylinders of different sizes, running at different rates
+of speed--sometimes in the same and sometimes in an opposite
+direction. These rollers take the wool from one another in regular
+order until it is finally delivered from the third breaker in a soft,
+fluffy rope or roll called a sliver. This sliver is wound on a bobbin,
+and taken from the card to the mule spinning frame.
+
+The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to the mule spinning
+frame where it is passed through rolls, and the sliver attenuated by
+means of a traveling carriage.
+
+=Count.= In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous systems for
+denoting the count, varying with the locality in which it is spun and
+the character of the product. In the United States there are two
+systems employed, but the one in most general use is known as
+"American run counts." This is based on the number of "runs," each
+containing 1,600 yards to the pound. Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards
+to the pound is called a 5 "run" yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the
+pound is equal to a 3-1/4 "run."
+
+In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based on the "cut,"
+each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the count is the number of cuts
+in a pound. Thus, No. 30 cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the
+pound. No. 15 contains 4,500 yards to the pound.
+
+Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings are blended
+and the fibers napped, as exemplified in tweed, cheviot, doeskin,
+broadcloth, beaver, frieze, chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+=Preparatory to Weaving.= Yarn is wound on bobbins on the ring or mule
+spinning frame. These bobbins are transferred to a machine called a
+spooler where the yarn is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making
+the warp.
+
+A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of threads (called
+ends), usually in a precisely designed order of given length, and
+allowing the ends to wind over a cylinder called a beam. In order to
+do this it is necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
+in a frame called a creel.
+
+Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to weave or interlace
+it with filling it must be sized. This is necessary for all single
+twist warp yarns. Its primary object is to increase the strength and
+smoothness of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the strain and
+friction due to the weaving operation. Other objects of sizing are the
+increase of weight and bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
+of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it over a roller
+and through a bath of a starch mixture. The machine for sizing is
+called a slasher. The warp is now ready to have the ends drawn in and
+placed in the loom.
+
+=Weaving.= Every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct
+systems of threads, known as the warp and filling (weft), which are
+interlaced with each other to form a fabric. The warp threads run
+lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
+side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling threads
+interlace with each other is known as the weave. When the word "end"
+is used in connection with weaving it always signifies the warp
+thread, while each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of
+the cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to the inch.
+The fabrics produced by weaving are named by the manufacturers or
+merchants who introduce them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing
+under new names, usually with some slight modification to suit the
+public taste.
+
+=Weaving Processes.= In order to understand the different kinds of
+weaves it is necessary to know, or at least to understand, the process
+of forming cloth, called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
+loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam, the
+cloth-roll, the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam
+is a wooden cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound. The
+threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the
+front of the loom, and are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or
+group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) of a
+heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more
+groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the
+motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of
+the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means
+of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are
+controlled by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
+the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made
+between the threads of warp, through which the shuttle is thrown.
+
+[Illustration: A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM
+
+Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed]
+
+The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is fastened in the
+shuttle and which permits the yarn to unwind as it passes to and fro.
+As fast as each filling thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed
+close to the previous one by means of a reed which advances toward and
+recedes from the cloth after each passage of the shuttle. This is done
+to make the cloth firm. There are various movements on the loom for
+controlling the tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
+the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in the case of
+breakage of the warp thread or the running out of the filling thread.
+
+Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms or by steam-power in
+power-looms, but the arrangements for both are to a certain extent the
+same. A great number of different kinds of power-looms are
+manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles in use at
+the present time. These looms are distinguished by the name of the
+material which they are designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom,
+blanket-loom, burlaps- and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
+loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-loom, etc.
+
+Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping, and braiding,
+which are operations depending on the interlacing of a single thread,
+or single set of threads, while weaving is done with two distinct and
+separate sets of threads.
+
+[Illustration: MAIN WEAVE ROOM
+
+  1. Warp beam containing warp.
+  2. Lease Rods.
+  3. Harnesses.
+  4. Dobby Head motion to lift harnesses.
+  5. Jacquard Head motion.
+  6. Cards containing design--working in connection with Jacquard Head
+     motion.
+  7. Whip Roll.]
+
+=Classes of Weave.= The character of the weave offers the best basis
+for classification of woven goods. Nearly all the varieties of cloth
+may be classified from the following weaves:
+
+  (1) Plain-weaving,
+  (2) Twill-weaving,
+  (3) Satin-weaving,
+  (4) Figure-weaving,
+  (5) Double-cloth-weaving,
+  (6) Pile-weaving,
+  (7) Gauze-weaving,
+  (8) Lappet-weaving.
+
+=Plain or Homespun Weave.= Plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can
+be woven. In this weave one series of threads (filling) crosses
+another series (warp) at right angles, passing over one and under one
+in regular order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads.
+This combination makes a strong and firm cloth, but does not give a
+close or a heavy fabric, as the threads do not lie as close and
+compact as they do in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or
+shrunk in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large or
+small openings according to the size or twist of yarn used. If heavy
+or coarse threads are used the perforations will be large; if finer
+threads, the perforations will be smaller.
+
+This weave is used in the production of sheeting, muslin, lawn,
+gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In plain weaving it is possible to
+produce stripes by the use of bands of colored warp, and checks where
+both warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is commonly used when
+the cloth is intended to be ornamented with printed patterns. In
+weaving cloth of only one color but one shuttle is used, while for the
+production of checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.
+
+[Illustration: GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED AND
+HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM
+
+  A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame]
+
+=Twill Weave.= A twill weave has diagonal lines across the cloth. In
+this class of weaves the filling yarn or threads pass over 1 and under
+2, or over 1 and under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2,
+3, or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling thread does
+not pass under and over the same set of warp threads, as this would
+not give the desired interlacings. Instead the order of interlacing
+moves one thread to the right or left with each filling thread that is
+woven. If there are the same number of threads to an inch in warp and
+filling, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if the warps
+are closer together than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if
+the filling threads are closer together the lines will approach more
+nearly the horizontal. Different effects are obtained in patterns by
+variation in the sizes of the yarn and twist, by the use of heavy
+threads to form cords, ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored
+materials in the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
+another to produce a fancy twill-weave. The object of the
+twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a fabric, or to
+ornament it. The disposition of the threads permits the introduction
+of more material into the cloth, and hence renders it heavier, and of
+closer construction than in the case of plain-weaving.
+
+=Satin Weaves.= The object of a satin weave is to distribute the
+interlacings of the warp and filling in such a manner that no trace of
+the diagonal (twill) line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In
+weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under 1 and
+over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin is required. The
+raising of the warp end to allow the filling to pass under is done in
+such a way as to prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
+result is that practically all of the filling is on the face of the
+cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave. A warp-face satin
+weave may be produced by reversing the order; in this case practically
+all of the warp is brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a
+worsted warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically
+all of the warp would show on the cloth, and give it the appearance of
+a worsted fabric. A number of classes of silk goods are made in this
+way, with a silk filling covering a cotton warp.
+
+This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface, capable of
+reflecting the light to the best advantage, and having a lustrous
+appearance which makes it resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of
+silk using a satin weave.
+
+Satin weaves are used very largely in producing different styles of
+cotton and silk fabrics, and are also frequently found in woolen
+goods. They are more extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
+table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin stripes are
+frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress goods in connection
+with plain and figured weaves.
+
+=Figure Weaving.= To produce complicated and irregular patterns in the
+loom a large number of different openings (sheds) must be made in the
+warp, and to secure such a large number an attachment is placed on top
+of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The Jacquard is merely an
+apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads, by which each
+separate one can be made to move independently of any of the others.
+It is provided with weighted strings attached to each of the warp
+threads. The weighted strings are controlled by wire needles which are
+in turn controlled by perforated cards. Each motion of the loom
+changes their position and allows some needles to go through the holes
+in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others strike the card
+and leave the warp down. In this way the perforations of the cards
+determine the figure of the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to
+produce patterns of great width in which all or most of the threads
+in the pattern move independently. For the weaving of elaborate
+effects and flowing lines it is practically indispensable. All
+elaborate designs are classed under the name of Jacquards.
+
+=Double Cloth.= Double cloth is a descriptive term applied in weaving
+to fabrics produced by combining two single cloths into one. Each one
+of these single cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
+filling, the combination being effected in the loom by interlacing
+some of the warp or filling threads of one cloth into the other cloth
+at certain intervals, thus fastening them securely together. The
+reasons for making double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to
+reduce the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials for
+the cloth forming the back; again it may be to produce double-face
+fabric; it allows great freedom for the formation of colored patterns
+which may or may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
+basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making pillow cases,
+pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.; more frequently, the object is to
+increase the bulk or strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as
+heavy overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich silk,
+etc.
+
+=Pile Weave.= A pile weave is a general term under which are classed
+numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface, as plush,
+velvet, velveteen, and carpeting of various kinds. Turkish towels are
+an excellent illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a closely
+set, elastic face covering various kinds of woolen, silk, and cotton
+fabrics, and consists of threads standing close together, either in
+the form of loops or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
+form a uniform and even surface. In the production of a pile fabric a
+third thread is introduced into the weaving and formed into loops
+usually by carrying it over the wires laid across the breadth of the
+cloth. The wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops standing;
+the loops may then be cut so as to form a cut pile, as in velvet and
+plush, or they may be left in their original form as in Brussels
+carpet and Turkish towels.
+
+=Gauze Weaving.= In gauze weaving all the warp threads are not
+parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or less among
+themselves, thereby favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in
+which many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained. Two sets
+of warp threads are used, one being the ground warp and the other the
+"douping," the latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
+especially characterized by its openness and yields the lightest and
+strongest fabric with the least material. When gauze is combined with
+plain weaving it is styled "leno." Gauze fabrics are designed for
+women's summer gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.
+
+=Lappet Weaving.= Lappet weaving, really a form of embroidery, is used
+for producing small designs on cloth by means of needles placed in a
+sliding-frame, the figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate
+figures are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there are many
+small effects that can be economically produced in this manner, such
+as the detached spots in dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous
+figures running more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
+imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DYEING AND FINISHING
+
+
+=Dyeing.= When a fabric or fiber is impregnated with a uniform color
+over its whole surface, it is said to be "simply dyed." On the other
+hand, if distinct patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
+impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.
+
+Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the coal tar dyes have
+been discovered the latter are used entirely. Over fourteen thousand
+colors have been produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
+attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool and silk attract
+better than cotton and linen.
+
+=Wool Dyeing.= The methods of dyeing wool differ considerably from
+those employed for cotton and other vegetable fibers. They may be
+divided into three parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.
+
+Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray or natural state,
+and then cleansed and dyed in the piece to such colors as are
+required. They are woven in plain weaves and in a great variety of
+twills--in fact, in all styles of weaves--and are also made on the
+Jacquard loom. The principal fabrics in this classification are all
+wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings, satines, prunellas,
+whipcords, melroses, Venetian broadcloths, zibelines, rainproof
+cloths; nun's veiling, canvases, grenadines, albatrosses, crepes, and
+French flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes. Whenever
+it is possible, it is better to dye textile fabrics in the form of
+woven pieces than in the yarn. During the process of weaving it is
+impossible to avoid getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
+scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color used in
+weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method of applying color to
+textiles. The chief fault of piece dyeing is the danger of cloud
+spots, stains, etc., which do not appear in the other two methods.
+Then again in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff does
+not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior remains nearly white.
+
+The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller into a dye vat.
+Small pieces or "swatches" are taken from the ends of the fabric, and
+compared with the pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
+of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and cottons of
+different growths and seasons vary greatly, so that the use of a fixed
+quantity of dye to a given amount of goods will not always give the
+exact shade. In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are placed
+side by side below the eyes (reflected light), and then held up to the
+light and the eye directed along the surface. A judgment must be
+formed quickly, as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
+unable to perceive fine shades of difference.
+
+[Illustration: DYE ROOM
+
+  1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.
+  2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.
+  3. Cloth leaving dye tub--being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.]
+
+=Cross Dyed.= Cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with
+black or colored cotton warps and wool or worsted filling and
+afterwards dyed in the piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction
+for dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric woven
+with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be identical in depth of
+color, tone, and brightness. In some cases it is possible to dye a
+mixed fabric at a single operation, but the usual process is to dye
+the wool in yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the color
+of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation the wool is thrown
+to the surface. In another method the warp is dyed and woven with a
+white wool or worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
+that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton does not take
+the wool dye, but retains its original color. This class of work is
+generally used in mohair, alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the
+natural brilliancy of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the
+filling is not impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the
+goods were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven. The
+principal cloths in this classification are cotton, warp figured
+melroses, Florentines, glaces, brilliantines, lusters, alpacas, and
+mohairs; rainproof cloths, and fancy waistings, and in these may be
+found the same great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be
+found in the piece-dyed goods already described.
+
+=Yarn Dyed.= Yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously described in
+that they are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven, or yarns
+spun from dyed wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece),
+slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dyeing is preferable for goods intended to
+stand friction, and that in spite of wear and tear must preserve their
+color. It is preferred for dark colored goods where much friction is
+to be encountered, but is seldom used for light colors, since these
+would be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture. In this
+case every fiber is colored uniformly all over. The yarn from this
+wool and the cloth woven from it are dyed through and through and do
+not become grayish or whitish by wear and tear.
+
+Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the dyestuff
+penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if unevenly dyed, the
+subsequent operations equalize most thoroughly the irregularities in
+color.
+
+Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids, and suitings,
+and in their manufacture the drop box loom (a loom with two or more
+shuttles) is used. Goods manufactured under this classification
+include cotton warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mixture
+coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof cloths. These goods
+are made in a great variety of weaves, the effect in each being
+secured by the color and the weave.
+
+Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by
+unraveling threads of each kind. In the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the
+dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of
+piece-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
+completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.
+
+=Textile Printing.= Printed fabrics such as print cloths can generally
+be distinguished by observing the back side of the cloth. If the
+figure or pattern on the face of the cloth does not penetrate through
+to the back but only shows the outline, the fabric has been printed.
+Fabrics are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers on
+which the pattern is engraved.
+
+The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally feebler than that
+of wool or silk. Few of the natural dyestuffs attach themselves
+permanently without use of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which
+has an affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be colored,
+and which possesses the power of combining with the dyestuff and thus
+forming an insoluble compound upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an
+unspun state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank or
+skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a considerable
+extent it is also dyed in the piece.
+
+=Styles.= Since styles and designs are constantly changing it is
+necessary for the mills to meet this demand by producing new styles.
+Some of the patterns which are at this time considered to be in the
+best style would have appeared much out of date two or three years
+ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the patterns which are now
+almost obsolete will, with some changes, become the most popular
+sellers of the season. As the mill officials or designers are not out
+among the trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
+patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This information is
+obtained by the "styler" of the selling house. The styler receives all
+the latest foreign samples and fashion papers from abroad, and often
+goes or sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what goods,
+designs, and colors are taking well over there. The selling agent or
+styler then supplies the designing department of the mill with all the
+samples, information, and suggestions necessary in getting out the
+samples.
+
+=Construction of Cloth.= In reproducing a sample of cloth in the mill
+it is necessary that the construction of the cloth be first known,
+that is, there must be ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per
+inch, the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the number
+that is used for the filling, and the number of ounces per yard or
+yards per pound. Then the interlacings of the threads in the sample
+must be picked out in order to get the design or weave on the design
+paper, from which the data are obtained for regulating the movement of
+the harness or heddles. Design paper is paper ruled by lines into a
+number of squares. An imitation of the cloth can be produced on this
+paper by showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This is
+done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil marks, while
+the others are left empty. In practical work it is the general custom
+to make a cross with a pencil to indicate the squares that are to be
+filled in, thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
+thread at this point. When a square is left blank it shows that the
+warp thread is under the filling at this point. When a warp thread is
+up on a certain pick, the harness which controls this thread must be
+raised on this pick.
+
+=Finishing.= The fabric as it comes from the loom is in an imperfect
+condition for use. When worsted fabrics leave the loom they require
+but few and simple finishing operations, and in this respect differ
+much from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing operations.
+The finishing processes of woolen and worsted cloths are similar. The
+following description of processes and machines gives a clear idea of
+the necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or worsted
+cloth; for particular styles of finish the processes must be varied in
+accordance with the particular requirements of the style of fabric in
+hand.
+
+=Perching.= The fabric as it comes from the loom receives a perching
+and measuring inspection at the weave room before leaving for the
+finishing room. This examination is to detect quickly such
+imperfections as require prompt attention at the loom.
+
+=Burling.= Every knot that has been tied in the threads during
+winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving, must be looked for and felt
+for during burling, carefully drawn to the surface of the cloth, and
+then clipped off with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so
+that no space without a thread will occur. Threads which are found
+loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by the weaver having tied
+in a broken end, should be cut off and not pulled off. All places
+where threads are not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
+(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is subjected to perching
+again. It is examined for imperfections, and when these are found,
+they are marked with chalk to call the attention of the menders to
+such places.
+
+=Mending.= The object of darning or mending is to make all repairs in
+the structure of the cloth before the process of fulling. The mender
+must have a good eye for colors necessary to produce various effects
+and for the interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
+for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing afterward,
+than in dealing with a face finish fabric, where the nap is to be
+raised and will cover many imperfections so that they will never be
+noticed in the finished cloth.
+
+=Fulling.= The object of fulling is to render woolen and worsted
+goods stronger and firmer in body. Fulling is similar to felting, the
+principal object of each being to condense the fibers, thereby
+increasing the firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled
+nearly one-half their original width and length. The process of
+fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and condensing the
+fibers of the cloth. The object of scouring is to get rid of oil used
+preparatory to spinning, and to remove from the cloth stains and the
+sizing used in dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with
+hot water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between the
+slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to eighteen hours,
+according to the character of goods and the amount of shrinkage
+desired. The more prolonged the operation, the more the material
+shrinks. When sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to
+free it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first, but
+gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked in cold water.
+Next the cloth is stretched uniformly in all directions, so that it
+may dry evenly without wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is
+placed in a hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
+shrinking is effected by the application of moisture, heat, and
+pressure. Every one is familiar with the fact that woolen blankets,
+flannels, and hosiery tend to contract with frequent washings, gaining
+in thickness and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrinkage
+is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously in hot water and
+then allowed to cool suddenly. This change is due to the physical
+properties of the wool fiber.
+
+Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy cassimeres are
+seldom fulled more than one-sixth of their woven width, while worsted
+goods are shrunk but a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
+of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many varieties of
+cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth, doeskin, and all nap finished
+woolens, the fulling is carried to a point where the fibers become
+densely matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving the
+cloth the appearance of felt.
+
+=Crabbing.= After the cloth has been dried in the hydro extractor,
+where it throws off superfluous moisture, it must be stretched full
+width for the future finishing processes, and "set" at this width.
+
+Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosening process, then
+the setting process. Goods are run on a cylinder, then passed over
+several rolls, and are kept tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The
+cylinders are immersed in hot water and the goods are allowed to
+rotate in this water for about twenty minutes, after which they are
+taken out for one or two hours. They are then returned to the machine
+for about twenty-five minutes and are subjected to boiling and also to
+additional pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
+additional pressure gives the desired finish.
+
+=Tentering.= The object of tentering[14] is to straighten and level
+the fabric. After the cloth leaves the tentering machine it has lost
+its natural moisture, and is not at all fitted, as far as fiber
+condition is concerned, for the napping. To bring it into a fit state
+for this operation it is passed through a trough containing a brush
+which gives it the desired moisture. It is then ready for napping.
+
+=Napping.= Most cloths at this stage of finishing are more or less
+unsightly on account of long and irregular fibers on the surface. A
+nap may be raised on the surface of a fabric for various reasons: in
+order to render the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
+touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended to be worn
+next to the body; or for the purposes of increasing the durability of
+the fabric, as in the case of melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar
+goods; or a nap may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
+from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern of the
+cloth well defined and free from hairiness. The covering of nap over
+the surface of the fabric tends to conceal many defects caused by
+imperfect yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at best
+produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth constructed of such
+threads is finished with a fine, delicate nap the surface takes on a
+softer and richer appearance. Not only are the defects in the
+structure concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly and
+desirable and appears to be more expensive than it really is.
+
+The operation of napping is performed by passing the cloth in a
+tightly stretched condition over a revolving cylinder covered with
+teasels or steel hooks. These thousands of little hooks scratch the
+entire surface of the cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering
+the whole with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it is
+necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then pass it through the
+shearing machine in order to make an even and uniform length. The
+shearing machine acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either
+cuts the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth is cleaned
+by passing through a brushing machine.
+
+=Pressing Machine.= The fabric now requires consolidating and lustering,
+or "smarting up" in appearance--practically pressing--before it is
+forwarded to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth over a
+pressing roll heated to a high temperature. Having obtained a
+satisfactory luster, it is necessary to fix this by winding the cloth on
+rollers and allowing dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a
+permanent luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as to prevent
+shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and sent to the jobbers or tailors to
+be cut up into suits.
+
+=Theories of Coloring in Textile Design.= The three primary elements
+of textile design are weave, combination of form, and blend of colors.
+They enter either separately or in connection with each other into
+every species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to the build
+or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable factor in any type
+of cloth. Schemes of weaves will produce in one operation an even and
+firm cloth, decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists of
+minute parts but which is pronounced and decided in combination.
+Combination of forms is a surface decoration obtained by uniting
+straight and curved lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities
+of the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades would diminish
+the elegance of the design and impoverish its appearance and would
+practically destroy the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be
+stripe, check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its outline
+and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In worsted there is a
+larger diversity of weave design than in woolen; but still colors are
+very extensively employed to develop effects due to weave and form,
+and also to impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.
+
+Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles made entirely
+of cotton are frequently mere combinations of fancy shades, while
+fabrics composed of silk and jute materials, including silk ties,
+handkerchiefs, etc.--in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
+used--show that coloring and its combinations in all woven product
+embellished with design, are elements which give tone and character to
+the styles. Though the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially
+made, of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack of
+brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully detracts from the
+appearance of the pattern that these qualities alone are not
+sufficient.
+
+On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods to inspection,
+color is found to have a different tone or cast in each fabric. Fancy
+colors in cotton, while decidedly firm and clear in effect, are
+non-lustrous, raw, and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the
+contrary, possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen colorings
+have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic of the
+material employed in the manufacture of woolen goods; while worsted
+colorings are bright, definite, and smart in appearance.
+
+These differences are due to the physical properties of the several
+fibers. Thus a filament of silk is transparent and shines like smooth
+glass when light falls upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in
+the center, but its exterior consists of a multitude of
+semi-transparent scales which, when of large dimensions and uniformly
+arranged--as in the best qualities of wool--reflect light with a small
+amount of dispersion and impart to the woven material a lustrous
+aspect. Cotton has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
+reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Compare three plain
+woven crimson textures made of silk, wool, and cotton respectively.
+The first literally shines; luster, brilliance, and richness are the
+elements of its coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
+depth of color which belongs to the wool product, whose millions of
+filaments, closely compounded, all tinted alike, possess a peculiar
+bloom and weight of color not to be found either in the silk or cotton
+article. Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in warmth and
+richness it seems to be, after examining the woolen and silk texture!
+It is dull and has a raw and deficient character.
+
+The various methods of employing fancy shades in patterns obtained in
+the loom may be briefly summarized:
+
+I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.
+
+    _a._ By combining or blending various colors of
+    materials.
+
+    _b._ By combining several classes of twist threads.
+
+II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs for trouserings,
+coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, costumes, flannels, shirtings,
+etc.
+
+    _a._ By introducing colors into the warp, forming
+    stripes.
+
+    _b._ By introducing colors into the filling, producing
+    spotted patterns.
+
+    _c._ By introducing colors into both warp and filling,
+    giving checks, broken styles, etc.
+
+III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.
+
+    _a._ By using one or several series of extra warp yarn.
+
+    _b._ By using one or several series of extra filling.
+
+Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes when regarded
+from the standpoint of fashion--staples and fancies. Staples are those
+fabrics which are made of the same construction year in and year out.
+They vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.
+
+The Staples are:
+
+  Brilliantines,
+  Sicilians,
+  Mohairs,
+  Imperial Serges,
+  Storm Serge,
+  Cheviots,
+  Panamas,
+  Batistes,
+  Taffetas,
+  Voile,
+  Nun's Veiling,
+  Cashmere,
+  Shepherd Checks.
+
+The Fancies are:
+
+  Produced through
+  Variation of weave,
+  Variation of color,
+  Variation of color and weave:
+    Brocades,
+    Cuspettes,
+    Meliores,
+    Hopsacking, etc.
+  Coloring includes:
+    Stripes,
+    Checks,
+    Plaids,
+    Malenges,
+    Mixtures.
+
+Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers made homespun clothes
+and wore them till they had passed their period of usefulness. The
+average consumption of wool at that time averaged not more than three
+pounds per capita. As wealth increased the home loom and
+spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted by the mill and factory. The
+different textile manufacturers at length found that competition was
+so keen that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any fabric
+that was popular. The classes of goods that are most adulterated are
+the expensive fabrics, those of wool and silk. There are such changes
+of fashion in dress at the present day that garments composed of
+materials formerly considered good enough are often thrown aside as
+old-fashioned when only half worn. Manufacturers cater to the whims
+and fancies of people and import to this country foreign styles. The
+rapidly changing styles cause people to throw upon the market a great
+amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.
+
+[Illustration: SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE SELLING AGENT OF A LARGE MILL]
+
+The result is that there is not wool enough to provide the public
+with clothing made of new wool. The requirement per capita has risen
+to six pounds. The immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does
+not find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the shoddy
+mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again, or where part of
+the fiber is mixed with good wool to make "pure wool" cloth. In other
+words, the rapidly changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
+wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration which is being
+practised in modern cloth manufacture. This adulteration furthermore
+is becoming more and more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid
+improvements made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture.
+Hence the necessity for people to know how and why adulteration
+occurs, how it affects prices, and what are the means of detecting it.
+Shoddy is considered a legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted
+goods. The following adulterations are not legitimate unless sold as
+such:
+
+1. Cotton combed with wool.
+
+2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during the process of
+drawing.
+
+3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or worsted used as
+filling or warp.
+
+4. Cotton veneered with wool.
+
+5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in weaving.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[14] Tentering is carried on in the English mills.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS[15]
+
+
+=Albatross.= A dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling; of
+open texture and fancy weaves.
+
+=Alpaca.= A thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an
+animal of the llama species; mixed with silk or with cotton. It is
+usually woven with cotton warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all
+cotton are manufactured and sold under this name.
+
+=Corded Alpaca.= Corded weave, lengthwise of the piece, cotton warp
+alpaca filling; one of the first products of the American loom.
+
+=Angora.= The fiber of this goat is commercially known as mohair. The
+skins are largely used in the making of children's muffs, for the
+scalps of dolls, and for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
+claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly one foot in
+length, makes them beautiful and serviceable. The fiber enters largely
+into that class of goods known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes,
+Brilliantines, Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
+usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the mode of
+preparing the stock before spinning into yarn. It is found in the
+finest of silk and worsted fabrics for ladies' wear, also in linings,
+mittens, and fine cloaking and overcoating. It is noted especially for
+its water repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not so
+much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which wool stands
+unequalled.
+
+=Astrakhan.= A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan fiber; of a curly,
+wavy surface applied to a curly faced cloth resembling Astrakhan
+fleece.
+
+=Bandanna.= From the Indian _bandanna_, to bind or tie. In dyeing, the
+cloth is tied in knots when dipped, and thus has a clouded effect.
+
+=Beaver.= A heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool, with a finish on
+the surface to resemble the fur of the animal by that name.
+
+=Fur Beaver.= Similar in many respects to Beaver, but having on its
+surface a long, dense nap, in imitation of the fur of the Beaver. Used
+for overcoats, cloaks, and capes.
+
+=Bedford Cord.= A fine woolen fabric, with fine recesses running with
+the piece, and extensively used for ladies' dress goods. An all wool
+cloth of close texture for gentlemen's clothing. The recesses may also
+be made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.
+
+=Beige.= Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name is the French word
+for "natural."
+
+=Bindings.= A species of narrow fabric of silk, worsted or cotton, for
+binding the edges of garments, the bottom of dress skirts, etc.
+
+=Bombazine.= A twilled fabric of which the warp is silk and the
+filling is worsted.
+
+=Bottany.= A term applied to worsted yarns made from bottany wool. It
+is considered the finest of all worsted yarns, and is used for fine
+fabrics of close texture.
+
+=Boucle.= Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in such a way as to
+show the curl makes boucle. The word is French for curl.
+
+=Broadcloth.= Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven material with a
+satin finish. The best qualities are called satin broadcloth.
+
+The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times, the first
+historical mention of it being made in 1641. In America, among the
+first products manufactured by the colonial woolen mills were black
+and colored broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the
+distinctive character of American woolen fabrics at that time. They
+were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered Saxony wool, and sold as high
+as $6.50 per yard.
+
+The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that the web (cloth)
+will shrink or full evenly. The stock is generally dyed in the raw
+state when used for men's wear. When taken from the loom it does not
+have the smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive feature.
+It is rough and dull colored, with the threads showing plainly. To
+improve its appearance it is first subjected to the action of the
+fulling mill, with the result that the fibers of the warp and weft
+become entangled to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
+the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close, in order to
+produce a smooth, even surface. Next it is successively wetted,
+steamed, calendered, and hot pressed for the purpose of bringing out
+the luster. It is commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain,
+finished with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must have a
+bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in the weave.
+
+The broadcloth used for women's clothing is of a lighter weight and is
+generally piece dyed. It is used for ladies' suits, coats, and
+gentlemen's evening dress suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is
+expensive; prices range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies'
+broadcloth, and higher for men. The price depends on the quality of
+wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection of the finish.
+
+=Bunting.= A plain even thread weave of mohair, wool, or worsted, used
+mostly for making flags. The name is from German, _bunt_, meaning
+variegated or gay colored.
+
+=Caniche.= A name given to curled wool fabric showing the effect of
+the coat of the caniche, a French dog.
+
+=Cashmere.= A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmere goat. The face
+of the fabric is twilled, the twills being uneven and irregular
+because of the unevenness of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand
+spun. The goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere in
+the Himalaya Mountains.
+
+=All Wool Cashmere.= As no material by this name exists there can be
+no definition. When the term is used in defining a fabric, it is a
+delusion and a snare.
+
+=Cashmere Double.= A cloth having Cashmere twill on one side or face
+and poplin cord on the reverse.
+
+=Cassimere.= The name is a variation of Cashmere. Cassimere, when
+properly made, is of Cashmere wool. Usually a twill weave.
+
+=Castor.= Same as beaver, of a light weight.
+
+=Challis.= (Also spelled _challie_.) A name given to a superior dress
+fabric of silk and wool first manufactured at Norwich, England, in
+1832. In texture the original material was soft, thin, fine, and
+finished without gloss. When first introduced it ranked among the best
+and most elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was composed
+of fine materials, and instead of giving it a glossy surface, such as
+is usually produced from silk and fine wool, the object was to make it
+without luster. The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
+summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool, or a mixture
+of these fabrics. In structure it is both plain woven and figured, the
+ornamental patterns being produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or
+printed. It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essentially
+from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most challis patterns are
+copied from the French silks, and this accounts in part for their
+tasteful designs and artistic effects. French challis is a material
+similar to the above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
+finish.
+
+=Cheviot.= A descriptive term of somewhat loose application, being
+used indiscriminately of late years to denote almost any sort of stout
+woolen cloth finished with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the
+fabric known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong, coarse
+wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.
+
+It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of cheviot or "pulled
+wool," slightly felted, with a short even nap on the surface and a
+supple feel. Worsted cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects,
+are manufactured from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made from
+carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of goods in carded
+yarns contains little or no new wool in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo,
+and a liberal mixture of cotton to hold it together, blended in the
+many colorings, help to cover the deception. Prices range from 50
+cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven, and has many of
+the qualities of serge.
+
+The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the grade of cloth, is
+the finish, of which there are two kinds. One is known as the "rough"
+finish, and the other as the "close" finish. Real cheviot is a
+rough-finished fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and fulled to
+a considerable degree. The process of finishing cheviot is simple, and
+practically the same methods are followed for both the "rough" and the
+"close" styles. On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap
+and water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it may contain.
+It is then fulled, which consists in shrinking the cloth both in
+length and breadth, thus rendering the texture heavier and denser.
+Next it is "gigged" or napped. This is accomplished by passing the
+face of the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp
+pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the yarn. This
+operation is continued until a nap more or less dense is raised over
+the entire surface.
+
+From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine, the revolving
+blades of which cut the long, irregular nap down to a uniform level.
+Sometimes the style of finish called for is that approaching a
+threadbare cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
+prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the rough finish the nap,
+although sparingly raised, is comparatively long. Having been napped
+and sheared, the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
+then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When measured, rolled, and
+steamed, it is ready for market, and is used mostly for ladies' and
+gentlemen's suitings. The pattern and design are light stripes and
+checks of small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many materials
+used for suiting.
+
+=Chinchilla.= Heavy coating with rough wavy face. The name is Spanish
+for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species.
+
+=Chudah.= Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color. Chudah is the
+Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.
+
+=Corduroy.= Heavy corded cotton material used for servants' livery.
+The name is from the French _Corde du Roi_--king's cords.
+
+=Cote Cheval.= In France corded cloth for riding costumes, such as
+Bedford cord, is called cote cheval, the application being through
+_cheval_, horse; _cote_, ribbed or lined.
+
+=Coupure.= Coupure is French for cut through. Coupure or cut cashmere
+is a cashmere weave showing lines cut through the twills lengthwise of
+the piece.
+
+=Covert.= Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed shades, used in
+England for men's overcoats worn while riding to covert in fox
+hunting.
+
+=Delaine.= From the French "of wool"; applies to the most primitive
+weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty years ago delaine was the staple
+dress goods stock. It was made in solid colors.
+
+=Diagonal Cheviot.= Same as cheviot, only in the weaving the pattern
+is marked by zigzag lines or stripes.
+
+=Doeskin.= Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny napped face, soft
+finish, as the pelt of a doe.
+
+=Drap d'Ete.= A heavy cashmere or double warp merino, with the back
+teasled or scratched, used mostly for clergymen's clothing and in
+lighter weights for women's dresses. The name is French for "cloth of
+summer."
+
+=Empress Cloth.= Similar to poplin; made of hard twisted worsted
+filling and cotton warp. Was made a success in the early seventies of
+the last century by the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was a
+staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.
+
+=Epingline.= A fine corded fabric of wool or silk, showing the cords
+woven close together and appearing as if lined with a pin point. This
+application is from _epingle_, French for pin.
+
+=Etamine.= French name for bolting or sifting cloth, made of silk for
+sifting flour; applied to mesh or net weaves in America.
+
+=Felt.= Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass or mixture of
+wool into a flat mat. The name is from the process. To felt is to mix
+and press into shape.
+
+=Flannel.= Wales appears to have been the original home of flannel,
+and history informs us that this was the only textile produced in that
+country for hundreds of years. It is constructed either of cotton or
+wool, or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-threaded,
+loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or less spongy and elastic,
+with an unfinished, lusterless surface. Generally speaking all grades
+of plain colored flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the
+goods permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the web as
+in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several finishing operations,
+such as fulling, teaseling, pressing, and stretching. Flannels do not
+require a great deal of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to
+give a degree of stability and body to the goods.
+
+=Dress Flannel.= All wool fabric used chiefly for women's winter
+dresses; also called flannel suiting. It has a diversity of qualities,
+colors, and styles of finish. It is commonly put up in double fold,
+width from twenty-six to fifty inches.
+
+=French Flannel.= A fine, soft twill, woven variety dyed in solid
+shades, and also printed with patterns after the manner of calico;
+used for morning gowns, dressing sacques, waists, etc.
+
+=Shaker Flannel.= A variety of white flannel finished with
+considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and woolen weft.
+
+=Indigo Blue.= A superior all wool grade used in the manufacture
+of men's suits and particularly for the uniform of members of the
+G. A. R.
+
+=Mackinaw.= The name applied to an extra heavy blanket-like material
+used in cold climates by miners and lumbermen for shirts and
+underwear.
+
+=Navy Twilled Flannel.= A heavy all wool variety commonly dyed indigo
+blue, commonly used in the manufacture of overshirts for out-door
+laborers, firemen, sailors, and miners.
+
+=Silk Warp Flannel.= A high grade, pure variety of flannel woven with
+a silk warp and a fine woolen weft. It is a very soft, light-weight,
+loosely woven flannel and runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven
+inches. If the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the texture
+is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing its softness and
+elasticity. In the teaseling process it is necessary for the nap to be
+raised only slightly, and this is commonly done in the direction of
+the grain or twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
+lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in its full, rich
+softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared, but more often it is pressed
+down flat upon the face of the cloth. After a thorough drying, and
+careful examination for defects, the goods are rolled on boards, and
+are ready for market. It is used for infants' wear and shawls, for
+undergarments, bed coverings, and also to some extent for outer
+garments in weights and styles adapted for that purpose.
+
+=Baby Flannel.= A very light-weight variety woven of fine, soft wool,
+smooth finish, bleached pure white.
+
+=Florentine.= A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men's wear which is
+sold largely to Italy and Spain. The name is from Florence, Italy.
+
+=Foule.= A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face appears to be
+unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness in a slight degree. The cloth
+when woven in the gray is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in
+soapsuds and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes in
+a steel plate. The name is from _fouler_, French, to full or shrink.
+
+=Frieze.= Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly surface and
+made at first of lamb's wool. It is now made from coarse grades of
+wool. It is thick and heavily napped, and is used in the manufacture
+of warm outer garments, particularly for men's wear. It was named
+after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th century, and is
+famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish frieze has extraordinary
+durability, and the fibers are the longest and strongest made. The
+weave is plain, small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid
+color it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the raw
+state. The wool is dyed in the raw state in mass, then doubled after
+spinning.
+
+=Gloria.= Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and cotton; first
+made for umbrella covering. Name means bright.
+
+=Granada.= Popular weave of mohair, made in coating weight for
+Spanish trade. Granada is a city in Spain.
+
+=Grenadine.= Originally a plain, openwork, net-like fabric of silk,
+mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grenadines in Jacquards and in set
+patterns. The name is an adaptation of Granada.
+
+=Henrietta Cloth.= A twilled cashmere of light weight and high finish,
+originally made with silk warp and wool filling in Yorkshire, England.
+The name was given in honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of
+Charles I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced about
+the year 1660.
+
+=Homespun.= A rough, loosely woven material made from coarse yarn. It
+is soft but rather clumsy. A general term used to designate cloth spun
+or wrought at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen fabric
+in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before the introduction of
+textile machinery. It is made of a coarse, rough, and uneven thread;
+usually of plain weave and no felting. It was woven by the early
+settlers of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as woolen
+suiting for men's wear and in various kinds of coarse, spongy, shaggy
+cloth for women's gowns.
+
+=Hop Sacking.= A coarse bagging made commonly of a combination of hemp
+and jute, used for holding hops during transportation. The name hop
+sacking is also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made from
+different classes of yarn. It is made of carded woolen fabric of the
+plainest kind. The cloth is characterized by an open weave, and a
+square check-like mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that
+of the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is usually dyed
+in solid colors, and is used for women's and children's dresses.
+
+=Jeans.= Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In cotton used for
+linings, in wool for men's cheap clothing. The name is from a Genoese
+coin, relating to the price of the cloth; so much for one jean.
+
+=Kersey.= A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen cloth made with
+the cotton weave or cross twill for face, and cotton weave or four
+harness satin for back. It was originally made with fine Merino lamb's
+wool for face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper grades
+are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and shoddy, with low grades
+of shoddy and mungo for back. It is named from an English town,
+Kersey, where from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large
+woolen trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a coarse
+cloth, known under different names, and before knitting was used for
+stockings. In the construction of Kersey the cloth is woven a few
+inches wider in the loom (and correspondingly longer) than it is to
+appear in the finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
+may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering of threads.
+Previous to fulling, however, the face of the cloth is gigged to
+produce a good covering for the threads by forming a light nap, which
+is fitted in. In the fulling operation, which comes next, the cloth is
+shrunk to its proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering
+it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads, so
+closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed by gigging, and
+in this process a nap more or less heavy is raised on the face of the
+goods by means of teasels. The cloth is run through the gig several
+times and then sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
+short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exercised in the
+shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite close and yet not expose
+the threads or cut the face. The next operation is scouring or
+steaming, in which live steam is forced through every part of the
+goods for the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool. In
+case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing follows scouring.
+After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly matted and gigged again, care
+being taken to avoid stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and
+the nap briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in one
+direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and primed, face up.
+The result of this treatment is the production of a texture firm, yet
+pliable, with a highly lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough
+or threadbare. Kersey is used for overcoats.
+
+=Kerseymere.= Light weight twilled worsted; same derivative of name as
+Kersey.
+
+=Linsey Woolsey.= Coarse cloth of linen and wool used as skirtings by
+the British peasantry. The name is from the components of the cloth.
+
+=Melrose.= Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named for Melrose, a
+town on the Tweed, in Scotland.
+
+=Melton.= A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short nap, feeling
+somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm in the loom. The weaves for
+single cloth meltons are usually plain, and three or four harness
+twill. For double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with a
+plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All trace of the weave
+is destroyed in the finishing. The colors usually black or dark blue.
+
+=Meltonette.= A cloth of the same general appearance as melton, of
+light weight, for women's wear.
+
+=Merino.= A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino sheep, twilled on
+both sides, the twill being uneven. Merino resembles cashmere.
+
+=Mohair Brilliantine.= A dress fabric resembling alpaca, of superior
+quality, and sometimes finished on both sides. The name is from the
+Arabic _mukayyan_, cloth of goat's hair. It is made from the long,
+silky hair of the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
+introduced into the United States. The fabric has a hard, wiry feel,
+and if made from the pure material has a high luster. It has cotton
+warp and luster worsted filling. The weave is plain ground, or with a
+small Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is wanted, the
+warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling yarn. The warp and
+filling yarns are dyed previous to weaving. They may be of the same
+color or different colors. The contrast of colors in connection with
+the weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made with dyed
+yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is, simply run through the
+press and cylinder heated, after which they are rolled and then
+packed. Those made with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed,
+after which they are run through a rotary press with fifty or sixty
+pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is used for dress goods.
+
+=Montagnac= is heavy overcoating. The French _montagne_, for mountain,
+is the origin of the name, being for mountain wear.
+
+=Orleans.= Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool fulling, made in
+Orleans, France. Many of the so-called alpacas and mohairs of to-day
+are Orleans. These fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics
+with warp and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
+cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glace effects.
+
+=Panama Cloth= is a plain weave worsted fabric of no uniform
+construction or finish. Fabrics sold under this name vary
+considerably. They are of solid colors, usually piece dyed, and are
+used for suitings.
+
+=Prunella.= From the French _prunelle_, which means plum, a stout
+worsted material named from its color, which is a purplish shade
+similar to that of a ripe plum. The name was originally applied to a
+kind of lasting of which clergymen's gowns were made. It is now used
+to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth employed for
+women's dresses. The fibers are worsted. Prunella is dyed either in
+piece or yarn state and is hand finished.
+
+=Sacking.= Plain solid color flannel in special shades for women's
+dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric made of hemp for grain sacks.
+
+=Sanglier.= A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair yarn, closely
+woven, with a rough finished surface. Sanglier is French for wild
+boar, the hairy, wiry cloth resembling the coat of the animal.
+
+=Sebastopol.= A twill-faced cloth named from Sebastopol, the Russian
+fortified town captured by the English and French in 1855.
+
+=Serge.= Under this name are classed a large number of fabrics of
+twill construction. In weight and texture a modern serge resembles
+flannel, except that it is twill woven and composed of fine yarn
+finished with a smoother surface. Serge comes from the Italian word
+_sergea_, meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are woven of
+worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and variously dyed, finished, and
+ornamented, as silk serge, serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge,
+etc. Worsted serges of various kinds and degrees have been known since
+the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to have come into general
+use as a material for men's wear in the sixteenth century. Modern
+serges vary but little from those made two centuries ago. They are
+dyed in a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the cloth is
+washed and scoured with soap and water to remove the dirt and oil (if
+these remain the cloth will not take the dye properly). After dyeing,
+it is passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure, which
+renders the surface more regular and even and of a better luster. This
+process accomplishes more than is required, for it produces a bloom on
+the surface which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it is
+allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order to make storm
+serge it is necessary to remove part of the bloom, and to accomplish
+this the cloth is steamed sufficiently to neutralize the effect of
+pressing. Steaming deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
+showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge are good, but it
+gets a shine easily. It is used for dress goods and suitings. Serge
+suiting used for men's clothing is a variety of light, wiry, worsted
+yarn woven with a flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue,
+fifty-four inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton warp
+and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width. This is dyed in a
+variety of colors and largely used as lining material for women's
+clothes, men's coats, and overcoats. Storm serge, designed to
+withstand exposure to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted
+dress goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities. The
+twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface rougher and
+cleaner than that of ordinary serge. Iridescent serge is a variety of
+worsted dress goods woven with warp and filling of different colors,
+causing a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a fine
+twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture, dyed black and
+in colors, and is used for women's gowns, men's summer suits, etc.
+Serge de Barry is a high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine
+twill, and wiry feel.
+
+=Shoddy= is made from old woolen stockings or rags, shredded or picked
+by hand or machine, to render the yarn suitable for spinning a second
+time, or to give a fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or
+cotton warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-believe.
+
+=Sicilian.= Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. Sicilienne,
+the proper name, was made in the Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed,
+all silk fabric.
+
+=Sultane.= Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in the rough, not
+singed or sheared. The name is from Sultana, the first wife of the
+Sultan.
+
+=Tamise.= Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh, made first of
+silk and wool. _Tamis_ is French for sieve.
+
+=Tartans.= Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men in the Highlands
+of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened on one shoulder and crossing
+the body. Each clan had a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was
+adapted from the French _tiretaine_, a thin woolen checked cloth.
+
+=Thibet.= Heavy, coarse weave of goat's hair, made by the Thibetans in
+Asia for men's wear.
+
+=Tricot.= A heavy, compound fabric characterized by a line effect
+running warp way or filling way of the piece, usually produced with
+either woolen or worsted yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to
+fabrics made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is the
+French word meaning knitting. The term was later applied to materials
+made on a knitting frame and now known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the
+name tricot has been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave
+of which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted fabric.
+The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted fibers, sometimes with
+cotton warp woven so as to hide the cotton in finishing. The tricot
+line is similar to the rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is
+not so pronounced. All tricots are constructed with two sets of warp
+thread and are characterized by a texture which, while dense, is
+singularly elastic, in this respect being somewhat similar to heavy
+jersey cloth. Tricots are commonly dyed in plain colors, and are
+finished clear so as to show the filling. When intended for trousers
+they are ornamented with small, neat patterns.
+
+=Tweed.= A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible
+texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more
+shades; originally the product of the weavers on the bank of the river
+Tweed in Scotland. The face of the cloth presents an unfinished
+appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.
+
+=Veiling= includes light weight, usually plain weave fabrics of
+various constructions; generally made with singed or polished yarns.
+They are in solid colors. The use is designated by the name.
+
+=Venetian.= Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton warp and worsted
+filling; named from Venetia, a country around Venice. The warp yarns
+are firmly twisted, the twist being in the opposite direction to the
+twist in the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide
+application, in use since early times as a descriptive title for
+various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many varieties is
+a species of twill weaving in which the lines or twills are of a
+rounded form and arranged in a more or less upright position, hence a
+closely woven worsted cloth. The name is also applied to other
+fabrics, as a twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
+worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in plain colors and
+is piece or yarn dyed for men. For women's wear it has light weight
+and plain colors with mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is
+finished smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Venetian cloth
+has not so much felting as broadcloth; it shows the weave more, but
+has the same lustrous finish.
+
+=Vigogne= or =Vicuna=. A soft wool cloth of the cheviot order, with
+teasled face, made from the wool of the vicuna, a South American
+animal. Vigogne is the French name for the animal.
+
+=Vigoureux.= A name applied to a plain or twill mixture, woven of
+undyed natural wool yarns. The French spinners found that the
+strongest yarns were those of the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more
+shades or tones are spun into one thread. The name is French for
+strong.
+
+=Voiles.= Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made with hard
+twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible is secured in finishing,
+the cloth being singed or sheared closely if the yarns are not made
+comparatively free from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are
+dyed in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.
+
+=Whipcord.= Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid or mixed colors.
+The name is from the hard twisted lash of a whip.
+
+=Worsted Diagonals= are characterized by prominent weave effects
+running diagonally across the cloth. The goods are usually of a solid
+color, and are given a finish which brings the weave into prominence.
+Diagonals are used for suitings.
+
+=Unfinished worsted= is a fabric woven with yarn with very little
+twist in it, and finished so as to make it appear covered with loose
+fibers, concealing the twill effect. After leaving the loom the cloth
+is placed in a fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus
+increasing the density. It is then passed over hot presses after a
+slight shearing.
+
+=Finished Worsted= is woven with yarn with a considerable twist, and
+finished in such a way as to show the construction of the cloth
+clearly. The finishing consists simply of scouring the cloth and not
+fulling it and then passing it through hot water baths between heavy
+rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared and pressed.
+
+=Zephyr.= Light worsted yarn, also light weight cotton gingham. Zephyr
+is Greek for the light west wind.
+
+=Zibeline.= A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb's wool for warp, and
+a light wool mixed with camel's hair for filling; or, worsted warp and
+camel's hair for filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a
+mixture of wool, camel's hair, and fine cashmere for filling. The long
+cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used for ladies' tailor-made
+coats or suits, according to weight. The name is derived from the
+Latin word _sabellum_, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
+variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the same as sable.
+Zibeline has long hairs on its right side, some grades being almost
+like fur.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[15] SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In connection with the study of fabrics
+the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in a blank
+book a sample of the fabric they are studying. In this way the pupil
+can examine both the filling (weft) and warp threads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+COTTON
+
+
+=Cotton.= Cotton is the most important vegetable fiber used in
+spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft, downy substance which grows
+around the cotton seed. When examined under the microscope it appears
+as a long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-plant yields
+so readily to the varying conditions of soil and climate, there is a
+large variety of cottons, each having some peculiarity which is
+considered enough to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the
+number of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the fact
+that the United States Department of Agriculture has recorded about
+one hundred and thirty varieties. The most important varieties are:
+_Gossypium herbaceum_, _G. arboreum_, _G. hirsutum_, _G. barbadense_,
+and _G. peruvianum_. The botanical name of a plant is divided into two
+parts: first the family name, followed by the species name.
+
+The _Gossypium herbaceum_ grows from four to six feet in height and
+bears a yellow flower. The seeds are covered with a short gray down.
+The fiber it bears is classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia
+Minor, Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety of Egyptian
+cotton is from this species.
+
+The _G. arboreum_ when full grown attains a height from fifteen to
+twenty feet. The seed is covered with a greenish fur and is enveloped
+in a fine, silky down, yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt,
+Arabia, and China.
+
+The _G. hirsutum_ is a shrubby plant, its maximum height being about
+six feet. The young pods are hairy, and the seeds are numerous and
+covered with a firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this is
+the original of the green-seeded cotton which is now cultivated so
+extensively in the Southern States of America, and which forms the
+bulk of the supply from that source.
+
+The _G. peruvianum_ is similar to the _G. barbadense_. The Brazilian
+and Peru cottons are from this species.
+
+The _G. barbadense_ grows from six to fifteen feet high; its flowers
+are yellow and its seeds black and smooth, being quite destitute of
+the hair that distinguishes other members of the species. It is a
+native of Barbadoes or has been cultivated there for a long time.
+Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species--Sea Island and
+Florida cottons--from which our finest yarns are spun, and it is used
+chiefly in the manufacture of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
+several other varieties are said to be from this stock.
+
+=Cotton Growing Countries.= The most suitable situation for growing
+cotton is between 35 degrees north and 40 degrees south of the
+equator. The chief cotton growing countries of the world in order of
+importance are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton is
+also grown in the following countries, but in no quantity or quality
+comparable with the four named above--West Indies, west coast of
+Africa, Asia Minor, China, and Queensland.
+
+The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or sandy soil, which
+receives and retains the heat, and at the same time preserves a good
+supply of moisture. Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth,
+while deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The best
+climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost and snow are of
+short duration, dews are heavy, and the sun bright, warm, and regular.
+New soils generally produce the best cotton. The character of the
+cotton fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the plant,
+the nature of the soil, and the locality in which it is grown.
+
+=Rough Peruvian.= The nature of this cotton is harsh and wiry and
+resembles wool so nearly that it is almost exclusively used to mix
+with woolen fabrics. The staple is rough and generally strong, and is
+of a springy tendency, _i.e._, it does not lie close like American.
+
+=East Indian.= India depends upon the monsoon for its moisture, and
+the success or failure of the crop is decided by that phenomenon of
+nature. Indian cottons as a rule are coarser and shorter than American
+cottons. The land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon, and
+the planting begins after it. There is not the same care bestowed upon
+the cultivation of the Indian cotton, nor are such improved methods
+practised as in America. The ancient routine of past generations
+still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre is less than
+one-half that of America. Moreover the acreage planted is only about
+two-thirds that of America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
+were once largely used in this country for filling, owing to their
+good color and cleanliness; but of late years the consumption has
+steadily decreased, owing chiefly to the increased takings by the
+Indian mills, also to the exports to China and Japan, and to the
+preference shown by English spinners for American cotton.
+
+=Egyptian Cotton.= Egyptian cotton, on account of its long staple and
+silky gloss, is imported in considerable quantities. Egyptian is
+largely used in the manufacture of hosiery, and also for mixing with
+worsted yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with silk, and
+on account of its strength it is made into the finer sewing threads.
+Egyptian cotton is sometimes so charged with grease that it has a
+greasy smell; and to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it
+with whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven (or piled)
+with Egyptian filling do not finish as well as when picked with yarns
+made from American cotton, the reason for this being that the greasy
+nature of the Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
+different shades in the finished goods. This greasy nature is said to
+be due to two things: (1) the fertility of the soil; (2) the extent to
+which the cell walls of the fibers are developed.
+
+In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt--rice, sugar,
+beans, barley, onions, etc.--and the acreage devoted to cotton is
+regulated to some extent by the prospects as to which crops are likely
+to pay best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of the area
+is usually devoted to cotton.
+
+=Sea Island Cotton.= This is the finest growth of cotton, and it
+commands the highest price. The staple, which is long and silky,
+varies in length from one and a half to two and a half inches. It is
+used for making fine muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics,
+and is also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton was
+first introduced into America in 1786 from the Bahama Islands, whither
+it had been brought from the West Indies. It was first cultivated in
+Georgia, where it was found that the small islands running along the
+coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name "Sea Island."
+It was also grown on the uplands of Georgia, but although remaining
+good, the quality deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are
+occasionally spun in Sea Island cotton.
+
+=Other Varieties.= Cotton grown in the Southern States under widely
+varying conditions of the soil, climate, and care in cultivation,
+naturally varies in length, strength, and other qualities of staple.
+Cotton known as "Uplands" or "Boweds" varies in length from
+three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is used for filling;
+this is grown in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
+and Tennessee. Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple varies from
+one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In the swampy and bottom
+lands in some of the states (notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+and Arkansas), cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
+one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition to these, there
+are especially long stapled growths, known as "Extras," "Allen Seed,"
+and "Peelers," which measure one and three-eighths to one and
+five-eighths inches. Of late there has been an extensive demand for
+long-stapled American cotton (one and three-sixteenths to one and
+one-half inches), owing to the development of fine spinning.
+
+=Cotton Raising.= Cotton is planted with a machine, which puts it
+under the ground about one and one-half to two inches. It is not
+planted as corn is, that is, dropped so far apart, but is planted in a
+continuous stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground, when
+it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary labor with a
+hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned. This is called "chopping out"
+and is for the purpose of removing the inferior or weak plants until
+only one strong plant is left. The distance between the plants depends
+on the nature of the plant, frequently about twelve inches being left
+between them.
+
+=The American Crop.= The first step taken is the preparation of the
+ground for planting. This begins in the southern part of Texas as
+early as the middle of January, in Florida about the third week; in
+Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the beginning of
+February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South Carolina from about the
+middle of February to the beginning of March. Actual planting begins
+according to latitude, principally from the middle of March to the
+middle of April, and ends in the first half of May. These dates,
+however, are dependent upon the state of the weather. When the weather
+is unusually wet the start is late. The plant suffers from the rank
+growth of grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
+fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after rains, the
+plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls, which fall off,
+whereupon replanting becomes necessary. In addition to injuries by the
+weather the cotton-plant is subject to depredations by insects. Of
+late years the greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.
+
+The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after planting. An early
+bloom is taken as a sign of good crops. When the crop is an early one,
+picking may commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
+latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning of August,
+following on in the various districts in succession until the early
+part of September. The plant goes on fruiting as long as the weather
+is mild and open. It finishes in the early regions about the beginning
+of December, the others following through December and closing in the
+later regions about the middle of January. Frosts play an important
+part in the ultimate yield. An early killing frost over the entire
+belt would curtail the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season,
+as was the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were planted.
+Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to the cotton-plant; in
+fact it is contended that the late frosts do much good under certain
+conditions of the crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
+open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings. The effect
+of frost upon the lint so picked is to produce tinged and stained
+cotton. Early killing frosts occur in some seasons in the early part
+of November, when much of the yield may be curtailed. When killing
+frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting is practically
+over, it has little or no effect upon the yield except as regards the
+color.
+
+The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages, the bolls nearest
+the ground maturing first, then those around the middle of the plant,
+and lastly the top crop. Pods half ripe are often forced open and the
+fiber sent on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly charged
+with unripe cotton than American. The work of picking is not heavy,
+but becomes tedious from its sameness. Each hand as he goes to the
+field is supplied with a large basket and a bag. The basket is left at
+the head of the cotton row, the bag being suspended from the picker's
+shoulder by a strap, and used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from
+the boll. When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and this
+routine continued throughout the day. Each hand picks from 140 to 180
+pounds of cotton per day. The average yield in the South varies from
+500 to 600 pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
+resembling unground coffee; when these have been removed by the gin,
+there remains about one-third the weight of the boll in clean cotton.
+
+[Illustration: PICKING COTTON]
+
+=Ginning.= The next operation to which cotton is subjected is that of
+ginning, or separating the seeds from the fiber. This work was
+formerly accomplished by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds
+that frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman in separating
+them from one pound of cotton. At the present day the devices for
+separating the lint from the seed are of two classes: roller gins and
+saw gins. The former device is the more ancient, having been used from
+the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its simplest form it consists of
+two rollers made of metal or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through
+which the cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process. An
+improved form of the roller gin is at present used for cleaning the
+long-staple Sea Island cotton. The saw gin, which works on an entirely
+different principle, is the machine which, with its improvements and
+modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost exclusively
+for one hundred years of American cotton growing. In this machine the
+seed cotton is fed into a box, one side of which is formed of a
+grating of metal strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening
+from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these openings a
+row or "gang" of thin circular saws project mounted upon a revolving
+mandrel. The long, protruding teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly,
+catch the fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter, being
+too large to pass through the openings of the grating, roll downward
+and out of the machine. The lint, removed from the row of saws by a
+revolving brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
+machine in the form of a lap or bat.
+
+This machine is responsible for much of the "nep" (or knots) found in
+American cotton, which is caused when the machine is overcharged. The
+Whitney gin will turn through more cotton than any other type of
+machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per hour. When the
+machine is running at high speed the tendency is to string and knot
+the cotton.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON GIN
+
+The upper figure shows Whitney's invention. The lower figure shows a
+later form.]
+
+The working of the ordinary gin is as follows: The wagon loaded with
+cotton is driven under a galvanized spout called the sucker, through
+which there is a suction of air which draws the cotton into the gins.
+In each of the gins there are seventy circular saws revolving on one
+shaft. These saws are about one inch apart, and the teeth go through
+the gin breast, much as if one were to put the teeth of one comb into
+the teeth of another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
+seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the lint flute,
+into the condenser, and into the box, where it is revolved and made
+into a bale. While the lint is going through this process, the seeds,
+being heavier and smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
+an auger which is operated by a belt, and then are dropped into a
+conveyor and carried to the seed pile or houses. The lint goes in one
+direction and the seed in another.
+
+When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin, it is covered with
+a lint of cotton. In order to remove this the seeds are put through a
+delinter, which takes off the small, short fiber from the seeds,
+leaving them clean. This seed is then put through a huller which takes
+off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel is then put through a
+hydraulic press, which squeezes the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves
+the "meal." Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as making
+olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc. Of late an experiment
+has been made with the meal for use in the place of flour, and has
+been pronounced a success. Seed crushing has now become an important
+industry, with the cotton crop each year amounting to between
+12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales of 450 pounds each.
+
+=The Cotton Gin.= The cotton gin was invented in 1792 by Eli Whitney,
+a citizen of Georgia, but a native of Massachusetts. The importance of
+this invention to the cotton industry of the world cannot be
+overestimated. It was the one thing needed to insure a sufficient
+supply of raw material to meet the requirements of newly invented
+machinery for spinning and weaving. The result of Whitney's invention
+was the rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United
+States, and its permanent establishment as one of the leading staples
+of the country.
+
+=Cotton Bales.= After the cotton is ginned and baled it is shipped to
+the mill. The standard size of a cotton bale in the United States is
+54 x 27 x 27 inches, and contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this
+bale over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The bales are
+wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with sheet-iron bands, this
+covering adding about twenty-five pounds to the weight of the bale.
+
+The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a self-feeding press,
+which receives the lap of lint from the gin between two heavy rollers.
+The fiber is rolled upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press
+out nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform shape and size
+throughout, having a diameter of fourteen to sixteen inches. The bales
+are covered with cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It
+is claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this process that
+the bales are practically fireproof and waterproof.
+
+Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar to the American
+bale, but the average weight is over 700 pounds.
+
+The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed than the American,
+usually weigh 400 pounds.
+
+Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the shape of a bale.
+The method is to purchase from cotton brokers, samples being furnished
+to the buyer from which to make selection.
+
+[Illustration: STOREHOUSES]
+
+The commercial value of cotton is determined by its length, fineness,
+strength, pliability, smoothness, regularity, color, and cleanliness.
+As a rule, the cotton that is the longest is also the finest, but by
+no means the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest staple
+with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an Indian cotton) is much
+inferior to it in both respects. The strength of the latter, however,
+is 50 per cent greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
+every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance over Hinganghat
+cotton. It is the most valuable, especially for the production of fine
+yarns.
+
+The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the length of the staple
+varies only a small fraction of an inch. In consequence of this there
+is less loss in working Orleans than is the case with the other
+cottons, owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.
+
+=The Leading Growths of Cotton.= In order to purchase the raw material
+of the cotton manufacture, to arrange the "mixing" or have much to do
+with the raw material in any other capacity, one should know as much
+as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance may cause much
+trouble and no little loss to those who have to spin the cotton. Each
+crop differs from the previous one to a greater or less degree, as it
+depends entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season there is
+a "droughty crop" which, while it may be (and generally is) clean and
+well up in class, will be weak, short, and of irregular fiber. In
+order to obtain the desired length and strength of staple the buyer
+will have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may be termed
+a normal season.
+
+[Illustration: FANCY COTTON LOOM]
+
+Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that may have been
+caused by too much rain in the early or middle stages of its growth,
+or by unfavorable weather for the production of cotton of good grade,
+the staple will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
+small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain his usual grade,
+especially if he requires it for good filling. Then there are seasons
+when the crop turns out fairly well in class and staple, but the
+cotton is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case the
+buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in calculating the extra
+loss that will ensue.
+
+The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance of 4 per cent for
+tares. That is, a bale of cotton weighing 400 pounds would be paid for
+as 384 pounds, or should the buyer have reason to believe that the
+tares are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the actual
+tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales and weighing the
+covering and the hoops, which means considerable work, and although it
+is at the option of the buyer, it is an exception rather than the
+rule.
+
+As a result of these causes we find cotton divided into the following
+grades:
+
+=Full Grades of Cotton.= Egyptian cotton is graded as follows: extra
+fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good fair, fair, middling fair,
+middling.
+
+Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine, fully good, good,
+fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.
+
+Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good fair, fair, middling
+fair, middling.
+
+American cotton has seven grades: fair, middling fair, good middling,
+middling, low middling, good ordinary, and ordinary.
+
+In addition to the full grades there are half and quarter grades. The
+American cottons are graded as follows:
+
+ _Full Grades._       _Half Grades._            _Quarter Grades._
+
+ Fair,                Strict middling fair,     Barely fair,
+ Middling fair,       Strict good middling,     Fully middling fair,
+ Good middling,       Strict middling,          Barely middling fair,
+ Middling,            Strict low middling,      Fully good middling,
+ Low middling,        Strict good ordinary,     Barely good middling,
+ Good ordinary,       Strict ordinary.          Fully middling,
+ Ordinary.                                      Barely middling,
+                                                Fully low middling,
+                                                Barely low middling,
+                                                Fully good ordinary,
+                                                Barely good ordinary.
+
+The following are a few of the leading varieties of cotton, with the
+numbers of yarn they will make:
+
+ _Cotton._                   _Length._         _Warp._       _Filling._
+
+ Sea Island (selected)       1-3/4  to 2-1/4   up to 200     250 to 300
+ Sea Island (ordinary)       1-3/4  to 2             150         220
+ Florida Sea Island          1-3/4  to 2             150         220
+ Georgia                     1-1/2  to 1-7/8         120         180
+ Egyptian                    1-1/4  to 1-1/2          70         120
+ Peeler                      1-1/4  to 1-3/8          50          70
+ Orleans or Gulf             1-1/16 to 1-1/4          40          60
+ Upland                      1      to 1-1/8          30          45
+ Texas                         7/8  to 1-1/16         25          35
+
+During the last few years considerable discussion has taken place
+among mill men, both in this country and abroad, bearing upon the
+subject of moisture contained in baled cotton. Of course the natural
+moisture in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from year
+to year, according to the character of the season during the picking.
+The standard of moisture is based upon what is known as regain, that
+is, if 100 parts of absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they
+will absorb about 8-1/2 per cent of moisture, although a much higher
+per cent is sometimes found.
+
+In some of the small Southern mills located in the cotton raising
+section, the cotton is delivered by team direct from the gin, without
+going through the compress. In this way they save the greater part of
+transportation expense. They also save in the strength of the cotton
+fiber itself, since the process of compression injures the fiber. They
+get better cotton, being nearer the source of supply and having better
+opportunities for selection.
+
+When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is necessary to cut
+ties and loosen up the cotton before use. This may be done in two
+ways. One method being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other
+to pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine, which loosens up
+the cotton by means of beaters. It now starts on a continuous journey
+through successive machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is
+made into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling yarn to
+make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.
+
+Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn, for certain
+conditions are necessary to manufacture good yarn. If the atmosphere
+is too warm or too dry, the fibers will become brittle and will not
+twist well; if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
+England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton spinning. It
+has just the right climate, a moist temperature, and copious water
+supply. There are hills on the east of the valley, forming a water
+shed, and the town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay,
+that holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough to
+keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the fibers for
+weaving. Countries that have not these conditions are obliged to
+produce them by artificial means--humidifying, etc.
+
+[Illustration: PICKER ROOM
+
+  1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.
+  2. "Lap" showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.
+  3. Picker Machine (complete).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
+
+
+[Illustration: PICKER ROOM--SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER
+
+  1. Lap of Cotton.]
+
+=Picker Room.= The first step in the conversion of the bale of cotton
+into yarn consists in giving the cotton fibers a thorough cleaning.
+This is accomplished by feeding the cotton to a series of picker
+machines called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and automatic
+feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and finisher picker.
+These machines pull to shreds the matted locks and wads of cotton (as
+we find them in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
+finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon the cylinders;
+this batting passes from one machine to another until it issues from
+the finisher picker as a downy roll or lap.
+
+(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)
+
+[Illustration: CARD ROOM
+
+  1. Roving Can--receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it
+     is transferred to either ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.
+  2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form
+     of a web.]
+
+=Carding Machine.= When the lap of cotton leaves the picker it goes to
+the carding machine, where it is combed into parallel fibers by means
+of a revolving cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.
+As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or lap from
+the picker, it is supposed to have been freed from a considerable
+quantity of sand, seed, etc., but there still remain nep, fine leaf,
+and short fibers, which are removed during carding.
+
+On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a gossamer-like web
+thirty-nine inches broad. This web next passes through small "eyes,"
+which condense it into a narrow band about an inch in width, known as
+card sliver.
+
+When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it should weigh a
+given number of ounces per yard. The method of ascertaining the weight
+is to make each lap a standard number of yards in length and weigh
+each lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the desired
+weight per yard.
+
+=Combing.= When an extremely fine and strong yarn is required, in
+addition to carding, the fibers are also subjected to the process of
+"combing." This may be said to be merely a continuation of the carding
+process to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract all
+fibers below a certain required length, and cast them aside as
+"waste." This is done in order to secure the very best fibers
+calculated to give the strongest and best results in the spun yarn.
+
+The process of combing follows carding. The card delivers the cotton
+in the form of a sliver or strand, while the combing machine requires
+the fibers to be delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
+inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card slivers and
+forming a lap of them by passing the sliver through a sliver lap
+machine. The laps are passed through the comber. This machine consists
+essentially of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
+By the action of these, the short fibers are separated and combed out,
+and the long ones arranged in parallel order in the form of a thin,
+silky strand, in which condition it is sent to the drawing frames to
+be drawn out. Of course it must be understood that a combing machine
+is used by only a small percentage of cotton spinners. For ordinary
+purposes a sufficiently good quality can be made without a comber. As
+there is from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
+readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the production
+of the very best and finest yarns, such as those intended for sewing
+or machine thread, fine hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation
+silks, and fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines that
+comb short staple cotton.
+
+=Drawing.= The cans containing the slivers are taken from the card or
+combing machine (as the case may be) to the drawing frame. The object
+of this machine is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
+of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly. The
+condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb is such that a
+slight pull will lay them perfectly straight or parallel, and this
+pull is given by the drawing frame rollers. Of course the fibers
+coming from the comb are parallel, but it is necessary to alternate
+them by the drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting of a
+number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a greater speed
+than the rear ones.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON COMB ROOM
+
+  1. The cotton in the form of a "lap" ready to pass through the comb.]
+
+The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same weight per
+yard, are combined together in the drawing and emerge from the pair of
+front rollers as one sliver weighing the same number of grains per
+yard as a single sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated
+two or three times, according to requirements, the material then being
+referred to as having passed through so many "heads" of drawing. It is
+not unusual to pass Indian and American cotton through three
+deliveries.
+
+The object of all the processes thus far described has been that of
+cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers in a parallel position
+to each other, making uniform, and drawing out the stock. In every
+case the stock delivered from a machine is lighter than when fed into
+it, and contains just twist enough to hold it together and prevent its
+being stretched or strained when unwound from the bobbin, and fed into
+the next machine. The minimum amount of twist in roving is desirable
+for the reason that it permits the stock to be drawn out more easily
+and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the roving by the
+slubber being practically eliminated when it is passed through the
+rolls of the intermediate. The same applies in the case of the roving
+passing from the roving to the spinning frame.
+
+=Fly Frames.= The process in the manufacture of yarn after the cotton
+has passed through the drawing frame consists of further attenuation
+of the sliver, but as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as
+is possible without breakage, a small amount of "twist" is introduced
+to allow of the continued drawing out of the sliver.
+
+From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through two, three, or four
+fly frames, according to the number of yarn to be made. All these
+machines are identical in principle and construction, and differ only
+in the size of some of the working parts. They are the slubber,
+intermediate, roving,--and fine or jack frame-fine, and the function
+of each is to draw and twist.
+
+[Illustration: ROVING DEPARTMENT
+
+  1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the
+     rolls and then given a twist while it is wound on the bobbin.]
+
+=Intermediate Frame.= The function of the intermediate frame is to
+receive the slightly twisted rove from the slubber and add thereto a
+little more twist and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to
+one spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends to insure
+strength and uniformity. The principle of the machine is in other
+respects the same as that of the slubbing frame.
+
+=Roving Frame.= The function of the roving frame is to receive the
+twisted rove from the intermediate and add more twist and draft,
+thereby further attenuating the rove. As in the intermediate frame the
+rove is generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
+
+=Fine or Jack Frame.= This machine is used when fine yarns have to be
+made. It is built on the same principle as the preceding frames, the
+only difference being that a finer rove is made from which finer
+numbers of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate, and
+roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
+
+=Spinning.= In the manufacture of single ply yarn the final process is
+that of spinning, which consists in drawing out the cotton roving to
+the required size, and giving it the proper amount of twist necessary
+to make the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning frame is
+built on entirely different principles from the roving, intermediate,
+or slubber frame, the object of each machine is the same as that of
+the spinning frame. The principal point of difference is the amount of
+twist imparted to the cotton roving.
+
+[Illustration: ROVING ROOM
+
+  1. A drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the
+     machine.
+  2. A slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins.
+  3. Roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through
+     the roller to another.]
+
+The objects of the spinning process are:
+
+1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving to the required
+size.
+
+2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give the thread
+produced strength.
+
+Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue wear and tear on
+the machine.
+
+There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning and mule spinning.
+The mule spinning is the older form. There are but few mule frames in
+operation in this country.
+
+=Mule Spinning.= The function of mule spinning is to spin on the bare
+spindle, or upon the short paper tubes, when such are required to form
+a base for the cop bottom. The mule will spin any counts of yarn
+required, and is especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
+"cover" are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced on the ordinary
+cotton mule and are very soft spun.
+
+The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the back of the
+machine, the stands of roving being passed through the rolls and drawn
+out in the same manner as at the roving frame. The spindles are
+mounted on a carriage which moves backward and forward in its relation
+to the rolls, the distance roved being about five feet. When the
+spindles are moving away from the frame the stock is being delivered
+by the rolls, the speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
+being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension. The twist is
+put in the yarn at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING ROOM. COTTON DEPARTMENT
+
+  1. Humidifier--an apparatus to give off moisture.
+  2. Spinning frames--showing the cotton as it comes from the roving
+     frame and passes through the spinning frame.]
+
+When the spindles reach their greatest distance from the rolls, the
+latter are automatically stopped and the direction of the motion of
+the spindle carriage reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while
+the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the motion of the
+rolls being stopped in the meanwhile, the spindles revolving only fast
+enough to wind up the thread that has been spun during the outward
+move of the carriage.
+
+The mule is a much more complicated machine than the ring frame, its
+floor space is much greater, and more skilled help is required for its
+operation. Under ordinary conditions it is not practical to spin finer
+yarn than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said to have
+been spun on a mule. The same number of yarn can be spun on a mule
+with less twist than on the ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.
+
+Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has greater production
+and requires less labor than mule spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used
+for warp purposes.
+
+=Ring Spinning.= The function of ring spinning is to draw out the rove
+and spin it into yarn on a continuous system. The yarn made is spun
+upon bobbins.
+
+The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having the carriage
+replaced by a ring, from which the machine takes its name. The ring is
+from one and one-half to three inches in diameter, grooved inside and
+out, and is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter D,
+called the "traveller." Its office is to constitute a drag upon the
+yarn, by means of which the latter is wound upon a bobbin. Its size
+and weight depend on the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns
+demand the largest ring and heaviest traveller.
+
+[Illustration: MULE ROOM
+
+  1. Stocks from Finisher ready to be spun upon the mule.
+  2. Front Rollers with weight levers.
+  3. Clearers for Front Rollers.
+  4. Faller shafts containing Sickles.
+  5. Spindles.
+  6. Spun Yarn wound on cops.
+  7. Covers for carriage.
+  8. Body of carriage.
+  9. Drawing out band.
+ 10. One of the wheels for the carriage.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
+
+
+=Thread.= In general a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk,
+etc., spun out to considerable length, is called thread. In a specific
+sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns
+firmly united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds of weaving,
+but its principal use is for sewing, for which purpose it is composed
+of either silk, cotton, or flax. Thread made of silk is technically
+known as sewing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
+while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool
+cotton. These distinctions, while generally observed by trade, are not
+always maintained by the public.
+
+The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade from that made
+before the sewing machine came into general use. The early thread was
+but three cord, and contained such a large number of knots, thin
+places, etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
+machines, so manufacturers were called upon to produce a thread that
+would be of the same thickness in every twist. This was effected by
+making the thread of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
+smoother and more uniform strand.
+
+=Manufacturing Processes.= The raw cotton for the manufacture of
+thread must be of long staple. If the fiber is short the thread made
+of it will be weak, and hence unsuited for the purposes required of
+it. Ordinary cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the better
+grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness of its fiber.
+Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are used because they have a much
+longer fiber and are softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the
+factory packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for some
+months before it is used. The first step in the conversion of the bale
+of cotton into thread consists in giving the fiber a thorough
+cleaning. This is accomplished by feeding it to a series of pickers
+which pull the matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt and
+seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting upon cylinders until
+it issues from the finisher lap machines as a downy roll or lap.
+
+The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms, where it is combed
+into parallel fibers by means of a revolving cylinder covered with
+fine wire teeth, sometimes 90,000 of them to the square foot. On
+leaving the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like web
+thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed through a small
+"eye" which condenses it into a narrow band about an inch in width,
+known as the sliver. By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that
+one yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the sliver. The
+sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it were spun it would not make
+good thread. It is necessary to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as
+possible, so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
+strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and short fibers
+must be removed and the knots and kinks in the fibers straightened
+out. To accomplish these objects the cotton must be "combed." First,
+the slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each set
+moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands are drawn out
+fine and thin. In this condition the cotton passes to a doubling
+frame, and from thence to the lapping frame, a device combining six
+laps into one and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
+lap.
+
+[Illustration: WARP ROOM
+
+  1. Beam on which the warp is wound.
+  2. Warp.
+  3. Creel.
+  4. Spools in the creel.]
+
+The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the impurities and
+short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-fifth of the material; next,
+it combines six of these fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A
+number of these rolls are then drawn out by another machine twelve
+times as long as they were before and twisted together on a slubbing
+frame. This last drawing reduces the roll to about the thickness of
+zephyr yarn. After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
+roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes by means of
+hundreds of spindles and wheels what the housewife once did with her
+spinning wheel. The mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000
+hand spinners and takes up much less space. On this machine 900
+spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins, and by means of
+accelerating rollers and a carriage draw out and twist it to the
+proper fineness for the size of thread wanted. Having passed through
+the complex processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and spinning,
+the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various sizes, and the real
+work of thread making, which is a distinct art from yarn making,
+begins.
+
+The thread-making process is briefly as follows: The yarn is doubled
+and twisted; then three of such yarns are twisted together, which give
+the six-fold combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord thread
+three yarns are twisted together. After the twisting is completed the
+thread is reeled into skeins having a continuous length of 4,000 to
+12,000 yards, according to the size, and is then sent to the
+examining department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand is
+looked over, and any found to be defective are laid aside, so that
+when the thread is put on the market it shall be as perfect as care
+and skill can make it.
+
+At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are of the pale cream
+color common to all unbleached cotton goods, and are technically known
+as "in the gray." They therefore have to be bleached pure white or
+dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether intended for white or colored
+thread, are first placed in large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled.
+Here the thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six or
+seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but still retains the
+brownish gray color of unbleached cotton. It then goes into a bath of
+chloride of lime and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
+drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride. Another
+boiling, another bleaching, a bath of soapsuds, and the final rinsing,
+complete the cleansing and whitening process. Those skeins intended
+for colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and placed in tanks
+filled with suitably prepared dyeing solutions.
+
+[Illustration: TWISTING ROOM
+
+  1. Humidifier.
+  2. Twister machine.
+  3. Boxes containing spools of cotton, ready to be put in creel and
+     form warp.]
+
+From the bleaching and dyeing departments the skeins of thread go
+back to the mill to be wound on the bobbins, and from the bobbins
+finally on the small wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
+be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The small spools are
+fastened on pivots, the thread from the bobbins fastened on the
+spools, and the machines set in motion. At the required number of
+yards the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of cotton thread
+contains 200 yards, and when this has been wound on, the thread is cut
+with a knife by an attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim
+of the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread. Thread mills
+commonly print their own labels, and these are affixed to the spools
+by special machinery with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling
+machine the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one for
+imperfections, and any that are found faulty are discarded. When
+packed in pasteboard boxes or in cabinets the thread is ready for
+market.
+
+=Thread Numbers.= Spool cotton for ordinary use is made in sizes
+ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200 fine. In cotton yarn numbering,
+the fineness of the spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks,
+each containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh one pound, as
+illustrated in the following table:
+
+ When   1 hank of cotton yarn (   840 yds.) weigh 1 lb. it is No.   1
+  "    10   "   "    "     "  ( 8,400 yds.)   "    "      "    "   10
+  "    16   "   "    "     "  (13,440 yds.)   "    "      "    "   16
+  "    30   "   "    "     "  (25,200 yds.)   "    "      "    "   30
+  "    50   "   "    "     "  (42,000 yds.)   "    "      "    "   50
+  "   100   "   "    "     "  (84,000 yds.)   "    "      "    "  100
+
+The early manufactured thread was three cord, and took its number from
+the size of the yarn from which it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60
+thread, though in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
+would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands combined
+together. When the sewing machine came into the market as the great
+consumer of thread, spool cotton had to be made a smoother and more
+even product than had previously been necessary for hand needles. This
+was accomplished by using six strands instead of three, the yarns
+being twice as fine. As thread numbers were already established, they
+were not altered for the new article, and consequently at the present
+time No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord are identical
+in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord is formed of No. 120 yarns.
+It is relatively smoother, more even, and stronger than the three-cord
+grade. All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each of
+the latter being twice as fine as the number of the thread as
+designated by the label. Three-cord spool cotton is made of three
+strands of yarn, each of the same number as the thread.
+
+=Sizing.= In textile manufacturing, sizing is the process of
+strengthening warp yarns by coating them with a preparation of starch,
+flour, etc., in order that they may withstand the weaving process
+without chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also often
+resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton and linen fabrics,
+which are sized or dressed with various mixtures in order to create an
+appearance of weight and strength where these qualities do not exist,
+or, if present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing warp yarn
+before weaving is to enable that process to be performed with the
+minimum of threads breaking. Judicious sizing adds to the strength of
+the yarn by filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
+the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main part. In order
+to accomplish this a number of ingredients are used in the size
+preparation, as no single material used alone gives satisfactory
+results. The filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
+adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with sufficient
+hardness to resist the continual chafing of the shuttles, reeds, and
+harnesses during the process of weaving. Flour and starch in a liquid
+state are used for this purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew,
+flour is not so much used as starch. Both of these materials, however,
+make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients are combined with them to
+overcome the brittleness. For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing
+has been found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight goods the
+softener giving the most general satisfaction is paraffin.
+
+When properly made the size preparation is a smooth mass of uniform
+consistence, free from lumps of any kind, and from all sediment and
+odor. Starch--the principal material which gives body to any
+size--requires the most careful treatment. It is first mixed with cold
+water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is slowly poured into the
+necessary quantity of boiling water until a clear, uniform paste is
+formed. Then the softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
+fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred in and some
+form of preservative, usually chloride of zinc or salicylic acid. The
+mass is then thoroughly stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with
+mechanical stirrers. The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or
+cold. When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling up
+every space between the fibers, binding all together, and forming a
+hard coating on the surface of the thread. A thorough washing or
+steaming serves to remove all the size from the woven fabric.
+
+[Illustration: FINISHING ROOM]
+
+=Cotton Finishing.= Cotton fabrics, like other textiles, after leaving
+the loom must be subjected to various finishing processes so as to
+bring them into commercial condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the
+finishing is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each class
+of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In some cases weighting
+materials are added to the fabric so as to hide more or less its
+actual construction. Cotton fabrics just from the loom present a soft
+and open structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it is
+necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes which will
+fill up the openings or interstices as produced in the fabric by the
+interlacing of warp and filling, and at the same time give to the
+fabric a certain amount of stiffness. Of course this finish will
+disappear during wear or washing, it having been imparted to the
+fabric to bring the latter into a salable condition.
+
+Cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to the following
+sub-processes of finishing:
+
+Inspecting, Burling and Trimming, Bleaching, Washing, Scutching,
+Drying.
+
+After the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed; then it passes over to
+the inspection table in an upward receding direction, so that the eye
+of the operator can readily detect imperfections. The ends of two or
+more pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string for
+convenient handling in the bleaching.
+
+=Bleaching.= The object of bleaching is to free the cotton from its
+natural color. The ancient method of bleaching by exposure to the
+action of the sun's rays and frequent wetting has been superseded by a
+more complicated process involving the use of various chemicals.
+Pieces of cloth are tacked together (sewed) to form one continuous
+piece of from three to one thousand yards in length. The cloth is next
+passed over hot cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all
+the fine, loose down from the surface. The goods are then washed and
+allowed to remain in a wet condition for a few hours, after which they
+are passed through milk of lime under heavy pressure, followed by
+rinsing in clear water. The goods are next "scoured" in water
+acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and boiled in a solution of soda,
+then washed as before in clear water. Next they are chlorined by being
+laid in a stone cistern containing a solution of chloride of lime and
+allowed to remain a few hours. This operation requires great care in
+the preparation of the chloride of lime, for if the smallest particle
+of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed to come in contact with and
+remain upon the cloth it is liable to produce holes. The goods are
+then boiled for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda,
+after which they are washed. They are again chlorined as before and
+washed. The long strips are finally scoured in hydrochloric acid,
+washed, and well squeezed between metal rollers covered with cloth.
+After squeezing and drying, the cloth, if required for printing, needs
+no further operation, but if intended to be marketed in a white state,
+it must be finished, that is, starched or calendered.
+
+=Starching.= The starch is applied to the cloth by means of rollers
+which dip into a vat containing the solution, while other rollers
+remove the excess. Sometimes the cloth is artificially weighted with
+fine clay or gypsum, the object being to render the cloth solid in
+appearance.
+
+=Calendering.= The cloth is now put through the calendering machine,
+the object of which is to give a perfectly smooth and even surface,
+and sometimes a superficial glaze; the common domestic smoothing iron
+may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil. The cloth is first
+passed between the cylinders of a machine two, three, or four times,
+according to the finish desired. The calender finishes may be classed
+as dull, luster, glazed, watered or moire, and embossed. The calender
+always flattens and imparts a luster to the cloth passed through it.
+With considerable pressure between smooth rollers a soft, silky luster
+is given by equal flattening of all the threads. By passing two folds
+of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the threads of one
+make an impression upon the other, and give a wiry appearance. The
+iron rollers are sometimes made hollow for the purpose of admitting
+steam or gas in order to give a glaze finish. Embossing is produced by
+passing the cloth under heated metal rollers upon which are engraved
+suitable patterns, the effect of which is the reproduction of the
+pattern upon the surface of the cloth.
+
+=Mercerizing.= This is a process of treating cotton yarn or fabrics
+with caustic soda and sulphuric acid whereby they are made stronger
+and heavier, and given a silky luster and feel. The luster produced
+upon cotton is due to two causes, the change in the structure of the
+fiber, and the removing of the outer skin of the fiber. The swelling
+of the fiber makes it rounder, so that the rays of light as they fall
+upon the surface are reflected instead of being absorbed. The quality
+and degree of luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely
+upon the grade of cotton used. The long-staple Egyptian and Sea Island
+cotton, so twisted as to leave the fibers as nearly loose and parallel
+as possible, show the best results. If the yarn is singed the result
+is a further improvement. Yarns and fabrics constructed of the
+ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to advantage. The cost
+of producing high-grade mercerized yarn is about three times that of
+an unmercerized yarn of the same count, spun from the commoner
+qualities of cotton.
+
+Mercerized yarn is employed in almost every conceivable manner, not
+only in the manufacture of half-silk and half-wool fabrics, and in
+lustrous all-cotton tissues, but also in the production of figures and
+stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds. Mercerized yarn
+used in connection with silk is difficult to detect except by an
+expert eye.
+
+=Characteristics of a good piece of Cotton Cloth.= A perfect cotton
+fiber has little convolutions in it which give the strong twist and
+spring to a good thread. In this respect the Sea Island cotton is the
+best. There are five things requisite for cotton cloth to be good,
+viz.:
+
+1. The cloth must be made of good fiber, that is ripe and long.
+
+2. The fiber must be carefully prepared. All the processes must be
+well performed--for the very fine thread fiber must be combed to
+remove poor fiber. The combing, however, is not always done.
+
+3. The warp and woof threads must be in good proportion.
+
+4. The cloth must be soft, so that it will not crease easily.
+
+5. It must be carefully bleached--the chemicals used must not be
+strong.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+KNITTING
+
+
+The art and process of forming fabrics by looping a single thread,
+either by hand with slender wires or by means of a machine provided
+with hooked needles, is called knitting. Crocheting is an analogous
+art, but differs from knitting in the fact that the separate loops are
+thrown off and finished by hand successively, whereas in knitting the
+whole series of loops which go to form one length or round are
+retained on one or more needles, while a new series is being formed on
+a separate needle. Netting is performed by knotting threads into
+meshes that cannot be unraveled, while knitting can be unraveled and
+the same thread applied to any other use. Knitting is really carried
+on without making knots; thus, the destruction of one loop threatens
+the destruction of the whole web, unless the meshes are reunited.
+
+The principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of weaving. In
+the weaving of cloth the yarns of one system cross those of another
+system at right angles, thus producing a solid, firm texture. The
+great elasticity of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the
+chief feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs. The nature
+of the loop formed by the knitting needle favors elongation and
+contraction without marring in the least the general structure of the
+goods. Builders of weavers' looms have at times endeavored to secure
+this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechanism of the
+loom, but as yet nothing approaching the product of the knitter has
+been made. The elastic feature of a knitted texture renders it
+peculiarly adapted for all classes and kinds of undergarments, for it
+not only fits the body snugly, but expands more readily than any other
+fabric of similar weight.
+
+=Knitting Machines.= There are various machines for knitting. The
+circular knitting machine produces a circular web of various degrees
+of fineness, and in sizes ranging from a child's stocking to a man's
+No. 50 undershirt. The circular fabric made in this manner has to be
+cut up and joined together by some method to make a complete garment.
+The knitting frame for producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip,
+narrowing and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the
+shape of the foot, leg, or body. These strips then have to be joined
+by sewing or knitting to form a garment. Fashioning machines are
+indispensable for knitting the Niantic and French foot, and also for
+the production of stripes, fancy openwork, and lace hosiery.
+
+[Illustration: KNITTING MACHINE FOR HOSIERY]
+
+All plain machines of any class produce only plain knitted fabrics,
+while ribbed machines make only ribbed fabrics. Still, many garments
+in their make-up include both kinds of knitting; therefore, many
+machines produce only certain parts of particular garments. In the
+case of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top, or in underwear a
+ribbed cuff, and these may be made either of circular web or full
+fashioned. In each case the ribbed portion is first knit and then
+transferred to a plain machine, and being placed upon the needles is
+worked on to the rest of the garment. In some instances the heel is
+made by the machine working the leg, though there are numerous
+knitters specially designed for turning out only this particular part.
+
+Among other knitting machines in modern use are the drawers machine;
+machines for hose and half-hose with apparatus for making the instep,
+finishing off the toe, splicing or thickening the heels, etc.;
+machines for producing the bottoms or soles of hose separately, and
+also the instep separately; circular stocking machines for producing a
+tubular web afterwards cut into suitable lengths for all varieties of
+hose; circular sleeve machines, circular body machines, as well as
+circular web machines for making both body and sleeves of undershirts,
+jerseys, sweaters, etc. Special machines are also made for knitting
+both plain and ribbed plaited goods, that is, with both sides wool
+while the center is of cotton, or with a silk or worsted face on one
+side and the back of an inferior yarn. In the form of auxiliary
+appliances are produced many kinds of stitching machines; circular
+latch-needle machines for plain ribbed, mock seam, and striped goods;
+steam presses; hose rolling machines; hose cutting and welting
+machines, and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture.
+
+[Illustration: KNITTING MACHINE FOR UNDERWEAR]
+
+At present fully one-third of the knit underwear used in this country
+is of the ribbed description. It is made in all the materials that
+the older flat goods are composed of, including silk, silk mixtures,
+linen, wool, lisle, and cotton. Rib work is ordinarily stronger and
+more lasting than plain. It is also invaluable for many purposes on
+account of its tendency to contract and expand in the direction of the
+circumference without altering its length. This feature makes it
+indispensable for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts, mittens,
+gloves, etc., and for the production of heavy garments such as
+cardigans and sweaters. The expense of knitting rib work is higher
+than plain knitting, owing to the fact that the machines cannot turn
+out so great a quantity within a given time.
+
+The formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique in its principle.
+The effect is produced by reversing the stitch. In place of making the
+stitch work appear entirely upon one side of the fabric, as in plain
+work, the needles are so arranged that every alternate row, or two
+rows alternately, are reversed, thus making both sides alike. Plain
+work is done with a single bank of needles, while rib work requires
+two banks, the function of the second one being to pull and loop the
+yarn in an opposite direction, thus producing a thicker and more
+elastic web.
+
+Double work in knitting consists merely in running two threads where
+one is commonly used. The work is done readily and with but little
+extra cost for labor. Coarser and heavier needles are required, also a
+wider gauge for the needle cylinder. Fancy effects in double work are
+produced by running two colors instead of one. The tendency is for one
+thread to twine about the other, thus making attractive
+double-and-twist work. Lumbermen's socks and like goods are often
+knitted on this plan, though for the most part double work is for the
+heels, toes, and soles of ordinary hose.
+
+=Stripe Knitting.= The process of striping knitted fabrics is
+accomplished automatically by a system of changing the yarns when
+delivered by the feeds. Circular machines knitting a tubular web
+cannot be utilized for this purpose, hence the work is done on
+fashioning or stocking frames. It has only been within recent years
+that makers of knitting machinery have been able to offer machines on
+which more than one kind of yarn could be knit at one time. There are
+now in use, however, machines that will readily knit several colors of
+yarn at the same time.
+
+=Knitting Cotton.= A variety of loosely twisted, four-ply cotton yarn,
+dyed in various plain and mixed colors, employed for knitting hosiery,
+tidies, mats, etc., by hand. It is numbered from 8, coarse, to 20,
+fine, and commonly put up sixteen balls in a box, each box containing
+two pounds, manufacturer's weight.
+
+=Knitting Silk.= A loosely twisted silk thread of domestic manufacture
+employed for knitting mittens, stockings, and other articles by hand.
+It is also much used for crochet work. Knitting silk is put up in the
+form of balls, each containing one-half ounce of thread. It is made in
+but two sizes, No. 300, coarse, and No. 500, fine; each ball of the
+former number contains 150 yards of silk; of the latter 250 yards. No.
+500 is manufactured only in white, cream, and black; the No. 300 is
+fast dyed in a great variety of colors.
+
+=Hosiery Manufacture.= According to the particular method by which
+socks and stockings are made, of whatever kind, quality, or material,
+they are classed as cut goods, seamless, or full fashioned. Of the
+three methods of manufacturing the first named is the least expensive.
+Cut goods are made of round webbing knitted on what is called a
+circular knitting machine. The web has the appearance of a long roll
+of cloth about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed flat. The
+first operation consists in cutting off pieces the length of the
+stocking desired, these lengths, of course, being the same (unshaped)
+from end to end. The shaping of the leg is effected either by cutting
+out enough of the stocking from the calf to the heel to allow part to
+be sewn up and shaped to fit the ankle, or by shrinking. In the
+heeling room where the pieces next go, the cutters are furnished with
+gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a slit for the
+insertion of the heel, generally of a different color. When the heel
+is sewn in, the stocking begins to assume its rightful shape. The toe
+is now put on and the stocking is practically finished. In the case of
+socks the final operation consists in attaching the ribbed top, which
+tends to draw the upper part of the leg together, thus causing it to
+assume a better shape. The final work includes scouring, dyeing, and
+shaping. The cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per dozen
+than when knit seamless. While some very creditable hose are produced
+in this way, yet the existence of the heavy seam is an objection which
+confines them to the poorest class of trade. Cut goods are made in
+all sizes and kinds for men, women, and children.
+
+Seamless hose are made on a specially constructed machine which
+produces the entire stocking, but leaves the toe piece to be joined
+together by a looping attachment. On half-hose the leg is made the
+same size down to the ankle, but on ladies' hose the stocking is
+shaped somewhat in the machine. Seamless hose are not, strictly
+speaking, entirely seamless, inasmuch as all stockings made on a
+circular knitting machine must have a seam somewhere. There must be a
+beginning and an ending. In the case of the stocking the ending is at
+the toe, and the opening left can only be closed with a seam. In some
+mills this opening is automatically stitched together on special
+machines; in others, girls do it by hand with needle and thread.
+Neither by machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with exactly
+the same stitch as that made by the needles of the power knitter.
+However, the seam is of small proportions, and when the goods are
+scoured, pressed, and finished the presence of the seam is a minor
+item, as it neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance of
+the stocking. Seamless goods are made in a great variety of qualities,
+ranging from cotton half-hose at fifty cents per dozen to the fine
+worsted stockings at $6.00 per dozen. A notable and very commendable
+feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the heel, which
+fits that portion of the foot as though really fitted to it. As far as
+comfort and fit are concerned, the manufacture of seamless hosiery has
+now reached such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to
+the full-fashioned variety.
+
+Full-fashioned hose are produced by means of complicated and expensive
+knitting frames, which automatically drop the requisite number of
+stitches at the ankle so as gradually to narrow the web down and give
+the stocking the natural shape of the leg. The toe is produced in the
+same way, and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought about in like
+manner. Hence, the goods are called full-fashioned, because so
+fashioned as to conform to the proportions of the leg and foot. Hose
+and underwear made by this method are knit in flat strips and then
+seamed either by hand or machine. Generally special machines are used,
+which take up and complete the selvedges, thus avoiding objectionable
+seams with raw edges.
+
+The knitting frames used for making full-fashioned goods are large,
+intricate, expensive, and slow in operation; they are difficult to
+keep in order and require skilful operators. The largest ones knit
+from fourteen to eighteen stockings at once, using as many as four
+threads of different colors in the production of patterns. The first
+operation consists in knitting the leg down to the foot; then the legs
+are transferred by expert workmen to another frame which knits the
+foot. Next they go to another department where, with the aid of a
+special looping machine, the heels and toes are stitched together.
+Then the stockings or socks are handed over to expert women operators,
+who seam up the legs on a machine especially adapted for the purpose.
+After being sorted they are taken to be dyed, boarded, stitched,
+dried, and finally subjected to heat and pressure to give them a
+finished appearance. It usually requires two weeks from the time the
+manufacturing operations begin, for a stocking to emerge from the
+factory in a finished form. Full-fashioned hose are made in all shades
+and grades of silk and cotton, in lisle thread, and in all kinds of
+cashmere, merino, and woolen goods. They are likewise knitted plain,
+ribbed, and with fancy stripes and embroidery effects. In the United
+States there are numerous important plants engaged in the production
+of full-fashioned goods, while large quantities are annually imported
+from Germany and France.
+
+=Finishing Process.= When socks and stockings are taken off of the
+knitting machines they present an unfinished appearance, being loose,
+puckered, dirty, and generally shapeless. Scouring, dyeing, shaping,
+and pressing serve to improve their looks, and these finishing
+operations constitute a distinct branch of the industry. While still
+in a moist state the hose are shaped. This is effected by the use of
+forming-boards made of wood and about one-half of an inch in
+thickness. The sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the "form"
+while damp, and then placed in a heated chamber and allowed to dry.
+The goods assume the shape of the wooden "form," and will always hold
+it if the work has been carefully and thoroughly done. After they have
+been taken from the drying chamber and the boards removed the hose are
+pressed between heavy metal plates or rollers, looked over for
+defects, and when boxed or bundled are ready for market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+LACE
+
+
+=Lace.= Lace is the name applied to an ornamental open work of threads
+of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or silver, and occasionally of mohair or
+aloe fiber. The latter are used by the peasants of Italy and Spain.
+
+Lace consists of two parts, the ground and the flower. The threads may
+be looped, plaited, or twisted in one of three ways. First, with a
+needle, when the work is known as "needlepoint lace." Second, when
+bobbins, pins, and a pillow or cushion are used; this is called
+"pillow lace." Third, by machinery, when imitations of both point and
+pillow lace patterns are produced.
+
+Special patterns for these laces date from the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. The early productions of the art had some analogy
+to weaving; the patterns were stiff and geometrical, sometimes cut out
+of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed surface, but
+more frequently they were darned in, the stitches being counted in, as
+in tapestry. This kind was known as darned netting. With the
+development of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and
+figure subjects were introduced and worked in.
+
+Whether of needlepoint or pillow make, both the ornament and the
+ground are produced by the lace maker. Needlepoint is made by first
+stitching the net with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on
+paper or parchment, thus producing a skeleton thread pattern. This
+threadwork serves as a foundation for the different figures which are
+formed in the lace.
+
+Bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving. The threads are
+fixed upon a circular or square pillow, placed variously to suit the
+methods of manufacture in vogue in different countries. The object of
+using the pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace. One end
+of each thread is fastened to the cushion with a pin, the main supply
+of thread being twined around a small bobbin of wood, bone, or ivory.
+The threads are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker, who
+throws the bobbins over and under each other. The operation is fairly
+simple, since children of eight or nine years of age can be trained to
+it successfully. It demands, however, considerable dexterity with the
+fingers.
+
+The design for pillow lace must of course be adapted to the technical
+requirements of the process, and cannot therefore be the same as one
+for needlepoint, which has a better appearance and greater strength
+than pillow lace. For this reason it was in former times generally
+preferred for wear on occasions of state. On the other hand, pillow
+lace has the quality of charming suppleness, and for use in mantillas,
+veils, and fichus it is better than needlepoint, lending itself with
+delicate softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the head
+and shoulders of women.
+
+
+LACE TERMS DEFINED
+
+    _Alencon (Point d')._--Fine needlepoint lace with the
+    ground of double-twist thread in a semi-net effect. Is
+    usually worked with horsehair on the edges to give
+    firmness to the cordonnet. Called after the city in
+    France where it is made.
+
+    _Allover._--Name for all wide laces used for flouncing,
+    yokes, and entire waists. Usually the lace is over
+    eighteen inches in width.
+
+    _American Laces._--A general term formerly used to
+    distinguish lace made in this country, the development
+    of the industry having now rendered the term nearly
+    obsolete.
+
+    _Angleterre (Point d')._--Fine Brussels pillow lace,
+    distinguished by a rib of raised and plaited threads
+    worked in the lace. Shown in floral, ornithological, and
+    geometrical designs.
+
+    _Antique._--Hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread
+    in a large, open, rectangular knotted mesh. Used for
+    curtains, bed sets, draperies.
+
+    _Antwerp._--Bobbin lace, resembling early Alencon. Shows
+    a "pot"--that is, a vase or basket effect--in the
+    design.
+
+    _Applique._--Any lace in which the body and the design
+    are made separately. The body is usually silk and the
+    design cotton or linen.
+
+    _Applique Brussels._--Name sometimes given to Brussels
+    applique laces.
+
+    _Arabe (Point d')._--Coarse bobbin lace made in Belgium
+    and France as well as Arabia. Shows a large, bold
+    pattern, cable edged, and is almost invariably in a deep
+    ecru tone. Used for curtains and draperies.
+
+    _Arabian._--Same as above.
+
+    _Argentine._--Similar to Alencon, the mesh being a
+    trifle larger.
+
+    _Arras._--Very strong, inexpensive, white bobbin lace,
+    of simple pattern, somewhat resembling Mechlin.
+    Distinguished by its light, single thread ground. Named
+    after the city in France where it is made.
+
+    _Aurillac._--Somewhat resembles Angleterre. Bobbin lace
+    made in Aurillac, France.
+
+    _Auvergne._--Any kind of bobbin lace made in Auvergne,
+    France. Different makes and patterns.
+
+    _Ave Maria._--A narrow edging lace.
+
+    _Baby Lace._--Light and simple edging lace made in
+    England.
+
+    _Battenberg._--Same as Renaissance. Designs confined to
+    flower patterns.
+
+    _Bayeux._--Bobbin lace, usually an imitation of Spanish
+    point. Also a black, rich lace made in large pieces for
+    shawls, head scarfs, etc.
+
+    _Binche._--Fine pillow lace, without cordonnet. Ground
+    resembles a spider-web with small dots. Made in Binche,
+    Belgium.
+
+    _Bisette._--Coarse, narrow French peasant lace in simple
+    designs. Name often applied to cheap bordering laces.
+
+    _Blonde._--So called, being originally a bobbin lace
+    made of unbleached silk, though now shown in black,
+    white, and colors. Made with two different sizes of
+    thread; fine thread for the ground, coarse for the
+    design. Usually takes some floral form. Very lustrous.
+
+    _Bobbin Lace._--Imitation of pillow lace. Made in
+    England and France.
+
+    _Bobbinet._--The same.
+
+    _Bone Lace._--An obsolete term once given to Honiton
+    bobbin lace.
+
+    _Bone Point Lace._--Applied to laces having no regular
+    ground or mesh, such as Renaissance.
+
+    _Border Lace._--Practically synonymous with edging.
+
+    _Bourdon._--A machine lace made of both silk and cotton.
+    Show scroll-like patterns cable-edged on a regular mesh.
+    Usually dyed black, but sometimes bleached. The outline
+    is of a heavy lustrous thread. Used chiefly for dress
+    trimming and millinery.
+
+    _Brettone._--Cheap narrow edging.
+
+    _Bride Lace._--Lace with the pattern connected with
+    brides. Same as bone point lace.
+
+    _Brides._--Slender threads connecting different parts of
+    a pattern.
+
+    _Brussels Net._--Plain net made originally in Brussels,
+    but now produced in all lace manufacturing countries.
+
+    _Brussels Pillow._--Fine pillow lace with the patterns
+    joined together by little loops on their edges.
+
+    _Brussels Point._--Shows an open pattern, made partly in
+    open, partly in closed, stitch, giving the appearance of
+    shading.
+
+    _Carrickmacross._--Tiny Irish cambric drawn work,
+    applique on net.
+
+    _Cartisane._--Guipure or passementerie made with thin
+    silk or gilt-covered strips of parchment.
+
+    _Chantilly._--Pillow lace very similar to blonde. Comes
+    from Chantilly, France. Made in both silk and cotton and
+    usually seen in black. Non-lustrous, and looks as if
+    made from black linen thread.
+
+    _Chiffon Lace._--Chiffon embroidered in twist silk.
+
+    _Cluny._--Coarse-thread bobbin lace, made in both linen
+    and cotton. Shows a close-stitch pattern darned on an
+    open ground. Used for dress trimmings and the
+    manufacture of curtains.
+
+    _Cork Lace._--A sweeping term used to designate all
+    laces of Irish make.
+
+    _Cotton Lace._--All lace made of cotton.
+
+    _Craponne._--Cheap, stout thread furniture guipure.
+
+    _Crochet Lace._--Any point lace made with the crochet
+    hook.
+
+    _Darned Lace._--A comprehensive term taking in all net
+    effects with the pattern applied in needlework.
+
+    _Devonshire Lace._--Lace made in this part of England,
+    and especially Honiton imitation.
+
+    _Dieppe._--Fine needlepoint lace made in Dieppe, France.
+    Resembles Valenciennes. Made with a regular ground of
+    squares of small meshes alternating with open squares
+    upon which the pattern is applied in close stitch.
+
+    _Duchesse._--Pillow lace with fine net ground with the
+    patterns in raised work, volants, and the like.
+
+    _Dutch Lace._--Practically a coarse Valenciennes.
+
+    _English Point._--See Angleterre.
+
+    _Escurial._--Heavy silk lace made in imitation of Rose
+    point. Patterns outlined with cable edge.
+
+    _Esprit (Point d')._--Dotted bobbinet with the dots
+    either singly or in clusters.
+
+    _Filet Lace._--Any lace made with a square mesh net.
+
+    _Flemish Point._--Needlepoint lace made in Flanders.
+
+    _Footing._--Simple insertion of Brussels net from one to
+    three inches in width.
+
+    _Galloon._--Irregular band with a fancy edge. Entire
+    piece often in zigzag or scallop form.
+
+    _Gaze (Point de)._--Flemish point lace resembling point
+    d'Alencon, though much softer, being without horsehair.
+
+    _Gene (Point de)._--Openwork embroidery made on a wool
+    ground which is afterwards eaten away by acid.
+
+    _Genoa._--Heavy lace made of aloe fiber. Another name
+    for macrame.
+
+    _Gimp._--See Guipure.
+
+    _Gold Lace._--Gimp or braid covered with gold or
+    imitation gold thread.
+
+    _Grammont._--White pillow lace used for shawls and the
+    like. Black silk lace nearly resembling blonde.
+
+    _Guipure._--Fancy trimming of wire cord whipped round
+    with silk or cotton threads, and the small patterns
+    stitched together.
+
+    _Guipure d'Art._--Linen net upon which raised
+    intersecting patterns are worked.
+
+    _Guipure de Flanders._--A pillow lace made separately,
+    having flowers connected by bars and brides.
+
+    _Hand Embroidered._--Heavy point lace, usually of Plauen
+    manufacture, with fancy floral or other figures
+    embroidered on the design.
+
+    _Honiton._--English bobbin lace, famed for the beauty of
+    its designs. Named for the city where it was first
+    manufactured. Now made in Belgium, Holland, and France.
+    Sprays sometimes made separately, and then worked on a
+    net--Honiton applique.
+
+    _Honiton Braid._--Narrow machine-made braid of
+    ornamental oval figures connected by narrow bars. Used
+    for collars, handkerchiefs, and tidies.
+
+    _Honiton Guipure._--Large flower-pattern lace on very
+    open ground, the sprays held together with brides or
+    bars.
+
+    _Imitation Lace._--A term used to designate any
+    machine-made lace in contrast with hand-made.
+
+    _Insertion._--Any narrow lace with a plain edge on
+    either side that admits of its being inserted in a
+    fabric.
+
+    _Irish Crochet._--Heavy hand-made lace, remarkable for
+    the beauty and distinctness of its patterns, and the
+    startling whiteness of the linen thread used in its
+    manufacture.
+
+    _Irish Lace._--A general term used to designate all lace
+    made by the Irish peasantry.
+
+    _Irish Point._--Hybrid combination of applique, cut
+    work, and embroidery on net with elaborate needle
+    stitching in the higher grades.
+
+    _Irish Trimming._--Simple, woven lace, used on white
+    wear.
+
+    _Knotted Lace._--Frequently referred to as knotting. A
+    fancy weave of twisted and knotted threads in close
+    imitation of some old hand laces.
+
+    _Lille (Also Lile)._--French lace named after the town
+    where it is made. Somewhat resembles Mechlin. Shows a
+    very clear, light ground and is the most beautiful of
+    all simple thread laces.
+
+    _Limerick Lace._--A form of embroidery on net or muslin.
+
+    _Luxeuil._--A general term for hand-made laces of
+    Luxeuil, France. More specifically those of a stout,
+    heavy nature. Used for tidies, curtains, draperies.
+
+    _Macrame._--Knotted hand-made lace, made of a very heavy
+    cord. Shown principally in geometrical designs. Very
+    popular in deep ecru.
+
+    _Maline._--Fine silk net. Sometimes also applied to
+    Mechlin lace with a diamond mesh.
+
+    _Maltese._--Coarse machine-made cotton lace, resembling
+    torchon. Has no regular ground, the patterns being
+    usually connected with heavy stitch work.
+
+    _Mechlin._--Light pillow lace with the pattern outlined
+    by a fine but very distinct thread or cord. Real Mechlin
+    generally has the ground pattern woven together, the
+    latter running largely to flowers, buds, etc.
+
+    _Medallion._--Single, detached pattern.
+
+    _Medici._--Special kind of torchon edging, with one edge
+    scalloped.
+
+    _Melange._--Hand-made silk pillow lace, showing a
+    combination of conventional Chantilly with Spanish
+    designs.
+
+    _Mignonette._--Light bobbin lace, made in narrow strips.
+    Resembles tulle.
+
+    _Miracourt._--Sprig effects of bobbin-lace applied on
+    net ground.
+
+    _Mexican Drawnwork._--Little round medallions either
+    single or in strips, the threads drawn to form a
+    cartwheel. Mexican and Teneriffe drawnwork are
+    practically the same. Machine imitations made in
+    Nottingham, Calais, and St. Gall.
+
+    _Motif._--See Medallion.
+
+    _Nanduly._--South American fiber-lace, made by needle in
+    small squares, which are afterward joined together.
+    Design very beautiful and of remarkable durability.
+
+    _Needlepoint Lace._--See Point Lace.
+
+    _Normandy Lace._--See Valenciennes.
+
+    _Nottingham._--A general term including all the
+    machine-made laces turned out in that great
+    lace-producing center of England.
+
+    _Oriental Lace._--Really an embroidery, being produced
+    on the Schiffli machine, the pattern being then either
+    cut or eaten out. Also applied to point d'Arabe and
+    certain filet effects.
+
+    _Oyah Lace._--A crocheted guipure shown in ornate
+    patterns.
+
+    _Passementerie._--A decorative edging or trimming,
+    especially gimp or braid.
+
+    _Picots._--Infinitesimal loops on brides and other
+    strands.
+
+    _Pillow Lace (Bobbin Lace)._--Made on a pillow with
+    bobbins and pins. Machine-made imitations retain the
+    name.
+
+    _Plauen._--Applied to all laces emanating from that
+    section of Saxony and including imitations of nearly all
+    point laces, which are embroidered on a wool ground,
+    this being afterward dissolved in acid and the cotton or
+    silk design left intact.
+
+    _Point de Gaze._--Fine gauze-like needle-lace.
+
+    _Point d'Irelande._--Coarse machine lace, made in
+    imitation of real Venetian point.
+
+    _Point de Milan._--A variety of guipure, having a ground
+    of small meshes, and a pattern consisting of bold,
+    flowing scroll devices.
+
+    _Point de Paris._--A variety of cheap machine lace,
+    cotton, of simple design.
+
+    _Point Kant._--Flemish pillow lace, with a net ground
+    and the design running largely to "pot" effects--pot
+    lace.
+
+    _Point Lace._--Lace made by hand with needle and single
+    thread. Needlepoint the same. Point d'Alencon, point de
+    Venise, etc., are all variations of point lace and will
+    be found classified under their initials.
+
+    _Point Plat._--Point lace without raised design.
+
+    _Renaissance._--Modern lace, made of narrow tape or
+    braid formed into patterns, held together by brides, the
+    brides forming subsidiary designs. Battenberg is the
+    same thing.
+
+    _Repousse._--Applied to the design, being a pattern that
+    has the effect of being stamped in.
+
+    _Rococo._--Italian lace, bearing the rococo design.
+
+    _Rose Point._--See Venetian point.
+
+    _Seaming Lace._--Narrow, openwork insertion.
+
+    _Seville._--Variety of torchon.
+
+    _Spanish Lace._--A comprehensive term. Convent-made,
+    needlepoint lace. Cut drawnwork effects, also
+    convent-made. Needlepoint lace in large squares. Black
+    silk lace in floral designs.
+
+    _Spanish Point._--Ancient embroidery of gold, silver,
+    and silk passementerie.
+
+    _Swiss Lace._--Swiss embroidered net in imitation of
+    Brussels.
+
+    _Tambour._--Variety of Limerick.
+
+    _Tape Lace._--Hand-made needle lace, similar to
+    Renaissance.
+
+    _Thread Lace._--Made of linen thread, as distinguished
+    from cotton and silk laces.
+
+    _Torchon._--Coarse, open bobbin lace of stout but
+    loosely twisted thread in very simple patterns. Much
+    seen in imitations, usually in narrow widths.
+
+    _Van Dyke Points._--Applied to laces with a border made
+    in large points.
+
+    _Valenciennes._--Commonly called Val. Bobbin lace, seen
+    mostly in cheap insertions and in the form of narrow
+    edgings.
+
+    _Venetian Point._--Point de Venise. Needlepoint lace in
+    floral pattern with the designs very close together and
+    connected by brides ornamented with picots.
+
+    _Wood Fiber._--Applied to all laces made of wood silk.
+
+    _Yak._--Machine-made worsted lace. Used for trimming for
+    shawls, petticoats, and undergarments.
+
+    _Youghal._--Needlepoint lace of coarse thread, made
+    exclusively in Ireland.
+
+    _Ypres._--Bobbin lace, somewhat coarser than Val.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+COTTON FABRICS[16]
+
+
+=Albatross.= Cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made in imitation of a
+worsted fabric of the same name. It has a fleecy surface. The name is
+taken from the bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric
+resembles. The warp is usually 28s cotton, the filling 36s cotton. It
+is a plain weave. Filling and warp count 48 picks per inch. The goods
+are finished by being burled, sheared, washed, singed, dyed, rinsed,
+dried, and pressed, care being taken not to press too hard. Sometimes
+singeing is omitted. Albatross cloth is generally in white, black, or
+solid colors. It is not often printed. It is light in weight, and is
+used for dress goods.
+
+=Awning.= A cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter from sun rays.
+
+=Batiste.= Batiste is of French origin, and is a light, transparent
+cloth, made from a fine quality of combed cotton yarn. There is a
+gradual variation in quality ranging from a comparatively coarse to a
+very fine fabric. The variety of qualities will suggest some idea of
+the utility of the fabric. Its uses are even more varied than are the
+qualities. The finer grades are used for dress goods and all kinds of
+lingerie for summer wear, etc., while the cheaper grades are used for
+linings in washable and unwashable shirt waists. Batiste is woven in
+the gray, that is, with yarn direct from the spinning frame, with the
+exception that the warp yarn is well sized, in order to stand better
+the strain to which it is subjected during the weaving process.
+
+=Bourrette.= A light weight, single cloth fabric, with two-ply cotton
+warp and wool or a combination of cotton and shoddy filling, made with
+the plain weave and in appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric
+with fancy effects in twist scattered about it. It is used principally
+for ladies' fall suitings.
+
+=Bedford Cord.= This is one of the most popular types of fabrics, the
+distinguishing effect being a line or cord running lengthwise of the
+cloth, the cord being more or less prominent. The cloth is made of
+cotton, or sometimes of worsted. The face effect of the Bedford cord
+is generally plain. Occasionally twill-faced cords are used. The cords
+vary in width from about one twentieth to one quarter of an inch. To
+get extra weight without altering the appearance of the face, extra
+warp yarns, termed wadding ends, are inserted between the face weave
+and the filling, floating at the back of the rib. When these wadding
+ends are coarse, they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the
+cord. They run from 88 to 156 picks to an inch.
+
+=Buckram.= Buckram is derived from Bokhara. It may be described as a
+coarse, glue-sized fabric, and is made of cotton, hemp, linen, or
+cotton and hair (coarse) yarns, usually from 10s to 25s. Made of a
+double cloth warp, 22s cotton, 34 picks to the inch, for the face or
+top fabric 1/12's[17]; weight from loom 2.22 ozs. per yard. Bottom
+fabric 1/12's cotton; filling 1/16's cotton; 12 picks to the inch.
+Weight per yard, 1.8 ounces. These fabrics depend a great deal on the
+finishing. The men's wear requires less sizing on account of the hair
+it contains. The goods are piece dyed. Buckram is used principally for
+stiffening garments, and to give them shape or form. It is placed
+between the lining and the surface cloth of the garment in particular
+parts, such as the lapels, etc. It is used in the millinery trade, and
+is made into hats. Millinery buckram is sized two or three times.
+
+=Calico= takes its name from Calicut, a city in India, where cloth was
+first printed. The majority of inexpensive cotton fabrics are
+constructed on the one up, one down system, or plain weave. Calico is
+no exception to this rule. The printed designs on calicoes may be
+somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geometrical figures. In
+order, however, to comply with the true principles of art, such
+fabrics as calicoes should have but simple geometrical figures for
+their ornamental features. New styles and combinations of colors are
+produced every month and faster and lighter color printed each season.
+Most of the designs for calicoes and cotton cloth printing are made in
+Paris. At present the steam styles are most prominent; they are the
+fastest and lightest to be obtained. Calico is a printed cloth, the
+printing being done by a printing machine which has a rotating
+impression cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out.
+The cloth in passing through the machine comes in contact with the
+impression cylinder. The cylinder revolving in a color trough takes up
+the color and leaves the impression of the design on the cloth.
+Calicoes may be seen in almost any color. The printing machine is
+capable of printing several colors in one design. Calicoes, however,
+are usually in two colors, that is, one color for ground and the other
+for figure. The ground color in most cases is effected by dyeing the
+cloth in some solid color. After the cloth is dyed the design is
+printed on it. The cloth, after it comes from the loom, is singed and
+bleached, then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint, and then
+sent to the dye house. The first process there is to boil it, after
+which it is immersed in the dye tub. Calicoes are usually given what
+may be termed a "cheap cotton dye." By "cheap cotton dye" is meant
+that the colors are not fast, but will run or fade when subjected to
+water. After the fabric is dyed, it is given to the printer, who
+ornaments the face of the cloth with some geometrical design; then it
+is practically ready for the merchant. After printing, the cloth is
+dried and steamed to fix the color, afterwards soaped, washed,
+finished, and folded. The printing machine turns out about 400 to 800
+fifty-yard pieces a day. Calico is used for inexpensive dresses,
+shirtwaists, wrappers, etc.
+
+=Cambric.= Cambric is a heavy, glazed cotton fabric with a smooth
+finish. It was first made in Cambrai, France. It has a plain weave
+and a width of thirty-six inches. Cambrics are dyed in a jig machine.
+After dyeing they are run through a mangle containing the sizing
+substance, then dried, dampened, and run through a calender machine.
+The glossy effect is obtained in this last finishing process. Cambric
+is used for shirtwaists, dress goods, etc. The finer grades are made
+from hard twisted cotton of good quality.
+
+=Canvas.= This is a term applied to heavy, plain weave cloths made
+with ply cotton yarn. They are used for mail bags, covering for boats,
+etc.
+
+=Chambray.= Chambray is a staple fabric of many years standing, being
+next in rank among cotton goods after the better grade of gingham.
+Chambray is a light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven
+with a plain weave, and always has a white selvedge. In effect it is a
+cloth having but one color in the warp, and woven with a white
+filling, this combination producing a solid color effect, the white
+filling reducing any harshness of warp color in the cloth. It is
+composed of one warp and one filling, either all cotton, cotton and
+silk, or all silk. It is twenty-seven to thirty inches in width and
+single 30s cotton warp to single 60s silk, the count of yarn being
+governed by the weight per yard desired. The weight per finished yard
+is two to three and one-half ounces. Good colors for the warp are navy
+blue, dark brown, lavender, black, nile green, etc. When made of
+cotton warp and filling the fabric receives a regular gingham finish.
+The loom width can be restored by tentering or running the goods over
+a machine fitted underneath with a series of coils of steam pipe. The
+top of this machine is fitted with an endless chain with a row of
+steel needles standing erect upon its face. Chains are adjusted to the
+width desired, and as the machine runs, both selvedges are caught by
+the needles and the cloth stretched to the required width.
+
+=Cheese Cloth.= This is a thin cotton fabric of light weight and low
+counts of yarn, which ranks among the cheapest in cotton goods. It is
+used for innumerable purposes. The bleached fabric is used for
+wrapping cheese and butter after they are pressed. It is also much in
+demand for bunting for festival occasions, light curtains, masquerade
+dresses, etc. When used for bunting, draperies, and the like it is
+usually in colors, red, blue, cream, and yellow seeming to have the
+greatest demand. The weave is one and one or plain weave.
+
+=Chine.= Sometimes applied to glace silk, or cotton two-toned effects.
+The name is French, meaning woven so as to have a mottled effect.
+
+=Chintz.= Printed cotton cloth, with large, many-colored designs, used
+for furniture covering. The Hindoo wears it as a body covering. Chintz
+is the Hindoo word meaning variegated.
+
+=Cotton Flannel.= Napped cotton flannel. Made first for trade in
+Canton, China.
+
+=Crash.= A plain fabric for outing suits, towels, etc.
+
+=Crepe.= A fine, thin fabric of open texture made of cotton.
+
+=Crepon.= Large designs in figured crepe. The name applies to the
+crispiness of the finish and is from the French word _creper_, to make
+crisp.
+
+=Cretonne.= Heavy cotton cloth printed in large designs, for drapery
+and furniture use. Cretonne was a Frenchman who first made the cloth.
+
+=Crinoline.= Crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton warp, horsehair
+filling, or all cotton yarns. It is sold in varying widths, and is
+used by tailors and dress-makers in stiffening clothing. It is a cheap
+cloth of low texture and simple construction, the distinguishing
+feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly glazed
+face on the cloth.
+
+=Damask.= A cloth of silk and cotton, silk and linen, silk and wool,
+or all linen in flowered or geometrical designs for drapery or table
+covering. The weaves used are mostly twills and sateens. It takes its
+name from Damascus, where it was first made.
+
+=Denim.= This is a strong fabric usually made with a two up and one
+down twill. It is used for overalls, furniture covering, and floor
+covering.
+
+=Diaper.= A figured cotton or linen fabric, which gets its name from
+the Greek _diapron_, meaning figured. It is generally of good quality
+as it is subject to excessive washing.
+
+=Dimity.= A light-weight cotton fabric, the distinguishing feature of
+which is the cords or ribs running warpwise through the cloth, and
+produced by doubling the warp threads in either heddle or reed in
+sufficient quantity to form the rib desired. The name is from a Greek
+word meaning two-threaded. Dimity is a ladies' summer dress fabric,
+and is made of regular cotton yarn, from 1/60's to the finest counts
+in both warp and filling. It is made in both white and colors, solid
+white being used in the most expensive grades. Colors are often
+printed upon the face of the fabric after it has been woven in the
+white.
+
+=Domet.= This cloth is napped similar to a cotton flannel. It is used
+for shirts, pajamas, etc., and made with bright colored stripes and
+check patterns. The name is from domestic, home made.
+
+=Duck.= Duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of coarse two-ply
+yarn and of a plain weave. It derives its name from its resemblance to
+a duck's skin. It is of a lighter weight than canvas. In finishing
+duck is taken from the loom and washed and sized, then dried and
+pressed. If a fancy solid color is desired the goods are dyed in the
+piece after the first washing. Duck is used in the manufacture of
+sails, tents, car curtains, and for any purpose requiring a good
+water-tight fabric, which will withstand rough usage. Duck has a stiff
+hard feel, and excellent wearing qualities. The lighter weights are
+used for ladies' shirtwaist suits, men's white trousers, etc.
+
+=Drill.= A cotton fabric of medium weight generally made with the two
+up and one down twill. It is extensively used for shoe linings.
+
+=Eolienne= is the name applied to a fine dress fabric characterized by
+having the filling of a much coarser count than the warp, thus
+producing a corded effect across the breadth of the goods. This class
+of goods is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or worsted
+filling, with the warp ends per inch greatly in excess of picks per
+inch. The goods are made up in gray, then dyed in the piece in any
+color the trade desires. The darker shades find most favor for fall
+and winter use, while the lighter shades are preferred for summer
+wear. The width is from twenty-seven to fifty inches, and the price
+per yard varies from 85 cents to $1.25.
+
+=Etamine.= An etamine is a thin, glossy fabric used principally for
+women's dress goods. Being a common and popular material for summer
+wear, it is usually made as a piece-dyed fabric. A good reason for
+making it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than if the
+yarn is dyed previous to the weaving. Etamines were originally made
+with worsted yarns, which of course are more expensive; however, if a
+good quality of cotton is used, there is little difference in
+appearance between worsted and cotton etamine. The difference is
+chiefly in the wearing quality, worsted being more durable. The
+principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp, glossy, and open
+structure.
+
+=Flannelette= is a narrow, light-weight fabric composed of all cotton
+yarn, the filling being soft spun to permit of the raising of a very
+slight nap on the back of the goods. The cloth is woven with bleached
+yarn (warp and filling), the color effects being afterwards printed
+upon the face of the goods by the printing machine. Flannelette is
+made with simple one or two colored stripe patterns, either black and
+white or indigo blue and white, and in imitation of a Jacquard
+pattern. The finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight
+cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard, are twenty-seven inches
+wide, and are used very extensively in the manufacture of ladies'
+wrappers, kimonos, etc., for house wear.
+
+=Fustian.= A corded fabric made on the order of corduroy and used in
+England for trouserings, etc. First made at Fustat, a town on the
+Nile, near Cairo. Velveteen and cordings in the lower, coarser grades
+were sometimes called Fustian.
+
+=Galatea Cloth.= Galatea cloth has been somewhat in demand in recent
+years by women requiring serviceable and neat-appearing cotton fabrics
+at a medium price. It is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide and
+retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard. It is shown in
+plain colors as well as in figures, and in dotted and striped designs
+on white and colored grounds. The patterns are obtained by printing.
+Some manufacturers have found that they can take a standard type of
+fabric and extend its use by varying the process of finishing. The
+base of the cloth--that is, the fabric previous to dyeing or printing
+or bleaching--is nothing more than an ordinary 5-end warp sateen of
+fair quality.
+
+=Gauze.= A veiling net, made in Gaza in Palestine.
+
+=Gingham.= Gingham is a single cloth composed entirely of cotton, and
+always woven with a plain weave. It is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks
+and was originally of Indian make. It is the most widely known fabric
+on the market and is made in various grades, having from fifty to
+seventy-six ends per inch in the reed, and of 1/26's to 1/40's cotton
+yarns in both warp and filling. It is a wash fabric, made in both
+check and plaid patterns into which an almost unlimited variety of
+color combinations are introduced. Ginghams are made with from two
+colors, warp and filling, to eight colors in warp and six in filling.
+Ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture of ladies' and
+children's summer dresses and aprons.
+
+=Italian Cloth= is a light, glossy fabric made from cotton and
+worsted, cotton and wool, cotton and mohair, and all cotton. It is
+used for linings for the heavier styles of ladies' dresses, also for
+underskirts, fancy pillow backs, etc. The cloth is woven in the gray
+undyed yarns. In the finer grades the warp is sized so as to
+facilitate the weaving process.
+
+=Jaconet.= A thin cotton fabric, heavier than cambric. If properly
+made one side is glazed. Derived from the French word _jaconas_.
+
+=Khaki.= Twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color, first used for
+men's clothing in India. The word _khaki_ is Indian for earth, or
+dust-colored.
+
+=Lawn.= Lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash fabric, weighing from
+one and one fourth to two and one fourth ounces per yard, and in
+widths from thirty-six to forty inches finished. It is composed of all
+cotton yarns (bleached) from 1/40's to 1/100's, and is always woven
+with a plain weave, one up, one down. The name is from Laon, a place
+near Rheims, France, where lawn was extensively made. Plain lawn is
+made of solid white or bleached yarn in both warp and filling. The
+fancier grades, or those having color effects, are produced by
+printing vines, floral stripes, small flowers, etc., in bright colors
+in scattered effects on the face of the goods. The patterns are always
+printed, never woven. Lawn, when finished, should have a soft, smooth
+feel. Therefore the finishing process includes brushing, very light
+starching or sizing, then calendering or pressing. Lawns have to be
+handled carefully in the bleaching process, starched with an ordinary
+starch mangle (the sizing containing a little blueing), finished on
+the Stenter machine, and dried with hot air. Lawns are often tinted
+light shades of blue, pink, cream, pearl, green, and other light
+tints, with the direct colors added to the starch. It is used
+principally in the manufacture of ladies' and children's summer
+dresses, sash curtains, etc.
+
+=Lingerie.= This relates to all sorts of ladies' and children's
+undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts, infants' short dresses,
+chemises, night robes, drawers, corset covers, etc.
+
+=Linon= is a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well known for its
+excellent wearing and washing qualities. It is made from combed cotton
+yarns of long-stapled stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine
+linen fabrics. The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.
+
+=Long Cloth= is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality, made with a
+fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. Originally the fabric was
+manufactured in England, and subsequently imitated in the United
+States. The fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which it
+derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to some extent
+resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and cambric. It is
+distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave, and
+when finished the fabric possesses a whiter appearance, due to the
+closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used
+as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appearance, which
+is similar in all respects to fabrics which we have been accustomed to
+see used solely for lingerie, nightgowns, etc.
+
+=Madras= is a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed of all cotton
+or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing qualities. It was at
+first a light-colored checked or striped plain-faced cotton-silk
+fabric, made in Madras, India, for sailors' head-dress. It is
+twenty-seven inches wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from
+two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons of the year.
+It is used by ladies for summer skirts, shirtwaists, suits, etc., and
+by men in shirts. It is known by the white and colored narrow-stripe
+warp effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from 1/26 to 1/80
+warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends per inch. The
+utility of madras for nearly all classes of people permits the
+greatest scope in creating both harmonious and contrasting color and
+weave combinations.
+
+The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and delicate shades
+of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender, and bright red; for
+prominent hair-line effects black, navy blue, dark green, royal blue,
+and cherry red. Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric.
+If inferior colors are used, they will surely spread during the
+finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe where a distinct
+one was intended.
+
+=Moreen.= Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton cloth, with worsted
+or moire face. The making of moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth
+is placed in a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This
+finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the layers sheets
+of manila paper; the contents of the trough are then saturated with
+water; a heavy weighted roller is then passed over the wetted paper
+and cloth, the movement of the roller giving the cloth a watered face.
+It can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking of moreen is
+different on every piece. Moreen was at first made for upholstery and
+drapery use. It was found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so
+was taken up for underskirts. The name is from the French _moire_,
+meaning watering.
+
+=Mull.= A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made first in India,
+later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo is _mal_, meaning soft,
+pliable.
+
+=Mummy.= A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Originally the winding
+cloth of the Egyptian mummified dead.
+
+=Muslin.= A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally made in Mosul,
+a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.
+
+=Nainsook.= Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized for various
+purposes, such as infants' clothes, women's dress goods, lingerie,
+half curtains, etc. The striped and plaid nainsook are used for the
+same purposes. When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants'
+clothes the English fabric is selected because of its softness. When
+intended for dress or curtain fabric, the French-finished fabric is
+chosen. The latter finish consists of slightly stiffening and
+calendering the cloth. The fabric may be distinguished from fine
+lawns, fine batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not as
+firm construction or as much body, and the finish is not as smooth or
+as stiff, but inclines to softness, as the fabric has not the body to
+retain the finishing material.
+
+=Organdie.= An organdie may be defined as a fine, translucent muslin
+used exclusively for dress goods. The fabric is made in a variety of
+qualities as regards the counts of yarn used, and in a variety of
+widths ranging from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is
+popular in pure white, although considerable quantities are dyed in
+the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while the figured organdies
+are usually bleached pure white, then printed with small floral
+designs. The printed design is in from two to four colors, and in
+delicate shades in conformity with the material. Organdie considered
+in relation to cost as wearing material is rather expensive. The
+reason for this is that it has a finish peculiar to itself, so that
+when washed it does not have the same appearance as before. It loses
+its crisp feeling altogether.
+
+=Osnaburg.= A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in America of cotton,
+in checks or plaids, and used for furniture covering and mattress
+making. The town of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.
+
+=Percale.= Percale is a closely woven fabric made with a good quality
+of cotton yarn. The finer qualities are used for handkerchiefs,
+aprons, etc., and when used for these purposes are not printed, but
+bleached after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly used
+for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is generally printed
+on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, although other
+colors may be seen. The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to
+the printing operations.
+
+=Percaline.= Percaline is a highly finished and dressed percale. The
+first process to which the cloth is subjected is to boil it off, that
+is, to soak it in boiling water so as to relieve it from foreign
+matter that it may have gathered during the weaving, and at the same
+time to prepare it for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it,
+and also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it is ready
+for the calender. In order to give it the highest gloss the cloth is
+doubled lengthwise or the pieces are put together back to back, and as
+it passes through the rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well
+heated and tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for
+feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petticoats, etc.
+These purposes require that the cloth shall be solid color, the darker
+colors being preferred, as blue, green, and black. Sometimes it is
+seen in lighter shades of brown and tan. The most attention is given
+to the finishing process.
+
+=Pique.= Pique is a heavy cotton material woven in corded or figured
+effects. The goods are used for such purposes as ladies' tailor-made
+suits, vestings, shirt fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It
+was originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate quilting.
+The name is French for quilting. The plainest and most common fabrics
+of pique are those in which the pattern consists of straight cords
+extending across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the
+construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp are required,
+and the cords are produced by all the back warp threads being raised
+at intervals of six, eight, or more picks over two or more picks of
+the face cloth, which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of
+the fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors are ever
+used. The face warp threads are generally finer than the back warp
+threads, and are in the proportion of two threads for the face and one
+thread for the back. On the heavier and better grades of pique coarse
+picks called wadding are used to increase the weight, and also to give
+more prominence to the cord effect. They are introduced between the
+face and back cloths. In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any
+wadding nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp threads
+float on the back of the fabric except when raising over the face
+picks to form the cord. In the figured pique the binding of the back
+warp threads into the face cloth is not done in straight lines as in
+plain pique, but the binding points are introduced so as to form
+figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and the figures are
+purely the result of binding the face and back cloths together.
+
+=Poplin.= Poplin or popeline is a name given to a class of goods
+distinguished by a rib or cord effect running width way of the piece.
+It referred originally to a fabric having a silk warp and a figure of
+wool filling heavier than the warp. At the present time it refers more
+to a ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular combination of
+materials. Cotton poplin is usually made with a plain weave, the rep
+effect being obtained either by using a fine warp as compared with the
+filling, or a large number of ends as compared with picks per inch on
+both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of poplin, sometimes
+called single poplin, and is celebrated for its uniformly fine and
+excellent wearing qualities. It is principally made in Dublin.
+
+=Plumetis.= Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having raised dots or figures
+in relief on plain ground. The design shows a feathery effect, as in
+embroidery tambour. The name is French for this kind of embroidery,
+and is derived from _plume_, French for feather.
+
+=Rep.= A fabric having a surface of a cord-like appearance. The name
+is probably corrupted from rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and
+skirts.
+
+=Sateen.= Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished to imitate
+silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp sateen and filling sateen.
+
+=Scrim.= Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains and linings.
+The name is from scrimp, referring to economy in weaving.
+
+=Silesia= is a light-weight single cloth fabric, having a rather high
+texture, and weighing about three ounces per yard. It is composed of
+all cotton yarn, and is used principally as a lining for ladies' and
+men's clothing. Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is
+dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue, brown, drab,
+slate, steel, etc. An important feature is the highly glazed or
+polished face of the goods, which is due to the action of the heated
+roller in the calendering machine upon the sizing.
+
+=Souffle.= The largest designs of crepon show a raised or puffed
+appearance. Souffle is from the French and means puffed.
+
+=Swiss.= From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net and figured
+cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall district.
+
+=Tape.= Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of cotton or linen
+yarns in warp and filling, and usually made with a point or broken
+twill weave, the break in the weave occurring in the center of the
+tape, and the twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction.
+It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing, also as a
+binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by the roll, each roll
+containing a certain number of yards. It is made of all bleached and
+of regular yarns about 1/26's to 1/30's and 1/40's cotton.
+
+=Tarletan.= An open mesh of coarse cotton, used mostly in fruit
+packing, sometimes for dress and drapery. The name is from
+_tarlantanna_, Milanese for coarse weave of linen and wool.
+
+=Terry Cloth or Turkish Toweling= is a cotton pile fabric. It is woven
+in such a way as to permit the forming of a series of loops on each
+side of the cloth in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece
+is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods are dried on
+a tenter frame, given a light starching to add weight, run through a
+rubber rolled mangle and again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is
+used in the manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turkish
+toweling is the original terry. The name is from the French _tirer_,
+to draw or pull.
+
+=Zephyr Gingham= is the finest grade of gingham made and is a
+light-weight cotton fabric, composed of 1/40's to 1/60's cotton warp
+and filling yarns. It is woven with either the plain weave or a small
+all-over dobby effect. It is made in attractive patterns by using good
+fast colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent wearing
+qualities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] This information is from the leading authority, "The Cotton
+Fabrics Glossary," published by the _American Wool and Cotton
+Reporter_, Boston, Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness
+of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.
+
+[17] 1/12's cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12's. 2/12's cotton
+signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12's twisted together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FLAX
+
+
+=Flax.= Flax or linen occupies the first position in the group of stem
+fibers,[18] being not only the oldest, but next to cotton the most
+important vegetable spinning material known. Its value is increased by
+the fact that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various
+conditions of soil and climate, and in consequence has gained access
+to northerly districts and cool highlands. Although flax has lost some
+of its importance from the successful competition of cotton,
+nevertheless it still forms one of the chief articles of an industry
+which merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and proves
+highly profitable.
+
+=The Physical Structure of Flax.= Flax, when seen under the
+microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube of uniform thickness,
+with lumina so small as to be visible only as straight black lines
+lengthwise of the fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse
+cracks. It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies from
+pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. The difference in color
+is due chiefly to the process of "retting." Its average length is
+about twenty inches, and its tensile strength is superior to that of
+cotton. It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the standard
+allowance made.
+
+Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn, twist, string
+fabric, and lace. In its composition it is almost purely an
+unlignified cellulose, and its specific gravity is 1.5.
+
+Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence linen goods
+always feel colder than cotton goods.
+
+Russia produces more than one-half the world's supply of flax, but
+that from Belgium and Ireland is of the best quality. Italy, France,
+Holland, and Egypt are other important producers. The plant is an
+annual, of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is ripe,
+the proper time being indicated by the changing of the color from
+green to brown. At the time of gathering the whole plant is uprooted,
+dried on the ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate
+the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.
+
+The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the stalk. To separate
+this valuable commercial product from the woody matter the stalks are
+first subjected to a process termed retting, which is steeping them in
+water until they are quite soft. Then follow the mechanical processes
+to further the production of the fiber and free it from all useless
+matter.
+
+These are as follows:
+
+1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breaking the woody matter
+with the aid of mallets or in stamping mills.
+
+2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a series of horizontal
+rollers to break further the woody matter and at the same time
+separate the greater part of it from the fiber.
+
+3. Scutching. The object of this process is to remove completely the
+woody matter, and it is done by means of rapidly revolving wooden arms
+or blades, which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently
+cleaned and separated.
+
+4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through iron combs which still
+further open the fiber. Fineness of fiber depends upon the number of
+times it is hackled, each time with a finer and finer instrument,
+which secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the fibers
+are sorted and classified as to length and quality and laid in
+parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture into linen.
+
+[Illustration: PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA]
+
+=Bleaching.= Linen is bleached in the form of yarn, thread, and
+cloth. This is a difficult and long process owing to the large amount
+of natural impurities present in flax fiber, and the difficulty of
+removing or dissolving them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by
+chemical processes, and when chemicals are used great care must be
+taken about their strength and about the time the cloth is allowed to
+remain in them. In olden times sour buttermilk was applied to linen
+and rubbed in, and then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and
+rain. "Unbleached" linen is treated in the same way as bleached, only
+the process is not carried to such an extent. In Ireland, famous for
+its bleaching, chemicals are used in the earlier stages of this
+process, and then fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve
+their color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals used. After
+bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched, and put through heavy
+machines to give it a glossy finish, and it is then made up in pieces
+for sale.
+
+=Characteristics of Good Linen.= Linen is noted for its smoothness of
+texture, its brilliancy--which laundering increases--its wearing
+qualities, and its exquisite freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is
+the most valuable staple in the market, and on account of its fineness
+and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains an
+unapproachable excellence because the best processes are used
+throughout the entire manufacture. Linen is less elastic and pliable
+than cotton and bleaches and dyes readily.
+
+Flax from all countries is woven into table linen, though very fine
+linen must have carefully prepared fiber. Linen should be soft,
+yielding, and elastic, with almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen
+does not always determine good wearing qualities.
+
+Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00. Irish linen has a
+good bleach. French and Belgian linens, while fine in thread, are not
+as serviceable as Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but
+not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now used more than
+other kinds.
+
+[Illustration: STACKS OF FLAX IN BELGIUM
+
+Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.]
+
+
+_Sources of Flax_
+
+  Russia,
+  Holland,
+  Belgium,
+  Germany,
+  Ireland,
+  Canada,
+  U. S. (for seed only).
+
+
+_Sources of Manufactured Linens_
+
+  Scotland,
+  Ireland,
+  Germany,
+  Austria,
+  Belgium,
+  France,
+  Russia,
+  United States.
+
+
+MANUFACTURED LINENS
+
+  _Damasks and Napkins_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    Belgium.
+
+  _Towelings_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    United States,
+    Russia.
+
+  _Glass Checks_
+    Ireland.
+
+  _Canvas_
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland.
+
+  _Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces_
+    Ireland,
+    Germany,
+    France.
+
+  _Towels_
+    Germany,
+    Scotland,
+    Ireland,
+    Austria,
+    U. S. (union).
+
+  _Linen Sheetings_
+    Ireland,
+    Belgium,
+    France,
+    Scotland.
+
+  _Blouse or Dress Linens_
+    Ireland,
+    Scotland.
+
+  _Bleached Waist Linens_
+    Ireland,
+    France,
+    Belgium.
+
+  _Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc._
+    Germany,
+    France,
+    Japan,
+    Madeira Islands,
+    Island of Teneriffe.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[18] The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers,
+and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be
+taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are
+severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and
+forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HEMP
+
+
+[Illustration: LOADING HEMP IN MANILA]
+
+=Hemp= is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant. It grows
+principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy, Asia, India, the
+Philippines, Japan, and some parts of the United States--Kentucky,
+Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country
+of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that part near the
+Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment is similar to that for the flax
+plant, except that most of the work is done by machinery. Considered
+chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains a
+considerable amount of woody matter, differing in this respect from
+cotton. Its properties are color (pearl gray, with green or yellow
+tints), fineness (which depends upon the quality of the hemp; it is
+usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile strength (which is
+considerable and greater than that of flax). Its best qualities are
+its slight luster and its ability to resist to a great extent the
+tendency to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is difficult to
+bleach, it is used chiefly in making string, cord, ropes, etc.
+
+=Sisal Hemp.= Sisal hemp is a variety that grows extensively in
+Central America and the West Indies. The plant, the _agava rigida_, is
+similar to what is known in this country as the century plant. The
+fiber is found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks. The
+common hemp on the other hand is found closely surrounding the woody
+part of the stem. The fiber of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away
+the fleshy part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by machines.
+
+=Manila Hemp.= Manila hemp is obtained in the Philippines. The plant
+belongs to the banana family and grows as large as a small tree. The
+hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the trunk
+of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but stronger than
+Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp is the strongest; that of
+Italian hemp the finest.
+
+[Illustration: FIELD OF SISAL HEMP]
+
+=Jute.= Jute is the name given to the fibers found in certain plants
+which grow principally in India, and the East Indian Islands. The
+common jute comes principally from the province of Bengal, India,
+where it was first known to science in 1725. The term jute was first
+applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The plant is cut just
+about the time when it appears in full flower. The stalks are then
+bundled and retted by steeping in pools of stagnant water.
+
+Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable fibers in the
+manufacturing scale, being inferior to cotton and flax. Hemp is
+stronger than jute. Jute becomes weak when exposed to dampness.
+
+It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton, flax, hemp, and
+woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties are made into coarse
+fabrics--sacks, packing cloth, etc., while the finer varieties, in
+which the undesirable quality of growing darker with age is less
+apparent, are used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes,
+for which they are very suitable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SILK
+
+
+=Silk.= The silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of several
+species of insects. These insects resemble strongly the ordinary
+caterpillars. At a certain period of its existence the silkworm gives
+off a secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on exposure to
+the air as the worm forces it out and winds it about its body.
+
+[Illustration: MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS]
+
+It takes about three days for the worm to form the cocoon. After the
+cocoon has been formed the silkworm passes from the form of a
+caterpillar into a moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and
+flies away. It is very important that the moth should not be allowed
+to escape from the cocoon; the mere breaking of the cocoon greatly
+decreases the value of the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing
+the chrysalis by heat.
+
+There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but few of them
+secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render them of commercial
+value. The principal species is the mulberry silkworm which produces
+most of the silk in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry
+leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are not capable of
+being cultivated and are called wild silkworms. The silk produced by
+the wild worms of China and India is called "tussah" (or "tussur").
+The silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms and is
+used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet, plush, etc.
+
+The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of the European cocoons
+are bright yellow, though some are white. The Eastern cocoons, on the
+other hand, are mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks
+are for the most part ecru color, though some are pale green. The
+color, except in the wild silks, is derived from the gum which is
+secreted by the worm, and with which the fibers are stuck together.
+This gum comprises from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is removed
+by boiling in soap and water before the silk is dyed. All silks except
+the wild silks, after the gum is removed, are from white to cream in
+color. The tussah, or wild silks, remain an ecru color.
+
+[Illustration: REELING RAW SILK]
+
+The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in the care of the
+moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons--this being the succession of
+changes. That is, the moth lays eggs which are collected and kept cool
+till the proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm during
+the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about the person of the
+raiser. After a time these eggs hatch out worms, tiny things hardly
+larger than the head of a pin. After the worms are hatched they
+require constant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves till
+they reach maturity. They are then about three inches in length, and
+spin their cocoons from a fiber and gum which they secrete. When the
+cocoons are spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them. The
+cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises killed, generally by
+heat, before they can again become moths.
+
+=Raw Silk.= The cocoons are next sent to the reelers or filatures. A
+number of cocoons, greater or less, according to the size of thread
+desired, are placed in a basin of hot water, which softens the gum.
+After the outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free, the
+ends are collected through a guide and are wound upon a reel. As the
+silk cools and dries, the gum hardens, sticking the fibers from the
+different cocoons together in one smooth thread varying in size
+according to the number of cocoons used. After the silk has been
+reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks and sent to America and
+other countries as raw silk.
+
+Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in China, Japan, and
+Italy. It is also produced to a large extent in Italy, Turkey, and
+Greece, also France and Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only
+carried on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government to
+the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.
+
+Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms in the United
+States. All have failed on account of the high price of labor
+necessary to feed the worms.
+
+=Throwing.= The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk.
+We import our raw silk chiefly from Italy, China, and Japan. It is
+handled here first by the "throwster," who winds it from the skein and
+makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.
+
+Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and called singles is
+often used to make warps (that is, the threads running lengthwise of a
+piece of cloth) for piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the
+gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed. Singles are also
+sometimes used for filling (that is, cross threads) in very thin
+fabrics.
+
+Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two kinds, "tram"
+and "organzine." Tram silk is made by twisting two or more loosely
+twisted threads. It is heavier than organzine and is used for filling.
+Organzine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly twisted
+threads. It is used for warp. Crepe yarn is used in making crepe,
+chiffon, and for other purposes. It is very hard twisted thread,
+generally tram, from forty to eighty turns per inch.
+
+Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk, putting a large
+number of ends together, giving them a slack twist, then doubling and
+twisting in the reverse direction with a slack twist.
+
+Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the raw product, then
+twisting into tram, giving it a slack twist, doubling and twisting in
+the reverse direction under tension. Machine twist is similar, but
+three ply.
+
+The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin, plush, chenille,
+crepe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade, pongee, and ribbons. Silk
+thread and cord are also extensively used. The United States is among
+the leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.
+
+=Silk Waste.= When the cocoons are softened for reeling a certain
+portion of the silk is found to consist of waste and broken threads.
+The tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss. The
+residue after reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as
+frisonnets. Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack twisted
+tram, generally composed of a large number of threads of singles.
+
+=Spun Silk.= There is another class of threads made from waste silk by
+spinning and known as spun silk. Waste silks include the pierced
+cocoons, that is, those from which the moth has come out by making the
+hole and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the waste made
+in the filatures in producing raw or reeled silk, chiefly the outside
+fiber of the cocoon and the inside next the chrysalis; and also the
+waste made in manufacture. The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the
+gum is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by macerating or
+retting, or by chemical reagents.
+
+After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are opened and combed,
+most of the chrysalis shell being removed. The remainder, with other
+foreign matter, is picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk
+is put through a number of drawing frames to get the fibers even on
+the roving frames, where it first takes the form of thread, then on
+the spinning frames, where it is twisted. If it is to be used as
+singles, the manufacture ends here. In two- or three-ply yarns, the
+singles are doubled, twisted again, singed by running through a gas
+flame, cleaned by friction, controlled, that is, the knots and lumps
+taken out, and then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.
+
+=Spun Numbers.= There are two methods in general use for numbering
+spun silk. In the French system, the number is based on the singles,
+by the meters per kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half,
+one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate. Thus--
+
+  No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.
+  No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.
+  No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.
+
+The other system which is more generally used in this country, is the
+English system. The hank is 840 yards, and the number of hanks in one
+pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. It is based on the
+finished yarn, and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number
+all have the same yards per pound. Thus--
+
+  No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.
+  No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.
+  No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.
+
+=Dyeing Yarns.= Generally speaking there are two large classes into
+which silk goods may be divided, those in which the threads are
+colored before weaving and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or
+printed after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods. In
+dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned by boiling in
+soap and water, then washed in cold water. If the thread is to be
+weighted, as is frequently done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy
+material is deposited on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious,
+making the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more weighting
+than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hot liquors, aniline colors
+being the ones in most common use to-day, though other dyes are used
+for special purposes. Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some with a
+part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are washed in cold water,
+dried, and wound on spools.
+
+=Silk Dyeing.= Silk occupies in several respects an intermediate
+position between the animal and vegetable fibers. Like wool, it is a
+highly nitrogenous body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up
+many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable fiber by the aid
+of the mordants. This is particularly the case with reference to a
+large number of aniline colors, which require merely to be dissolved
+and mixed with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great
+attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing
+exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and especially black,
+are in many cases exceedingly complex, the main object of the dyer
+being not so much to color the silk as to increase its weight.
+
+Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most important branch of
+silk dyeing, and it has probably received more attention than any
+other branch, in consequence of which it has been brought to a high
+degree of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from natural
+and artificial coloring matters, the former having, so far, retained
+their pre-eminence despite the recent discoveries of chemists. For
+various reasons coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing
+black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood blacks have
+formed the staple of the black-silk dyer, who has carried their
+production to a high degree of excellence. But unfortunately, besides
+aiming at a high state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation,
+the black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight of the
+dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him to receive ten
+pounds of raw silk and to send out fifty pounds of black silk, the
+extra forty pounds being additions made in the process of dyeing.
+
+[Illustration: WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS]
+
+Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of alternate dippings
+in separate baths with the mordant and dyestuffs suitable for
+producing the required color and weight. The number of dippings and
+the length of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity of
+the black wanted and the amount of weighting which is desired. The
+chief substances used for weighting are lead salts, catechu, iron, and
+nut-galls, with soap and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of
+the fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of the
+operations are practically the same for all kinds of logwood blacks
+(raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.), the method for producing one
+will suffice for all. The process involves several distinct
+operations, as follows:
+
+1. =The Boiling Off.= This is the removal of the gum and natural
+coloring matter in the silk. It is accomplished by boiling the skeins
+of silk in water and good olive oil soap for about one hour. This
+dissolves the gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.
+
+2. =Mordanting.= This is done in a bath of nitrate of iron, in which
+the skeins of silk are allowed to remain one hour. The silk gains some
+in weight in this operation by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the
+bath. After having been dipped in the first bath three or four times,
+it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which it is repeatedly
+immersed, the operation causing a deposit of iron-soap on the fiber
+which adds to its weight, but at the same time does not lessen its
+flexibility and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap bath
+increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.
+
+3. =Blue Bottoming.= The next operation is to dye the silk blue, which
+is done by immersing it in a solution of potash. In this it is worked
+for half an hour, when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then
+taken out, and after rinsing is ready for the "weighting" operations.
+
+4. ="Weighting" Bath.= A catechu bath is now prepared, in which the
+silk is entered and worked for an hour, and then allowed to steep over
+night. The result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and the
+goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase in weight from
+35 to 40 per cent. This bath is the most important one in the dyeing
+of "weighted" black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of
+the bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase the weight
+of the silk to an astonishing degree. The proportion of tin crystals
+used is regulated by the number of iron baths that have previously
+been given the silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent
+of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and so on. The
+action of these chemicals is somewhat complex. All that is known is
+that by reason of some peculiar quality possessed by silk it is
+enabled to combine with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air
+after the baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers,
+thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent. Silk,
+according to its quality and weight, will take up of these substances
+from 50 to 200 per cent without creating much suspicion. Instances
+have been known in which silk has been increased nine times its own
+weight. All the operations thus far have had for their object the
+weighting of the silk, although the blueing and the catechu baths have
+some influence on the finished result. After these come the dyeing
+operations proper, two in number, mordanting and dyeing.
+
+5. =Mordanting.= A bath of iron liquor heated to 130 degrees F. is
+provided. The silk is entered, worked well for one hour, then wrung
+out and hung up to "age" for two hours, after which it is ready for
+the logwood dye.
+
+6. =Dyeing.= A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to which is added 10
+per cent of fustic, and the solution is brought to a temperature of
+150 degrees F. In this the silk is entered and worked for an hour,
+then taken out and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come up
+full enough, and in such cases the bath is repeated.
+
+7. The final operation has for its object the restoration of the
+luster and suppleness of the silk, which has to some extent
+deteriorated from the many operations through which it has passed. The
+brightening and softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the
+silk in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In this the
+silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated with the oil, when
+it is taken out and wrung dry, after which it is ready for the loom.
+Practically the same process is followed in piece dyeing, though only
+inferior grades of silk are dyed in the web.
+
+=Colored Silks.= This class of silks is generally purer than black and
+sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so easy to weight the former as
+the latter, for the reason that there are but few substances capable
+of giving weight which do not interfere with the effect of light
+colored dyes. The weighting agents most generally used are sugar and
+acetate of lead. The weighting by sugar is done after the silk is
+dyed. A solution is made of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large
+copper pan with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath the
+silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and finished; or, the
+dipping process may be repeated several times if desired. One dipping
+will weight the silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and
+three about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each
+dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these may be
+repeated as often as it is wished. In this case the weighting is
+generally done on the undyed, boiled-off silk, although it may be done
+on the dyed silk if the color is such as will stand the acid.
+
+=Mixed Silk Fabrics.= Until lately silk was invariably dyed in the
+state of yarn. When the silk was to be woven into mixed fabrics, such
+as satin, gloria, etc., it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly
+the same shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the cotton and
+silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken to match them as closely
+as possible. The weaving of dyed yarns of different fibers is open to
+the objection that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a
+wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they may have
+matched in the beginning.
+
+=Ribbons.= Ribbons are woven several pieces in one loom, with a
+separate shuttle for each piece. The shuttle is carried through the
+shed or warp by a rack and pinion, instead of being thrown through as
+in broad goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.
+
+=Velvets.= Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven in two pieces,
+one over the other, with the pile threads woven back and forth between
+them. A knife travels between the two pieces cutting the pile threads
+so as to leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to be woven
+over wires and cut by hand, but this method is practically obsolete.
+
+=Piece Dyeing.= If the goods are woven with the gum still in the silk,
+it must be taken out afterward, and the goods either dyed in the piece
+or prepared for printing.
+
+=Printing.= The most primitive method of printing is by the use of
+stencils. It is the method employed by the Japanese and Chinese. Next
+came block printing, which is still extensively used in Europe. The
+pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color taken up from
+pads, one block for each color. The results are good, but the work is
+very slow. Most silk goods are to-day machine printed. The design is
+engraved or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for each color;
+the color thickened with gum is supplied by rolls running against the
+cylinders, and the surplus is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving
+only that in the engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After
+printing, the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then washed in
+order to remove the gum used to thicken the colors for printing.
+
+[Illustration: JACQUARD SILK LOOM]
+
+=Finishing.= All silk goods, whether yarn dyed or piece dyed or
+printed, are given some kind of finish; sometimes it is no more than
+is necessary to smooth out the wrinkles. There are many finishing
+processes by which goods may be treated. They are run through gas
+flames to singe off loose fiber, and over steam cylinders to dry and
+straighten them, over a great variety of sizing machines to stiffen
+them with starch or glue. There are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth
+and iron them, steam presses of great power to press them out,
+breaking and rubbing machines to soften them, and tentering machines
+to stretch them to uniform width. There are also moireing or watering,
+embossing, and various other machines for special purposes.
+
+=Waterproofing.= One of the worst difficulties with which the
+manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk goods has to contend is
+the ease with which they become spotted with water, and for a number
+of years many people have tried to prevent this by various processes.
+There are no less than two hundred such processes patented. None of
+them have met with much success, as they injured the feel or strength
+of the goods. After goods are finished they are carefully inspected
+for imperfections, measured, and wrapped in paper and packed in cases
+for shipment. The complexity and number of processes for treating silk
+goods may be realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed fabric
+is handled its entire length between fifty and one hundred times after
+it comes from the loom, sometimes even more.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS
+
+
+=Alma.= Cloth, double twilled from left to right diagonally, first
+made in black only as a mourning fabric. The name is from the
+Egyptian, as applied to a mourner or a singer at a funeral.
+
+=Barege.= Sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling, named from the
+town of Bareges, in France.
+
+=Bengaline.= An imitation of an old silk fabric made for many
+centuries in Bengal, India, whence the name. The weave is similar to
+that of ordinary rep or poplin, being a simple round-corded effect.
+The cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen weft which is
+so closely covered by the silk warp threads that it is not exposed
+when examined from the wrong side. The same weave is also found in
+all-silk goods, under the designation of all-silk bengaline. When
+cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool the fabric is
+known as cotton bengaline, although the cotton is in the filling only.
+
+=Berber.= Satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth. It came into favor
+about the time of the defeat of the Berbers by General Gordon in his
+campaign against the Mahdi in North Africa.
+
+=Brocade.= Raised figures on a plain ground.
+
+=Brocatel.= A kind of brocade used for draperies and upholstery;
+usually raised wool figures on a silk ground.
+
+=Bombazine.= Silk warp, wool weft, fine twilled cloth; originally made
+in black only for mourning. It is used largely for mourning hat bands.
+The root of the name is _bombyx_, the Latin for silkworm.
+
+=Chenille.= Cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face; woven of cotton, silk, or
+wool; used sometimes for dress goods; more generally for curtains and
+table covers. _Chenille_ is the French word for caterpillar, which the
+single thread of the cloth resembles.
+
+=Chiffon.= A thin, transparent silk muslin. Although one of the
+thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics, it is relatively strong
+considering its lightness. To convey an idea of the fineness of the
+thread used in its manufacture, it is stated that one pound of it will
+extend a distance of eight miles. In the process of finishing the
+fabric receives a dressing of pure "size." There are two styles of
+finish, called respectively the demi- or half size and the full size.
+Chiffon finished by full sizing is comparatively stiff; while the
+demi-finish produces a softer and lighter texture. It is dyed in a
+great variety of colors, and sometimes is printed in delicate
+patterns. It is especially adapted for home and evening wear, and is
+used for neck and sleeve trimming, drapery over silk foundations,
+fancy work, and millinery.
+
+=China Silk.= A term applied to plain woven silks manufactured in
+China. The term China silk has been adopted in the United States in
+recent years for a class of machine-woven silks made in imitation of
+the hand-loom product. These imitations are narrow in width and lack
+the soft, lustrous quality of Eastern fabrics, and are also free from
+the uneven threads. China silks are distinguished by their irregular
+threads, caused by some of the threads being heavier than others, and
+their extreme softness.
+
+The warp and filling are identical in size and color, and being woven
+evenly produce a beautiful natural luster. It is generally plain
+color, although the figured goods are printed in much the same manner
+as calico. It is used for gowns, waists, underclothing, etc. It
+launders as well as white cotton.
+
+=Crepe.= A thin, gauzy fabric, woven in loose even threads of silk,
+heavily sized or gummed, crimped or creped in the dyeing. Crepe was
+first used in black only as a badge of mourning. It is now an accepted
+dress fabric, made in colors and white and of many materials. The name
+signifies to crimp or crepe with a hot iron.
+
+=Crepe de Chine.= A soft, lustrous silk crepe, the surface of which is
+smoother than that of the ordinary varieties. It is woven as a plain
+weave with part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest left
+twisted. It is dyed almost any color and figured or printed.
+
+=Eolienne.= Sheer cloth of silk, silk and wool, or silk and cotton,
+woven in fine card effect. The name comes from the Greek AEolus, god of
+the winds.
+
+=Foulard.= Plain silk cloth, sold as dress goods; originally made for
+handkerchiefs only. The name is French for silk handkerchief.
+
+=Glace.= Plain, lustrous silk, yarn dyed, with warp of one color, and
+weft of another. The name is applied to all fabrics having two tones.
+Glace is French for icy, having an icy appearance.
+
+=India Silk.= A name applied to the plain woven silks manufactured in
+India on the primitive hand looms. The warp and weft are woven evenly
+and produce a beautiful natural luster. It is similar to China and
+Japanese silk. In fact most of these fabrics come from China and
+Japan, India silk being almost unknown in this country as so little of
+it is exported. The durability of these silks is about the same, and
+there is little difference in the prices.
+
+=Japanese Silk.= A term applied to the plain woven silk manufactured
+in Japan. The warp and filling of this fabric are identical in size
+and color, and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster.
+The weave is smooth and soft in quality. It is dyed in plain colors.
+The figured goods are printed in much the same way as calico. It is
+used for waists, gowns, and fancy underwear.
+
+=Jersey Cloth.= Silk jersey cloth is popular at present. It is a
+knitted silk fabric, not woven, and is generally dyed in plain colors.
+It is expensive and is used for women's dresses, wraps, and silk
+gloves.
+
+=Meteor.= Crepe de meteor was originally a trade name for crepe de
+chine, but now applied to a fabric which is distinguishable from crepe
+de chine.
+
+=Moire.= Moire is a waved or watered effect produced upon the surface
+of various kinds of textile fabrics, especially on grosgrain silk and
+woolen moreen. This watered effect is produced by the use of engraved
+rollers and high pressure on carded material. The object of developing
+upon woven textiles the effect known as moire is the production of a
+peculiar luster resulting from the divergent reflection of the light
+rays on the material, a divergence brought about by compressing and
+flattening the warp and filling threads in places, and so producing a
+surface the different parts of which reflect the light differently.
+The moire effect may be obtained on silk, worsted, or cotton fabrics,
+though it is impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine
+corded weave. The pressure applied to the material being uneven, the
+grained surface is flattened in the parts desired. In the Middle Ages
+moire was held in high esteem, and continues to enjoy that distinction
+down to the present day. It is used for women's dresses, capes, and
+for facings, trimmings, etc.
+
+=Mozambique.= Grenadines, with large colored flower designs in relief.
+
+=Organzine.= Silk fabric, made with warp and filling of the same size.
+Organzine is the name given the twisted silk thread in Italy, where it
+is made.
+
+=Panne.= This name is applied to a range of satin-faced velvet or silk
+fabrics which show a high luster produced by pressure. The word
+_panne_ is the French for plush.
+
+=Peau de Soie.= Literally, skin of silk. A variety of heavy,
+soft-finished, plain-colored dress silk, woven with a pattern of fine
+close ribs extending weftwise of the fabric. An eight-shaft satin with
+one point added to the original spots on the right or left, imparting
+to the fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. The best grades of peau de
+soie present the same appearance on both sides, being reversible. The
+lower grades are finished on one side only.
+
+=Plush.= Long piled fabric of the velvet order. _Peluche_, the origin
+of the name, is French for shaggy.
+
+=Pongee.= Said to be a corruption of Chinese _punchi_, signifying home
+made or home woven. Another suggestion is that the word is a
+corruption of _pun-shih_, a native or wild silk. A soft, unbleached,
+washable silk, woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm, which
+feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. Immense quantities in a raw
+state are annually shipped from China to this country and Europe,
+where they are bleached, dyed, and ornamented with various styles of
+designs. The name is also applied to a variety of dress goods woven
+with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft.
+
+=Popeline.= A French name. The French fabric is said to have been
+first introduced during the early part of the sixteenth century at
+Avignon, then a papal diocese, and to have been so called in
+compliment to the reigning pope. A fabric constructed with a silk warp
+and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it a corded
+surface. Poplin manufacture was introduced into Ireland in 1693 by a
+colony of fugitive French Huguenots. The industry concentrated at
+Dublin, where it has since remained. The Irish product has been
+celebrated for its uniformly fine quality. It is always woven on hand
+looms, which accounts for the high price it commands in English and
+American markets. The wool used is a fine grade of Cape or Australian,
+which is the most suitable in texture and length of fiber. The silk is
+unweighted Chinese organzine. The result is a rich, handsome fabric
+resembling whole silk goods in appearance, but inferior to them in
+durability and produced at a much less cost. It is used for ladies'
+waists, wraps, and gowns.
+
+=Figured Poplin.= A stout variety, ornamented in the loom with
+figures. The ground is composed of clear, sharp cords extending across
+the web. It is sometimes woven entirely of silk, but oftener of silk
+and wool. Used for high-class upholstery purposes, and for curtains
+and hangings.
+
+=Terry Poplin.= A silk and wool dress fabric in the construction of
+which the alternate warps are thrown upon the surface in the form of
+minute loops.
+
+=Sarsenet.= A thin, soft-finished silk fabric of a veiling kind, now
+used as millinery lining. The name comes from the Arab Saracens, who
+wore it in their head-dress.
+
+=Satin.= When satin first appeared in trade in Southern Europe it was
+called _aceytuin_. The term slipped through early Italian lips into
+_zetain_, and coming westward the _i_ was dropped, and smoothed itself
+into satin. There is evidence that the material was known as early as
+the fourteenth century in England, and probably in France and Spain
+previous to that time, though under other names.
+
+In the weaving of most silk fabrics the warp and filling intersect
+each other every alternate time (as in plain weaving), or every third
+or fourth time (as in ordinary twill weaving) in regular order; but in
+weaving satin the fine silk warp only appears upon the surface, the
+filling being effectually covered up and hidden. Instead of making the
+warp pass under and over the filling every alternate time, or over two
+or three filling threads in regular order, it is made to pass over
+eight, ten, twelve or more filling threads; then under one and over
+eight more, and so on. In passing over the filling, however, the warps
+do not interweave at regular intervals, which would produce a twill,
+but at irregular intervals, thus producing an even, close, smooth
+surface, and one capable of reflecting the light to the best
+advantage. The filling of low grade satin is generally cotton, while
+in the better goods it is silk. Common satin is what is technically
+known as an eight-leaf twill, the order in which the filling thread
+rises being once in eight times. Rich satins may consist of
+sixteen-leaf to twenty-leaf twills. The cheap qualities of cotton-back
+satin, particularly those that sell at wholesale for fifty cents and
+under, are not made to any extent in this country, our manufacturers
+being unable to compete with foreign mills in these lines.
+
+Satins are woven with the face downward, because in weaving, say a
+sixteen-leaf satin, it would be necessary, were the surface upward, to
+keep fifteen heddles raised and one down, whereas with the face of
+the cloth under, only one heddle has to be raised at a time. When
+first taken from the loom the face of satin is somewhat flossy and
+rough, and hence requires to be dressed. This operation consists of
+passing the pieces over heated metal cylinders which remove the minute
+fibrous ends, and also increase the natural brilliance of the silk.
+Cotton-back satins are used by coffin manufacturers, fancy box makers,
+fan makers, and by the cutting-up trade. Rich satins are used in
+making ladies' gowns and waists.
+
+=Soleil.= Satin-faced cloth, woven with a fine line, a stripe running
+lengthwise of the piece. It is usually made in solid colors and piece
+dyed. _Soleil_ is French for sun, and applies to the brightness of the
+finished cloth.
+
+=Taffeta.= Derived from Persian _taftah_. Taffeta is one of the oldest
+weaves known, silk under this name having been in constant use since
+the fourteenth century. During this long period the term has been
+applied at different times to different materials. It is a thin,
+glossy silk of plain texture or woven in lines so fine as to appear
+plain woven. The weave is capable of many effects in the way of shot
+and changeable arrangements, which are produced by threads of
+different colors rather than by any special disposition of warp and
+filling. Taffeta has the same appearance on both sides. It is piece
+dyed in numberless plain colors, and also produced in a great variety
+of ornamental patterns, such as fancy plaids, cords, and stripes (both
+printed and woven). The following considerations contribute chiefly
+to the perfection of taffetas, viz.: the silk, the water, and the
+fire. The silk must not only be of the finest kind, but it must be
+worked a long time before it is used. The watering, which is given
+lightly by any acidulous fluid, is intended to produce the fine
+luster, and lastly, the fire and pressure which have a particular
+manner of application. Its wearing qualities are not of the best. The
+cloth cracks or breaks, especially if plaited. It is used for gowns,
+shirtwaists, linings, petticoats, etc.
+
+=Tulle.= Openwork silk net; made on the pillow as lace by young women
+of Tulle, France.
+
+=Velour.= French for velvet. A trade term of somewhat loose
+application, being used indiscriminately to describe a great variety
+of textures so constructed or finished as to present a velvet-like
+surface. It is usually a velvety fabric made of coarse wool yarn and
+silk. Velour is woven with a coarse stiff pile after the manner of
+plush; while at present it is made of jute, cotton, and worsted, it
+was originally constructed of linen. It is produced in numberless
+forms, both plain and in fancy effects.
+
+=Velvet.= From the Italian _velluto_, feeling woolly to the touch, as
+a woolly pelt or hide. Fine velvet is made wholly of silk.
+
+=Velveteen.= An imitation velvet, made of cotton, usually with plain
+back, not twilled, as silk velvet.
+
+=Tabby Velvet.= The lowest grade of cotton velvet, used for covering
+cheap coffin lining cases, sold by the inch in widths which range from
+sixteen to thirty-two inches. Originally made in Bagdad for wall
+covering, its name being derived from a section of that city.
+
+=Voile.= From the French _voile_, meaning a veil, a light fabric
+usually more or less transparent, intended to conceal the features in
+whole or in part or to serve as a screen against sunlight, dust,
+insects, etc., or to emphasize or preserve the beauty. The custom of
+wearing veils had its origin in the early ages in the desire of
+semi-savage man to hide away the woman of his choice, and is a
+survival of the ancient custom of hiding women that is found even down
+to the present day in Eastern countries. Voile is a transparent, wiry
+material with a square mesh.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+
+=Silk Cotton.= On account of the high price of silk various attempts
+have been made to find satisfactory substitutes for it. There are
+certain seed coverings of plants that contain very fine hair-like
+fibers with a luster almost equal to silk, but the staples are short,
+and the texture weak. The Kapok plant furnishes most of the commercial
+silk cotton on the market. The fibers of Kapok are thin and
+transparent. They are extremely light, and the length is less than
+half an inch. Silk cotton has a smooth surface and therefore cannot be
+spun like true cotton which has corded edges.
+
+=Artificial Silk.= Since seed hairs are composed, like all vegetable
+fibers, of cellulose, attempts have been made to prepare an artificial
+silk product from waste paper--that is, by treating waste paper or
+wood or cotton fibers with various chemicals in order to obtain pure
+cellulose. This artificial silk is perhaps the most interesting of
+artificial fibers, but its manufacture is dangerous, owing to the ease
+with which it catches fire and explodes. Cellulose, chemically
+treated, can be transformed into a fluid solution known as collodion.
+The collodion is placed in steel cylinders and expelled by pressure
+through capillary tubes. After drying, denitration, and washing, it
+may be spun and dyed like natural silk. Colored threads may be
+produced by the addition of certain dyes.
+
+Artificial silk bears a deceptive resemblance to the natural article,
+and has nearly the same luster. It lacks the tensile strength and
+elasticity, and is of higher specific gravity than true silk.
+
+=Tests.= A simple way of recognizing artificial silk is by testing the
+threads under moisture, as follows: First, unravel a few threads of
+the suspected fabric, place them in the mouth and masticate them
+vigorously. Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and
+breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers
+shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural silk,
+no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength.
+The artificial silk offers no resistance to the teeth, which readily
+go through it; whereas natural silk resists the action of the teeth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON
+
+
+On account of the high price of cotton various experiments have been
+made in an effort to replace it with fiber from wood pulp, grasses,
+leaves, and other plants.
+
+=Wood Pulp.= A Frenchman has discovered a process, _la soyeuse_, of
+making spruce wood pulp into a substitute for cotton. Although it is
+called a substitute, the samples show that it takes dye, bleaching,
+and finishing more brilliantly than the cotton fiber. It resists
+boiling in water or caustic potash solution for some minutes, and does
+not burn more quickly than cotton. The fiber can be made of any
+length, as is also the case with artificial silk. The strength of the
+yarn apparently exceeds cotton, and the cost of manufacture is much
+lower. Arrangements are being made in Europe for the extensive
+production of this fiber.
+
+=Ramie.= Ramie or China grass is a soft, silky, and extremely strong
+fiber. It grows in southwestern Asia, is cultivated commercially in
+China, Formosa, and Japan, and is a fiber of increasing importance.
+Ramie is a member of the nettle family and attains a height of from
+four to eight feet. After the stalks are cleaned of a gummy substance,
+insoluble in water, it is known as China grass, and is used in China
+for summer clothing. In Europe and America by the use of modern
+machinery and chemical processes the fiber is cleaned effectively and
+cheaply. After it is bleached and combed it makes a fine silky fiber,
+one-half the weight of linen, and three times stronger than hemp. It
+is used in Europe to make fabrics that resemble silk, and is also used
+in making underwear and velvets. With other fabrics it is employed as
+a filling for woolen warps. It will probably be used widely in the
+United States as soon as cheaper methods of cleaning are devised.
+
+=Pineapple and Other Fibers.= Other fibers, of which that from the
+pineapple is the most important, are used for textile purposes in
+China, South America, parts of Africa, Mexico, and Central America.
+Their use has not been extensive on account of high cost of
+production. The silk from the pineapple is very light and of excellent
+quality.
+
+=Spun Glass.= When a glass rod is heated in a flame until perfectly
+soft it can be drawn out in the form of very fine threads which may be
+used in the production of handsome silky fabrics. Spun glass can be
+produced in colors; but on account of the low elasticity of these
+products, their practical value is small, though the threads are
+exceedingly uniform and have beautiful luster. Spun glass is used by
+chemists for filtering strong acid solutions.
+
+A kind of glass wool is produced by drawing out to a capillary thread
+two glass rods of different degrees of hardness. On cooling they curl
+up, in consequence of the different construction of the two
+constituent threads.
+
+=Metallic Threads.= Metallic threads have always been used for
+decorating, particularly in rich fabrics. Fine golden threads, as well
+as silver gilt threads, and silver threads and copper wire, have been
+used in many of the so-called Cyprian gold thread fabrics, so renowned
+for their beauty and permanence in the Middle Ages. These threads are
+now produced by covering flax or hemp threads with a gilt of fine
+texture.
+
+=Slag Wool.= Slag wool is obtained by allowing molten slag (generally
+from iron) to run into a pan fitted with a steam injector which blows
+the slag into fibers. The fibers are cooled by running them through
+water, and the finished product is used as a packing material.
+
+=Asbestos.= Asbestos is a silicate of magnesium and lime, containing
+in addition iron and aluminum. It is found in Savoy, the Pyrenees,
+Northern Italy, Canada, and some parts of the United States. Asbestos
+usually occurs in white or greenish glassy fibers, sometimes combined
+in a compact mass, and sometimes easily separable, elastic, and
+flexible. Canadian asbestos is almost pure white, and has long fibers.
+Asbestos can be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn, but
+as it is difficult to spin these fibers alone, they are generally
+mixed with a little cotton, which is afterwards disposed of by heating
+the finished fabric to incandescence. Because of its incombustible
+nature asbestos is used where high temperatures are necessary, as in
+the packing of steam joints, steam cylinders, hot parts of machines,
+and for fire curtains in theatres, hotels, etc. It is difficult to
+dye.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+=Testing Textile Fabrics.= This is an age of adulteration, and next to
+food there is probably no commodity that is adulterated as much as the
+clothing we wear. Large purchasers of textile fabrics and various
+administrative bodies, such as army clothing departments, railway
+companies, etc., have adopted definite specifications to ensure having
+good material and workmanship. Before the fabrics are accepted they
+are examined carefully by certain tests to see if they meet the
+requirements. Wholesale and retail merchants insist on various
+conditions when purchasing fabrics in order to conform to the
+increasing needs of the public. Hence every manufacturer, buyer, or
+dealer in fabrics should be familiar with the tests used to determine
+the quality of goods he is about to buy.
+
+The tests used are as follows:
+
+1. Identification of the style of weaving.
+
+2. Testing the breaking strength and the elasticity by the dynamometer.
+
+3. Determining the "count" of warp and filling.
+
+4. Determining the shrinkage.
+
+5. Testing the constituents of warp and of filling.
+
+6. Testing the finish and dressing materials.
+
+7. Testing the fastness of the dye.
+
+=Directions for Determining the Style of Weave.= In examining a
+fabric for the weave it is first necessary to determine the direction
+of the warp and filling threads. This is a very simple matter in a
+great many fabrics that have a selvedge--the warp must be parallel to
+the selvedge.
+
+In fabrics that have been fulled, raised, and cropped, as buckskin,
+flannel, etc., the direction of the nap will indicate the direction of
+the warp, since the nap runs in this direction.
+
+In the case of fabrics with doubled and single threads, the doubled
+threads are always found in the warp.
+
+In fabrics composed of cotton and woolen threads running in different
+directions, the cotton yarn usually forms the warp and the woolen yarn
+the filling. Then again the warp threads of all fabrics are more
+tightly twisted than the filling threads, and are separated at more
+regular intervals.
+
+Sometimes in stiffened or starched goods threads running in only one
+direction can be seen. In this case they are the warp threads.
+
+If one set of threads appears stiffer and straighter than the other,
+the former may be regarded as warp, while the rough and crooked
+threads are the filling. The yarn also gives one a hint, since the
+better, longer, and higher number material constitutes the warp, while
+the thicker yarn the filling.
+
+The direction of the twist of the thread is conclusive; if one set has
+a strong right twist and the other a left twist the first is the warp.
+
+After determining the direction of the warp and filling, the next
+point is to determine the interlacing of the warp and filling
+threads--the weave. This may be done by inspection or by means of a
+pick-glass and needle. The weave may be plotted on design paper
+(plotting paper), the projecting warp threads being indicated by
+filling up the corresponding square, and leaving those referring to
+the filling threads blank. In this way the weaving pattern of the
+sample is obtained, and serves as a guide to the weaver in making the
+fabric, as well as for the preparation of the pattern cards for the
+Jacquard loom.
+
+=Testing the Strength and Elasticity of a Fabric.= The old-fashioned
+plan of testing cloth by tearing it by the hand is unreliable, because
+tearing frequently requires only a certain skilled knack whereby the
+best material can be pulled in two. In this way an experienced man may
+tell good from bad cloth, but he cannot determine slight differences
+in quality, because he has exerted his strength so often that his
+capacity to distinguish the actual force has disappeared.
+
+The best means of determining the strength of a fabric is by means of
+a mechanical dynamometer,[19] which expresses the tensile strength of
+the fabric in terms of weight. The machine is very useful to the
+manufacturer because it enables him to compare accurately his various
+products with those of his competitors. The value of these tests is
+sufficiently proved by the fact that all army clothing departments,
+etc., require their supplies of cloth, etc., to pass a definite test
+for strength.
+
+Breaking tests also afford the most certain proof to bleachers of
+cotton and linen goods as to whether the bleaching has burned or
+weakened the goods. The same test will quickly determine whether a
+fabric has been improperly treated in the laundry.
+
+=Determining the Count of Warp and Filling Threads.= Every fabric must
+contain a certain count of warp and filling threads--a definite number
+within a certain space for each strength of yarn employed. A fabric is
+not up to the standard of density when less than the requisite number
+of warp or filling threads per inch is found. For example, if a buyer
+was told that a fabric is 80 square, that is, eighty warp threads and
+eighty filling threads to the inch, and on examination found only 72
+square, he would immediately reject the goods.
+
+The count of warp and filling is determined by means of a
+pick-glass--a small mounted magnifying glass--the base of which
+contains an opening of one-half inch by one quarter inch, or one
+quarter inch by one quarter inch. If the pick-glass is placed on the
+fabric the number of warp and filling threads may be counted, and the
+result multiplied by either two or four, so as to give the number of
+threads to the inch. For example, if I count twenty picks and twenty
+threads on a one quarter-inch edge, there are eighty picks and eighty
+threads to the inch. A more accurate result can be obtained by using a
+pick-glass with a one-inch opening.
+
+=Determination of Shrinkage.= A very important factor in the value of
+a fabric is the shrinkage. The extent of this may be determined by
+pouring hot water over a sample of about twelve by twenty inches, and
+leaving the fabric immersed over night, then drying it at a moderate
+temperature without stretching. The difference in length gives the
+shrinkage, which is usually expressed in percentage.
+
+=Determination of Weight.= Buyers and sellers of dry goods, when
+traveling, are anxious to determine the weight of fabrics they
+examine. This may be done by means of small pocket balances so
+constructed as to give the number of ounces to the yard of a fabric.
+
+=Testing the Constituents of the Warp and Filling.= Take a sample
+piece of the cloth to be examined--the piece must be large enough to
+contain specimens of all the different kinds of yarn present in the
+material--and separate all the filling and warp threads. Be sure that
+all double threads are untwisted.
+
+=Combustion Test; Test for Vegetable and Animal Fibers.= Burn
+separately a sample of the untwisted warp and filling threads. If one
+or both burn quickly without a greasy odor, they are vegetable fibers,
+cotton or linen. If one or both burn slowly and give off a greasy
+odor, they are animal fibers, wool or silk. This test is not
+conclusive, and further chemical examination--acid test--must be made
+to ascertain whether wool is pure or mixed with cotton.
+
+=Acid Test.= The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, are distinguished
+from those of animal origin by their behavior in the presence of
+acids and alkalies. The vegetable are insoluble when boiled with a 4
+per cent sodium hydrate solution, but readily clear or carbonize when
+saturated with a 3 per cent sulphuric acid solution and allowed to dry
+at a high temperature in a hot closet. Wool on the other hand is not
+affected by the action of weak sulphuric acid.
+
+=Cotton Distinguished from Linen.= If the fibers are vegetable, cotton
+may be distinguished from linen by staining the fibers with fuchsine.
+If the fibers turn red, and this coloration disappears on the addition
+of ammonia, they are cotton, if the red color remains the fibers are
+linen. Whenever cotton yarn is used to adulterate other fabrics, it
+wears shabby and loses its brightness. When it is used to adulterate
+linen, it becomes fuzzy through wear. One may detect it in linen by
+rolling the goods between thumb and finger. Linen is a heavier fabric,
+and wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has
+an exquisite freshness that is not noticed in cotton fabrics.
+
+=Silk Distinguished from Wool.= Place the fabric or threads containing
+animal fibers in cold, concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is
+present it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.
+
+=Artificial Silk from Silk.= On account of the low value of the
+artificial and the high value of genuine silk, there is a tendency to
+offer the artificial instead of the pure article. Test: When
+artificial silk is boiled in 4 per cent potassium hydrate solution it
+produces a yellow solution, while pure silk gives a colorless
+solution.
+
+A common test is to put the artificial silk in water, where it will
+pull apart as though rotten; or to take out one strand of the silk,
+hold it between the finger and thumb of each hand and wet the middle
+of the strand with the tongue, when it will pull apart as though
+rotten.
+
+Artificial silk is inferior in strength and elasticity to pure silk.
+Then again it is lacking in the crackling feeling noticed in handling
+the genuine article.
+
+=Test for Shoddy.= It is no easy matter to detect shoddy in woolen
+fabrics; the color of the shoddy threads is the best evidence. Many
+parcels of rags are of one single color, but for the most part they
+are made of various colored wools; therefore, if on examination of a
+fabric with a magnifying glass a yarn of any particular color is found
+to contain a number of individual fibers of glaring colors, the
+presence of shoddy can be assumed with certainty.
+
+Woolen goods containing cotton are seldom made from natural wool.
+Shoddy yarns, especially in winter goods, are found in the
+under-filling at the reverse side of the cloth, as thick, tightly
+twisted yarns, curlier than those from the pure wool.
+
+=Determination of the Dressing.= During the various operations of
+washing, bleaching, etc., the goods lose in weight, and to make up
+this deficit a moderate amount of dressing or loading is employed.
+Dressing is not regarded as an adulteration, but as an embellishment.
+
+Various dressing materials are used, such as starch, flour, mineral
+matters, to give the goods stiffness and feel on one hand, and on the
+other to conceal defects in the cloth, and to give a solid appearance
+to goods of open texture. The mineral substances used serve chiefly
+for filling and weighting, and necessitate the employment of a certain
+quantity of starch, etc. In order that the latter may not render the
+cloth too stiff and hard, further additions of some emollient, such as
+glycerine, oils, etc., are necessary.
+
+When a fabric filled in this manner is placed in water and rubbed
+between the hands, the dressing is removed, and the quantity employed
+can be easily determined.
+
+By holding fabrics before the light dressing will be recognized, and
+such goods, if rubbed between the fingers, will lose their stiffness.
+Loading is revealed by the production of dust on rubbing, and by the
+aid of the magnifying glass it can be easily ascertained whether the
+covering or dressing is merely superficial or penetrates into the
+substance of the fabric.
+
+=The tests of permanence of dyes on fabrics are as follows:=
+
+=Washing Fastness.= Fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well
+as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing
+operation. In order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be
+placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary
+household, and heated to 131 degrees F. The treatment should be
+repeated several times. If the color fails to run it is fast to
+washing.
+
+=Fastness Under Friction.= Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs,
+and all fabrics intended to be worn next to the skin must be
+permanent under friction, and must not rub off, stain, or run, that
+is, the dyed materials must not give off their color when worn next to
+the human epidermis (skin), or in close contact with colored articles
+of clothing, as in the case of underwear.
+
+The simplest test is to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched
+cotton fabric. In comparing the fastness of two fabrics it is
+necessary to have the rubbing equal in all cases.
+
+=Resistance to Perspiration.= With fabrics coming in contact with the
+human skin it is necessary in addition to fastness under friction that
+they should withstand the excretions of the body. The acids of
+perspiration (acetic, formic, and butyric) often become so
+concentrated that they act on the fiber of the fabric.
+
+In order to test the fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath
+of 30 per cent dilute acetic acid (one teaspoonful to a quart of
+water) warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6 degrees F. The
+sample should be dipped a number of times, and then dried without
+rinsing between parchment paper.
+
+=Fastness against Rain.= Silk and woolen materials for umbrella
+making, raincoats, etc., are expected to be rainproof. These fabrics
+are tested by plaiting with undyed yarns and left to stand all night
+in cold water.
+
+=Resistance to Street Mud and Dust.= Ladies' dress goods are expected
+to withstand the action of mud and dust. In order to test a fabric for
+this resistance the sample should be moistened with lime and water
+(10 per cent solution), dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per
+cent solution of soda, drying, brushing, and noting any changes in
+color.
+
+=Fastness to Weather, Light, and Air.= Various people have attempted
+to set up standard degrees of fastness--for every shade of color is
+affected by the action of sun, light, and air--and as a result fabrics
+that remain without appreciable alteration for a month of exposure to
+direct summer sunlight are classified as "fast," and those undergoing
+slight appreciable change under the same conditions as "fairly fast."
+"Moderately fast" colors are those altering considerably in fourteen
+days; and those more or less completely faded in the same time
+(fourteen days) are designated as "fleeting."
+
+=Directions for testing fastness of Color in Sunlight.= Cover one end
+of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose the fabric to
+the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth each day in
+the dark and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when
+compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken
+the sunlight to change the color.
+
+    Brown in woolen materials is likely to fade. Brown holds
+    its color in all gingham materials.
+
+    Dark blue is an excellent color for woolens and
+    ginghams. Light blues on the other hand usually change.
+
+    Black, gray, and black with white. These colors are very
+    satisfactory for woolen materials.
+
+    Black is not a color which wears very well with cotton
+    fabrics, as it shows the starch (sizing) and often
+    fades.
+
+    Red is an excellent color for all woolen materials. It
+    looks attractive and wears well.
+
+    Red is a very poor color for cotton. It loses its
+    brilliancy and frequent washing spoils it.
+
+    A deep pink is an excellent color for all ginghams for
+    it fades evenly and leaves a pretty shade.
+
+    Green is a poor color for both cotton and woolen
+    materials unless it is high priced.
+
+    Lavender fades more than any other color in textiles.
+
+
+HISTORY OF TEXTILES
+
+The three fundamental industries that have developed from necessity
+are the feeding, sheltering, and clothing of the human race. These
+primary wants were first gratified before such conveniences as
+transportation and various lines of manufacture were even considered.
+Next to furnishing our food supply, the industry of supplying clothing
+is the oldest and the most widely diffused. It is in the manufacture
+of textiles--including all materials used in the manufacturing of
+clothing--that human ingenuity is best illustrated.
+
+The magnitude of the textile industry in the United States is evident
+when we consider that it gives employment to a round million of
+people, paying them nearly five hundred million dollars annually in
+wages and salaries, producing nearly one and three-quarters billion
+dollars in gross value each year, and giving a livelihood to at least
+three millions of our population.
+
+Wool, cotton, flax, and silk have been used since early times. Even in
+the earlier days these fibers were woven with great skill. It is not
+known which fiber was the first to be used in weaving. It is probable,
+however, that the possession of flocks and herds led to the spinning
+and weaving of wool before cotton, flax, or silk fibers were thus
+used.
+
+=Wool.= The date at which prehistoric man discarded the pelt of skins
+for the woven fabric of wool marks the origin of the textile industry.
+Primitive sheep were covered with hair and the wool which now
+characterizes them was then a downy under-coat. As time went on and
+the art of spinning and weaving developed, the food value of sheep
+decreased, while the wool value increased. The hairy flocks were bred
+out, and the sheep with true wool, like the merino, survived. Sheep
+were bred principally for the wool and not for the mutton. Woolen
+fabrics were worn by the early inhabitants of Persia and Palestine.
+The Persians were noted for the excellent fabrics they wove from wool.
+Even the Hebrews of an early date were very skilful in weaving
+woolens.
+
+The early Romans were a race of shepherds and the women of the higher
+classes wove the cloth in their own homes. When Caesar invaded
+England, he found in the southern part of the island people acquainted
+with the spinning and weaving of wool and linen. With the downfall of
+Rome, the art of weaving cloth in Europe was almost lost, and people
+again wore furs and skins.
+
+By the end of the eleventh century English cloth manufacturing had
+begun to revive. In the northern part of Italy certain Italians had
+flocks of sheep and obtained very fine wool, and the people of
+Flanders continued to develop skill in weaving during the Dark Ages.
+
+In the twelfth century the woolen manufacturers of Flanders had grown
+to be of great importance, and some of the finest goods were shipped
+from there to many countries.
+
+In England, up to the time of Edward III, in the fourteenth century,
+the wool produced was exported to the Netherlands, there to be woven
+into cloth. Edward III invited many of the Flemish weavers to come to
+England to teach the English people how to make their own clothes.
+Edward was called the "Royal Wool Merchant" and also the "Father of
+English Commerce." During Elizabeth's reign in the sixteenth century
+the chief article of export was woolen cloth. In 1685 the Huguenots,
+who were driven from France, went to England to settle. These people
+were noted for their skill in weaving.
+
+Patient effort in care and breeding of sheep showed a steady increase
+in the quantity and quality of wool until 1810, and the proportion of
+sheep to the population was then greater than at the present time.
+
+Our own climate is highly favorable for sheep breeding, and it is
+certain that the American sheep has no superior in any wool growing
+country, in constitutional vigor and strength of wool-fiber, and no
+wools make more durable or more valuable clothing.
+
+The obstacles to sheep husbandry in certain parts of the United
+States, like New England, are mainly climatic. The natural home of the
+only races of sheep which can be herded in large flocks is an elevated
+tableland, like the steppes of Russia and the great plains of Asia,
+Argentina, Montana, Wyoming, and others of our western states where
+an open air range is possible for nearly twelve months in the year. In
+these elevated lands there are grasses which are more nutritious in
+winter than in summer. The climate of New England does not permit the
+growth of such grasses. Every grass which will grow in New England
+becomes in the cold months frozen wood fiber. Then again there is the
+frigid and penetrating atmosphere which necessitates housing the sheep
+in winter, and these animals cannot be closely housed without
+engendering a variety of parasitic diseases.
+
+=Cotton.= Long before history was written, cotton was used in making
+fabrics in India and China. Cotton has been for thousands of years the
+leading fabric of the East. The Hindoos have for centuries maintained
+almost unapproachable perfection in their cotton fabrics. It was the
+Arabian caravans that brought Indian calicoes and muslins into Europe.
+
+Cotton was first cultivated in Europe by the Moors in Spain in the
+ninth century. In 1430 it was imported into England in large
+quantities. The section of England about Manchester became in time the
+seat of the great cotton industry; this was due to the settlement of
+spinners and weavers from Flanders.
+
+During the reign of Elizabeth, the East Indies Trading Company was
+established. Not only was cotton imported, but also India muslins.
+This caused trouble because of the decrease in the demand for woolen
+goods manufactured in England. A law was passed prohibiting the
+importing of cotton goods and later the manufacturing of them, but
+this law was repealed on account of the great demand for cotton
+materials.
+
+Columbus found cotton garments worn by the natives of the West Indies.
+Later Cortez found that cotton was used in Mexico; hence, cotton is
+indigenous to America. In 1519 Cortez made the first recorded export
+of cotton from America to Europe.
+
+In 1734 cotton was planted in Georgia. Bales of cotton were sent to
+England, and the manufacturing of cloth was soon under way. While the
+colonies were trying to gain independence, England imposed a fine on
+anyone sending cotton machinery to America, and restrictions were put
+on manufacturing and imports of any kind. After the War of
+Independence many of the southern states began to raise cotton in
+larger quantities.
+
+The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney was one of the great
+inventions of the age. While only two pounds of cotton could be seeded
+by hand by one person in a day, the gin made it possible to do several
+hundred pounds. At the time of the Civil War the greater part of the
+cotton used by English manufacturers was imported from the southern
+states. The closing of the southern ports during the war affected the
+cotton industry throughout the world. Large mills in England were
+closed, and thousands of people were out of employment. Steps were
+then taken to encourage people of India, Egypt, Central and South
+America to increase their production of cotton, and from that time on,
+cotton from these countries has been found in the general market.
+Cotton is now cultivated in nearly all countries within the limits
+45 deg. north and 35 deg. south of the equator.
+
+At the present time the United States ranks first in the production
+and export of cotton. Of all the states, Texas and Georgia produce the
+largest amount. About one-third of the entire crop is used in our own
+mills; $250,000,000 worth of cotton is annually exported, principally
+through New Orleans, New York, Savannah, and Galveston. Three-fifths
+of this quantity goes to mills in England; Germany, France, and
+Switzerland take a large part of the remainder.
+
+The value of cotton is shown by the fact that about one-half the
+people of the earth wear clothing made entirely of cotton, and the
+other half (with the exception of some savage tribes) use it in part
+of the dress.
+
+=Linen.= Linen has always been held in great esteem. The garments of
+the Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman priests were made of the finest
+linen.
+
+During the Middle Ages, Italy, Spain, and France were celebrated for
+their linen fabrics. Religious intolerance in France drove 300,000 of
+her best textile workers into England, Ireland, and Scotland. Irish
+linen weaving began as early as the eleventh century.
+
+Linen has never been largely woven in America except in the coarser
+forms of crash and toweling, although linen weaving was one of the
+Puritan domestic industries. The reason America has not been able to
+equal Europe in its production of fine linens is because the process
+for separating the fiber from the stalk requires the cheapest form of
+labor to make it profitable, hence most of the American-grown flax is
+raised only for seed.
+
+=Silk.= Silk was used in the East as a fabric for the nobility. It was
+first used in China and later in India. It was brought into Europe
+about the sixth century. Up to that time the Chinese had a monopoly of
+the industry. By the tenth and eleventh centuries silk fabrics were
+made in Spain and Italy. At the close of the sixteenth century silk
+was being produced at Lyons, France. It was afterwards introduced into
+England, and the English silk for a long time replaced the French in
+the European market.
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES
+
+The development of the textile industry may be divided into four
+stages or periods: first, the family system; second, the guild system;
+third, the domestic system; and fourth, the factory system.
+
+=The Family System.= Under the family system the work of spinning and
+weaving was carried on by members of a household for the purpose of
+supplying the family with clothing. There were no sales of the
+product. Each class in society, from the peasant class to that of the
+nobleman, had its own devices for making clothing. This was the system
+that existed up to about the tenth century.
+
+=The Guild System.= As communities became larger and cities sprang up,
+the textile industry became more than a family concern. There was a
+demand for better fabrics, and to meet this demand it became
+necessary to have a large supply of different parts of looms. The
+small weaver who owned and constructed his own loom was not able to
+have all these parts, so he began to work for a more prosperous
+weaver. The same conditions applied to spinning, and as early as 1740
+spinning was carried on by a class distinct from the weavers. As a
+result the small weaver was driven out by the growth of organized
+capital, and a more perfect organization, called the guild system,
+arose. By this system the textile industry was carried on by a small
+group of men called masters, employing two, three or more men
+(distinguished later as journeymen and apprentices). The masters
+organized associations called guilds and dominated all the conditions
+of the manufacture to a far greater extent than is possible under
+present conditions.
+
+It was the family system that existed in the American colonies at the
+beginning of the settlement, and for many years after. The guild
+system was not adopted in America because it was going out of
+existence on the Continent.
+
+=The Domestic Period.= By the middle of the eighteenth century the
+textile industry began to break away from the guilds and spread from
+cities to the rural districts. The work was still carried on in the
+master's house, although he had lost the economic independence that he
+had under the old guild system where he acted both as merchant and
+manufacturer. He now received his raw material from the merchant and
+disposed of the finished goods to a middleman, who looked after the
+demands of the market.
+
+=The Factory System.= The domestic period was in turn crowded out of
+existence by the factory system. A factory is a place where goods are
+produced by power for commercial use. The factory system first came
+into prominence after the invention of the steam engine. No record has
+been found showing its existence prior to this invention.
+
+English weavers and spinners became very skilful and invented
+different mechanical aids for the production of yarn and cloth. These
+mechanical aids not only enabled one man to do twenty men's work, but
+further utilization was made of water and steam power in place of
+manual labor. Then began the organization of the industry on a truly
+gigantic scale, combining capital and machinery and resulting in what
+is known as the factory system.
+
+Previous to the development of the factory system there was no reason
+why any industry should be centered in one particular district. Upon
+the utilization of steam power the textile industry became subdivided
+into a number of industries, each one becoming to a great extent
+localized in convenient and suitable portions of the country. Thus in
+Bradford the wool of Yorkshire (England) meets the coal of Yorkshire
+and makes Bradford the great woolen and worsted center of the world.
+The same thing took place in Manchester, where the cotton of America
+meets the coal of England under satisfactory climatic conditions, and
+around Manchester is the greatest cotton manufacturing of the world.
+
+The same is true in America. Lawrence became a large worsted center on
+account of the great fall of water and the use of the river to deposit
+wool washings. Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford became large cotton
+centers for similar reasons.
+
+
+HISTORY OF MANUFACTURING
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING WHORL
+
+One of the earliest devices used for spinning]
+
+=Spinning.= Spinning and weaving are two of the earliest arts
+practised by man. Yarn for the making of cloth was spun in the
+earliest times by the use of the distaff and spindle. The spindle was
+a round stick of wood a foot or less in length, tapering at each end.
+A ring of stone or clay was placed on the spindle to give it
+steadiness and momentum when it revolved. At the top of the spindle
+was a slit or notch in which the yarn was caught. The distaff was a
+larger, stouter stick, around one end of which the material to be spun
+was wound in a loose ball. The spinner fixed the end of the distaff
+under her left arm so that the coil of material was in a convenient
+position for drawing out to form the yarn. The end of the yarn, after
+being prepared, was inserted in the notch, and the spindle was set in
+motion by rolling it with the right hand against the leg. Then the
+spinner drew from the distaff an additional amount of fiber, which
+was formed by the right hand into uniform strands. After the yarn was
+twisted, it was released from the notch and wound around the lower
+part of the spindle.
+
+In order to spin yarn by the primitive spinner, it was necessary for
+the fiber to have sufficient length to enable it to be manipulated,
+drawn over, and twisted by the fingers. It is noted that the yarns for
+the gossamer-like Dacca muslins of India were so fine that one pound
+of cotton was spun into a thread 253 miles long. This was accomplished
+with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much bigger than a darning
+needle, which was lightly weighted with a pellet of clay. Since such a
+slender thread could not support even the weight of so slight a
+spindle, the apparatus was rotated upon a piece of hollow shell. It
+thus appears that the primitive spinners with distaff and spindle had
+nothing to learn in point of fineness from even the most advanced
+methods of spinning by machinery.
+
+[Illustration: HAND SPINNING
+
+From a Fourteenth Century MS. in the British Museum]
+
+Certain rude forms of the spinning wheel seem to have been known from
+time immemorial. The use of the wheel in Europe cannot, however, be
+dated back earlier than the fifteenth century. In the primitive wheel
+the spindle, having a groove worked in its whorl, was mounted
+horizontally in a framework fixed to the end of a bench. A band
+passed around the whorl and was carried around a large wheel fixed
+farther back on the bench, and this wheel, being turned by the hand of
+the spinner, gave a rapid rotation to the spindle.
+
+[Illustration: AN ANCIENT LOOM
+
+From an Egyptian Monument]
+
+The fibers to be spun were first combed out by means of carding
+boards--an implement of unknown antiquity, consisting of two boards
+with wire teeth set in them at a uniform angle. The fiber to be carded
+was thinly spread upon one of the boards, and then the other was
+pushed backward and forward across it, the teeth of the two
+overlapping at opposite angles, until the fibers were combed out and
+laid straight in parallel lines. The fibers were then scraped off the
+boards in rollers or "cardings" about twelve inches long and
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter. An end of the carding was then
+attached to the spindle and the wheel set in motion. The carding
+itself was held in the hand of the spinner and gradually drawn out and
+twisted by the rotation of the spindle. As soon as a sufficient length
+had been attenuated and twisted to the required fineness, the thread
+so produced was held at right angles to the spindle and allowed to
+wind up on it. But for fine spinning two operations of the wheel were
+generally necessary. By the first spinning the fibers were drawn out
+and slightly attenuated into what was called a roving, and by the
+second spinning the roving itself passed through a similar cycle of
+operations to bring it to the required degree of attenuation and
+twist.
+
+Many improvements in the primitive wheel were introduced from time to
+time. In its later developments two spindles were employed, the
+spinner being thus enabled to manipulate two threads at once, one in
+each hand. This was the latest form of the spinning-wheel, and it
+survived until it was superseded in the eighteenth century by the
+great series of inventions which inaugurated the industrial revolution
+and led in the nineteenth century to the introduction of the factory
+system.
+
+[Illustration: EARLIER SPINNING AND WEAVING
+
+From a Fifteenth Century MS. in the British Museum]
+
+=Weaving.= When or where man first began to weave cloth is not known,
+nor is it known whether this art sprang from one common center or was
+invented by many who dwelt in different parts of the world. There is
+such a sameness in the early devices for spinning and weaving that
+among some men of science it is thought that the art must have come
+from a common center.
+
+Fabrics were made on the farms two or three hundred years ago in the
+following manner: the men of the household raised the flocks, while
+the women spun the yarn and wove the fabrics. In this way the industry
+prospered, giving occupation and income to thousands of the
+agricultural class. You might say that in England fabrics were a
+by-product of agriculture. As time went on, farmers of certain
+sections of England became more expert in the art, and the weaving
+became separated from the spinning. The weavers became clustered in
+certain towns on account of the higher skill required for the finer
+fabrics. The rough work of farming made the hands of the weaver less
+skilful. This, coupled with the fact that the looms became more
+complicated with improvements, called for a more experienced man.
+Great inventions brought about a more rapid development of the
+factory.
+
+Richard Arkwright, who has been called the "father of the factory
+system," built the first cotton mill in the world in Nottingham in
+1769. The wheels were turned by horses. In 1771 Arkwright erected at
+Crawford a new mill which was turned by water power and supplied with
+machinery to accomplish the whole operation of cotton spinning in one
+mill, the first machine receiving the cotton as it came from the bale
+and the last winding the cotton yarn upon the bobbins. Children were
+employed in this mill, as they were found to be more dexterous in
+tying the broken ends. As the result of this great invention,
+factories sprang up everywhere in England, changing the country scene
+into a collection of factories, with tall chimneys, brick buildings,
+and streets.
+
+From 1730 to the middle of the nineteenth century the development of
+inventions was rapid:
+
+    1730--First cotton yarn spun in England by machinery by
+    Wyatt.
+
+    1733--English patent granted John Kay for the invention
+    of the fly shuttle.
+
+    1738--Patent granted Lewis Paul for the spinning
+    machinery supposed to have been invented by Wyatt.
+
+    1742--First mill for spinning cotton built at
+    Birmingham; moved by asses; but not successful.
+
+    1748--Patent on a cylinder card as first used by hand,
+    granted Lewis Paul.
+
+    1750--Fly shuttle in general use in England.
+
+    1756--Cotton velvets and quiltings first made in
+    England.
+
+    1760--Stock cards first used for cotton by J. Hargreave.
+    Drop box invented by Kay.
+
+    1762-67--Spinning-jenny invented by Hargreave.
+
+    1769--Arkwright obtains his first patent on spinning.
+
+    1774--Bill passed in England to prevent the export of
+    cotton machinery.
+
+    1775--Second patent of Arkwright on carding, drawing,
+    and spinning.
+
+    1779--Mule spinning invented by Crompton. Peele's patent
+    on carding, roving, and spinning.
+
+    1782--Date of Watt's patent for the steam-engine.
+
+    1783--Bounty granted in England for the export of
+    certain cotton goods.
+
+    1785--Power loom invented by Cartwright. Cylinder
+    printing invented by Bell. A warp stop-motion described
+    in Cartwright's patent.
+
+    1788--First cotton factory built in the United States,
+    at Beverly.
+
+    1789--Sea Island cotton first planted in the United
+    States. Samuel Slater starts cotton machinery in New
+    York.
+
+    1790--First cotton factory built in Rhode Island by
+    Slater.
+
+    1792--First American loom patent granted to Kirk and
+    Leslie.
+
+    1794--Cotton-gin patented by Eli Whitney.
+
+    1801--Date given for invention of the Jacquard machine
+    in France.
+
+    1803--Dressing machine and warper invented in England by
+    Radcliffe, Ross, and Johnson.
+
+    1804--First cotton mill built in New Hampshire, at New
+    Ipswich.
+
+    1805--Power loom successfully introduced in England
+    after many failures.
+
+    1806--First cotton mill built in Connecticut, at
+    Pomfret.
+
+    1809--First cotton mill built in Maine, at Brunswick.
+
+    1812--First cotton mill built at Fall River.
+
+    1814--Cotton opener with lap attachment invented in
+    England by Creighton.
+
+    1815--Power loom introduced into the United States at
+    Waltham.
+
+    1816--First loom temple of Ira Draper patented in the
+    United States.
+
+    1818--Machinery for preparing sewing cotton invented in
+    England by Holt.
+
+    1822--First cotton factory erected at Lowell.
+
+    1823--Differential motion for roving frames patented by
+    Arnold. First export of raw cotton from Egypt to
+    England.
+
+    1824--Tube frame or speeder patented by Danforth.
+
+    1825--Self-acting mule patented in England by Roberts.
+
+    1828--Ring spinning patented by John Thorpe. Cap
+    spinning patented by Danforth.
+
+    1829--Revolving loom temple improvements patented by Ira
+    Draper.
+
+    1832--Stop-motion for drawing frames invented by
+    Bachelder.
+
+    1833--Ring spinning frames first built by William
+    Mason.
+
+    1834--Weft fork patented in England by Ramsbottom and
+    Hope. Shuttle-changing loom by Reid and Johnson.
+
+    1840--Automatic loom led off. Important temple
+    improvement.
+
+    1849--First cotton mill erected in Lawrence.
+
+Through this great change from hand to power work, thousands were
+thrown out of employment in the great textile centers, and much
+suffering occurred, which led to the smashing of machinery.
+
+=Knitting Machinery.= Like many other industries, the hosiery trade
+owes its first and most important impetus to the genius of one who was
+not connected with the business in a practical way. This event took
+place when the Rev. William Lee invented the hand frame. He was
+married early in life, and his wife was obliged, on account of the
+slender family finances, to knit continuously at home. Struck with the
+monotony and toil involved in knitting with the hand pins, Mr. Lee
+evolved a means of knitting by machinery and brought out the hand
+stocking-frame, which to-day preserves its chief features very much as
+Lee invented them. When knitting by hand, one must form each loop
+separately, and loop follows loop laboriously until the width of
+fabric has been worked. Lee contrived to make the whole row of loops
+across the width simultaneously by arranging a needle for each loop
+and placing in connection with each needle a sinker and other
+apparatus for completing the formation of the loop. First of all, the
+yarn is laid over the needles, which are arranged horizontally, and
+the sinkers come down on the yarn and cause it to form partial loops
+between the needles. The old loops of the previous course are now
+brought forward and the new yarn is drawn through them in the same way
+as is done on the hand pins. Thus the new yarn of one course is drawn
+through the loops of the preceding one, and so the whole fabric is
+built up. This frame of Lee's held its own in the great centers until
+some thirty years ago.
+
+Lee's hand frame gave way to what is termed the jack and sinker rotary
+frame, which was like the hand frame in its chief features, but with
+the advantage that all the motions were brought about by power. The
+various operations were put under the control of a set of cams[20] and
+made to perform their movements in exactly the same way as in the case
+of the hand frame. In the first power machine for knitting, the
+machine builder used the cam mechanism, and in examining the latest
+machines we find that he has persisted in this course throughout. The
+cam movement is characterized by great smoothness of working and
+absence of vibration, which is very necessary in a machine of the
+delicate adjustment of the knitting frame. It is usual to connect some
+of the parts with two of these cams, one of which controls the
+up-and-down motion and the other the out-and-in movement. When these
+two cams work in conjunction, we obtain all the possible degrees of
+harmonic motion.
+
+From the jack and sinker frame the next really important step was
+taken when William Cotton brought out his famous Cotton's patent
+frame. In his machine the frame was in a sense turned on its back, for
+the parts, such as the needles, which had been horizontal, were made
+vertical and _vice versa_. He also reduced the number of the moving
+parts and perfected the cam arrangement. Another very important
+development of the machine was when it was built in a number of
+divisions so as to work a number of articles side by side at one time.
+At present there are knitting frames which can make twelve full-sized
+garments at one and the same time.
+
+Another important improvement was effected when the fashioning
+apparatus was supplied to the machine, by means of which the garments
+could be shaped according to the human form by increasing or
+decreasing the width as desired.
+
+
+HISTORY OF LACE
+
+Lace, like porcelain, stained glass, and other artistic things, has
+always been an object of interest to all classes. Special patterns of
+laces date from the sixteenth century. The church and court have
+always encouraged its production. While the early lace work was
+similar to weaving, in that the patterns were stiff and geometrical,
+sometimes the patterns were cut out of linen, but with the development
+of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and figures were
+introduced and worked in.
+
+The lace industry first took root in Flanders and Venice, where it
+became an important branch of industry. Active intercourse was
+maintained between the two countries, so that intense rivalry existed.
+France and England were not behind Venice and Flanders in making lace.
+The king of France, Henry III, encouraged lace work by appointing a
+Venetian to be pattern maker for varieties of linen needlework and
+lace for his court. Later, official aid and patronage were given to
+this art by Louis V. Through the influence of these two men the demand
+for lace was increased to such an extent that it became very popular.
+
+Under the impulse of fashion and luxury, lace has received the stamp
+of the special style of each country. Italy furnishes its Point of
+Venice; Belgium its Brussels and Mechlin; France its Valenciennes,
+etc.
+
+Very little is known of the early lace manufacturers of Holland. The
+laces of Holland were overshadowed by the richer products of their
+Flemish neighbors. The Dutch, however, had one advantage over other
+nations in their Haarlem thread, once considered the best thread in
+the world for lace.
+
+In Switzerland, the center of the lace trade, the work was carried on
+to such a degree of perfection as to rival the laces of Flanders, not
+alone in beauty, but also in quality.
+
+Attempts have been made at various times, both during this century and
+the last, to assist the peasantry of Ireland by instruction in
+lace-making. The finest patterns of old lace were procured, and the
+Irish girls showed great skill in copying them. Later a better style
+of work, needlepoint, was modeled after old Venetian lace--the
+exquisite productions for which Americans pay fabulous prices at the
+present day.
+
+The lace manufacturers of Europe experienced a serious set-back in
+1818 when bobbinet was first made in France. Fashion, always fleeting,
+adopted the new material. Manufacturers were forced to lower prices,
+but happily a new channel for export was opened in the United States.
+
+The machine-made productions of the Nottingham looms, as triumphs of
+mechanical ingenuity, deserve great praise.
+
+The first idea of the lace-making machine is attributed to a common
+factory hand, Hammond Lindy, who, when examining the lace on his
+wife's cap, conceived a plan by which he could copy it on his loom.
+Improvements followed, and in 1810 a fairly good net was produced.
+
+Perhaps the most delicate textile machine known, in its sensitiveness
+to heat and cold, is a lace machine. A machine can be made to run in
+any climate, provided it is so installed as to be protected from
+either extreme of temperature.
+
+The various substitutes for hand-made lace are legion; for what the
+inventor cannot achieve in one way he can in another. There remains
+however the fact that the productions of machinery can never possess
+the charm of the real hand-made work. Machine-made lace is stiffer
+than hand-made lace.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] The testing apparatus may be obtained from any textile
+manufacturing company, such as Alfred Suter, 487 Broadway, New York.
+
+[20] A cam is a device consisting of a special shaped wheel attached
+to a machine to give a special kind of motion or movement.
+
+
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS
+
+
+=Experiment 1--Construction of Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin,[21] foot-rule.
+    Materials: 4 square inches of burlap.
+    References: _Textiles._ See page 54, Weaving; page 1, Fibers.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Look at the cloth under the pick glass and describe the appearance
+and structure of its interlacing threads, called weave.
+
+2. With a pin separate the interlacing threads of the cloth which are
+called _warp_ and _filling_. _Warp_ is composed of yarn running in the
+direction of the length of the cloth. _Filling_ is composed of yarn
+running at right angles to the warp.
+
+    _a._ What are the interlacing threads of cloth called?
+
+    _b._ Of what is warp composed and in what direction do
+    the warp threads extend? filling?
+
+3. Notice the appearance of the individual threads (called _yarn_) of
+the warp and filling. Test the strength of the yarn by trying to break
+it.
+
+4. Untwist one of the warp threads and one of the filling threads.
+Notice whether the yarn becomes stronger or weaker as it is untwisted.
+What effect has twist on the yarn?
+
+5. After untwisting one of the threads what remains? Measure the
+length of several of these ends called _fibers_. Describe the
+appearance of the fiber as to curl, feel, fineness, etc.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Of what does yarn consist?
+
+2. What causes the fibers to cling together?
+
+3. What is the process called by which two sets of threads interlace?
+
+4. When two sets of threads interlace or are woven what is produced?
+
+
+=Experiment 2--Plain or Homespun Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom,[22] two pencils, scissors.
+    Material: Yarn of two colors.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 58.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Make a warp on the hand loom with green yarn by having parallel
+threads running the longest way of the loom to the notches.
+
+2. A _harness_ is a framework on a loom used for raising certain warp
+threads. Use a pencil as a harness and raise the 1st, 3d, and 5th warp
+threads. A _shed_ will in this way be formed through which the shuttle
+carrying the filling thread will pass. Use the red yarn for filling
+and attach it at one end before passing it through the shed.
+
+3. With a second pencil to act as a second harness raise the 2d, 4th,
+and 6th warp threads. Pass the filling through the shed thus formed.
+
+4. Repeat twice Directions 2 and 3.
+
+5. Tie all ends, cut the woven sample away from the loom, and mount in
+note-book.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What part of a loom is the harness?
+
+2. What is meant by a shed?
+
+3. What carries the filling thread through the shed on a loom?
+
+4. What is the principle of plain weaving?
+
+5. Name some fabrics produced by plain weaving? See _Textiles_, page
+58.
+
+
+=Experiment 3--Twill Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom, four pencils, scissors.
+    Materials: White cotton warp, colored yarn filling.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 58.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. On the hand loom make a warp by threading four white warp threads
+to a notch until there are six sets of warp threads.
+
+2. Using a pencil as a harness (See Exp. 2) raise the first thread of
+each set of warp threads and pass the filling thread through the shed
+thus formed.
+
+3. With another pencil as a second harness raise the second thread of
+each set of warp threads and pass the filling.
+
+4. With a third pencil raise the third thread of each set of warp
+threads and pass the filling.
+
+5. With still another pencil to act as a fourth harness raise the
+fourth thread of each set and again pass the filling.
+
+6. Repeat the above directions (2 to 5) several times. Notice that the
+moving of the filling thread, one warp thread to the left, each time
+it is woven is causing a diagonal line or rib to form, called _twill_.
+
+7. Cut the woven sample away from the loom and mount.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is this weave called a twill weave?
+
+2. How is the diagonal line or twill formed?
+
+3. Why would this kind of weaving be spoken of as 4-harness weave?
+
+4. What popular dress fabric is of twill weave?
+
+
+=Experiment 4--Comparison of Plain and Twill Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin, foot-rule.
+    Material: 4 sq. in. of burlap, 4 sq. in. of serge.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 58, 59, 60.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine the burlap under the pick glass, noting the structure and
+number of threads to the inch in the warp (called _ends_) and the
+number of threads to the inch in the filling (called _picks_). Verify
+with foot-rule.
+
+2. Repeat the above, using serge.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by a number of "ends to the inch"? a number of "picks
+to the inch"?
+
+2. How many ends to the inch in the burlap? How many picks to the
+inch?
+
+3. How many ends to the inch in the serge? How many picks?
+
+4. Note several differences between cloth produced by plain weaving
+and cloth produced by twill weaving.
+
+
+=Experiment 5--Pile Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand loom, two pencils, scissors.
+    Materials: White cotton warp, filling yarn of two colors.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 62.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Thread the loom two warp threads to a notch until there are 20 ends
+(warp threads).
+
+2. Use a pencil as a harness. Raise the 1st, 3d, 5th, 7th, and 9th
+sets of warp threads.
+
+3. Fasten securely the green filling yarn at one end and pass it
+through the shed formed by carrying out Direction 2. Draw the filling
+thread tight and wind once or twice around the outside warp end.
+
+4. Use a second pencil as a harness and raise the sets of warp threads
+that are now down, forming a new shed.
+
+5. Fasten the red filling yarn at one end and pass it through the
+shed. Wind once or twice about the outside warp end.
+
+6. Raise the red filling to form a loop in each place where it (the
+red filling) has passed over a warp end.
+
+7. Form a shed by raising the first harness and pass through the green
+filling thread, drawing it tight to hold the red filling above it in
+place. Wind about the outside warp end.
+
+8. Repeat Directions 2-7 several times, each time raising the red
+filling to form loops and each time drawing the green filling tight to
+hold the red in place.
+
+9. Cut with scissors the loops formed by raising the red filling.
+
+10. As well as you can with scissors, shear the pile (the soft, thick
+covering on the face) to make a fairly even surface.
+
+11. Cut the sample away from the loom and mount.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What are some varieties of cloth that are woven with a pile
+surface?
+
+2. Sometimes the loops of the pile are cut and sometimes left as
+loops. What fabrics are examples of cut pile? uncut pile?
+
+3. What is meant by the _pile_ of velvet or carpet?
+
+
+=Experiment 6--Other Classes of Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
+    Materials: Samples of satin, voile, lace curtaining, double cloth,
+               carpeting.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 58-64.
+
+
+_Satin Weave_
+
+1. Examine the sample of satin under the pick glass. Notice that the
+warp and filling interlace in such a way that there is no trace of the
+diagonal on the face of the cloth.
+
+    _a._ Is satin of a close or loose weave?
+
+    _b._ What can you say of the surface of satin?
+
+    _c._ What effect has this smooth surface on light?
+
+    _d._ This is called a satin weave. Why?
+
+    _e._ What is the most extensive use of the satin weave?
+    (See _Textiles_, page 1.)
+
+NOTE.--Sometimes fabrics of other weaves will have a satin stripe.
+
+
+_Gauze Weave_
+
+2. Examine the sample of voile under the pick glass. This is a type of
+what is known as gauze weave.
+
+    _a._ What is the chief characteristic of the gauze
+    weave?
+
+    _b._ Name several gauze fabrics.
+
+
+_Lappet Weave_
+
+3. Examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass.
+
+    _a._ If the fancy figures were not present, of what
+    weave would this sample be?
+
+    Simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze
+    fabrics by machinery to imitate embroidery. This style
+    of weave is known as lappet weave.
+
+    _b._ On fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving
+    used?
+
+    _c._ What is lappet weaving?
+
+
+_Jacquard Weave_
+
+4. Examine a piece of carpet. Notice the elaborate designs or patterns
+and the number of colors used. When the figures are elaborate they
+cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving. A special attachment
+called the _Jacquard_ apparatus is placed on top of the loom. This
+apparatus controls the warp threads so that a great many sheds may be
+formed and elaborate figures woven into fabrics. This is called
+Jacquard weaving.
+
+    _a._ What must be added to a loom for Jacquard weaving?
+
+    _b._ What is the use of the Jacquard apparatus?
+
+    _c._ When is the Jacquard weave used instead of lappet
+    weave?
+
+5. Read _Textiles_, page 61.
+
+
+_Double Cloth Weave_
+
+6. Examine the sample of double cloth. Notice that there are two
+single cloths. They are combined into one by here and there lacing the
+warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and filling of the other.
+In this way they are fastened together securely.
+
+    _a._ What color is the sample on one side? the other?
+
+    _b._ Of what is double cloth composed?
+
+    _c._ How are the single cloths combined into one?
+
+    _d._ Read _Textiles_, page 62. What are some of the uses
+    of double cloth?
+
+
+_Classes of Weave_
+
+7. How many classes of weave have been studied?
+
+8. Name the classes of weave.
+
+9. Name a fabric to illustrate each weave.
+
+
+=Experiment 7--Fibers=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
+
+    Materials: Samples of broadcloth, mohair, silk, cotton cloth,
+    linen.
+
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 1; 97, Mohair; 203, Silk; 105,
+    Cotton; 193, Linen; 199, Hemp; 201, Jute; 232, Ramie; 233,
+    Pineapple.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Read _Textiles_, page 1, paragraph 1. What are textiles?
+
+2. Cloth is composed of yarn. Yarn in its turn is composed of many
+small ends called fibers.
+
+3. Look at the sample of broadcloth. If you did not know this to be
+broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods. Detach from the
+sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These are woolen
+fibers.
+
+4. Examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread into
+fibers. This takes the name mohair from the fibers which compose it.
+Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat.
+
+5. Examine a sample of silk, also a detached filling thread. The silk
+fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm.
+
+6. Wool, mohair, and silk fibers are obtained from the animals, the
+sheep, goat, and silk worm, hence they are called animal fibers.
+
+7. Detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and
+separate it into fibers. These are cotton fibers and are obtained from
+the cotton plant.
+
+8. Examine the sample of linen, a filling thread and its fibers. Linen
+is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant.
+
+9. Cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants, and are called
+vegetable fibers. There are other vegetable fibers such as jute, hemp,
+ramie, pineapple, etc., but cotton and linen are the most important.
+
+10. Name the most valuable fibers for textile use.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Of what is cloth composed?
+
+2. Of what does yarn consist?
+
+3. How are the fibers made to join in one long thread? (See
+Experiment 1.)
+
+4. Of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed?
+
+5. Of what animal is wool the covering?
+
+6. Of what fibers is mohair composed?
+
+7. From what animal is mohair obtained?
+
+8. Of what does the silk fiber consist?
+
+9. What are the animal fibers?
+
+10. Why are they called animal fibers?
+
+11. Of what fibers is cotton cloth composed?
+
+12. From what plant are cotton fibers obtained?
+
+13. From what plant is the linen fiber obtained?
+
+14. What are the most important vegetable fibers?
+
+15. Name four other vegetable fibers.
+
+16. Why are these fibers called vegetable fibers?
+
+
+=Experiment 8--Wool Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass, microscope, 2 pine cones, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Raw wool, woolen yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter i.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers. Examine both these
+fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool. Would you describe these
+fibers as coarse or fine?
+
+2. How do the fibers feel to touch?
+
+3. Test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them.
+
+4. Measure the length of several fibers.
+
+5. Why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them?
+
+6. Extend the fiber to its full length, then release. How does this
+prove the fiber to be elastic?
+
+7. Examine the fibers under the microscope. Describe. Notice that the
+wool fiber is cylindrical in shape. Notice that it is covered with
+scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof or the spines of a
+pine cone.
+
+8. Hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward. With the spines
+of the other pointing downward press the second cone down on the
+first. What happens? Just so the scales or points of the wool fibers
+hook into one another and interlock. These scales or serrations give
+to the wool fiber its chief characteristic which is the power of
+interlocking known as _felting_ or _shrinking_.
+
+9. See _Textiles_, page 2, the drawing of a magnified wool fiber. Make
+a drawing of a wool fiber.
+
+10. Examine under the microscope a hair from your head. Wool is only a
+variety of hair. Notice that the scales on the hair lie close to the
+stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber, hence hair fibers
+cannot interlock as wool fibers do. The scales lying close to the hair
+give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster a characteristic.
+
+11. Compare the wool fiber with hair, noting two differences.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. With what is the wool fiber covered?
+
+2. Of what advantage are these scales or points?
+
+3. What is the chief characteristic of wool?
+
+4. What is meant by the shrinking or felting power?
+
+5. Name five characteristics of the wool fiber.
+
+
+=Experiment 9--Mohair Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Wool fibers, mohair fibers, sample of mohair brilliantine.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 1, 37, 97.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Pull a mohair fiber from the fleece. Hold it up to the light.
+Describe the fiber as you see it.
+
+2. Hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light.
+Note the differences.
+
+3. Measure several mohair fibers.
+
+4. Examine the mohair fiber under the microscope. The fiber is covered
+with scales, but they lie close to the fiber and do not project in
+points as do the scales on the wool fiber, hence mohair will not felt
+to any degree.
+
+5. The Angora goat of Asia Minor furnishes the mohair. This goat is
+being raised in the western states of the United States now.
+
+6. Detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread; a
+filling thread. Which is mohair? Which is cotton?
+
+7. What word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine? the
+appearance?
+
+8. What are the characteristics of the mohair fiber?
+
+9. What are the uses of mohair? Mohair is used in the manufacture of
+plushes, dress fabrics, and imitation furs.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why will mohair not felt as wool does?
+
+2. The scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on the
+surface of the fiber?
+
+3. What effect will a smooth surface have on light?
+
+4. What characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that the
+smooth surface reflects light?
+
+5. From what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity?
+
+6. Where is mohair being grown in the United States?
+
+
+=Experiment 10--Cotton Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
+    Materials: Tuft of cotton fibers, cotton ball, seeds.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter ix, page 105.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and thumb
+of each hand and pull apart with a jerk. What is your judgment of the
+strength of the _staple_ (fiber)?
+
+2. Loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled apart.
+What is the feel of cotton? the appearance as you hold it to the
+light?
+
+3. Detach several fibers one by one. How does the length compare with
+that of the wool and mohair? Measure and record the length of three
+fibers.
+
+4. How do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers?
+
+5. Compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool.
+
+6. Examine the cotton fibers under the microscope. Observe that the
+enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon. When the fiber was growing
+it was cylindrical in shape. When ripe the plant drew back its
+life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and twisted like a
+corkscrew. The twist is peculiar to the cotton, being present in no
+other fiber. The twist makes the cotton fiber suitable for spinning,
+helping to hold the short fibers together.
+
+7. Read of the cotton plant from _Textiles_, chapter ix.
+
+8. The four chief cotton producing countries are the United States,
+Egypt, India, Brazil.
+
+9. There are several classifications of cotton. The most common are
+Sea Island (in the lead); Egyptian (a close second); Uplands (that of
+the United States, southern part); and Peruvian.
+
+10. Uplands is the most common cotton of our South.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recognized
+under the microscope?
+
+2. Why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spinning?
+
+3. What are the characteristics of the cotton fiber?
+
+4. Why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber?
+
+5. Name the chief cotton producing countries.
+
+6. What are the most common classifications of cotton?
+
+7. What is the finest growth of cotton? (Sea Island commands at the
+present time $1.00 a lb., while Middling Uplands brings 15 cents.)
+
+8. Where is cotton known as Upland Cotton grown?
+
+
+=Experiment 11--Silk Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Tripod, alcohol lamp, small pan of water, lead pencil.
+    Material: Silk cocoon.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xvii, page 203.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Place the cocoon in a small pan of water. Apply heat to the pan
+until the water boils. The cocoon is placed in hot water to soften the
+glue which holds the fibers together.
+
+2. Remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled. This
+tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called _floss_.
+
+3. Brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends. Unwind
+carefully until you find a continuous end. Wind or _reel_ the silk
+fiber over a lead pencil.
+
+4. The silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers.
+
+5. Hold the cocoon to the light as you reel. How does the silk fiber
+compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers?
+
+6. The silk fiber is from 1000 to 4000 feet long. Unlike the other
+fibers the silk fiber is already a thread.
+
+7. How does light effect the silk fiber? When the gum is thoroughly
+washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief
+characteristic.
+
+8. Break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity. Notice how
+the fiber springs back. Extend and release again. What characteristic
+does this illustrate?
+
+9. Examine the silk fiber under the microscope. Notice that it is
+round and smooth and resembles a glass rod. It shows what appear to be
+two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same time that the fiber
+was formed. Describe the silk fiber as it appears under the
+microscope.
+
+10. Silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw silk
+and thus exported.
+
+11. The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk. It is
+handled here first by the _throwster_ who winds it from the skein and
+makes different varieties of thread.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water?
+
+2. What is known as floss?
+
+3. What is meant by silk reeling?
+
+4. What can you say of the length of the silk fiber?
+
+5. In what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers?
+
+6. What is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber?
+
+7. What are other characteristics of the silk fiber?
+
+8. In what form is silk exported?
+
+9. In what countries is most of the raw silk produced? (See
+_Textiles_, page 206.)
+
+10. With what does the silk manufacture in the United States begin?
+
+11. Who is the _throwster_ and what is his work?
+
+
+=Experiment 12--Linen Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope.
+    Material: Flax fibers.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xv, page 193.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. The linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant. Certain fibers,
+such as flax, jute, and ramie, are obtained from the stem of the
+plant, hence are known as _bast_ fibers, and flax is the most
+important bast fiber.
+
+2. It is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody
+part of the stem. The process is called _retting_, which is really
+rotting by soaking the stem in water.
+
+3. Before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the
+plant they undergo the processes of beating, breaking, scutching,
+hackling, etc.
+
+4. Read the account of each process. See _Textiles_, pages 194, 195.
+
+5. Measure and record the length of two linen fibers.
+
+6. Test the strength by trying to break the fiber.
+
+7. Test for elasticity.
+
+8. What is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the light?
+
+9. What is the color of the fiber? What is the process called by which
+linen is whitened? (Bleaching.)
+
+10. Examine the flax fibers under the microscope. Observe that the
+fibers look like long cylindrical tubes. Describe the appearance of
+linen fibers under the microscope.
+
+11. The best flax is grown in Belgium and Ireland.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. From what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained?
+
+2. Name some bast fibers.
+
+3. What is the most important bast fiber?
+
+4. What is retting?
+
+5. For what purpose is linen subjected to retting?
+
+6. Through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before it is
+free?
+
+7. Where is the best flax grown?
+
+
+=Experiment 13--Carding=
+
+    Apparatus: A pair of hand cards.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 39 and 50.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine the hand cards. Notice that there is a foundation of
+several layers of leather. Notice that this foundation is covered with
+staples of steel wire. Notice that the staples are shaped like the
+letter U with the points turned one way. The covering of the hand
+cards is called _card clothing_.
+
+2. Hold one hand card in the left hand, face up, wires pointing to the
+left. Spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card.
+
+3. Hold the other card in the right hand, face down, with the wires
+pointing to the right. Bring the pointed wires of this card down on
+the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the other card.
+Repeat several times.
+
+4. You have been _carding_ wool. The sharp points have been tearing
+the wool apart or disentangling the fibers. Carding brushes the fibers
+out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel. It forms them into a thin
+sheet.
+
+5. The wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently
+disentangled for drawing and spinning. In order to card again the hand
+card must be _stripped_ of the wool so that it may be dragged again
+through the staples.
+
+6. Hold the hand card, which is in your right hand, erect. Notice that
+the wires point downward. Move the other hand downward over the
+wires. Notice that the surface is smooth. The points do not prick as
+they will if you try to brush the hand upwards over the wires.
+
+7. Hold the card in the left hand in a similar position. Raise and
+bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface of the
+other card and strip it of its wool.
+
+8. Card again, then strip again. Repeat several times until the fibers
+are thoroughly disentangled.
+
+9. This carding and stripping, once done by hand, is now done in the
+mill by a power machine called the _card_. (See picture, _Textiles_,
+page 38.) Notice that instead of cards this machine consists of
+rollers or cylinders. Some are carding cylinders and some are
+stripping cylinders. The principle is the same as that of the hand
+cards. The wool is carded and stripped again and again and is finally
+delivered in a soft, fluffy rope called a _sliver_ ready for drawing
+and spinning.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the covering of the hand card called?
+
+2. Describe card clothing.
+
+3. What does carding do to the wool?
+
+4. When the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed wires
+of another cylinder what is the action on the wool?
+
+5. If the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface of
+another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder?
+
+6. In what form does the wool finally leave the machine? What name is
+given to this fluffy rope?
+
+7. How was carding done in the early days? How is it done now?
+
+8. In what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as that of
+the card of the mill?
+
+
+=Experiment 14--Drawing and Spinning=
+
+    Apparatus: Foot-rule, elastic band.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 4, 44, 134; Sections: Spinning: Mule
+                Spinning.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Observe the mass of wool fibers. The wool was clipped from the
+sheep, _washed_, and _oiled_ to make it smooth and pliable.
+
+2. With the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool fibers.
+In the mill this is done by a machine called the _card_. (See picture,
+_Textiles_, page 38.) And the process itself is called _carding_.
+
+3. Gently _draw_ out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it into
+one long strand.
+
+4. Draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to break.
+
+5. This process in the mill is known as _drawing_. The wool passes
+through machine after machine, which gradually reduces the thickness
+of the strand.
+
+6. You have now a strand called _roving_, but not a thread with which
+you could weave. What is called the strand? Why could you not weave
+with it as it is? If you pulled the roving apart it would separate
+into a number of small ends. What name is given to these ends?
+
+7. It is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread. Hold the
+roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers out
+several inches. As you draw, twist the roving between the fingers and
+thumb. The _twisting_ is called _spinning_.
+
+8. When you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end of a
+foot-rule, do so. Give a whirl to the ruler, which is taking the place
+of the old-time _spindle_, and let it drop. Continue to whirl the
+ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting. When well
+twisted, wind the yarn on the ruler. There was a hook on the old-time
+spindle. Instead of the hook, hold the wound yarn in place by an
+elastic band. Draw out several inches again and repeat.
+
+9. With the spindle a _distaff_ was used. It held the roving which you
+now hold in your left hand. (See picture of distaff and spindle.)
+
+10. Define spinning; see _Textiles_, page 4, footnote. The early use
+of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day. In what two ways is
+the spindle of use?
+
+11. The improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning wheel.
+Now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. After shearing, through what two processes does wool pass?
+
+2. Why is it necessary to oil wool?
+
+3. What is the work of the _card_?
+
+4. Explain the process called _drawing_. Why is it necessary to repeat
+the operation several times?
+
+5. What followed the distaff and spindle in the development of
+spinning?
+
+6. On what is the spinning done now in the mill? See _Textiles_,
+picture, pages 135, 137.
+
+
+=Experiment 15--Gilling and Combing=
+
+    Apparatus: Coarse comb, fine comb.
+    Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 39-44.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Open up the wool a little with the fingers. Do this in place of
+carding, as you need but a small quantity.
+
+2. You comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel, side by side, in
+place. Combs are used on wool for just the same purpose, but the first
+process of combing is not known as such. It is called _gilling_, and
+the combs themselves are called _fallers_. The machines are known as
+_gill boxes_. See _Textiles_, page 43.
+
+3. Hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the strand.
+With the coarse comb in the right hand, comb and thus straighten the
+fibers first at one end then at the other. This is _gilling_. The
+principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more nearly
+parallel and to draw them out into more even strands.
+
+4. The coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel. A fine comb will
+further straighten the hairs, but it will also remove the snarled,
+tangled, short hairs. Again wool is to be treated like hair. Hold the
+strand in the middle as before. Comb each end with the fine comb.
+Notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and leaving the
+long fibers between the fingers. This is the second process of
+combing, and is called _combing_.
+
+5. The long fibers are called _tops_ and the short fibers are known
+as _noils_.[23] Combing is the process which separates the long fibers
+known as _tops_ from the short fibers known as _noils_.
+
+6. The combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one. See
+picture, _Textiles_, page 41.
+
+7. Gill and comb several strands of wool.
+
+8. Top is too delicate, as it comes from the comb, to be handled. The
+next process is to combine several strands into one. Combine the
+several strands you have gilled and combed. Comb this one end with the
+coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are perfectly parallel.
+
+9. You gilled, combed, and gilled again. So it is in the mill. After
+combing, the wool is gilled again by machines known as _finisher gill
+boxes_, and wound into a ball called _a top_.
+
+10. _A top_ differs from _top_. _Top_ is the strand of long fibers
+which comes from the comb. _A top_ is the ball of combed wool as it
+comes from the finisher gill boxes. It weighs from 7 to 12 lbs. and
+contains 200 to 250 yds.
+
+11. The wool is now ready for the next processes--those of drawing and
+spinning.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is the hair combed? Why is wool combed?
+
+2. What is the first process of combing called? What name is given to
+the combs used in gilling? What are the machines called?
+
+3. What is the principle of gilling?
+
+4. How does a fine comb act on the hair?
+
+5. When you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened?
+
+6. What are the long fibers called? the short? Of which are there
+more?
+
+7. What is the second process of combing called?
+
+8. Why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one end?
+
+9. Why is it necessary to gill again after combing?
+
+10. In what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill boxes?
+
+11. What is a top?
+
+12. What two processes follow carding?
+
+13. For what two processes is wool now ready?
+
+
+=Experiment 16--Raw Wool to Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Hand cards, coarse and fine combs, pencil.
+    Material: Scoured wool.
+    Reference: The preceding experiments.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. This wool has already been subjected to the three operations of
+shearing, scouring, and oiling.
+
+2. Card the wool. What does carding do to the wool?
+
+3. Strip the cards. Rub the sheet of fibers between the palms of the
+hands into the form of a strand. It is in this form that it leaves the
+card of the mill, and it is known as a _sliver_ of wool.
+
+4. Pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform upon it
+the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse comb.
+
+5. Follow the gilling by the operation of _combing_, which you will do
+by combing again, this time with a fine comb.
+
+6. Pull about three inches again from the sliver. Continue to gill and
+comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and combed.
+
+7. Combine several strands into one and subject the one strand to a
+second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side by
+side.
+
+8. Gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known as top. As
+you draw, spin. As you spin, wind on a lead pencil. The fineness of
+the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and twisting.
+
+9. What is the source of wool? You began with wool, covering of the
+sheep's body, and after subjecting it to a series of operations you
+have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving.
+
+10. Name the operations in order, through which raw wool passes before
+it finally becomes yarn.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What are the first three processes through which wool passes? What
+is shearing? scouring?
+
+2. Why is wool oiled?
+
+3. What is meant by a sliver of wool?
+
+4. What does gilling do to the wool?
+
+5. What does combing do to the wool?
+
+6. Why is there another operation of gilling after combing?
+
+7. What is meant by _drawing_? _spinning_?
+
+8. What name is given to the wool wound on the pencil?
+
+9. On what does the fineness of the yarn depend?
+
+
+=Experiment 17--Difference between Woolen and Worsted Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 50 and 51.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn from
+either the warp or filling. Do the same with a piece of woolen fabric.
+Notice the appearance of each piece of yarn. Which is smoother? What
+effect would friction have on the worsted yarn? the woolen yarn? Which
+sample of yarn would shine and reflect the light?
+
+
+=Experiment 18--Burling and Mending=
+
+    Apparatus: Chalk, scissors, dissecting pin, needle, pick glass.
+    Material: 4 square inches of cloth from the loom.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 71.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product. It must
+pass through several processes before it is finished. These processes
+are known as _finishing_.
+
+2. What is the feel of this cloth?
+
+3. Hold the cloth to the light and look through it. Note the
+imperfections and chalk them. What defects did you notice?
+
+4. Place the cloth on the desk, face down. Rub the fingers over the
+back of the cloth. When the fingers locate a knot, raise it with the
+dissecting needle to be cut off later.
+
+5. Reverse the cloth. Rub the fingers over the face. When a knot is
+found, force it through to the back with the dissecting needle. All
+the knots are on one side now. Clip them off with the scissors. This
+is called _burling_ and is the first process of finishing.
+
+6. Hold the cloth to the light. Notice where an entire filling thread
+is missing. This is known as a _full miss pick_. When part of a
+filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a _half miss pick_. In
+general what does a miss pick mean?
+
+7. Unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth. With it
+thread a needle and replace the missing pick. Follow the weave
+closely, using a pick glass as an aid. You are performing the second
+process of finishing, that of mending.
+
+8. If a warp end is missing replace it.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by _finishing_?
+
+2. What is the first process of finishing? What is burling?
+
+3. What is a full miss pick? a half miss pick?
+
+4. What is the second process of finishing? What is mending? Of what
+must the mender be careful?
+
+
+=Experiment 19--Removal of Stains=
+
+    Material: Stained fabrics.
+
+Textiles are easily stained, therefore it is necessary to know
+something about the character of stains and the methods of removal.
+Stains may be roughly divided into the following classes:
+
+    _a._ Stains from foods, such as grease and fruit acids.
+
+    _b._ Stains from machinery, as wheel grease and oils.
+
+    _c._ Blood stains.
+
+    _d._ Inks.
+
+    _e._ Chemicals, such as acids, alkalies.
+
+Food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup, meat,
+milk, etc., or to sugar contained in candies or preserves, or to fruit
+acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces.
+
+Wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts of
+machines, like elevators, street cars, etc. After the cloth leaves the
+loom it often contains spots of grease, oil, or dirt stains due to
+drippings from the loom or overhead machinery. These are removed by
+means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain. Ether is the
+principal solvent used in the mill to remove small stains.
+
+Very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat, unless
+carried out of a house, will condense and settle on fabrics in the
+form of a film which collects a great deal of dust. (A bad grease spot
+usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation.) In order to
+break up this film it is necessary to separate the entangled dust.
+This is performed by some mechanical means, such as shaking and
+brushing.
+
+The most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle of
+absorbent material[24] around the spot to take up the excess of
+liquid. A white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb the
+solvent and show when the goods are clean. Then apply the solvent with
+a cloth of the same color and texture (satin is excellent as it does
+not grow linty) and rub from outside the spot to the center to prevent
+spreading. It is necessary to rub very carefully as excessive rubbing
+will remove the nap and change the color. One of the great dangers in
+removing a stain is that you may spoil the fabric. Therefore great
+care must be exercised.
+
+The principal solvents are ether, chloroform, alcohol, turpentine,
+benzene, and naphtha. Each solvent may be used to best advantage on
+certain fabrics.
+
+The commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities that
+leave a brown ring after evaporation. This brown ring is very
+objectionable. Turpentine is used only in removing stains from coarse
+fabrics. Chloroform, benzene, and naphtha are used on ordinary silks
+and linens. Ether and chloroform are used to best advantage in
+removing stains from delicate silk, as they seldom affect colors and
+evaporate very quickly. Of course it must be borne in mind that when a
+stain is removed from a fabric that portion that contained the stain
+loses some coloring matter and feels rougher than the other part.
+
+
+_Grease Spots on Heavy Goods that cannot be Laundered_
+
+It is usually desirable to use the following method in removing grease
+from a heavy fabric, such as carpets or colored fabrics. In case the
+grease is fresh, place over the stain a piece of clean blotting paper
+or a piece of butcher's brown wrapping paper and underneath absorbent
+paper or oil cloth, and then press the spot with a warm iron. As heat
+often affects the shades of certain colors such as blues, greens, and
+reds, it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric and see if the
+grease is melted.
+
+Remove a stain from a piece of carpet.
+
+
+_Removal of Grease and Blood_
+
+_Ordinary Fabrics (wash goods)._ Wash the fabric containing grease or
+blood stain with tepid water and soap.
+
+_Delicate Fabrics._ As strong soap will spoil some colors and textures
+it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is stained.
+
+Remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric.
+
+
+_Removal of Wheel Grease and Lubricants on Fine Fabrics_
+
+Wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite. Apply benzene to the
+wheel grease spot. This will dissolve the oil, leaving the coloring
+matter (graphite) on the cloth, and this may be collected on the white
+cloth on the other side.
+
+Remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric.
+
+
+_Removal of Acids_
+
+Fruit acids and all others, except nitric acid may be removed by
+putting ammonia on the spot. This will neutralize the acid, forming a
+salt which may be either brushed or washed off. In the case of nitric
+acid the fibers of the cloth are actually destroyed and no amount of
+ammonia will restore the original condition of the fabric.
+
+Remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist.
+
+
+_Removal of Blood_
+
+Blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with cold or
+tepid water. Never use hot water, as hot water coagulates the albumen
+of the blood. After removing the blood soap and warm water may be
+used. In case the fabric is a thick cloth, the blood may be removed by
+applications of moist starch.
+
+Take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids,
+soup, wheel grease, ink, and blood and remove them. Exercise great
+care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring.
+
+Remove blood from a fabric.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is a solvent? an absorbent?
+
+2. What is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from silks,
+coarse goods, and linens? from delicate silks?
+
+3. Why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain?
+
+4. How may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods?
+
+5. What is wheel grease? How may it be removed?
+
+6. How will ammonia remove acid stains?
+
+7. Does it remove all? Why not?
+
+8. Explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth.
+
+
+=Experiment 20--Dyeing Wool=
+
+    Apparatus: Large porcelain dish or casserole, filter.
+    Materials: Undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric, undyed yarn,
+               and undyed raw cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+diamond dye (green or red) in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
+Place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid and boil ten
+minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff
+washes off or not.
+
+2. Repeat the experiment, using the same weight of undyed woolen yarn.
+Repeat with worsted yarn.
+
+3. Repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver.
+
+4. Notice which has the deeper color. The degree of color depends on
+the amount of twist in yarn. Which sample has absorbed the greatest
+amount of dyestuff from the liquid?
+
+    _a._ Why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed?
+
+    _b._ Why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or
+    yarn dyed?
+
+
+=Experiment 21--Dyeing Cotton=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
+    Material: Piece of cotton cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 67.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of
+cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed
+fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth that has
+been previously washed in common alum.[25] Note the effect. Which has
+the greater attraction for dyestuffs, cotton or wool? Why is alum
+used?
+
+3. Repeat the same experiment, using first the same weight of cotton
+yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver. Notice the results.
+
+Which piece of cotton holds the dye best, that which was dipped in
+alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution?
+
+
+=Experiment 22--Weighting Silk.--Affinity of Metallic Salts for Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dishes.
+    Material: Silk yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 212-214.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein No. 1
+by looping some cotton thread into it. Prepare a tepid bath containing
+10 gm. strong sumach extract in 400 cc. water. Enter the skeins of
+silk and work for 15 to 20 minutes, meanwhile slowly raising the
+temperature to about 150 deg. F. Remove, squeeze, rinse with water,
+squeeze, and dry skein No. 1 for weighing.
+
+2. Meanwhile prepare another bath containing 4 gm. of copperas
+(ferrous sulphate) in 400 cc. cold water. Work skein No. 2 in bath for
+10 minutes cold. Remove, and rinse well; save the iron bath. Repeat
+the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several times more, finally
+wash the sumach iron skein in 1 per cent hot soap solution; rinse,
+squeeze, and dry. Weigh each dried and cooled skein and note the
+increase in weight of each. Save sample for Experiment 23 and note the
+effect of weighting on the yarn.
+
+
+=Experiment 23--Dyeing Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
+    Material: Piece of silk yarn.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 210.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of
+logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of
+silk skein, from Experiment 22, in the liquid and boil ten minutes.
+Then wash the dyed silk and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or
+not.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk yarn
+without weighing it. Compare the results.
+
+
+=Experiment 24--Test to Distinguish Piece-Dyed from Yarn-Dyed Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pen knife.
+    Materials: Woolen and cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 66-68.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Unravel threads of the suspected sample, and with a blade of pen knife
+note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn as noted by
+the depth of color in the interior of the yarn. In case there is the
+same depth of color in the interior as on the surface, the fabric is
+yarn-dyed. If on the other hand, the interior of the yarn is not so
+highly colored as the exterior, it is piece-dyed.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by yarn-dyed fabric?
+
+2. What is meant by piece-dyed fabric?
+
+3. How may the two be distinguished?
+
+
+=Experiment 25--Test to Distinguish Dyed from Printed Fabrics=
+
+    Apparatus: Knife-blade.
+    Materials: Cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.
+
+Printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing the back
+side of the cloth, and noting whether or not the pattern on the face
+of the cloth penetrates through to the back, or only the outline
+shows. In case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the fabric,
+it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread of the
+suspected sample, and by the means of a knife-blade attempting to
+scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread. If the dyestuff
+has penetrated into the interior of the thread, it is _not_ printed.
+
+Generally speaking, printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics by the
+fact that the former have the design printed on the face of the cloth.
+This is called _direct printing_. The best dyed fabrics are obtained
+by dyeing in what is called a _jig_, and the whole fabric is saturated
+with color. Most, if not all the cloths which you see in the retail
+dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in the jig. Some
+of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded in a mangle, but
+there has been a very small quantity of these goods on the market for
+many years.
+
+Printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics; it all depends
+upon the process by which the goods are converted. Within the past few
+years great headway has been made in dyeing with what are termed _vat_
+colors. Indanthrene is a vat color and a great many mills have used
+this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades. This is what
+would be termed a _fast_ color in every sense of the word. There are a
+number of dyestuff makers in Europe who put vat colors on the market,
+but they all call them by different names. Vat colors have been used
+with success in printing during the past year or two, especially on
+shirting fabrics, and these colors are fast to both light and washing.
+Most direct colors used for printing or dyeing are equally fast to
+light and washing, but of course they will not stand the test as well
+as the vat colors mentioned above.
+
+The essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to
+withstand exposure to light and washing. In printing, of course, a
+greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dyeing, in
+fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the market the
+effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in any other way
+than by printing. At the same time, although the field in designing
+for dyed fabrics is limited, some very handsome effects can be
+obtained.
+
+It will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed and
+dyed fabrics put on the market, both foreign and domestic, will be in
+the vat colors which, as stated above, are very fast. Even at the
+present time there are many mills that are using this class of colors
+entirely, especially the mills which manufacture woven fabrics.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. In printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the back
+of the cloth?
+
+2. If the fabric is printed on both sides, how may this fact be
+proved?
+
+3. What is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 26--Bleaching by Sulphur Dioxide=
+
+    Apparatus: A quart bottle.
+    Material: Sulphur, worsted or silk fabric.
+
+Bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers such as
+woolen and silk fabrics. It injures the fibers and at the same time
+leaves them yellow.
+
+Animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous solution of
+sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning sulphur.
+
+Wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a quart
+bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur.[26] The fumes of burning
+sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter--dyestuff. The fumes
+(called sulphur dioxide) do not in most cases destroy the coloring
+matter as chlorine does, but simply combine with it to form colorless
+compounds which can be destroyed. The color can be restored by
+exposing the bleached fabric to dilute sulphuric acid.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be
+bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes?
+
+2. What becomes of the coloring matter?
+
+
+=Experiment 27--Bleaching by Bleaching Powder=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
+    Material: Piece of calico.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 148.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart bottle
+containing a pint of water.[27] Then place a piece of calico in the
+water containing the bleaching powder. What is the effect on the
+calico? Then remove cloth to another bottle filled with dilute
+hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. What is the effect on the
+color? Then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in water.
+
+Why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through two
+baths in bleaching? What is contained in the first bath? in the second
+bath?
+
+
+=Experiment 30--Determining Style of Weave=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Different fabrics.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 56-58, etc.
+
+Examine different samples of cloth and classify them according to the
+seven standards given on pages 56-58, etc.
+
+
+=Experiment 31--Determining the Size of Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Yard stick.
+    Materials: Sample of cotton, woolen, and worsted yarns.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 49, 51, 52.
+
+As yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of
+thickness, it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring this
+thickness. For this purpose yarns are numbered, so that when the
+number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may be gained. It
+would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds according to one
+fixed standard, yet unfortunately this is not done. The methods of
+counting yarns are many and varied. The usual method is to estimate
+the yarn number by taking the number of hands of a definite length
+which make up some given weight. Thus in the worsted yarn, No. 1 is a
+yarn that has 560 yards to a pound. No. 2 worsted yarn has two times
+560 yards to a pound. How many yards in No. 12 worsted yarn? How many
+yards in No. 20 cotton yarn?
+
+
+=Experiment 32--Test for Twist in Yarn=
+
+    Apparatus: Test dial.
+    Material: Piece of yarn.
+    References: _Textiles_, pages 131-132.
+
+As the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength, it is
+necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn. The
+strength increases up to a certain limit. When this limit is reached,
+increased twist does not make the thread any stronger. We may also
+have twist and strength at the expense of bulk. The test consists in
+finding out the number of turns per inch, and this is done by an
+arrangement where a certain length of yarn is stretched between two
+points on a twisting machine and the twist taken out. The number of
+turns required to take the twist completely out are registered on a
+dial at the side of the apparatus.
+
+Poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine as the
+finer cotton. The shorter the cotton the more twist is required to
+spin it, and the more twist that is put into the yarn, the less will
+be the yardage. Whereas on the finer and longer cotton there will be
+less twist put into it, and the yarn will be much stronger. Find the
+twist in different kinds of yarn.
+
+
+=Experiment 33--Determining the Direction of Warp and Filling=
+
+    Apparatus: Microscope.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.
+
+When one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine the
+direction of the warp and direction of the filling.
+
+Fabrics with Selvedge.--Examine any fabric with a selvedge and notice
+that the warp threads run in the same direction as the length (longest
+side) of the selvedge. What direction will the filling threads bear to
+the selvedge?
+
+Fabrics with a Nap.--Examine a piece of flannel and notice the
+direction of the nap. Why will the direction of the nap be the same as
+the direction of the warp? Remember the way in which the fabric enters
+the napping machine.
+
+Fabrics Containing Double Threads.--Examine a fabric containing double
+and single threads and notice that the warp contains the double
+threads. Why?
+
+Fabrics Containing Cotton and Woolen Yarn.--Examine a fabric
+containing cotton and woolen threads running in different directions
+and notice that the cotton threads form the warp. Why?
+
+Another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine warp
+and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains the
+greater twist? Why? See if they are separated at more regular
+intervals. Why?
+
+Stiffened or Starched Fabrics.--Examine stiffened or starched goods
+very closely and notice the threads. If only one set can be seen they
+are the warp threads. The stiffer and straighter threads are found in
+the warp. Why? The rough and crooked threads are seen in the filling.
+
+
+=Experiment 34--Determining the Density of a Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Samples of cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine different samples of cloth and determine the number of
+filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass.
+
+2. Then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and see
+whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density.
+
+
+=Experiment 35--Determining Weight=
+
+    Apparatus: Balances, die.
+    Materials: 4 square inches of cloth.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Fabrics are bought and sold by the yard. In order to express the
+amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per yard is
+usually given.
+
+2. In order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth of
+definite size, usually about 4 sq. in., is stamped out by means of a
+die, or cut by means of a tin plate exactly 4 sq. in. (2 in. on the
+side). This is then weighed on very accurate balances and expressed in
+grains. Find the weight per yard. Remember 7000 grains equal 1 lb.; 16
+oz. equal 1 lb.
+
+
+=Experiment 36--Determining Shrinkage=
+
+    Apparatus: Hot water.
+    Material: Sample of woolen fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour hot
+water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it in the
+morning at a moderate temperature without stretching. Then measure its
+length and divide the difference in lengths by the original length.
+The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the per cent of shrinkage.
+
+2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with a cotton
+fabric.
+
+3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?
+
+
+=Experiment 37--Test of Fastness[28] of Color under Washing=
+
+Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution. Materials: Cotton and woolen
+fabrics. Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action of
+washing. They require more care than white goods and should be soaked
+in cold water containing very little soap and no soda. They should be
+dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them. If it is
+necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are dried wrong
+side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five times as much as
+reflected light.
+
+2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the
+action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation. In
+order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a
+soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household, and
+heated to 131 deg. F. The treatment should be repeated several times.
+
+3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods than
+white?
+
+2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand the
+action of soap solution?
+
+3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131 deg. F.) affect the fastness of
+colored fabric?
+
+
+=Experiment 38--Test of Fastness of Color under Friction=
+
+    Apparatus: Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.
+    Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to
+be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand friction
+and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must
+not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis (skin),
+or in close contact with other articles of clothing, as in the case of
+underwear.
+
+In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is
+necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric.
+
+In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary to
+have the rubbing equal in all cases.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is meant by friction?
+
+2. What is meant by the expression "fastness of color of two fabrics"?
+
+3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to withstand
+friction?
+
+
+=Experiment 39--Test of Fastness of Color against Rain=
+
+    Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.
+    Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are
+expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting with
+undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice whether the
+color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.
+
+Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on it.
+Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried. Spotting
+may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong side of the
+material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp, unroll and
+press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.
+
+Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain may
+come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color and becomes
+gray and dull.
+
+
+=Experiment 40--Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight=
+
+    Apparatus: Cardboard.
+    Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose
+the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth
+each day and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when
+compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken
+the sunlight to change the color. Does direct sunlight have any effect
+upon colored fabrics? Which is the most affected by the sun, silk,
+woolen, or cotton fabrics, dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length
+of time? Are fabrics changed any sooner by the sun than by the
+weather?
+
+
+=Experiment 41--Test of Fastness of Color to Weather, Light, and Air=
+
+    Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air by
+placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed to
+the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above away
+from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed to the weather
+with those in the house and note the number of days it takes to
+change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the fabrics are most easily
+affected by the weather, light, and air?
+
+
+=Experiment 42--Test of Fastness of Color against Street Mud and Dust=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.
+    Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+Ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and
+dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample should
+be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution), dried, and
+brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying,
+brushing, and noting any change in the color.
+
+    _a._ Is there any change in color after the lime water
+    has been removed from the cloth?
+
+    _b._ With what may the action of the lime water or soda
+    be compared?
+
+
+=Experiment 43--Testing Rubberized Fabrics=
+
+    Materials: Rubberized fabrics.
+
+A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic
+purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excellent
+rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the market
+that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing qualities
+for the service they are intended to render.
+
+Strength and Resistance to Scratching.--In order to test a rubberized
+fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand everyday use,
+see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail. Then crease
+it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread it out very carefully
+and notice whether there are any broken places. If there are it should
+be rejected.
+
+Waterproof Qualities.--A rubberized fabric should be waterproof. A
+sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and filling it with
+water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with water. Notice whether
+it cracks or leaks.
+
+Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they are
+substantial.
+
+
+=Experiment 44--Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber=
+
+    Apparatus: Acid, fire.
+    Materials: Warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made of
+wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more materials,
+to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience can teach one
+much in this respect, and in many cases inspection is quite
+insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of material and
+notice how it burns.
+
+Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the warp and
+filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of filling yarn.
+Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether it burns slowly and
+curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable smell, or
+burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. Describe the burning process.
+
+2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?
+
+3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?
+
+Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric
+acid. Apply heat and note the effect.
+
+What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?
+
+What is the acid test for animal fiber?
+
+Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable or
+animal fibers.
+
+
+=Experiment 45--Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics=
+
+Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands and use
+both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics absorbs the
+moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.
+
+Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice that the
+linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and launders
+much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other hand gives off
+a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless.[29]
+
+Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber. Linen
+cannot be given a cotton fabric finish.[30]
+
+Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm, and
+non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag while linen
+retains firmness and stiffness.
+
+Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?
+
+What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics? Between
+the fibers of the fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 46--Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.
+    Material: Piece of silk fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular,
+various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real silk.
+To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potassium hydrate
+solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow solution it is
+artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.
+
+Another simple way used by some workmen, although unhygienic, is to
+unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place them in the
+mouth, and masticate them vigorously. Artificial silk will soften
+under the operation and break up into a mass of pulp. Natural silk
+will retain its fibrous strength.
+
+Test various samples of cheap "silk" hosiery.
+
+
+=Experiment 47--Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.
+    Material: Silk or woolen fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected thread
+or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is present
+it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.
+
+Test various samples of silk and wool.
+
+
+=Experiment 48--Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen=
+
+    Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.
+    Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are made to
+pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes to detect
+cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb and finger,
+the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If the fibers of
+the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears upon the addition
+of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color remains, the fibers are
+linen. The most reliable test is to examine the fiber under the
+microscope and note the difference in structure.
+
+2. Test a cheap _linen_ fabric for cotton.
+
+3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy
+through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears
+shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and
+wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has an
+exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.
+
+4. Describe a chemical test for linen.
+
+5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities of
+cotton and linen?
+
+
+=Experiment 49--Test of Fabric to Withstand Ironing and Pressing=
+
+    Apparatus: Hot iron.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot iron
+(about 200 deg. F.). Compare the sample immediately with one not
+ironed. Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks,
+change while they are hot. If the original shade returns when the
+fabric has cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?
+
+2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?
+
+3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the three
+kinds of fabrics?
+
+
+=Experiment 50--Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration=
+
+    Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
+    Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact with
+the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand the
+excretions of the body.
+
+2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of
+dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a quart
+of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6 deg. F. The
+fabric should be dipped a number of times, and then dried, without
+rinsing, between parchment paper.
+
+
+_Questions_
+
+1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?
+
+2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration, even
+if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?
+
+
+=Experiment 51--Test for Determining Dressing=
+
+    Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.
+    Materials: Various fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain
+considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric and
+determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a small sample
+of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it together, so that
+the dressing is removed and the quantity employed may be determined.
+If much dressing has been used, dust will be produced in rubbing.
+Prick the surface with your finger nail. Notice whether the starch
+comes off. Then wet your finger and rub it on the cloth and allow it
+to dry. Does the gloss disappear?
+
+2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and notice
+whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the sample with a
+magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether the dressing is
+superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.
+
+3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss and pasty
+look?
+
+4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much dressing
+after washing.
+
+5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting in
+a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then "boil the fabric out
+in hot water,"--boiling for several hours and then drying it. The
+difference in weight after drying and before boiling gives the weight
+of sizing material per sample piece.
+
+6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large residue
+is left after burning.
+
+
+=Experiment 52--Testing the Strength of Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Dynamometer.
+    Materials: Various fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 237.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place the
+two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, holding it
+tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in one
+direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice whether
+one set is very much stronger than the other.
+
+2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an
+instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out whether
+a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and whether it
+has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are of importance
+in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn as shown should
+at least be strong enough to bear the strain of manufacture. The test
+is made by stretching a hank of yarn between the two hooks of a cloth
+testing machine. The handle at the side is now turned, so that the
+lower hook descends and puts a strain on the hank. This strain is
+increased, and at the same time the pointer moves around the dial,
+which indicates in pounds the amount of strain. When the threads of
+the hank begin to break, the strain is released, and the catch at the
+side keeps the pointer in position until the amount of strain is read
+on the dial. The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs
+is shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator
+arranged near the upper hook.
+
+Test different fabrics and yarns.
+
+
+=Experiment 53--Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Pick glass.
+    Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 153.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and notice
+the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The single thread
+is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each other, thus giving
+the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness. Why is hosiery
+suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread of the knitted fabric
+and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by cutting it. Is the yarn
+intact?
+
+2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying the
+following sketch. (See page 310.)
+
+Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking in
+the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in the
+threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the printed
+diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen that its
+very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual loops that
+if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to return to
+the normal.
+
+The essential characteristics of good hose are:
+
+1. That they should be without seams.
+
+2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of the
+wearer.
+
+3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest wear
+comes.
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY WEAVING
+
+  _a._ Weft. _b._ Warp.]
+
+[Illustration: PLAIN STOCKING FABRIC]
+
+The essential characteristics of good underwear are:
+
+1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted
+cloth.
+
+2. It should be porous in a high degree--whether in winter weight or
+summer weight.
+
+3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing machines, with
+as little bulk as possible.
+
+
+=Experiment 54--Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections in Hosiery=
+
+    Apparatus: Magnifying glass.
+    Materials: Hosiery (seconds).
+    Reference: _Textiles_, page 159.
+
+Examine a piece of hosiery called a _second_, obtained from a hosiery
+mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are present:
+
+    _a._ Yarn contains thick bits and buns.
+
+    _b._ Knots are badly tied.
+
+    _c._ Discolored yarn.
+
+    _d._ Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being
+    too coarse for the yarn.
+
+    _e._ Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.
+
+
+=Experiment 55--Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric=
+
+    Apparatus: Crochet needle.
+    Material: Thread.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a fabric.
+Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only one thread is
+made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a large needle with
+a hook at the end. The chief point is that the loops are not formed in
+uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and with the greatest liberty to
+choose any part of the article already made to form a new loop. For
+this reason, crocheting adapts itself to the production of fancy
+patterns useful for ornamenting.
+
+2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting that
+a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a single
+yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks of loops,
+while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of which is
+a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached at
+intervals to itself.
+
+
+=Experiment 56--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Cotton Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 151-152.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the lowest,
+medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric. Notice how
+quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a _thick_ gloss
+loses its luster after washing.
+
+2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white lawn,
+Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric. Wash the
+samples several times.
+
+Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?
+
+What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?
+
+
+=Experiment 57--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Woolen Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different samples of woolens.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less covered face,
+with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable, and the general
+color effects are much smoother and softer than those of worsteds.
+
+2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.
+
+Defects.--If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from the start
+or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough fulled in
+width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a great many
+fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility of such
+pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.
+
+
+=Experiment 58--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Worsted Cloth=
+
+    Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.
+
+
+_Directions_
+
+1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of the
+pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is exposed to
+light should show a luster without polish.
+
+2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how many
+conform to the above requirements.
+
+3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean
+and even looking face. By clean is meant well sheared. By even is
+meant that the individual ends and picks used should be _even_ and not
+full of knots, or of any foreign matter. Of course, there are some
+exceptions, for instance, in an unfinished worsted which has more or
+less nap on the face, it could not be sheared absolutely clear, but at
+the same time, the face should be very evenly cropped.
+
+Defects.--A serious defect would be if the cloth was not well sheared
+or if it contained many uneven cords and picks, or ends and picks
+missing, or coarse ends and slubs.
+
+Examine different worsteds and notice any defects.
+
+WORSTEDS.--Speaking generally, worsteds may be divided into two
+classes, distinguishable according to the _luster_ of their surface,
+or to the softness of their feel. They are used both for ladies' and
+men's wear. Worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds. The
+coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy weave
+effects for piece dyes, marketed in variety of finish, according to
+fashion.
+
+Under this heading may be classified staple cloths, such as serges,
+clays, and fancy weave effects without any illumination. They can be
+finished in three ways:--Clear, undressed, and cheviot, used for
+ladies' dress goods or men's wear, according to weight.
+
+The finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion, but there is
+always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds, for men's
+wear.
+
+Examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them.
+
+SUITINGS.--The term suitings covers various manipulations of
+manufactured goods.
+
+1. Tennis suitings, composed of all wool, or all worsted, white or
+cream ground, decorated with solid color, silk and weave stripe
+effects.
+
+2. Piece-dyed worsteds, such as a blue ground with white silk line,
+cable cord, and fancy weave stripe effects, or any other ground shade
+color with its complementary decoration applied.
+
+3. Mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics,
+decorations applied in color; cable, silk, and weave effects in
+stripes or overline color checks, suitable for men's wear, or
+decorated suitable for woman's wear. The darker shades for fall and
+the lighter shades for spring.
+
+General weight of fabric for men's wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56
+in.; general weight of fabric for ladies' wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd.,
+54 in.
+
+4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see a fancy
+effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored mixture, in
+loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in fancy effects are
+sometimes fashionable, and at other times the cloth finish is popular.
+
+This class may be subdivided into
+
+  1. Light weight for spring or fall.
+
+  2. Heavy weight for winter.
+
+The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in lighter
+colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish from
+worsted or woolen stock for fall.
+
+The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods,
+such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and warmer
+coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy coat is
+required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.
+
+Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.
+
+TROUSERINGS.--Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings and are
+heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground shade of the better
+grade of men's wear fabrics is generally composed of twist warp yarns,
+ranging from dark slate gray to light lavender gray. An endless
+variety of broad and narrow fine line effects is produced by expert
+manipulation and combination of weave and silk decorations, producing
+the pleasing effect required for this class of goods. The filling is
+nearly always black; but sometimes a dark slate is used.
+
+The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures and
+twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better grades.
+
+OVERCOATINGS.--Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted fabrics and
+heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appearance. Whether
+thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be elastic fabrics,
+that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods can be. When hard or
+stiff they never make a graceful garment. The special goods made for
+overcoats are nearly all soft goods.
+
+Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings,
+overcoatings, trouserings, etc.
+
+
+=Experiment 59--Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric=
+
+    Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 203-218.
+
+There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The consumer
+is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders why there is
+such a difference in price. The difference in price is due to the cost
+of raw material and additional cost is due to the care in
+manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35 to $5 a pound
+according to its nature, quality, and the country from which it comes.
+The cost of throwing silks preparatory to dyeing also varies, the
+average being 55 cents a pound for organzine or warp, and 33 cents a
+pound for tram and filling. The prices here also vary according to the
+nature of the twist imparted to the silk, which is regulated by the
+kind of cloth it is to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55
+cents a pound upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye
+and the treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of
+dyeing. The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items
+necessary with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps
+average about a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths
+and range upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of
+weaving also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric
+and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.
+
+Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for weaving the
+different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly in cost; for
+instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent upon the work and
+the number of colors used, whether it is blotch printing, discharge
+work, or block printing. Different processes in finishing have widely
+varied costs. At the present time moire work is done which costs as
+high as 25 cents per yard. There are also other materials which can be
+finished for as little as 1/2 cent per yard. Some goods have to be
+finished over and over again in the dyeing and finishing while others
+are very simply done. Many printed goods are handled 150 times after
+they come from the loom.
+
+When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by
+different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which
+good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye fabrics when
+burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while those which are
+weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply char and turn white
+without losing the structure of the fabric.
+
+A fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal weight
+gives the maximum strength for the amount of material used. For the
+same weight and material, that having the most bindings of warp and
+filling will give the greater service. Fabrics with an insufficient
+number of warp or filling threads slide easily and do not give good
+service, though sometimes fashionable. A fabric having a twist in the
+warp and filling will last longer than one using the same amount of
+silk and the same binding with less twist.
+
+All of these things may be taught to women many times over, but if the
+fashion demands an article which breaks all of the above laws and is
+everything that it should not be, they will buy it in preference to a
+serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the consumer will be safest in
+buying goods produced by houses of good reputation and whose products
+are well known.
+
+A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion demand
+and is quite independent of their cost of production. For instance, at
+the present time crepe fabrics, brocades, and prints are commanding a
+premium while such goods as plain taffetas could not be sold for the
+cost of production.
+
+The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones are
+pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.
+
+
+=Experiment 60--How to Determine the Count of Yarn in Cloth=
+
+    Apparatus: Scales, ruler.
+    Material: Samples of fabrics.
+    Reference: _Textiles_, pages 144-146.
+
+The United States Government imposes a tax on certain imported fabrics
+and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty are to be
+ascertained according to the average number of the yarns in the
+condition in which it is imported.
+
+The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance
+covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if
+continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the
+count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be
+removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of the yarn
+is the English number of 840 yd. to a lb. for a No. 1 yarn.
+
+The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling the fabric,
+and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the weight in the
+proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8-1/3 grains, which is
+equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.
+
+The following simple formula may be used:
+
+Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number of square
+inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied by 100; then
+divide the product thus obtained by the weight of the sample in grains
+multiplied by 432. The quotient will give the number of the yarn.
+
+For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which equals
+16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of 56 threads
+to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The formula applied would
+be as follows:
+
+    (56 x 16 x 100) / (8.6 x 432) = 24, the number of the yarn.
+
+The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square yard of the
+cloth and dividing the number of threads per square inch by 1/300 of
+the weight per square yard in grains.
+
+Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics.
+
+
+=Experiment 61--Study of Fabrics=
+
+A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard
+fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection and
+know how to test them for adulterants.
+
+This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one by one,
+placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath the sample should
+be written the use of the fabric, the width, the different grades,
+with prices, wearing qualities, and how the fabric is made. In
+connection with this work special effort should be made to develop a
+textile vocabulary so as to be able to discriminate between the
+different fabrics, to know the types of weaves, and the different
+kinds of finish, etc. In this way develop the ability to know what
+materials and colors weave best, the prices which should be paid for
+strong materials, the amount of material necessary, and the trade
+names of fabrics which can be depended upon for substantial goods.
+
+Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the teacher
+by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that they have
+previously studied and have them give the name, approximate price or
+grade, weave, qualities, etc.
+
+Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained from the
+leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should have on
+exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics with a card
+attached giving the name and use of each.
+
+
+=Experiment 62--How to Examine a Fabric=
+
+The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics is
+the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To illustrate:
+broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap evenly laid. If the
+finish is in keeping with the character of the cloth, he next examines
+the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is composed of pure wool or
+two or more fibers in combination.
+
+Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the
+requirements.
+
+A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well dyed.
+There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain this,
+neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way is to take a
+small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing and light test.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a
+pen holder.
+
+[22] A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained
+from Hammett & Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.
+
+[23] In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are
+called _tow_, and the long fibers _line_.
+
+[24] Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of
+liquids; they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers'
+earth, rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of
+bread, powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used
+to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate
+fabrics. They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from
+spreading.
+
+[25] Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that
+will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring
+matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of
+aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.
+
+[26] Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by
+placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by
+means of a glass plate.
+
+[27] Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers
+of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been
+added). Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set
+free, which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric
+acid. The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of
+soda. They are called Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. A similar
+solution of a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de
+Javelle.
+
+[28] A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from
+_Shoemaking_, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston.
+
+[29] In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth
+4 sq. yd. is 16_d._ or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is
+1/2_d._ or 1 ct. per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of
+flax is 6_d._ or 12 cts. per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound
+of flax is 2-1/2_d._ or 5 cts. per lb.; cost of bleaching and
+finishing a pound of flax is 7_d._ or 14 cts. per lb.; $75 is spent in
+turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in turning $100
+worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning $100 worth of
+brown linen into linen for market.
+
+[30] A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to
+the light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be
+more easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present
+considerable irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric
+the nap is usually cotton and the threads more regular than the
+filling (flax). The best linen is made from fine and fairly regular
+threads; common linen from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no
+more subject to weak places in weaving than cotton, although it is
+harder to bleach and may be weakened in this process. If each
+operation is not perfect the linen will become yellow in storage.
+
+
+
+
+SOURCES OF SUPPLY
+
+
+The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are willing to
+supply schools with samples of their products. But the demand for
+samples has been so great that it is necessary in most cases to pay a
+small sum to cover the cost.
+
+The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are named
+here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.
+
+The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers may
+obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers in
+textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.
+
+
+_Catalogues of Cotton Machinery_
+
+Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton pickers.
+
+Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Faler & Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Potter & Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.
+
+C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton machinery.
+
+Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y.--Cotton machinery.
+
+American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Humidifiers
+and textile machinery.
+
+
+_Standard Textile Papers_
+
+American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.
+
+American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.
+
+Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory Supplies,
+published by Teachers College, Columbia University, West 120th St.,
+New York.
+
+Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.
+
+
+_Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples_
+
+American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass.--Booklets on _From Wool to Cloth_;
+samples of fabrics.
+
+Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of cotton and
+wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.
+
+S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass.--Egyptian and Peruvian cotton, etc.
+
+Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York--Ramie.
+
+Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York--Linen yarns and thread.
+
+Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarn.
+
+Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H.--Samples of cotton.
+
+Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J.--French spun worsted yarn.
+
+C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Yarns and fabrics.
+
+Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y.--Wools and shoddies.
+
+Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Foreign wools.
+
+Francis Willey & Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Top, foreign
+wools.
+
+John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Mohair, noils, and
+carpet wools.
+
+The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn.--Novelty yarns.
+
+Catlin & Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarns.
+
+Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass.--Shoddies.
+
+Parker & Wilder Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Lawrence & Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Joy, Langdon, & Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.
+
+Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J.--Exhibit.
+
+George A. Clark & Bro., 400 Broadway, New York--Cabinet and booklet.
+
+Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn.--Silk samples, silk fabrics.
+
+Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.--Wall chart of cotton field.
+
+Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La.--Cotton postal cards.
+
+Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa.--Booklet, _All about
+Cotton_.
+
+White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C.--Stereoscopic views.
+
+Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.
+
+Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland.--Prints illustrating
+linen manufacture and samples.
+
+Jas. McCutcheon & Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York.--Flax cabinet.
+
+The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York.--Flax cabinet.
+
+Belding Bro. & Co., 526 Broadway, New York.--School exhibits of silk.
+
+Brainerd & Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.--Book and
+cabinet of silk.
+
+Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y.--Spun silk and exhibits.
+
+M. Heminway & Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn.--Booklets on silk.
+
+Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass.--Sealed cabinets and books on silk.
+
+William Skinner & Sons, 47 East 17th St., New York City.--Silks and
+satins.
+
+S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York.--Wool fiber.
+
+Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.--Sheep chart.
+
+A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York.--Raw wool by the pound.
+
+Schermerhorn & Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.--Wall chart
+illustration of sheep.
+
+L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.
+
+Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.
+
+Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga.--Samples of cotton
+plant or bolls.
+
+
+_Woolen Yarns_
+
+Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.
+
+
+_Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery_
+
+C. G. Sargent's Sons, Graniteville, Mass.--Wool machinery.
+
+Davis & Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass.--Woolen and worsted machinery.
+
+Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Worsted machinery.
+
+Crompton & Knowles, Worcester, Mass.--Worsted silk machinery.
+
+Speed & Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Textile machinery.
+
+George Gerry & Co., Athol, Mass.--Shoddy machinery.
+
+Tolhoust Machine Works, Troy, N. Y.--Hydro extractor.
+
+Parks & Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt.--Machinery.
+
+Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass.--Finishing machinery.
+
+General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass.--Pictures, showing
+textile machinery in operation by motors.
+
+Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I.--Finishing machinery.
+
+
+_Knitting Machinery_
+
+Scott & Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.
+
+Nye & Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+_Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials_
+
+The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York.--Sizing materials.
+
+Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York.--Coal tar products,
+dyestuffs, and literature.
+
+Arnold Hoffman & Co., Providence, R. I.--Sizing materials.
+
+H. A. Metz & Co., 122 Hudson St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.
+
+Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Acid test, 239
+
+    Adelaide wool, 10
+
+    Adulterations of wool, 80, 82
+
+    Albatross, 83, 173
+
+    Alma, 219
+
+    Alpaca, 1, 15, 34, 83
+
+    American cotton, 110
+
+    American wool, 3
+
+    Angora, 32, 83
+
+    Animal fibers, 1
+
+    Artificial fibers, 1
+
+    Artificial silk, 1, 230
+
+    Asbestos, 1, 234
+
+    Astrakhans, 15, 84
+
+    Australian wool, 3, 8, 9
+
+    Awning, 173
+
+
+    Baling cotton, 117
+
+    Bandanna, 84
+
+    Barege, 219
+
+    Bast fibers, 193
+
+    Batiste, 173
+
+    Beam, 53
+
+    Beaver cloth, 52, 84
+
+    Bedford cord, 84, 174
+
+    Beige, 85
+
+    Bengaline, 219
+
+    Berber, 219
+
+    Bindings, 84
+
+    Bleaching cotton, 148
+      flax, 196
+      thread, 141
+
+    Blending, 11, 31
+
+    Bombazine, 84, 220
+
+    Bottany, 84
+
+    Boucle, 85
+
+    Bourrette, 174
+
+    Bradford system of spinning, 44
+
+    Branding sheep, 7
+
+    Broadcloth, 52, 85
+
+    Brocade, 219
+
+    Brocatel, 220
+
+    Buckram, 174
+
+    Bunting, 85
+
+    Bur picker, 30
+
+    Burling, 72
+
+    Burring, 29, 30
+
+
+    Calendering, 149, 150
+
+    Calico, 175
+
+    Caniche, 86
+
+    Canvas, 177
+
+    Cape wools, 10
+
+    Carbonizing, 29, 30
+
+    Carding cotton, 126
+      wool, 3, 4
+
+    Carpet wools, 3, 4
+
+    Cashmere, 85, 86
+      goat, 13
+      wool, 13, 87
+
+    Castor, 87
+
+    Challis, 87
+
+    Chambray, 177
+
+    Characteristics of cotton cloth, 152
+      of linen cloth, 196
+      of woolen cloth, 50
+      of worsted cloth, 46
+
+    Cheese cloth, 178
+
+    Chenille, 220
+
+    Cheviot, 33, 35, 52, 87
+      wool, 14
+
+    Chiffon, 220
+
+    China grass, 232
+
+    China silks, 220
+
+    Chinchilla, 52, 98
+
+    Chintz, 178
+
+    Chudah, 89
+
+    Cloth-rolls, 54
+
+    Clothing wool, 3
+
+    Cocoons, 203
+
+    Combing cotton, 127
+
+    Combing wool, 4, 39
+
+    Combustion test, 239
+
+    Construction of cloth, 70, 71
+
+    Corduroy, 89
+
+    Cote cheval, 89
+
+    Cotton, 1, 105
+      carding, 126
+      combing, 127
+      drawing, 128
+      finishing, 147
+      flannel, 178
+      growing countries, 106
+      picker, 125
+      substitutes, 232
+      varieties of, 105, 106, 111, 112
+      yarns, 125, 134
+
+    Cotton-gin, 114-116
+
+    Counts of yarn, 9, 49, 51
+
+    Coupure, 90
+
+    Covert cloth, 90
+
+    Crabbing, 74
+
+    Crash, 178
+
+    Creel, 52
+
+    Crepe, 179, 221
+
+    Crepe de Chine, 221
+
+    Crepon, 179
+
+    Cretonne, 90
+
+    Crinoline, 179
+
+    Crocheting, 56, 253
+
+    Cross-dyed, 65, 67, 68
+
+    Cyprian gold, 234
+
+
+    Damask, 179
+
+    Dark colored fibers, 33
+
+    Dead wool, 20
+
+    Delaine wool, 22, 90
+
+    Denim, 179
+
+    Diaper cloth, 179
+
+    Difference between lamb's wool and sheep's wool, 20
+
+    Difference between wool and hair, 2
+
+    Difference between woolen and worsted yarns, 39
+
+    Dimity, 179
+
+    Doeskin, 52, 90
+
+    Domet, 180
+
+    Double-cloth, 58, 62
+
+    Drap d'Ete, 90
+
+    Dress faced fabrics, 8
+
+    Drill, 180
+
+    Duck, 180
+
+    Dusting operation, 35
+
+    Dyeing, 66
+      black silks, 210
+      colored silks, 210
+      cotton, 67
+      wools, 65
+      yarns, 68, 209
+
+
+    East Indian cotton, 107
+
+    Egyptian cotton, 108
+
+    Elasticity of knitted textures, 253
+
+    Embroidery silk, 207
+
+    Empress cloth, 90
+
+    Ends, 53, 54
+
+    English system of spinning, 4, 40
+
+    English wools, 3
+
+    Eolienne, 181, 221
+
+    Epingline, 90
+
+    Etamine, 91, 181
+
+    Extract-wool, 1, 32, 37
+
+
+    Fancy goods, 79
+
+    Felt, 91
+
+    Felting, 2, 4
+
+    Fibers, 1
+
+    Figure weaving, 58, 61, 62
+
+    Figured poplins, 225
+
+    Finishing, 71, 151
+
+    Finishing hosiery, 163
+
+    Flannel, 52, 91-93
+
+    Flannelette, 181
+
+    Flax, 1, 123
+      preparation, 193-195
+      sources, 194, 198
+
+    Fleece, 7
+
+    Flocks, 1, 32, 37
+
+    Florentine, 93
+
+    Fly frames, 130
+
+    Foulard, 221
+
+    Foule, 93
+
+    Frame, 54
+
+    French system of spinning, 4, 44
+
+    Frieze, 52, 93
+
+    Full blood, 19
+
+    Full grade cotton, 121
+
+    Fulling, 73
+
+    Fustian, 180
+
+
+    Galatea cloth, 182
+
+    Gauge weaving, 63
+
+    Gauze, 182
+
+    Gill boxes, 42
+
+    Gingham, 182
+
+    Ginning cotton, 114
+
+    Glace, 222
+
+    Gloria, 94
+
+    Goat, 1
+
+    Grades of wool, 18
+
+    Granada, 94
+
+    Great Britain wools, 12
+
+    Grenadine, 94
+
+    Grinding rags, 36
+
+    Ground lace, 164
+
+
+    Hackling, 195
+
+    Hair, 2
+
+    Half blood, 19
+
+    Half-grades of cotton, 121, 122
+
+    Hand-loom, 56
+
+    Harness, 55
+
+    Heddles, 54
+
+    Hemp, 1, 199
+
+    Henrietta cloth, 94
+
+    Hoggett wool, 20
+
+    Homespun, 58, 94
+
+    Hop sacking, 94
+
+    Hosiery, 159
+
+    Hosiery manufacture, 159-163
+
+    Humidifying cotton, 124
+
+    Hydro extractor, 28
+
+
+    India silk, 204, 222
+
+    Indigo blue flannel, 92
+
+    Inspection of cloth, 123, 124
+
+    Intermediate frame, 130
+
+    Irish wools, 14
+
+    Italian cloth, 183
+
+
+    Jaconet, 183
+
+    Jacquard machine, 55
+
+    Japanese silk, 222
+
+    Jeans, 95
+
+    Jersey cloth, 222
+
+    Jute, 1
+      uses of, 201
+
+
+    Kapok, 230
+
+    Kersey, 95
+
+    Kerseymere, 96
+
+    Khaki, 183
+
+    Knitting, 253
+      cotton, 159
+      finishing, 163
+      frames, 154
+      rib, 158
+      silk, 159
+      stripe, 159
+      wool, 3
+
+
+    Lace, 164, 165
+      terms, 166-172
+
+    Lamb's wool, 15, 20
+
+    Lappet-weaving, 63, 64
+
+    Lawn, 183
+
+    Leicester wool, 12
+
+    Leno weaving, 63
+
+    Lincoln wool, 12
+
+    Linen, 196
+
+    Lingerie, 184
+
+    Linon, 184
+
+    Linsey woolsey, 96
+
+    Long cloth, 184
+      manufacture of, 194, 195
+
+    Long or clothing wool, 3
+
+    Loom, 54
+
+    Luster of wool, 26
+
+
+    Mackinaw, 92
+
+    Madras, 185
+
+    Manila hemp, 200
+
+    Melrose, 97
+
+    Melton, 97
+
+    Meltonette, 97
+
+    Mending, 72
+
+    Mercerizing, 151
+
+    Merino, 2, 3, 18, 19, 97
+
+    Metallic threads, 1, 234
+
+    Meteor, 222
+
+    Mexican Sheep, 4
+
+    Milling, 8
+
+    Mineral fibers, 1
+
+    Mohair, 1, 18, 34, 97
+
+    Moire, 223
+
+    Moisture contained in cotton, 123
+
+    Montagnac, 98
+
+    Montevideo, 11
+
+    Mordant, 69
+
+    Moreen, 186
+
+    Mozambique, 223
+
+    Mule spinning, 134
+
+    Mull, 186
+
+    Mummery, 186
+
+    Mungo, 1, 10, 32, 34
+      method of making, 32
+
+    Muslin, 186
+
+
+    Nainsook, 186
+
+    Naphtha, 26
+
+    Napping, 75
+
+    Navy twill flannel, 92
+
+    Netting, 253
+
+    New Zealand wool, 10
+
+    Noils, 1, 32, 40
+
+    Norfolkdown wool, 14
+
+
+    Oiling rags, 35
+
+    Olive oil, 29
+
+    Organdie, 186
+
+    Organzine, 223
+
+    Orleans, 98
+
+    Osnaburg, 186
+
+
+    Panama cloth, 98
+
+    Panne velvet, 223
+
+    Peau de soie, 223
+
+    Pelts, 20
+
+    Percale, 188
+
+    Percaline, 188
+
+    Perching, 72
+
+    Peruvian sheep, 15, 32
+
+    Pick, 54
+
+    Piece-dyeing, 65
+
+    Pile-weave, 62, 63
+
+    Pillow-lace, 165
+
+    Pineapple fiber, 233
+
+    Pique, 188
+
+    Plain weave, 58
+
+    Planting cotton, 110
+
+    Plumetis, 190
+
+    Plushes, 15, 224
+
+    Pongee, 224
+
+    Popeline, 224
+
+    Poplin, 190
+
+    Port Philip wool, 9
+
+    Pressing machine, 76
+
+    Printing textiles, 65
+
+    Prunella, 98
+
+    Pulled wool, 20
+
+
+    Quarter blood, 19
+
+
+    Ramie, 232
+
+    Raw silk, 206
+
+    Reeling silk, 205
+
+    Remanufactured material, 1, 32
+
+    Rep, 190
+
+    Rib work in knitting, 158
+
+    Ribbons, 215
+
+    Ring spinning, 134
+
+    Russian hemp, 199
+
+    Russian wool, 12
+
+
+    Sacking, 99
+
+    Sanglier, 99
+
+    Sarsenet, 225
+
+    Satin, 225
+      weaving, 58
+
+    Satine, 190
+
+    Saxony wool, 8
+
+    Scour, 27
+
+    Scrim, 190
+
+    Scutching, 195
+
+    Sea Island cotton, 109
+
+    Seaming rags, 35
+
+    Seamless hosiery, 161
+
+    Sebastopol, 99
+
+    Serges, 99
+
+    Sewing silk, 207
+
+    Shaker flannel, 93
+
+    Shawls, 33
+
+    Sheep shearing, 5, 6, 7
+
+    Shetland wool, 14
+
+    Shoddy, 1, 10, 32, 34, 101
+
+    Short wools, 3
+
+    Shrinking of wool, 2, 3
+
+    Shropshiredown wool, 13
+
+    Shuttle, 55
+
+    Sicilian, 101
+
+    Silesia, 190
+
+    Silesian wool, 8
+
+    Silk, 1
+      cotton, 230
+      dyeing, 210
+      finishing, 218
+      varieties of, 207
+      warp flannel, 92
+      waste, 207
+
+    Sisal hemp, 200
+
+    Size of yarn, 9, 49, 51
+
+    Sizing, 53
+
+    Slag wool, 1, 234
+
+    Slasher, 53
+
+    Sliver, 39
+
+    Slubber, 130, 131
+
+    Soleil, 227
+
+    Souffle, 191
+
+    South American wool, 11
+
+    Southdown wools, 13
+
+    Spinning, 4, 40, 44, 50, 134
+
+    Spooler, 53
+
+    Spun glass, 233
+      fibers, 233
+
+    Spun numbers, 209
+
+    Spun silk, 208
+
+    Staple goods, 79
+
+    Starching cotton, 149
+
+    Stripe knitting, 159
+
+    Structure of wool, 1, 2
+
+    Styles, 70
+
+    Suffolkdown wool, 14
+
+    Sultane, 101
+
+    Superfines, 8
+
+    Swiss muslin, 191
+
+    Sydney wools, 9
+
+
+    Tabby velvet, 228
+
+    Taffeta, 227
+
+    Tamise, 101
+
+    Tape, 191
+
+    Tarletan, 191
+
+    Tartans, 101
+
+    Teaser, 31
+
+    Tentering, 74
+
+    Terry cloth, 191
+
+    Terry poplin, 225
+
+    Test for animal fiber, 239
+      artificial silk from silk, 231
+      cotton from linen, 240
+      density of a fabric, 239
+      dressing, 241
+      fastness against rain, 243
+      fastness under friction, 242
+      fastness to weather, light, and air, 244
+      linen, 240
+      permanence of dyes, 242
+      resistance to perspiration, 243
+      resistance to street mud and dust, 243
+      shoddy, 241
+      silk from wool, 240
+      wasting fastness, 242
+
+    Testing constituents of filling, 239
+      constituents of warp, 239
+      count of warp, 238
+      count of warp and filling threads, 238
+      elasticity of fabric, 237
+      for shrinkage, 239
+      piece-dyed fabric, 69
+      strength of fabric, 237
+      style of weave, 236
+      yarn-dyed fabric, 69
+
+    Textile printing, 69, 70, 216
+
+    Theories of coloring in textile designs, 76-79
+
+    Thibet, 101
+
+    Thread, 138
+      bleaching, 143
+      combing, 141
+      dyeing, 143
+      numbers, 144
+      sizing, 145
+
+    Throwing, 206
+
+    Thrown silk, 207
+
+    Tinsel, 1
+
+    Top, 11, 33, 40
+
+    Tricot, 101
+
+    Tulle, 228
+
+    Tussah silk, 204
+
+    Tweed, 15, 31, 35, 102
+
+    Twill weaving, 58, 59
+
+
+    Union cloth, 37
+
+
+    Van wool from Tasmania, 10
+
+    Vegetable fibers, 1
+
+    Veiling, 102
+
+    Velour, 228
+
+    Velvet, 15, 216, 228
+
+    Velveteen, 228
+
+    Venetian cloth, 102
+
+    Vigogne (Vienna), 103
+
+    Vigoureux, 103
+
+    Voiles, 103, 229
+
+
+    Warp, 53, 54
+
+    Warp-beam, 54
+
+    Waterproofing, 218
+
+    Weaving, 53, 54, 56
+      processes, 54-56
+
+    Weft, 54
+
+    Welsh wool, 14
+
+    Wether-wool, 15, 20
+
+    Whipcord, 104
+
+    Wood-pulp, 232
+
+    Wool, 1, 2
+      carding, 50
+      classing, 3, 16, 18
+      drying, 28
+      dyeing, 76
+      fibers, 2
+      grease in, 24
+      marketing, 7, 8, 15
+      oiling, 29
+      sorting, 16-18, 22-24
+      varieties of, 3, 4
+      washing, 24-28
+
+    Woolen yarn, 33, 50
+
+    Worsted carding, 39
+      combing, 39
+      diagonal, 104
+
+    Worsted spinning, 44
+      tops, 40
+      unfinished, 104
+      yarn, 33, 46
+
+
+    Yarn, 33, 39, 46
+      dyed, 65, 68
+
+    Yolk, 10, 25
+
+
+    Zephyr gingham, 192
+      wool, 49
+
+    Zibeline, 104
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS
+
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+Elementary Science.
+
+=Austin's Observation Blanks in Mineralogy.= Detailed studies of 35
+minerals. 35 cents.
+
+=Bailey's Grammar School Physics.= Practical lessons with simple
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+=Ballard's The World of Matter.= Simple studies in chemistry and
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+=Colton's Elementary Physiology and Hygiene.= For grammar grades. 317
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+D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago
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+Drawing and Manual Training.
+
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+
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+of the essentials of grammar and bridges the transition to rhetoric.
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+=Meiklejohn's English Grammar.= Contains Parts I and II of
+Meiklejohn's The English Language, with exercises. 80 cents.
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+ Genung's Study of Rhetoric in the College Course. Paper. 32 pp.    .25
+ Hempl's Chaucer's Pronunciation. Stiff Paper. 39 pp.               .50
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+ Woodward's Study of English. Paper. 25 pp.                         .25
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+192 pages. Illustrated. 25 cents.
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+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor typographic errors and hyphenation and accent inconsistencies
+have been corrected without note.
+
+The footnote marker on page 267 was originally located next to the
+EXPERIMENTS heading, but the footnote itself referred to a dissecting
+pin. The marker has been moved next to the reference to a dissecting
+pin in the text.
+
+The experiments are consecutively numbered, and Experiment Nos. 28 and
+29 are missing. There do not appear to be any missing pages--the page
+numbering has no gaps, and Experiment No. 27 runs across a page
+boundary, and is then followed immediately by Experiment 30. It is
+possible that the two missing experiments were deliberately omitted
+from this edition by the author.
+
+The index entry for Berber originally read Beiber. The entry has been
+corrected, and moved to the correct place in the index.
+
+The page number in the index entry for Silk, finishing has been amended
+from 217 to 218.
+
+The index entry for Zephyr wool had no printed page number; from the
+text content, the best match appears to be a reference on page 49,
+which has been added to the index entry.
+
+
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