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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/24084-8.txt b/24084-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..83f4556 --- /dev/null +++ b/24084-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2460 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458 + Volume 18, New Series, October 9, 1852 + +Author: Various + +Editor: William Chambers + Robert Chambers + +Release Date: December 31, 2007 [EBook #24084] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + + + + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL + + CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S + INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &c. + + + No. 458. NEW SERIES. SATURDAY, OCTOBER 9, 1852. PRICE 1-1/2_d._ + + + + +A SWIM EXTRAORDINARY. + + +I have been all my life a sort of amphibious animal, having, like many +an old Roman, learned to swim long before I had learned to read. The +bounding backs of the billows were my only rocking-horse when I was a +child, and dearly I loved to ride them when a fresh breeze was +blowing. I rarely tired in the water, where I often amused myself for +hours together. I grew up with such a liking for the exercise, that I +have never been able to forego the opportunity for a swim when it +offered; and a daily bath has been for a long course of years as +necessary to me as my daily food. The exercise of swimming has been +through life my chief pleasure and my only medicine--a never-failing +restorative from weakness and weariness, and, what may appear strange +to some readers, from the effects of irritation, anxiety, and +mortification as well. + +This accomplishment, however, once led me into a strange adventure. I +was engaged in a rather extensive commercial tour through the central +kingdoms of Europe. I had crossed the Hungarian frontier about the +middle of the day, after being much annoyed and chafed by a +multiplicity of delays and extortions; and at length, hot and wearied, +arrived at B---- late in the evening. As soon as I caught sight of the +Danube in the distance, I resolved that the first thing I would do +after getting housed and refreshed by a few hours' sleep, should be to +enjoy the luxury of a leisurely swim in that noble river. With this +view, passing through the town, I put up at a small but decent +_gasthof_ which stood upon a patch of rising ground close upon the +margin of the stream; and having first seen to the comfort of my +horse, which was well-nigh knocked up with the day's journey, and next +attended to my own, I retired to rest at an early hour, without +descending to the common room and joining in the beery orgies of the +evening. I rose next morning, as was my custom, a full half hour +before the sun; and finding no one stirring in the house, proceeded to +the stables, the back of which overlooked the water. Here I found a +middle-aged tatterdemalion, whose flesh and costume were all of one +colour, and that the precise hue of the dungheap from which he had +just arisen, and from which one might have imagined him to have been +engendered. He was in the act of cleaning out the stable, as well as +the task could be accomplished, with his bare feet and a shovel, the +blade of which was not much bigger than his hand. With some trouble, +and with the aid of a small coin, I contrived to make him understand +my purpose; and he led me up stairs to a loft, in which I might +undress and deposit my clothes, and pointed to a rude flight of wooden +steps, leading from the window to the water's edge, and from which I +might plunge in from any height I chose. + +In a few minutes, I had left my clothes upon a truss of odorous +clover, and plunging in head-foremost from the top of the ladder, I +rose to the surface at a few yards' distance from the bank, and struck +out vigorously to enjoy my swim. The sensation was deliciously cool +and pleasant. Keeping my eyes fixed upon the opposite shore, I made +towards it, feeling all the while as light as a cork and as strong as +a colt. How long I revelled in the first exquisite sense of enjoyment +I have not, nor had I then, any very distinct idea. Turning, however, +upon my back, just to vary my position, my head, of course, faced the +shore I had left, from which, to my great surprise, the good town I +had left had vanished entirely, and I became aware that the rapid +current of the river, upon which, in my eagerness for a bath, I had +not bestowed a single thought, had already carried me some mile or two +in its progress towards the Black Sea. Not being victualled for so +long a voyage, I began to look around me, and to curse the headlong +haste which had brought me into such a dilemma. I found that I was as +nearly as possible in the centre of the stream, and immediately put +all my vigour in requisition to regain the shore I had left. This, to +my no small dismay, I soon discovered was not to be accomplished, the +current setting strong towards the opposite side. I made an experiment +of my strength by means of a small chip of wood which floated by: I +could judge what prospect I had of regaining the northern bank of the +river by the distance at which I could leave the chip behind me, while +swimming in a contrary direction; but it was of no use: in a quarter +of an hour's hard struggling I had not gained twenty yards, while I +had floated more than a mile further down the stream. Nothing remained +for it but to make for the shore, towards which I was drifting at any +rate, and that must be done as fast as possible; for being now really +alarmed, I felt, or fancied that I felt my strength deserting me. +Under this impression, I struck out more furiously, and thus fatigued +myself the more; and it was with no small difficulty I at last reached +the opposite bank, up which I climbed, with sensations almost as +forlorn and hopeless as those of the shipwrecked mariner whom the +tempest casts ashore. + +In fact, I would have given a round sum for the rags of the +shipwrecked mariner to cover me. Here I was in the condition of a +primeval savage, on a desert spot, without a dwelling in sight, and +prevented, by the want of clothing, from seeking out the habitations +of men. I ran to the highest ground in the neighbourhood, and that was +close to the water's edge, and looked around me in every direction. On +the shore which I had left, I could see what appeared the dim outline +of buildings at a great distance; but on the side of the river on +which I was standing, nothing but a vast tract of low land was +visible, which, from its swampy condition, it was plain was overflowed +by the river in times of flood. I hallooed for some minutes with all +the strength of my lungs; but the only response was the rising of a +few moorfowl from the marsh, which wheeled cackling above my head, as +though wondering what my business might be, and then settled down +again in the reedy pool from whence they had arisen at my cry. I sat +down upon a stone, and feeling that I was fast going into a state of +distraction, tried to collect my faculties, and to consider what was +best to be done, or, indeed, if anything could be done. With the sense +of my desperate condition came also a horrible sense of the ludicrous. +What would my principals in London think of their continental agent +shivering, without a rag on, upon the desolate banks of the Danube? +Here was I, a man well known upon 'Change, with four thousand pounds +in the three-and-a-half per cents, the idea of which had been a +comfort to me for many a long year, ready to forfeit the whole sum in +exchange for the raggedest pair of pantaloons that ever dangled from a +scarecrow, and ready, too, to go down upon my bare knees to any +ministering angel of an old Jew who would propose the bargain. I +grinned a despairing laugh at the thought of such an absurd compact, +and then groaned aloud as the conviction overcame me, that in my +present circumstances it would be a prudent one. + +Relapsing into grim and savage silence, I glared gloomily at a sharp +jagged stone which lay at my feet, and at length, taking it in my +hand, walked mechanically into a stagnant pool, where a group of +willow sprigs were growing on a few old stumps barely emerging from +the water. I contrived to sever a dozen or two of the twigs by hacking +at them with the flint--and, carrying them to dry ground, was soon +busy in rehearsing over again the toilet of Adam in Paradise. Tying +their ends together, I crossed a couple of them over my shoulders in +the manner of a shooting-belt, and from these I managed to suspend a +kind of frock of green leaves, which effectually transformed my +appearance from that of the rude savage of the wild to the civilised +Jack-in-the-Green of May-day in London. I may declare without reserve, +that I never felt more proud or pleased with any exploit of my whole +life than I now did at the completion of my toilet. My spirits, which +had before been villainously depressed, rose all at once, and I no +longer despaired of restoration to society. I walked majestically up +and down, keeping a careful look-out both upon the water and the land. +A boat passed at the distance of half a mile from the shore, but I +tried in vain to attract the notice of the crew. My voice could not be +heard so far, and if by accident they saw me, they must have mistaken +me for a bush. I now turned my back to the river in disgust, and +commenced a severe and careful scrutiny upon the land-side, to see if +I could possibly in any direction make out any signs of life. Five or +six hours must have elapsed since the moment when I plunged headlong +from the ladder; the sun was now nearly at his meridian; the blue mist +which had covered everything, and veiled the distance from my view in +the morning when I emerged from the water and crawled up the muddy +bank, had now entirely rolled away, and the vast level tract of +marsh-land was open to my inspection to a distance at least of some +five or six English miles, at the extremity of which it was bounded by +a rising ground sparsely wooded. I imagined that I could distinguish +tho mud-walls of a row of small cottages, partly concealed by a group +of trees, though I was by no means sure that it was not a bank of +earth or the face of a rock. I looked anxiously round for other +indications of life; and after a close and protracted scrutiny, had +the satisfaction of distinctly perceiving a thin column of white smoke +winding up the dark background of the distant hill. I resolved now, in +case no means of escape should turn up on the river, to attempt the +passage of the marsh in another hour at latest--though, from former +experience, I well knew the difficulty of the attempt, and the little +probability there was that a perfect stranger would succeed in getting +across. I saw, too, that if I would make the attempt at all, I must +not defer it much longer, since to be overtaken by darkness in the +midst of the bog would be certain destruction. + +I passed another half-hour in surveying the river, in which, about +four miles below the point on which I stood, I now for the first time +discovered several small islands, overgrown with reeds or underwood; +but they manifested no signs of any human inhabitants, so far as I +could distinguish, and I adhered to my resolution of crossing the +marsh. Delaying no longer, I descended from my post of observation, +intending to travel in a straight line to the point where I could +still see the smoke ascending. I had not, however, proceeded 100 +yards, before I found that my idea of journeying in a straight line +was utterly impracticable. I could walk over the firm soil, and I +could swim the pools; but through the deep masses of soft bog I could +neither walk nor swim; and after a narrow escape from smothering in +one of them, I came to a stand-still. I found, too, that now I was +down in the swamp, I could not see the distant hill which was the +object of my journey, though it was plain, that from any part of the +marsh I might see the little mound on the river's brink which I had +just left. I returned to the mound, and, by the aid of a number of +loose stones which were lying about, contrived to erect a couple of +small fagots of willow-branches, at a distance of about ten feet from +each other, to serve as direction-posts, arranging them so that while +I could see but one of them, I might know that I was in the right +track. Thus I was left at liberty to take a sinuous course in search +of firm ground, as, by making an observation by my telegraph, I could +at any time regain the right path. + +It is my decided opinion, that had I been left alone, and suffered to +continue my journey, I should have accomplished the undertaking, +arduous as it was. I had already walked and waded, and swum and +staggered, and floundered along for more than a mile, when I suddenly +caught sight of a ragged, bare-headed figure about half a mile in +advance of me, who was stooping over a stagnant pool, and groping in +the water for something, perhaps leeches, of which he was in search. +Without reflecting for a moment what might be the effect of my sudden +apparition upon the mind of an ignorant boor alone in such a solitude, +and too much overjoyed to think of anything but the overwhelming +delight of securing a 'guide, philosopher, and friend,' I hastened +towards him with all the speed of which I was capable--now clearing a +route among reeds and rushes, and now sinking up to my neck in a pool. +In less than half an hour, I had arrived, panting for breath, to +within a few yards of the pond over the margin of which he was still +bending, with his eyes fixed in the water. Pausing for one moment to +recover my wind, I raised myself to my full height, and hailed him at +the top of my voice with a 'Hola! Mein Herr,' which, like an electric +shock, brought him to his feet in an instant. I saw in a moment that I +had committed a fatal blunder. The poor wretch stood aghast, horrified +beyond the power of description; his white hair stood on end; his +bloodshot eyes were bursting from their sockets; his mouth yawned like +a cavern, and emitted a faint, gurgling sound, and every limb shook +with the agony of fear. I saw that it was necessary to reassure him; +and seeing no other way of approaching him than by swimming the pond, +I entered the water, and, staff in hand, made towards him. Before I +had lessened the distance between us one-half, he had so far recovered +himself as to be able to give utterance to one wild yell of terror, +and to take madly to his heels. When I had swum the pool, and ascended +to the spot which he had left, I saw him running at the top of his +speed, and following a winding route, with which he was evidently +familiar, as he avoided the water and the bogs, and kept on firm +ground. I made an attempt to come up with him; but in my haste trod +upon a piece of loose shale, which, sliding beneath me, threw me upon +the ground, and badly wounded my right foot, so that for the moment I +could proceed no further. + +As I sat upon the ground, endeavouring to stanch the fast-flowing +blood from my instep by winding round it some long flags from the +marsh, I watched the poor fellow till he was no longer in sight, and +marked that he never relaxed his pace till he disappeared under the +cluster of trees above which I had first noticed the white smoke +ascending. To cross the marsh without a guide, was now out of the +question; and choosing a dry and mossy spot, I lay down and rested +till the afternoon was far advanced, having made up my mind, if no +succour came from the hamlet, which I now felt assured was not far +from the edge of the marsh, that I would return to the river before it +was dark, and make a last and vigorous attempt to swim to the group of +islands which I had observed in the distance, in one or other of which +I might hope to find human inhabitants. I kept my telegraph in sight, +and, the sun being now low in the horizon, was thinking of retracing +my steps towards it, when, in the act of rising to do so, I saw a +party of men, of whom I distinctly counted fourteen, threading their +well-known way through the marsh, and rapidly advancing towards the +spot where I lay. They had already measured half the distance, and I +might have seen them long before had I happened to look in that +direction. I now congratulated myself that my troubles were over, and +was pondering how I could best shew my gratitude to my deliverers, +when the doubt was suggested to my mind whether they would prove +deliverers or not. I kept my eye steadfastly fixed upon their +movements, and, as they drew nearer, beheld with dismay that they were +all armed, two of them, who led the van, with old muskets, and the +rest with staves, scythes, and bludgeons. It was plain that the old +fool I had frightened away had described me to his countrymen as some +savage monster, and this valiant band had come out against me, to hunt +me to the death. I resolved at once to be sure of their object before +they came to a disagreeable proximity; and with this view, started +suddenly to my feet, and shouted as loud as I could. + +My fears were but too well founded. At the first sound of my voice, +the leaders recoiled a few steps upon the main body, who stood still +for a few minutes, apparently in consultation, the result of which +was, that the firearms changed owners, and two bold fellows stepped to +the front, and, levelling their pieces, kept my naked body covered +with their muzzles, and only refrained from pulling triggers until +they should have arrived within killing distance. It was plain I had +no time to lose if I would once more try the river, the only chance +now remaining to me. I turned and hobbled away as fast as my wounded +limb would let me, plunged into the nearest pool, sprawled through the +next bog, crashed through the rushes, hopped along the dry ground upon +one foot, and scrambled helter-skelter towards the river, expecting +every moment to hear the report of the firearms, and to feel a handful +of slugs in my body. Never shall I forget the horrors of that chase. I +distanced my pursuers, however, and arrived at the margin of the +stream without having once presented a fair target to their aim. I did +not pause long upon the brink of the flood. They were now yelling like +blood-hounds, and their cries rung in my ears as I gained the very +spot where I had landed in the morning, and where I again took to the +water like a hunted deer, or rather like a hunted duck, for I dived +under, with as gentle a splash as possible, and keeping beneath the +surface as long as I could hold breath, rose at length a good fifty +yards from the shore, and full two hundred yards lower down. + +I had no great cause for congratulation at my escape. The sun was +setting, night coming on, and here was I in the middle of the broad +stream of the Danube, sweeping on at the rate of five or six miles an +hour, with no other prospect in view than that of becoming food for +fishes in a very few hours at furthest, unless I could succeed in +making one of the islands I had seen in the morning. It was a strange +thing that I felt no fatigue, even after swimming an hour. I had +passed several small islands, but the rapid stream which they breasted +broke away so furiously from their sides, that I had not strength to +get near them. In their wake, I could see that the water was calm and +tranquil enough, but that tranquil water I could not reach. By and by, +as the darkness fell, I passed several islands much larger, and was +about attempting to land upon one, when I caught sight of a glimmering +light at a distance in the centre of the stream. I directed my course +towards this in preference; and I perceived as I approached that it +proceeded from a raft, moored off one of the islands, upon which the +crew were probably cooking their evening meal. I knew that if I +approached this raft in front, I should inevitably be sucked under, +and never see the light again; at the same time, if I gave it too wide +a berth, I should as surely be carried past it, in which case I felt +pretty certain that my last chance would be gone. I made a desperate +effort at the very nick of time, and happily succeeded in laying hold +of a rope, which was hanging in the water, by means of which I was +swung round to the stern of the raft, upon which, in a small +timber-hut, I could see the crew discussing their supper. + +Now that the struggle was over, and my safety secure, all my courage +and strength too vanished at once: I felt as weak as a child, and as +pusillanimous as a woman, and the hot tears ran down my cheeks like +rain. It was as much as I could do to hail the men, who sat laughing +and chatting over their porridge not three yards from me, as I +clutched the rope with the energy of a drowning man. They started up +at the sound of my cry, and in an instant lifted me on board. They +were Germans, fortunately; and I gave them to understand in a few +words, that I had been bathing, and having been carried away by the +stream, had narrowly escaped drowning. I was in no humour to put them +in possession of my whole miserable adventure, which it is more than +probable they would not have credited if I had. Having rubbed myself +dry, one of them lent me a blouse, and offered me food, which, plain +as it was, I was but too glad to accept; but before I had eaten a +mouthful, an old man made his appearance, bearing slippers, cloak, and +cap, and invited me to follow him to his house upon the island, where +I might pass the night, and cross over to the mainland in the morning. +I followed him across a plank, and beneath the shadow of some +willow-trees, to his humble dwelling. He told me that he and his +family were the sole inhabitants of the island, and that he united the +three professions of fisherman, innkeeper, and rope-maker, and thus +managed to make a livelihood. His guests were almost exclusively the +navigators on the river, who frequently moored for the night off his +island, and partook of such entertainment as he could supply. He sent +his fish to market when he caught more than he could consume, and he +and his children made ropes and cordage, for which also he had a ready +sale on the river. Pending this communication, he prepared me a +substantial supper, to which I did ample justice, and then shewed me, +at my request, to a small, neat chamber, where I sought and found the +repose I so much needed. + +I sank into a profound slumber, heavy and dreamless, within a minute +after I lay down--the result, no doubt, of the utter exhaustion of +every faculty, both of body and mind. Possessing a vigorous +constitution, and a perfectly healthy frame, I escaped the reaction of +nervous excitement, which most persons in similar circumstances would +have undergone, and which in many would have terminated in fever and +delirium, and perhaps death. But I did not escape altogether. After I +had lain in total forgetfulness for some hours, my imagination woke up +and plagued me with dreams of indescribable terror and alarm. I was +swimming for whole days and nights together in a shoreless sea, tossed +by storms, and swarming with monsters, one or other of which was +continually seizing me by the foot, and dragging me down; while over +my head foul birds of prey, each and all with the terrified face of +the poor wretch whom I had frightened in the marsh, and clutching +firearms in their semi-human claws, were firing at my head, and +swooping to devour me. To avoid their beaks, I dived madly into the +depths below, where I had to do battle in the dark with the grim and +shapeless monsters of the deep. Then, bursting with the retention of +my breath, I rose again to the surface, and enjoyed a moment's pause, +until the screaming harpies again gathered around me, and, convulsed +with fear, I dived again as the vivid flash from their firearms +dazzled my eyes. While performing one of these violent feats, +occasioned by a flash which appeared to blaze over the whole sky, I +woke suddenly. My landlord, the old fisherman, was standing by my +bedside; he had drawn aside the curtains of my bed, and let the +sunshine in upon my face, the hot gleam of which was doubtless the +blazing flash of my dream. I laughed aloud when I found myself snug in +bed, and proceeded to dress in the old man's best holiday suit, which +he placed at my service. My wounded foot had well-nigh healed in the +night, and I could walk comfortably. During breakfast, I gave the old +man and his daughter the real history of my case, to their unspeakable +astonishment, and consulted them as to my future operations. The +fisherman volunteered to land me at a small village a few miles below, +from whence he would proceed with me to K----, where, upon +representing my case to the magistrates, I should be furnished with +the means of getting back to B----, and recovering my property. + +This, in fact, was the only thing I could do. I engaged the fisherman +to accompany me through the whole route; and as he had naturally no +desire to lose sight of me, he made no objection. I had slept thirteen +hours; and it was ten o'clock in the day, when the old man and I, and +his two lads, embarked in the boat for the nearest village. We arrived +there before noon, and he hired a conveyance in which we both +proceeded to the place he had mentioned, a distance of some twenty +miles, which we reached about three in the afternoon. But my companion +had no more of either money or credit, and I was compelled to apply to +the chief magistrate of the town, whom, by good-fortune, we found at +his private residence. He proved a good-natured but rather fussy old +gentleman; and when he had heard my story, which he interrupted with a +thousand demonstrations of horror, alarm, and sympathy, insisted upon +my sharing the hospitality of his house for the night, assuring me +that it would be impossible to proceed that day. I gave a reluctant +consent, upon his promising that he would put me in a condition to +start at an early hour in the morning. Hereupon, consigning my +companion to the charge of a servant, he ushered me into a saloon +adjoining his study, and introduced me to his family, consisting of +two grown-up sons, three daughters, and their mother, to whom I had to +tell my luckless adventures over again. That, however, was not the +worst of it. As the hour of dinner drew near, the house began to fill +with visitors: it was plain that my arrival, and the circumstances +connected with it, had been regularly advertised through the town, and +all the world was flocking to see the new 'lion' which the river had +turned up. And certainly a lion I was, as the play-bills have it, 'for +that night only.' I had to tell my story ten times over, and to submit +to questionings and cross-questionings without number. All this, +perhaps, was but natural enough, considering the circumstances; but it +occasioned me no small annoyance; and feigning excessive fatigue, for +which I had but too good excuse, I retired early to rest, leaving the +assembled guests to pump the old fisherman, which they did to their +hearts' content, and to talk over my adventures at leisure. + +A servant awoke me before dawn. A carriage and post-horses stood at +the door, and after I had made a hearty breakfast, my worthy host put +into my hand a letter of introduction to his brother magistrate at +B----. I bade him farewell with many sincere and hearty thanks, +entered the carriage with my companion, and drove off. The distance we +had to go may have been about fifty English miles; but the roads were +in such wretched condition, and the cattle, which we changed seven +times, of such an abominable breed, that night had fallen upon the +town of B---- before we entered it. I drove at once to the little +_gasthof_, where, three days before, at the same hour, I had put up +upon my arrival. The landlord bustled out to receive me as the +carriage stopped at the door; but though I identified him immediately, +he shewed not the slightest symptom of recognising me. I told the +driver to wait, and beckoning the old fisherman to follow, demanded to +be shewn into a private room, and to be favoured with the landlord's +company. He obeyed with the utmost alacrity, and taking a lamp from +the hand of an attendant, led the way to a small room on the first +floor. + +'Well, Herr Bernstein,' I said, 'are you not glad to see me back +again?' + +'Most happy to see you, gracious sir,' said he; 'but have not the +honour to recollect your gracious person.' + +'Indeed! An Englishman, on a black horse, put up here three days ago +at this hour--surely you recollect that?' + +'Ah, too well I recollect that. Poor English gentleman--a countryman +of yours, perhaps a friend--ah! dear God! drowned--unhappy +man--carried away by the river in the morning before any of us were +up.' Here he wrung his hands in evident sorrow: 'Ah, that stupid +Grute! why did he let the gentleman bathe in the Danube?' + +'Stop!' said I; 'let me put an end to your regret--_I_ am that +Englishman!' + +'You--you!' cried he, as he staggered back into a seat. 'But it cannot +be--it is impossible. I do not recollect you: you are deceiving me! +Sir, it is a cruel jest.' + +'It is no jest,' said I; 'Heaven be praised. Where is Grute, as you +call him? He will tell you whether it is a jest.' + +Grute was the filthy stableman; and the landlord, half-dreaming, ran +off to fetch him--a most unfortunate circumstance, as it put the rogue +upon his guard, and prepared him for the part which it was necessary +for his safety that he should play. The landlord returned in two +minutes, dragging Grute in with him. I saw by the sudden pallor of the +fellow's countenance, and the quivering of his lip, that he recognised +me on the instant; but he looked doggedly around him, without +manifesting any surprise; and when his master pointed me out as the +Englishman supposed to have been drowned, the fellow laughed brutally, +and said the attempt wouldn't do, as I was too tall by half a head. I +perceived the truth at once. He had made free with the contents of my +pockets, in which I had left a few gold pieces, and for his +character's sake he could not afford to admit my identity. The +landlord plainly mistrusted my tale, now that he had heard the +evidence of the stableman, and began to assume a very different tone, +and to talk cavalierly of a reference to a magistrate. This reminded +me of the letter in my pocket, and I insisted that he should +immediately accompany me to the house of the chief-magistrate, who +should judge between us. He shewed himself provokingly willing to +comply with my demand, and, following me down stairs, entered the +carriage. As we drove along, I inquired as to the fate of my valise, +my clothes, and my horse; which latter, especially, I described in a +way that appeared to stagger him. They were all, he said, in the +magistrate's custody, and I should hear more of them, and doubtless +recover them, if they _were_ mine, when my claim was decided on. We +found the important functionary at supper. I requested a private +interview, which was granted, when I presented the letter of my host +at K----, and waited to see the effect of its perusal. I had to wait a +long while, for my hospitable friend had indulged in a long-winded +account of the whole adventure, which it took a good half-hour to get +through. The effect of the narrative was, however, all that I could +have desired: the worthy magistrate asked me a few questions, as he +was pleased to observe, for form's sake, relative to the contents of +the valise, which he had himself inspected, and I replied +satisfactorily. He shook me heartily by the hand, congratulated me on +my miraculous and providential escape, not forgetting my marvellous +prowess as a swimmer; and, calling in the landlord of the inn and the +old fisherman, wrote out in their presence an order for the +restoration of my property, and a warrant for the apprehension of +Grute, who, it appeared, had helped himself to all my loose cash, with +the exception of a single dollar. + +There was racing and chasing after Grute during the whole night, but +he had had the wit to take himself out of the way. My valise had +luckily not been tampered with; the contents were all as I left them; +and I had the happiness of rewarding the honest fisherman for the +pains he had taken in my behalf, and the confidence he had reposed in +me. My poor horse had not been treated so well. In accordance with +some old statute, of which I know nothing, he had been claimed by the +commandant of a small military force stationed in the place, and had +been compelled to commence a course of training, under a heavy +dragoon, for the military service. As he had received but one or two +lessons, which consisted almost exclusively of an unlimited allowance +of whip, he had not profited much by instruction. In fact, he had lost +his temper without gaining anything in discipline, and I was +eventually obliged to part with him, from the impossibility of bearing +with his strange antics. He had cost me fifty guineas in London, and I +sold him for fewer thalers to a German dealer, who, no doubt, speedily +found him a berth in some barrack, where he completed his education +for the army. Altogether, my extraordinary swim, taking expenses out +of pocket and loss of time into account, cost me something over a +hundred guineas, and all I got in exchange for them, was the +reputation of a Munchausen whenever I dared to open my mouth on the +subject, and a perennial liability to nightmare, with the repetition +and aggravation of all the worst horrors of that miserable day.[1] + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Lest our readers should suppose this curious narrative to be +merely an invention of some desperate romancer, it may be proper to +state, that the facts are literally true. The hero of the adventure, +when a young man, about the close of the last century, was driven +abroad by political persecution, and not only realised a fortune, but +acquired most of the continental languages. On returning to England, +where he became acquainted with our contributor, he devoted himself +for the rest of his life to acts of private beneficence, keeping up at +the same time a correspondence in Latin with the learned men of other +countries.--_Ed. C. E. J._ + + + + +WOOL FROM PINE-TREES. + + +Interesting accounts have recently appeared in foreign journals of a +novel branch of industry carried on in Silesia, combining so much of +ingenuity and utility, as to render a summary of the information very +acceptable to those who are seeking for new sources of employment or +of profit. It appears that in the neighbourhood of Breslau, on a +domain known as Humboldt Mead, there are two establishments alike +remarkable: one is a factory for converting the leaves or spines of +the pine-tree into a sort of cotton or wool; in the other, the water +which has served in the manufacture of this vegetable wool, is made +use of as salutary baths for invalids. They were both erected +under the direction of Herr von Pannewitz, one of the chief +forest-inspectors, and the inventor of a chemical process, by means of +which a fine filamentous substance can be obtained from the long and +slender leaves of the pine. This substance has been called _Holz +wolle_, wood-wool, from a similarity in its quality to that of +ordinary wool; it may be curled, felted, or spun in the same way. + +The _Pinus sylvestris_, or Scotch fir, from which this new product is +derived, has been long esteemed in Germany for its many valuable +qualities; and instead of being left to its natural growth, is +cultivated in plantations of forest-like extent. In this way, many +parts of a vast, dreary, sandy surface are turned to good account, for +the tree grows rapidly on a light soil, imparting to it solidity and +consistency, and affords shelter to the oak, which, under such +favourable circumstances, acquires such vigour of development as to +outgrow its protector. About the fortieth year of its growth, the pine +yields considerable quantities of resin; and the value of the wood for +building purposes, and for constructions immersed in water, are well +known. Mr Pannewitz has, however, added another to its list of useful +applications; and if the leaves can be employed as described, the +_Pinus sylvestris_ may become an object of culture in countries where +it is now neglected. + +The acicular leaves of firs, pines, and coniferæ in general, are +composed of a bundle, or fasciculus, as a botanist would say, of +extremely fine and tenacious fibres, which are surrounded and held +together by thin pellicles of a resinous substance. If this substance +be dissolved by a process of coction, and the employment of certain +chemical reagents, the fibres can then be easily separated, washed, +and cleansed from all foreign matter. According to the mode of +treatment, the woolly substance is fine or coarse, and is employed as +wadding in the one case, and in the other as stuffing for mattresses. +Such, in a few words, is an explanation of Mr Pannewitz's discovery. +He has preferred the _Pinus sylvestris_ to other species because of +the greater length of its spines; but there is reason to believe, that +it is not the only kind which may be worked with advantage. + +There is said to be no danger in stripping the trees, even while +young, as they only need the whorl of spines to be left at the +extremity of each branch, in order to continue their growth; all the +other leaves may be removed without damage. The gathering should take +place while they are in their green state, for at no other time can +the woolly substance be extracted. This operation, which takes place +but once in two years, affords employment and pretty good wages to a +number of poor people, some of whom will collect two hundred pounds in +a day. The yield from a branch of the thickness of the finger is +estimated at one pound, and a beginner will strip thirty such branches +in a day. In the case of felled trees, the work proceeds with great +rapidity. + +The first use made of the filamentous matter, was to substitute it for +the wadding used in quilted counterpanes. In 1842, five hundred +counterpanes so prepared were purchased for the use of the hospital at +Vienna; and, after an experience of several years, the purchase has +been renewed. It was remarked, among other things, that the influence +of the _wood-wool_ prevented parasitic insects from lodging in the +beds, and the aromatic odour arising from it had been found as +beneficial as it was agreeable. Shortly afterwards, the Penitentiary +at Vienna was provided with the same kind of quilts; and they have +since been adopted--as well as mattresses filled with the same +wool--in the Hospital de la Charité at Berlin, and in the Maternity +Hospital and barracks at Breslau. A trial of five years in these +different establishments has proved, that the wood-wool can be very +suitably employed for counterpanes, and for stuffed or quilted +articles of furniture, and that it is very durable. + +It was found that, at the end of the five years, a wood-wool mattress +had cost less than one made of straw, as the latter requires an +addition of two pounds of new straw every year. In comparison with +horsehair, it is three times cheaper; it is safe from the attack of +moth, and in a finished sofa no upholsterer would be able to +distinguish between wood-wool and hair-stuffing. + +It has been further ascertained that this wool can be spun and woven. +The finest gives a thread similar to that of hemp, and quite as +strong. When spun, woven, and combed, a cloth is produced which has +been used for carpets, horse-cloths, &c.; while, mixed with a canvas +warp, it will serve for quilts, instead of being employed in the form +of wadding. + +In the preparation of this wool, an etherised oil is formed, of an +agreeable odour, and green in colour, but which an exposure to the +light changes to a yellowish-orange tint, and which resumes its +original colour on the light being again excluded. Under the +rectifying process, it becomes colourless as water, and is found to +differ from the essence of turpentine extracted from the stem of the +same tree. Its employment has proved most salutary in gouty and +rheumatic affections, and when applied to wounds as a balsam; as also +in certain cases of worm disease and cutaneous tumours. In the +rectified state, it has been successfully used in the preparation of +lacs for the best kinds of varnish; in lamps it burns as well as +olive-oil; and it dissolves caoutchouc completely and speedily. +Already the perfumers of Paris make large use of this pine-oil. + +With respect to the baths: it having been discovered that a beneficial +result attended the external application of the liquor left after the +coction of the leaves, a bathing establishment was added to the +factory. This liquor is of a greenish-brown tint; and, according to +the process, is either gelatinous and balsamic, or acid; formic acid +having been produced in the latter case. When an increase in the +efficacy of the baths is desired, a quantity of extract obtained by +the distillation of the etherised oil above mentioned, which also +contains formic acid, is poured into the liquor. Besides which, the +liquid itself is thickened by concentration, and sent out in sealed +jars to those who wish to have baths at home, thus constituting a +profitable article of trade. + +We understand that these baths have been in operation for nine years, +with a continual increase of reputation and number of visitors. That +the facts are not exaggerated, would appear from medals having been +awarded to M. Weiss, the proprietor and manager, by societies in +Berlin and Altenburg, for the extraordinary results produced. As +likely to lead to a new development of industry, the processes are +especially worthy of attention. + +The catalogue of utilities is, however, not yet exhausted; there is +one more with which we bring our notice to a close. After the washing +of the fibre, a great quantity of refuse membraneous substance is +obtained by filtration. This being moulded into the form of bricks, +and dried, becomes excellent fuel, and gives off so much gas from the +resin which it contains, that it may be used for lighting as well as +heating. The making of a thousand hundredweights of the wool leaves a +mass of fuel equal in value to sixty cubic yards of pine-wood. + + + + +CHAMBERS'S LIFE AND WORKS OF BURNS.[2] + + +Beheld in his life-time as a singular example of the genius rising +from the humbler shades of life, Burns is now ranked as a classic +among the poets of his country. The interest originally felt in his +personal character and unhappy fate, has been deepened as the high +absolute rank of the poet became appreciated. These changes might be +said to call for a more searching inquiry into his life than was at +first deemed necessary; and the task was undertaken by one, of whom we +may at least be permitted to say, that he possessed the requisite zeal +and love of the subject. For obvious reasons, we are not to be +expected to say more, in commendation or discommendation, of the work +now under our attention; but we may be allowed to advert to its +peculiar plan, and some of the new details which it brings before the +world. + +The leading feature of the work is the assumption on which it +proceeds--that the writings of Burns are in a great measure expressive +of his personal feelings, and descriptive of the scenery and +circumstances of his own existence, and therefore ought to be involved +in his biography. Each poem, song, and letter, known as his, has +therefore been assigned its chronological place in his memoirs, thus +at once lending its own biographical light to the general narrative, +and deriving thence some illustration in return. The consequence is, +that, with the help of much fresh biographical matter drawn from +authentic sources, the life of the bard, as he loved to call himself, +is now given comparatively in detail. We can trace him from day to +day, and see the ups and downs of his prospects and his feelings, his +strangely mingled scenes of happiness and misery. We obtain a much +closer and more distinct view of his domestic existence than we ever +had before. The real extent of his aberrations, such as they were, is +more exactly ascertained. Some unexpected particulars emerge; as, for +instance, that, notwithstanding his poverty, he occasionally +accommodated his friends with money and credit, and almost to the last +was able to be their host as well as their guest. But perhaps the most +important result is what we learn of the wonderful versatility of +Burns's feelings and emotions. He is found writing a pensive, +semi-religious letter one day, and the next indulging in some outburst +of extravagant merriment. One day, he indulges in a strain of +melancholy recollection regarding a deceased mistress, commemorating +her in an elegy which hardly any one has ever since been able to read +without tears; and within four-and-twenty hours, he is again strumming +on the comic lyre. A deep mortification falls upon him in the shape of +a censure from the Board of Excise, a pain in which we are peculiarly +disposed to sympathise; but let us not be too eager to suppose that +Burns was permanently affected by any such mark of moral bondage. A +week or two after, he is found keeping a couple of friends in drink +and merriment at his table for a whole night. It is eminently the +_poet_ that is thus brought before us--a being of keen sensibility, +but whose gusts of feeling are as quick in passing as they are violent +while they last. + +Beyond these few sentences, limited to a description of the structure +of this work, we can only propose to give one or two extracts. + +Burns, it clearly appears, while degraded by the humble office +assigned to him, did his best, by performing its duties well, to +elevate it. He acted humanely towards poor people, but was the +conscientious servant of the government in protecting the revenue in +essential matters. The editor has been fortunate enough to discover +some documents which set his character as a man of affairs in a +favourable light. + +'The first is a petition of T. J., farmer at Mirecleugh, addressed to +the justices of peace for Dumfriesshire, reclaiming against a fine of +L.5 which Collector Mitchell had imposed on him for "making fifty-four +bushels of malt, without entry, notice, or licence." J. stated that he +had been in the habit of making malt for forty years without making +entry of his kiln or pond, which he deemed unnecessary, because the +malting was always effected at one operation, and not till notice had +been given to the proper officer. With respect to "notice" on this +occasion--having inquired of Mr Burns which was the best way of +sending it to him, he had been informed that a letter might be sent to +"John Kelloch's," in Thornhill, whence it might be forwarded by post. +He had brought Mrs Kelloch to swear that such a letter had been sent +to her by J.'s son for Mr Burns, but had been mislaid. He offered to +swear that he had sent the notice to Thornhill in good time, and had +had no intention to defraud the revenue. With respect to "licence," J. +averred that he had only been prevented from renewing it as usual this +year because Mr Mitchell, on his applying for it, had put him off to +another time, on the score of being too busy at the time to grant it +to him. + +'In respect of J.'s petition, the justices, Mr Fergusson of +Craigdarroch, and Captain Riddel, ordered the collector to stop +proceedings until they should have had an opportunity of inquiring +into the truth of what it set forth. Then came Burns's "Answers to the +Petition of T. J.:-- + +"1. Whether the petitioner has been in use formerly to malt all his +grain at one operation, is foreign to the purpose: this last season he +certainly malted his crop at four or five operations; but be that as +it may, Mr J. ought to have known that by express act of parliament no +malt, however small the quantity, can be legally manufactured until +previous entry be made in writing of all the ponds, barns, floors, +&c., so as to be used before the grain can be put to steep. In the +Excise entry-books for the division there is not a syllable of T. J.'s +name for a number of years bygone. + +"2. True it is that Mr Burns, on his first ride, in answer to Mr J.'s +question anent the conveying of the notices, among other ways pointed +out the sending it by post as the most eligible method, but at the +same time added this express clause, and to which Mr Burns is willing +to make faith: 'At the same time, remember, Mr J., that the notice is +at your risk until it reach me.' Further, when Mr Burns came to the +petitioner's kiln, there was a servant belonging to Mr J. ploughing at +a very considerable distance from the kiln, who left his plough and +three horses without a driver, and came into the kiln, which Mr B. +thought was rather a suspicious circumstance, as there was nothing +extraordinary in an Excise-officer going into a legal malt-floor so as +to [induce a man to] leave three horses yoked to a plough in the +distant middle of a moor. This servant, on being repeatedly questioned +by Mr Burns, could not tell when the malt was put to steep, when it +was taken out, &c.--in short, was determined to be entirely ignorant +of the affair. By and by, Mr J.'s son came in, and on being questioned +as to the steeping, taking out of the grain, &c., Mr J., junior, +referred me to this said servant, this ploughman, who, he said, must +remember it best, as having been the principal actor in the business. +The lad _then_, having gotten his cue, circumstantially recollected +all about it. + +"All this time, though I was telling the son and servant the nature of +the premunire they had incurred, though they pleaded for mercy keenly, +the affair of the notice having been sent never once occurred to them, +not even the son, who is said to have been the bearer. This was a +stroke reserved for, and worthy of the gentleman himself. As to Mrs +Kelloch's oath, it proves nothing. She did indeed depone to a line +being left for me at her house, which said line miscarried. It was a +sealed letter; she could not tell whether it was a malt-notice or not; +she could not even condescend on the month, nor so much as the season +of the year. The truth is, T. J. and his family being Seceders, and +consequently coming every Sunday to Thornhill Meeting-house, they were +a good conveyance for the several maltsters and traders in their +neighbourhood to transmit to post their notices, permits, &c. + +"But why all this tergiversation? It was put to the petitioner in open +court, after a full investigation of the cause: 'Was he willing to +swear that he meant no fraud in the matter?' And the justices told him +that if he swore he would be assoilzied [absolved], otherwise he +should be fined; still the petitioner, after ten minutes' +consideration, found his conscience unequal to the task, and declined +the oath. + +"Now, indeed, he says he is willing to swear: he has been exercising +his conscience in private, and will perhaps stretch a point. But the +fact to which he is to swear was equally and in all parts known to him +on that day when he refused to swear as to-day: nothing can give him +further light as to the intention of his mind, respecting his meaning +or not meaning a fraud in the affair. _No time can cast further light +on the present resolves of the mind; but time will reconcile, and has +reconciled many a man to that iniquity which he at first abhorred._"' + +No one can fail to see, even in this piece of business, something of +the extraordinary mental energy of Burns. + +The daily life of Burns, in his latter years at Dumfries, is described +in the following terms:--'He has daily duties in stamping leather, +gauging malt-vats, noting the manufacture of candles, and granting +licences for the transport of spirits. These duties he performs with +fidelity to the king and not too much rigour to the subject. As he +goes about them in the forenoon, in his respectable suit of dark +clothes, and with his little boy Robert perhaps holding by his hand +and conversing with him on his school-exercises, he is beheld by the +general public with respect, as a person in some authority, the head +of a family, and also as a man of literary note; and people are heard +addressing him deferentially as _Mr_ Burns--a form of his name which +is still prevalent in Dumfries. At a leisure hour before dinner, he +will call at some house where there is a piano--such as Mr Newall, the +writer's--and there have some young miss to touch over for him one or +two of his favourite Scotch airs, such as, the _Sutor's Daughter_, in +order that he may accommodate to it some stanzas that have been +humming through his brain for the last few days. For another half +hour, he will be seen standing at the head of some cross street with +two or three young fellows, bankers' clerks, or "writer-chiels" +commencing business, whom he is regaling with sallies of his bright +but not always innocent wit--indulging there, indeed, in a strain of +conversation so different from what had passed in the respectable +elderly writer's mansion, that, though he were not the same man, it +could not have been more different. Later in the day, he takes a +solitary walk along the Dock Green by the river side, or to Lincluden, +and composes the most part of a new song; or he spends a couple of +hours at his folding-down desk, between the fire and window in his +parlour, transcribing in his bold round hand the remarks which occur +to him on Mr Thomson's last letter, together with some of his own +recently composed songs. As a possible variation upon this routine, he +has been seen passing along the old bridge of Devorgilla Balliol, +about three o'clock, with his sword-cane in his hand, and his black +beard unusually well shaven, being on his way to dine with John Syme +at Ryedale, where young Mr Oswald of Auchincruive is to be of the +party--or maybe in the opposite direction, to partake of the luxuries +of John Bushby, at Tinwald Downs. But we presume a day when no such +attraction invades. The evening is passing quietly at home, and +pleasant-natured Jean has made herself neat, and come in at six +o'clock to give him his tea--a meal he always takes. At this period, +however, there is something remarkably exciting in the proceedings of +the French army under Pichegru; or Fox, Adam, or Sheridan, is expected +to make an onslaught upon the ministry in the House of Commons. The +post comes into Dumfries at eight o'clock at night. There is always a +group of gentlemen on the street, eager to hear the news. Burns +saunters out to the High Street, and waits amongst the rest. The +intelligence of the evening is very interesting. The Convention has +decreed the annexation of the Netherlands--or the new treason-bill has +passed the House of Lords, with only the feeble protest of Bedford, +Derby, and Lauderdale. These things merit some discussion. The +trades-lads go off to strong ale in the closes; the gentlemen slide in +little groups into the King's Arms Hotel or the George. As for Burns, +he will just have a single glass and a half-hour's chat beside John +Hyslop's fire, and then go quietly home. So he is quickly absorbed in +the little narrow close where that vintner maintains his state. There, +however, one or two friends have already established themselves, all +with precisely the same virtuous intent. They heartily greet the bard. +Meg or John bustles about to give him his accustomed place, which no +one ever disputes. And, somehow, the debate on the news of the evening +leads on to other chat of an interesting kind. Then Burns becomes +brilliant, and his friends give him the applause of their laughter. +One jug succeeds another--mirth abounds--and it is not till Mrs Hyslop +has declared that they are going beyond all bounds, and she positively +will not give them another drop of hot water, that our bard at length +bethinks him of returning home, where Bonnie Jean has been lost in +peaceful slumber for three hours, after vainly wondering "what can be +keeping Robert out so late the nicht." Burns gets to bed a little +excited and worn out, but not in a state to provoke much remark from +his amiable partner, in whom nothing can abate the veneration with +which she has all along regarded him. And though he beds at a latish +hour, most likely he is up next morning between seven and eight, to +hear little Robert his day's lesson in _Cæsar_, or, if the season +invites, to take a half-hour's stroll before breakfast along the +favourite Dock Green.' + +Whenever a female of any rank secured the goodwill of Burns, he was +sure to compliment her in verse, and it was always by putting her into +the light of an adored mistress. In his latter days, when declining in +health, an amiable young girl, sister of one of his brother officers, +obtained his friendly regard by endeavouring to lighten the labours of +housekeeping to his wife, then also in a delicate state. The lady, who +still lives, 'relates that, one morning she had a call from the poet, +when he offered, if she would play him any tune of which she was fond, +and for which she desired new verses, to gratify her in her wish to +the best of his ability. She placed herself at the pianoforte, and +played over several times the air of an old song beginning with the +words-- + + The robin cam to the wren's nest, + And keekit in, and keekit in: + O weel's me on your auld pow! + Wad ye be in, wad ye be in? + Ye'se ne'er get leave to lie without, + And I within, and I within, + As lang's I hae an auld clout, + To row ye in, to row ye in. + +'As soon as his ear got accustomed to the melody, Burns sat down, and +in a very few minutes he produced the beautiful song: + + + OH, WERT THOU IN THE CAULD BLAST. + + Oh, wert thou in the cauld blast + On yonder lea, on yonder lea, + My plaidie to the angry airt, + I'd shelter thee, I'd shelter thee: + Or did misfortune's bitter storms + Around thee blaw, around thee blaw, + Thy bield should be my bosom, + To share it a', to share it a'. + + Or were I in the wildest waste, + Sae black and bare, sae black and bare, + The desert were a paradise, + If thou wert there, if thou wert there: + Or were I monarch o' the globe, + Wi' thee to reign, wi' thee to reign, + The brightest jewel in my crown + Wad be my queen, wad be my queen. + +'The anecdote is a trivial one in itself; but we feel that the +circumstances--the deadly illness of the poet, the beneficent worth of +Miss Lewars, and the reasons for his grateful desire of obliging +her--give it a value. It is curious, and something more, to connect it +with the subsequent musical fate of the song, for many years after, +when Burns had become a star in memory's galaxy, and Jessy Lewars was +spending her quiet years of widowhood over her book or her knitting in +a little parlour in Maxwelltown, the verses attracted the regard of +Felix Mendelssohn, who seems to have divined the peculiar feeling +beyond all common love which Burns breathed through them. By that +admirable artist, so like our great bard in a too early death, they +were married to an air of exquisite pathos, "such as the meeting soul +may pierce." Burns, Jessy Lewars, Felix Mendelssohn--genius, goodness, +and tragic melancholy, all combined in one solemn and profoundly +affecting association!' + +In numberless instances, the hitherto loosely stated facts of Burns's +life are corrected in the present work, partly through the accuracy of +a strictly historical arrangement, and partly by direct reference to +written documents. On account of the value of dates in placing the +facts and compositions in that order which gives so much illustration +to the character of the poet, the editor has taken what might appear +in other circumstances a pedantic degree of pains on that score. Of +this we have an example in regard to the chronology of Burns's +attachment to Highland Mary. To fix that affair as occurring in the +summer of 1786--an episode in the connection of the poet with the +young woman who ultimately became his wife--it is necessary to +establish the death of Mary as occurring about the 20th of October +that year. This is done partly by reference to a register of burial +sites in a church-yard, and partly by a chain of curious evidence +respecting the day which Burns celebrated three years after as the +anniversary of the event. He composed on that day his beautiful +address _To Mary in Heaven_, beginning-- + + Thou lingering star with lessening ray, + That lov'st to greet the early morn, &c. + +Mrs Burns had a recollection of the day, which, she said, was in +September, at the end of harvest, and which, she added, he spent in +his usual duties, though labouring under a cold. As the twilight +deepened, he grew sad about something, and wandered out into the +barn-yard, to which she followed him, entreating him in vain to +observe that frost had set in, and to return to the fireside. She +finally found him there stretched on a mass of straw, with his eyes +fixed on a beautiful planet, which shone like another moon. He was +engaged at that moment in apostrophising the soul of Mary. Out of this +anecdote, the editor of the present work contrives to obtain evidence +as to the true date in the following manner:-- + +'In the first place, the harvest was late that year. We find in the +Scottish newspapers of the time, that, in the middle of October, a +great deal of grain was still _out_ even in the favoured district +around Falkirk; while a letter from Sanquhar (Burns's neighbourhood), +dated the 21st, states that "while much was cut, _very little was yet +got in_, owing to the bad weather." It appears that harvest was +commenced by the 8th of September in some districts, but was +interrupted by rains, and was not concluded till near the end of the +ensuing month. Consequently, the incident _might_ take place in the +latter part of October, and _still be connected with harvest +operations_. The second portion of our evidence on the subject is from +one of the exact sciences, and appears to us at once to settle the +time of the day--the month--and almost the day of the month. + +'It fully appears that the planet Venus is the one referred to by the +poet, for the description applies only to it. Now Venus was in +conjunction with the sun, May 30, 1789, and after that became visible +as the _evening-star_ towards the end of the summer, reaching its +greatest brilliancy in winter. It is therefore certain that the star +which "loves to greet the early morn" did not at this time "usher in +the day," and consequently, so far as the time of day alluded to in +the poem is concerned, a poetical liberty was taken with truth. On the +21st of September the sun set at six o'clock, and Venus forty-four +minutes thereafter. The planet was consequently not to be seen at that +time except faintly in the twilight. But on the 21st of October the +sun set in the latitude of Ellisland at 4h 53m, and Venus 1h 3m +afterwards. Consequently, Venus would then have begun to assume a +brilliant appearance during a short interval after sunset. On that day +the moon was four days old, and within eight diameters of Venus. The +planet would then of course be beginning to be dimmed by the +moonlight, and this effect would go on increasing till the moon had +passed the full--that is, early in November. If, then, we are to set +aside the possibility of a later month than October, and keeping in +view the all but certainty that Mary was not buried till some time +after the 12th of that month, it seems reasonable to conclude, that +the barn-yard musings of Burns took place between five and six o'clock +of the evening of some day about the 19th or 20th of October, and +consequently a very short time after the merry-meeting for the +Whistle-contest at Friars' Carse. + +'That a month later than October could have been the date of the +incident will, I presume, scarcely be argued for. The moon was at the +full on Tuesday the 2d of November, and it could not be till after +that day that the first hour of the night would be "starry," with +Venus in full blaze. By that time, as far as we can gather from the +chronicles of the time, the harvest was past. Besides, Mrs Burns might +easily mistake September for October, but scarcely for November, a +month of such different associations. On this point the temperature of +the time might throw some light, if we could be sure of the exact +meaning to be attached to the phrase--"the frost had set in." It +chances that the temperature of October that year was unusually high, +the average at eight o'clock in the evening in Edinburgh being 45-1/2° +Fahrenheit. The _Edinburgh Advertiser_ of 30th October speaks of +apple-trees and bean-stalks renewing their blossoms in consequence of +the extraordinary mildness. On the 19th of October, at eight o'clock +in the evening, the thermometer indicated in Edinburgh 51°; on the +20th, at the same hour, 59°; on the 21st, 51° again. The only approach +to frost was on the 30th and 31st, when, at eight in the evening, the +thermometer was respectively at 33° and 37°. After this, it rose to a +more temperate point. Hence it becomes evident that _literal frost_ +did not then exist at any such period of the day. Probably Mrs Burns +merely thought the evening was beginning to be comparatively chilly. +If we can admit of this construction being put upon her words, I would +be disposed to pitch upon the _warmest evening_ of the little period +within which we are confined--for unless the poet had been in a +peculiarly excited state, so as to be insensible to external +circumstances, which is obviously a different thing from being in a +merely pensive state, we must suppose him as not likely to lie down in +the open air after sunset, except under favour of some uncommon amount +of "ethereal mildness." Seeing, on the other hand, how positively +inviting to such a procedure would be a temperature of 59°, I leave +the subject with scarcely a doubt that the composition of _To Mary in +Heaven_ took place on Tuesday the 20th of October, and that this was +consequently the date of the death of the heroine.' + +This, no doubt, seems a great muster of evidence about so small a +matter; but to judge of the rationality of its being entered upon, the +reader must keep in mind the relation of the incident to others. If it +only proved that the comic drinking-song _The Whistle_, and _To Mary +in Heaven_, were written within three days of each other, it might be +not altogether labour lost, for it would establish an exceedingly +curious literary anecdote. But the bearing it has on the whole affair +of Highland Mary--one of the most deeply interesting passages of +Burns's life--is such as, in our opinion, to make every other +justification superfluous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] _Life and Works of Burns._ Edited by Robert Chambers. 4 vols. +Edinburgh: 1852. + + + + +VISIT TO THE COPPER-WORKS OF SWANSEA. + + +Our first glimpse of the copper-works was obtained in the 'gloaming' +of a lovely night in August last year, as we rattled over the Landore +viaduct of the South Wales Railway. On each side of us, we could +behold, given out by the chimneys, innumerable flashes of lurid flame, +which rose like meteors into the atmosphere, and scattered around a +brilliant light, that was seen in the distance to blend with the +waters of Swansea Bay. The scene was very beautiful, and singularly +picturesque: we could have wished our enjoyment of it prolonged; but +soon the shrill whistle, the escape-valve, and the lamps of the +station, admonished us that our journey had come to an end. + +Our principal object in visiting Swansea, was to obtain some +information concerning the important business of copper-smelting, for +which this port has now become so celebrated. Few of our readers, who +have not enjoyed our opportunities of seeing them, can form any +accurate conception of the vast extent and great economical value and +importance of the Swansea copper-works. Indeed, the copper trade is +far from being popularly known; and the reason is obvious. Iron, which +is very widely distributed in the British islands, is invariably +smelted wherever it occurs. Copper, on the contrary, is only mined in +one or two localities; and it is never manufactured on the spot. This +process is performed almost exclusively at Swansea; and hence the +copper trade of the country is confined to a few individual houses, +and these are in a locality alike remote and unfrequented by the +everyday tourist. + +At the period when the first copper-work was established on the banks +of the Tawy, about a century ago, Swansea was comparatively an +insignificant village. It is therefore to this branch of industry the +town and port are chiefly indebted for their remarkable rise and +progress. The population in 1801 was only about 6000; while in 1851, +if we include the copper-smelting district, it had already reached the +number of 40,000. The original cause of Swansea being selected as the +great seat of the copper trade, we may very briefly explain. It was +early discovered that, from the non-existence of coal in the mining +districts of Cornwall and Devonshire, copper, although raised in vast +abundance, could not be profitably smelted there. In fact, it was not +until a considerable time after copper-mining was properly pursued in +Cornwall, that the minerals could be turned to a profitable account. +It became apparent at length, however, both from the large quantity of +coal necessary for the reduction of copper-ores, and the great expense +of the transport, that instead of carrying coal to Cornwall to smelt +the ores--the greater quantity to the less--an opposite course must be +pursued, and the ores carried to the coal districts, and there +smelted. + +Now South Wales, poor in copper, is exceedingly rich in coal. Vast +beds of the finest bituminous and anthracite coal exist in rich +profusion in its inexhaustible coal-fields. From its geographical +position and excellent harbour, Swansea was at once selected as the +best port on the Welsh coast in which to establish the copper-works; +and accordingly, the Swansea valley was soon planted with chimneys, +furnaces, roasters, refiners, and, in short, all the necessary and +costly enginery which belongs to the vast and intricate processes of +smelting copper. With such propriety has the selection of a locality +been made, that even now, out of the twenty copper-smelting works of +which the country can boast, seventeen are situated on the navigable +rivers of Swansea and its neighbourhood. + +But this was not the only advantage the Cornish miners derived from +this judicious step. The ships employed to transport the ore to South +Wales came back laden with coal to feed their enormous engines; and +thus a system of traffic, mutually advantageous, was originated, and +has continued to exist without interruption down to the present time, +and will continue to exist so long as copper is mined in Cornwall and +smelted at Swansea.[3] + +Within the last twenty years, the importation of foreign ores has +become a remarkable feature in the trade and commerce of this place. +Not only is Swansea the seat of the copper trade of this country, but +it may with equal propriety be styled the copper mart of the world. +Large and valuable cargoes of ore are continually arriving at the +Swansea Docks from every country in the world where copper-mining is +pursued. In 1814, there were only four vessels which traded with +foreign ports; in 1849, this number had increased to 771; the greater +proportion of them being directly engaged in the copper trade. + +The Cornish ores are sold, as we have seen, in the locality in which +they are produced; but all these foreign ores, from whatever quarter +they may come, are disposed of to the smelters in Swansea by public +ticketing. This ticketing is a curious and characteristic feature of +the trade. The cargoes are usually consigned to a particular class of +brokers, indigenous to Swansea, and known as 'copper-ore agents.' The +ore is by them deposited in large yards, where it is crushed to a +certain fineness, for the purpose of obtaining a proper admixture of +the 'heap.' Notice is then given to the different smelting-houses, who +procure samples of the lot, and assay it. Meetings are held once a +fortnight at the Mackworth Arms Hotel; and on these days the agents +for the ore and those for the smelter take their seats around a table. +A chairman is appointed, who announces the different lots for sale. +Having previously made up their minds what to offer--for there is +nothing like a saleroom competition--the smelters hand up a folded +slip to the chairman, who announces the highest offer and the +purchaser's name. With such expedition does this proceed, that +different cargoes of copper-ore, to the value perhaps of L.50,000, +will often be quietly disposed of in a single hour! + +It is very remarkable how closely each offer approximates to the +intrinsic value of the ore. A lot of Chili or Australian ore, +containing a large quantity of metal, may bring L.50 per ton, while at +the same time a poor ore may be sold for a tenth part of the money. +But however variable the offers may be in this respect, they never +vary much in regard to a single lot. Out of the return of the twenty +assayers of the different smelters, probably not a half per cent. of +difference will be found in their estimates of the produce. The +smelters having thus become possessed of the ore, it is transferred to +their own yards, sometimes by means of lighters on the river, but more +frequently by the canal which communicates with Swansea and the +smelting-works. + +Leaving the town, and pursuing our way northwards for two miles +towards Neath, we reach the copper-works. The scene is widely +different in open day from that which was presented at night. There is +no beauty now, and little of the picturesque. The first impression, +indeed, the mind is apt to receive, is that of a sense of painful +weariness. Hundreds of chimneys--we speak literally--are vomiting +forth that white, peculiar-looking, and unmistakable vapour called +copper-smoke. Enormous masses of that ugly, black, silicious refuse, +known in the smelting vocabulary as 'slag,' is piled above and around +in such quantity as to change even the physical appearance of the +country. + +But this is not all. The noxious gases--which we see and feel around +us--evolved in the reduction of copper, have not played so long on the +surrounding atmosphere without doing their work. Everywhere within +their influence, the perennial vegetation is meagre and stinted. The +hills, particularly to the southeast of the copper-works, are barren +in the extreme. Not one spark of green, not one solitary lichen, can +withstand the ravages of the poison. Time was, we were told by an old +inhabitant, when these hills produced the earliest and finest corn in +the principality; but now they only resemble enormous piles of sandy +gravel, unbroken but by the rugged angles on the face of the rock. In +the year 1822, the inhabitants of Swansea took legal steps to abate +the nuisance. A reward of L.1000 was likewise offered for the +discovery of a successful means of neutralising the effect of the +vapour. The Messrs Vivian of the Hafod Works spent the princely sum of +L.14,000 in experiments, some of which were partially successful, and +are still adopted; but after all, it must be confessed that the fumes +of sulphurous acid, and of numerous other acids alike poisonous in +their character, still taint the atmosphere of the Swansea valley, and +still leave the indelible traces of their blasting properties. + +The Hafod Works are the largest in South Wales. Situated on the north +side of the river, they cover a superficial extent of about twenty +acres. The number of furnaces, chimneys, and other brick erections +contained in the works, was far beyond our computation; and we can +speak feelingly of the devious ways and labyrinth of bypaths with +which they are intersected, since, on more than one occasion, we +became bewildered in their mazes. + +Here was a group of workmen, half-naked, pouring out of a furnace the +liquid copper at a white heat; there was another group with a red-hot +copper-plate of colossal weight and dimensions, which they crushed +like cheese between the huge rollers of the copper-mill: on one hand, +there was an old furnace, that had done good duty in times past, in +the process of being dismantled; on the other, was one about being +rebuilt; and again there was still another, that had, from long +service, become so impregnated with copper, that it was actually being +built over by a larger one, to be melted in its turn! + +We shall avail ourselves of the valuable services of Mr Morgan, the +manager for Messrs Vivian, in our walks round the works, although it +is not our intention to give a technical description of +copper-smelting.[4] Such a course would be alike uninteresting to the +reader and unsatisfactory to ourselves. A consecutive description, +however brief, of what we saw, would, in like manner, carry us far +beyond our limits; and we therefore purposely confine ourselves to +whatever is popularly interesting and instructive in the process. + +First in order, then, we proceed to the ore-yard, which presents a +very motley appearance. Under its capacious roof there were tons upon +tons of every variety of ore--native and foreign, blue and red, green +and yellow, and all intermediate colours--indiscriminately piled +around. There was the beautiful green malachite from Australia, the +gray sulphuret from Algiers, the phosphate from Chili, and the +hydrous-carbonate from Spain. There was the glistening yellow +sulphuret from Cuba, the silicate from Brazil, the bright-blue +carbonate from the sunny regions of the south, and the dark-brown +oxide from the colder regions of the north. There was regulus from New +Zealand, and the good old pyrites from the Cornish mines; some +compounds with arsenic, antimony, and numerous other substances; and +last, though in one sense not least, there was a solitary specimen of +ore from Ireland. + +These ores were all in the form of a coarse powder. The regulus we +have mentioned is simply the sulphuret deprived, by a preliminary +operation, of its extraneous earthy matters; and this is frequently +effected in the localities where it is produced, such as New Zealand +and Chili, the expense of transport from these places being very +considerable. + +'And what is this?' we inquired, looking at a black earthy substance +the workmen at that moment were discharging from a vessel. + +'Ah!' said our friend, 'that is a commodity which, I suspect, you know +something about. It is a waste product from certain foundries and +chemical works--from Scotland in this case--and it contains a small +per cent. of copper. We don't care much about it; we seldom have it; +but it is sold at the ticketings regularly. For want of a better name, +we term it _slag_; but it is not slag, properly so called, which you +see all around you. A better denomination is that employed in +designating it in the Journal--namely, _rubbish_.'[5] + +'You make no kind of distinction in the ore-yard,' we continued. 'Is +that unnecessary?' + +'Well, practically it is. As these heaps lie, you can perceive that a +vertical slice from top to bottom will give us a tolerably even +admixture of the different ores. This is always desirable to a certain +extent, since the ores being of different constitution, the one +materially assists in the reduction of the other. Thus an ore +containing a large proportion of fluor-spar may with great advantage +be employed to flux another containing felspar or quartz, which +substances are almost infusible alone. Indeed, the judicious admixture +of ores constitutes the most important vocation of the smelter; and it +is to this that the copper-houses of Swansea are indebted for one of +their advantages over the proprietors of mines, who, possessing only +one kind of ore--rich, probably, but intractable--can never bring it +into the state of a metal with any satisfactory profit.' + +'What is the value of these ores?' + +'That varies much. This gray sulphuret contains about 70 per cent. of +copper, and is worth L.35 per ton. This yellow sulphuret, from being +mixed with a large quantity of iron and silicious earth, contains only +about 12 or 14 per cent. Some malachites contain so much as 50 per +cent., and others less pure, 30 to 40 per cent. of copper. But the +greater mass of the ores we melt have a far less produce than this. +That Cornish ore you see there, for example, contains only 4-1/2 per +cent. of metal. The average produce, however, of all the British and +foreign ores smelted at Swansea may be given at about 12 per cent. +Previous to the great increase of foreign importation, it was much +lower.' + +We now come to the process of smelting. The theory of reducing +metallic ores, of whatever constitution, is to bring them to the state +of oxides; and then, by the addition of charcoal, and with the aid of +heat, to expel the oxygen in the form of carbonic acid; after which +the pure metal is left. In practice, the reduction of copper-ores is +slightly different. Here the object is to separate, first, the earthy +matters and extraneous metals, by forming them into oxides by +calcination: these are subsequently obtained as waste products in the +form of slag; while the copper is left in combination with sulphur, +which is then dispelled at one operation. According to Mr Vivian, +copper undergoes eight, and sometimes nine, distinct operations in its +progress from the ore to the ingot; and these consist of alternate +calcinations and fusions, extending over a period of from 100 to 120 +hours. As, however, some of these are simple repetitions, we may, for +convenience' sake, illustrate the process under its three most +important steps. + +1. _Calcination of the Ore._--Having arranged a proper mixture of ores +in the yard, it is weighed out in boxes to the calcining-men. This is +drawn up an inclined plane over the tops of the furnaces, and from +thence emptied through hoppers, 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 tons at a time, into +the large calcining furnace. Here it is roasted for a period ranging +from twelve to twenty-four hours, after which it is drawn into the +ash-pit, where it remains to cool. In this state, the ore is a black, +amorphous substance, and is termed _calcined ore_. The object of this +process is to oxidise the extraneous metals, and also to reduce the +quantity of sulphur, by driving it off in the form of vapour. It is, +therefore, in this and the analogous processes of roasting, that the +sulphurous and arsenous vapours are so profusely given off. + +We stood upon one occasion beside a furnace, when the charge was in +the act of being withdrawn; but we took especial care never to do the +like again. The sensation resembled what one might expect to feel on +holding a lighted lucifer-match under each nostril. It is surprising +how the workmen stand it. For the greater part of their lives, these +poor Welshmen exist habitually in an atmosphere so charged with the +above-mentioned abominable gases, that it is difficult to understand +from whence their lungs receive the necessary supply of pure +oxygen.[6] Sulphurous acid, we may add, is the predominant smell in a +copper-work; but arsenic acid, hydrofluoric acid, and even +arseniuretted hydrogen, are not at all unfrequent. + +2. _Melting the Calcined Ore._--This is a totally different operation +from the last: in place of roasting, it is one of fusion. The calcined +ore is put into the furnace much in the same manner as before; a +quantity of the slag from a subsequent process is added to assist in +the fusion, and the heat is increased till the whole mass becomes +liquid. The object is to separate the earthy matter, which, from being +specifically lighter, rises to the surface of the liquid mass in the +form of slag, and is drawn off. After two or three charges, the +furnace becomes quite filled, and an aperture is then opened in it, +through which the red-hot liquid flows into an adjoining pit filled +with water. It is by this means granulated, and is now termed 'coarse +metal,' or 'regulus;' and is, in fact, an admixture of the sulphurets +of iron and copper, containing about 30 per cent. of the latter. + +But it is to the earthy impurities here given off that we especially +wish to direct attention. This slag, as it is termed, when drawn from +the furnace, is run into oblong sand-moulds, from which, when cold, it +is taken outside to the 'slag-bank,' as it is called--'slag-mountain,' +we prefer saying; and an ugly mountain it is!--where it is broken into +small pieces, examined to see whether it still contains metal, and if +not, is left to accumulate. It consists essentially of silicon, +oxygen, iron; or, to speak more correctly, it is a silicate of the +protoxide of iron. It is, in fact, a true _igneous rock_. Portions of +quartz and silica still remaining unfused, are often contained in the +masses, which give to them, when broken, a true porphyritic +appearance, while, from the great preponderance of the protoxide of +iron, it is invariably black. + +So hard, solid, and indurated do these slags, in process of time, +become, that a very tall chimney, the most conspicuous object in the +works, is built on the top of a slag-bank. And this beautiful +commodity is not without its use in the arts. Part of it is +occasionally cast into iron moulds, shaped like old Gothic arches, +only uglier; and the casts are applied in great quantity as +coping-stones to the walls and fences in the regions of the +copper-works. Although not a very tasteful, it is yet a very useful, +and, at the same time, a very characteristic application. We may add +here, that the aggregate produce of the substance of the different +Swansea works may be estimated at about 260,000 tons a year. Our +readers may judge for themselves of the ultimate change this is +calculated to bring about in the Carboniferous System, and of the +learned controversies that are likely to arise among future geologists +with respect to the character and constitution of these carefully +disintegrated rocks! + +To return to the smelting process. The last product--the regulus--is +again calcined, with the view of bringing the iron to the state of an +oxide. It is again melted, slagged, and run into pigs. In this last +operation, the whole iron is driven out in the slag, and the +remainder--'white metal,' as it is called--is almost a pure sulphuret +of copper. The sulphur, having all along preserved its combination +with the copper--a fine illustration of the theory of chemical +attraction--must now at length be expelled. This is effected by the +last process of roasting. When in a state of fusion in the furnace, +the charge is exposed to a stream of air, in which case a double +action ensues. Part of the oxygen enters into combination with the +sulphur, producing sulphurous acid, which is expelled in the form of +vapour, and part of it combines with the copper remaining in the +furnace; this is again run out into the form of pigs, and in this +state it is termed 'blistered copper.' To produce the finer kind of +copper, another process has yet to be gone through; but for ordinary +_tough copper_, it is at once transferred to what we may describe as +the last stage, and that is-- + +3. _Refining._--We quote Mr Vivian:--'The pigs from the roasters are +filled into the furnace through a large door in the side: the heat is +at first moderate, so as to complete the roasting or oxidising +process; after the charge is run down, and there is a good heat on the +furnace, the front door is taken down, and the slags skimmed off. An +assay is then taken out by the refiner with a small ladle, and broken +in the vice; and from the general appearance of the metal in and out +of the furnace, the state of the fire, &c., he judges whether the +toughening process may be proceeded with, and can form some opinion as +to the quantity of _poles_ and charcoal that will be required to +render it malleable, or, as it is termed, to bring it to the _proper +pitch_. The copper in this state is what is termed _dry_: it is +brittle, of a deep-red colour, inclining to purple, an open grain, and +crystalline structure. In the process of toughening, the surface of +the metal in the furnace is first well covered with charcoal; a pole, +commonly of birch, is then held into the liquid metal, which causes +considerable ebullition, owing to the evolution of gaseous matter; and +this operation of _poling_ is continued, until, from the assays which +the refiner from time to time takes, he perceives that the grain, +which gradually becomes finer, is perfectly closed.' After some +further manipulation of a similar kind, the refiner is at length +satisfied of its malleability, and that the copper is now in its +_proper place_, as he terms it. It is then poured out by means of iron +ladles, coated with clay, into ingots or moulds of the different sizes +required by the manufacturer. + +'This process of refining or toughening copper, is a delicate +operation, requiring great care and attention on the part of the +refiner to keep the metal in the malleable state.' It is also, beyond +comparison, the most beautiful sight in the copper-works. At one +particular stage of the process, we saw the mass of molten copper in +the furnace--some five or six tons--assume the most beautiful and +resplendent appearance it was possible to imagine. It was like a sea +of 'burnished gold;' and, indeed, were it not for the intense heat, +the red-hot ladles of the workmen, and other little circumstances of +the kind, the stranger would have some difficulty in believing that he +did not look upon a beautifully polished mirror. + +We have now come to the end of the smelting process; and have left +ourselves no room to describe the transformation into sheets, bars, +bolts, and boilerplates which the metal undergoes in the next +department of the works. These, however, are a better understood +series of operations, consisting, as they do, of the usual and +ordinary processes of rolling the hot metal between powerful iron +rollers. Nor have we space to allude even to the vastly numerous and +varied applications of the metal; although we may take the opportunity +of briefly adverting to the recently discovered process of smelting +copper by electricity, and of inquiring into the probability of its +ever becoming an economical application. + +It will be seen, in the first place, that the present mode of smelting +copper, though simple in theory, appears in practice extremely +complex. For this reason, within the last twenty-five years there +have, we believe, been as many patents taken out to simplify and +hasten the operation. Without exception, these have been proved to be +altogether inapplicable. Let us see how this is explained. + +Out of these numerous improvements, we select two that appear +peculiarly attractive. The first is the method of precipitating the +copper, in our second process, from the fused silicates containing it, +by the action of the electric current--the negative pole of the +battery terminating in an iron plate, which replaces the copper in the +liquid mass. The second method is an improvement on this. From some +experiments made at the School of Mines in Paris, it was shewn that +metallic iron alone, without the aid of the battery, was capable of +precipitating copper from the silicates in a state of fusion, just as +it does in saline solutions at ordinary temperatures. But in applying +this last method to practice--for the electricity was obviously +rendered unnecessary by the discovery--it was found that the +expenditure of iron was so great, that it could not be profitably +applied except as a means of assisting the reduction. + +'Still,' said Mr Morgan, when commenting on these methods, 'this, in +point of fact, is precisely what we do. We add, as you have seen, a +great proportion of slag to the melting of the calcined ore, which +consists chiefly of the oxide of iron; while at the same time we +derive the additional advantage of employing an excellent flux--an +advantage which metallic iron does not possess. But, irrespective of +these considerations, the plain fact of the matter is, that _it will +not pay_ to smelt copper expeditiously. We don't wish to do so. It is +quite a matter of choice with us those continued operations; and their +great advantage lies in this, that we are enabled to extract every +particle of copper from the ore. By any of these other methods--very +philosophical they are, I admit--we could not accomplish this. The +slags would all contain more or less metal; and when I inform you, +that we can afford to remelt those slags if they contain only a half +per cent. of copper, you will perhaps understand our reasons for still +adhering to our venerable system.' + +Thus we discovered that the smelting of copper by electricity, and of +reducing it with metallic iron, would not pay. + +Our statistics are short, but they are heavy: about 300,000 tons of +copper-ore are annually smelted at Swansea; 28,000 tons of copper are +annually produced; and 600,000 tons of coal are annually burned. The +value of the ore is about L.2,000,000; of the copper, L.2,600,000; of +the coal, we have no correct means of ascertaining. Of the population +of Swansea, about one-fourth are dependent on the smelting-works; and +of these, about 3500 are directly engaged in the business. The +probable amount of wages paid by the smelters is about L.135,000; and +the current expenditure of the copper-works in the aggregate exceeds +L.500,000 a year. + +The last thing we did was to visit the Hafod Schools. These excellent +schools--one for boys, one for girls, and one for infants--were +erected about six years ago, and are still maintained at the expense +of the Messrs Vivian. At the time of our visit, there were 600 of the +rising population of the place doing their utmost to unlearn the Welsh +idiom, and to acquire the art of speaking and writing the English +language with propriety. We regret that we cannot dwell on this the +most gratifying circumstance of our visit. Messrs Vivian & Sons are +unquestionably great copper-smelters, but, in our humble opinion, the +greatest action they ever did, and what must ever commend them to all +good minds, was the establishment of these schools. + +To us it was a change, a relief inexpressibly delightful, to emerge +from the Stygian regions of the copper-works, where for the last five +or six days we had wandered like an 'unshriven spirit,' and to find +ourselves in contemplation of the happy faces of the scholars, and to +hear the hopeful, encouraging tones of their intelligent teachers. The +popular song of _Children go, to and fro_, was being sung in the +infant school at the moment we took our leave, and we shall never +forget the impression. It struck upon our senses, to use an +appropriate metaphor, like the crystal stream of the desert--like the +shadow of a great rock in a weary land. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3] See for some interesting information on the system of Cornish +Mining, an article in No. 42 of the present series. + +[4] On this point, we refer all who are desirous of pursuing the +subject, to a valuable memoir in the _Annals of Philosophy_, by John +Henry Vivian, Esq., F.R.S., the proprietor of the Hafod Works. This +paper, we may add, is the standard authority on the subject; and is, +with some modification, copied by Drs Ure and Lardner, and by most +popular works upon metallurgy. + +[5] The production of this curious substance is explained in an +article on the 'Value of Rubbish,' No. 385. + +[6] Notwithstanding this, we were assured by a gentleman connected +with the copper-works, that there is no specific disease arising from +copper-smelting, as in the case of lead. Asthma, rheumatism, and +colds, are the prevailing affections among the men; and even these are +in a great measure due to their own carelessness. + + + + +THE KING OF YVETOT. + + +There are few of our countrymen who have travelled in France but must +frequently have heard proverbial allusion made to a certain monarch of +Yvetot; and still fewer must be those who, having the slightest +knowledge of French literature, are unacquainted with Béranger's happy +lyric-- + + There reigned a monarch in Yvetot + But little known in story, + Who, stranger all to grief and wo, + Slept soundly without glory; + His night-cap tied by Jenny's care + (The only crown this king would wear), + He'd snooze! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + His jolly court he held each day, + 'Neath humble roof of rushes green; + And on a donkey riding gay, + Through all his kingdom might be seen: + A happy soul, and thinking well, + His only guard was--sooth to tell-- + His dog! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + No harsh exacting lord was he, + To grasp more than his folks could give; + But, mild howe'er a king may be, + His majesty, you know, must live; + And no man e'er a bumper filled, + Until the jovial prince had swilled + His share! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + He ne'er sought to enlarge his states, + But was a neighbour just and kind; + A pattern to all potentates, + Would they his bright example mind. + The only tears he e'er caused fall, + Fell when he died--which you'll not call + His fault. + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + +It is well known that Béranger's song, from which we have extracted +the preceding four verses, as translated by Anderson, was a friendly, +though rather satirical remonstrance with Napoleon--of course we mean +_the_ Napoleon--touching his ambitious and bellicose policy. But it is +not so well known, that there really was a kingdom of Yvetot, and that +its several dynasties reigned peacefully for upwards of eleven +centuries. Anderson, in a note to the song, says: 'Yvetot, a district +in the north of France, possesses a monarch of its own, a sort of +burlesque personage, whose royal charger is a donkey; his guard, a +dog; his crown, a night-cap; and his revenue, a gratuitous draught of +_wine_ at the _ale_ houses of his liege subjects!' Young, another +translator of Béranger, not any better informed, tells us that 'the +Lords of Yvetot claimed and exercised, in the olden time, some such +fantastical privileges as are here alluded to.' + +The translators have some excuse for their ignorance regarding the +king of Yvetot; for few Frenchmen of the present day, with the +exception of antiquaries, consider him to have been anything else than +a popular myth. Be it our task, then, to jot down some authentic +notices of that ancient, and now extinct monarchy. + +Yvetot, a town and commune of ancient Normandy (Pays de Caux), in the +department of Seine-Inférieure, now traversed by the railway leading +from Havre de Grâce to Rouen, was, in the sixth century, the seigniory +of one Vauthier, chamberlain to Clotaire I., the royal son of Clovis +and Clotilda. Nothing whatever is known of the earlier part of +Vauthier's history, more than that he held the fief of Yvetot from +Clotaire by the feudal tenure of military service. An able and +trustworthy statesman in the council-chamber, a valiant and skilful +commander in the battle-field, the chamberlain lived on terms of the +most intimate familiarity with his king, who ever lent a ready ear to +his sage suggestions. This high honour, however, being not at all +agreeable to the other followers of the court, they entered into a +conspiracy to ruin the favourite chamberlain. Taking advantage of his +absence, they perfidiously vilified him to the king. The chroniclers +do not state what were the exact charges brought against him, but they +must have been weighty and artfully insinuated, for the rude and +truculent Clotaire swore that he would, with his own hand, slay the +Sieur of Yvetot, when and wherever he should chance to meet with him. +The reader must not be surprised at such a vow: in those days, +sovereigns frequently indulged in a plurality of offices, and could +upon occasion perform the duty of the executioner as well as that of +the judge. Vauthier happened to have a friend at court, who sent him +timely warning of this state of affairs; and not thinking it by any +means prudent to expose himself to the lethal fury of a king who had +unscrupulously killed his own nephews, he left the country, and joined +the army of the north, then fighting against the Thuringian pagans, +the enemies of Clotaire and his religion, such as it was. + +After ten years of arduous service and heroic exploits, Vauthier, +crowned with glory, and hoping that time had mollified the malignant +feelings of the king, turned his face once more towards his native +country. But at that period bad passions were not so easily effaced; +besides, the accusers of Vauthier were now doubly interested in +keeping him at a distance. The Lord of Yvetot, hearing how matters +stood, to make sure of a favourable reception, proceeded, in the first +instance, to Rome, where he made a friend of Pope Agapet, who sent him +with letters to Clotaire, in the capacity of an envoy. Under the +shield of so sacred a function, Vauthier had no hesitation in +repairing to Soissons, and presenting himself before the king; yet, to +be still more secure, he chose for that occasion the solemnities of +Good Friday--the anniversary of the great day of Christian mercy. +Clotaire was at the high altar of the cathedral, celebrating the +holiest rites of the church before a crucifix veiled in mourning, when +Vauthier made his presence known. Throwing himself on his knees in +humble supplication, he presented the letters of the sovereign +pontiff, and implored pardon, if he had been guilty, by the merits of +Him who, on the same day, had so freely shed his blood for the +salvation of all mankind. The ferocious and implacable king recognised +the suppliant, and, without regard to the sanctity of either the place +or the day, drew his sword, and, with one blow, struck the unfortunate +chamberlain dead on the stone pavement, at the very steps of the +altar. + +Violent passions have, generally speaking, rapid revulsions. Scarcely +was Vauthier's body cold, when the king repented his hasty deed. The +clergy read to him the letters from Pope Agapet, which attested the +innocence of his former favourite; and they represented to him, that +he had committed the grossest description of sacrilege, the sin from +which the sovereign pontiff alone could absolve. In a short time the +barbarous Clotaire passed from a state of rabid fury to one of the +most abject despair, so that he required little persuasion from the +clergy ere he sent a messenger to Rome, bearing rich presents, to beg +for absolution from the pope. The messenger arrived at Rome just as +Agapet was at the point of death; yet the business being urgent, and +the presents valuable, he was ushered into the sick-chamber of the +dying head of the Christian church. Supported by attendants, the pope +proceeded to pronounce, in a feeble voice, the penitential discipline +of Clotaire. He said that the king could not expect pardon unless he +gave the highest possible satisfaction to the heirs of the murdered +man: but here a fit of coughing attacked and carried off his holiness, +so that whatever penance he intended to inflict was never known. +Clotaire, however, determined to expiate his crime, long pondered upon +the meaning of the pope's dying words, and at last concluded that, as +there was nothing higher than a king, the words 'highest satisfaction' +meant that he should raise the heir of Vauthier to the royal dignity. +Accordingly, he by charter erected the seigniory of Yvetot into a +kingdom--an act in perfect consonance with the ancient French feudal +law, which enfranchised the family of the vassal from all homage and +duty, if his lord laid violent hands upon him. + +From that time until the latter part of the eighteenth century, the +descendants of Vauthier reigned as independent sovereigns of their +little kingdom of Yvetot, owing neither tribute, service, nor +allegiance to any other power. Consequently, until the great +Revolution, which, like the bursting of a pent-up deluge, changed the +features of the whole country, the inhabitants of Yvetot paid no taxes +to the government of France. + +Historians and jurisconsults have written many grave and learned +dissertations on the curious position of this little kingdom shut up +in a greater one; and, though they differ in some trifling respects, +they all coincide in concluding, that the king of Yvetot, being +independent of any other potentate, was never obliged to engage in +quarrels which did not concern him, and accordingly lived in peace +with his neighbours, whom he never pretended to frighten. Moreover, in +spite of courtiers and counsellors, statecraft and politics were +unknown in Yvetot; thus the king remained neuter during the various +wars that raged around him, though he could bring an army of one +hundred and twenty royal troops into the field. The seriousness of +these disquisitions has been occasionally enlivened by a spice of +pleasantry. We are told how the king of Yvetot kept his own seals, and +was his own minister of finance; that his court consisted of a +bishop, a dean, and four canons, not one of whom ranked higher in the +church than a parish curé; four notaries, dignified by the title of +judges, representing the states of the kingdom, formed the senate, and +composed his majesty's privy-council; four of the best-looking of the +tenants' daughters were ladies of the bed-chamber and maids of honour +to the queen; four stalwart body-guards attended on all occasions of +ceremony--at other times, they worked as agricultural labourers on the +royal farm; a footman performed the duty of chamberlain, and, when +necessary, that of herald; a groom was master of the horse; a gardener +superintended the woods and forests. This, however, is only a +traditionary account of the court of Yvetot; and, lest the reader +should think it all a joke, we shall specify some of the documentary +evidence still extant respecting that little kingdom. + +A decree of the Court of Exchequer of Normandy, executed in the year +1392, mentions the king of Yvetot; and various letters-patent, granted +by monarchs of France in 1401, 1450, and 1464, acknowledge and confirm +the title. In the early part of the fifteenth century, when Normandy +was under English rule, one John Holland, an Englishman, claimed, in +the name of his master Henry VI., certain taxes and feudal duties from +the kingdom of Yvetot. Strange to say, in those semi-barbarous days, +the case was tried in a court of law, and the issue given against +Holland, the court fully recognising the Lord of Yvetot as an +independent king. A letter of Francis I., addressed to the queen of +Yvetot, is still in existence. In one of the many episodes of the wars +of the League, it happened that Henry IV., compelled to retreat, found +himself in Yvetot, and determined not to recede further, he cheered +his troops by jocularly saying: 'If we lose France, we must take +possession of this fair kingdom of Yvetot.' At the coronation of his +second wife, Mary de Medici, the same monarch rebuked the grand +chamberlain for not assigning to Martin du Belley, then king of +Yvetot, a position suitable to his regal dignity. The Belley dynasty +reigned in Yvetot for 332 years. The last king of that petty kingdom +was D'Albon St Marcel, who, when at the court of Louis XVI., modestly +assumed no higher rank than that of a prince. The Revolution, as we +have already intimated, swept away the ancient crown, and the King of +Yvetot is now nothing more than the title of a song, with its burden-- + + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + + + + +RELATIONSHIPS. + +MASTER AND SERVANT. + + +The relationship of a master and servant--or, to use the modern +phrase, employer and employed--is properly constituted by the +agreement of one individual to perform certain duties to another; that +is, instead of being guided solely by his own will, to submit himself +to perform in certain matters the will of another. + +The extent of duty which is embraced in the contract may vary very +much. It may be only for the performance of one single act, or it may +be for almost the whole range of daily avocations and duties. There is +often a vagueness about the limit of duties, and we often find the +master inclined to exact more than the servant is inclined to give. +There are very good reasons why masters should not consider themselves +as having a right to a full command and power over their servants in +all things; nay, that in things not within the contract, they should +be inclined to admit a certain equality in the two parties. Masters +are too apt to regard themselves as the lords of their servants in all +respects and at all times. They exercise an authority and assume a +superiority in matters beyond the contract. + +On their side, servants often grudgingly perform the duties they have +undertaken. These two causes of discontent produce the worst results. + +The practical remedy seems to be, that masters ought more generally to +recognise and act on the principle, that the lordship they bargain for +is not of the whole man, but only in certain respects and duties; and +that it is only as regards those duties they can expect their servant +to surrender his will to the guidance of his master's: while it should +be equally impressed on the servant, that in those respects in which +he has agreed to submit to and execute the will of his master, that +submission and surrender of his will should be absolute, and without +the least reserve or limitation. Perfect obedience is a beautiful +fulfilment of duty, and defensible on the grounds of common-sense; for +as no one can serve two masters--that is, in the performance of any +particular duty--so no man can both obey his own inclination and +submit himself to his master's will in the performance of the same +act. + +On moral grounds, it is improper that any one should attempt to +execute in all things the will, of any earthly master; for there is a +power, and, in most cases, several powers, superior to both master and +servant, to whom both owe duties; and therefore the servant cannot +legally, nor without failure in his higher duties, enter into any +contract which may hinder the performance of those duties. In matters +of the law, it is held that such a contract is not binding; and thus, +in the case of a moral law being contravened by a contract, a door of +escape is open to those who have entered into such contract, it being +in opposition to the will of a higher authority. + +When a servant, therefore, is in duty bound to execute the will of his +master, his obedience should be perfect. All hesitation or murmuring +is a violation of his contract--a breaking of his promise and +agreement. + +But the master and servant should equally learn, that in other +respects, and at other times, the parties are not necessarily in the +state of superior and inferior; but, unless from some other cause, are +to be regarded as on a footing of equality; and this is the true +interpretation of the doctrine of fraternity and equality, which has, +from not being properly understood, played such wild work among some +neighbouring nations. In this sense, however, it is safe and useful. + +Not only, however, may the individuals who sometimes and in some +respects are master and servant, be at other times and in other +respects regarded as on a level, but they may with propriety, and +often do, change places. The servant becomes of right the master. For +if he should employ that master as his physician or lawyer, no matter +what may be considered the respective ranks of the parties, the +physician or lawyer must, to perform his duty, become the servant, and +submit his will in the business he is employed in to that of his +employer. + +This way of regarding servitude is not a degrading one, but the +reverse. Nothing is so pleasant to a reasonable and truly noble mind +as to pay obedience to those to whom it is due; and if the +adaptability of the same individual to be both master and servant was +more practically carried out, our civilisation would work more +smoothly, and we should probably approach more to that desirable state +in which no one would have a stigma attached to him from his birth or +occupation, but only from the manner in which he performed his duty. + +It would help considerably towards a proper understanding of the +relationship between employers and employed, if the employed would, +for their own sake, maintain that degree of self-respect which would +induce others to respect them. On this point we would speak kindly, +yet frankly, and cannot do better than quote a passage from a small +treatise on Political Economy, just published.[7] 'The true +relationship between employers and employed is that subsisting +between a purchaser and a seller. The employer buys; the employed +sells; and the thing sold is labour. Attaining a clear conviction on +this point, the connection between the two parties is that of mutual +independence. Thrown much together, however, a spirit of courtesy and +good-fellowship ought to temper the intercourse, and it will be the +better for all parties if this spirit prevails. In some situations, +however, there is shewn a disposition on the part of workmen to ask +favours of employers--as, for example, seeking to absent themselves on +holidays without a corresponding reduction in the amount of wages. +This seems to be as wrong as it would be for the employer to ask his +workmen to labour certain days for nothing. The rights and obligations +are distinctly mutual. One has no right to encroach on the other; and, +indeed, there can be no encroachment, no favour asked, on either side, +without a certain loss of independence. This feeling of independence +should be carefully cultivated and preserved, along with those habits +of courtesy which soften the general intercourse of society.' + +We are happy to add, that, to all appearance, a great advance in all +these respects has been made within these few years--disagreements +respecting wages and other circumstances between employers and +employed, being conducted and finally adjusted in a spirit very +different from what used to be manifested a quarter of a century ago. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[7] _Political Economy_: Chambers's Educational Course. + + + + +THIRST IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. + + +The use of snow when persons are thirsty does not by any means allay +the insatiable desire for water; on the contrary, it appears to be +increased in proportion to the quantity used, and the frequency with +which it is put into the mouth. For example, a person walking along +feels intensely thirsty, and he looks to his feet with coveting eyes; +but his good sense and firm resolutions are not to be overcome so +easily, and he withdraws the open hand that was to grasp the delicious +morsel and convey it into his parching mouth. He has several miles of +a journey to accomplish, and his thirst is every moment increasing; he +is perspiring profusely, and feels quite hot and oppressed. At length +his good resolutions stagger, and he partakes of the smallest +particle, which produces a most exhilarating effect; in less then ten +minutes he tastes again and again, always increasing the quantity; and +in half an hour he has a gum-stick of condensed snow, which he +masticates with avidity, and replaces with assiduity the moment that +it has melted away. But his thirst is not allayed in the slightest +degree; he is as hot as ever, and still perspires; his mouth is in +flames, and he is driven to the necessity of quenching them with snow, +which adds fuel to the fire. The melting snow ceases to please the +palate, and it feels like red-hot coals, which, like a fire-eater, he +shifts about with his tongue, and swallows without the addition of +saliva. He is in despair; but habit has taken the place of his +reasoning faculties, and he moves on with languid steps, lamenting the +severe fate which forces him to persist in a practice which in an +unguarded moment he allowed to begin.... I believe the true cause of +such intense thirst is the extreme dryness of the air when the +temperature is low.--_Sutherland's Journal._ + + + + +AN AUSTRALIAN MISS. + + +The precocity of the Australian youth, to be properly understood and +believed, can only be fully appreciated by being an eye-witness to +some of these very extraordinary young creatures. I have seen a girl +of ten years of age possess all the manner of an old lady of sixty: +she would flirt with three men at a time, and have a ready answer for +them when teasing her; would move like an accomplished actress, +manipulate gracefully, play whist, chess, and other games, and talk +about getting married. This child, for such I must call her, was a +greater mental giant than O'Brien, with his moving mountain of flesh, +and far more entertaining than twenty Tom Thumbs.--_Shaw's Tramp to +the Diggings._ + + + + +THE DAY OF REST. + + + Rest, rest! it is the Day of Rest--there needs no book to tell + The truth that every thoughtful eye, each heart can read so well; + Rest, rest! it is the Sabbath morn, a quiet fills the air, + Whose whispered voice of peace repeats that rest is everywhere. + + O weary heart! O heart of wo! raise up thy toil-worn brow; + The fields, the trees, the very breeze--they all are resting now: + The air is still, there is no sound, save that unceasing hum, + That insect song of summer-time that from the woods doth come. + + And even that seems fainter now, like voices far away, + As though they only sang of rest, and laboured not to-day; + The hum of bees seems softer, too, from out the clear blue heaven, + As if the lowliest creatures knew this day for rest was given. + + The spacious tracts of meadow-land, of bean-fields, and of wheat, + And all the glebe, are undisturbed by sound of Labour's feet; + The cotter in his Sunday garb, with peace within his breast, + Roams idly by the garden-side, and feels himself at rest. + + The streams, the trees, the woods, the breeze, the bird, + and roving bee, + Seem all to breathe a softer sound, a holier melody; + Yon little church, too, tells of rest, to all the summer air, + For the bell long since has ceased to peal that called to praise + and prayer. + + But while I stand 'mid these tall elms, a sound comes creeping near, + That falls like music heard in dreams upon my charmèd ear; + Like music heard in dreams of heaven, that sacred sound doth steal + From where the old church aisles repeat the organ's solemn peal. + + Now Heaven be praised! a gracious boon is this sweet rest to me-- + How many shall this truth repeat to-day on bended knee! + How many a weary heart it cheers, how many an aching breast: + Now Heaven be praised, a gracious boon is this sweet Day of Rest! + + PICTOR. + + TORQUAY. + + + + +'THE BIRKBECK MAGAZINE.' + + +Some numbers have been sent to us of a cheap London periodical with +this title. Its peculiarity is, that the promoters and contributors +are young men, members of the Mechanics' Institution, Southampton +Buildings, who intend throwing open their columns to unknown writers +connected in a similar way with the other Mutual Improvement +Societies. A considerable circulation might be secured by this plan; +and perhaps such a work may be as well calculated to elevate the +aspirations, and excite wholesome emulation, as the productions of +more practised pens. + + * * * * * + +Printed and Published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, High Street, Edinburgh. +Also sold by W. S. ORR, Amen Corner, London; D. N. CHAMBERS, 55 West +Nile Street, Glasgow; and J. M'GLASHAN, 50 Upper Sackville Street, +Dublin.--Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to +MAXWELL & CO., 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all +applications respecting their insertion must be made. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + +***** This file should be named 24084-8.txt or 24084-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/0/8/24084/ + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. 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October 9, 1852 + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + /*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + max-width: 40em;} + p {text-align: justify;} + p.center {text-align: center;} + p.left {text-align: left;} + p.right {text-align: right; margin-right: 10%;} + blockquote {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center;} + pre {font-size: 0.8em;} + .returnTOC {text-align: right; font-size: 70%;} + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .lowercase {text-transform: lowercase;} + sup {vertical-align: 0.25em;} + .note {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + span.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;} + .footnotes {border: none;} + .footnote .label {float:left; text-align:left; width:2em;} + .fnanchor {font-size: smaller; text-decoration: none; + font-style: normal; font-variant:normal; + font-weight: normal; vertical-align: 0.25em;} + .footnote {font-size: 0.9em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .contents + {margin-left:30%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem + {margin-left:30%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i10 {display: block; margin-left: 10em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem15 + {margin-left:15%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem15 .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem15 span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + // --> + /*]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458 + Volume 18, New Series, October 9, 1852 + +Author: Various + +Editor: William Chambers + Robert Chambers + +Release Date: December 31, 2007 [EBook #24084] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + + + + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL</h1> + +<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents">CONTENTS</a></h2> + +<div class="contents"> + +<!-- Autogenerated TOC. Modify or delete as required. --> +<p> +<a href="#A_SWIM_EXTRAORDINARY"><b>A SWIM EXTRAORDINARY.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#WOOL_FROM_PINE-TREES"><b>WOOL FROM PINE-TREES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CHAMBERSS_LIFE_AND_WORKS_OF_BURNS2"><b>CHAMBERS'S LIFE AND WORKS OF BURNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VISIT_TO_THE_COPPER-WORKS_OF_SWANSEA"><b>VISIT TO THE COPPER-WORKS OF SWANSEA.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#THE_KING_OF_YVETOT"><b>THE KING OF YVETOT.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#RELATIONSHIPS"><b>RELATIONSHIPS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#THIRST_IN_THE_ARCTIC_REGIONS"><b>THIRST IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#AN_AUSTRALIAN_MISS"><b>AN AUSTRALIAN MISS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#THE_DAY_OF_REST"><b>THE DAY OF REST.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#THE_BIRKBECK_MAGAZINE"><b>'THE BIRKBECK MAGAZINE.'</b></a><br /> +</p> +<!-- End Autogenerated TOC. --> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[pg 225]</a></span></p> + +<img src="images/banner.png" + width="100%" + alt="Banner: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal" /> + +<h4>CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S +INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &c.</h4> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table width="100%" + summary="Volume, Date and Price"> +<tr> +<td align="left"><b><span class="sc">No.</span> 458. <span class="sc">New Series.</span></b></td> +<td align="left"><b>SATURDAY, OCTOBER 9, 1852.</b></td> +<td align="right"><b><span class="sc">Price</span> 1½<i>d</i>.</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + + +<h2><a name="A_SWIM_EXTRAORDINARY" id="A_SWIM_EXTRAORDINARY"></a>A SWIM EXTRAORDINARY.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">I have</span> been all my life a sort of amphibious animal, having, like many +an old Roman, learned to swim long before I had learned to read. The +bounding backs of the billows were my only rocking-horse when I was a +child, and dearly I loved to ride them when a fresh breeze was +blowing. I rarely tired in the water, where I often amused myself for +hours together. I grew up with such a liking for the exercise, that I +have never been able to forego the opportunity for a swim when it +offered; and a daily bath has been for a long course of years as +necessary to me as my daily food. The exercise of swimming has been +through life my chief pleasure and my only medicine—a never-failing +restorative from weakness and weariness, and, what may appear strange +to some readers, from the effects of irritation, anxiety, and +mortification as well.</p> + +<p>This accomplishment, however, once led me into a strange adventure. I +was engaged in a rather extensive commercial tour through the central +kingdoms of Europe. I had crossed the Hungarian frontier about the +middle of the day, after being much annoyed and chafed by a +multiplicity of delays and extortions; and at length, hot and wearied, +arrived at B—— late in the evening. As soon as I caught sight of the +Danube in the distance, I resolved that the first thing I would do +after getting housed and refreshed by a few hours' sleep, should be to +enjoy the luxury of a leisurely swim in that noble river. With this +view, passing through the town, I put up at a small but decent +<i>gasthof</i> which stood upon a patch of rising ground close upon the +margin of the stream; and having first seen to the comfort of my +horse, which was well-nigh knocked up with the day's journey, and next +attended to my own, I retired to rest at an early hour, without +descending to the common room and joining in the beery orgies of the +evening. I rose next morning, as was my custom, a full half hour +before the sun; and finding no one stirring in the house, proceeded to +the stables, the back of which overlooked the water. Here I found a +middle-aged tatterdemalion, whose flesh and costume were all of one +colour, and that the precise hue of the dungheap from which he had +just arisen, and from which one might have imagined him to have been +engendered. He was in the act of cleaning out the stable, as well as +the task could be accomplished, with his bare feet and a shovel, the +blade of which was not much bigger than his hand. With some trouble, +and with the aid of a small coin, I contrived to make him understand +my purpose; and he led me up stairs to a loft, in which I might +undress and deposit my clothes, and pointed to a rude flight of wooden +steps, leading from the window to the water's edge, and from which I +might plunge in from any height I chose.</p> + +<p>In a few minutes, I had left my clothes upon a truss of odorous +clover, and plunging in head-foremost from the top of the ladder, I +rose to the surface at a few yards' distance from the bank, and struck +out vigorously to enjoy my swim. The sensation was deliciously cool +and pleasant. Keeping my eyes fixed upon the opposite shore, I made +towards it, feeling all the while as light as a cork and as strong as +a colt. How long I revelled in the first exquisite sense of enjoyment +I have not, nor had I then, any very distinct idea. Turning, however, +upon my back, just to vary my position, my head, of course, faced the +shore I had left, from which, to my great surprise, the good town I +had left had vanished entirely, and I became aware that the rapid +current of the river, upon which, in my eagerness for a bath, I had +not bestowed a single thought, had already carried me some mile or two +in its progress towards the Black Sea. Not being victualled for so +long a voyage, I began to look around me, and to curse the headlong +haste which had brought me into such a dilemma. I found that I was as +nearly as possible in the centre of the stream, and immediately put +all my vigour in requisition to regain the shore I had left. This, to +my no small dismay, I soon discovered was not to be accomplished, the +current setting strong towards the opposite side. I made an experiment +of my strength by means of a small chip of wood which floated by: I +could judge what prospect I had of regaining the northern bank of the +river by the distance at which I could leave the chip behind me, while +swimming in a contrary direction; but it was of no use: in a quarter +of an hour's hard struggling I had not gained twenty yards, while I +had floated more than a mile further down the stream. Nothing remained +for it but to make for the shore, towards which I was drifting at any +rate, and that must be done as fast as possible; for being now really +alarmed, I felt, or fancied that I felt my strength deserting me. +Under this impression, I struck out more furiously, and thus fatigued +myself the more; and it was with no small difficulty I at last reached +the opposite bank, up which I climbed, with sensations almost as +forlorn and hopeless as those of the shipwrecked mariner whom the +tempest casts ashore.</p> + +<p>In fact, I would have given a round sum for the rags of the +shipwrecked mariner to cover me. Here I was in the condition of a +primeval savage, on a desert spot, without a dwelling in sight, and +prevented, by the want of clothing, from seeking out the habitations +of men. I ran to the highest ground in the neighbourhood, and that was +close to the water's edge, and looked around me in every direction. On +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[pg 226]</a></span>the shore which I had left, I could see what appeared the dim outline +of buildings at a great distance; but on the side of the river on +which I was standing, nothing but a vast tract of low land was +visible, which, from its swampy condition, it was plain was overflowed +by the river in times of flood. I hallooed for some minutes with all +the strength of my lungs; but the only response was the rising of a +few moorfowl from the marsh, which wheeled cackling above my head, as +though wondering what my business might be, and then settled down +again in the reedy pool from whence they had arisen at my cry. I sat +down upon a stone, and feeling that I was fast going into a state of +distraction, tried to collect my faculties, and to consider what was +best to be done, or, indeed, if anything could be done. With the sense +of my desperate condition came also a horrible sense of the ludicrous. +What would my principals in London think of their continental agent +shivering, without a rag on, upon the desolate banks of the Danube? +Here was I, a man well known upon 'Change, with four thousand pounds +in the three-and-a-half per cents, the idea of which had been a +comfort to me for many a long year, ready to forfeit the whole sum in +exchange for the raggedest pair of pantaloons that ever dangled from a +scarecrow, and ready, too, to go down upon my bare knees to any +ministering angel of an old Jew who would propose the bargain. I +grinned a despairing laugh at the thought of such an absurd compact, +and then groaned aloud as the conviction overcame me, that in my +present circumstances it would be a prudent one.</p> + +<p>Relapsing into grim and savage silence, I glared gloomily at a sharp +jagged stone which lay at my feet, and at length, taking it in my +hand, walked mechanically into a stagnant pool, where a group of +willow sprigs were growing on a few old stumps barely emerging from +the water. I contrived to sever a dozen or two of the twigs by hacking +at them with the flint—and, carrying them to dry ground, was soon +busy in rehearsing over again the toilet of Adam in Paradise. Tying +their ends together, I crossed a couple of them over my shoulders in +the manner of a shooting-belt, and from these I managed to suspend a +kind of frock of green leaves, which effectually transformed my +appearance from that of the rude savage of the wild to the civilised +Jack-in-the-Green of May-day in London. I may declare without reserve, +that I never felt more proud or pleased with any exploit of my whole +life than I now did at the completion of my toilet. My spirits, which +had before been villainously depressed, rose all at once, and I no +longer despaired of restoration to society. I walked majestically up +and down, keeping a careful look-out both upon the water and the land. +A boat passed at the distance of half a mile from the shore, but I +tried in vain to attract the notice of the crew. My voice could not be +heard so far, and if by accident they saw me, they must have mistaken +me for a bush. I now turned my back to the river in disgust, and +commenced a severe and careful scrutiny upon the land-side, to see if +I could possibly in any direction make out any signs of life. Five or +six hours must have elapsed since the moment when I plunged headlong +from the ladder; the sun was now nearly at his meridian; the blue mist +which had covered everything, and veiled the distance from my view in +the morning when I emerged from the water and crawled up the muddy +bank, had now entirely rolled away, and the vast level tract of +marsh-land was open to my inspection to a distance at least of some +five or six English miles, at the extremity of which it was bounded by +a rising ground sparsely wooded. I imagined that I could distinguish +tho mud-walls of a row of small cottages, partly concealed by a group +of trees, though I was by no means sure that it was not a bank of +earth or the face of a rock. I looked anxiously round for other +indications of life; and after a close and protracted scrutiny, had +the satisfaction of distinctly perceiving a thin column of white smoke +winding up the dark background of the distant hill. I resolved now, in +case no means of escape should turn up on the river, to attempt the +passage of the marsh in another hour at latest—though, from former +experience, I well knew the difficulty of the attempt, and the little +probability there was that a perfect stranger would succeed in getting +across. I saw, too, that if I would make the attempt at all, I must +not defer it much longer, since to be overtaken by darkness in the +midst of the bog would be certain destruction.</p> + +<p>I passed another half-hour in surveying the river, in which, about +four miles below the point on which I stood, I now for the first time +discovered several small islands, overgrown with reeds or underwood; +but they manifested no signs of any human inhabitants, so far as I +could distinguish, and I adhered to my resolution of crossing the +marsh. Delaying no longer, I descended from my post of observation, +intending to travel in a straight line to the point where I could +still see the smoke ascending. I had not, however, proceeded 100 +yards, before I found that my idea of journeying in a straight line +was utterly impracticable. I could walk over the firm soil, and I +could swim the pools; but through the deep masses of soft bog I could +neither walk nor swim; and after a narrow escape from smothering in +one of them, I came to a stand-still. I found, too, that now I was +down in the swamp, I could not see the distant hill which was the +object of my journey, though it was plain, that from any part of the +marsh I might see the little mound on the river's brink which I had +just left. I returned to the mound, and, by the aid of a number of +loose stones which were lying about, contrived to erect a couple of +small fagots of willow-branches, at a distance of about ten feet from +each other, to serve as direction-posts, arranging them so that while +I could see but one of them, I might know that I was in the right +track. Thus I was left at liberty to take a sinuous course in search +of firm ground, as, by making an observation by my telegraph, I could +at any time regain the right path.</p> + +<p>It is my decided opinion, that had I been left alone, and suffered to +continue my journey, I should have accomplished the undertaking, +arduous as it was. I had already walked and waded, and swum and +staggered, and floundered along for more than a mile, when I suddenly +caught sight of a ragged, bare-headed figure about half a mile in +advance of me, who was stooping over a stagnant pool, and groping in +the water for something, perhaps leeches, of which he was in search. +Without reflecting for a moment what might be the effect of my sudden +apparition upon the mind of an ignorant boor alone in such a solitude, +and too much overjoyed to think of anything but the overwhelming +delight of securing a 'guide, philosopher, and friend,' I <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[pg 227]</a></span>hastened +towards him with all the speed of which I was capable—now clearing a +route among reeds and rushes, and now sinking up to my neck in a pool. +In less than half an hour, I had arrived, panting for breath, to +within a few yards of the pond over the margin of which he was still +bending, with his eyes fixed in the water. Pausing for one moment to +recover my wind, I raised myself to my full height, and hailed him at +the top of my voice with a 'Hola! Mein Herr,' which, like an electric +shock, brought him to his feet in an instant. I saw in a moment that I +had committed a fatal blunder. The poor wretch stood aghast, horrified +beyond the power of description; his white hair stood on end; his +bloodshot eyes were bursting from their sockets; his mouth yawned like +a cavern, and emitted a faint, gurgling sound, and every limb shook +with the agony of fear. I saw that it was necessary to reassure him; +and seeing no other way of approaching him than by swimming the pond, +I entered the water, and, staff in hand, made towards him. Before I +had lessened the distance between us one-half, he had so far recovered +himself as to be able to give utterance to one wild yell of terror, +and to take madly to his heels. When I had swum the pool, and ascended +to the spot which he had left, I saw him running at the top of his +speed, and following a winding route, with which he was evidently +familiar, as he avoided the water and the bogs, and kept on firm +ground. I made an attempt to come up with him; but in my haste trod +upon a piece of loose shale, which, sliding beneath me, threw me upon +the ground, and badly wounded my right foot, so that for the moment I +could proceed no further.</p> + +<p>As I sat upon the ground, endeavouring to stanch the fast-flowing +blood from my instep by winding round it some long flags from the +marsh, I watched the poor fellow till he was no longer in sight, and +marked that he never relaxed his pace till he disappeared under the +cluster of trees above which I had first noticed the white smoke +ascending. To cross the marsh without a guide, was now out of the +question; and choosing a dry and mossy spot, I lay down and rested +till the afternoon was far advanced, having made up my mind, if no +succour came from the hamlet, which I now felt assured was not far +from the edge of the marsh, that I would return to the river before it +was dark, and make a last and vigorous attempt to swim to the group of +islands which I had observed in the distance, in one or other of which +I might hope to find human inhabitants. I kept my telegraph in sight, +and, the sun being now low in the horizon, was thinking of retracing +my steps towards it, when, in the act of rising to do so, I saw a +party of men, of whom I distinctly counted fourteen, threading their +well-known way through the marsh, and rapidly advancing towards the +spot where I lay. They had already measured half the distance, and I +might have seen them long before had I happened to look in that +direction. I now congratulated myself that my troubles were over, and +was pondering how I could best shew my gratitude to my deliverers, +when the doubt was suggested to my mind whether they would prove +deliverers or not. I kept my eye steadfastly fixed upon their +movements, and, as they drew nearer, beheld with dismay that they were +all armed, two of them, who led the van, with old muskets, and the +rest with staves, scythes, and bludgeons. It was plain that the old +fool I had frightened away had described me to his countrymen as some +savage monster, and this valiant band had come out against me, to hunt +me to the death. I resolved at once to be sure of their object before +they came to a disagreeable proximity; and with this view, started +suddenly to my feet, and shouted as loud as I could.</p> + +<p>My fears were but too well founded. At the first sound of my voice, +the leaders recoiled a few steps upon the main body, who stood still +for a few minutes, apparently in consultation, the result of which +was, that the firearms changed owners, and two bold fellows stepped to +the front, and, levelling their pieces, kept my naked body covered +with their muzzles, and only refrained from pulling triggers until +they should have arrived within killing distance. It was plain I had +no time to lose if I would once more try the river, the only chance +now remaining to me. I turned and hobbled away as fast as my wounded +limb would let me, plunged into the nearest pool, sprawled through the +next bog, crashed through the rushes, hopped along the dry ground upon +one foot, and scrambled helter-skelter towards the river, expecting +every moment to hear the report of the firearms, and to feel a handful +of slugs in my body. Never shall I forget the horrors of that chase. I +distanced my pursuers, however, and arrived at the margin of the +stream without having once presented a fair target to their aim. I did +not pause long upon the brink of the flood. They were now yelling like +blood-hounds, and their cries rung in my ears as I gained the very +spot where I had landed in the morning, and where I again took to the +water like a hunted deer, or rather like a hunted duck, for I dived +under, with as gentle a splash as possible, and keeping beneath the +surface as long as I could hold breath, rose at length a good fifty +yards from the shore, and full two hundred yards lower down.</p> + +<p>I had no great cause for congratulation at my escape. The sun was +setting, night coming on, and here was I in the middle of the broad +stream of the Danube, sweeping on at the rate of five or six miles an +hour, with no other prospect in view than that of becoming food for +fishes in a very few hours at furthest, unless I could succeed in +making one of the islands I had seen in the morning. It was a strange +thing that I felt no fatigue, even after swimming an hour. I had +passed several small islands, but the rapid stream which they breasted +broke away so furiously from their sides, that I had not strength to +get near them. In their wake, I could see that the water was calm and +tranquil enough, but that tranquil water I could not reach. By and by, +as the darkness fell, I passed several islands much larger, and was +about attempting to land upon one, when I caught sight of a glimmering +light at a distance in the centre of the stream. I directed my course +towards this in preference; and I perceived as I approached that it +proceeded from a raft, moored off one of the islands, upon which the +crew were probably cooking their evening meal. I knew that if I +approached this raft in front, I should inevitably be sucked under, +and never see the light again; at the same time, if I gave it too wide +a berth, I should as surely be carried past it, in which case I felt +pretty certain that my last chance would be gone. I made a desperate +effort at the very nick of time, and happily succeeded in laying hold +of a rope, which was hanging in the water, by means of which I was +swung round to the stern of the raft, upon which, in a small +timber-hut, I could see the crew discussing their supper.</p> + +<p>Now that the struggle was over, and my safety secure, all my courage +and strength too vanished at once: I felt as weak as a child, and as +pusillanimous as a woman, and the hot tears ran down my cheeks like +rain. It was as much as I could do to hail the men, who sat laughing +and chatting over their porridge not three yards from me, as I +clutched the rope with the energy of a drowning man. They started up +at the sound of my cry, and in an instant lifted me on board. They +were Germans, fortunately; and I gave them to understand in a few +words, that I had been bathing, and having been carried away by the +stream, had narrowly escaped drowning. I was in no humour to put them +in possession of my whole miserable adventure, which it is more than +probable they would not have credited if I had. Having rubbed myself +dry, one of them lent me a blouse, and offered me food, which, plain +as it was, I <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[pg 228]</a></span>was but too glad to accept; but before I had eaten a +mouthful, an old man made his appearance, bearing slippers, cloak, and +cap, and invited me to follow him to his house upon the island, where +I might pass the night, and cross over to the mainland in the morning. +I followed him across a plank, and beneath the shadow of some +willow-trees, to his humble dwelling. He told me that he and his +family were the sole inhabitants of the island, and that he united the +three professions of fisherman, innkeeper, and rope-maker, and thus +managed to make a livelihood. His guests were almost exclusively the +navigators on the river, who frequently moored for the night off his +island, and partook of such entertainment as he could supply. He sent +his fish to market when he caught more than he could consume, and he +and his children made ropes and cordage, for which also he had a ready +sale on the river. Pending this communication, he prepared me a +substantial supper, to which I did ample justice, and then shewed me, +at my request, to a small, neat chamber, where I sought and found the +repose I so much needed.</p> + +<p>I sank into a profound slumber, heavy and dreamless, within a minute +after I lay down—the result, no doubt, of the utter exhaustion of +every faculty, both of body and mind. Possessing a vigorous +constitution, and a perfectly healthy frame, I escaped the reaction of +nervous excitement, which most persons in similar circumstances would +have undergone, and which in many would have terminated in fever and +delirium, and perhaps death. But I did not escape altogether. After I +had lain in total forgetfulness for some hours, my imagination woke up +and plagued me with dreams of indescribable terror and alarm. I was +swimming for whole days and nights together in a shoreless sea, tossed +by storms, and swarming with monsters, one or other of which was +continually seizing me by the foot, and dragging me down; while over +my head foul birds of prey, each and all with the terrified face of +the poor wretch whom I had frightened in the marsh, and clutching +firearms in their semi-human claws, were firing at my head, and +swooping to devour me. To avoid their beaks, I dived madly into the +depths below, where I had to do battle in the dark with the grim and +shapeless monsters of the deep. Then, bursting with the retention of +my breath, I rose again to the surface, and enjoyed a moment's pause, +until the screaming harpies again gathered around me, and, convulsed +with fear, I dived again as the vivid flash from their firearms +dazzled my eyes. While performing one of these violent feats, +occasioned by a flash which appeared to blaze over the whole sky, I +woke suddenly. My landlord, the old fisherman, was standing by my +bedside; he had drawn aside the curtains of my bed, and let the +sunshine in upon my face, the hot gleam of which was doubtless the +blazing flash of my dream. I laughed aloud when I found myself snug in +bed, and proceeded to dress in the old man's best holiday suit, which +he placed at my service. My wounded foot had well-nigh healed in the +night, and I could walk comfortably. During breakfast, I gave the old +man and his daughter the real history of my case, to their unspeakable +astonishment, and consulted them as to my future operations. The +fisherman volunteered to land me at a small village a few miles below, +from whence he would proceed with me to K——, where, upon +representing my case to the magistrates, I should be furnished with +the means of getting back to B——, and recovering my property.</p> + +<p>This, in fact, was the only thing I could do. I engaged the fisherman +to accompany me through the whole route; and as he had naturally no +desire to lose sight of me, he made no objection. I had slept thirteen +hours; and it was ten o'clock in the day, when the old man and I, and +his two lads, embarked in the boat for the nearest village. We arrived +there before noon, and he hired a conveyance in which we both +proceeded to the place he had mentioned, a distance of some twenty +miles, which we reached about three in the afternoon. But my companion +had no more of either money or credit, and I was compelled to apply to +the chief magistrate of the town, whom, by good-fortune, we found at +his private residence. He proved a good-natured but rather fussy old +gentleman; and when he had heard my story, which he interrupted with a +thousand demonstrations of horror, alarm, and sympathy, insisted upon +my sharing the hospitality of his house for the night, assuring me +that it would be impossible to proceed that day. I gave a reluctant +consent, upon his promising that he would put me in a condition to +start at an early hour in the morning. Hereupon, consigning my +companion to the charge of a servant, he ushered me into a saloon +adjoining his study, and introduced me to his family, consisting of +two grown-up sons, three daughters, and their mother, to whom I had to +tell my luckless adventures over again. That, however, was not the +worst of it. As the hour of dinner drew near, the house began to fill +with visitors: it was plain that my arrival, and the circumstances +connected with it, had been regularly advertised through the town, and +all the world was flocking to see the new 'lion' which the river had +turned up. And certainly a lion I was, as the play-bills have it, 'for +that night only.' I had to tell my story ten times over, and to submit +to questionings and cross-questionings without number. All this, +perhaps, was but natural enough, considering the circumstances; but it +occasioned me no small annoyance; and feigning excessive fatigue, for +which I had but too good excuse, I retired early to rest, leaving the +assembled guests to pump the old fisherman, which they did to their +hearts' content, and to talk over my adventures at leisure.</p> + +<p>A servant awoke me before dawn. A carriage and post-horses stood at +the door, and after I had made a hearty breakfast, my worthy host put +into my hand a letter of introduction to his brother magistrate at +B——. I bade him farewell with many sincere and hearty thanks, +entered the carriage with my companion, and drove off. The distance we +had to go may have been about fifty English miles; but the roads were +in such wretched condition, and the cattle, which we changed seven +times, of such an abominable breed, that night had fallen upon the +town of B—— before we entered it. I drove at once to the little +<i>gasthof</i>, where, three days before, at the same hour, I had put up +upon my arrival. The landlord bustled out to receive me as the +carriage stopped at the door; but though I identified him immediately, +he shewed not the slightest symptom of recognising me. I told the +driver to wait, and beckoning the old fisherman to follow, demanded to +be shewn into a private room, and to be favoured with the landlord's +company. He obeyed with the utmost alacrity, and taking a lamp from +the hand of an attendant, led the way to a small room on the first +floor.</p> + +<p>'Well, Herr Bernstein,' I said, 'are you not glad to see me back +again?'</p> + +<p>'Most happy to see you, gracious sir,' said he; 'but have not the +honour to recollect your gracious person.'</p> + +<p>'Indeed! An Englishman, on a black horse, put up here three days ago +at this hour—surely you recollect that?'</p> + +<p>'Ah, too well I recollect that. Poor English gentleman—a countryman +of yours, perhaps a friend—ah! dear God! drowned—unhappy +man—carried away by the river in the morning before any of us were +up.' Here he wrung his hands in evident sorrow: 'Ah, that stupid +Grute! why did he let the gentleman bathe in the Danube?'</p> + +<p>'Stop!' said I; 'let me put an end to your regret—<i>I</i> am that +Englishman!'</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[pg 229]</a></span></p> + +<p>'You—you!' cried he, as he staggered back into a seat. 'But it cannot +be—it is impossible. I do not recollect you: you are deceiving me! +Sir, it is a cruel jest.'</p> + +<p>'It is no jest,' said I; 'Heaven be praised. Where is Grute, as you +call him? He will tell you whether it is a jest.'</p> + +<p>Grute was the filthy stableman; and the landlord, half-dreaming, ran +off to fetch him—a most unfortunate circumstance, as it put the rogue +upon his guard, and prepared him for the part which it was necessary +for his safety that he should play. The landlord returned in two +minutes, dragging Grute in with him. I saw by the sudden pallor of the +fellow's countenance, and the quivering of his lip, that he recognised +me on the instant; but he looked doggedly around him, without +manifesting any surprise; and when his master pointed me out as the +Englishman supposed to have been drowned, the fellow laughed brutally, +and said the attempt wouldn't do, as I was too tall by half a head. I +perceived the truth at once. He had made free with the contents of my +pockets, in which I had left a few gold pieces, and for his +character's sake he could not afford to admit my identity. The +landlord plainly mistrusted my tale, now that he had heard the +evidence of the stableman, and began to assume a very different tone, +and to talk cavalierly of a reference to a magistrate. This reminded +me of the letter in my pocket, and I insisted that he should +immediately accompany me to the house of the chief-magistrate, who +should judge between us. He shewed himself provokingly willing to +comply with my demand, and, following me down stairs, entered the +carriage. As we drove along, I inquired as to the fate of my valise, +my clothes, and my horse; which latter, especially, I described in a +way that appeared to stagger him. They were all, he said, in the +magistrate's custody, and I should hear more of them, and doubtless +recover them, if they <i>were</i> mine, when my claim was decided on. We +found the important functionary at supper. I requested a private +interview, which was granted, when I presented the letter of my host +at K——, and waited to see the effect of its perusal. I had to wait a +long while, for my hospitable friend had indulged in a long-winded +account of the whole adventure, which it took a good half-hour to get +through. The effect of the narrative was, however, all that I could +have desired: the worthy magistrate asked me a few questions, as he +was pleased to observe, for form's sake, relative to the contents of +the valise, which he had himself inspected, and I replied +satisfactorily. He shook me heartily by the hand, congratulated me on +my miraculous and providential escape, not forgetting my marvellous +prowess as a swimmer; and, calling in the landlord of the inn and the +old fisherman, wrote out in their presence an order for the +restoration of my property, and a warrant for the apprehension of +Grute, who, it appeared, had helped himself to all my loose cash, with +the exception of a single dollar.</p> + +<p>There was racing and chasing after Grute during the whole night, but +he had had the wit to take himself out of the way. My valise had +luckily not been tampered with; the contents were all as I left them; +and I had the happiness of rewarding the honest fisherman for the +pains he had taken in my behalf, and the confidence he had reposed in +me. My poor horse had not been treated so well. In accordance with +some old statute, of which I know nothing, he had been claimed by the +commandant of a small military force stationed in the place, and had +been compelled to commence a course of training, under a heavy +dragoon, for the military service. As he had received but one or two +lessons, which consisted almost exclusively of an unlimited allowance +of whip, he had not profited much by instruction. In fact, he had lost +his temper without gaining anything in discipline, and I was +eventually obliged to part with him, from the impossibility of bearing +with his strange antics. He had cost me fifty guineas in London, and I +sold him for fewer thalers to a German dealer, who, no doubt, speedily +found him a berth in some barrack, where he completed his education +for the army. Altogether, my extraordinary swim, taking expenses out +of pocket and loss of time into account, cost me something over a +hundred guineas, and all I got in exchange for them, was the +reputation of a Munchausen whenever I dared to open my mouth on the +subject, and a perennial liability to nightmare, with the repetition +and aggravation of all the worst horrors of that miserable day.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Lest our readers should suppose this curious narrative to +be merely an invention of some desperate romancer, it may be proper to +state, that the facts are literally true. The hero of the adventure, +when a young man, about the close of the last century, was driven +abroad by political persecution, and not only realised a fortune, but +acquired most of the continental languages. On returning to England, +where he became acquainted with our contributor, he devoted himself +for the rest of his life to acts of private beneficence, keeping up at +the same time a correspondence in Latin with the learned men of other +countries.—<i>Ed. C. E. J.</i></p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="WOOL_FROM_PINE-TREES" id="WOOL_FROM_PINE-TREES"></a>WOOL FROM PINE-TREES.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Interesting</span> accounts have recently appeared in foreign journals of a +novel branch of industry carried on in Silesia, combining so much of +ingenuity and utility, as to render a summary of the information very +acceptable to those who are seeking for new sources of employment or +of profit. It appears that in the neighbourhood of Breslau, on a +domain known as Humboldt Mead, there are two establishments alike +remarkable: one is a factory for converting the leaves or spines of +the pine-tree into a sort of cotton or wool; in the other, the water +which has served in the manufacture of this vegetable wool, is made +use of as salutary baths for invalids. They were both erected under +the direction of Herr von Pannewitz, one of the chief +forest-inspectors, and the inventor of a chemical process, by means of +which a fine filamentous substance can be obtained from the long and +slender leaves of the pine. This substance has been called <i>Holz +wolle</i>, wood-wool, from a similarity in its quality to that of +ordinary wool; it may be curled, felted, or spun in the same way.</p> + +<p>The <i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, or Scotch fir, from which this new product is +derived, has been long esteemed in Germany for its many valuable +qualities; and instead of being left to its natural growth, is +cultivated in plantations of forest-like extent. In this way, many +parts of a vast, dreary, sandy surface are turned to good account, for +the tree grows rapidly on a light soil, imparting to it solidity and +consistency, and affords shelter to the oak, which, under such +favourable circumstances, acquires such vigour of development as to +outgrow its protector. About the fortieth year of its growth, the pine +yields considerable quantities of resin; and the value of the wood for +building purposes, and for constructions immersed in water, are well +known. Mr Pannewitz has, however, added another to its list of useful +applications; and if the leaves can be employed as described, the +<i>Pinus sylvestris</i> may become an object of culture in countries where +it is now neglected.</p> + +<p>The acicular leaves of firs, pines, and coniferæ in general, are +composed of a bundle, or fasciculus, as a botanist would say, of +extremely fine and tenacious fibres, which are surrounded and held +together by thin pellicles of a resinous substance. If this substance +be dissolved by a process of coction, and the employment of certain +chemical reagents, the fibres can then be easily separated, washed, +and cleansed from all foreign matter. According to the mode of +treatment, the woolly substance is fine or coarse, and is employed as +wadding in the one case, and in the other as stuffing for mattresses. +Such, in a few words, is an explanation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[pg 230]</a></span>of Mr Pannewitz's discovery. +He has preferred the <i>Pinus sylvestris</i> to other species because of +the greater length of its spines; but there is reason to believe, that +it is not the only kind which may be worked with advantage.</p> + +<p>There is said to be no danger in stripping the trees, even while +young, as they only need the whorl of spines to be left at the +extremity of each branch, in order to continue their growth; all the +other leaves may be removed without damage. The gathering should take +place while they are in their green state, for at no other time can +the woolly substance be extracted. This operation, which takes place +but once in two years, affords employment and pretty good wages to a +number of poor people, some of whom will collect two hundred pounds in +a day. The yield from a branch of the thickness of the finger is +estimated at one pound, and a beginner will strip thirty such branches +in a day. In the case of felled trees, the work proceeds with great +rapidity.</p> + +<p>The first use made of the filamentous matter, was to substitute it for +the wadding used in quilted counterpanes. In 1842, five hundred +counterpanes so prepared were purchased for the use of the hospital at +Vienna; and, after an experience of several years, the purchase has +been renewed. It was remarked, among other things, that the influence +of the <i>wood-wool</i> prevented parasitic insects from lodging in the +beds, and the aromatic odour arising from it had been found as +beneficial as it was agreeable. Shortly afterwards, the Penitentiary +at Vienna was provided with the same kind of quilts; and they have +since been adopted—as well as mattresses filled with the same +wool—in the Hospital de la Charité at Berlin, and in the Maternity +Hospital and barracks at Breslau. A trial of five years in these +different establishments has proved, that the wood-wool can be very +suitably employed for counterpanes, and for stuffed or quilted +articles of furniture, and that it is very durable.</p> + +<p>It was found that, at the end of the five years, a wood-wool mattress +had cost less than one made of straw, as the latter requires an +addition of two pounds of new straw every year. In comparison with +horsehair, it is three times cheaper; it is safe from the attack of +moth, and in a finished sofa no upholsterer would be able to +distinguish between wood-wool and hair-stuffing.</p> + +<p>It has been further ascertained that this wool can be spun and woven. +The finest gives a thread similar to that of hemp, and quite as +strong. When spun, woven, and combed, a cloth is produced which has +been used for carpets, horse-cloths, &c.; while, mixed with a canvas +warp, it will serve for quilts, instead of being employed in the form +of wadding.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of this wool, an etherised oil is formed, of an +agreeable odour, and green in colour, but which an exposure to the +light changes to a yellowish-orange tint, and which resumes its +original colour on the light being again excluded. Under the +rectifying process, it becomes colourless as water, and is found to +differ from the essence of turpentine extracted from the stem of the +same tree. Its employment has proved most salutary in gouty and +rheumatic affections, and when applied to wounds as a balsam; as also +in certain cases of worm disease and cutaneous tumours. In the +rectified state, it has been successfully used in the preparation of +lacs for the best kinds of varnish; in lamps it burns as well as +olive-oil; and it dissolves caoutchouc completely and speedily. +Already the perfumers of Paris make large use of this pine-oil.</p> + +<p>With respect to the baths: it having been discovered that a beneficial +result attended the external application of the liquor left after the +coction of the leaves, a bathing establishment was added to the +factory. This liquor is of a greenish-brown tint; and, according to +the process, is either gelatinous and balsamic, or acid; formic acid +having been produced in the latter case. When an increase in the +efficacy of the baths is desired, a quantity of extract obtained by +the distillation of the etherised oil above mentioned, which also +contains formic acid, is poured into the liquor. Besides which, the +liquid itself is thickened by concentration, and sent out in sealed +jars to those who wish to have baths at home, thus constituting a +profitable article of trade.</p> + +<p>We understand that these baths have been in operation for nine years, +with a continual increase of reputation and number of visitors. That +the facts are not exaggerated, would appear from medals having been +awarded to M. Weiss, the proprietor and manager, by societies in +Berlin and Altenburg, for the extraordinary results produced. As +likely to lead to a new development of industry, the processes are +especially worthy of attention.</p> + +<p>The catalogue of utilities is, however, not yet exhausted; there is +one more with which we bring our notice to a close. After the washing +of the fibre, a great quantity of refuse membraneous substance is +obtained by filtration. This being moulded into the form of bricks, +and dried, becomes excellent fuel, and gives off so much gas from the +resin which it contains, that it may be used for lighting as well as +heating. The making of a thousand hundredweights of the wool leaves a +mass of fuel equal in value to sixty cubic yards of pine-wood.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAMBERSS_LIFE_AND_WORKS_OF_BURNS2" id="CHAMBERSS_LIFE_AND_WORKS_OF_BURNS2"></a>CHAMBERS'S LIFE AND WORKS OF BURNS.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Beheld</span> in his life-time as a singular example of the genius rising +from the humbler shades of life, Burns is now ranked as a classic +among the poets of his country. The interest originally felt in his +personal character and unhappy fate, has been deepened as the high +absolute rank of the poet became appreciated. These changes might be +said to call for a more searching inquiry into his life than was at +first deemed necessary; and the task was undertaken by one, of whom we +may at least be permitted to say, that he possessed the requisite zeal +and love of the subject. For obvious reasons, we are not to be +expected to say more, in commendation or discommendation, of the work +now under our attention; but we may be allowed to advert to its +peculiar plan, and some of the new details which it brings before the +world.</p> + +<p>The leading feature of the work is the assumption on which it +proceeds—that the writings of Burns are in a great measure expressive +of his personal feelings, and descriptive of the scenery and +circumstances of his own existence, and therefore ought to be involved +in his biography. Each poem, song, and letter, known as his, has +therefore been assigned its chronological place in his memoirs, thus +at once lending its own biographical light to the general narrative, +and deriving thence some illustration in return. The consequence is, +that, with the help of much fresh biographical matter drawn from +authentic sources, the life of the bard, as he loved to call himself, +is now given comparatively in detail. We can trace him from day to +day, and see the ups and downs of his prospects and his feelings, his +strangely mingled scenes of happiness and misery. We obtain a much +closer and more distinct view of his domestic existence than we ever +had before. The real extent of his aberrations, such as they were, is +more exactly ascertained. Some unexpected particulars emerge; as, for +instance, that, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[pg 231]</a></span>notwithstanding his poverty, he occasionally +accommodated his friends with money and credit, and almost to the last +was able to be their host as well as their guest. But perhaps the most +important result is what we learn of the wonderful versatility of +Burns's feelings and emotions. He is found writing a pensive, +semi-religious letter one day, and the next indulging in some outburst +of extravagant merriment. One day, he indulges in a strain of +melancholy recollection regarding a deceased mistress, commemorating +her in an elegy which hardly any one has ever since been able to read +without tears; and within four-and-twenty hours, he is again strumming +on the comic lyre. A deep mortification falls upon him in the shape of +a censure from the Board of Excise, a pain in which we are peculiarly +disposed to sympathise; but let us not be too eager to suppose that +Burns was permanently affected by any such mark of moral bondage. A +week or two after, he is found keeping a couple of friends in drink +and merriment at his table for a whole night. It is eminently the +<i>poet</i> that is thus brought before us—a being of keen sensibility, +but whose gusts of feeling are as quick in passing as they are violent +while they last.</p> + +<p>Beyond these few sentences, limited to a description of the structure +of this work, we can only propose to give one or two extracts.</p> + +<p>Burns, it clearly appears, while degraded by the humble office +assigned to him, did his best, by performing its duties well, to +elevate it. He acted humanely towards poor people, but was the +conscientious servant of the government in protecting the revenue in +essential matters. The editor has been fortunate enough to discover +some documents which set his character as a man of affairs in a +favourable light.</p> + +<p>'The first is a petition of T. J., farmer at Mirecleugh, addressed to +the justices of peace for Dumfriesshire, reclaiming against a fine of +L.5 which Collector Mitchell had imposed on him for "making fifty-four +bushels of malt, without entry, notice, or licence." J. stated that he +had been in the habit of making malt for forty years without making +entry of his kiln or pond, which he deemed unnecessary, because the +malting was always effected at one operation, and not till notice had +been given to the proper officer. With respect to "notice" on this +occasion—having inquired of Mr Burns which was the best way of +sending it to him, he had been informed that a letter might be sent to +"John Kelloch's," in Thornhill, whence it might be forwarded by post. +He had brought Mrs Kelloch to swear that such a letter had been sent +to her by J.'s son for Mr Burns, but had been mislaid. He offered to +swear that he had sent the notice to Thornhill in good time, and had +had no intention to defraud the revenue. With respect to "licence," J. +averred that he had only been prevented from renewing it as usual this +year because Mr Mitchell, on his applying for it, had put him off to +another time, on the score of being too busy at the time to grant it +to him.</p> + +<p>'In respect of J.'s petition, the justices, Mr Fergusson of +Craigdarroch, and Captain Riddel, ordered the collector to stop +proceedings until they should have had an opportunity of inquiring +into the truth of what it set forth. Then came Burns's "Answers to the +Petition of T. J.:—</p> + +<p>"1. Whether the petitioner has been in use formerly to malt all his +grain at one operation, is foreign to the purpose: this last season he +certainly malted his crop at four or five operations; but be that as +it may, Mr J. ought to have known that by express act of parliament no +malt, however small the quantity, can be legally manufactured until +previous entry be made in writing of all the ponds, barns, floors, +&c., so as to be used before the grain can be put to steep. In the +Excise entry-books for the division there is not a syllable of T. J.'s +name for a number of years bygone.</p> + +<p>"2. True it is that Mr Burns, on his first ride, in answer to Mr J.'s +question anent the conveying of the notices, among other ways pointed +out the sending it by post as the most eligible method, but at the +same time added this express clause, and to which Mr Burns is willing +to make faith: 'At the same time, remember, Mr J., that the notice is +at your risk until it reach me.' Further, when Mr Burns came to the +petitioner's kiln, there was a servant belonging to Mr J. ploughing at +a very considerable distance from the kiln, who left his plough and +three horses without a driver, and came into the kiln, which Mr B. +thought was rather a suspicious circumstance, as there was nothing +extraordinary in an Excise-officer going into a legal malt-floor so as +to [induce a man to] leave three horses yoked to a plough in the +distant middle of a moor. This servant, on being repeatedly questioned +by Mr Burns, could not tell when the malt was put to steep, when it +was taken out, &c.—in short, was determined to be entirely ignorant +of the affair. By and by, Mr J.'s son came in, and on being questioned +as to the steeping, taking out of the grain, &c., Mr J., junior, +referred me to this said servant, this ploughman, who, he said, must +remember it best, as having been the principal actor in the business. +The lad <i>then</i>, having gotten his cue, circumstantially recollected +all about it.</p> + +<p>"All this time, though I was telling the son and servant the nature of +the premunire they had incurred, though they pleaded for mercy keenly, +the affair of the notice having been sent never once occurred to them, +not even the son, who is said to have been the bearer. This was a +stroke reserved for, and worthy of the gentleman himself. As to Mrs +Kelloch's oath, it proves nothing. She did indeed depone to a line +being left for me at her house, which said line miscarried. It was a +sealed letter; she could not tell whether it was a malt-notice or not; +she could not even condescend on the month, nor so much as the season +of the year. The truth is, T. J. and his family being Seceders, and +consequently coming every Sunday to Thornhill Meeting-house, they were +a good conveyance for the several maltsters and traders in their +neighbourhood to transmit to post their notices, permits, &c.</p> + +<p>"But why all this tergiversation? It was put to the petitioner in open +court, after a full investigation of the cause: 'Was he willing to +swear that he meant no fraud in the matter?' And the justices told him +that if he swore he would be assoilzied [absolved], otherwise he +should be fined; still the petitioner, after ten minutes' +consideration, found his conscience unequal to the task, and declined +the oath.</p> + +<p>"Now, indeed, he says he is willing to swear: he has been exercising +his conscience in private, and will perhaps stretch a point. But the +fact to which he is to swear was equally and in all parts known to him +on that day when he refused to swear as to-day: nothing can give him +further light as to the intention of his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[pg 232]</a></span>mind, respecting his meaning +or not meaning a fraud in the affair. <i>No time can cast further light +on the present resolves of the mind; but time will reconcile, and has +reconciled many a man to that iniquity which he at first abhorred.</i>"'</p> + +<p>No one can fail to see, even in this piece of business, something of +the extraordinary mental energy of Burns.</p> + +<p>The daily life of Burns, in his latter years at Dumfries, is described +in the following terms:—'He has daily duties in stamping leather, +gauging malt-vats, noting the manufacture of candles, and granting +licences for the transport of spirits. These duties he performs with +fidelity to the king and not too much rigour to the subject. As he +goes about them in the forenoon, in his respectable suit of dark +clothes, and with his little boy Robert perhaps holding by his hand +and conversing with him on his school-exercises, he is beheld by the +general public with respect, as a person in some authority, the head +of a family, and also as a man of literary note; and people are heard +addressing him deferentially as <i>Mr</i> Burns—a form of his name which +is still prevalent in Dumfries. At a leisure hour before dinner, he +will call at some house where there is a piano—such as Mr Newall, the +writer's—and there have some young miss to touch over for him one or +two of his favourite Scotch airs, such as, the <i>Sutor's Daughter</i>, in +order that he may accommodate to it some stanzas that have been +humming through his brain for the last few days. For another half +hour, he will be seen standing at the head of some cross street with +two or three young fellows, bankers' clerks, or "writer-chiels" +commencing business, whom he is regaling with sallies of his bright +but not always innocent wit—indulging there, indeed, in a strain of +conversation so different from what had passed in the respectable +elderly writer's mansion, that, though he were not the same man, it +could not have been more different. Later in the day, he takes a +solitary walk along the Dock Green by the river side, or to Lincluden, +and composes the most part of a new song; or he spends a couple of +hours at his folding-down desk, between the fire and window in his +parlour, transcribing in his bold round hand the remarks which occur +to him on Mr Thomson's last letter, together with some of his own +recently composed songs. As a possible variation upon this routine, he +has been seen passing along the old bridge of Devorgilla Balliol, +about three o'clock, with his sword-cane in his hand, and his black +beard unusually well shaven, being on his way to dine with John Syme +at Ryedale, where young Mr Oswald of Auchincruive is to be of the +party—or maybe in the opposite direction, to partake of the luxuries +of John Bushby, at Tinwald Downs. But we presume a day when no such +attraction invades. The evening is passing quietly at home, and +pleasant-natured Jean has made herself neat, and come in at six +o'clock to give him his tea—a meal he always takes. At this period, +however, there is something remarkably exciting in the proceedings of +the French army under Pichegru; or Fox, Adam, or Sheridan, is expected +to make an onslaught upon the ministry in the House of Commons. The +post comes into Dumfries at eight o'clock at night. There is always a +group of gentlemen on the street, eager to hear the news. Burns +saunters out to the High Street, and waits amongst the rest. The +intelligence of the evening is very interesting. The Convention has +decreed the annexation of the Netherlands—or the new treason-bill has +passed the House of Lords, with only the feeble protest of Bedford, +Derby, and Lauderdale. These things merit some discussion. The +trades-lads go off to strong ale in the closes; the gentlemen slide in +little groups into the King's Arms Hotel or the George. As for Burns, +he will just have a single glass and a half-hour's chat beside John +Hyslop's fire, and then go quietly home. So he is quickly absorbed in +the little narrow close where that vintner maintains his state. There, +however, one or two friends have already established themselves, all +with precisely the same virtuous intent. They heartily greet the bard. +Meg or John bustles about to give him his accustomed place, which no +one ever disputes. And, somehow, the debate on the news of the evening +leads on to other chat of an interesting kind. Then Burns becomes +brilliant, and his friends give him the applause of their laughter. +One jug succeeds another—mirth abounds—and it is not till Mrs Hyslop +has declared that they are going beyond all bounds, and she positively +will not give them another drop of hot water, that our bard at length +bethinks him of returning home, where Bonnie Jean has been lost in +peaceful slumber for three hours, after vainly wondering "what can be +keeping Robert out so late the nicht." Burns gets to bed a little +excited and worn out, but not in a state to provoke much remark from +his amiable partner, in whom nothing can abate the veneration with +which she has all along regarded him. And though he beds at a latish +hour, most likely he is up next morning between seven and eight, to +hear little Robert his day's lesson in <i>Cæsar</i>, or, if the season +invites, to take a half-hour's stroll before breakfast along the +favourite Dock Green.'</p> + +<p>Whenever a female of any rank secured the goodwill of Burns, he was +sure to compliment her in verse, and it was always by putting her into +the light of an adored mistress. In his latter days, when declining in +health, an amiable young girl, sister of one of his brother officers, +obtained his friendly regard by endeavouring to lighten the labours of +housekeeping to his wife, then also in a delicate state. The lady, who +still lives, 'relates that, one morning she had a call from the poet, +when he offered, if she would play him any tune of which she was fond, +and for which she desired new verses, to gratify her in her wish to +the best of his ability. She placed herself at the pianoforte, and +played over several times the air of an old song beginning with the +words—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The robin cam to the wren's nest,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And keekit in, and keekit in:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">O weel's me on your auld pow!<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Wad ye be in, wad ye be in?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Ye'se ne'er get leave to lie without,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And I within, and I within,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">As lang's I hae an auld clout,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">To row ye in, to row ye in.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>'As soon as his ear got accustomed to the melody, Burns sat down, and +in a very few minutes he produced the beautiful song:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><span class="smcap lowercase">OH, WERT THOU IN THE CAULD BLAST.</span><br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Oh, wert thou in the cauld blast<br /></span> +<span class="i1">On yonder lea, on yonder lea,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">My plaidie to the angry airt,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">I'd shelter thee, I'd shelter thee:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or did misfortune's bitter storms<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Around thee blaw, around thee blaw,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thy bield should be my bosom,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">To share it a', to share it a'.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Or were I in the wildest waste,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Sae black and bare, sae black and bare,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The desert were a paradise,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">If thou wert there, if thou wert there:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or were I monarch o' the globe,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Wi' thee to reign, wi' thee to reign,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The brightest jewel in my crown<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Wad be my queen, wad be my queen.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>'The anecdote is a trivial one in itself; but we feel that the +circumstances—the deadly illness of the poet, the beneficent worth of +Miss Lewars, and the reasons <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[pg 233]</a></span>for his grateful desire of obliging +her—give it a value. It is curious, and something more, to connect it +with the subsequent musical fate of the song, for many years after, +when Burns had become a star in memory's galaxy, and Jessy Lewars was +spending her quiet years of widowhood over her book or her knitting in +a little parlour in Maxwelltown, the verses attracted the regard of +Felix Mendelssohn, who seems to have divined the peculiar feeling +beyond all common love which Burns breathed through them. By that +admirable artist, so like our great bard in a too early death, they +were married to an air of exquisite pathos, "such as the meeting soul +may pierce." Burns, Jessy Lewars, Felix Mendelssohn—genius, goodness, +and tragic melancholy, all combined in one solemn and profoundly +affecting association!'</p> + +<p>In numberless instances, the hitherto loosely stated facts of Burns's +life are corrected in the present work, partly through the accuracy of +a strictly historical arrangement, and partly by direct reference to +written documents. On account of the value of dates in placing the +facts and compositions in that order which gives so much illustration +to the character of the poet, the editor has taken what might appear +in other circumstances a pedantic degree of pains on that score. Of +this we have an example in regard to the chronology of Burns's +attachment to Highland Mary. To fix that affair as occurring in the +summer of 1786—an episode in the connection of the poet with the +young woman who ultimately became his wife—it is necessary to +establish the death of Mary as occurring about the 20th of October +that year. This is done partly by reference to a register of burial +sites in a church-yard, and partly by a chain of curious evidence +respecting the day which Burns celebrated three years after as the +anniversary of the event. He composed on that day his beautiful +address <i>To Mary in Heaven</i>, beginning—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Thou lingering star with lessening ray,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">That lov'st to greet the early morn, &c.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Mrs Burns had a recollection of the day, which, she said, was in +September, at the end of harvest, and which, she added, he spent in +his usual duties, though labouring under a cold. As the twilight +deepened, he grew sad about something, and wandered out into the +barn-yard, to which she followed him, entreating him in vain to +observe that frost had set in, and to return to the fireside. She +finally found him there stretched on a mass of straw, with his eyes +fixed on a beautiful planet, which shone like another moon. He was +engaged at that moment in apostrophising the soul of Mary. Out of this +anecdote, the editor of the present work contrives to obtain evidence +as to the true date in the following manner:—</p> + +<p>'In the first place, the harvest was late that year. We find in the +Scottish newspapers of the time, that, in the middle of October, a +great deal of grain was still <i>out</i> even in the favoured district +around Falkirk; while a letter from Sanquhar (Burns's neighbourhood), +dated the 21st, states that "while much was cut, <i>very little was yet +got in</i>, owing to the bad weather." It appears that harvest was +commenced by the 8th of September in some districts, but was +interrupted by rains, and was not concluded till near the end of the +ensuing month. Consequently, the incident <i>might</i> take place in the +latter part of October, and <i>still be connected with harvest +operations</i>. The second portion of our evidence on the subject is from +one of the exact sciences, and appears to us at once to settle the +time of the day—the month—and almost the day of the month.</p> + +<p>'It fully appears that the planet Venus is the one referred to by the +poet, for the description applies only to it. Now Venus was in +conjunction with the sun, May 30, 1789, and after that became visible +as the <i>evening-star</i> towards the end of the summer, reaching its +greatest brilliancy in winter. It is therefore certain that the star +which "loves to greet the early morn" did not at this time "usher in +the day," and consequently, so far as the time of day alluded to in +the poem is concerned, a poetical liberty was taken with truth. On the +21st of September the sun set at six o'clock, and Venus forty-four +minutes thereafter. The planet was consequently not to be seen at that +time except faintly in the twilight. But on the 21st of October the +sun set in the latitude of Ellisland at 4<sup>h</sup> 53<sup>m</sup>, and Venus 1<sup>h</sup> 3<sup>m</sup> +afterwards. Consequently, Venus would then have begun to assume a +brilliant appearance during a short interval after sunset. On that day +the moon was four days old, and within eight diameters of Venus. The +planet would then of course be beginning to be dimmed by the +moonlight, and this effect would go on increasing till the moon had +passed the full—that is, early in November. If, then, we are to set +aside the possibility of a later month than October, and keeping in +view the all but certainty that Mary was not buried till some time +after the 12th of that month, it seems reasonable to conclude, that +the barn-yard musings of Burns took place between five and six o'clock +of the evening of some day about the 19th or 20th of October, and +consequently a very short time after the merry-meeting for the +Whistle-contest at Friars' Carse.</p> + +<p>'That a month later than October could have been the date of the +incident will, I presume, scarcely be argued for. The moon was at the +full on Tuesday the 2d of November, and it could not be till after +that day that the first hour of the night would be "starry," with +Venus in full blaze. By that time, as far as we can gather from the +chronicles of the time, the harvest was past. Besides, Mrs Burns might +easily mistake September for October, but scarcely for November, a +month of such different associations. On this point the temperature of +the time might throw some light, if we could be sure of the exact +meaning to be attached to the phrase—"the frost had set in." It +chances that the temperature of October that year was unusually high, +the average at eight o'clock in the evening in Edinburgh being 45½° +Fahrenheit. The <i>Edinburgh Advertiser</i> of 30th October speaks of +apple-trees and bean-stalks renewing their blossoms in consequence of +the extraordinary mildness. On the 19th of October, at eight o'clock +in the evening, the thermometer indicated in Edinburgh 51°; on the +20th, at the same hour, 59°; on the 21st, 51° again. The only approach +to frost was on the 30th and 31st, when, at eight in the evening, the +thermometer was respectively at 33° and 37°. After this, it rose to a +more temperate point. Hence it becomes evident that <i>literal frost</i> +did not then exist at any such period of the day. Probably Mrs Burns +merely thought the evening was beginning to be comparatively chilly. +If we can admit of this construction being put upon her words, I would +be disposed to pitch upon the <i>warmest evening</i> of the little period +within which we are confined—for unless the poet had been in a +peculiarly excited state, so as to be insensible to external +circumstances, which is obviously a different thing from being in a +merely pensive state, we must suppose him as not likely to lie down in +the open air after sunset, except under favour of some uncommon amount +of "ethereal mildness." Seeing, on the other hand, how positively +inviting to such a procedure would be a temperature of 59°, I leave +the subject with scarcely a doubt that the composition of <i>To Mary in +Heaven</i> took place on Tuesday the 20th of October, and that this was +consequently the date of the death of the heroine.'</p> + +<p>This, no doubt, seems a great muster of evidence about so small a +matter; but to judge of the rationality of its being entered upon, the +reader must keep in mind the relation of the incident to others. If it +only proved that the comic drinking-song <i>The Whistle</i>, and <i>To Mary +in Heaven</i>, were written within three days of each other, it might be +not altogether labour lost, for it would <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[pg 234]</a></span>establish an exceedingly +curious literary anecdote. But the bearing it has on the whole affair +of Highland Mary—one of the most deeply interesting passages of +Burns's life—is such as, in our opinion, to make every other +justification superfluous.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Life and Works of Burns.</i> Edited by Robert Chambers. 4 +vols. Edinburgh: 1852.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="VISIT_TO_THE_COPPER-WORKS_OF_SWANSEA" id="VISIT_TO_THE_COPPER-WORKS_OF_SWANSEA"></a>VISIT TO THE COPPER-WORKS OF SWANSEA.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Our</span> first glimpse of the copper-works was obtained in the 'gloaming' +of a lovely night in August last year, as we rattled over the Landore +viaduct of the South Wales Railway. On each side of us, we could +behold, given out by the chimneys, innumerable flashes of lurid flame, +which rose like meteors into the atmosphere, and scattered around a +brilliant light, that was seen in the distance to blend with the +waters of Swansea Bay. The scene was very beautiful, and singularly +picturesque: we could have wished our enjoyment of it prolonged; but +soon the shrill whistle, the escape-valve, and the lamps of the +station, admonished us that our journey had come to an end.</p> + +<p>Our principal object in visiting Swansea, was to obtain some +information concerning the important business of copper-smelting, for +which this port has now become so celebrated. Few of our readers, who +have not enjoyed our opportunities of seeing them, can form any +accurate conception of the vast extent and great economical value and +importance of the Swansea copper-works. Indeed, the copper trade is +far from being popularly known; and the reason is obvious. Iron, which +is very widely distributed in the British islands, is invariably +smelted wherever it occurs. Copper, on the contrary, is only mined in +one or two localities; and it is never manufactured on the spot. This +process is performed almost exclusively at Swansea; and hence the +copper trade of the country is confined to a few individual houses, +and these are in a locality alike remote and unfrequented by the +everyday tourist.</p> + +<p>At the period when the first copper-work was established on the banks +of the Tawy, about a century ago, Swansea was comparatively an +insignificant village. It is therefore to this branch of industry the +town and port are chiefly indebted for their remarkable rise and +progress. The population in 1801 was only about 6000; while in 1851, +if we include the copper-smelting district, it had already reached the +number of 40,000. The original cause of Swansea being selected as the +great seat of the copper trade, we may very briefly explain. It was +early discovered that, from the non-existence of coal in the mining +districts of Cornwall and Devonshire, copper, although raised in vast +abundance, could not be profitably smelted there. In fact, it was not +until a considerable time after copper-mining was properly pursued in +Cornwall, that the minerals could be turned to a profitable account. +It became apparent at length, however, both from the large quantity of +coal necessary for the reduction of copper-ores, and the great expense +of the transport, that instead of carrying coal to Cornwall to smelt +the ores—the greater quantity to the less—an opposite course must be +pursued, and the ores carried to the coal districts, and there +smelted.</p> + +<p>Now South Wales, poor in copper, is exceedingly rich in coal. Vast +beds of the finest bituminous and anthracite coal exist in rich +profusion in its inexhaustible coal-fields. From its geographical +position and excellent harbour, Swansea was at once selected as the +best port on the Welsh coast in which to establish the copper-works; +and accordingly, the Swansea valley was soon planted with chimneys, +furnaces, roasters, refiners, and, in short, all the necessary and +costly enginery which belongs to the vast and intricate processes of +smelting copper. With such propriety has the selection of a locality +been made, that even now, out of the twenty copper-smelting works of +which the country can boast, seventeen are situated on the navigable +rivers of Swansea and its neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>But this was not the only advantage the Cornish miners derived from +this judicious step. The ships employed to transport the ore to South +Wales came back laden with coal to feed their enormous engines; and +thus a system of traffic, mutually advantageous, was originated, and +has continued to exist without interruption down to the present time, +and will continue to exist so long as copper is mined in Cornwall and +smelted at Swansea.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Within the last twenty years, the importation of foreign ores has +become a remarkable feature in the trade and commerce of this place. +Not only is Swansea the seat of the copper trade of this country, but +it may with equal propriety be styled the copper mart of the world. +Large and valuable cargoes of ore are continually arriving at the +Swansea Docks from every country in the world where copper-mining is +pursued. In 1814, there were only four vessels which traded with +foreign ports; in 1849, this number had increased to 771; the greater +proportion of them being directly engaged in the copper trade.</p> + +<p>The Cornish ores are sold, as we have seen, in the locality in which +they are produced; but all these foreign ores, from whatever quarter +they may come, are disposed of to the smelters in Swansea by public +ticketing. This ticketing is a curious and characteristic feature of +the trade. The cargoes are usually consigned to a particular class of +brokers, indigenous to Swansea, and known as 'copper-ore agents.' The +ore is by them deposited in large yards, where it is crushed to a +certain fineness, for the purpose of obtaining a proper admixture of +the 'heap.' Notice is then given to the different smelting-houses, who +procure samples of the lot, and assay it. Meetings are held once a +fortnight at the Mackworth Arms Hotel; and on these days the agents +for the ore and those for the smelter take their seats around a table. +A chairman is appointed, who announces the different lots for sale. +Having previously made up their minds what to offer—for there is +nothing like a saleroom competition—the smelters hand up a folded +slip to the chairman, who announces the highest offer and the +purchaser's name. With such expedition does this proceed, that +different cargoes of copper-ore, to the value perhaps of L.50,000, +will often be quietly disposed of in a single hour!</p> + +<p>It is very remarkable how closely each offer approximates to the +intrinsic value of the ore. A lot of Chili or Australian ore, +containing a large quantity of metal, may bring L.50 per ton, while at +the same time a poor ore may be sold for a tenth part of the money. +But however variable the offers may be in this respect, they never +vary much in regard to a single lot. Out of the return of the twenty +assayers of the different smelters, probably not a half per cent. of +difference will be found in their estimates of the produce. The +smelters having thus become possessed of the ore, it is transferred to +their own yards, sometimes by means of lighters on the river, but more +frequently by the canal which communicates with Swansea and the +smelting-works.</p> + +<p>Leaving the town, and pursuing our way northwards for two miles +towards Neath, we reach the copper-works. The scene is widely +different in open day from that which was presented at night. There is +no beauty now, and little of the picturesque. The first impression, +indeed, the mind is apt to receive, is that of a sense of painful +weariness. Hundreds of chimneys—we speak literally—are vomiting +forth that white, peculiar-looking, and unmistakable vapour called +copper-smoke. Enormous masses of that ugly, black, silicious refuse, +known in the smelting vocabulary as 'slag,' is piled above and around +in such quantity as to change even the physical appearance of the +country.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[pg 235]</a></span></p> + +<p>But this is not all. The noxious gases—which we see and feel around +us—evolved in the reduction of copper, have not played so long on the +surrounding atmosphere without doing their work. Everywhere within +their influence, the perennial vegetation is meagre and stinted. The +hills, particularly to the southeast of the copper-works, are barren +in the extreme. Not one spark of green, not one solitary lichen, can +withstand the ravages of the poison. Time was, we were told by an old +inhabitant, when these hills produced the earliest and finest corn in +the principality; but now they only resemble enormous piles of sandy +gravel, unbroken but by the rugged angles on the face of the rock. In +the year 1822, the inhabitants of Swansea took legal steps to abate +the nuisance. A reward of L.1000 was likewise offered for the +discovery of a successful means of neutralising the effect of the +vapour. The Messrs Vivian of the Hafod Works spent the princely sum of +L.14,000 in experiments, some of which were partially successful, and +are still adopted; but after all, it must be confessed that the fumes +of sulphurous acid, and of numerous other acids alike poisonous in +their character, still taint the atmosphere of the Swansea valley, and +still leave the indelible traces of their blasting properties.</p> + +<p>The Hafod Works are the largest in South Wales. Situated on the north +side of the river, they cover a superficial extent of about twenty +acres. The number of furnaces, chimneys, and other brick erections +contained in the works, was far beyond our computation; and we can +speak feelingly of the devious ways and labyrinth of bypaths with +which they are intersected, since, on more than one occasion, we +became bewildered in their mazes.</p> + +<p>Here was a group of workmen, half-naked, pouring out of a furnace the +liquid copper at a white heat; there was another group with a red-hot +copper-plate of colossal weight and dimensions, which they crushed +like cheese between the huge rollers of the copper-mill: on one hand, +there was an old furnace, that had done good duty in times past, in +the process of being dismantled; on the other, was one about being +rebuilt; and again there was still another, that had, from long +service, become so impregnated with copper, that it was actually being +built over by a larger one, to be melted in its turn!</p> + +<p>We shall avail ourselves of the valuable services of Mr Morgan, the +manager for Messrs Vivian, in our walks round the works, although it +is not our intention to give a technical description of +copper-smelting.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Such a course would be alike uninteresting to the +reader and unsatisfactory to ourselves. A consecutive description, +however brief, of what we saw, would, in like manner, carry us far +beyond our limits; and we therefore purposely confine ourselves to +whatever is popularly interesting and instructive in the process.</p> + +<p>First in order, then, we proceed to the ore-yard, which presents a +very motley appearance. Under its capacious roof there were tons upon +tons of every variety of ore—native and foreign, blue and red, green +and yellow, and all intermediate colours—indiscriminately piled +around. There was the beautiful green malachite from Australia, the +gray sulphuret from Algiers, the phosphate from Chili, and the +hydrous-carbonate from Spain. There was the glistening yellow +sulphuret from Cuba, the silicate from Brazil, the bright-blue +carbonate from the sunny regions of the south, and the dark-brown +oxide from the colder regions of the north. There was regulus from New +Zealand, and the good old pyrites from the Cornish mines; some +compounds with arsenic, antimony, and numerous other substances; and +last, though in one sense not least, there was a solitary specimen of +ore from Ireland.</p> + +<p>These ores were all in the form of a coarse powder. The regulus we +have mentioned is simply the sulphuret deprived, by a preliminary +operation, of its extraneous earthy matters; and this is frequently +effected in the localities where it is produced, such as New Zealand +and Chili, the expense of transport from these places being very +considerable.</p> + +<p>'And what is this?' we inquired, looking at a black earthy substance +the workmen at that moment were discharging from a vessel.</p> + +<p>'Ah!' said our friend, 'that is a commodity which, I suspect, you know +something about. It is a waste product from certain foundries and +chemical works—from Scotland in this case—and it contains a small +per cent. of copper. We don't care much about it; we seldom have it; +but it is sold at the ticketings regularly. For want of a better name, +we term it <i>slag</i>; but it is not slag, properly so called, which you +see all around you. A better denomination is that employed in +designating it in the Journal—namely, <i>rubbish</i>.'<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>'You make no kind of distinction in the ore-yard,' we continued. 'Is +that unnecessary?'</p> + +<p>'Well, practically it is. As these heaps lie, you can perceive that a +vertical slice from top to bottom will give us a tolerably even +admixture of the different ores. This is always desirable to a certain +extent, since the ores being of different constitution, the one +materially assists in the reduction of the other. Thus an ore +containing a large proportion of fluor-spar may with great advantage +be employed to flux another containing felspar or quartz, which +substances are almost infusible alone. Indeed, the judicious admixture +of ores constitutes the most important vocation of the smelter; and it +is to this that the copper-houses of Swansea are indebted for one of +their advantages over the proprietors of mines, who, possessing only +one kind of ore—rich, probably, but intractable—can never bring it +into the state of a metal with any satisfactory profit.'</p> + +<p>'What is the value of these ores?'</p> + +<p>'That varies much. This gray sulphuret contains about 70 per cent. of +copper, and is worth L.35 per ton. This yellow sulphuret, from being +mixed with a large quantity of iron and silicious earth, contains only +about 12 or 14 per cent. Some malachites contain so much as 50 per +cent., and others less pure, 30 to 40 per cent. of copper. But the +greater mass of the ores we melt have a far less produce than this. +That Cornish ore you see there, for example, contains only 4½ per +cent. of metal. The average produce, however, of all the British and +foreign ores smelted at Swansea may be given at about 12 per cent. +Previous to the great increase of foreign importation, it was much +lower.'</p> + +<p>We now come to the process of smelting. The theory of reducing +metallic ores, of whatever constitution, is to bring them to the state +of oxides; and then, by the addition of charcoal, and with the aid of +heat, to expel the oxygen in the form of carbonic acid; after which +the pure metal is left. In practice, the reduction of copper-ores is +slightly different. Here the object is to separate, first, the earthy +matters and extraneous metals, by forming them into oxides by +calcination: these are subsequently obtained as waste products in the +form of slag; while the copper is left in combination with sulphur, +which is then dispelled at one operation. According to Mr Vivian, +copper undergoes eight, and sometimes nine, distinct operations in its +progress from the ore to the ingot; and these consist of alternate +calcinations and fusions, extending over a period of from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[pg 236]</a></span> 100 to 120 +hours. As, however, some of these are simple repetitions, we may, for +convenience' sake, illustrate the process under its three most +important steps.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Calcination of the Ore.</i>—Having arranged a proper mixture of ores +in the yard, it is weighed out in boxes to the calcining-men. This is +drawn up an inclined plane over the tops of the furnaces, and from +thence emptied through hoppers, 3½ to 4½ tons at a time, into +the large calcining furnace. Here it is roasted for a period ranging +from twelve to twenty-four hours, after which it is drawn into the +ash-pit, where it remains to cool. In this state, the ore is a black, +amorphous substance, and is termed <i>calcined ore</i>. The object of this +process is to oxidise the extraneous metals, and also to reduce the +quantity of sulphur, by driving it off in the form of vapour. It is, +therefore, in this and the analogous processes of roasting, that the +sulphurous and arsenous vapours are so profusely given off.</p> + +<p>We stood upon one occasion beside a furnace, when the charge was in +the act of being withdrawn; but we took especial care never to do the +like again. The sensation resembled what one might expect to feel on +holding a lighted lucifer-match under each nostril. It is surprising +how the workmen stand it. For the greater part of their lives, these +poor Welshmen exist habitually in an atmosphere so charged with the +above-mentioned abominable gases, that it is difficult to understand +from whence their lungs receive the necessary supply of pure +oxygen.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Sulphurous acid, we may add, is the predominant smell in a +copper-work; but arsenic acid, hydrofluoric acid, and even +arseniuretted hydrogen, are not at all unfrequent.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Melting the Calcined Ore.</i>—This is a totally different operation +from the last: in place of roasting, it is one of fusion. The calcined +ore is put into the furnace much in the same manner as before; a +quantity of the slag from a subsequent process is added to assist in +the fusion, and the heat is increased till the whole mass becomes +liquid. The object is to separate the earthy matter, which, from being +specifically lighter, rises to the surface of the liquid mass in the +form of slag, and is drawn off. After two or three charges, the +furnace becomes quite filled, and an aperture is then opened in it, +through which the red-hot liquid flows into an adjoining pit filled +with water. It is by this means granulated, and is now termed 'coarse +metal,' or 'regulus;' and is, in fact, an admixture of the sulphurets +of iron and copper, containing about 30 per cent. of the latter.</p> + +<p>But it is to the earthy impurities here given off that we especially +wish to direct attention. This slag, as it is termed, when drawn from +the furnace, is run into oblong sand-moulds, from which, when cold, it +is taken outside to the 'slag-bank,' as it is called—'slag-mountain,' +we prefer saying; and an ugly mountain it is!—where it is broken into +small pieces, examined to see whether it still contains metal, and if +not, is left to accumulate. It consists essentially of silicon, +oxygen, iron; or, to speak more correctly, it is a silicate of the +protoxide of iron. It is, in fact, a true <i>igneous rock</i>. Portions of +quartz and silica still remaining unfused, are often contained in the +masses, which give to them, when broken, a true porphyritic +appearance, while, from the great preponderance of the protoxide of +iron, it is invariably black.</p> + +<p>So hard, solid, and indurated do these slags, in process of time, +become, that a very tall chimney, the most conspicuous object in the +works, is built on the top of a slag-bank. And this beautiful +commodity is not without its use in the arts. Part of it is +occasionally cast into iron moulds, shaped like old Gothic arches, +only uglier; and the casts are applied in great quantity as +coping-stones to the walls and fences in the regions of the +copper-works. Although not a very tasteful, it is yet a very useful, +and, at the same time, a very characteristic application. We may add +here, that the aggregate produce of the substance of the different +Swansea works may be estimated at about 260,000 tons a year. Our +readers may judge for themselves of the ultimate change this is +calculated to bring about in the Carboniferous System, and of the +learned controversies that are likely to arise among future geologists +with respect to the character and constitution of these carefully +disintegrated rocks!</p> + +<p>To return to the smelting process. The last product—the regulus—is +again calcined, with the view of bringing the iron to the state of an +oxide. It is again melted, slagged, and run into pigs. In this last +operation, the whole iron is driven out in the slag, and the +remainder—'white metal,' as it is called—is almost a pure sulphuret +of copper. The sulphur, having all along preserved its combination +with the copper—a fine illustration of the theory of chemical +attraction—must now at length be expelled. This is effected by the +last process of roasting. When in a state of fusion in the furnace, +the charge is exposed to a stream of air, in which case a double +action ensues. Part of the oxygen enters into combination with the +sulphur, producing sulphurous acid, which is expelled in the form of +vapour, and part of it combines with the copper remaining in the +furnace; this is again run out into the form of pigs, and in this +state it is termed 'blistered copper.' To produce the finer kind of +copper, another process has yet to be gone through; but for ordinary +<i>tough copper</i>, it is at once transferred to what we may describe as +the last stage, and that is—</p> + +<p>3. <i>Refining.</i>—We quote Mr Vivian:—'The pigs from the roasters are +filled into the furnace through a large door in the side: the heat is +at first moderate, so as to complete the roasting or oxidising +process; after the charge is run down, and there is a good heat on the +furnace, the front door is taken down, and the slags skimmed off. An +assay is then taken out by the refiner with a small ladle, and broken +in the vice; and from the general appearance of the metal in and out +of the furnace, the state of the fire, &c., he judges whether the +toughening process may be proceeded with, and can form some opinion as +to the quantity of <i>poles</i> and charcoal that will be required to +render it malleable, or, as it is termed, to bring it to the <i>proper +pitch</i>. The copper in this state is what is termed <i>dry</i>: it is +brittle, of a deep-red colour, inclining to purple, an open grain, and +crystalline structure. In the process of toughening, the surface of +the metal in the furnace is first well covered with charcoal; a pole, +commonly of birch, is then held into the liquid metal, which causes +considerable ebullition, owing to the evolution of gaseous matter; and +this operation of <i>poling</i> is continued, until, from the assays which +the refiner from time to time takes, he perceives that the grain, +which gradually becomes finer, is perfectly closed.' After some +further manipulation of a similar kind, the refiner is at length +satisfied of its malleability, and that the copper is now in its +<i>proper place</i>, as he terms it. It is then poured out by means of iron +ladles, coated with clay, into ingots or moulds of the different sizes +required by the manufacturer.</p> + +<p>'This process of refining or toughening copper, is a delicate +operation, requiring great care and attention on the part of the +refiner to keep the metal in the malleable state.' It is also, beyond +comparison, the most beautiful sight in the copper-works. At one +particular stage of the process, we saw the mass of molten copper in +the furnace—some five or six tons—assume the most beautiful and +resplendent appearance it was possible to imagine. It was like a sea +of 'burnished gold;' and, indeed, were it not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[pg 237]</a></span>for the intense heat, +the red-hot ladles of the workmen, and other little circumstances of +the kind, the stranger would have some difficulty in believing that he +did not look upon a beautifully polished mirror.</p> + +<p>We have now come to the end of the smelting process; and have left +ourselves no room to describe the transformation into sheets, bars, +bolts, and boilerplates which the metal undergoes in the next +department of the works. These, however, are a better understood +series of operations, consisting, as they do, of the usual and +ordinary processes of rolling the hot metal between powerful iron +rollers. Nor have we space to allude even to the vastly numerous and +varied applications of the metal; although we may take the opportunity +of briefly adverting to the recently discovered process of smelting +copper by electricity, and of inquiring into the probability of its +ever becoming an economical application.</p> + +<p>It will be seen, in the first place, that the present mode of smelting +copper, though simple in theory, appears in practice extremely +complex. For this reason, within the last twenty-five years there +have, we believe, been as many patents taken out to simplify and +hasten the operation. Without exception, these have been proved to be +altogether inapplicable. Let us see how this is explained.</p> + +<p>Out of these numerous improvements, we select two that appear +peculiarly attractive. The first is the method of precipitating the +copper, in our second process, from the fused silicates containing it, +by the action of the electric current—the negative pole of the +battery terminating in an iron plate, which replaces the copper in the +liquid mass. The second method is an improvement on this. From some +experiments made at the School of Mines in Paris, it was shewn that +metallic iron alone, without the aid of the battery, was capable of +precipitating copper from the silicates in a state of fusion, just as +it does in saline solutions at ordinary temperatures. But in applying +this last method to practice—for the electricity was obviously +rendered unnecessary by the discovery—it was found that the +expenditure of iron was so great, that it could not be profitably +applied except as a means of assisting the reduction.</p> + +<p>'Still,' said Mr Morgan, when commenting on these methods, 'this, in +point of fact, is precisely what we do. We add, as you have seen, a +great proportion of slag to the melting of the calcined ore, which +consists chiefly of the oxide of iron; while at the same time we +derive the additional advantage of employing an excellent flux—an +advantage which metallic iron does not possess. But, irrespective of +these considerations, the plain fact of the matter is, that <i>it will +not pay</i> to smelt copper expeditiously. We don't wish to do so. It is +quite a matter of choice with us those continued operations; and their +great advantage lies in this, that we are enabled to extract every +particle of copper from the ore. By any of these other methods—very +philosophical they are, I admit—we could not accomplish this. The +slags would all contain more or less metal; and when I inform you, +that we can afford to remelt those slags if they contain only a half +per cent. of copper, you will perhaps understand our reasons for still +adhering to our venerable system.'</p> + +<p>Thus we discovered that the smelting of copper by electricity, and of +reducing it with metallic iron, would not pay.</p> + +<p>Our statistics are short, but they are heavy: about 300,000 tons of +copper-ore are annually smelted at Swansea; 28,000 tons of copper are +annually produced; and 600,000 tons of coal are annually burned. The +value of the ore is about L.2,000,000; of the copper, L.2,600,000; of +the coal, we have no correct means of ascertaining. Of the population +of Swansea, about one-fourth are dependent on the smelting-works; and +of these, about 3500 are directly engaged in the business. The +probable amount of wages paid by the smelters is about L.135,000; and +the current expenditure of the copper-works in the aggregate exceeds +L.500,000 a year.</p> + +<p>The last thing we did was to visit the Hafod Schools. These excellent +schools—one for boys, one for girls, and one for infants—were +erected about six years ago, and are still maintained at the expense +of the Messrs Vivian. At the time of our visit, there were 600 of the +rising population of the place doing their utmost to unlearn the Welsh +idiom, and to acquire the art of speaking and writing the English +language with propriety. We regret that we cannot dwell on this the +most gratifying circumstance of our visit. Messrs Vivian & Sons are +unquestionably great copper-smelters, but, in our humble opinion, the +greatest action they ever did, and what must ever commend them to all +good minds, was the establishment of these schools.</p> + +<p>To us it was a change, a relief inexpressibly delightful, to emerge +from the Stygian regions of the copper-works, where for the last five +or six days we had wandered like an 'unshriven spirit,' and to find +ourselves in contemplation of the happy faces of the scholars, and to +hear the hopeful, encouraging tones of their intelligent teachers. The +popular song of <i>Children go, to and fro</i>, was being sung in the +infant school at the moment we took our leave, and we shall never +forget the impression. It struck upon our senses, to use an +appropriate metaphor, like the crystal stream of the desert—like the +shadow of a great rock in a weary land.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See for some interesting information on the system of +Cornish Mining, an article in No. 42 of the present series.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> On this point, we refer all who are desirous of pursuing +the subject, to a valuable memoir in the <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, by +John Henry Vivian, Esq., F.R.S., the proprietor of the Hafod Works. +This paper, we may add, is the standard authority on the subject; and +is, with some modification, copied by Drs Ure and Lardner, and by most +popular works upon metallurgy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The production of this curious substance is explained in +an article on the 'Value of Rubbish,' No. 385.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Notwithstanding this, we were assured by a gentleman +connected with the copper-works, that there is no specific disease +arising from copper-smelting, as in the case of lead. Asthma, +rheumatism, and colds, are the prevailing affections among the men; +and even these are in a great measure due to their own carelessness.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="THE_KING_OF_YVETOT" id="THE_KING_OF_YVETOT"></a>THE KING OF YVETOT.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">There</span> are few of our countrymen who have travelled in France but must +frequently have heard proverbial allusion made to a certain monarch of +Yvetot; and still fewer must be those who, having the slightest +knowledge of French literature, are unacquainted with Béranger's happy +lyric—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">There reigned a monarch in Yvetot<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But little known in story,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who, stranger all to grief and wo,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Slept soundly without glory;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His night-cap tied by Jenny's care<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(The only crown this king would wear),<br /></span> +<span class="i10">He'd snooze!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">The merry monarch of Yvetot.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">His jolly court he held each day,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">'Neath humble roof of rushes green;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And on a donkey riding gay,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Through all his kingdom might be seen:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A happy soul, and thinking well,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His only guard was—sooth to tell—<br /></span> +<span class="i10">His dog!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">The merry monarch of Yvetot.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">No harsh exacting lord was he,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To grasp more than his folks could give;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But, mild howe'er a king may be,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His majesty, you know, must live;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And no man e'er a bumper filled,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Until the jovial prince had swilled<br /></span> +<span class="i10">His share!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">The merry monarch of Yvetot.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">He ne'er sought to enlarge his states,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But was a neighbour just and kind;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A pattern to all potentates,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Would they his bright example mind.<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[pg 238]</a></span> +<span class="i0">The only tears he e'er caused fall,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Fell when he died—which you'll not call<br /></span> +<span class="i10">His fault.<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!<br /></span> +<span class="i4">The merry monarch of Yvetot.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>It is well known that Béranger's song, from which we have extracted +the preceding four verses, as translated by Anderson, was a friendly, +though rather satirical remonstrance with Napoleon—of course we mean +<i>the</i> Napoleon—touching his ambitious and bellicose policy. But it is +not so well known, that there really was a kingdom of Yvetot, and that +its several dynasties reigned peacefully for upwards of eleven +centuries. Anderson, in a note to the song, says: 'Yvetot, a district +in the north of France, possesses a monarch of its own, a sort of +burlesque personage, whose royal charger is a donkey; his guard, a +dog; his crown, a night-cap; and his revenue, a gratuitous draught of +<i>wine</i> at the <i>ale</i> houses of his liege subjects!' Young, another +translator of Béranger, not any better informed, tells us that 'the +Lords of Yvetot claimed and exercised, in the olden time, some such +fantastical privileges as are here alluded to.'</p> + +<p>The translators have some excuse for their ignorance regarding the +king of Yvetot; for few Frenchmen of the present day, with the +exception of antiquaries, consider him to have been anything else than +a popular myth. Be it our task, then, to jot down some authentic +notices of that ancient, and now extinct monarchy.</p> + +<p>Yvetot, a town and commune of ancient Normandy (Pays de Caux), in the +department of Seine-Inférieure, now traversed by the railway leading +from Havre de Grâce to Rouen, was, in the sixth century, the seigniory +of one Vauthier, chamberlain to Clotaire I., the royal son of Clovis +and Clotilda. Nothing whatever is known of the earlier part of +Vauthier's history, more than that he held the fief of Yvetot from +Clotaire by the feudal tenure of military service. An able and +trustworthy statesman in the council-chamber, a valiant and skilful +commander in the battle-field, the chamberlain lived on terms of the +most intimate familiarity with his king, who ever lent a ready ear to +his sage suggestions. This high honour, however, being not at all +agreeable to the other followers of the court, they entered into a +conspiracy to ruin the favourite chamberlain. Taking advantage of his +absence, they perfidiously vilified him to the king. The chroniclers +do not state what were the exact charges brought against him, but they +must have been weighty and artfully insinuated, for the rude and +truculent Clotaire swore that he would, with his own hand, slay the +Sieur of Yvetot, when and wherever he should chance to meet with him. +The reader must not be surprised at such a vow: in those days, +sovereigns frequently indulged in a plurality of offices, and could +upon occasion perform the duty of the executioner as well as that of +the judge. Vauthier happened to have a friend at court, who sent him +timely warning of this state of affairs; and not thinking it by any +means prudent to expose himself to the lethal fury of a king who had +unscrupulously killed his own nephews, he left the country, and joined +the army of the north, then fighting against the Thuringian pagans, +the enemies of Clotaire and his religion, such as it was.</p> + +<p>After ten years of arduous service and heroic exploits, Vauthier, +crowned with glory, and hoping that time had mollified the malignant +feelings of the king, turned his face once more towards his native +country. But at that period bad passions were not so easily effaced; +besides, the accusers of Vauthier were now doubly interested in +keeping him at a distance. The Lord of Yvetot, hearing how matters +stood, to make sure of a favourable reception, proceeded, in the first +instance, to Rome, where he made a friend of Pope Agapet, who sent him +with letters to Clotaire, in the capacity of an envoy. Under the +shield of so sacred a function, Vauthier had no hesitation in +repairing to Soissons, and presenting himself before the king; yet, to +be still more secure, he chose for that occasion the solemnities of +Good Friday—the anniversary of the great day of Christian mercy. +Clotaire was at the high altar of the cathedral, celebrating the +holiest rites of the church before a crucifix veiled in mourning, when +Vauthier made his presence known. Throwing himself on his knees in +humble supplication, he presented the letters of the sovereign +pontiff, and implored pardon, if he had been guilty, by the merits of +Him who, on the same day, had so freely shed his blood for the +salvation of all mankind. The ferocious and implacable king recognised +the suppliant, and, without regard to the sanctity of either the place +or the day, drew his sword, and, with one blow, struck the unfortunate +chamberlain dead on the stone pavement, at the very steps of the +altar.</p> + +<p>Violent passions have, generally speaking, rapid revulsions. Scarcely +was Vauthier's body cold, when the king repented his hasty deed. The +clergy read to him the letters from Pope Agapet, which attested the +innocence of his former favourite; and they represented to him, that +he had committed the grossest description of sacrilege, the sin from +which the sovereign pontiff alone could absolve. In a short time the +barbarous Clotaire passed from a state of rabid fury to one of the +most abject despair, so that he required little persuasion from the +clergy ere he sent a messenger to Rome, bearing rich presents, to beg +for absolution from the pope. The messenger arrived at Rome just as +Agapet was at the point of death; yet the business being urgent, and +the presents valuable, he was ushered into the sick-chamber of the +dying head of the Christian church. Supported by attendants, the pope +proceeded to pronounce, in a feeble voice, the penitential discipline +of Clotaire. He said that the king could not expect pardon unless he +gave the highest possible satisfaction to the heirs of the murdered +man: but here a fit of coughing attacked and carried off his holiness, +so that whatever penance he intended to inflict was never known. +Clotaire, however, determined to expiate his crime, long pondered upon +the meaning of the pope's dying words, and at last concluded that, as +there was nothing higher than a king, the words 'highest satisfaction' +meant that he should raise the heir of Vauthier to the royal dignity. +Accordingly, he by charter erected the seigniory of Yvetot into a +kingdom—an act in perfect consonance with the ancient French feudal +law, which enfranchised the family of the vassal from all homage and +duty, if his lord laid violent hands upon him.</p> + +<p>From that time until the latter part of the eighteenth century, the +descendants of Vauthier reigned as independent sovereigns of their +little kingdom of Yvetot, owing neither tribute, service, nor +allegiance to any other power. Consequently, until the great +Revolution, which, like the bursting of a pent-up deluge, changed the +features of the whole country, the inhabitants of Yvetot paid no taxes +to the government of France.</p> + +<p>Historians and jurisconsults have written many grave and learned +dissertations on the curious position of this little kingdom shut up +in a greater one; and, though they differ in some trifling respects, +they all coincide in concluding, that the king of Yvetot, being +independent of any other potentate, was never obliged to engage in +quarrels which did not concern him, and accordingly lived in peace +with his neighbours, whom he never pretended to frighten. Moreover, in +spite of courtiers and counsellors, statecraft and politics were +unknown in Yvetot; thus the king remained neuter during the various +wars that raged around him, though he could bring an army of one +hundred and twenty royal troops into the field. The seriousness of +these disquisitions has been occasionally enlivened by a spice of +pleasantry. We are told how the king of Yvetot kept his own seals, and +was his own minister of finance; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[pg 239]</a></span>that his court consisted of a +bishop, a dean, and four canons, not one of whom ranked higher in the +church than a parish curé; four notaries, dignified by the title of +judges, representing the states of the kingdom, formed the senate, and +composed his majesty's privy-council; four of the best-looking of the +tenants' daughters were ladies of the bed-chamber and maids of honour +to the queen; four stalwart body-guards attended on all occasions of +ceremony—at other times, they worked as agricultural labourers on the +royal farm; a footman performed the duty of chamberlain, and, when +necessary, that of herald; a groom was master of the horse; a gardener +superintended the woods and forests. This, however, is only a +traditionary account of the court of Yvetot; and, lest the reader +should think it all a joke, we shall specify some of the documentary +evidence still extant respecting that little kingdom.</p> + +<p>A decree of the Court of Exchequer of Normandy, executed in the year +1392, mentions the king of Yvetot; and various letters-patent, granted +by monarchs of France in 1401, 1450, and 1464, acknowledge and confirm +the title. In the early part of the fifteenth century, when Normandy +was under English rule, one John Holland, an Englishman, claimed, in +the name of his master Henry VI., certain taxes and feudal duties from +the kingdom of Yvetot. Strange to say, in those semi-barbarous days, +the case was tried in a court of law, and the issue given against +Holland, the court fully recognising the Lord of Yvetot as an +independent king. A letter of Francis I., addressed to the queen of +Yvetot, is still in existence. In one of the many episodes of the wars +of the League, it happened that Henry IV., compelled to retreat, found +himself in Yvetot, and determined not to recede further, he cheered +his troops by jocularly saying: 'If we lose France, we must take +possession of this fair kingdom of Yvetot.' At the coronation of his +second wife, Mary de Medici, the same monarch rebuked the grand +chamberlain for not assigning to Martin du Belley, then king of +Yvetot, a position suitable to his regal dignity. The Belley dynasty +reigned in Yvetot for 332 years. The last king of that petty kingdom +was D'Albon St Marcel, who, when at the court of Louis XVI., modestly +assumed no higher rank than that of a prince. The Revolution, as we +have already intimated, swept away the ancient crown, and the King of +Yvetot is now nothing more than the title of a song, with its burden—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!<br /></span> +</div></div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="RELATIONSHIPS" id="RELATIONSHIPS"></a>RELATIONSHIPS.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<h3>MASTER AND SERVANT.</h3> + + +<p><span class="sc">The</span> relationship of a master and servant—or, to use the modern +phrase, employer and employed—is properly constituted by the +agreement of one individual to perform certain duties to another; that +is, instead of being guided solely by his own will, to submit himself +to perform in certain matters the will of another.</p> + +<p>The extent of duty which is embraced in the contract may vary very +much. It may be only for the performance of one single act, or it may +be for almost the whole range of daily avocations and duties. There is +often a vagueness about the limit of duties, and we often find the +master inclined to exact more than the servant is inclined to give. +There are very good reasons why masters should not consider themselves +as having a right to a full command and power over their servants in +all things; nay, that in things not within the contract, they should +be inclined to admit a certain equality in the two parties. Masters +are too apt to regard themselves as the lords of their servants in all +respects and at all times. They exercise an authority and assume a +superiority in matters beyond the contract.</p> + +<p>On their side, servants often grudgingly perform the duties they have +undertaken. These two causes of discontent produce the worst results.</p> + +<p>The practical remedy seems to be, that masters ought more generally to +recognise and act on the principle, that the lordship they bargain for +is not of the whole man, but only in certain respects and duties; and +that it is only as regards those duties they can expect their servant +to surrender his will to the guidance of his master's: while it should +be equally impressed on the servant, that in those respects in which +he has agreed to submit to and execute the will of his master, that +submission and surrender of his will should be absolute, and without +the least reserve or limitation. Perfect obedience is a beautiful +fulfilment of duty, and defensible on the grounds of common-sense; for +as no one can serve two masters—that is, in the performance of any +particular duty—so no man can both obey his own inclination and +submit himself to his master's will in the performance of the same +act.</p> + +<p>On moral grounds, it is improper that any one should attempt to +execute in all things the will, of any earthly master; for there is a +power, and, in most cases, several powers, superior to both master and +servant, to whom both owe duties; and therefore the servant cannot +legally, nor without failure in his higher duties, enter into any +contract which may hinder the performance of those duties. In matters +of the law, it is held that such a contract is not binding; and thus, +in the case of a moral law being contravened by a contract, a door of +escape is open to those who have entered into such contract, it being +in opposition to the will of a higher authority.</p> + +<p>When a servant, therefore, is in duty bound to execute the will of his +master, his obedience should be perfect. All hesitation or murmuring +is a violation of his contract—a breaking of his promise and +agreement.</p> + +<p>But the master and servant should equally learn, that in other +respects, and at other times, the parties are not necessarily in the +state of superior and inferior; but, unless from some other cause, are +to be regarded as on a footing of equality; and this is the true +interpretation of the doctrine of fraternity and equality, which has, +from not being properly understood, played such wild work among some +neighbouring nations. In this sense, however, it is safe and useful.</p> + +<p>Not only, however, may the individuals who sometimes and in some +respects are master and servant, be at other times and in other +respects regarded as on a level, but they may with propriety, and +often do, change places. The servant becomes of right the master. For +if he should employ that master as his physician or lawyer, no matter +what may be considered the respective ranks of the parties, the +physician or lawyer must, to perform his duty, become the servant, and +submit his will in the business he is employed in to that of his +employer.</p> + +<p>This way of regarding servitude is not a degrading one, but the +reverse. Nothing is so pleasant to a reasonable and truly noble mind +as to pay obedience to those to whom it is due; and if the +adaptability of the same individual to be both master and servant was +more practically carried out, our civilisation would work more +smoothly, and we should probably approach more to that desirable state +in which no one would have a stigma attached to him from his birth or +occupation, but only from the manner in which he performed his duty.</p> + +<p>It would help considerably towards a proper understanding of the +relationship between employers and employed, if the employed would, +for their own sake, maintain that degree of self-respect which would +induce others to respect them. On this point we would speak kindly, +yet frankly, and cannot do better than quote a passage from a small +treatise on Political Economy, just published.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> 'The true +relationship between <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[pg 240]</a></span>employers and employed is that subsisting +between a purchaser and a seller. The employer buys; the employed +sells; and the thing sold is labour. Attaining a clear conviction on +this point, the connection between the two parties is that of mutual +independence. Thrown much together, however, a spirit of courtesy and +good-fellowship ought to temper the intercourse, and it will be the +better for all parties if this spirit prevails. In some situations, +however, there is shewn a disposition on the part of workmen to ask +favours of employers—as, for example, seeking to absent themselves on +holidays without a corresponding reduction in the amount of wages. +This seems to be as wrong as it would be for the employer to ask his +workmen to labour certain days for nothing. The rights and obligations +are distinctly mutual. One has no right to encroach on the other; and, +indeed, there can be no encroachment, no favour asked, on either side, +without a certain loss of independence. This feeling of independence +should be carefully cultivated and preserved, along with those habits +of courtesy which soften the general intercourse of society.'</p> + +<p>We are happy to add, that, to all appearance, a great advance in all +these respects has been made within these few years—disagreements +respecting wages and other circumstances between employers and +employed, being conducted and finally adjusted in a spirit very +different from what used to be manifested a quarter of a century ago.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Political Economy</i>: Chambers's Educational Course.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="THIRST_IN_THE_ARCTIC_REGIONS" id="THIRST_IN_THE_ARCTIC_REGIONS"></a>THIRST IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p>The use of snow when persons are thirsty does not by any means allay +the insatiable desire for water; on the contrary, it appears to be +increased in proportion to the quantity used, and the frequency with +which it is put into the mouth. For example, a person walking along +feels intensely thirsty, and he looks to his feet with coveting eyes; +but his good sense and firm resolutions are not to be overcome so +easily, and he withdraws the open hand that was to grasp the delicious +morsel and convey it into his parching mouth. He has several miles of +a journey to accomplish, and his thirst is every moment increasing; he +is perspiring profusely, and feels quite hot and oppressed. At length +his good resolutions stagger, and he partakes of the smallest +particle, which produces a most exhilarating effect; in less then ten +minutes he tastes again and again, always increasing the quantity; and +in half an hour he has a gum-stick of condensed snow, which he +masticates with avidity, and replaces with assiduity the moment that +it has melted away. But his thirst is not allayed in the slightest +degree; he is as hot as ever, and still perspires; his mouth is in +flames, and he is driven to the necessity of quenching them with snow, +which adds fuel to the fire. The melting snow ceases to please the +palate, and it feels like red-hot coals, which, like a fire-eater, he +shifts about with his tongue, and swallows without the addition of +saliva. He is in despair; but habit has taken the place of his +reasoning faculties, and he moves on with languid steps, lamenting the +severe fate which forces him to persist in a practice which in an +unguarded moment he allowed to begin.... I believe the true cause of +such intense thirst is the extreme dryness of the air when the +temperature is low.—<i>Sutherland's Journal.</i></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="AN_AUSTRALIAN_MISS" id="AN_AUSTRALIAN_MISS"></a>AN AUSTRALIAN MISS.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p>The precocity of the Australian youth, to be properly understood and +believed, can only be fully appreciated by being an eye-witness to +some of these very extraordinary young creatures. I have seen a girl +of ten years of age possess all the manner of an old lady of sixty: +she would flirt with three men at a time, and have a ready answer for +them when teasing her; would move like an accomplished actress, +manipulate gracefully, play whist, chess, and other games, and talk +about getting married. This child, for such I must call her, was a +greater mental giant than O'Brien, with his moving mountain of flesh, +and far more entertaining than twenty Tom Thumbs.—<i>Shaw's Tramp to +the Diggings.</i></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="THE_DAY_OF_REST" id="THE_DAY_OF_REST"></a>THE DAY OF REST.</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<div class="poem15"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><span class="sc">Rest</span>, rest! it is the Day of Rest—there needs no book to tell<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The truth that every thoughtful eye, each heart can read so well;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Rest, rest! it is the Sabbath morn, a quiet fills the air,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Whose whispered voice of peace repeats that rest is everywhere.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O weary heart! O heart of wo! raise up thy toil-worn brow;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The fields, the trees, the very breeze—they all are resting now:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The air is still, there is no sound, save that unceasing hum,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That insect song of summer-time that from the woods doth come.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">And even that seems fainter now, like voices far away,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">As though they only sang of rest, and laboured not to-day;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The hum of bees seems softer, too, from out the clear blue heaven,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">As if the lowliest creatures knew this day for rest was given.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The spacious tracts of meadow-land, of bean-fields, and of wheat,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And all the glebe, are undisturbed by sound of Labour's feet;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The cotter in his Sunday garb, with peace within his breast,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Roams idly by the garden-side, and feels himself at rest.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The streams, the trees, the woods, the breeze, the bird, and roving bee,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Seem all to breathe a softer sound, a holier melody;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Yon little church, too, tells of rest, to all the summer air,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For the bell long since has ceased to peal that called to praise and prayer.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">But while I stand 'mid these tall elms, a sound comes creeping near,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That falls like music heard in dreams upon my charmèd ear;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Like music heard in dreams of heaven, that sacred sound doth steal<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From where the old church aisles repeat the organ's solemn peal.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Now Heaven be praised! a gracious boon is this sweet rest to me—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">How many shall this truth repeat to-day on bended knee!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">How many a weary heart it cheers, how many an aching breast:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Now Heaven be praised, a gracious boon is this sweet Day of Rest!<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p class="right sc">Pictor.</p> +<div class="note"> +<p class="sc"> Torquay.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="THE_BIRKBECK_MAGAZINE" id="THE_BIRKBECK_MAGAZINE"></a>'THE BIRKBECK MAGAZINE.'</h2> + +<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of + Contents</a></p> + +<p>Some numbers have been sent to us of a cheap London periodical with +this title. Its peculiarity is, that the promoters and contributors +are young men, members of the Mechanics' Institution, Southampton +Buildings, who intend throwing open their columns to unknown writers +connected in a similar way with the other Mutual Improvement +Societies. A considerable circulation might be secured by this plan; +and perhaps such a work may be as well calculated to elevate the +aspirations, and excite wholesome emulation, as the productions of +more practised pens.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p>Printed and Published by W. and R. <span class="smcap">Chambers</span>, High Street, Edinburgh. +Also sold by W. S. <span class="smcap">Orr</span>, Amen Corner, London; D. N. <span class="smcap">Chambers</span>, 55 West +Nile Street, Glasgow; and J. <span class="smcap">M'Glashan</span>, 50 Upper Sackville Street, +Dublin.—Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to +<span class="smcap">Maxwell & Co.</span>, 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all +applications respecting their insertion must be made.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + +***** This file should be named 24084-h.htm or 24084-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/0/8/24084/ + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458 + Volume 18, New Series, October 9, 1852 + +Author: Various + +Editor: William Chambers + Robert Chambers + +Release Date: December 31, 2007 [EBook #24084] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + + + + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL + + CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S + INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &c. + + + No. 458. NEW SERIES. SATURDAY, OCTOBER 9, 1852. PRICE 1-1/2_d._ + + + + +A SWIM EXTRAORDINARY. + + +I have been all my life a sort of amphibious animal, having, like many +an old Roman, learned to swim long before I had learned to read. The +bounding backs of the billows were my only rocking-horse when I was a +child, and dearly I loved to ride them when a fresh breeze was +blowing. I rarely tired in the water, where I often amused myself for +hours together. I grew up with such a liking for the exercise, that I +have never been able to forego the opportunity for a swim when it +offered; and a daily bath has been for a long course of years as +necessary to me as my daily food. The exercise of swimming has been +through life my chief pleasure and my only medicine--a never-failing +restorative from weakness and weariness, and, what may appear strange +to some readers, from the effects of irritation, anxiety, and +mortification as well. + +This accomplishment, however, once led me into a strange adventure. I +was engaged in a rather extensive commercial tour through the central +kingdoms of Europe. I had crossed the Hungarian frontier about the +middle of the day, after being much annoyed and chafed by a +multiplicity of delays and extortions; and at length, hot and wearied, +arrived at B---- late in the evening. As soon as I caught sight of the +Danube in the distance, I resolved that the first thing I would do +after getting housed and refreshed by a few hours' sleep, should be to +enjoy the luxury of a leisurely swim in that noble river. With this +view, passing through the town, I put up at a small but decent +_gasthof_ which stood upon a patch of rising ground close upon the +margin of the stream; and having first seen to the comfort of my +horse, which was well-nigh knocked up with the day's journey, and next +attended to my own, I retired to rest at an early hour, without +descending to the common room and joining in the beery orgies of the +evening. I rose next morning, as was my custom, a full half hour +before the sun; and finding no one stirring in the house, proceeded to +the stables, the back of which overlooked the water. Here I found a +middle-aged tatterdemalion, whose flesh and costume were all of one +colour, and that the precise hue of the dungheap from which he had +just arisen, and from which one might have imagined him to have been +engendered. He was in the act of cleaning out the stable, as well as +the task could be accomplished, with his bare feet and a shovel, the +blade of which was not much bigger than his hand. With some trouble, +and with the aid of a small coin, I contrived to make him understand +my purpose; and he led me up stairs to a loft, in which I might +undress and deposit my clothes, and pointed to a rude flight of wooden +steps, leading from the window to the water's edge, and from which I +might plunge in from any height I chose. + +In a few minutes, I had left my clothes upon a truss of odorous +clover, and plunging in head-foremost from the top of the ladder, I +rose to the surface at a few yards' distance from the bank, and struck +out vigorously to enjoy my swim. The sensation was deliciously cool +and pleasant. Keeping my eyes fixed upon the opposite shore, I made +towards it, feeling all the while as light as a cork and as strong as +a colt. How long I revelled in the first exquisite sense of enjoyment +I have not, nor had I then, any very distinct idea. Turning, however, +upon my back, just to vary my position, my head, of course, faced the +shore I had left, from which, to my great surprise, the good town I +had left had vanished entirely, and I became aware that the rapid +current of the river, upon which, in my eagerness for a bath, I had +not bestowed a single thought, had already carried me some mile or two +in its progress towards the Black Sea. Not being victualled for so +long a voyage, I began to look around me, and to curse the headlong +haste which had brought me into such a dilemma. I found that I was as +nearly as possible in the centre of the stream, and immediately put +all my vigour in requisition to regain the shore I had left. This, to +my no small dismay, I soon discovered was not to be accomplished, the +current setting strong towards the opposite side. I made an experiment +of my strength by means of a small chip of wood which floated by: I +could judge what prospect I had of regaining the northern bank of the +river by the distance at which I could leave the chip behind me, while +swimming in a contrary direction; but it was of no use: in a quarter +of an hour's hard struggling I had not gained twenty yards, while I +had floated more than a mile further down the stream. Nothing remained +for it but to make for the shore, towards which I was drifting at any +rate, and that must be done as fast as possible; for being now really +alarmed, I felt, or fancied that I felt my strength deserting me. +Under this impression, I struck out more furiously, and thus fatigued +myself the more; and it was with no small difficulty I at last reached +the opposite bank, up which I climbed, with sensations almost as +forlorn and hopeless as those of the shipwrecked mariner whom the +tempest casts ashore. + +In fact, I would have given a round sum for the rags of the +shipwrecked mariner to cover me. Here I was in the condition of a +primeval savage, on a desert spot, without a dwelling in sight, and +prevented, by the want of clothing, from seeking out the habitations +of men. I ran to the highest ground in the neighbourhood, and that was +close to the water's edge, and looked around me in every direction. On +the shore which I had left, I could see what appeared the dim outline +of buildings at a great distance; but on the side of the river on +which I was standing, nothing but a vast tract of low land was +visible, which, from its swampy condition, it was plain was overflowed +by the river in times of flood. I hallooed for some minutes with all +the strength of my lungs; but the only response was the rising of a +few moorfowl from the marsh, which wheeled cackling above my head, as +though wondering what my business might be, and then settled down +again in the reedy pool from whence they had arisen at my cry. I sat +down upon a stone, and feeling that I was fast going into a state of +distraction, tried to collect my faculties, and to consider what was +best to be done, or, indeed, if anything could be done. With the sense +of my desperate condition came also a horrible sense of the ludicrous. +What would my principals in London think of their continental agent +shivering, without a rag on, upon the desolate banks of the Danube? +Here was I, a man well known upon 'Change, with four thousand pounds +in the three-and-a-half per cents, the idea of which had been a +comfort to me for many a long year, ready to forfeit the whole sum in +exchange for the raggedest pair of pantaloons that ever dangled from a +scarecrow, and ready, too, to go down upon my bare knees to any +ministering angel of an old Jew who would propose the bargain. I +grinned a despairing laugh at the thought of such an absurd compact, +and then groaned aloud as the conviction overcame me, that in my +present circumstances it would be a prudent one. + +Relapsing into grim and savage silence, I glared gloomily at a sharp +jagged stone which lay at my feet, and at length, taking it in my +hand, walked mechanically into a stagnant pool, where a group of +willow sprigs were growing on a few old stumps barely emerging from +the water. I contrived to sever a dozen or two of the twigs by hacking +at them with the flint--and, carrying them to dry ground, was soon +busy in rehearsing over again the toilet of Adam in Paradise. Tying +their ends together, I crossed a couple of them over my shoulders in +the manner of a shooting-belt, and from these I managed to suspend a +kind of frock of green leaves, which effectually transformed my +appearance from that of the rude savage of the wild to the civilised +Jack-in-the-Green of May-day in London. I may declare without reserve, +that I never felt more proud or pleased with any exploit of my whole +life than I now did at the completion of my toilet. My spirits, which +had before been villainously depressed, rose all at once, and I no +longer despaired of restoration to society. I walked majestically up +and down, keeping a careful look-out both upon the water and the land. +A boat passed at the distance of half a mile from the shore, but I +tried in vain to attract the notice of the crew. My voice could not be +heard so far, and if by accident they saw me, they must have mistaken +me for a bush. I now turned my back to the river in disgust, and +commenced a severe and careful scrutiny upon the land-side, to see if +I could possibly in any direction make out any signs of life. Five or +six hours must have elapsed since the moment when I plunged headlong +from the ladder; the sun was now nearly at his meridian; the blue mist +which had covered everything, and veiled the distance from my view in +the morning when I emerged from the water and crawled up the muddy +bank, had now entirely rolled away, and the vast level tract of +marsh-land was open to my inspection to a distance at least of some +five or six English miles, at the extremity of which it was bounded by +a rising ground sparsely wooded. I imagined that I could distinguish +tho mud-walls of a row of small cottages, partly concealed by a group +of trees, though I was by no means sure that it was not a bank of +earth or the face of a rock. I looked anxiously round for other +indications of life; and after a close and protracted scrutiny, had +the satisfaction of distinctly perceiving a thin column of white smoke +winding up the dark background of the distant hill. I resolved now, in +case no means of escape should turn up on the river, to attempt the +passage of the marsh in another hour at latest--though, from former +experience, I well knew the difficulty of the attempt, and the little +probability there was that a perfect stranger would succeed in getting +across. I saw, too, that if I would make the attempt at all, I must +not defer it much longer, since to be overtaken by darkness in the +midst of the bog would be certain destruction. + +I passed another half-hour in surveying the river, in which, about +four miles below the point on which I stood, I now for the first time +discovered several small islands, overgrown with reeds or underwood; +but they manifested no signs of any human inhabitants, so far as I +could distinguish, and I adhered to my resolution of crossing the +marsh. Delaying no longer, I descended from my post of observation, +intending to travel in a straight line to the point where I could +still see the smoke ascending. I had not, however, proceeded 100 +yards, before I found that my idea of journeying in a straight line +was utterly impracticable. I could walk over the firm soil, and I +could swim the pools; but through the deep masses of soft bog I could +neither walk nor swim; and after a narrow escape from smothering in +one of them, I came to a stand-still. I found, too, that now I was +down in the swamp, I could not see the distant hill which was the +object of my journey, though it was plain, that from any part of the +marsh I might see the little mound on the river's brink which I had +just left. I returned to the mound, and, by the aid of a number of +loose stones which were lying about, contrived to erect a couple of +small fagots of willow-branches, at a distance of about ten feet from +each other, to serve as direction-posts, arranging them so that while +I could see but one of them, I might know that I was in the right +track. Thus I was left at liberty to take a sinuous course in search +of firm ground, as, by making an observation by my telegraph, I could +at any time regain the right path. + +It is my decided opinion, that had I been left alone, and suffered to +continue my journey, I should have accomplished the undertaking, +arduous as it was. I had already walked and waded, and swum and +staggered, and floundered along for more than a mile, when I suddenly +caught sight of a ragged, bare-headed figure about half a mile in +advance of me, who was stooping over a stagnant pool, and groping in +the water for something, perhaps leeches, of which he was in search. +Without reflecting for a moment what might be the effect of my sudden +apparition upon the mind of an ignorant boor alone in such a solitude, +and too much overjoyed to think of anything but the overwhelming +delight of securing a 'guide, philosopher, and friend,' I hastened +towards him with all the speed of which I was capable--now clearing a +route among reeds and rushes, and now sinking up to my neck in a pool. +In less than half an hour, I had arrived, panting for breath, to +within a few yards of the pond over the margin of which he was still +bending, with his eyes fixed in the water. Pausing for one moment to +recover my wind, I raised myself to my full height, and hailed him at +the top of my voice with a 'Hola! Mein Herr,' which, like an electric +shock, brought him to his feet in an instant. I saw in a moment that I +had committed a fatal blunder. The poor wretch stood aghast, horrified +beyond the power of description; his white hair stood on end; his +bloodshot eyes were bursting from their sockets; his mouth yawned like +a cavern, and emitted a faint, gurgling sound, and every limb shook +with the agony of fear. I saw that it was necessary to reassure him; +and seeing no other way of approaching him than by swimming the pond, +I entered the water, and, staff in hand, made towards him. Before I +had lessened the distance between us one-half, he had so far recovered +himself as to be able to give utterance to one wild yell of terror, +and to take madly to his heels. When I had swum the pool, and ascended +to the spot which he had left, I saw him running at the top of his +speed, and following a winding route, with which he was evidently +familiar, as he avoided the water and the bogs, and kept on firm +ground. I made an attempt to come up with him; but in my haste trod +upon a piece of loose shale, which, sliding beneath me, threw me upon +the ground, and badly wounded my right foot, so that for the moment I +could proceed no further. + +As I sat upon the ground, endeavouring to stanch the fast-flowing +blood from my instep by winding round it some long flags from the +marsh, I watched the poor fellow till he was no longer in sight, and +marked that he never relaxed his pace till he disappeared under the +cluster of trees above which I had first noticed the white smoke +ascending. To cross the marsh without a guide, was now out of the +question; and choosing a dry and mossy spot, I lay down and rested +till the afternoon was far advanced, having made up my mind, if no +succour came from the hamlet, which I now felt assured was not far +from the edge of the marsh, that I would return to the river before it +was dark, and make a last and vigorous attempt to swim to the group of +islands which I had observed in the distance, in one or other of which +I might hope to find human inhabitants. I kept my telegraph in sight, +and, the sun being now low in the horizon, was thinking of retracing +my steps towards it, when, in the act of rising to do so, I saw a +party of men, of whom I distinctly counted fourteen, threading their +well-known way through the marsh, and rapidly advancing towards the +spot where I lay. They had already measured half the distance, and I +might have seen them long before had I happened to look in that +direction. I now congratulated myself that my troubles were over, and +was pondering how I could best shew my gratitude to my deliverers, +when the doubt was suggested to my mind whether they would prove +deliverers or not. I kept my eye steadfastly fixed upon their +movements, and, as they drew nearer, beheld with dismay that they were +all armed, two of them, who led the van, with old muskets, and the +rest with staves, scythes, and bludgeons. It was plain that the old +fool I had frightened away had described me to his countrymen as some +savage monster, and this valiant band had come out against me, to hunt +me to the death. I resolved at once to be sure of their object before +they came to a disagreeable proximity; and with this view, started +suddenly to my feet, and shouted as loud as I could. + +My fears were but too well founded. At the first sound of my voice, +the leaders recoiled a few steps upon the main body, who stood still +for a few minutes, apparently in consultation, the result of which +was, that the firearms changed owners, and two bold fellows stepped to +the front, and, levelling their pieces, kept my naked body covered +with their muzzles, and only refrained from pulling triggers until +they should have arrived within killing distance. It was plain I had +no time to lose if I would once more try the river, the only chance +now remaining to me. I turned and hobbled away as fast as my wounded +limb would let me, plunged into the nearest pool, sprawled through the +next bog, crashed through the rushes, hopped along the dry ground upon +one foot, and scrambled helter-skelter towards the river, expecting +every moment to hear the report of the firearms, and to feel a handful +of slugs in my body. Never shall I forget the horrors of that chase. I +distanced my pursuers, however, and arrived at the margin of the +stream without having once presented a fair target to their aim. I did +not pause long upon the brink of the flood. They were now yelling like +blood-hounds, and their cries rung in my ears as I gained the very +spot where I had landed in the morning, and where I again took to the +water like a hunted deer, or rather like a hunted duck, for I dived +under, with as gentle a splash as possible, and keeping beneath the +surface as long as I could hold breath, rose at length a good fifty +yards from the shore, and full two hundred yards lower down. + +I had no great cause for congratulation at my escape. The sun was +setting, night coming on, and here was I in the middle of the broad +stream of the Danube, sweeping on at the rate of five or six miles an +hour, with no other prospect in view than that of becoming food for +fishes in a very few hours at furthest, unless I could succeed in +making one of the islands I had seen in the morning. It was a strange +thing that I felt no fatigue, even after swimming an hour. I had +passed several small islands, but the rapid stream which they breasted +broke away so furiously from their sides, that I had not strength to +get near them. In their wake, I could see that the water was calm and +tranquil enough, but that tranquil water I could not reach. By and by, +as the darkness fell, I passed several islands much larger, and was +about attempting to land upon one, when I caught sight of a glimmering +light at a distance in the centre of the stream. I directed my course +towards this in preference; and I perceived as I approached that it +proceeded from a raft, moored off one of the islands, upon which the +crew were probably cooking their evening meal. I knew that if I +approached this raft in front, I should inevitably be sucked under, +and never see the light again; at the same time, if I gave it too wide +a berth, I should as surely be carried past it, in which case I felt +pretty certain that my last chance would be gone. I made a desperate +effort at the very nick of time, and happily succeeded in laying hold +of a rope, which was hanging in the water, by means of which I was +swung round to the stern of the raft, upon which, in a small +timber-hut, I could see the crew discussing their supper. + +Now that the struggle was over, and my safety secure, all my courage +and strength too vanished at once: I felt as weak as a child, and as +pusillanimous as a woman, and the hot tears ran down my cheeks like +rain. It was as much as I could do to hail the men, who sat laughing +and chatting over their porridge not three yards from me, as I +clutched the rope with the energy of a drowning man. They started up +at the sound of my cry, and in an instant lifted me on board. They +were Germans, fortunately; and I gave them to understand in a few +words, that I had been bathing, and having been carried away by the +stream, had narrowly escaped drowning. I was in no humour to put them +in possession of my whole miserable adventure, which it is more than +probable they would not have credited if I had. Having rubbed myself +dry, one of them lent me a blouse, and offered me food, which, plain +as it was, I was but too glad to accept; but before I had eaten a +mouthful, an old man made his appearance, bearing slippers, cloak, and +cap, and invited me to follow him to his house upon the island, where +I might pass the night, and cross over to the mainland in the morning. +I followed him across a plank, and beneath the shadow of some +willow-trees, to his humble dwelling. He told me that he and his +family were the sole inhabitants of the island, and that he united the +three professions of fisherman, innkeeper, and rope-maker, and thus +managed to make a livelihood. His guests were almost exclusively the +navigators on the river, who frequently moored for the night off his +island, and partook of such entertainment as he could supply. He sent +his fish to market when he caught more than he could consume, and he +and his children made ropes and cordage, for which also he had a ready +sale on the river. Pending this communication, he prepared me a +substantial supper, to which I did ample justice, and then shewed me, +at my request, to a small, neat chamber, where I sought and found the +repose I so much needed. + +I sank into a profound slumber, heavy and dreamless, within a minute +after I lay down--the result, no doubt, of the utter exhaustion of +every faculty, both of body and mind. Possessing a vigorous +constitution, and a perfectly healthy frame, I escaped the reaction of +nervous excitement, which most persons in similar circumstances would +have undergone, and which in many would have terminated in fever and +delirium, and perhaps death. But I did not escape altogether. After I +had lain in total forgetfulness for some hours, my imagination woke up +and plagued me with dreams of indescribable terror and alarm. I was +swimming for whole days and nights together in a shoreless sea, tossed +by storms, and swarming with monsters, one or other of which was +continually seizing me by the foot, and dragging me down; while over +my head foul birds of prey, each and all with the terrified face of +the poor wretch whom I had frightened in the marsh, and clutching +firearms in their semi-human claws, were firing at my head, and +swooping to devour me. To avoid their beaks, I dived madly into the +depths below, where I had to do battle in the dark with the grim and +shapeless monsters of the deep. Then, bursting with the retention of +my breath, I rose again to the surface, and enjoyed a moment's pause, +until the screaming harpies again gathered around me, and, convulsed +with fear, I dived again as the vivid flash from their firearms +dazzled my eyes. While performing one of these violent feats, +occasioned by a flash which appeared to blaze over the whole sky, I +woke suddenly. My landlord, the old fisherman, was standing by my +bedside; he had drawn aside the curtains of my bed, and let the +sunshine in upon my face, the hot gleam of which was doubtless the +blazing flash of my dream. I laughed aloud when I found myself snug in +bed, and proceeded to dress in the old man's best holiday suit, which +he placed at my service. My wounded foot had well-nigh healed in the +night, and I could walk comfortably. During breakfast, I gave the old +man and his daughter the real history of my case, to their unspeakable +astonishment, and consulted them as to my future operations. The +fisherman volunteered to land me at a small village a few miles below, +from whence he would proceed with me to K----, where, upon +representing my case to the magistrates, I should be furnished with +the means of getting back to B----, and recovering my property. + +This, in fact, was the only thing I could do. I engaged the fisherman +to accompany me through the whole route; and as he had naturally no +desire to lose sight of me, he made no objection. I had slept thirteen +hours; and it was ten o'clock in the day, when the old man and I, and +his two lads, embarked in the boat for the nearest village. We arrived +there before noon, and he hired a conveyance in which we both +proceeded to the place he had mentioned, a distance of some twenty +miles, which we reached about three in the afternoon. But my companion +had no more of either money or credit, and I was compelled to apply to +the chief magistrate of the town, whom, by good-fortune, we found at +his private residence. He proved a good-natured but rather fussy old +gentleman; and when he had heard my story, which he interrupted with a +thousand demonstrations of horror, alarm, and sympathy, insisted upon +my sharing the hospitality of his house for the night, assuring me +that it would be impossible to proceed that day. I gave a reluctant +consent, upon his promising that he would put me in a condition to +start at an early hour in the morning. Hereupon, consigning my +companion to the charge of a servant, he ushered me into a saloon +adjoining his study, and introduced me to his family, consisting of +two grown-up sons, three daughters, and their mother, to whom I had to +tell my luckless adventures over again. That, however, was not the +worst of it. As the hour of dinner drew near, the house began to fill +with visitors: it was plain that my arrival, and the circumstances +connected with it, had been regularly advertised through the town, and +all the world was flocking to see the new 'lion' which the river had +turned up. And certainly a lion I was, as the play-bills have it, 'for +that night only.' I had to tell my story ten times over, and to submit +to questionings and cross-questionings without number. All this, +perhaps, was but natural enough, considering the circumstances; but it +occasioned me no small annoyance; and feigning excessive fatigue, for +which I had but too good excuse, I retired early to rest, leaving the +assembled guests to pump the old fisherman, which they did to their +hearts' content, and to talk over my adventures at leisure. + +A servant awoke me before dawn. A carriage and post-horses stood at +the door, and after I had made a hearty breakfast, my worthy host put +into my hand a letter of introduction to his brother magistrate at +B----. I bade him farewell with many sincere and hearty thanks, +entered the carriage with my companion, and drove off. The distance we +had to go may have been about fifty English miles; but the roads were +in such wretched condition, and the cattle, which we changed seven +times, of such an abominable breed, that night had fallen upon the +town of B---- before we entered it. I drove at once to the little +_gasthof_, where, three days before, at the same hour, I had put up +upon my arrival. The landlord bustled out to receive me as the +carriage stopped at the door; but though I identified him immediately, +he shewed not the slightest symptom of recognising me. I told the +driver to wait, and beckoning the old fisherman to follow, demanded to +be shewn into a private room, and to be favoured with the landlord's +company. He obeyed with the utmost alacrity, and taking a lamp from +the hand of an attendant, led the way to a small room on the first +floor. + +'Well, Herr Bernstein,' I said, 'are you not glad to see me back +again?' + +'Most happy to see you, gracious sir,' said he; 'but have not the +honour to recollect your gracious person.' + +'Indeed! An Englishman, on a black horse, put up here three days ago +at this hour--surely you recollect that?' + +'Ah, too well I recollect that. Poor English gentleman--a countryman +of yours, perhaps a friend--ah! dear God! drowned--unhappy +man--carried away by the river in the morning before any of us were +up.' Here he wrung his hands in evident sorrow: 'Ah, that stupid +Grute! why did he let the gentleman bathe in the Danube?' + +'Stop!' said I; 'let me put an end to your regret--_I_ am that +Englishman!' + +'You--you!' cried he, as he staggered back into a seat. 'But it cannot +be--it is impossible. I do not recollect you: you are deceiving me! +Sir, it is a cruel jest.' + +'It is no jest,' said I; 'Heaven be praised. Where is Grute, as you +call him? He will tell you whether it is a jest.' + +Grute was the filthy stableman; and the landlord, half-dreaming, ran +off to fetch him--a most unfortunate circumstance, as it put the rogue +upon his guard, and prepared him for the part which it was necessary +for his safety that he should play. The landlord returned in two +minutes, dragging Grute in with him. I saw by the sudden pallor of the +fellow's countenance, and the quivering of his lip, that he recognised +me on the instant; but he looked doggedly around him, without +manifesting any surprise; and when his master pointed me out as the +Englishman supposed to have been drowned, the fellow laughed brutally, +and said the attempt wouldn't do, as I was too tall by half a head. I +perceived the truth at once. He had made free with the contents of my +pockets, in which I had left a few gold pieces, and for his +character's sake he could not afford to admit my identity. The +landlord plainly mistrusted my tale, now that he had heard the +evidence of the stableman, and began to assume a very different tone, +and to talk cavalierly of a reference to a magistrate. This reminded +me of the letter in my pocket, and I insisted that he should +immediately accompany me to the house of the chief-magistrate, who +should judge between us. He shewed himself provokingly willing to +comply with my demand, and, following me down stairs, entered the +carriage. As we drove along, I inquired as to the fate of my valise, +my clothes, and my horse; which latter, especially, I described in a +way that appeared to stagger him. They were all, he said, in the +magistrate's custody, and I should hear more of them, and doubtless +recover them, if they _were_ mine, when my claim was decided on. We +found the important functionary at supper. I requested a private +interview, which was granted, when I presented the letter of my host +at K----, and waited to see the effect of its perusal. I had to wait a +long while, for my hospitable friend had indulged in a long-winded +account of the whole adventure, which it took a good half-hour to get +through. The effect of the narrative was, however, all that I could +have desired: the worthy magistrate asked me a few questions, as he +was pleased to observe, for form's sake, relative to the contents of +the valise, which he had himself inspected, and I replied +satisfactorily. He shook me heartily by the hand, congratulated me on +my miraculous and providential escape, not forgetting my marvellous +prowess as a swimmer; and, calling in the landlord of the inn and the +old fisherman, wrote out in their presence an order for the +restoration of my property, and a warrant for the apprehension of +Grute, who, it appeared, had helped himself to all my loose cash, with +the exception of a single dollar. + +There was racing and chasing after Grute during the whole night, but +he had had the wit to take himself out of the way. My valise had +luckily not been tampered with; the contents were all as I left them; +and I had the happiness of rewarding the honest fisherman for the +pains he had taken in my behalf, and the confidence he had reposed in +me. My poor horse had not been treated so well. In accordance with +some old statute, of which I know nothing, he had been claimed by the +commandant of a small military force stationed in the place, and had +been compelled to commence a course of training, under a heavy +dragoon, for the military service. As he had received but one or two +lessons, which consisted almost exclusively of an unlimited allowance +of whip, he had not profited much by instruction. In fact, he had lost +his temper without gaining anything in discipline, and I was +eventually obliged to part with him, from the impossibility of bearing +with his strange antics. He had cost me fifty guineas in London, and I +sold him for fewer thalers to a German dealer, who, no doubt, speedily +found him a berth in some barrack, where he completed his education +for the army. Altogether, my extraordinary swim, taking expenses out +of pocket and loss of time into account, cost me something over a +hundred guineas, and all I got in exchange for them, was the +reputation of a Munchausen whenever I dared to open my mouth on the +subject, and a perennial liability to nightmare, with the repetition +and aggravation of all the worst horrors of that miserable day.[1] + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Lest our readers should suppose this curious narrative to be +merely an invention of some desperate romancer, it may be proper to +state, that the facts are literally true. The hero of the adventure, +when a young man, about the close of the last century, was driven +abroad by political persecution, and not only realised a fortune, but +acquired most of the continental languages. On returning to England, +where he became acquainted with our contributor, he devoted himself +for the rest of his life to acts of private beneficence, keeping up at +the same time a correspondence in Latin with the learned men of other +countries.--_Ed. C. E. J._ + + + + +WOOL FROM PINE-TREES. + + +Interesting accounts have recently appeared in foreign journals of a +novel branch of industry carried on in Silesia, combining so much of +ingenuity and utility, as to render a summary of the information very +acceptable to those who are seeking for new sources of employment or +of profit. It appears that in the neighbourhood of Breslau, on a +domain known as Humboldt Mead, there are two establishments alike +remarkable: one is a factory for converting the leaves or spines of +the pine-tree into a sort of cotton or wool; in the other, the water +which has served in the manufacture of this vegetable wool, is made +use of as salutary baths for invalids. They were both erected +under the direction of Herr von Pannewitz, one of the chief +forest-inspectors, and the inventor of a chemical process, by means of +which a fine filamentous substance can be obtained from the long and +slender leaves of the pine. This substance has been called _Holz +wolle_, wood-wool, from a similarity in its quality to that of +ordinary wool; it may be curled, felted, or spun in the same way. + +The _Pinus sylvestris_, or Scotch fir, from which this new product is +derived, has been long esteemed in Germany for its many valuable +qualities; and instead of being left to its natural growth, is +cultivated in plantations of forest-like extent. In this way, many +parts of a vast, dreary, sandy surface are turned to good account, for +the tree grows rapidly on a light soil, imparting to it solidity and +consistency, and affords shelter to the oak, which, under such +favourable circumstances, acquires such vigour of development as to +outgrow its protector. About the fortieth year of its growth, the pine +yields considerable quantities of resin; and the value of the wood for +building purposes, and for constructions immersed in water, are well +known. Mr Pannewitz has, however, added another to its list of useful +applications; and if the leaves can be employed as described, the +_Pinus sylvestris_ may become an object of culture in countries where +it is now neglected. + +The acicular leaves of firs, pines, and coniferae in general, are +composed of a bundle, or fasciculus, as a botanist would say, of +extremely fine and tenacious fibres, which are surrounded and held +together by thin pellicles of a resinous substance. If this substance +be dissolved by a process of coction, and the employment of certain +chemical reagents, the fibres can then be easily separated, washed, +and cleansed from all foreign matter. According to the mode of +treatment, the woolly substance is fine or coarse, and is employed as +wadding in the one case, and in the other as stuffing for mattresses. +Such, in a few words, is an explanation of Mr Pannewitz's discovery. +He has preferred the _Pinus sylvestris_ to other species because of +the greater length of its spines; but there is reason to believe, that +it is not the only kind which may be worked with advantage. + +There is said to be no danger in stripping the trees, even while +young, as they only need the whorl of spines to be left at the +extremity of each branch, in order to continue their growth; all the +other leaves may be removed without damage. The gathering should take +place while they are in their green state, for at no other time can +the woolly substance be extracted. This operation, which takes place +but once in two years, affords employment and pretty good wages to a +number of poor people, some of whom will collect two hundred pounds in +a day. The yield from a branch of the thickness of the finger is +estimated at one pound, and a beginner will strip thirty such branches +in a day. In the case of felled trees, the work proceeds with great +rapidity. + +The first use made of the filamentous matter, was to substitute it for +the wadding used in quilted counterpanes. In 1842, five hundred +counterpanes so prepared were purchased for the use of the hospital at +Vienna; and, after an experience of several years, the purchase has +been renewed. It was remarked, among other things, that the influence +of the _wood-wool_ prevented parasitic insects from lodging in the +beds, and the aromatic odour arising from it had been found as +beneficial as it was agreeable. Shortly afterwards, the Penitentiary +at Vienna was provided with the same kind of quilts; and they have +since been adopted--as well as mattresses filled with the same +wool--in the Hospital de la Charite at Berlin, and in the Maternity +Hospital and barracks at Breslau. A trial of five years in these +different establishments has proved, that the wood-wool can be very +suitably employed for counterpanes, and for stuffed or quilted +articles of furniture, and that it is very durable. + +It was found that, at the end of the five years, a wood-wool mattress +had cost less than one made of straw, as the latter requires an +addition of two pounds of new straw every year. In comparison with +horsehair, it is three times cheaper; it is safe from the attack of +moth, and in a finished sofa no upholsterer would be able to +distinguish between wood-wool and hair-stuffing. + +It has been further ascertained that this wool can be spun and woven. +The finest gives a thread similar to that of hemp, and quite as +strong. When spun, woven, and combed, a cloth is produced which has +been used for carpets, horse-cloths, &c.; while, mixed with a canvas +warp, it will serve for quilts, instead of being employed in the form +of wadding. + +In the preparation of this wool, an etherised oil is formed, of an +agreeable odour, and green in colour, but which an exposure to the +light changes to a yellowish-orange tint, and which resumes its +original colour on the light being again excluded. Under the +rectifying process, it becomes colourless as water, and is found to +differ from the essence of turpentine extracted from the stem of the +same tree. Its employment has proved most salutary in gouty and +rheumatic affections, and when applied to wounds as a balsam; as also +in certain cases of worm disease and cutaneous tumours. In the +rectified state, it has been successfully used in the preparation of +lacs for the best kinds of varnish; in lamps it burns as well as +olive-oil; and it dissolves caoutchouc completely and speedily. +Already the perfumers of Paris make large use of this pine-oil. + +With respect to the baths: it having been discovered that a beneficial +result attended the external application of the liquor left after the +coction of the leaves, a bathing establishment was added to the +factory. This liquor is of a greenish-brown tint; and, according to +the process, is either gelatinous and balsamic, or acid; formic acid +having been produced in the latter case. When an increase in the +efficacy of the baths is desired, a quantity of extract obtained by +the distillation of the etherised oil above mentioned, which also +contains formic acid, is poured into the liquor. Besides which, the +liquid itself is thickened by concentration, and sent out in sealed +jars to those who wish to have baths at home, thus constituting a +profitable article of trade. + +We understand that these baths have been in operation for nine years, +with a continual increase of reputation and number of visitors. That +the facts are not exaggerated, would appear from medals having been +awarded to M. Weiss, the proprietor and manager, by societies in +Berlin and Altenburg, for the extraordinary results produced. As +likely to lead to a new development of industry, the processes are +especially worthy of attention. + +The catalogue of utilities is, however, not yet exhausted; there is +one more with which we bring our notice to a close. After the washing +of the fibre, a great quantity of refuse membraneous substance is +obtained by filtration. This being moulded into the form of bricks, +and dried, becomes excellent fuel, and gives off so much gas from the +resin which it contains, that it may be used for lighting as well as +heating. The making of a thousand hundredweights of the wool leaves a +mass of fuel equal in value to sixty cubic yards of pine-wood. + + + + +CHAMBERS'S LIFE AND WORKS OF BURNS.[2] + + +Beheld in his life-time as a singular example of the genius rising +from the humbler shades of life, Burns is now ranked as a classic +among the poets of his country. The interest originally felt in his +personal character and unhappy fate, has been deepened as the high +absolute rank of the poet became appreciated. These changes might be +said to call for a more searching inquiry into his life than was at +first deemed necessary; and the task was undertaken by one, of whom we +may at least be permitted to say, that he possessed the requisite zeal +and love of the subject. For obvious reasons, we are not to be +expected to say more, in commendation or discommendation, of the work +now under our attention; but we may be allowed to advert to its +peculiar plan, and some of the new details which it brings before the +world. + +The leading feature of the work is the assumption on which it +proceeds--that the writings of Burns are in a great measure expressive +of his personal feelings, and descriptive of the scenery and +circumstances of his own existence, and therefore ought to be involved +in his biography. Each poem, song, and letter, known as his, has +therefore been assigned its chronological place in his memoirs, thus +at once lending its own biographical light to the general narrative, +and deriving thence some illustration in return. The consequence is, +that, with the help of much fresh biographical matter drawn from +authentic sources, the life of the bard, as he loved to call himself, +is now given comparatively in detail. We can trace him from day to +day, and see the ups and downs of his prospects and his feelings, his +strangely mingled scenes of happiness and misery. We obtain a much +closer and more distinct view of his domestic existence than we ever +had before. The real extent of his aberrations, such as they were, is +more exactly ascertained. Some unexpected particulars emerge; as, for +instance, that, notwithstanding his poverty, he occasionally +accommodated his friends with money and credit, and almost to the last +was able to be their host as well as their guest. But perhaps the most +important result is what we learn of the wonderful versatility of +Burns's feelings and emotions. He is found writing a pensive, +semi-religious letter one day, and the next indulging in some outburst +of extravagant merriment. One day, he indulges in a strain of +melancholy recollection regarding a deceased mistress, commemorating +her in an elegy which hardly any one has ever since been able to read +without tears; and within four-and-twenty hours, he is again strumming +on the comic lyre. A deep mortification falls upon him in the shape of +a censure from the Board of Excise, a pain in which we are peculiarly +disposed to sympathise; but let us not be too eager to suppose that +Burns was permanently affected by any such mark of moral bondage. A +week or two after, he is found keeping a couple of friends in drink +and merriment at his table for a whole night. It is eminently the +_poet_ that is thus brought before us--a being of keen sensibility, +but whose gusts of feeling are as quick in passing as they are violent +while they last. + +Beyond these few sentences, limited to a description of the structure +of this work, we can only propose to give one or two extracts. + +Burns, it clearly appears, while degraded by the humble office +assigned to him, did his best, by performing its duties well, to +elevate it. He acted humanely towards poor people, but was the +conscientious servant of the government in protecting the revenue in +essential matters. The editor has been fortunate enough to discover +some documents which set his character as a man of affairs in a +favourable light. + +'The first is a petition of T. J., farmer at Mirecleugh, addressed to +the justices of peace for Dumfriesshire, reclaiming against a fine of +L.5 which Collector Mitchell had imposed on him for "making fifty-four +bushels of malt, without entry, notice, or licence." J. stated that he +had been in the habit of making malt for forty years without making +entry of his kiln or pond, which he deemed unnecessary, because the +malting was always effected at one operation, and not till notice had +been given to the proper officer. With respect to "notice" on this +occasion--having inquired of Mr Burns which was the best way of +sending it to him, he had been informed that a letter might be sent to +"John Kelloch's," in Thornhill, whence it might be forwarded by post. +He had brought Mrs Kelloch to swear that such a letter had been sent +to her by J.'s son for Mr Burns, but had been mislaid. He offered to +swear that he had sent the notice to Thornhill in good time, and had +had no intention to defraud the revenue. With respect to "licence," J. +averred that he had only been prevented from renewing it as usual this +year because Mr Mitchell, on his applying for it, had put him off to +another time, on the score of being too busy at the time to grant it +to him. + +'In respect of J.'s petition, the justices, Mr Fergusson of +Craigdarroch, and Captain Riddel, ordered the collector to stop +proceedings until they should have had an opportunity of inquiring +into the truth of what it set forth. Then came Burns's "Answers to the +Petition of T. J.:-- + +"1. Whether the petitioner has been in use formerly to malt all his +grain at one operation, is foreign to the purpose: this last season he +certainly malted his crop at four or five operations; but be that as +it may, Mr J. ought to have known that by express act of parliament no +malt, however small the quantity, can be legally manufactured until +previous entry be made in writing of all the ponds, barns, floors, +&c., so as to be used before the grain can be put to steep. In the +Excise entry-books for the division there is not a syllable of T. J.'s +name for a number of years bygone. + +"2. True it is that Mr Burns, on his first ride, in answer to Mr J.'s +question anent the conveying of the notices, among other ways pointed +out the sending it by post as the most eligible method, but at the +same time added this express clause, and to which Mr Burns is willing +to make faith: 'At the same time, remember, Mr J., that the notice is +at your risk until it reach me.' Further, when Mr Burns came to the +petitioner's kiln, there was a servant belonging to Mr J. ploughing at +a very considerable distance from the kiln, who left his plough and +three horses without a driver, and came into the kiln, which Mr B. +thought was rather a suspicious circumstance, as there was nothing +extraordinary in an Excise-officer going into a legal malt-floor so as +to [induce a man to] leave three horses yoked to a plough in the +distant middle of a moor. This servant, on being repeatedly questioned +by Mr Burns, could not tell when the malt was put to steep, when it +was taken out, &c.--in short, was determined to be entirely ignorant +of the affair. By and by, Mr J.'s son came in, and on being questioned +as to the steeping, taking out of the grain, &c., Mr J., junior, +referred me to this said servant, this ploughman, who, he said, must +remember it best, as having been the principal actor in the business. +The lad _then_, having gotten his cue, circumstantially recollected +all about it. + +"All this time, though I was telling the son and servant the nature of +the premunire they had incurred, though they pleaded for mercy keenly, +the affair of the notice having been sent never once occurred to them, +not even the son, who is said to have been the bearer. This was a +stroke reserved for, and worthy of the gentleman himself. As to Mrs +Kelloch's oath, it proves nothing. She did indeed depone to a line +being left for me at her house, which said line miscarried. It was a +sealed letter; she could not tell whether it was a malt-notice or not; +she could not even condescend on the month, nor so much as the season +of the year. The truth is, T. J. and his family being Seceders, and +consequently coming every Sunday to Thornhill Meeting-house, they were +a good conveyance for the several maltsters and traders in their +neighbourhood to transmit to post their notices, permits, &c. + +"But why all this tergiversation? It was put to the petitioner in open +court, after a full investigation of the cause: 'Was he willing to +swear that he meant no fraud in the matter?' And the justices told him +that if he swore he would be assoilzied [absolved], otherwise he +should be fined; still the petitioner, after ten minutes' +consideration, found his conscience unequal to the task, and declined +the oath. + +"Now, indeed, he says he is willing to swear: he has been exercising +his conscience in private, and will perhaps stretch a point. But the +fact to which he is to swear was equally and in all parts known to him +on that day when he refused to swear as to-day: nothing can give him +further light as to the intention of his mind, respecting his meaning +or not meaning a fraud in the affair. _No time can cast further light +on the present resolves of the mind; but time will reconcile, and has +reconciled many a man to that iniquity which he at first abhorred._"' + +No one can fail to see, even in this piece of business, something of +the extraordinary mental energy of Burns. + +The daily life of Burns, in his latter years at Dumfries, is described +in the following terms:--'He has daily duties in stamping leather, +gauging malt-vats, noting the manufacture of candles, and granting +licences for the transport of spirits. These duties he performs with +fidelity to the king and not too much rigour to the subject. As he +goes about them in the forenoon, in his respectable suit of dark +clothes, and with his little boy Robert perhaps holding by his hand +and conversing with him on his school-exercises, he is beheld by the +general public with respect, as a person in some authority, the head +of a family, and also as a man of literary note; and people are heard +addressing him deferentially as _Mr_ Burns--a form of his name which +is still prevalent in Dumfries. At a leisure hour before dinner, he +will call at some house where there is a piano--such as Mr Newall, the +writer's--and there have some young miss to touch over for him one or +two of his favourite Scotch airs, such as, the _Sutor's Daughter_, in +order that he may accommodate to it some stanzas that have been +humming through his brain for the last few days. For another half +hour, he will be seen standing at the head of some cross street with +two or three young fellows, bankers' clerks, or "writer-chiels" +commencing business, whom he is regaling with sallies of his bright +but not always innocent wit--indulging there, indeed, in a strain of +conversation so different from what had passed in the respectable +elderly writer's mansion, that, though he were not the same man, it +could not have been more different. Later in the day, he takes a +solitary walk along the Dock Green by the river side, or to Lincluden, +and composes the most part of a new song; or he spends a couple of +hours at his folding-down desk, between the fire and window in his +parlour, transcribing in his bold round hand the remarks which occur +to him on Mr Thomson's last letter, together with some of his own +recently composed songs. As a possible variation upon this routine, he +has been seen passing along the old bridge of Devorgilla Balliol, +about three o'clock, with his sword-cane in his hand, and his black +beard unusually well shaven, being on his way to dine with John Syme +at Ryedale, where young Mr Oswald of Auchincruive is to be of the +party--or maybe in the opposite direction, to partake of the luxuries +of John Bushby, at Tinwald Downs. But we presume a day when no such +attraction invades. The evening is passing quietly at home, and +pleasant-natured Jean has made herself neat, and come in at six +o'clock to give him his tea--a meal he always takes. At this period, +however, there is something remarkably exciting in the proceedings of +the French army under Pichegru; or Fox, Adam, or Sheridan, is expected +to make an onslaught upon the ministry in the House of Commons. The +post comes into Dumfries at eight o'clock at night. There is always a +group of gentlemen on the street, eager to hear the news. Burns +saunters out to the High Street, and waits amongst the rest. The +intelligence of the evening is very interesting. The Convention has +decreed the annexation of the Netherlands--or the new treason-bill has +passed the House of Lords, with only the feeble protest of Bedford, +Derby, and Lauderdale. These things merit some discussion. The +trades-lads go off to strong ale in the closes; the gentlemen slide in +little groups into the King's Arms Hotel or the George. As for Burns, +he will just have a single glass and a half-hour's chat beside John +Hyslop's fire, and then go quietly home. So he is quickly absorbed in +the little narrow close where that vintner maintains his state. There, +however, one or two friends have already established themselves, all +with precisely the same virtuous intent. They heartily greet the bard. +Meg or John bustles about to give him his accustomed place, which no +one ever disputes. And, somehow, the debate on the news of the evening +leads on to other chat of an interesting kind. Then Burns becomes +brilliant, and his friends give him the applause of their laughter. +One jug succeeds another--mirth abounds--and it is not till Mrs Hyslop +has declared that they are going beyond all bounds, and she positively +will not give them another drop of hot water, that our bard at length +bethinks him of returning home, where Bonnie Jean has been lost in +peaceful slumber for three hours, after vainly wondering "what can be +keeping Robert out so late the nicht." Burns gets to bed a little +excited and worn out, but not in a state to provoke much remark from +his amiable partner, in whom nothing can abate the veneration with +which she has all along regarded him. And though he beds at a latish +hour, most likely he is up next morning between seven and eight, to +hear little Robert his day's lesson in _Caesar_, or, if the season +invites, to take a half-hour's stroll before breakfast along the +favourite Dock Green.' + +Whenever a female of any rank secured the goodwill of Burns, he was +sure to compliment her in verse, and it was always by putting her into +the light of an adored mistress. In his latter days, when declining in +health, an amiable young girl, sister of one of his brother officers, +obtained his friendly regard by endeavouring to lighten the labours of +housekeeping to his wife, then also in a delicate state. The lady, who +still lives, 'relates that, one morning she had a call from the poet, +when he offered, if she would play him any tune of which she was fond, +and for which she desired new verses, to gratify her in her wish to +the best of his ability. She placed herself at the pianoforte, and +played over several times the air of an old song beginning with the +words-- + + The robin cam to the wren's nest, + And keekit in, and keekit in: + O weel's me on your auld pow! + Wad ye be in, wad ye be in? + Ye'se ne'er get leave to lie without, + And I within, and I within, + As lang's I hae an auld clout, + To row ye in, to row ye in. + +'As soon as his ear got accustomed to the melody, Burns sat down, and +in a very few minutes he produced the beautiful song: + + + OH, WERT THOU IN THE CAULD BLAST. + + Oh, wert thou in the cauld blast + On yonder lea, on yonder lea, + My plaidie to the angry airt, + I'd shelter thee, I'd shelter thee: + Or did misfortune's bitter storms + Around thee blaw, around thee blaw, + Thy bield should be my bosom, + To share it a', to share it a'. + + Or were I in the wildest waste, + Sae black and bare, sae black and bare, + The desert were a paradise, + If thou wert there, if thou wert there: + Or were I monarch o' the globe, + Wi' thee to reign, wi' thee to reign, + The brightest jewel in my crown + Wad be my queen, wad be my queen. + +'The anecdote is a trivial one in itself; but we feel that the +circumstances--the deadly illness of the poet, the beneficent worth of +Miss Lewars, and the reasons for his grateful desire of obliging +her--give it a value. It is curious, and something more, to connect it +with the subsequent musical fate of the song, for many years after, +when Burns had become a star in memory's galaxy, and Jessy Lewars was +spending her quiet years of widowhood over her book or her knitting in +a little parlour in Maxwelltown, the verses attracted the regard of +Felix Mendelssohn, who seems to have divined the peculiar feeling +beyond all common love which Burns breathed through them. By that +admirable artist, so like our great bard in a too early death, they +were married to an air of exquisite pathos, "such as the meeting soul +may pierce." Burns, Jessy Lewars, Felix Mendelssohn--genius, goodness, +and tragic melancholy, all combined in one solemn and profoundly +affecting association!' + +In numberless instances, the hitherto loosely stated facts of Burns's +life are corrected in the present work, partly through the accuracy of +a strictly historical arrangement, and partly by direct reference to +written documents. On account of the value of dates in placing the +facts and compositions in that order which gives so much illustration +to the character of the poet, the editor has taken what might appear +in other circumstances a pedantic degree of pains on that score. Of +this we have an example in regard to the chronology of Burns's +attachment to Highland Mary. To fix that affair as occurring in the +summer of 1786--an episode in the connection of the poet with the +young woman who ultimately became his wife--it is necessary to +establish the death of Mary as occurring about the 20th of October +that year. This is done partly by reference to a register of burial +sites in a church-yard, and partly by a chain of curious evidence +respecting the day which Burns celebrated three years after as the +anniversary of the event. He composed on that day his beautiful +address _To Mary in Heaven_, beginning-- + + Thou lingering star with lessening ray, + That lov'st to greet the early morn, &c. + +Mrs Burns had a recollection of the day, which, she said, was in +September, at the end of harvest, and which, she added, he spent in +his usual duties, though labouring under a cold. As the twilight +deepened, he grew sad about something, and wandered out into the +barn-yard, to which she followed him, entreating him in vain to +observe that frost had set in, and to return to the fireside. She +finally found him there stretched on a mass of straw, with his eyes +fixed on a beautiful planet, which shone like another moon. He was +engaged at that moment in apostrophising the soul of Mary. Out of this +anecdote, the editor of the present work contrives to obtain evidence +as to the true date in the following manner:-- + +'In the first place, the harvest was late that year. We find in the +Scottish newspapers of the time, that, in the middle of October, a +great deal of grain was still _out_ even in the favoured district +around Falkirk; while a letter from Sanquhar (Burns's neighbourhood), +dated the 21st, states that "while much was cut, _very little was yet +got in_, owing to the bad weather." It appears that harvest was +commenced by the 8th of September in some districts, but was +interrupted by rains, and was not concluded till near the end of the +ensuing month. Consequently, the incident _might_ take place in the +latter part of October, and _still be connected with harvest +operations_. The second portion of our evidence on the subject is from +one of the exact sciences, and appears to us at once to settle the +time of the day--the month--and almost the day of the month. + +'It fully appears that the planet Venus is the one referred to by the +poet, for the description applies only to it. Now Venus was in +conjunction with the sun, May 30, 1789, and after that became visible +as the _evening-star_ towards the end of the summer, reaching its +greatest brilliancy in winter. It is therefore certain that the star +which "loves to greet the early morn" did not at this time "usher in +the day," and consequently, so far as the time of day alluded to in +the poem is concerned, a poetical liberty was taken with truth. On the +21st of September the sun set at six o'clock, and Venus forty-four +minutes thereafter. The planet was consequently not to be seen at that +time except faintly in the twilight. But on the 21st of October the +sun set in the latitude of Ellisland at 4h 53m, and Venus 1h 3m +afterwards. Consequently, Venus would then have begun to assume a +brilliant appearance during a short interval after sunset. On that day +the moon was four days old, and within eight diameters of Venus. The +planet would then of course be beginning to be dimmed by the +moonlight, and this effect would go on increasing till the moon had +passed the full--that is, early in November. If, then, we are to set +aside the possibility of a later month than October, and keeping in +view the all but certainty that Mary was not buried till some time +after the 12th of that month, it seems reasonable to conclude, that +the barn-yard musings of Burns took place between five and six o'clock +of the evening of some day about the 19th or 20th of October, and +consequently a very short time after the merry-meeting for the +Whistle-contest at Friars' Carse. + +'That a month later than October could have been the date of the +incident will, I presume, scarcely be argued for. The moon was at the +full on Tuesday the 2d of November, and it could not be till after +that day that the first hour of the night would be "starry," with +Venus in full blaze. By that time, as far as we can gather from the +chronicles of the time, the harvest was past. Besides, Mrs Burns might +easily mistake September for October, but scarcely for November, a +month of such different associations. On this point the temperature of +the time might throw some light, if we could be sure of the exact +meaning to be attached to the phrase--"the frost had set in." It +chances that the temperature of October that year was unusually high, +the average at eight o'clock in the evening in Edinburgh being 45-1/2 deg. +Fahrenheit. The _Edinburgh Advertiser_ of 30th October speaks of +apple-trees and bean-stalks renewing their blossoms in consequence of +the extraordinary mildness. On the 19th of October, at eight o'clock +in the evening, the thermometer indicated in Edinburgh 51 deg.; on the +20th, at the same hour, 59 deg.; on the 21st, 51 deg. again. The only approach +to frost was on the 30th and 31st, when, at eight in the evening, the +thermometer was respectively at 33 deg. and 37 deg.. After this, it rose to a +more temperate point. Hence it becomes evident that _literal frost_ +did not then exist at any such period of the day. Probably Mrs Burns +merely thought the evening was beginning to be comparatively chilly. +If we can admit of this construction being put upon her words, I would +be disposed to pitch upon the _warmest evening_ of the little period +within which we are confined--for unless the poet had been in a +peculiarly excited state, so as to be insensible to external +circumstances, which is obviously a different thing from being in a +merely pensive state, we must suppose him as not likely to lie down in +the open air after sunset, except under favour of some uncommon amount +of "ethereal mildness." Seeing, on the other hand, how positively +inviting to such a procedure would be a temperature of 59 deg., I leave +the subject with scarcely a doubt that the composition of _To Mary in +Heaven_ took place on Tuesday the 20th of October, and that this was +consequently the date of the death of the heroine.' + +This, no doubt, seems a great muster of evidence about so small a +matter; but to judge of the rationality of its being entered upon, the +reader must keep in mind the relation of the incident to others. If it +only proved that the comic drinking-song _The Whistle_, and _To Mary +in Heaven_, were written within three days of each other, it might be +not altogether labour lost, for it would establish an exceedingly +curious literary anecdote. But the bearing it has on the whole affair +of Highland Mary--one of the most deeply interesting passages of +Burns's life--is such as, in our opinion, to make every other +justification superfluous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] _Life and Works of Burns._ Edited by Robert Chambers. 4 vols. +Edinburgh: 1852. + + + + +VISIT TO THE COPPER-WORKS OF SWANSEA. + + +Our first glimpse of the copper-works was obtained in the 'gloaming' +of a lovely night in August last year, as we rattled over the Landore +viaduct of the South Wales Railway. On each side of us, we could +behold, given out by the chimneys, innumerable flashes of lurid flame, +which rose like meteors into the atmosphere, and scattered around a +brilliant light, that was seen in the distance to blend with the +waters of Swansea Bay. The scene was very beautiful, and singularly +picturesque: we could have wished our enjoyment of it prolonged; but +soon the shrill whistle, the escape-valve, and the lamps of the +station, admonished us that our journey had come to an end. + +Our principal object in visiting Swansea, was to obtain some +information concerning the important business of copper-smelting, for +which this port has now become so celebrated. Few of our readers, who +have not enjoyed our opportunities of seeing them, can form any +accurate conception of the vast extent and great economical value and +importance of the Swansea copper-works. Indeed, the copper trade is +far from being popularly known; and the reason is obvious. Iron, which +is very widely distributed in the British islands, is invariably +smelted wherever it occurs. Copper, on the contrary, is only mined in +one or two localities; and it is never manufactured on the spot. This +process is performed almost exclusively at Swansea; and hence the +copper trade of the country is confined to a few individual houses, +and these are in a locality alike remote and unfrequented by the +everyday tourist. + +At the period when the first copper-work was established on the banks +of the Tawy, about a century ago, Swansea was comparatively an +insignificant village. It is therefore to this branch of industry the +town and port are chiefly indebted for their remarkable rise and +progress. The population in 1801 was only about 6000; while in 1851, +if we include the copper-smelting district, it had already reached the +number of 40,000. The original cause of Swansea being selected as the +great seat of the copper trade, we may very briefly explain. It was +early discovered that, from the non-existence of coal in the mining +districts of Cornwall and Devonshire, copper, although raised in vast +abundance, could not be profitably smelted there. In fact, it was not +until a considerable time after copper-mining was properly pursued in +Cornwall, that the minerals could be turned to a profitable account. +It became apparent at length, however, both from the large quantity of +coal necessary for the reduction of copper-ores, and the great expense +of the transport, that instead of carrying coal to Cornwall to smelt +the ores--the greater quantity to the less--an opposite course must be +pursued, and the ores carried to the coal districts, and there +smelted. + +Now South Wales, poor in copper, is exceedingly rich in coal. Vast +beds of the finest bituminous and anthracite coal exist in rich +profusion in its inexhaustible coal-fields. From its geographical +position and excellent harbour, Swansea was at once selected as the +best port on the Welsh coast in which to establish the copper-works; +and accordingly, the Swansea valley was soon planted with chimneys, +furnaces, roasters, refiners, and, in short, all the necessary and +costly enginery which belongs to the vast and intricate processes of +smelting copper. With such propriety has the selection of a locality +been made, that even now, out of the twenty copper-smelting works of +which the country can boast, seventeen are situated on the navigable +rivers of Swansea and its neighbourhood. + +But this was not the only advantage the Cornish miners derived from +this judicious step. The ships employed to transport the ore to South +Wales came back laden with coal to feed their enormous engines; and +thus a system of traffic, mutually advantageous, was originated, and +has continued to exist without interruption down to the present time, +and will continue to exist so long as copper is mined in Cornwall and +smelted at Swansea.[3] + +Within the last twenty years, the importation of foreign ores has +become a remarkable feature in the trade and commerce of this place. +Not only is Swansea the seat of the copper trade of this country, but +it may with equal propriety be styled the copper mart of the world. +Large and valuable cargoes of ore are continually arriving at the +Swansea Docks from every country in the world where copper-mining is +pursued. In 1814, there were only four vessels which traded with +foreign ports; in 1849, this number had increased to 771; the greater +proportion of them being directly engaged in the copper trade. + +The Cornish ores are sold, as we have seen, in the locality in which +they are produced; but all these foreign ores, from whatever quarter +they may come, are disposed of to the smelters in Swansea by public +ticketing. This ticketing is a curious and characteristic feature of +the trade. The cargoes are usually consigned to a particular class of +brokers, indigenous to Swansea, and known as 'copper-ore agents.' The +ore is by them deposited in large yards, where it is crushed to a +certain fineness, for the purpose of obtaining a proper admixture of +the 'heap.' Notice is then given to the different smelting-houses, who +procure samples of the lot, and assay it. Meetings are held once a +fortnight at the Mackworth Arms Hotel; and on these days the agents +for the ore and those for the smelter take their seats around a table. +A chairman is appointed, who announces the different lots for sale. +Having previously made up their minds what to offer--for there is +nothing like a saleroom competition--the smelters hand up a folded +slip to the chairman, who announces the highest offer and the +purchaser's name. With such expedition does this proceed, that +different cargoes of copper-ore, to the value perhaps of L.50,000, +will often be quietly disposed of in a single hour! + +It is very remarkable how closely each offer approximates to the +intrinsic value of the ore. A lot of Chili or Australian ore, +containing a large quantity of metal, may bring L.50 per ton, while at +the same time a poor ore may be sold for a tenth part of the money. +But however variable the offers may be in this respect, they never +vary much in regard to a single lot. Out of the return of the twenty +assayers of the different smelters, probably not a half per cent. of +difference will be found in their estimates of the produce. The +smelters having thus become possessed of the ore, it is transferred to +their own yards, sometimes by means of lighters on the river, but more +frequently by the canal which communicates with Swansea and the +smelting-works. + +Leaving the town, and pursuing our way northwards for two miles +towards Neath, we reach the copper-works. The scene is widely +different in open day from that which was presented at night. There is +no beauty now, and little of the picturesque. The first impression, +indeed, the mind is apt to receive, is that of a sense of painful +weariness. Hundreds of chimneys--we speak literally--are vomiting +forth that white, peculiar-looking, and unmistakable vapour called +copper-smoke. Enormous masses of that ugly, black, silicious refuse, +known in the smelting vocabulary as 'slag,' is piled above and around +in such quantity as to change even the physical appearance of the +country. + +But this is not all. The noxious gases--which we see and feel around +us--evolved in the reduction of copper, have not played so long on the +surrounding atmosphere without doing their work. Everywhere within +their influence, the perennial vegetation is meagre and stinted. The +hills, particularly to the southeast of the copper-works, are barren +in the extreme. Not one spark of green, not one solitary lichen, can +withstand the ravages of the poison. Time was, we were told by an old +inhabitant, when these hills produced the earliest and finest corn in +the principality; but now they only resemble enormous piles of sandy +gravel, unbroken but by the rugged angles on the face of the rock. In +the year 1822, the inhabitants of Swansea took legal steps to abate +the nuisance. A reward of L.1000 was likewise offered for the +discovery of a successful means of neutralising the effect of the +vapour. The Messrs Vivian of the Hafod Works spent the princely sum of +L.14,000 in experiments, some of which were partially successful, and +are still adopted; but after all, it must be confessed that the fumes +of sulphurous acid, and of numerous other acids alike poisonous in +their character, still taint the atmosphere of the Swansea valley, and +still leave the indelible traces of their blasting properties. + +The Hafod Works are the largest in South Wales. Situated on the north +side of the river, they cover a superficial extent of about twenty +acres. The number of furnaces, chimneys, and other brick erections +contained in the works, was far beyond our computation; and we can +speak feelingly of the devious ways and labyrinth of bypaths with +which they are intersected, since, on more than one occasion, we +became bewildered in their mazes. + +Here was a group of workmen, half-naked, pouring out of a furnace the +liquid copper at a white heat; there was another group with a red-hot +copper-plate of colossal weight and dimensions, which they crushed +like cheese between the huge rollers of the copper-mill: on one hand, +there was an old furnace, that had done good duty in times past, in +the process of being dismantled; on the other, was one about being +rebuilt; and again there was still another, that had, from long +service, become so impregnated with copper, that it was actually being +built over by a larger one, to be melted in its turn! + +We shall avail ourselves of the valuable services of Mr Morgan, the +manager for Messrs Vivian, in our walks round the works, although it +is not our intention to give a technical description of +copper-smelting.[4] Such a course would be alike uninteresting to the +reader and unsatisfactory to ourselves. A consecutive description, +however brief, of what we saw, would, in like manner, carry us far +beyond our limits; and we therefore purposely confine ourselves to +whatever is popularly interesting and instructive in the process. + +First in order, then, we proceed to the ore-yard, which presents a +very motley appearance. Under its capacious roof there were tons upon +tons of every variety of ore--native and foreign, blue and red, green +and yellow, and all intermediate colours--indiscriminately piled +around. There was the beautiful green malachite from Australia, the +gray sulphuret from Algiers, the phosphate from Chili, and the +hydrous-carbonate from Spain. There was the glistening yellow +sulphuret from Cuba, the silicate from Brazil, the bright-blue +carbonate from the sunny regions of the south, and the dark-brown +oxide from the colder regions of the north. There was regulus from New +Zealand, and the good old pyrites from the Cornish mines; some +compounds with arsenic, antimony, and numerous other substances; and +last, though in one sense not least, there was a solitary specimen of +ore from Ireland. + +These ores were all in the form of a coarse powder. The regulus we +have mentioned is simply the sulphuret deprived, by a preliminary +operation, of its extraneous earthy matters; and this is frequently +effected in the localities where it is produced, such as New Zealand +and Chili, the expense of transport from these places being very +considerable. + +'And what is this?' we inquired, looking at a black earthy substance +the workmen at that moment were discharging from a vessel. + +'Ah!' said our friend, 'that is a commodity which, I suspect, you know +something about. It is a waste product from certain foundries and +chemical works--from Scotland in this case--and it contains a small +per cent. of copper. We don't care much about it; we seldom have it; +but it is sold at the ticketings regularly. For want of a better name, +we term it _slag_; but it is not slag, properly so called, which you +see all around you. A better denomination is that employed in +designating it in the Journal--namely, _rubbish_.'[5] + +'You make no kind of distinction in the ore-yard,' we continued. 'Is +that unnecessary?' + +'Well, practically it is. As these heaps lie, you can perceive that a +vertical slice from top to bottom will give us a tolerably even +admixture of the different ores. This is always desirable to a certain +extent, since the ores being of different constitution, the one +materially assists in the reduction of the other. Thus an ore +containing a large proportion of fluor-spar may with great advantage +be employed to flux another containing felspar or quartz, which +substances are almost infusible alone. Indeed, the judicious admixture +of ores constitutes the most important vocation of the smelter; and it +is to this that the copper-houses of Swansea are indebted for one of +their advantages over the proprietors of mines, who, possessing only +one kind of ore--rich, probably, but intractable--can never bring it +into the state of a metal with any satisfactory profit.' + +'What is the value of these ores?' + +'That varies much. This gray sulphuret contains about 70 per cent. of +copper, and is worth L.35 per ton. This yellow sulphuret, from being +mixed with a large quantity of iron and silicious earth, contains only +about 12 or 14 per cent. Some malachites contain so much as 50 per +cent., and others less pure, 30 to 40 per cent. of copper. But the +greater mass of the ores we melt have a far less produce than this. +That Cornish ore you see there, for example, contains only 4-1/2 per +cent. of metal. The average produce, however, of all the British and +foreign ores smelted at Swansea may be given at about 12 per cent. +Previous to the great increase of foreign importation, it was much +lower.' + +We now come to the process of smelting. The theory of reducing +metallic ores, of whatever constitution, is to bring them to the state +of oxides; and then, by the addition of charcoal, and with the aid of +heat, to expel the oxygen in the form of carbonic acid; after which +the pure metal is left. In practice, the reduction of copper-ores is +slightly different. Here the object is to separate, first, the earthy +matters and extraneous metals, by forming them into oxides by +calcination: these are subsequently obtained as waste products in the +form of slag; while the copper is left in combination with sulphur, +which is then dispelled at one operation. According to Mr Vivian, +copper undergoes eight, and sometimes nine, distinct operations in its +progress from the ore to the ingot; and these consist of alternate +calcinations and fusions, extending over a period of from 100 to 120 +hours. As, however, some of these are simple repetitions, we may, for +convenience' sake, illustrate the process under its three most +important steps. + +1. _Calcination of the Ore._--Having arranged a proper mixture of ores +in the yard, it is weighed out in boxes to the calcining-men. This is +drawn up an inclined plane over the tops of the furnaces, and from +thence emptied through hoppers, 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 tons at a time, into +the large calcining furnace. Here it is roasted for a period ranging +from twelve to twenty-four hours, after which it is drawn into the +ash-pit, where it remains to cool. In this state, the ore is a black, +amorphous substance, and is termed _calcined ore_. The object of this +process is to oxidise the extraneous metals, and also to reduce the +quantity of sulphur, by driving it off in the form of vapour. It is, +therefore, in this and the analogous processes of roasting, that the +sulphurous and arsenous vapours are so profusely given off. + +We stood upon one occasion beside a furnace, when the charge was in +the act of being withdrawn; but we took especial care never to do the +like again. The sensation resembled what one might expect to feel on +holding a lighted lucifer-match under each nostril. It is surprising +how the workmen stand it. For the greater part of their lives, these +poor Welshmen exist habitually in an atmosphere so charged with the +above-mentioned abominable gases, that it is difficult to understand +from whence their lungs receive the necessary supply of pure +oxygen.[6] Sulphurous acid, we may add, is the predominant smell in a +copper-work; but arsenic acid, hydrofluoric acid, and even +arseniuretted hydrogen, are not at all unfrequent. + +2. _Melting the Calcined Ore._--This is a totally different operation +from the last: in place of roasting, it is one of fusion. The calcined +ore is put into the furnace much in the same manner as before; a +quantity of the slag from a subsequent process is added to assist in +the fusion, and the heat is increased till the whole mass becomes +liquid. The object is to separate the earthy matter, which, from being +specifically lighter, rises to the surface of the liquid mass in the +form of slag, and is drawn off. After two or three charges, the +furnace becomes quite filled, and an aperture is then opened in it, +through which the red-hot liquid flows into an adjoining pit filled +with water. It is by this means granulated, and is now termed 'coarse +metal,' or 'regulus;' and is, in fact, an admixture of the sulphurets +of iron and copper, containing about 30 per cent. of the latter. + +But it is to the earthy impurities here given off that we especially +wish to direct attention. This slag, as it is termed, when drawn from +the furnace, is run into oblong sand-moulds, from which, when cold, it +is taken outside to the 'slag-bank,' as it is called--'slag-mountain,' +we prefer saying; and an ugly mountain it is!--where it is broken into +small pieces, examined to see whether it still contains metal, and if +not, is left to accumulate. It consists essentially of silicon, +oxygen, iron; or, to speak more correctly, it is a silicate of the +protoxide of iron. It is, in fact, a true _igneous rock_. Portions of +quartz and silica still remaining unfused, are often contained in the +masses, which give to them, when broken, a true porphyritic +appearance, while, from the great preponderance of the protoxide of +iron, it is invariably black. + +So hard, solid, and indurated do these slags, in process of time, +become, that a very tall chimney, the most conspicuous object in the +works, is built on the top of a slag-bank. And this beautiful +commodity is not without its use in the arts. Part of it is +occasionally cast into iron moulds, shaped like old Gothic arches, +only uglier; and the casts are applied in great quantity as +coping-stones to the walls and fences in the regions of the +copper-works. Although not a very tasteful, it is yet a very useful, +and, at the same time, a very characteristic application. We may add +here, that the aggregate produce of the substance of the different +Swansea works may be estimated at about 260,000 tons a year. Our +readers may judge for themselves of the ultimate change this is +calculated to bring about in the Carboniferous System, and of the +learned controversies that are likely to arise among future geologists +with respect to the character and constitution of these carefully +disintegrated rocks! + +To return to the smelting process. The last product--the regulus--is +again calcined, with the view of bringing the iron to the state of an +oxide. It is again melted, slagged, and run into pigs. In this last +operation, the whole iron is driven out in the slag, and the +remainder--'white metal,' as it is called--is almost a pure sulphuret +of copper. The sulphur, having all along preserved its combination +with the copper--a fine illustration of the theory of chemical +attraction--must now at length be expelled. This is effected by the +last process of roasting. When in a state of fusion in the furnace, +the charge is exposed to a stream of air, in which case a double +action ensues. Part of the oxygen enters into combination with the +sulphur, producing sulphurous acid, which is expelled in the form of +vapour, and part of it combines with the copper remaining in the +furnace; this is again run out into the form of pigs, and in this +state it is termed 'blistered copper.' To produce the finer kind of +copper, another process has yet to be gone through; but for ordinary +_tough copper_, it is at once transferred to what we may describe as +the last stage, and that is-- + +3. _Refining._--We quote Mr Vivian:--'The pigs from the roasters are +filled into the furnace through a large door in the side: the heat is +at first moderate, so as to complete the roasting or oxidising +process; after the charge is run down, and there is a good heat on the +furnace, the front door is taken down, and the slags skimmed off. An +assay is then taken out by the refiner with a small ladle, and broken +in the vice; and from the general appearance of the metal in and out +of the furnace, the state of the fire, &c., he judges whether the +toughening process may be proceeded with, and can form some opinion as +to the quantity of _poles_ and charcoal that will be required to +render it malleable, or, as it is termed, to bring it to the _proper +pitch_. The copper in this state is what is termed _dry_: it is +brittle, of a deep-red colour, inclining to purple, an open grain, and +crystalline structure. In the process of toughening, the surface of +the metal in the furnace is first well covered with charcoal; a pole, +commonly of birch, is then held into the liquid metal, which causes +considerable ebullition, owing to the evolution of gaseous matter; and +this operation of _poling_ is continued, until, from the assays which +the refiner from time to time takes, he perceives that the grain, +which gradually becomes finer, is perfectly closed.' After some +further manipulation of a similar kind, the refiner is at length +satisfied of its malleability, and that the copper is now in its +_proper place_, as he terms it. It is then poured out by means of iron +ladles, coated with clay, into ingots or moulds of the different sizes +required by the manufacturer. + +'This process of refining or toughening copper, is a delicate +operation, requiring great care and attention on the part of the +refiner to keep the metal in the malleable state.' It is also, beyond +comparison, the most beautiful sight in the copper-works. At one +particular stage of the process, we saw the mass of molten copper in +the furnace--some five or six tons--assume the most beautiful and +resplendent appearance it was possible to imagine. It was like a sea +of 'burnished gold;' and, indeed, were it not for the intense heat, +the red-hot ladles of the workmen, and other little circumstances of +the kind, the stranger would have some difficulty in believing that he +did not look upon a beautifully polished mirror. + +We have now come to the end of the smelting process; and have left +ourselves no room to describe the transformation into sheets, bars, +bolts, and boilerplates which the metal undergoes in the next +department of the works. These, however, are a better understood +series of operations, consisting, as they do, of the usual and +ordinary processes of rolling the hot metal between powerful iron +rollers. Nor have we space to allude even to the vastly numerous and +varied applications of the metal; although we may take the opportunity +of briefly adverting to the recently discovered process of smelting +copper by electricity, and of inquiring into the probability of its +ever becoming an economical application. + +It will be seen, in the first place, that the present mode of smelting +copper, though simple in theory, appears in practice extremely +complex. For this reason, within the last twenty-five years there +have, we believe, been as many patents taken out to simplify and +hasten the operation. Without exception, these have been proved to be +altogether inapplicable. Let us see how this is explained. + +Out of these numerous improvements, we select two that appear +peculiarly attractive. The first is the method of precipitating the +copper, in our second process, from the fused silicates containing it, +by the action of the electric current--the negative pole of the +battery terminating in an iron plate, which replaces the copper in the +liquid mass. The second method is an improvement on this. From some +experiments made at the School of Mines in Paris, it was shewn that +metallic iron alone, without the aid of the battery, was capable of +precipitating copper from the silicates in a state of fusion, just as +it does in saline solutions at ordinary temperatures. But in applying +this last method to practice--for the electricity was obviously +rendered unnecessary by the discovery--it was found that the +expenditure of iron was so great, that it could not be profitably +applied except as a means of assisting the reduction. + +'Still,' said Mr Morgan, when commenting on these methods, 'this, in +point of fact, is precisely what we do. We add, as you have seen, a +great proportion of slag to the melting of the calcined ore, which +consists chiefly of the oxide of iron; while at the same time we +derive the additional advantage of employing an excellent flux--an +advantage which metallic iron does not possess. But, irrespective of +these considerations, the plain fact of the matter is, that _it will +not pay_ to smelt copper expeditiously. We don't wish to do so. It is +quite a matter of choice with us those continued operations; and their +great advantage lies in this, that we are enabled to extract every +particle of copper from the ore. By any of these other methods--very +philosophical they are, I admit--we could not accomplish this. The +slags would all contain more or less metal; and when I inform you, +that we can afford to remelt those slags if they contain only a half +per cent. of copper, you will perhaps understand our reasons for still +adhering to our venerable system.' + +Thus we discovered that the smelting of copper by electricity, and of +reducing it with metallic iron, would not pay. + +Our statistics are short, but they are heavy: about 300,000 tons of +copper-ore are annually smelted at Swansea; 28,000 tons of copper are +annually produced; and 600,000 tons of coal are annually burned. The +value of the ore is about L.2,000,000; of the copper, L.2,600,000; of +the coal, we have no correct means of ascertaining. Of the population +of Swansea, about one-fourth are dependent on the smelting-works; and +of these, about 3500 are directly engaged in the business. The +probable amount of wages paid by the smelters is about L.135,000; and +the current expenditure of the copper-works in the aggregate exceeds +L.500,000 a year. + +The last thing we did was to visit the Hafod Schools. These excellent +schools--one for boys, one for girls, and one for infants--were +erected about six years ago, and are still maintained at the expense +of the Messrs Vivian. At the time of our visit, there were 600 of the +rising population of the place doing their utmost to unlearn the Welsh +idiom, and to acquire the art of speaking and writing the English +language with propriety. We regret that we cannot dwell on this the +most gratifying circumstance of our visit. Messrs Vivian & Sons are +unquestionably great copper-smelters, but, in our humble opinion, the +greatest action they ever did, and what must ever commend them to all +good minds, was the establishment of these schools. + +To us it was a change, a relief inexpressibly delightful, to emerge +from the Stygian regions of the copper-works, where for the last five +or six days we had wandered like an 'unshriven spirit,' and to find +ourselves in contemplation of the happy faces of the scholars, and to +hear the hopeful, encouraging tones of their intelligent teachers. The +popular song of _Children go, to and fro_, was being sung in the +infant school at the moment we took our leave, and we shall never +forget the impression. It struck upon our senses, to use an +appropriate metaphor, like the crystal stream of the desert--like the +shadow of a great rock in a weary land. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3] See for some interesting information on the system of Cornish +Mining, an article in No. 42 of the present series. + +[4] On this point, we refer all who are desirous of pursuing the +subject, to a valuable memoir in the _Annals of Philosophy_, by John +Henry Vivian, Esq., F.R.S., the proprietor of the Hafod Works. This +paper, we may add, is the standard authority on the subject; and is, +with some modification, copied by Drs Ure and Lardner, and by most +popular works upon metallurgy. + +[5] The production of this curious substance is explained in an +article on the 'Value of Rubbish,' No. 385. + +[6] Notwithstanding this, we were assured by a gentleman connected +with the copper-works, that there is no specific disease arising from +copper-smelting, as in the case of lead. Asthma, rheumatism, and +colds, are the prevailing affections among the men; and even these are +in a great measure due to their own carelessness. + + + + +THE KING OF YVETOT. + + +There are few of our countrymen who have travelled in France but must +frequently have heard proverbial allusion made to a certain monarch of +Yvetot; and still fewer must be those who, having the slightest +knowledge of French literature, are unacquainted with Beranger's happy +lyric-- + + There reigned a monarch in Yvetot + But little known in story, + Who, stranger all to grief and wo, + Slept soundly without glory; + His night-cap tied by Jenny's care + (The only crown this king would wear), + He'd snooze! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + His jolly court he held each day, + 'Neath humble roof of rushes green; + And on a donkey riding gay, + Through all his kingdom might be seen: + A happy soul, and thinking well, + His only guard was--sooth to tell-- + His dog! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + No harsh exacting lord was he, + To grasp more than his folks could give; + But, mild howe'er a king may be, + His majesty, you know, must live; + And no man e'er a bumper filled, + Until the jovial prince had swilled + His share! + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + + He ne'er sought to enlarge his states, + But was a neighbour just and kind; + A pattern to all potentates, + Would they his bright example mind. + The only tears he e'er caused fall, + Fell when he died--which you'll not call + His fault. + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + The merry monarch of Yvetot. + +It is well known that Beranger's song, from which we have extracted +the preceding four verses, as translated by Anderson, was a friendly, +though rather satirical remonstrance with Napoleon--of course we mean +_the_ Napoleon--touching his ambitious and bellicose policy. But it is +not so well known, that there really was a kingdom of Yvetot, and that +its several dynasties reigned peacefully for upwards of eleven +centuries. Anderson, in a note to the song, says: 'Yvetot, a district +in the north of France, possesses a monarch of its own, a sort of +burlesque personage, whose royal charger is a donkey; his guard, a +dog; his crown, a night-cap; and his revenue, a gratuitous draught of +_wine_ at the _ale_ houses of his liege subjects!' Young, another +translator of Beranger, not any better informed, tells us that 'the +Lords of Yvetot claimed and exercised, in the olden time, some such +fantastical privileges as are here alluded to.' + +The translators have some excuse for their ignorance regarding the +king of Yvetot; for few Frenchmen of the present day, with the +exception of antiquaries, consider him to have been anything else than +a popular myth. Be it our task, then, to jot down some authentic +notices of that ancient, and now extinct monarchy. + +Yvetot, a town and commune of ancient Normandy (Pays de Caux), in the +department of Seine-Inferieure, now traversed by the railway leading +from Havre de Grace to Rouen, was, in the sixth century, the seigniory +of one Vauthier, chamberlain to Clotaire I., the royal son of Clovis +and Clotilda. Nothing whatever is known of the earlier part of +Vauthier's history, more than that he held the fief of Yvetot from +Clotaire by the feudal tenure of military service. An able and +trustworthy statesman in the council-chamber, a valiant and skilful +commander in the battle-field, the chamberlain lived on terms of the +most intimate familiarity with his king, who ever lent a ready ear to +his sage suggestions. This high honour, however, being not at all +agreeable to the other followers of the court, they entered into a +conspiracy to ruin the favourite chamberlain. Taking advantage of his +absence, they perfidiously vilified him to the king. The chroniclers +do not state what were the exact charges brought against him, but they +must have been weighty and artfully insinuated, for the rude and +truculent Clotaire swore that he would, with his own hand, slay the +Sieur of Yvetot, when and wherever he should chance to meet with him. +The reader must not be surprised at such a vow: in those days, +sovereigns frequently indulged in a plurality of offices, and could +upon occasion perform the duty of the executioner as well as that of +the judge. Vauthier happened to have a friend at court, who sent him +timely warning of this state of affairs; and not thinking it by any +means prudent to expose himself to the lethal fury of a king who had +unscrupulously killed his own nephews, he left the country, and joined +the army of the north, then fighting against the Thuringian pagans, +the enemies of Clotaire and his religion, such as it was. + +After ten years of arduous service and heroic exploits, Vauthier, +crowned with glory, and hoping that time had mollified the malignant +feelings of the king, turned his face once more towards his native +country. But at that period bad passions were not so easily effaced; +besides, the accusers of Vauthier were now doubly interested in +keeping him at a distance. The Lord of Yvetot, hearing how matters +stood, to make sure of a favourable reception, proceeded, in the first +instance, to Rome, where he made a friend of Pope Agapet, who sent him +with letters to Clotaire, in the capacity of an envoy. Under the +shield of so sacred a function, Vauthier had no hesitation in +repairing to Soissons, and presenting himself before the king; yet, to +be still more secure, he chose for that occasion the solemnities of +Good Friday--the anniversary of the great day of Christian mercy. +Clotaire was at the high altar of the cathedral, celebrating the +holiest rites of the church before a crucifix veiled in mourning, when +Vauthier made his presence known. Throwing himself on his knees in +humble supplication, he presented the letters of the sovereign +pontiff, and implored pardon, if he had been guilty, by the merits of +Him who, on the same day, had so freely shed his blood for the +salvation of all mankind. The ferocious and implacable king recognised +the suppliant, and, without regard to the sanctity of either the place +or the day, drew his sword, and, with one blow, struck the unfortunate +chamberlain dead on the stone pavement, at the very steps of the +altar. + +Violent passions have, generally speaking, rapid revulsions. Scarcely +was Vauthier's body cold, when the king repented his hasty deed. The +clergy read to him the letters from Pope Agapet, which attested the +innocence of his former favourite; and they represented to him, that +he had committed the grossest description of sacrilege, the sin from +which the sovereign pontiff alone could absolve. In a short time the +barbarous Clotaire passed from a state of rabid fury to one of the +most abject despair, so that he required little persuasion from the +clergy ere he sent a messenger to Rome, bearing rich presents, to beg +for absolution from the pope. The messenger arrived at Rome just as +Agapet was at the point of death; yet the business being urgent, and +the presents valuable, he was ushered into the sick-chamber of the +dying head of the Christian church. Supported by attendants, the pope +proceeded to pronounce, in a feeble voice, the penitential discipline +of Clotaire. He said that the king could not expect pardon unless he +gave the highest possible satisfaction to the heirs of the murdered +man: but here a fit of coughing attacked and carried off his holiness, +so that whatever penance he intended to inflict was never known. +Clotaire, however, determined to expiate his crime, long pondered upon +the meaning of the pope's dying words, and at last concluded that, as +there was nothing higher than a king, the words 'highest satisfaction' +meant that he should raise the heir of Vauthier to the royal dignity. +Accordingly, he by charter erected the seigniory of Yvetot into a +kingdom--an act in perfect consonance with the ancient French feudal +law, which enfranchised the family of the vassal from all homage and +duty, if his lord laid violent hands upon him. + +From that time until the latter part of the eighteenth century, the +descendants of Vauthier reigned as independent sovereigns of their +little kingdom of Yvetot, owing neither tribute, service, nor +allegiance to any other power. Consequently, until the great +Revolution, which, like the bursting of a pent-up deluge, changed the +features of the whole country, the inhabitants of Yvetot paid no taxes +to the government of France. + +Historians and jurisconsults have written many grave and learned +dissertations on the curious position of this little kingdom shut up +in a greater one; and, though they differ in some trifling respects, +they all coincide in concluding, that the king of Yvetot, being +independent of any other potentate, was never obliged to engage in +quarrels which did not concern him, and accordingly lived in peace +with his neighbours, whom he never pretended to frighten. Moreover, in +spite of courtiers and counsellors, statecraft and politics were +unknown in Yvetot; thus the king remained neuter during the various +wars that raged around him, though he could bring an army of one +hundred and twenty royal troops into the field. The seriousness of +these disquisitions has been occasionally enlivened by a spice of +pleasantry. We are told how the king of Yvetot kept his own seals, and +was his own minister of finance; that his court consisted of a +bishop, a dean, and four canons, not one of whom ranked higher in the +church than a parish cure; four notaries, dignified by the title of +judges, representing the states of the kingdom, formed the senate, and +composed his majesty's privy-council; four of the best-looking of the +tenants' daughters were ladies of the bed-chamber and maids of honour +to the queen; four stalwart body-guards attended on all occasions of +ceremony--at other times, they worked as agricultural labourers on the +royal farm; a footman performed the duty of chamberlain, and, when +necessary, that of herald; a groom was master of the horse; a gardener +superintended the woods and forests. This, however, is only a +traditionary account of the court of Yvetot; and, lest the reader +should think it all a joke, we shall specify some of the documentary +evidence still extant respecting that little kingdom. + +A decree of the Court of Exchequer of Normandy, executed in the year +1392, mentions the king of Yvetot; and various letters-patent, granted +by monarchs of France in 1401, 1450, and 1464, acknowledge and confirm +the title. In the early part of the fifteenth century, when Normandy +was under English rule, one John Holland, an Englishman, claimed, in +the name of his master Henry VI., certain taxes and feudal duties from +the kingdom of Yvetot. Strange to say, in those semi-barbarous days, +the case was tried in a court of law, and the issue given against +Holland, the court fully recognising the Lord of Yvetot as an +independent king. A letter of Francis I., addressed to the queen of +Yvetot, is still in existence. In one of the many episodes of the wars +of the League, it happened that Henry IV., compelled to retreat, found +himself in Yvetot, and determined not to recede further, he cheered +his troops by jocularly saying: 'If we lose France, we must take +possession of this fair kingdom of Yvetot.' At the coronation of his +second wife, Mary de Medici, the same monarch rebuked the grand +chamberlain for not assigning to Martin du Belley, then king of +Yvetot, a position suitable to his regal dignity. The Belley dynasty +reigned in Yvetot for 332 years. The last king of that petty kingdom +was D'Albon St Marcel, who, when at the court of Louis XVI., modestly +assumed no higher rank than that of a prince. The Revolution, as we +have already intimated, swept away the ancient crown, and the King of +Yvetot is now nothing more than the title of a song, with its burden-- + + Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho! + + + + +RELATIONSHIPS. + +MASTER AND SERVANT. + + +The relationship of a master and servant--or, to use the modern +phrase, employer and employed--is properly constituted by the +agreement of one individual to perform certain duties to another; that +is, instead of being guided solely by his own will, to submit himself +to perform in certain matters the will of another. + +The extent of duty which is embraced in the contract may vary very +much. It may be only for the performance of one single act, or it may +be for almost the whole range of daily avocations and duties. There is +often a vagueness about the limit of duties, and we often find the +master inclined to exact more than the servant is inclined to give. +There are very good reasons why masters should not consider themselves +as having a right to a full command and power over their servants in +all things; nay, that in things not within the contract, they should +be inclined to admit a certain equality in the two parties. Masters +are too apt to regard themselves as the lords of their servants in all +respects and at all times. They exercise an authority and assume a +superiority in matters beyond the contract. + +On their side, servants often grudgingly perform the duties they have +undertaken. These two causes of discontent produce the worst results. + +The practical remedy seems to be, that masters ought more generally to +recognise and act on the principle, that the lordship they bargain for +is not of the whole man, but only in certain respects and duties; and +that it is only as regards those duties they can expect their servant +to surrender his will to the guidance of his master's: while it should +be equally impressed on the servant, that in those respects in which +he has agreed to submit to and execute the will of his master, that +submission and surrender of his will should be absolute, and without +the least reserve or limitation. Perfect obedience is a beautiful +fulfilment of duty, and defensible on the grounds of common-sense; for +as no one can serve two masters--that is, in the performance of any +particular duty--so no man can both obey his own inclination and +submit himself to his master's will in the performance of the same +act. + +On moral grounds, it is improper that any one should attempt to +execute in all things the will, of any earthly master; for there is a +power, and, in most cases, several powers, superior to both master and +servant, to whom both owe duties; and therefore the servant cannot +legally, nor without failure in his higher duties, enter into any +contract which may hinder the performance of those duties. In matters +of the law, it is held that such a contract is not binding; and thus, +in the case of a moral law being contravened by a contract, a door of +escape is open to those who have entered into such contract, it being +in opposition to the will of a higher authority. + +When a servant, therefore, is in duty bound to execute the will of his +master, his obedience should be perfect. All hesitation or murmuring +is a violation of his contract--a breaking of his promise and +agreement. + +But the master and servant should equally learn, that in other +respects, and at other times, the parties are not necessarily in the +state of superior and inferior; but, unless from some other cause, are +to be regarded as on a footing of equality; and this is the true +interpretation of the doctrine of fraternity and equality, which has, +from not being properly understood, played such wild work among some +neighbouring nations. In this sense, however, it is safe and useful. + +Not only, however, may the individuals who sometimes and in some +respects are master and servant, be at other times and in other +respects regarded as on a level, but they may with propriety, and +often do, change places. The servant becomes of right the master. For +if he should employ that master as his physician or lawyer, no matter +what may be considered the respective ranks of the parties, the +physician or lawyer must, to perform his duty, become the servant, and +submit his will in the business he is employed in to that of his +employer. + +This way of regarding servitude is not a degrading one, but the +reverse. Nothing is so pleasant to a reasonable and truly noble mind +as to pay obedience to those to whom it is due; and if the +adaptability of the same individual to be both master and servant was +more practically carried out, our civilisation would work more +smoothly, and we should probably approach more to that desirable state +in which no one would have a stigma attached to him from his birth or +occupation, but only from the manner in which he performed his duty. + +It would help considerably towards a proper understanding of the +relationship between employers and employed, if the employed would, +for their own sake, maintain that degree of self-respect which would +induce others to respect them. On this point we would speak kindly, +yet frankly, and cannot do better than quote a passage from a small +treatise on Political Economy, just published.[7] 'The true +relationship between employers and employed is that subsisting +between a purchaser and a seller. The employer buys; the employed +sells; and the thing sold is labour. Attaining a clear conviction on +this point, the connection between the two parties is that of mutual +independence. Thrown much together, however, a spirit of courtesy and +good-fellowship ought to temper the intercourse, and it will be the +better for all parties if this spirit prevails. In some situations, +however, there is shewn a disposition on the part of workmen to ask +favours of employers--as, for example, seeking to absent themselves on +holidays without a corresponding reduction in the amount of wages. +This seems to be as wrong as it would be for the employer to ask his +workmen to labour certain days for nothing. The rights and obligations +are distinctly mutual. One has no right to encroach on the other; and, +indeed, there can be no encroachment, no favour asked, on either side, +without a certain loss of independence. This feeling of independence +should be carefully cultivated and preserved, along with those habits +of courtesy which soften the general intercourse of society.' + +We are happy to add, that, to all appearance, a great advance in all +these respects has been made within these few years--disagreements +respecting wages and other circumstances between employers and +employed, being conducted and finally adjusted in a spirit very +different from what used to be manifested a quarter of a century ago. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[7] _Political Economy_: Chambers's Educational Course. + + + + +THIRST IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. + + +The use of snow when persons are thirsty does not by any means allay +the insatiable desire for water; on the contrary, it appears to be +increased in proportion to the quantity used, and the frequency with +which it is put into the mouth. For example, a person walking along +feels intensely thirsty, and he looks to his feet with coveting eyes; +but his good sense and firm resolutions are not to be overcome so +easily, and he withdraws the open hand that was to grasp the delicious +morsel and convey it into his parching mouth. He has several miles of +a journey to accomplish, and his thirst is every moment increasing; he +is perspiring profusely, and feels quite hot and oppressed. At length +his good resolutions stagger, and he partakes of the smallest +particle, which produces a most exhilarating effect; in less then ten +minutes he tastes again and again, always increasing the quantity; and +in half an hour he has a gum-stick of condensed snow, which he +masticates with avidity, and replaces with assiduity the moment that +it has melted away. But his thirst is not allayed in the slightest +degree; he is as hot as ever, and still perspires; his mouth is in +flames, and he is driven to the necessity of quenching them with snow, +which adds fuel to the fire. The melting snow ceases to please the +palate, and it feels like red-hot coals, which, like a fire-eater, he +shifts about with his tongue, and swallows without the addition of +saliva. He is in despair; but habit has taken the place of his +reasoning faculties, and he moves on with languid steps, lamenting the +severe fate which forces him to persist in a practice which in an +unguarded moment he allowed to begin.... I believe the true cause of +such intense thirst is the extreme dryness of the air when the +temperature is low.--_Sutherland's Journal._ + + + + +AN AUSTRALIAN MISS. + + +The precocity of the Australian youth, to be properly understood and +believed, can only be fully appreciated by being an eye-witness to +some of these very extraordinary young creatures. I have seen a girl +of ten years of age possess all the manner of an old lady of sixty: +she would flirt with three men at a time, and have a ready answer for +them when teasing her; would move like an accomplished actress, +manipulate gracefully, play whist, chess, and other games, and talk +about getting married. This child, for such I must call her, was a +greater mental giant than O'Brien, with his moving mountain of flesh, +and far more entertaining than twenty Tom Thumbs.--_Shaw's Tramp to +the Diggings._ + + + + +THE DAY OF REST. + + + Rest, rest! it is the Day of Rest--there needs no book to tell + The truth that every thoughtful eye, each heart can read so well; + Rest, rest! it is the Sabbath morn, a quiet fills the air, + Whose whispered voice of peace repeats that rest is everywhere. + + O weary heart! O heart of wo! raise up thy toil-worn brow; + The fields, the trees, the very breeze--they all are resting now: + The air is still, there is no sound, save that unceasing hum, + That insect song of summer-time that from the woods doth come. + + And even that seems fainter now, like voices far away, + As though they only sang of rest, and laboured not to-day; + The hum of bees seems softer, too, from out the clear blue heaven, + As if the lowliest creatures knew this day for rest was given. + + The spacious tracts of meadow-land, of bean-fields, and of wheat, + And all the glebe, are undisturbed by sound of Labour's feet; + The cotter in his Sunday garb, with peace within his breast, + Roams idly by the garden-side, and feels himself at rest. + + The streams, the trees, the woods, the breeze, the bird, + and roving bee, + Seem all to breathe a softer sound, a holier melody; + Yon little church, too, tells of rest, to all the summer air, + For the bell long since has ceased to peal that called to praise + and prayer. + + But while I stand 'mid these tall elms, a sound comes creeping near, + That falls like music heard in dreams upon my charmed ear; + Like music heard in dreams of heaven, that sacred sound doth steal + From where the old church aisles repeat the organ's solemn peal. + + Now Heaven be praised! a gracious boon is this sweet rest to me-- + How many shall this truth repeat to-day on bended knee! + How many a weary heart it cheers, how many an aching breast: + Now Heaven be praised, a gracious boon is this sweet Day of Rest! + + PICTOR. + + TORQUAY. + + + + +'THE BIRKBECK MAGAZINE.' + + +Some numbers have been sent to us of a cheap London periodical with +this title. Its peculiarity is, that the promoters and contributors +are young men, members of the Mechanics' Institution, Southampton +Buildings, who intend throwing open their columns to unknown writers +connected in a similar way with the other Mutual Improvement +Societies. A considerable circulation might be secured by this plan; +and perhaps such a work may be as well calculated to elevate the +aspirations, and excite wholesome emulation, as the productions of +more practised pens. + + * * * * * + +Printed and Published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, High Street, Edinburgh. +Also sold by W. S. ORR, Amen Corner, London; D. N. CHAMBERS, 55 West +Nile Street, Glasgow; and J. M'GLASHAN, 50 Upper Sackville Street, +Dublin.--Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to +MAXWELL & CO., 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all +applications respecting their insertion must be made. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 458, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S EDINBURGH *** + +***** This file should be named 24084.txt or 24084.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/0/8/24084/ + +Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. 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