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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/24322-8.txt b/24322-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f643913 --- /dev/null +++ b/24322-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4263 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 664, +September 22,1888, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 664, September 22,1888 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 15, 2008 [EBook #24322] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Huub Bakker, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 664 + + + + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 22, 1888 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXVI., No. 664. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + PAGE +I. ARCHITECTURE.--The Commercial Exchange, Paris.--History + of the new building, with its general design and + architectural features.--2 illustrations 10607 + + The New Central Railway Station at + Frankfort-on-the-Main.--A full description of this + gigantic structure, with its constructive features and + cost.--2 illustrations 10605 + +II. ART OF WAR.--Gun Practice in the French Navy.--Gun + practice at sea against a moving target.--1 illustration 10599 + + Modern Cavalry on the Field of Battle.--By Col. R. S. + LIDDELL.--An exhaustive paper on this subject, treating + of a much discussed branch of military tactics 10600 + +III. BIOLOGY.--Subterraneous Flora and Fauna.--By Dr. Otto + Zacharias.--A popular article on the interesting subject + of animal and vegetable life underground.--8 + illustrations 10612 + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--Pepsin.--By A. PERCY SMITH, F.I.C., + F.C.S.--The analysis of pepsin, difficulties of the usual + method, and simple comparative test, applicable by any + one 10611 + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Timber and Some of Its Diseases.--By + H. MARSHALL WARD.--Continuation of this valuable series, + treating of fungus life and its destructive effects.--5 + illustrations 10613 + +VI. ELECTRICITY.--A Basis from which to Calculate Charges for + Electric Motor Service.--A practical paper treating of + the percentage of horse power hours used in different + industries 10608 + +VII. ETHNOLOGY.--A Chinese Imperial Cemetery.--The cemetery of + the emperors of the Ming dynasty.--The remarkable statues + and buildings.--2 illustrations 10610 + + How a Mound was Built.--An interesting contribution to + the history of the Ohio mounds by Mr. GERARD FOWKE 10609 + + Some Abyssinian Customs.--The hair dressing of the + Abyssinian women.--Their method of grinding pepper.--3 + illustrations 10609 + +VIII. MEDICINE AND SURGERY.--A New Surgical Operation.--Dr. + Brudenell Carter's operation for relieving pressure on + the optic nerve 10611 + + Dyspepsia, its causes and prevention.--How this malady is + caused and how easily it may be guarded against, an essay + in prophylaxis 10610 + +IX. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Coal Tar as Fuel for Steam + Boilers.--By JOHN McCRAE, of Dundee.--A review of the + economy of tar firing and of the method employed by the + writer.--1 illustration 10604 + + Steam Generator of Serpollet Brothers, producing steam + instantaneously.--A new inexplodible steam generator, its + construction and application to a tricycle.--3 + illustrations 10602 + + Transmission of Power between Bodies Moving at Different + Velocities.--A simple system of transmitting power + applicable in many places 10602 + +X. MISCELLANEOUS.--Note on Missouri Marble 10614 + + Water Blast Pump.--A filter pump of simplified and + improved construction.--3 illustrations 10602 + +XI. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Iron Sailing Ships.--Scotch sailing + ships, built of iron and steel, the favorite sizes and + rigging adopted.--1 illustration 10602 + +XII. SANITARY ENGINEERING.--Putzeys' Flushing Reservoir.--A + French invention, applicable in sewage disposal and pipe + flushing.--1 illustration 10611 + +XIII. TECHNOLOGY.--Gas Lighting by High Power Burners.--A + review of a number of regenerative and other gas burners + and their practical success 10603 + + Synchronizing Clocks.--A simple synchronizing mechanism + described and illustrated.--1 illustration 10604 + + Watch Cleaning and Repairing.--A long paper treating of + the details of watch cleaning from the practical + standpoint 10604 + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY.] + +GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY. + + +The gunners of the French fleet are possessed of a skill which is +recognized by all the maritime powers, and these picked men proved +this at the siege of Paris, where they made themselves illustrious, +not only by their courage and their coolness, but also by the accuracy +of their firing. + +Nothing is neglected, moreover, to keep up the precision of hand and +eye that distinguishes them, and which has become so much the more +necessary in that it is no longer a question of firing a broadside at +the enemy and reckoning on one ball being more fortunate than another +in damaging the enemy's ship. At present, the most powerful ironclad +has four, and sometimes six or eight, guns of large caliber, which are +of from 30 to 100 tons. Every shot represents not only an enormous +sum, but also a prodigious force expended, and so powder must not be +used too lavishly, since the shot should be in relation with the +colossal power that it represents, and the shell adopted in the navy +is accompanied with so disastrous effects that a single one, well +directed, is capable of reducing the enemy's ship to impotence. So +exercises in firing are becoming more and more frequent, and they have +a right to be multiplied, inasmuch as the present guns are complicated +affairs, the maneuvering of which requires constant practice. + +Our engraving represents one of these exercises performed by the +Squadron of the North, which is of recent organization, and which +consists of the three ironclads Marengo, Suffren, and Ocean, and three +coast guards Furieux, Fulminant, and Tonnerre. Each of the ironclads +is provided with four 27 cm. guns and four 24 cm. ones, not counting +the revolving guns, which constitute the small artillery reserved for +fighting torpedo boats. The Furieux has two 34 cm. guns, and the +Tonnerre and Fulminant each two 37 cm. ones. + +An endeavor is made, as far as possible, to practice firing such as is +done in a naval action, that is, at moving targets. To this effect, +the dispatch boat Epervier tows a rectangular float about two meters +in length, upon which are arranged two canvas balloons kept taut by a +wooden framework. One of these balloons is white and the other is +black. Each is a meter in diameter, and is supported by a rod which is +usually a meter in height. The vessels of the squadron successively +fire their large guns at this target, which moves at a definite +velocity. The shell, on dropping into the water, raises an immense +jet, which entirely hides the balloons when the projectile falls in a +line with and sufficiently near the target. + +The smoke that envelops the ships, the thunder that echoes in the calm +of the sea, and the jet that rises in the air produce a thrilling +effect and give an idea of the power of man carried to the last +expression.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MODERN CAVALRY ON THE FIELD OF BATTLE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A lecture lately delivered at the Aldershot Military + Society's library.] + +By Col. R. S. LIDDELL. + + +I feel that some apology is due from me for coming down to Aldershot +and giving my opinions before so many officers whose daily experience +renders them much more capable than I am of bringing this subject +forward, and it was with some hesitation that I yielded to the +flattering invitation of the Military Society of Aldershot to read a +paper here to-day on cavalry. At the same time, if it is thought that +anything I can say can increase the success that this society has +already met with, I can only add that I render my services most +willingly. It seems to me one of the many advantages that these +meetings possess is the bringing together of the different branches of +the service, and the mutual information they afford of each other's +arm. When we look back only a few years, we have much to be thankful +for in the disappearance of a vast amount of prejudice that used to +exist between the different branches. Each arm thought that theirs, +and theirs only, was worth studying. Infantry officers sometimes said, +as long as their arm was sufficiently numerous and well equipped, +that, with the exception of a few scouts and orderlies, cavalry might +be dispensed with. Artillery might think that unless guns were largely +used, no infantry could ever make an attack at all; while cavalry +officers, who were perhaps the most conservative of all, would point +to the past, and show how every battle that had ever been fought was +won by cavalry, and ever would be. + +Confidence in one's own arm is most desirable, and should be fostered, +if at the same time we can learn how to work with others, remembering +that while cavalry gives the information to and hides the movements of +the army, while artillery shakes and disperses the enemy's formation, +and prepares the way for attack, it is the infantry alone who can +assault and hold the position, and it is for their advance and to +bring them up to the point that determines the battle in the condition +most favorable to insure success that all the efforts of the other two +arms must be devoted. I have made these preliminary remarks, as from +my paper being entirely given to the actions of cavalry, it might +appear that I am claiming more for that arm in the battle field than +is reasonable; but I wish it clearly understood that whatever I may +say is only in an auxiliary sense to the action of infantry, and I +trust that I shall not be thought underestimating other arms, while +showing unbounded confidence in my own. + +The necessary rest required by Europe after the exhaustion of the wars +of Napoleon resulted in the long peace which succeeded the campaign of +1815. This, and the improvement that took place in fire arms in the +next forty years, gave room for speculation as to whether cavalry +would play as important a part in the future as it had done in the +past, under Marlborough, Frederick the Great, Napoleon, and +Wellington. The Crimean war helped to confirm the opinion that the +days of cavalry had gone by. No account was made of the enormous +distance by sea that the cavalry had to be transported, the +unfavorable nature of the seat of war for that arm, the little scope +given in a campaign that resolved itself into a siege, the smallness +of the cavalry force employed, and the difficulty in keeping up a +fresh supply of horses. After this war came the introduction and +improvement in the breech loader, and with it opinions were +strengthened that cavalry duties would be still further limited, and +its traditions for a time appear to have been lost. + +The awakening from this transient period of theory came from a nation +not trained to arms, and it is to the American civil war that we owe +the revival that took place in the use of the cavalry arm. The raids +made by the Confederates under Morgan, Stuart, Forrest, and by the +Federals under Sheridan, drew attention to advanced cavalry work, such +as scouting, reconnaissance, outpost and dismounted work. As +particular examples we may select Morgan's boldest and greatest raid +in 1862, when he passed through Kentucky and Indiana, capturing large +stores from the enemy. By his rapid and skillful marches the Federal +officers were completely bewildered. He was absent from his army 24 +days, in which time he traveled 1,000 miles, capturing 17 towns and +destroying all the government supplies and arms. In a second raid he +forced the Federal army to fall back by taking possession of the +railway in its rear which brought it supplies. In October, 1862, +Stuart made his greatest raid through Pennsylvania, around the +Northern army. He set out with 1,800 cavalry and four pieces of horse +artillery, and crossed the Potomac. The telegraph wires were cut in +all directions, railways obstructed, and a large number of horses +captured, and all the public stores and buildings were destroyed. His +position at this time was very critical, 90 miles from his own army. +He considered it less dangerous to return by the opposite way to which +he came. + +Forrest used his cavalry in every possible manner, dismounting in the +battle field and employing it as infantry. In October, 1864, during a +raid, he impeded the navigation of the Tennessee River, which was +filled with Federal gunboats. Choosing a strong position on the bank, +he masked his guns and awaited the approach of the enemy's vessels. He +captured a gunboat and a transport, and manned them with his own men; +but his naval expedition did not last long. Pursued by several +gunboats, he had to run his ships on shore, when the troopers gladly +mounted their horses again. His object was, however, gained--inspiring +alarm throughout the country and occupying a considerable number of +the enemy. Later on the Federals copied this system, when the raids of +Sheridan, with his 10,000 horsemen, armed with the magazine rifle and +revolver, with sword attached to the saddle, brought about the final +overthrow of the Southern army. + +The next campaign that took place was in 1866, known as the "Seven +Weeks' War," when large bodies of cavalry were used by the Austrians +and Prussians. This campaign was of such short duration that there was +not sufficient time for the experience gained in the use of cavalry to +be utilized while the war lasted; but when the war was over, both +sides, having bought their experience, set out to reorganize their +systems, and the course pursued by the Prussians after this campaign +in largely increasing their cavalry was fully justified by the +advantages reaped in the war in France in 1870. At the close of the +Franco-German war the attention of the whole of Europe was called to +the successful use of German cavalry during the campaign, more +especially the advanced duties, when at times 60 miles in breadth and +50 in advance of the army was covered by the cavalry. + +In England, after the termination of this war, many German military +works of great value were translated and published; the battle fields +in France were visited and described; every movement of both armies, +strategical and tactical, was studied. All this tended to draw our +attention to the extended use of the cavalry arm in future campaigns, +and the shortcomings of our own system were carefully scrutinized. The +movements of our drill book were simplified, the careful training of +our men in shooting was more fully recognized, and the teaching of +advanced cavalry duties, reconnaissance, outpost and dismounted work, +were gone into most thoroughly--in such a manner that I may +confidently appeal to those officers who have the best opportunities +of forming an opinion, whether our cavalry does not bear comparison +now with what is being done in other armies, and in these matters is +advancing in a satisfactory manner. While all this good work has been +going on (and I would be the last to say one word that might seem to +depreciate its value) we may perhaps have permitted the action of +cavalry on the field of battle to escape from sufficient notice. + +It is for this reason I will ask your permission to bring before you +this subject, believing that the opinions of all branches of the +service being brought to bear upon it, considerable advantage maybe +obtained. It will be my endeavor to show, not by my own arguments, but +by quotations from others, that cavalry still has an important part to +take on the battle field, and far from its duties ending when armies +come in contact, that it is still reserved to them, as has been the +case before, to decide, perhaps by only one charge, the issue of a +whole campaign. Prince Kraft in his letters on cavalry says: "The +battle of Mars-la-Tour, won by the bold employment of cavalry, made +possible the blockade of Metz, and afterward the surrender of the +whole of Bazaine's army. So it may be said, without exaggeration, that +the charge of Bredow's six squadrons on that day was the turning point +of the Franco-German campaign." + +Colonel Home, in his "Précis of Modern Tactics," says: "The action of +cavalry on the actual battle field is by no means a thing of the past. +The use of cavalry with skill at the right moment and in the right +numbers has always been considered one of the most difficult problems +in war. Modern arms have increased this difficulty manifold, but to +say the day of cavalry on the field of battle is past is merely +another way of saying that the knowledge of how it should be used is +wanting." Cavalry is apportioned to an army in two capacities: (1) +Divisional cavalry, that is (if possible) a regiment, or as many +squadrons as can be spared, attached to each infantry division, acting +under the orders of the general of the division. (2) The cavalry +division, that is, a large body of cavalry composed of several +brigades, an independent body having its own commander. On the march +the divisional cavalry covers the head and flanks of its own division: +on the field of battle it will be as near as possible to its division, +in the most sheltered spot that can be found; in the early part of the +battle it would be kept as much in reserve as possible, écheloned in +rear of one flank of its own infantry. It would remain there until the +artillery and musketry had effected their work, and the enemy's flanks +had become thinned and shaken. Then, when his infantry become tired +and exhausted, under cover of the smoke, the cavalry may be further +advanced. + +Prince Kraft says: "At Sedan the divisional cavalry were employed +during the battle, charging by single squadrons, patrolling and +reconnoitering to obtain information of the enemy and the ground. +Every infantry body is accompanied by patrols, however small." An +instance of the too early employment of cavalry in a battle occurred +at Waterloo, when Napoleon at the commencement launched his cavalry +into the fight. The result was that although it far outnumbered the +English at first, it became so reduced, depressed, and worn out, that +it was unable afterward to offer full resistance to the British +squadrons, who were comparatively fresh. Wellington, on the contrary, +after his first successes, kept his cavalry, as much as possible, in +reserve. The field of battle itself shows the proper situation of +cavalry, but the divisional cavalry on the defensive side must always +be at hand to fall upon the flanks of the enemy's infantry when in +extended order, while that of the attacking side must be equally at +hand to prevent the flanks of its own infantry being so attacked. + +In discussing the action of divisional cavalry, the most advantageous +time for its assisting in the combat must be considered. At what +moment, if any, can infantry be attacked by cavalry? When opposed to a +force acting on the defensive, divisional cavalry has its operations +limited, and probably in the earlier part of an engagement, confined +to watching, and, if possible, guarding the flanks of its own +attacking infantry from surprise. It is the cavalry on the defenders' +side that has the greatest opportunities. In both cases, however, a +rule must be made not to attack infantry when it has taken up a +favorable position, or before its ranks have been shaken by artillery +or musketry. Prince Kraft, in speaking of Mars-la-Tour, says: "This +same day took place a series of cavalry charges of greater or less +importance, which all showed practically to the cavalry the limits of +their effective action against infantry. The advancing infantry were +brought to a stand, infantry who gave way were ridden down, but where +the cavalry attacked infantry intact, the cavalry were unable to +prevail." + +The precision of modern fire arms has necessitated great changes in +infantry tactics. To advance against the murderous fire of the present +rifle, infantry is compelled to adopt scattered formations in small +lines, and to move forward with sudden rushes. All this lends itself +to the attacks of an active cavalry. When these infantry attacks take +place, it may be presumed that they have already been under arms some +hours, have marched some distance, and been exposed to considerable +loss from artillery and musketry fire. Their advance in extended +formation will have commenced at about 1,000 yards, or earlier. By +this time the squadrons opposing them will have been brought to a more +advanced position, to the nearest point to their flank where cover is +afforded, and to carry this out successfully requires skillful +handling. Files must be extended, and short rushes made with small +bodies, say half a troop if over exposed ground, into sheltered +places. It is true that cavalry cannot hide themselves over exposed +ground as infantry can, but they have one advantage that nothing can +deprive them of--rapidity of motion; and the distance that would take +them say 10 seconds to traverse, viz., 150 yards, would take infantry +a minute. + +Prince Kraft writes: "No battle field is a _tabula rasa_, for in the +most exposed country there are depressions. If strong skirmishing +lines of infantry can advance directly over a country devoid of cover, +cavalry can undoubtedly do the like, if by making use of the lie of +the ground they can gain the enemy's flank. A skilled cavalry leader +will thus undoubtedly find an opportunity to get close to the enemy." +Having arrived at this more advanced position, say from 500 to 1,000 +yards, according to the formation of the ground, the nearer the +better, the most favorable moment to assail the flanks of the +attacking infantry would probably be immediately before the last belt +of the fighting line, and before the main body had re-enforced them, +as they are preparing for their last united rush, and as their +supports are doubling up to join them. + +At this moment the men would be to some extent out of breath, their +attention would be fixed on the point about to be attacked, and their +flanks would be neglected. Cavalry should then descend upon them at +the utmost speed that can be extracted from the horses, with a good +interval from knee to knee. If there is only one squadron, one troop +should take the flank or fighting line, while the other throws itself +upon the support. As the distance to be covered in the open will +probably be not more than from 200 to 400 yards, they will be exposed +to fire, supposing none of the ground is undulating, for fifteen to +thirty seconds when at full speed. As they close on the infantry +neither the supports nor those in rear of them or their artillery will +dare to fire, on account of their own men. If the infantry run to get +into small squares, as is most likely, the cavalry must endeavor to +catch them before they assemble. If they get together it may be too +late for the cavalry to stop. They must then throw themselves upon +them and trust to the supporting squadron to complete the attack. + +Although it is rare that a battle field is on such ground that there +are no undulations to afford shelter for cavalry in an advanced +position, this may be the case, and if so the enemy's infantry attack +must be allowed to take place, but even then, by cavalry showing +itself on the flanks for a moment, infantry would get together and +afford a better mark for fire, and the progress of the attack would be +delayed. The very appearance of cavalry frequently frightens infantry +into masses. If the ground was too much exposed for the charge, men +might be dismounted, with their carbines, at a safe distance to assist +the infantry. If mounted infantry were at hand, they would be utilized +in the same way, and the machine guns of the cavalry would also pour +in their volleys. If the enemy's attack is successful, cavalry must +then advance on their flanks and take its chance, and if necessary +sacrifice itself to give its own infantry time to rally. If it is +unsuccessful, the cavalry must be ready to take every favorable +opportunity of molesting its broken ranks. + +Speaking of Mars-la-Tour, Prince Kraft says: "During the battle a +German infantry brigade was forced to retire with heavy loss, and ran +some danger of being annihilated by the pursuing enemy. But the First +Dragoons of the Guards threw themselves on the pursuers. The enemy's +infantry massed round the eagles and ceased to press on, while the +thin ranks of our infantry were able to rally, and our guns were saved +and brought into position. The losses were heavy; half a regiment of +cavalry (250 horses) were sacrificed in order to save the brigade." At +Waterloo a French division of infantry fled before three regiments of +dragoons (the Union Brigade). The Royal Dragoons and the Inniskillings +in first line, the Scots Greys on their left rear, the whole under Sir +William Ponsonby, acting in support of the Highland Infantry Brigade, +were awaiting the attack of the whole of the 1st French Division under +Gen. Alix. The three Scotch regiments threw into them a concentrated +fire, and as they were staggered by the shock Ponsonby gave the order +to advance. Passing through the Highlanders, the Greys having come up +into line, the three regiments charged the leading portion of the +French column, which yielded, and those in rear were hurled back. The +dragoons having the advantage of the descent of the hill appeared to +mow down the mass, the Greys on the left pressed on through the +supporting brigade of the French, while the Royals drove back the +right, giving no time for fire. Many threw down their arms, while +hundreds of prisoners were hurried off to the rear of the line. At the +same time the Inniskillings forced their way through the center, when +the remainder of the French division broke and fled. + +It may be said that this took place before the introduction of the +rifle, and is therefore no example, but it took place within the range +of the weapon then in use, and at that distance it was equally +effective. The celebrated charge of Bredow's brigade at Vieuville +(Mars-la-Tour) also shows what an energetic attack may do. It had +become necessary to demand a sacrifice from the cavalry for the good +of the army, to enable Prince Frederick Charles, with only 24,000 +infantry, to hold in check Bazaine's army of 180,000 until his own +main body came up. Bredow's cavalry brigade consisted of six squadrons +of the 7th Cuirassiers and the 16th Uhlans. They were ordered to make +a breach in the front of the 16th French Army Corps. + +The six squadrons advanced in column, the cuirassiers leading, when +they received the word to change direction to the right, then to form +line, which was done under heavy fire. The cuirassiers getting into +line first, charged at once, the 16th following in echelon. In a +moment the batteries, vomiting flames, were reached with a loud +hurrah, and the gunners cut down at their guns, when the whole +brigade, which had now got into one line, charged the long lines of +infantry in rear, who received them with a heavy fire from their +chassepots. These lines, too, were broken through, and the main object +of the charge was attained, but, carried away by the ardor of the +combat, they charged and took the mitrailleuses, when the French +cuirassiers, with a dragoon brigade in support, come down upon them, +and compelled them to fall back. This they did, having to force their +way back through the enemy's masses of infantry with enormous loss. +The object, however, was gained, and the attack of the French corps +checked and never resumed. The cavalry division covers the advance of +the whole army, and is a day or two in front of it. It conceals and +guards the army, while finding out the movements of the enemy. It +collects information, and is also used with horse artillery on great +enterprises on the enemy's communications. Having finished the +reconnaissance and covering the army on the day of battle, it falls +back as the two opposing sides come in contact, and awaits further +orders. On the battle field it should be placed so as to suffer as +little loss as possible--as a rule, in rear of the flanks. How far +must depend on the formation of the ground; if shelter is to be +obtained nearer the front, the better. If not, then some 2,000 yards +in rear of one flank would seem advisable. Its duties are to guard the +exposed flank or flanks and rear of the army, while it watches the +cavalry of the enemy. If within range of artillery, it should be kept +on the move from front to rear. Its strength should not be wasted or +frittered away on doubtful enterprises, as it maybe required for some +decisive blow, in pursuit, or in covering the retreat. + +Prince Kraft, speaking of the battle of St. Privat, says: "On the 18th +of August the gigantic fight of St. Privat took place. The cavalry +divisions were held back in reserve, but the divisional cavalry took +an active part. During the battle a squadron of hussars advanced and +sent information of the enemy making a flank movement." He also says: +"At Sedan the cavalry division was kept in reserve." The massing of +artillery at the commencement of a battle must expose a long line with +some weak spot to attack. If protected by cavalry, then probably a +cavalry combat will ensue. Prince Kraft says: "The action of the +masses of German cavalry at Mars-la-Tour excited wonder and +admiration; they surprised the enemy's cavalry when in bivouac, they +met and surrounded the hostile infantry in a threatening manner, and +thus 8,000 cavalry occupied 65,000 infantry, until the Prussian +infantry came up. The cavalry made no charges which could not have +been successful, but carried out their task of occupying the enemy +almost without loss. + +"In the old days these squadrons would have charged and ridden down +the infantry. The change is the result of the improvement in fire +arms." During the early stages of a battle, advanced parties, under +officers selected for the purpose, must be kept out from the cavalry +division to watch the enemy's movements, and the information they +should be able to afford should be invaluable to the general-in-chief. +An engagement with the enemy's cavalry should not be sought unless +they are much weaker; but should the necessity arise, the ground +should be reconnoitered, and every advantage of position taken to +insure success. The attack being determined on, the preparations for +it should be carried out rapidly. Echelon movements have many +advantages. They favor the formation of oblique lines, they also +insure in a charge direct to the front the bringing up of squadron +after squadron in support. The attack of Vivian's Hussar Brigade upon +the French reserves at Waterloo gives a brilliant illustration of +this, and has been termed by Siborne the "crisis of Waterloo." This +celebrated charge, intended to be in line, became virtually a charge +in echelon of squadrons in consequence of the rapid pace of the head +of the column. + +"The movement of cavalry must be rapid and unexpected, and bear the +character of determined confidence; an effort should be made by +maneuvering to come suddenly on the enemy's flank. A gentle declivity +for the final charge must be sought. The rapid, vigorous, and +determined charge in line on to cavalry, riding knee to knee, is what +is required." The charge to be made effectual, the horses must be +brought up in wind, the gallop must not be begun too early; when begun +it must gradually be increased to a fast gallop, the final charge for +the last sixty yards made with every horse extended. "Nothing, then, +must be left undone to excite the spirit of enthusiasm, even to +ferocity; then, and only then, the 'cheer' to be raised." At Waterloo +the charge of the heavy brigade, the 1st and 2d Life Guards and King's +Dragoon Guards, with the Blues in support, is a good example of a +successful attack on cavalry. The French line of cavalry as it +advanced presented an imposing appearance. + +They had ascended the brow of the ridge, when a vigorous fire from +Ross' Horse Artillery was opened on to them. In the next moment their +trumpets sounded the charge and they rushed to the attack, and as +cuirassiers approached the British squares, the Heavy Brigade dashed +into them. The shock was terrific. The right of the Life Guards being +thrown forward, came first into collision. The right of the French was +suddenly thrown out by coming unexpectedly on to a hollow way, and as +they passed it the 2d Life Guards came full speed upon them. The +French cuirassiers were driven back and pursued until the English +brigade came under infantry fire. + +The charge of the Heavy Cavalry Brigade at Balaklava, under Gen. +Scarlett, is another good example, when the Russian cavalry, receiving +the British charge at a halt, were entirely overthrown. One of the +greatest difficulties after the charge is to know when and how to +stop, and it is then that the squadron and troop leaders, well in +front of their men, must use all their efforts to carry out the ends +of their commander. I think this is the time when a strong whistle +carried by the commanding officer and the squadron leaders can be used +with good effect. Being an unusual sound, it would attract attention. +The battle being over, some of the most serious duties of cavalry +commence. If the enemy is victorious, the pursuit has immediately to +follow. History points out the difficulty of carrying this out. +Uncertainty of the victory, or how far it can be counted on, often +delays its commencement. Battles are often ended by nightfall, +valuable time is lost, and the golden opportunities are past. An +active cavalry leader will, however, without further orders at least, +follow with his advanced parties and not lose touch of the enemy. He +will soon learn the condition of the enemy, act accordingly, harass +his flanks and rear and play upon him with his artillery. + +An example of another manner in which cavalry may be employed after a +victory can be taken from the Egyptian campaign of 1882, when, after +the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, by a rapid advance of the cavalry some +fifty miles ahead of the infantry, the capital of the country was +captured by the English cavalry division. + +If the battle is lost, still greater are the responsibilities of the +cavalry. Detached squadrons with scouts must be sent round the flanks +to ascertain the strength of the enemy sent in pursuit. Every +available position must be taken up by the horse artillery, and every +advantage seized for counter attack. Above all, accurate information +must be obtained for the general-in-chief of the nature of the +pursuit, in order that he may not harass his main body by falling back +further than necessary. This subject, however, is beyond the scope of +this lecture, and is one of study of past campaigns. + +Of the action of cavalry in savage warfare, the recent campaigns in +Africa have given some experience. In the presence of an enemy met +with in such enormous numbers as in the desert, cut off from all help, +knowing that unless you win you die, it seems to be decided that our +infantry must adopt the square as the most suitable formation. In the +Zulu war, the cavalry at the battle of Ulundi was placed inside the +square. The experience met with there was exceptional, and from the +swarms of savages surrounding the square in all directions it was +considered desirable to keep the 17th Lancers in the center of it, in +order that they should not interfere with the infantry fire, and that +when the enemy was repulsed, they should be launched out upon them, +and this was done with perfect success. It is, however, contrary to +the instincts and traditions of cavalry to be shut up in a square, +and, where practicable, I should think cavalry outside a square, even +at some distance out of the way of the infantry fire, acting with +horse artillery, would very much disturb the attacking bodies of the +enemy, and perhaps attract away a portion of them, and they could be +brought up, when called upon to do so, to carry out the pursuit. + +In the first campaign on the east coast of the Soudan, on the advance +to El Teb and afterward to Tokar, squadrons were sent in front and on +the flanks of the square with scouts thrown out to feel the way and +obtain information, while the main body of the cavalry was echeloned +on the rear and flank opposite an angle of the square in the most +suitable manner to avoid any interference with its fire. During the +action it remained in this position until after the first attack on +the square, when it moved away past the square on the outward flank +and acted on the enemy's rear and engaged their reserves until the +action was over. During the desert march in the Nile expedition, the +19th Hussars, by its scouting, protected the square and gave it timely +notice of the approach of the enemy. + +In a country where a great deal of bush abounds the effective charge +of cavalry on to groups of savages is very much curtailed. The Arabs +throw themselves on to the ground behind the prickly bushes, the ranks +are opened out as the horses avoid the thorns, and the men get no +chance of using their swords; but although much execution is not +achieved under these circumstances, the natives have great fear of +cavalry, and they are prevented from attacking elsewhere. When their +attention is thus occupied, horse artillery and machine guns might +make great havoc among them. At the action of Tamai, where the ground, +from the rocks and ravines of the neighboring mountains, was +unsuitable for cavalry charges, when one of the infantry squares was +broken, the cavalry advanced, and one squadron of the 10th Hussars, +dismounting, helped to create a favorable diversion by pouring fire +into the flanks of the attacking Arabs. + +My remarks would, I think, be considered incomplete if I did not touch +on the question of cavalry charging squares, as this point is always +made very prominent in all discussions on the action of cavalry. I +therefore must not pass it by. I will say at once that I think it most +undesirable, even under favorable circumstances, that cavalry should +charge a formed square and men armed with the breech loader. At best +the gain can be but local and partial, while the loss to the +cavalry--an arm so difficult to keep up in numbers--must be +disastrous, and it seems to me that if cavalry by its appearance can +force infantry to form square, it has done enough, and that the +artillery, infantry, and machine guns should do the rest. The +necessity might, however, arise, and by looking at the past we see its +possibility. At Langensalza two Prussian squares were broken by the +Hanoverian cavalry, and the major part taken prisoners. + +We have only to turn to the recent campaigns in Egypt to see the +effect of determined rushes of men, intending to succeed, charging on +to squares carefully formed on ground affording shelter, with an +enormous amount of fire being poured upon them. It will be said that +these men were fanatics, but our cavalry, too, have been, and will be, +fanatics in a charge; and I still think, if the necessity recurs, that +an attack, properly conducted on favorable ground, one troop charging +on the corner of a square, followed by another at double distance, +others in echelon on both flanks immediately following, the whole +charging with the greatest impetuosity, intended to win, will break +down any square that Englishmen are likely to meet with. If we look +back again on the past, we will find many instances of British cavalry +not being called upon in vain to make a sacrifice. At Talavera, the +23d Light Dragoons, supported by the 1st Hussars of the German Legion, +advanced against the French squares. In their impetuous rush they came +upon a hollow cleft covered with long grass, eight feet deep, and +eighteen feet broad. Too late to pull up, the foremost rode headlong +into it, some tumbled in, others over it, some rode boldly at it and +gained the other side. Still they went on, swept past the infantry +columns, and fell upon a brigade of French chasseurs. + +At Balaklava 670 British horsemen were launched against an entire wing +of the Russian army. The brigade, at first in two lines, the 11th +Hussars, 17th Lancers, and 13th Light Dragoons, followed by the 4th +Light Dragoons and 8th Hussars, advanced down a gradual descent of +three-quarters of a mile; the Russian guns vomiting shell and shot +upon them, one battery bearing on their right, another on their left, +and all the intermediate ground covered with riflemen. The guns were +charged and forced through, the forces drawn up in rear were +overpowered. They then had to turn, and, retiring up hill, ran through +the same gauntlet. In the Sikh war, at the battle of Ferozeshah, the +3d Light Dragoons charged the enemy's entrenchments at a point +defended by some of their heaviest batteries. When within 250 yards +the regiment moved at speed under a destructive fire of grape and +musketry, and pressing forward at the charge entered the enemy's camp +and captured the whole of the batteries. + +Cavalry attacks have been made with success after dark, and the +advantage, of course, is gained of obviating opposing fire. Prince +Kraft mentions that after the battle of Mars-la-Tour, the cavalry +division, re-enforced by the divisional cavalry, rode forward to +complete the advantages gained. It was almost night, and fault has +been found with making the attack in the dark. If the ground is well +known a night attack may be advisable. While criticising it, we have +to think of the feelings of a half-defeated army about to bivouac +being attacked by unknown forces in the dark. In this case, at +Vionville, the enemy did not wait for a second, but withdrew, and +abandoned the whole field of battle. Prince Kraft quotes the attack of +Blücher at Gross-Gorchen and a cavalry attack at Loon. During the +first Egyptian campaign the Life Guards made an attack by moonlight at +Kassassin. + +I have now, I think, touched lightly on some important cavalry duties +on a campaign. In some points perhaps these remarks may appear +contradictory. How to combine keeping cavalry in reserve for any great +action it may be called upon to perform, while using it unsparingly to +assist on the battle field, if the necessity arises. It may, however, +be noticed that, much as they may be criticised, few cavalry +commanders have been severely blamed when they have thought it best to +take the bolder course. To insure to cavalry the power of carrying out +its duties successfully in war, organization and practice in peace is +most essential. Infantry may suddenly be increased without much +deranging its action in the field, but cavalry cannot be hurried into +an increased augmentation. In tactics simplicity in every evolution +and rapidity in execution are the most important principles. This +simplicity of drill, I think, might be assisted if our squadrons were +divided into four divisions, zuges, or pelotons. When squadrons have +48 files in the front rank there might be four of these, while weak +regiments with 36 files could drill equally as well with three +divisions. This system, introduced by the late Gen. Valentine Baker +into the English service for a time, and now used by all European +countries, was found to work well. + +I think the whistle could be carried with advantage by all cavalry +officers. For advanced work attention can be drawn by it without being +heard at a distance like a bugle. In movements the commanding officers +would find it useful to call the attention of leaders to himself, +especially in extended or échelon formation. I have omitted to make +much mention of the action of horse artillery combined with cavalry, +as it seems beyond the limits of this paper; but it is one to which +the cavalry officer's attention requires to be brought most strongly +to bear. I would also have wished to have made some remarks on the +many advantages to be obtained by having mounted infantry attached to +cavalry. I understand that this force would be under the orders of the +cavalry general, and if so, I think a cavalry division well found in +horse artillery, with mounted infantry, whether conveyed on horses, +or, where the cavalry admitted of it, on cars, and accompanied by +machine guns on wheels, could act in such an independent manner as to +enable it to penetrate far ahead into an enemy's country, or threaten +his communications, and be absent from its main body for many days or +weeks. + +As regards the English cavalry, I think it may be said, without +boasting, that the material is excellent. The men are of the best +physique, recruited from a good class, and plenty of them to be had. +The non-commissioned officers are intelligent and always ready for +instruction; the riding compares favorably with cavalry of other +nations, certainly far better than any I have ever seen abroad, either +German, Russian, or French, and among all foreign countries we have +the reputation of being the best horsemen in the world, which at all +events has a good moral effect. Our horses are undoubtedly first-rate, +having more quality and greater speed than foreigners. We have in our +officers the exact stuff we want. Their very sports and amusements +start them with all the makings of cavalry soldiers. But the quickness +of eye, the self-confidence and readiness that these sports and games +may give, require nowadays more than ever something beyond this to +produce the trained cavalry leader. Cavalry is an arm of opportunity, +and above all others depends greatly on its leaders, but with the +chances now available of reading, in every detail, the campaigns of +the past, if taken advantage of, as is now daily becoming more common, +we should produce in the future the best and most accomplished cavalry +officers that this country or any other has ever seen. + +As there appeared to be a unanimity of opinion on the lecture, there +was no discussion, and the proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to +the lecturer.--_Broad Arrow._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IRON SAILING SHIPS. + + +Messrs. Russell & Co., Greenock and Port Glasgow, show at the Glasgow +exhibition a very numerous and varied show of sailing models. First, +we find the noble four-masted ships of from 1,800 tons to 2,200 tons, +which sail and carry well on their tonnage, and which are worked by +fewer hands than are required for a ship of the same burden with three +masts but squarer yards. Some owners prefer the latter, and so Messrs. +Russell show not only such handsome specimens as the four-masted Falls +of Earn, but also the three-masted Ardencraig and Soudan. One of the +favorite models of this firm is that of their 1,500 ton ship with +three masts, represented by the Cromartyshire, of which type they have +built a large number of vessels noted alike for their carrying +capacity and their excellent sailing qualities. The Main, built for +Mr. James Nourse, of London, is a good specimen of their 1,700 ton +ship, as designed for the special trade of the owner, between +Calcutta, Demerara, and London. Their 1,300 ton bark is represented by +the model of the Aboukir Bay and her sisters of the Bay Line, owned by +Messrs. Hatfield, Cameron & Co., of Glasgow; while their 1,000 ton +barks are shown in the model of the Banca, belonging to Messrs. P. +Denniston & Co., of the same city. These are about the smallest class +of sailing ships built during recent years, the demands of the +shipping trade being such as to make it unprofitable to sail anything +smaller than about 1,500 tons; while the tendency is to exceed 2,000 +tons in burden, and to reach even as high as 3,000 tons.--_The +Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WATER BLAST PUMP. + + +It is well known that the principle which is applied to the +construction of vacuum or filter pumps, and which aims at the +production of rarefied air in a certain inclosed space, may also be +applied to the production of air _pressure_. + +A simple apparatus by which this may be accomplished has recently been +constructed by A. Beutell. + +A tall cylindrical flask, K (see cut), is provided with an outlet tube +near the bottom, and its stopper carries two tubes, one (M) for the +entrance of a jet of water, and the other (L) for the exit of the +compressed air, which may be conducted to a blast lamp or wherever air +under pressure may be needed. The column of water entering through M +causes air to be sucked in through the little hole at c, and this air, +after arriving in the flask, is gradually compressed by the +continuously entering water. + +In order that the apparatus may work properly, it is necessary to +construct the tube, M, in a particular manner, and of certain definite +proportions. Fig. 3 exhibits its bore and shape in an enlarged view. A +short distance below the orifice of the tube it is slightly expanded, +and then gradually contracts to the place, b. It then again expands to +an oblong cavity, and contracts again to a neck, e, which is a trifle +wider than that at b, and which must be so situated that the column of +water passing through b is exactly perpendicular to the center of the +aperture at e. The tube then expands again to its original diameter, +and is slightly curved, which is done to prevent any of the compressed +air in the cylinder, K, from regurgitating upward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1., FIG. 2., FIG. 3. + BEUTELL'S WATER BLAST PUMP.] + +The outlet tube at A is preferably constructed as shown in Fig. 2. +Instead of being made of one piece, it is there represented as +consisting of two pieces joined together by rubber tubing, a sort of +check valve, G, being introduced into the rubber joint. By regulating +the check valve, that is by approaching it more or less to the exit of +the tube, A, the outflow of water may be regulated. It is important to +adjust this so that the cylindrical flask will always be at least half +full, and never over three-fourths filled. While the column of water +falls through the aperture at b, into the expanded portion of M, it +aspirates air through the little orifice, c, communicating with the +outer air, and this air is carried along with it into the flask, where +it accumulates until it is under a pressure equal to that of the +column of water entering the apparatus, when the latter will cease to +flow. By allowing the air to escape through L, more will be +successively compressed, so that a steady blast may be obtained. + +The proportions between the diameters of the expanded and contracted +portions of the glass tube, M, are important. If the bore at b amounts +to 2.5 millimeters, that at e should be 3 millimeters. Under these +circumstances, and with a pressure of water equal to a column of 61.7 +cubic centimeters, the apparatus will furnish 890 liters of air for +every 1,000 liters of water consumed. If the two diameters were: b, 1 +millimeter, and e, 2.4 mm., one liter of water aspirates 2.35 liters +of air. These proportions are, no doubt, capable of +improvement.--_Chem. Zeit. and Ch. Centralbl._ + + * * * * * + + + + +TRANSMISSION OF POWER BETWEEN BODIES MOVING AT DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. + + +A few months ago there was exhibited, in the society's reading room, a +working model of an application to railway working of what the +inventor calls "division of the mass." In causing a body, moving at a +high velocity, to communicate motion to another at rest, or moving at +a lower velocity, he splits one of them up into parts all the more +numerous, and therefore tenuous, as the difference in velocity is +greater; and this is accomplished by causing one of the parts to take +the form of a brush composed of metal fibers. + +In applying this principle to the transmission of motion for driving +machinery, a disk, fitted with segmental brushes, is slid laterally +along the shaft, so that the fibers come into contact with radial +projections on a second disk; and, although the contact is made +instantaneously, the action is exerted gradually, owing to the +flexibility of the fibers. That is to say, the full power is +communicated without any shock. + +A similar arrangement, but with one of the disks fixed, serves as a +brake for arresting motion, and this again without shock, but with +gradually increasing action. Where space is very much circumscribed, +the clutch and the brake may be combined, by fitting a disk with +brushes on one side, and projections on the other, so that it may be +brought by a lever against a second disk, for transmitting motion, and +against a third, fixed, for stopping it. + +Safety appliances for arresting the descent of mine cages, in the +event of the rope breaking, have hitherto depended upon the entrance +of claws into the guides, or the clipping of the latter, or the +wedging of the cage between the guides. + +In this application of the system, the guides of the shaft are fitted +with corrugated iron plates, and the sides of the cage with steel +brushes. In the normal state of working, the brushes are kept clear of +the guides, but, should the rope break, a small brush, fitted on a +sector, constantly rubbing against the corrugations of the guides, +aided by a spring or counterweight, brings the main brushes into +contact with the guides by a link arrangement, like that of the +parallel ruler, thus arresting the cage, and holding it suspended +until the brushes are gradually relaxed, for "braking" the cage slowly +down to the next landing. + +Many attempts have been made to cause a locomotive, running at full +speed, to exert such a mechanical action as would set a signal to +danger, so as to protect the train from another following in the rear. +By fitting the engine with a steel brush, attached to the axle boxes, +so as to preserve a uniform height with respect to the rails, a +stationary lever may be gradually moved, so that the signal is set at +"danger" without shock. Moreover, by means of another brush, in the +event of the engine being turned upon the wrong line, a lever may be +made to shut off the steam, apply the brakes, blow the whistle, or +move an index on a dial, recording a neglect of duty, or may exert +these four actions simultaneously. + +All the above applications of this principle--"the division of the +mass"--have been tested experimentally, the last named by the model +above referred to. The clutch arrangement has transmitted six horse +power from a petroleum motor, making 200 revolutions a minute, to a +dynamo making 2,000 revolutions, while applications to industrial +purposes are now being made, both in this country and in Belgium. The +inventor of the system is M. Raymond Snyers, Ingénieur des Mines, du +Génie Civil, et des Arts et Manufactures, of the Louvain +University.--_Journal of the Society of Arts._ + + * * * * * + + + + +STEAM GENERATOR OF SERPOLLET BROTHERS, PRODUCING STEAM +INSTANTANEOUSLY. + + +The explosibility of a steam generator may be measured by the relation +of its total capacity to its vaporizing power. The old fashioned +generators and some of the modern ones are so constructed as to +contain from fifteen to twenty times more water than they are able to +vaporize within one hour. Thus a great quantity of heat is obtained +and a uniform pressure assured, but the steam-generating apparatus is +costly, heavy, and cumbersome; it requires a long time before the +necessary pressure is obtained, and the generator is only suitable for +a stationary installation and where it can uninterruptedly work for a +long period of time. Besides, the enormous quantity of hot water under +pressure constitutes a constant danger, and the explosion of a steam +generator with boiler tubes becomes a real disaster. + +In order to satisfy the requirements which have newly arisen in +connection with navigation, locomotion, small motors and apparatus +which need for their working an intermittent supply of steam, it +became necessary to modify the construction of steam boilers, to +augment their heating surface, to diminish their residue of water, and +to gradually construct so-called _inexplosible_ apparatus, of which +the Belleville boiler forms one of the most characteristic prototypes. + +In trying to reduce the inexplosibility to the utmost, Messrs. +Serpollet Brothers have succeeded in constructing a type of boilers +which may be called _absolutely inexplosible_, and this result has +been obtained by reducing the capacity of the boiler to practically +_nil_, thus rendering the explosibility also _nil_, for under the +circumstances the relation between capacity and vaporizing power +becomes itself _nil_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--INSTANTANEOUS VAPORIZATION BOILER OF MESSRS. + SERPOLLET. + + 1. General view of boiler (experimental arrangement). 2. Cross + section of boiler (natural size). The line A B indicates, at + somewhat exaggerated scale, the cross section of the interior + empty space of the boiler.] + +The method employed for this purpose by Messrs. Serpollet is an +extremely simple one. A cylindrical steel tube of convenient diameter +and sufficient thickness is rolled flat at a temperature below the +white heat of the metal, and the last touch of the rollers is given to +it when already cold. By this means a flat tube is obtained, the empty +interior space of which looks in a cross section (Fig. 1, No. 2) like +a black line not thicker than a hair, and measures from 0.1 to 0.3 +millimeter. This tube is finally rolled up in the form of a spiral, or +left straight, according to the use to be made of it, and put into an +appropriate furnace (Fig. 1, No. 1). To either end of the tube a joint +is attached, the one for the purpose of admitting the water, the other +for admitting the steam. + +When under these circumstances the tube has been heated to a high +temperature in a convenient fire box, the water which has been pumped +into it, by a feed pump fastened to one of its extremities, is +instantly changed into steam and escapes at the other end at a +pressure and in a state of dryness depending on the working conditions +of the apparatus. The ingenious and really original and novel idea in +this invention is this flattened tube, which constitutes an actual +capillary boiler inside of which the water squeezed in between its +walls cannot assume its spheroidal state, and the formation of drops +becomes absolutely impossible. There exists no longer a residue of hot +water, nor are water gauges, safety valves, or any other of those +numerous accessories required which make all steam boilers so +complicated and which augment considerably their cost. + +It also becomes unnecessary to connect the joint from which the steam +escapes by means of a valve with the motor for which the steam is to +be used. If the supply of steam is to be stopped, this can be done by +simply suppressing the supply of water, i.e., by _emptying the +boiler_. + +The regular working is assured by the quantity of heat contained in +the heated iron tube, to which, for this purpose, an intentionally +great thickness has been given, and it is this heat of the iron which +replaces the heat furnished by the hot water in the steam generators +with boiler tubes. From the above it will be easy to understand the +general arrangement of the new steam generator, when connected with +its motor. This motor works a small intermitting pump, which supplies +the capillary boiler with water, according to the quantity consumed. +The machine is started by means of a small special pump worked by +hand. + +Whenever the velocity of the motor tends to increase, a centrifugal +regulator placed upon the motor reduces the action of the pump and, +consequently, the supply of water to the tube, thus checking the +velocity of the machine. If the velocity tends to slacken, the inverse +process is employed. In order to stop the machine, it suffices to turn +off the water furnished by the pump by means of a three-way cock, and +to send the water back to the reservoir of supply. The boiler can be +emptied in less than a second, and the motor stops in consequence of +being deprived of motive power. + +The whole is marvelously simple, and creates astonishment and +admiration in the mind of even the most skeptical persons who see the +apparatus. + +The boiler of the one horse power type weighs 33 kilogrammes. It +consists of an iron tube having a length of 2 meters and a height of +10.5 centimeters after it has been flattened; the total heating +surface thus obtained being 48 square centimeters. The power of +vaporization amounts to 20 kilogrammes of water per hour, while the +quantity of coal consumed during the same period amounts to only 4 +kilogrammes, which is comparatively little for a boiler of so small a +power. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TRICYCLE PROPELLED BY A SERPOLLET BOILER] + +Fig. 2 shows the first model of a tricycle constructed by Messrs. +Serpollet as an application of their boiler for locomotion. The writer +has seen the working of this apparatus, and consequently is able to +give some data. The total weight of the machine is 185 kilogrammes, or +about 250 kilogrammes when mounted by a person. The boiler is placed +behind the tricycle, the motor is under the seat, inside of which is +the water reservoir and the supply of coal. In the motor employed in +the present case the feed pump is a constant supply pump, but by means +of a directing lever turning around its own axis and acting upon a +three-way cock, the water can be divided into two streams, the one +emptying into the feeding reservoir, the other into the boiler. By +varying the position of the cock, the power of the machine can be +modified and its velocity regulated. The machine can be brought to a +stop within less than two meters by means of the combined action of a +brake and the complete suppression of water in the boiler. In order to +start the machine, the water is sent into the tube by a little extra +pump worked for a moment by the left hand of the cyclist when +starting. + +On July 25 some experiments were made before the Society of Civil +Engineers with the tricycle above described, and on that occasion it +traversed the Rue Girardon and the Rue de Norvino to Montmartre +(streets in which the gradient rises to 15 centimeters per meter) with +a velocity of three meters per second. + +Fig. 3 represents the arrangement of the first stationary boiler of +the new kind. The letters of reference will suffice to indicate the +position of the principal parts of it, the forms of which may be +varied according to the object for which the boiler is to be used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--COMPLETE VIEW OF A SERPOLLET BOILER. + + 1. Exterior view. 2. Cross section. 3. Horizontal section at the + height of the tube.] + +Messrs. Serpollet are occupied at present with studying the special +arrangements which will be needed for connecting their boiler with a +quadricycle, a torpedo boat, a stove, a locomotive, or a stationary +machine of 10 horse power, and with rectangular parts. + +The inexplosibility of their boiler has been tested during an +experiment made before the engineers of mines, on which occasion a +manometer (steam gauge) graduated for a pressure of upward 200 +kilogrammes per square centimeter was used, and the pressure raised +far beyond the limits indicated. The result was that the hand of the +manometer, being pressed against the walls of the box, became bent, +and though the boiler was submitted to a pressure the degree of which +it was impossible to measure, it was not changed in the slightest. + +Incrustation of the boiler is not to be feared, for, in consequence of +the great velocity with which the steam circulates through the tube, +the solid matter dissolved in the water becomes pulverized and is +forced out, mechanically assisting to lubricate and polish the parts +of the motor. + +The invention of Messrs. Serpollet is still too new to foretell all +its possible applications, but their apparatus, in its present form, +is exactly the steam generator which will be useful for producing a +small motive force; while it will be necessary to wait until it has +been ascertained, by further study, how the system can economically be +used for high motive power. + +The most natural and immediate application of the invention seems to +be its use for the electric lighting of restaurants, in which case one +of the instantaneous vaporization tubes might be connected with stoves +which remain lighted all day, and which might thus besides supply the +necessary motive force to work a small dynamo charging some +accumulators.--_E. Hospitalier, in La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS LIGHTING BY HIGH-POWER BURNERS. + + +In the course of a communication presented to the Societe Industrielle +du Nord de la France by the manager of the Wazemmes Gas Company, he +made the following remarks on gas lighting with high-power burners: + +For gas of a standard illuminating value, the lighting power increases +with the temperature of the flame. It also increases, under favorable +conditions, if the quantity of gas consumed by the burner in a certain +period is augmented. Thus, two burners consuming 60 liters (rather +more than 2 cubic feet) of gas, placed in juxtaposition, produce less +light than one burner consuming 120 liters. As it is impossible to +indefinitely increase the supply to ordinary burners, multiple-flame +burners have been invented, in which two or more ordinary flames are +united so that they may impinge upon each other. By an ingenious +arrangement for bringing the air into contact with the multiple +flames, two excellent types of lamps are obtained, consuming +respectively 700 and 1,400 liters per hour, which meet with a rapid +demand in Paris, and in many other towns, for lighting wide public +thoroughfares, squares, and large open spaces. If, however, it is +desired to obtain a flame with a much higher temperature, it is +necessary to resort to a special arrangement for heating the air +intended for combustion with the gas. The principle of heating the air +by means of waste heat escaping with the products of the waste +gas--the regenerative principle--was adopted by Mr. F. Siemens, and +applied not only to gas burners, but to high temperature stoves. With +the Siemens burner on the regenerative principle the following results +are obtained: With a consumption of 150 liters per hour, the light of +from 1 to 3 carcels; 250 to 300 liters, 6 to 7 carcels; 600 liters, 15 +carcels; 800 liters, 20 to 22 carcels; 1,600 liters, 46 to 48 carcels; +2,200 liters, 72 carcels. Unfortunately, the construction of the +Siemens Argand lamps is very delicate, and, moreover, they have the +disadvantage of being heavy and rather unsightly. In Germany they have +been widely adopted; but in France they have met with but little +success. The Schulke lamp is made on the same principle; and this +appears to be too delicate to come into general use. One of the latest +burners of the regenerative class is the Wenham, which has been before +the public for some time in England and is now being adopted in +France. In point of fact it is merely a very effective improvement on +Breittmayer's burner, from which it differs only in its construction; +being produced in some elegant styles, which lend themselves perfectly +to the decorations of private houses. The No. 2 lamp of this type, +with a consumption of 283 liters (10 cubic feet) per hour, has given +126 candles, in a vertical direction without reflectors: horizontally, +50 candles. But the gas employed in the tests had an illuminating +power about 20 per cent. higher than that usual in Paris. When +experimenting in Paris with a No. 3 lamp in a vertical direction, it +showed a consumption of 34.6 liters (1.2 cubic feet) per carcel +obtained. The Wenham lamp is constructed to give light in a vertical +direction; and by adopting a large reflector, the illuminating power +is increased 18 per cent. in a vertical line and 55 per cent. at 80°, +which is a highly satisfactory result. There are at present five sizes +of these lamps. There is also the Delmas hot air burner, in which the +batswing flame is completely inclosed in a glass, mounted with a +sheet-iron casing, heated by the products of combustion, through which +the air passes on its passage downward to feed the flame; and it thus +increases the temperature, improves the illuminating power, and +produces a beautiful steady light. Mention also may be made of the +Siemens radiated heat burner, by means of which the heating of the air +is effected simply by the radiation of the metallic parts of the +appliance which are in contact with the flame. These burners produce +the light of 1 carcel (9.5 candles) with a gas consumption of 70 +liters (about 2˝ cubic feet), and are therefore, from an economical +point of view, intermediary between the high power and regenerative +burners. This degree of economy can be ascertained by an ingenious +arrangement of the air supply in a burner with holes, which has been +made in the laboratory of the Wazemmes Gas Company by M. Verlé, the +engineer, who has invented a very simple burner called the "Lillois," +with which the light of 1 carcel is obtained with a consumption of 70 +liters. This produces a tulip-shaped flame, and it has a specially +constructed glass arrangement on the outside for regulating the +combustion. Comparing the above-mentioned burners with each other, we +arrive at the following results: The "Lillois" burner consumes 70 +liters of gas per carcel; the Siemens ordinary, 70 liters; the +Siemens-Breittmayer, 35 to 39 liters; the Wenham, about 35 liters. +Taking this into account, and considering that a carcel corresponds +with 105 liters of gas consumed in the Bengal form of burner, we see +that the economy in gas might, by employing these burners, reach from +33 to 71 per cent. If this is compared with the batswing burner, which +produces the light of 1 carcel with a consumption of 120 liters of +gas, the economy is greater--varying, according to the type of lamp, +from 41 to 85 per cent. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNCHRONIZING CLOCKS. + + +[Illustration: DAVEY'S PENDULUM FOR SYNCHRONIZING CLOCKS. + + W, friction wheel attached to pendulum. L gives no impulse except + when the electro-magnet is excited. K, lever and weight lifted by + electro-magnet, E. A, open contact completed by pendulum each + swing. B, battery. R, ratchet wheel and pawl. M, lever fixed at + top. L, weight at end of bell crank lever, which drives pendulum + once each minute, being raised by the electro-magnets.] + +At the recent meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, +Dublin, Mr. Davey, of Leeds, spoke of synchronizing mechanisms. He had +occupied some of his spare time in attempting to synchronize clocks +from a standard clock. The problem is similar to the present one, +except that it is rough-and-ready, compared to the present one. He had +a novel electrical pendulum, to drive a seconds pendulum by +electricity. Electrical clocks are notoriously bad timekeepers; on +account of variation in the strength of the electrical current, the +battery falls off. He had constructed an electric clock having a +seconds pendulum, and recording an impulse once a minute. On the +pendulum he had a little ratchet wheel, R, having thirty teeth. The +pawl was connected with a lever, M, fixed at the top. On the face of +the wheel a little pin rotates with the wheel. On the side of the +clock case was a contact maker, which closed the circuit by the pin on +the ratchet wheel, R, once every minute. The weight was lifted by the +electric current, and by its fall gave an impulse to the pendulum. The +pendulum was a free swinging pendulum for 59 sec., and the increase of +the arc could scarcely be detected. + + * * * * * + + + + +COAL TAR AS FUEL FOR STEAM BOILERS. + +By JOHN McCRAE, of Dundee. + + +About three years ago, when the sudden and serious fall took place in +the value of the secondary products produced in gas works, many gas +managers--ever desirous of doing their very best for their +employers--were forced to look around for some better market in which +to dispose of the products which had so seriously fallen in value. +This was no easy task; and even now it forms very uphill work indeed. +A comparatively new market has been created for the disposal of boiled +tar at several of the German ports. But the expense and difficulty of +loading ships with tar in casks take very much from the saving derived +from the new manner of disposal. It occurred to me, therefore, that we +must look nearer home for a remedy. + +In all gas works of any magnitude, a considerable quantity of fuel +must be employed for the purpose of supplying the works with steam for +the exhauster engines, chemical apparatus, thawing purposes, etc. +Whether this fuel consists of coke or of coal, will not in the least +affect or alter my figures. I have no doubt if any manager discovers +that he is working more economically by selling the coke and using a +cheap small or other coal, he will adopt the cheapest process. In +Dundee, where we get a good price for coke, I found, for the purpose +of steam fuel, it would be far cheaper to buy small coal costing from +5s. to 5s. 6d. per ton delivered in the works, and dispose of the +coke. The question of fuel then lay between coal and tar; and I have +experimented somewhat extensively to ascertain the true relative +values of the two classes of fuel. For the purpose of this paper, and +within the last few days, I made a further examination into the +question; and the results arrived at will be those here quoted. The +coal we employed was what is known as Stravenhouse small coal, which +costs 5s. per ton delivered. The experiment in each case lasted 48 +hours. The tar employed was what is known as boiled tar; the naphtha +having been previously removed, but the pitch oil left in the tar. The +value of this tar in Dundee is about 4s. per ton. The following are +the figures: + + Coal, 10 tons 16 cwt., at 5s. Ł2 14 0 + Tar, 1,460 gallons (or 9 tons 3 cwt. + 160 gallons = 1 ton), at 4s. 1 16 7 + ------- + Saving per day by using tar. Ł0 17 5 + +And this at the longest day, when we are using a mere fraction of +steam, as compared with our winter requirements, and consequently the +profit is proportionally less than it will be when we are in full +work. + +[Illustration] + +And now allow me to direct your attention for a short time to the +appliance made use of in accomplishing this tar burning. On the wall +is shown a diagram giving in detail the injector known as C. & W. +Walker's patent tar sprayer burner; and it is supplied only by that +firm. The tar, which has been brought forward to the boilers in a +thoroughly liquid state, is discharged from the center of the injector +into the furnace of the boiler. Surrounding the center nozzle of the +injector is an annular space through which high pressure steam passes, +also into the furnace. The meaning of this steam moving along with the +tar is to force a draught, as well as to raise the temperature of the +tar, and so partially convert the tar into vapor; thereby making the +combustion more complete. The flow of the tar is regulated by the very +delicate sluices attached to the injectors. These valves consist of +elongated cones and plugs, and are constructed not only for the +purpose of regulating the flow of tar, but also for removing any +obstruction or incrustation which may accumulate in the nozzle. In +order to keep the tar in a liquid state (which in the winter time is +not an easy matter), a small steam pipe is passed through the center +of the tar pipe; but, of course, no steam is discharged among the tar, +as the presence of water in the injector prevents its correct working. +The steam pipe is simply passed through the tar pipe, and a steam trap +attached to its end. In changing from the coal or coke fuel to the +tar, little or no difficulty is experienced, and very rarely is a +shovelful of any kind of solid material required. The furnace bars +have only to be kept covered to prevent the waste of tar and the too +rapid ingress of air; and when the furnaces are in full work, and +being well and carefully attended to, the tar will be found to have +been nearly all consumed before reaching the solid material covering +the bars. The action is very much the same as in the paraffin oil +lamp. The wick is the medium by which the oil is brought to the point +of combustion, where it is developed into light; but the wick remains +little injured, although in close proximity to such intense heat. The +oil burns, not the wick. In the tar furnace, the tar itself burns, and +the tar only. + +It will be easily understood that a little experience is necessary to +enable the attendant to fully understand the quantity of tar by which +complete combustion is to be obtained, and which in no case must be +exceeded. The moment one atom of tar is sent into the furnace beyond +that which can be thoroughly consumed, you have then the most hideous +discharge of black smoke (carbon) which it is difficult to describe, +but which can be easily understood, and, I believe, can be seen within +a few miles of where we now sit. I should mention that the injectors +are fitted on the furnace doors; but the connections are of such a +nature that the doors can be opened without disturbing any of the +permanent fittings. + +And now I have told you that the results detailed in this short paper +were those obtained in the Dundee gas works. This is so; but were I to +leave the matter here, it might be inferred that I considered similar +results might be obtained in any and every gas works. I would not +mislead you; and therefore must detain you for a few moments longer in +order to show you how my town is different from many others. Dundee is +very peculiarly situated in this respect. It is a long distance from +any tar distiller's works capable of dealing with the large quantity +of tar we have for sale during the winter. A large portion of the +value of our tar must, therefore, go to the railway company, to cover +the cost of transit between the two points, and so the tar distiller +can allow us but a small figure for it at the starting point. Then +again, Dundee being far distant from the coal fields, the coal is +exceptionally high in price. I quite believe that in many of the west +country towns the coal for which we are paying 5s. per ton could be +had for 3s.; and the tar for which we are receiving 4s. per ton, they +would get not much under the double of this. Therefore, you see, in a +place so circumstanced, the figures I have given would be most +misleading. Still, I doubt not there are places as badly situated as +Dundee; and it is to such places that my remarks are directed. I +believe also that, in many towns distant from collieries, the tar +might be sold to manufacturers for use in their steam boilers; and +such an arrangement would, I think, prove advantageous both to the +seller and the user of this liquid fuel. + +I think that as much has been said in regard to my subject as is +necessary; but permit me to add that I believe there is a future for +liquid fuels. I do not say tar, but more concentrated fuels, such as +crude naphthas, paraffins, and pitch oil. When you see one of our +large steamers taking coal into her bunker, it must have appeared to +you that there was great waste of power here. Every ton of coal laid +in must require a certain amount of power to carry it; and every ton +of coal so laid in reduces the cargo-carrying power to this extent. A +few gallons of oil will give you the steam-producing power of a ton of +coal; and this is a fact which the owners of non-paying steamships +should note. Take our locomotives also. Everything I have said in +regard to steamships applies to them; and the comfort to the stokers +and the general reduction in labor would be very marked indeed. Of +course, it may be argued that if there were such a large demand +created for oils for furnaces, the old fashioned law of supply and +demand might come into play, and so force up the price of the article +for which the increased demand had taken place. But I think this state +of matters is rather remote, when we bear in mind the great oil wells +only now becoming developed, and the oils from which can be run in +bulk direct from the wells into ships, and brought to this country at +very low rates.--_Journal of Gas Lighting._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WATCH CLEANING AND REPAIRING. + +By "OLD FOGY." + + +Before proceeding with what I consider the best methods in this +department of the watch and jewelry business, I will say that I do +not, by any means, consider that my way is the best, for although I +have been in the business quite a while, yet I find that I learn +something new almost every day that I live, and expect to do so, so +long as I continue in the business. Be very particular in selecting +your tools; about three widths of screwdrivers, and keep them in the +best of order, square across the point of blade, and never use a +screwdriver too narrow nor too wide for the screw, and in using be +careful not to let it slip, and thus mar the plates or bridges of a +watch. I also recommend that the handles of these screwdrivers be of +different shapes or styles, so as to save time in picking up the one +you want (and just here I will say that every device or method that +saves time will be of great value to the operator); then have about +the same number of tweezers (3), one of good, solid, heavy points, say +1/16 inch wide at the points, for taking down a watch, and handling +the heavier parts, and then one a little finer, and one very fine to +work in about the train, hairspring, etc., and always keep these +tweezers in perfect order at the points, so that whatever you handle, +you will not mar or drop the things you are handling. Right in this +connection I will say that I cannot find tweezers that suit me. So I +make my own, and you can do the same if you will by selecting some +nice steel. Then a good assortment of pliers, cutting, flat, and +round. In selecting brushes, you will have to be very particular and +secure the open and straight bristle brushes, which are also hard to +find these latter years. Take all the coarser brushes and hold them on +a coarse grindstone, running them whole length, both ways; this takes +off the new rough end of the bristles before using first time. Then +there are punches, broaches, drills, calipers, countersinks, files, +etc., etc. Besides this, I have adopted the plan of making any tool I +happen to need for any special purpose, so that by making these at the +time I happen to want a tool that I cannot purchase, I have +accumulated quite a variety of odd tools; among them are a varied lot +of millers, for milling and raising jewels, and deepening the +countersink holes for jewel settings and screw heads, also a tool for +holding a roller, to set the jewel pin, and one for holding the hair +spring collet, and a pair of tweezers for holding jewels while +cleaning, etc., etc. As to lathes, I have found that there is a +necessity of about two lathes; one a Swiss, light running lathe for +cementing any pivot work, and I prefer these because they run much +lighter and easier than those heavier American lathes; and yet if +confined to but one lathe, I would use a small sized American lathe, +with a good assortment of split chucks, particularly those with the +smaller sized holes, for holding balance staffs, wheel arbors, etc., +which come in use almost everyday, for taking off the burr from the +point of a balance pivot, which has come from a collapse of the case; +driving the end stones down on the end of pivots, even sometimes to +the extent of heading them over inside of the hole jewel. These small +size split chucks I have found extremely useful for the last named +purpose, and I am not so "sentimental" but that I oftener use these +split chucks, even for setting fine balance pivots, rather than take +time to cement them; and while I do not advise the use of a split +chuck for this purpose in every case, yet with a little experience one +can tell when a staff is held so that the new pivot when set will +"line" and be true, and of a clear beat or swing. To make a very nice +pivot the cementing process is preferable, and yet, for nearly a year, +my old No. 1 American lathe was not set up (for reasons I need not +take space to explain), and during that time I employed a very +skillful workman to do my pivoting, and this man would not think of +ever doing a nice job unless he cemented it, and I can assure you that +he put in more pivots out of line, and out of true, in the course of +those few months, than I had done badly in my life. Speaking of +"sentiment," I will say that too many young workmen use the lathe too +much, and seem to depend on a fine looking lathe and handsome tools, +and spend too much time in using the lathe and in decorating their +bench with a fine display. But don't construe this as meaning that one +can do nice work with a jack knife and handsaw, for I most certainly +believe in a good and substantial set of tools, or I would not have +taken so much space in speaking of them. Next, one must have a good +bench, wide and of good length: and if no other drawers, a shallow +depth drawer, exactly in center of the bench, with no knob in front, +but rather a lip running its whole length, underneath. So that +wherever you place your hand you can pull it out. This drawer I would +have large and roomy (wide and long and extending back as far as the +depth of the bench will allow, but shallow, not deep down in), and +then partition it off by narrow slats, diagonally across it, running +these slats from the extreme near right hand corner to the further and +extreme left hand corner, so that as you reach your right hand in to +take out a tool, you can grasp it naturally without twisting or +cramping your hand. About eight inches below the top of the bench, I +would place a skin drawer (the name comes from the practice at watch +factories, formerly using sheepskins for the bottoms), which is made +with a square frame (say like a picture frame), sliding on slats or a +groove, so that it can be drawn out toward the operator, and when so +drawn, the elbows will rest on this frame, with the wrists resting on +the edge of the top of the bench, thus giving a firm support for both +arms and hands, and this frame having stretched across its bottom a +skin or canvas, will catch and retain anything that drops or rolls +from the bench. This latter drawer I consider almost an indispensable +article to doing good and successful work. At the right hand of these +two drawers named, running down to floor if need be, there can be a +series of drawers for tools and materials. Now with these equipments, +and some others, not herein named, such as vise, file block, bench +stake or anvil, and a large variety of such tools as will accumulate, +I am ready to give you my ideas regarding the cleaning and repairing +of watches. First and foremost, do not undertake any job that you have +any or considerable doubt but what you can do successfully, and never +leave a job worse than you found it; and never mar, cut, or slash any +part of a watch. In other words, don't undertake a job that you have +doubts as to whether you can do it correctly. One of my old masters +told me never to undertake to improve on the maker's work, and this, +while not true in every case (particularly cheap watches), yet is a +safe rule to go by. Never allow your file, screwdriver, pliers, +tweezers, or any tool to deface any part of a watch. I shall speak of +this as I proceed. First, be careful and not let the movement swing so +as to in any way injure the balance, in taking from case, and if a +lever watch, take out the balance the first thing after getting out of +case. Now see that the mainspring is let down and then remove the +screws from the plates, taking care not to damage or bend any of the +pivots as you do this. When all in pieces, before you proceed to +clean, examine with a strong glass to see if the rim of any wheel is +rubbing or clashing with anything, particularly the center wheel in +any full plate American watch, for these wheels are often dragging on +the plate or striking the ratch wheel because it is not true, and if +examined before cleaning the places where it drags, are a tell-tale of +the mischief. Also make any diagnosis of the watch that is needed to +discover any errors from wear or accident, and correct them before +going further, such as looking to each jewel, pivot, and other parts, +and make all necessary repairs before cleaning. I have been in the +habit for several years of putting my balance wheel separate from all +connections, and trying its freedom in all positions, and if you will +try this method, you will be surprised how many you will find that +bind or are not perfectly free in all positions, when you give them +the very slightest impulse by a twirl of the hand, holding the plate. +Then, too, a careful examination of each jewel; you will be surprised +how many are either loose in the setting or plate. In regard to +cleaning, I use the old method (after trying all ways suggested)--that +of chalk (but I use the old lump chalk, for those carpenters' chalk +balls are made with some kind of paste that adheres to the plate)--and +have this lump of chalk at my right hand, in a perforated bottom box, +so that any coarse pieces fall through to the floor, and by rubbing +the brush across it and then giving it a slight rap, before applying +it to plate, any hard or heavy substance will fall out, and then with +light pressure with the brush that is medium soft (and prepared on +grindstone as before mentioned, if a new one) brush the plates, with +an occasional breathing on the surface, clean the old oil or tarnish, +and then peg out each hole many times, until you are sure every hole +is clean, by pegging both sides, and then with a soft dust brush dust +thoroughly by striking the brush into the holes on both sides. Of +course, remove all end stones, and clean out with soft pith, holding +the jewels in a pair of hook nose tweezers, mentioned. Should the +plates and wheels be very much soiled and oily, a covered dish of +alcohol is indispensable, and I have had a glass stopper bottle, with +ether, in which to dip the jewels, pallets, and other small pieces, +which takes the oil all off, but be sure and clean off with soft pith +or pegwood such pieces as you have thus dipped. This ether will carry +all loose lint or other things to its bottom, from hairsprings or +roller table, and if held but a moment will do effective work, and not +loosen shellac. + +Regarding loose jewels, I am not so sentimental as to refuse using +some shellac, if the burnished lip has been so thin as to be partially +gone, thus loosening the jewel to hold in the jewel, by taking small +and minute particles, and placing around the edge of the jewel, and +then holding the plate or bridge over an alcohol flame, and allowing +the shellac to flow around the jewel and fasten it firm, and by this +process I have kept jewels firm in place for years, with no other +attention than the first, and as a rule this can be done and not show. +When you have thoroughly cleaned the different parts, holding +everything with soft tissue paper, then with the paper put the watch +together, never forcing any part into place, and when screwed or +pinned together, try every wheel to see that there is the proper end +and side shake to each pivot, then introduce the balance wheel, having +been once tried alone as described, and see that the banking pins are +so adjusted that the guard pin on the fork (lever) does not drag on +either side, and that the jewel pin enters the slot, clearing the +opposite corner, and that the guard pin is so in position that it will +not allow the pin to pass by at any point and bring the jewel pin +outside the lever, or so it will strike in hollow, or on the corners +of the hollow of the roller. When you have oiled each pivot exactly on +its connecting point of bearing with just the right amount of oil (of +course, oil those jewels having end stones before putting watch +together), your watch is ready for the dial, and in replacing the +hands you cannot be too particular about their being free and clearing +each other and the dial and glass. There is the care of the mainspring +I have intentionally reserved till the last. There are lots of +theories why a spring will break just after cleaning, but I only know +that since I have adopted the method of never taking out the spring +(except when, after taking off the cap of barrel, I find it is all +gummed up with bad oil, and then of course clean it) I have found that +a spring does not break any oftener than is common, even if the watch +is not cleaned; but I invariably remove the barrel arbor and clean out +the holes and the arbor itself. + +Of course to explain every detail of the method of repairing the +various parts of a watch would take more space than you would allow in +your journal, and hence I will not attempt to go into minute detail, +except perhaps some of the more important items, and the most common +things found in everyday experience. Among these are broken pivots, +worn pivots (sometimes requiring new ones), worn holes in plates, and +at the intersection of barrel arbor, ratch and bridge of Swiss +watches, etc., which, as a rule, require common sense as much as +practice, and it varies in different watches, so that the common sense +rule applies the best to nearly all of these, and if you have not got +common mechanical sense, then you have mistaken your calling and +should do something else. In any of these repairs don't go it blind, +but study your case carefully and do the best thing you study out. +When there is a worn pivot hole in a plate, and one side is +countersunk for oil, then have a punch rounded at the point, just the +shape of the countersink (and if you have not one make one, and here +is where my rule, that of making a tool as the need comes for it, +comes in play), and by screwing this punch into the vise, and with a +smooth, flat point punch (slightly cornered of course) in one hand and +holding the plate or bridge with the other, with the countersink on +the punch, have a striker tap light and quick blows, and you move the +punch around on the side most worn (and one side is almost invariably +worn most, throwing the wheel arbor out of upright) and close up, even +a little too much, and then with a round, smooth broach enlarge it, so +that it will be right size, and this leaves it hard and smooth. + +Broken pivots, as I have hinted, I place the arbor in a split chuck, +and if true, I drill into the staff with a drill, made from a nice +piece of steel wire, the old and ordinary shape of a drill, which is a +trifle larger at the cutting point than it is back of the point, and I +make these as I need them, and harden simply by holding the wire in a +flame till red hot, and then dash into an apple, potato, soap, or pure +rubber. Which is the best of these I have as yet been unable to +determine, so I use either as the most handy. Take a good, tough and +small pointed graver and turn a slight center in the end of arbor I am +to drill, and then by giving my lathe a back and forward motion, I +begin to drill, and by the sense of feeling I can tell whether my +drill is cutting or not, and if not, I have a small, smooth oilstone +at hand and sharpen the drill as often as it refuses to cut, and if +that drill will not cut, I make another. + +I make my drills of very small wire, filing them at point and then tap +the point (holding the wire in a very fine pin vise), thus flattening +as well as spreading it, and then shape the cutting edges as spoken of +above. When you have drilled sufficiently to hold a plug firmly, then +have a piece of steel of spring temper filed so as to fit closely and +so straight that it will not act too wedging (and split the arbor), +drive it in, cut it off and turn down, finishing with an oilstone +slip, and polish by running the lathe rapidly and with a piece of thin +boxwood (or hard pegwood) charged with diamantine, being sure that the +end of the pivot has no burr, thrown either way, over end or on side, +for such a burr will cause a lack of freedom of a balance pivot +particularly. This matter of setting pivots requires a longer +experience than almost any other work, and it needs a long practice to +do a nice job. If your split chuck will not hold your staff or arbor +true, then use cement; but in this, too, you must be sure that your +center is true, and that the sound pivot enters it perfectly. +Sometimes you meet with steel so hard that you cannot touch it with a +drill, in which case draw the temper of the staff or arbor you are +drilling, and if it projects so little that you cannot draw the temper +without injury to the wheel, then unstake or separate the wheel, and +by drilling a hole into a piece of brass wire, about the size of the +staff you are drilling, insert the staff in this hole, and then heat +the wire near the staff and thus gradually and yet effectively draw +the temper. + +I consider it well for young workmen to practice pivot setting in some +old and useless watch any spare time they may have, and thus become +adepts at this work. Unhindered, I am not over on an average of +one-half hour in setting any ordinary pivot, especially if I do not +have to cement my work. If this is a balance pivot, be very careful to +see that your balance is true and poised before putting on hairspring +and roller. There are some pivots that are underturned (to make look +tidy and light), and sometimes it is about an impossibility to put in +a new one, and in this case, if an American watch, I always put in an +entire new staff, and hence keep a full assortment on hand. + +Regarding replacing broken jewels, I also keep a full stock of these, +turned (the setting) to match any make or style of watch; except, of +course, Swiss watches, and for these I keep a large assortment of +sizes, both of cock and foot and wheel jewels, and a full stock once +procured, they last a long time and are a good investment, for with +them you can meet any emergency. + +In a Swiss watch, or any watch where the jewel is set into the plate, +have some one of the devices for throwing up the burnished lip, and +then select a jewel that just fills the space, and then with a smooth +pointed punch, such as I described I used for closing up a pivot hole, +I turn this lip back by sliding this round pointed punch around the +outside, making it act as a burnish. Cap jewels I either treat in the +same manner as the last, or cut away the setting, and insert them as +they are inserted in most Swiss watches. + +I have now taken up the more common repairs, and will close by hastily +speaking of the more rare cases, and the adjustment of the hair +spring, etc., etc. It is often the case that there is never end shake +to the balance to make it absolutely safe when screwed into the case, +and when this happens I take the point of a sharp graver and prick up +a burr on the bridge, and never on the plate, as any unskilled workman +does, for the under side of the bridge never being finished, you +really mar nothing, and sometimes this raising of the cock (or bridge) +becomes a necessity, to have it clear the rim of the balance, which, +if raised, it will clear, and then by bending down the end of the cock +at point where the jewel is, and thus regulate the end shake. I hardly +know how to give directions how to proceed in adjusting hairsprings, +when they are disarranged, but if I could see you, I could explain by +example what I cannot well do in words. To commence, a hairspring, +when there is no power applied to balance from the jewel pin, should +be, when pinned, just as free from any twist or cramping as it would +be if lying flat and free on a smooth piece of glass, before it has +been pinned at either end, and when it is pinned in the watch (at stud +and collet) it should be thus free. To bring it thus requires +demonstration that cannot be made on paper, unless you could make +diagrams, too numerous for this article. + +What I have said regarding it, however, gives an idea of how a +hairspring should be pinned. Common sense is demanded here as +elsewhere. To put a watch in beat, too, is a very important item, +which I do by placing sharp pointed tweezers, first on one side of the +arm of balance and then on the other, and so pin my hairspring in the +stud, that it will let off as readily on one side as the other. I had +forgotten to say that every watch should have a little oil on the face +of the pallet stones. I know full well that some workmen will say that +there should be none, but I can tell of scores of watches that have +failed and indeed stopped simply for want of oil on the pallets. +Selecting mainsprings, too, needs much more care than is usually given +to this department, and as a rule even the watch factories fill the +barrel too full, that is, too long springs. Whether I am correct in +this or not, you cannot be too particular in selecting the right +strength, length, and width of mainsprings. Mainsprings should be well +and carefully oiled. + +There are many ways of replacing broken teeth in wheels, and the width +of the web and the size of the teeth has much to do with how they are +put in, but I usually dovetail them in, and then with the very tiniest +bit of soft solder fasten them, but in so doing be positive you have +got off all soldering fluid, that it will not rust the pinion into +which it meshes, and be very particular to have it exactly like the +rest of the teeth in same wheel, and don't mar the web of the wheel +more than is possible. + +I will now draw this article to a close, well appreciating the fact +that I have only made a superficial attempt to instruct younger men in +the cleaning and repairing of watches, for there is almost an endless +variety of special repairs coming almost unexpectedly to any one, even +if they have been in the business a long time, as I have, and as I +first said, I am learning daily some new phase of the business, and am +surprised that I never had known it before. I have, too, taken perhaps +more space than I ought, regarding tools and bench, yet the older I +grow, the more I can see the importance of this part, that I may be +enabled to do work well and quick. Besides, I have left such repairs +as the chain and fusee, uprighting wheels, repairing cases, adjustment +to position, heat and cold, isochronism, enlarging jewels, or changing +angles of pallet stones, etc., etc., all of which I do as necessity +demands, as well as the care of striking watches, fly backs, etc., +which, too, I make a specialty of, and of chronometer escapement +watches, which would take more space than I feel disposed to ask you +to give me.--_American Jeweler._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION AT FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN. + + +The new central railway station at Frankfort on the Main is one of the +most imposing structures of modern times, not only as regards its +dimensions, but also because of the effect which its architectural +proportions produce upon the eye. Nobody looking at the long line of +buildings surrounded by gigantic perron halls can help being impressed +with their grandeur. The beholder, however, is not only struck by the +general aspect, but also by the beauty of detail in this magnificent +specimen of the Renaissance style. The interior of the perron hall +shown in one of our engravings is especially impressive, and every one +will admire the graceful outlines of the heavy iron structures in the +upper part, which, in consequence of their enormous height, look from +below like a spider web. + +The base and the earth works were begun in the summer of 1881, and if +we take into consideration the fact that 2,700,000 cubic meters of +sand and gravel were necessary for the foundation, we will have some +idea of the scale on which the edifice was undertaken. In 1883, the +great hall, which has a width of 220 meters and which will shortly be +opened to traffic, was begun. The perspective view of this portion of +the station is given in one of our engravings. Inspector Eggert had +the general management of the building, which was erected after the +plan submitted by him, and which received the prize in the competition +between the different architects. Herr Frantz, a distinguished +engineer, who undertook the general supervision of the construction, +had an important part in the execution of the entrance hall for the +trains, and it was he, also, who built the perron hall, after designs +of Herr Schwedler. + +The middle part of the station, which contains the porch, the ticket +offices, the baggage department, the police quarters and the telegraph +offices, projects, as shown in the picture, considerably beyond the +rest of the building, and by the distinct membering of its moulding +stands out conspicuously from the whole. Protruding portals of +peculiar structure and corner pavilions enliven the aspect of the +wings of the edifice, the great round arched windows of which are +separated from each other by powerful stone pillars. The corner +pavilions to the left in the view contain the so-called imperial +apartments for the reception of royal travelers, and on the other side +are the meeting hall and reception rooms of the different railway +administrations. On the right and left of the imposing main vestibule, +which is distinguished by the strength and the beauty of its style, +lobbies with arched roofs lead to the waiting and dining rooms, the +ladies' rooms, the imperial apartments and the above mentioned meeting +hall of the administration. + +[Illustration: THE NEW CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION. FRANKFORT ON THE + MAIN.--Drawn by Fr. Schurmann.] + +The ladies' and gentlemen's toilet rooms also are in that part of the +building. + +The architect has laid especial stress upon the architectural +ornamentation of the building. Upon the apex of the arch over the main +vestibule a great group will be placed, representing Atlas carrying +the world on his shoulders, and supported in his work by the +allegorical figures of Steam and Electricity. + +This group, which is at the present moment being executed in copper by +Houwald, in Brunswick, is the work of a Frankfort sculptor, Herr +Gustav Herold. In the arch itself, near the clock, we see two +allegorical female figures, over life size, in a sitting posture, +modeled by Prof. Gustav Kaupert in Frankfort, and representing Day and +Night. In front of the pillars supporting the arch, two other female +sitting figures, also above life size, will be perceived. These were +modeled by Professor Calandrelli in Berlin, and represent Agriculture +and Commerce, and in the niches on both sides there are the statues of +Navigation and Industry, the work of the sculptor Hundrieser, of +Berlin. The two side portals of the entrance hall are surmounted by +figures of boys, having a height 2.40 meters; on the left the +commercial traveler and traveling student, modelled by Rudolph +Eckhardt in Frankfort; on the right the traveler for pleasure and the +emigrant, the works of the sculptor Scholl, of Mayence. The groups of +the corner pavilions, allegoric representations of machine building +and engineering, were modeled by Professor Max Wiese, of Hanau. The +figures, like the whole building, are of Heibronn sandstone. Either +wing has a vestibule leading to the middle perron of the great hall. +They resemble in style the architecture of the front of the middle +building, only their arches are smaller. Here also we meet rich +architectural ornamentation on the pillars in the great arch. The +ornaments consist, as in the former case, of allegorical figures of +boys. They have a height of 2.20 meters, and represent Agriculture and +Art Industry on the one side and Art and the Retail Trade of Frankfort +on the other side. The two former figures are the work of the sculptor +A. Brutt, of Berlin; the two latter were modeled by Hermann Becker, of +Frankfort. The side facades are very long, but of simpler style than +the front of the building, and connect with the perron halls, which on +their part end in semi-towers. There the offices of the +administrations are located. The main vestibule leads directly to the +middle of the perron in the large hall, which consists of three naves, +and into which enter the trains of six railway lines, each separated +from the other by perrons. The perron hall has a length of 186 meters +and a width of 168 meters. The height of the naves, with their low +arched roofs, rises in the center to 28.5 meters. Tunnels connect the +different railway lines, in order to assist the rapid transit of +through trains. The port also benefits by these tunnels. The inside +front of the main vestibule is very richly decorated. In its center a +large clock is situated, and on both sides of it are colossal +allegorical figures modeled by F. Kruger, of Frankfort, and +representing the hours of Morning and Evening, while on the pillars we +perceive large male figures in a sitting posture, representing the +Defense of the Country and Mining, the work of Herr Keller, of +Frankfort. The pillars are crowned by groups of sculpture, +representing the Honeymoon Travel and Instruction in Traveling, the +one modeled by A. C. Rumpf, and the other by Friedrich Schierholz, of +Frankfort. + +The whole edifice is fire proof, scarcely any wood having been used in +its erection. The hall as well as the other parts of the building are +heated by steam and lighted by electricity. The whole cost of the +structure amounted to about $8,500,000.--_Illustrirte Zeitung._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS. + + +At the beginning of the year 1881, the committee on finances of the +common council of Paris received a petition from the central committee +of the syndical chambers asking for the establishment of an official +exchange for merchandise and commercial transactions for the especial +use of Parisian commerce. To this petition was added a project of +organization which proposed the appropriation of the grain market, +with a clearing of the approaches. The Paris chamber of commerce had +likewise been for a long time contemplating the establishment of a +merchandise exchange, and was studying the practical means of +organizing it. + +Called upon to decide, the common council, at its session of May 28, +1881, decreed that an official merchandise exchange for the commerce +of Paris should be organized, and that the grain market, or any other +place considered favorable by the administration, should be +appropriated. + +Desirous of aiding in carrying out this decree, the chamber of +commerce offered its services to the city. It proposed to take upon +itself the responsibility of organizing and managing the exchange, and +of borrowing the money necessary for converting the grain market into +a merchandise exchange, and for clearing the approaches and opening +Louvre Street. + +The study of this project soon became connected, by reason of the +proximity of the places, with the one having for its object the +enlarging of the central markets and the construction of two pavilions +to complete them. It was recognized that it would be of interest to +make the appropriation necessary for the enlarging of the markets and +to unite the two operations. After many vicissitudes, this project +received the approval of the common council. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE OF + PARIS.] + +The contract for the work was given on the 2d of March, 1886, to Mr. +Blondel, the well known architect. + +Let us now see how the contract has been followed out. The grain +market was built in 1767, upon the site of the hotel of Soissons. Of +this, nothing was preserved but the astronomical tower of Catherine de +Medicis, which still remains. The central part of the market left free +was soon covered with a wooden framework, which was destroyed by fire +in 1802. This was then replaced by the architect Brunet with an iron +cupola covered with sheet copper. This market was designed for the +reception of the grain and flour necessary to supply the city, but was +soon supplanted by public granaries, and then by general stores. It +afterward became a depot in which grain and flour brokers received +merchandise from shippers in order to effect a sale of it. The +abolition of the _factorat_ gave it its last blow. + +Let us examine the transformations made by Mr. Blondel in the old +structure. He began by excavating under the entire extent of the +market a basement 13 ft. in depth. The old foundations of the circular +walls, which are more than 6 ft. thick, and which are extremely solid, +extend to a depth of about 2˝ ft. beneath the surface. The ceiling of +the basement, in the annular part between the walls, is formed of +large T iron girders, resting upon the circular walls. These support +transverse girders, which, in turn, support the floor irons. + +The flooring of the hall is formed of ordinary floor irons, assembled +upon large girders, which are supported here and there by cast iron +columns. Under this flooring there is a second one, leaving a free +space of about ten inches, in which will be placed the tubes serving +for ventilation. To these pipes will be joined vertical ones +debouching in the flooring of the hall. + +The old dome did not have apertures enough, and the skylight even was +not transparent, and so the lighting of the hall was very defective. +The mode of covering the dome was therefore completely modified. The +copper was removed, and upon the old framework was laid a wooden +framework, to which will be nailed laths designed to receive a slate +roof. The slate will not extend to the summit of the dome, but will +leave above it a spherical cap, which will be glazed, and through +which the light will enter the hall in abundance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--INTERNAL VIEW OF THE EXCHANGE.] + +In the basement will be installed the ventilating and heating +apparatus. Another part of the basement will be occupied by the dynamo +machines that are to furnish the electric light. Another part will +receive the bake ovens that belong to the laboratory of the committee +on grain and flour. The rest of the basement will be rented. The +central part will probably be converted into a cold room for the +preservation of early fruit and vegetables. + +On the ground floor, we find, in the first place, the rooms that the +contractor is to furnish gratuitously for post office, telegraph, and +telephones, and to licensed brokers, and especially a hall of superb +dimensions designed for the public sale of raw materials by the +brokers. + +What remains of the ground floor will be devoted to offices looking at +once upon the hall and Viarones Street. The entresol and the two +stories will be connected by several staircases. The various stories +will also be reached through elevators. A circular balcony will extend +around the hall at the level of each of the two upper stories. These +will be occupied by offices smaller than those on the ground floor, +which will, some of them, get their light from the hall, and others +from the street. + +A part of the second story will be reserved for the service of the +committees on grain and flour, who, as experts, are called upon to +determine to what type each specimen is to be referred. + +From the exchange, let us pass to the annexes. The one on the right is +destined to become a large hotel for the accommodation of provincial +and foreign merchants. The one to the left will be a tenement house, +with shops and apartments. Along each of these annexes, on Viarones +Street, will extend a covered colonnade.--_Abstract from Le Genie +Civil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A BASIS FROM WHICH TO CALCULATE CHARGES FOR ELECTRIC MOTOR SERVICE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read before the electric light convention, New York, + August, 1888.] + + +The theoretical side of the electric motor question has been very ably +presented to and discussed by this association, but thus far the +practical side has been somewhat neglected. + +It will be my purpose in this paper, if possible, to show that there +is a general average controlling the use of machinery which it will be +safe for electric light and power companies to follow in making their +charges for motor service, rather than adopt an arbitrary price per +horse power regardless of the character of service required of the +motor. + +I have arranged what might be called a power curve, representing the +approximate average actual service in electric motors in connection +with the several classes of work represented in the list accompanying +the diagram. + +This curve is calculated on motors which are only of sufficient +capacity in each case to carry the full load. If the motor should be +larger than is necessary to drive the machinery, the percentage of +actual service will, of course, drop below that shown in the diagram. + +By adopting a basis of averages which shall be general among members +of this association, the charges for a constant horse power of current +may vary with the circumstances of its first cost in each case, but +the general classification of motor service may be a comparatively +fixed rule. I am not prepared to say that this is the best plan to +follow, but respectfully submit the following as a possible solution +of the frequently asked question, "How shall we charge for electric +motor service?" + + * * * * * + + + + + +EXHAUST FANS. + + +First on the list of power consumers is the exhaust fan, taking it in +average use. There are, however, circumstances under which its use +will be limited to as low as 70 or 75 per cent. of its contract hours +of service. As, for instance, in a dining room it may be cut out +except during meal hours, or entirely cut out on cool days. In places +of this description, however, its contract use is usually limited to +five or six months in the year, and other than electric power is, by +circumstances of first cost and inconvenience, but a feeble +competitor. + +The first four applications on the accompanying list, viz., exhaust +fans, blowers, ceiling fans, and fan outfits, are all more or less +subject to the foregoing conditions, and therefore currents supplied +to motors for these purposes command the maximum price per horse +power. One important feature in the installation of ceiling fans is +the countershafting to the motor. In one recent case we had a +complaint from a customer that the half horse power motor sent him +would not drive the ceiling fans, and that the motor must be +defective, and should he return it for repairs. We immediately sent a +representative to find out the difficulty, which was found, as is +usual in such cases, in the countershafting, or rather the want of it. +The 3 in. pulley on the motor was connected to a 6 in. pulley on the +line shafting. The rated speed of the motor was 2,000 revolutions, and +had it been able to develop this speed, would have driven the line +shaft 1,000 revolutions and the fans a relative speed. To accomplish +this would probably require a motor of 3 or 4 H. P. The line shafting +driving ceiling fans usually runs about 75 revolutions. To give this +speed on the line shaft with a rated speed of 2,000 on the 3 in. +pulley of the motor would require a countershaft with a 24 in. pulley +belted to the motor. On the same countershaft should be a 5 in. pulley +belted to a 15 or 16 in. pulley on the line shaft. Fully three-fourths +of the trouble found in electric motors arises from improper shafting +and belting. The average make of 30 in. exhaust wheel, a ˝ H. P. motor +should drive about 400 revolutions. Say, then, the speed of the motor +is 2,000 and the pulley 3 in., it would require a 15 in. pulley on the +fan to do the work. A 36 in. wheel requires 1 H. P. to develop the +same speed. If the motor speed is 1,800, the pulley 4 in., it would +require an 18 in. pulley on the fan to do the work. These are the most +popular sizes of exhaust wheels. + +The next application on the list, open tank elevator pumps, commands +the highest price for current per H. P. in the motor of any elevator +application. The methods of operating the open tank hydraulic +elevators in question are undoubtedly familiar to you all. Instead of +the usual steam pump, a power pump of some approved design is +substituted, and connected to the motor by suitable countershafting to +give the required revolutions at the pump. The regulation of the motor +in this case should be controlled by the position of water in the +lower tank, as in the case of the steam pump. And in this connection +let me suggest the necessity of great care, both in installation and +insulation. + +On all installations in basements and cellars or elsewhere where there +is the slightest tendency to dampness, raise the motor off the floor +on a suitable frame or stand and build around it on all sides of +possible approach a low platform, using glass insulators as legs or +standards to support it. So arrange this that the motor or its +connections cannot be reached except when standing on this insulated +platform, and the liability to a shock will be reduced to the +difference of potential between the terminals of the machine. To +return to the subject. Let us take for an illustration an elevator +using 120 gallons of water per trip and consuming one minute in making +its entire up trip or about two per round trip. The lower tank or +water supply is on a level with the pump. The upper tank is 70 ft. +above the pump, and in the piping to the upper tank are five elbows. +For each elbow add 2 ft. to the elevation, or an approximate total +elevation of 80 ft. × 120 gallons gives us 9,600 foot gallons. This +amount would be required every two minutes if the elevator was in +absolutely constant operation, or 4,800 foot gallons per minute × 8˝ +gives us 40,800 foot pounds. This we must at least double to allow for +friction in pump shafting, etc., making 81,600 foot pounds, or about +2˝ H. P., say 3 required in the motor. + +This class of elevator is confined almost entirely to passenger use. +Therefore the service required of the motor is much more constant and +the margin between the H. P. hours contracted for and the H. P. hours +of actual service much smaller than in any other elevator use, +excepting possibly the services in connection with pressure tank +elevators in the more popular office buildings. In this case we have a +maximum average use of 80, and instances such as the hotels, small +office buildings, etc., where the service will not exceed 60 of the +contract H. P. hours. In order, however, that the electric light +company shall derive the greatest benefit from this inconstant +service, the installation and wiring should be the best, and only the +most approved and economical apparatus employed. + +The next application on our list, pressure tank pumps in connection +with elevators, represents a somewhat smaller percentage of H. P. +hours of actual service in the motor as compared with the possible H. +P. hours than in the case of an open tank pump. In case of the +pressure tank the water reserve is usually limited, and the motor +therefore must be equal to the continuous operation of the elevator at +maximum load. Taking this fact into consideration, and the +circumstances of elevator use being about the same in this case as in +the case of the open tank elevator, we have a greater ratio of +difference between the possible or contract H. P. hours in the motor +and the H. P. hours of actual service, the maximum average use being +about 70 per cent. to 75 per cent. and the minimum as low as 35 per +cent. to 40 per cent., depending, of course, on the character of +building in which the elevator is employed or the character of +service. In calculating the size of motor required on an elevator of +this description, a very convenient fact to remember is that every +pound of pressure per square inch is equivalent to lifting water about +23 ft., or about 230 ft. per 100 pounds pressure, By reducing the +required pressure to a relative lift in feet, and knowing the amount +of water required by the elevator per minute, the motor calculation +becomes the same as in case of the open tank elevator, the same +allowances being made for friction, etc., as in the first case. The +regulation of the motor in this case should be accomplished by the +conditions of pressure in the pressure tank, as is the case with a +steam pump employed in this service. + +The next application of importance on the list is sewing machines. In +the tests I have been able to make on this class of work I have +obtained some singular results. One item of importance is the fact +that the single thread machines, which are lightest running, consume +the most power in operating. Paradoxical as this may seem, it is +easily explained. As a rule this class of machine is used on light +work, such as shirts, ladies' underwear, etc., and operated at a +higher speed than any other class of machine. At equal speed the volts +consumed on a single thread machine as compared with a shuttle machine +is about as 2 to 3. In average commercial use, however, the positions +are reversed, and the ratio of volts consumed in the single thread as +compared with the shuttle machine is about as 5 to 3. To double the +speed on a sewing machine requires about 2˝ times the power. The +difference in volts consumed on the different makes of sewing machines +is so small that we may disregard it entirely, as well as the +character of work done by the machine, for the heavier the work the +slower the speed, and more frequent and longer stops on the machine, +thus keeping the average volts per operator about constant in all +cases. This leaves the speed in stitches per minute at the sewing +machine the factor from which we must calculate the power required in +a sewing machine plant. To illustrate this I will give you the record +of two cases which are about the average. Case No. 1 is a shop in +which are 30 sewing machines connected to a 2 H. P. motor. At the time +tests were made there were but twenty operators at work, leaving ten +idle machines, the entire shafting, however, being in operation. The +class of goods manufactured in this shop is a cheap grade of cotton +and wool pants, rather heavy goods to sew. A volt meter across the +terminals of the motor gave the following readings with the current at +9 amperes: Minimum 90 volts, maximum 148 volts, average 119, which +gives us a minimum average per operator of 4.5 volts and a maximum +average of 7.4 volts, or a general average of 5.9 volts per operator. +This motor was driving the shafting for 30 machines, and as the +average operators employed the year round will not exceed 75 per cent. +of the shop capacity, it will, I think, be entirely fair to estimate +the average volts per machine rather than per operator, as the user of +the motor has contracted for power sufficient to drive his entire +plant. In this case, then, we have a minimum average of 3 volts per +machine and a maximum of 4.9 volts, or a general average of say 4 +volts per machine. A 2 horse motor of 82 per cent. efficiency with 9 +amperes of current will require about 200 volts to develop 2 actual H. +P. Two hundred volts therefore is what the electric light company +contract to deliver, while, in reality, they deliver only 129 volts or +60 percent., or a minimum average of 90 volts or 45 per cent. of the +power contracted for. These machines were making about 1,200 stitches +per minute--an average of 4 volts per 100 stitches. + +Case No. 2 is a shop in which there are 32 machines, running about +1,200 stitches, each being supplied with an individual motor of 1/8 H. +P. capacity, and the class of goods manufactured being men's summer +clothing, such as white duck vests, flannel coats and vests, etc., the +duck from which these vests are made being about as hard work on a +sewing machine as can be found. In this shop were 24 operators at +work. The maximum volts in this case were 116 and the minimum 40, or +general average of but 78 volts, or about 2˝ volts per machine with 4 +more operators than in the first case, in which we had an average of +119 volts. This shop has been paying the electric light company $32 +per month for more than a year, which is the price the company charge +for current for a 4 H. P. motor which approximates 400 volts, the +company contracts to deliver. This gives us a minimum average use of +but 10 per cent. and a maximum of 29 per cent. with a general average +of 19˝ per cent. In other words, the company is saving in this shop +the price of a 1/8 H. P. motor each month, besides making a profit on +the volts actually delivered. On a contract for three years the +electric light company would be money in pocket if they would present +the customer with 30 small motors, charging him $1 per month per motor +for current, rather than let him buy a 2 H. P. motor to operate the +same machines with the necessary shafting at a charge of $18 per month +for current. Taking this average in case No. 2 of 2˝ volts per +machine, from a 50 light machine, we could run not less than 900 +sewing machines, or about 18 to the arc lamp. At $1 per month per +machine an income of $900 per month would be derived from a 50 light +machine without any lamp expenses, such as carbons, repairs on lamps, +globes, etc. On the average, in case No. 1, of 4 volts per machine, we +could operate but about 562, say 600 machines. Divided up in shops of +30 machines and a 2 H. P. motor to each shop, we would have 20 two H. +P. motors. At a charge of $18 per month each, we would have an earning +capacity of but $360 per month from the same 50 light machine. + +This is but one page from the thus far unwritten history of the much +maligned small motor. Still the question is frequently asked, "Can we +sell current for $1 per month for a small motor driving a sewing +machine and make a profit?" As a matter of fact, 50 cents per month +for small motors driving sewing machines yields a better profit to the +company supplying the current than $10 per month per H. P. in large +motors to drive the same machines, besides the immense advantage which +the small motors possess of keeping the circuit in much better +balance, the fluctuations due to the stopping and starting of large +motors being at times a serious matter. One electric light company, +making rather a specialty of these small machines, rent the motor and +supply the current for $1.25 per month per sewing machine, and report +that at this price the motor pays them a better percentage of profit +than their lamps. This company have some 200 small motors on their +circuits. + +A more striking illustration of the advantages to the electric light +company in the subdivision of power into the smallest possible units +it would be hard to find. There is a difference in efficiency of from +15 to 20 per cent. in these two sizes of motors, but this difference +is fully lost to the large motor in driving the shafting, and the +small motor still has the advantage of being out of circuit entirely +when the machine it is driving is stopped. There is scarcely a +manufacturing industry which does not possess its busy and dull +seasons. This means that in no industry will over 75 per cent. of the +machines or machinery employed be in average operation. The entire +shafting in the shops must be kept in operation the entire year, often +for less than 50 per cent. of the machinery. Subdivide these same +shops into as many small units as possible, and the current necessary +to operate the shafting for this idle machinery will be saved, besides +the saving from frequent stops while the machinery is in active use. + +To return again to the list, the next two applications, picture frame +manufacturers and moulding manufacturers, are very similar. Their busy +seasons, as a rule, are in the spring and fall, and also follow +closely any activity in house building. In the case of the larger +manufacturers in this line, a maximum average of 75 per cent. will +possibly be reached, but probably never exceeded. In the case, +however, of the picture dealer who has a small shop in which he makes +picture frames and mouldings to order the actual service of the motor +will fall as low as 25 per cent. or 30 per cent. of its contract +hours, one case in our experience the actual service having reached +this low average. A fair general average in this class of works would +be about 60 per cent. + +The next application, nickel and silver platers and buffers, are good +contract customers as a rule; one case in our experience showing but +an average use of 20 per cent. of the contract horse power hours. +This, however, is probably an exceptional case, and, as near as we can +estimate on this class of work, the actual motor service will not +exceed in any case 60 per cent. of the contract hours; a fair average +being probably 45 or 50 per cent. + +The next two applications, printing presses on news and job work, are +probably met with more frequently than any other. On exclusively news +work, the instances where the motor is in service more than 3 or 4 +hours is rare. It is, however, usual in news offices to find two or +more job presses. If the newspaper printed happens to be a morning +paper, the hours of news work are usually between 12 midnight and 4 +o'clock in the morning, the job work being done through the day. I +have in mind a case of this description. In the shop is one cylinder +press and three job presses connected to a 2 H. P. motor. This motor +is on an incandescent circuit of 110 volts. To develop its rated power +at 110 volts would require about 16 amperes in the motor. An ampere +motor in series with the motor while running off the morning paper +with only the cylinder press in operation stood at 12 amperes. For 3 +hours this load was practically constant, when it was thrown off +entirely. This gave on the night service but 30 per cent. of the +contract hours. This motor required 5 amperes to drive the shafting, +and but 8 amperes or one H. P. to drive the three job presses with the +cylinder press off. Here then is but a 50 per cent. use if the presses +be used constantly; there are, however, many days when they are +comparatively idle, 30 to 40 per cent., therefore, is a very safe +estimate of the maximum use of this motor on the day circuit, or, had +the motor been a 1 H. P., which would have been sufficient to drive +the job presses, the use would be 60 to 80 per cent. of the contract +hours, probably not above 60 per cent. All printing offices will +probably come within this range, unless the motor be larger than is +necessary to do the work. + +Machine shops doing principally lathe work as a matter of course use a +larger percentage of their contracted power than shops doing lathe and +bench work with the same hands. In no case will the service of the +motor exceed 65 or 70 per cent. of its contract use, for machine +shops, like sewing machine shops, will never average over 75 per cent. +of the shop capacity for operators the year round. The average, +especially in the case of a shop doing much bench work, will fall as +low as 40 per cent. + +The driving of laundry machinery, which is our next application, +usually proves a profitable contract, according to reports. This fact +arises from the intermittent use of the machinery. The heaviest +service on motor will probably be found during the early part of each +week, with a general falling off in work during the summer months, +while the patrons of the laundry are away at the sea-shore or in the +mountains. In this application, therefore, a 75 per cent. service +would probably be an exception, with, probably, many instances where +the service would fall below 50 per cent. + +The next application, model and pattern makers, are small users of +power, as their occupation requires a large proportion of hand work. +50 per cent. service in the motor will be found a fair average maximum +use, with instances as low as 20 or 25 per cent. + +The next application, direct power or belt elevators, is another +application frequently met. The average service in the motor is also +much smaller than in any other elevator application. Let us suppose a +case of the familiar grip connected to the ordinary hand hoist, with a +lifting capacity of 2,000 pounds. In this case the motor is in use +only going up, and the usual brake is used in coming down. Connected +to this elevator, in the loft of the building, we have a 5 H. P. motor +wired to a cut-out on the ground floor. We will call the lift 45 feet +and the time consumed per trip 1 minute. We will allow 60 full trips +of the elevator at full load, at 2,000 lb. per trip, each day. This +would approximate 10 car loads of merchandise handled by the elevator, +which is certainly above the average. This motor, we will say, is on a +ten hour day circuit. Its possible horse power hours, therefore, would +be 5 H. P. for 10 hours, or 50 H. P. hours per day. 60 trips of 1 +minute each gives us exactly 1 hour's service of the full 5 H. P. or 5 +H. P. hours. To drive the shafting only while the elevator is coming +down or idle would require about 150 volts or 1˝ H. P., and if this +was in constant operation the balance of the day, 9 hours, its total +use on shafting would be 13˝ H. P. hours, which, added to the 5 H. P. +hours, gives us a grand total of 18˝ H. P. hours, or 37 per cent. of +the contract hours. If, however, the user of the motor avails himself +of the cut-out box, and cuts the current out when the motor is not in +use, the average use would drop to 20 or 25 per cent., instead of 37 +per cent. In the case of a direct power passenger elevator, the use +might possibly run up to 60 per cent., but this would be exceptional. + +Coffee mills will average from 40 to 60 per cent. of their contract +hours, manufacturing jewelers about the same, while retail jewelers +will run as low as 25 per cent. Ice cream freezers will not average +over 25 per cent., but as the contract season in this case is usually +short, they should be rated at least a 50 per cent. basis, except +possibly in cases where the customer pays the cost of installation and +wiring, which is usual in these cases. + +A dentist is one of the smallest of power users, so small, in fact, +that if every one in a city were connected with a circuit, the load +from this cause would never be felt. We will, however, put them down +at from 10 to 20 per cent. + +The optician uses a motor to turn his grind stones, and its use in +this case will average from 20 to 30 per cent. + +The last application on the list--church organs--uses only from 10 to +20 per cent. of the contract service. + +These are, of course, but few of the very many applications of the +electric motor, and if, as I trust, the possible subsequent discussion +of this general plan may establish a basis for rating motor +applications, not only will the objects of this paper be obtained, but +a question of considerable annoyance now existing between the motor +man and the electric light or power company will be solved. + +In conclusion, Mr. Chairman, I beg to suggest that the supply and +rates of charge for electric power have become of sufficient +importance to this association to be represented by a permanent +committee, whose duty it should be to obtain from the different +members of the association, as far as possible, their experience in +the supply of power in such manner and form as shall be deemed by the +committee best suited to the wants of this association. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME ABYSSINIAN CUSTOMS. + + +[Illustration: WOMAN WITH UNDRESSED HAIR.] + +[Illustration: ABYSSINIAN HAIR DRESSER.] + +Abyssinian women have an extraordinary head of hair. The hair, though +not very long, is very bushy, so that it takes the capillary artist no +less than a day to succeed in reducing this forest into a small bulk. +As it requires some force to draw the comb through the hair, the +operation is painful, and this is why the Abyssinian women have it +performed every forty or fifty days only. The Abyssinian women of rank +pass their life in almost complete idleness, occupied almost +exclusively in bedecking themselves and in making or receiving calls. +It is not the same with the women of the people. They have many labors +to perform, and are the ones who manipulate the grains, hydromel and +beer, and grind pepper in the _matt-biett_. This latter operation is +very painful, and so they take the precaution to first close the +nostrils with plugs of cotton. Women who have children of a tender age +go at these operations with their progeniture upon the back, after the +manner of negro peoples.--_L'Illustration._ + +[Illustration: A PEPPER GRINDER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW A MOUND WAS BUILT. + + +"While exploring mounds in Ohio this season, under the direction of +the National Bureau of Ethnology," says Mr. Gerard Fowke, in a paper +prepared for _Science_, "I used great care in the examination of one +mound in Pike County, in order to ascertain, if possible, the exact +method of its construction. + +"The mound was built upon the site of a house, which had probably been +occupied by those whose skeletons were found. The roof had been +supported by side posts, and at intervals by additional inner posts. +The outer posts were arranged in pairs a few inches apart, then an +interval of about three feet, then two more, and so on. They were all +about eight inches in diameter, and extended from two and a half to +three feet into the ground, except one a few feet from the center, +which went down fully five feet. All the holes were filled with the +loose dark dirt which results from decay of wood; a few contained +fragments of charcoal, burned bones or stone, but no ashes; nor was +the surrounding earth at all burned. + +"Around the outside a trench from three to four feet wide, and from +eighteen to twenty inches deep, had been dug, to carry away the water +which fell from the roof. Near the middle of this house, which +measured about forty feet from side to side, a large fire had been +kept burning for several hours, the ashes being removed from time to +time. The ash bed was elliptical in form, measuring about thirteen +feet from east to west, and five from north to south. Under the center +of it was a hole, ten inches across and a foot deep, filled with clean +white ashes in which was a little charcoal, packed very hard. At the +western end, on the south side (or farthest from the center of the +house), was a mass of burned animal bones, ashes, and charcoal. This +was continuous with the ash bed, though apparently not a part of it. +The bones were in small pieces, and were, no doubt, the remains of a +funeral feast or offering. + +"After the fire died down, rude tools were used to dig a grave at the +middle of the house. It measured ten feet in length, from east to +west, by a little more than six in breadth. The sides were straight, +slanting inward, with rounded corners. The bottom was nearly level, +fourteen inches deep, but slightly lower at the center. Over the +bottom, ashes had been thinly sprinkled, and on these a single +thickness of bark had been laid. The sides had been lined with wood or +bark from two to four inches thick. When this was done, two bodies +were placed side by side in the grave, both extended at full length on +the back, with heads directly west. One, judging from the bones and +condition of the teeth, was a woman of considerable age. She was +placed in the middle of the grave. Her right arm lay along the side, +the left hand being under the pelvic bones of the other skeleton. This +was apparently of a man not much, if any, past maturity. The right arm +lay across the stomach, the left across the hips. This skeleton was +five feet ten inches in length; the other, five feet four inches. + +"The space between the first skeleton and the south side of the grave +was covered with the ashes that had been removed from the fire. +Beginning at the feet in a thin layer--a mere streak--they gradually +increased in thickness toward the head, where they were fully six +inches thick. The head was embedded in them. They extended to the end +of the grave, reaching across its entire width and coming almost, but +not quite, in contact with the other head. A considerable amount of +the burned bones lay in the southwestern corner of the grave, and the +ashes along this part curved up over the side until they merged into +what remained of the ash bed. This had extended to the west slightly +beyond the end of the grave. + +"As the earth removed from the grave had been thrown out on every +side, the bodies were in a hole that was nearly two feet deep. The +next step was to cover them. There was no sign of bark, cloth, or any +other protecting material above them. They were covered with a black +sandy earth, which must have been brought from the creek not far +distant. This was piled over them while wet, or at least damp enough +to pack firmly, as it required the pick to loosen it, and, besides, +was steeper on the sides than dry dirt would have been. It reached +just beyond the grave on every side, and was about five and a half +feet high, or as high as it could be conveniently piled. + +"So far, all was plain enough; but now another question presented +itself that puzzled me not a little; and that was, What became of the +house? That there had been one, the arrangement of the numerous post +holes plainly showed; but the large earth mound above the tumulus or +grave was perfectly solid above the original surface, giving not the +slightest evidence that the posts or any part of the house had ever +reached up into it. I incline to the opinion that the great fire near +the middle of the house had been made from the timbers composing it; +that the upper timbers had been torn down, and the posts cut off at +the surface, the whole being a kind of votive offering to the dead. At +any rate, it is plain that a house stood there until the time the +mound was built; and it was not there afterward. + +"For the purpose of covering the grave, sand was brought from a ridge +a short distance away. There was no stratification, either horizontal +or curving. Earth had been piled up first around the black mass +forming the grave mound, and then different parties had deposited +their loads at convenient places, until the mound assumed its final +conical arrangement. The lenticular masses through almost the whole +mound showed that the earth had been carried in skins or small +baskets. The completed mound was thirteen feet high, and about one +hundred feet in diameter. + +"Two and a half feet above the original surface was an extended +skeleton, head west. It lay just east of the black earth over the +grave. Sixteen feet south of the grave, on the original surface, and +within the outer row of post holes, were two skeletons extended, heads +nearly west. It would seem that the flesh was removed before burial, +as the bones were covered with a dull red substance, which showed a +waxy texture when worked with a knife blade. + +"No relics of any description were found with any of the skeletons; +but a fine copper bracelet was picked up in a position that showed it +was dropped accidentally." + + * * * * * + + + + +A CHINESE IMPERIAL CEMETERY. + +By Lieut. Hon. H. N. SHORE, R.N. + + +Some ten miles north of Peking, in a valley where silence reigns +supreme, is situated one of the most remarkable and imposing burial +grounds in the world. Here, nestling along the slopes of the inclosing +mountains, which form a natural amphitheater, are a series of vast +mausoleums where lie buried the emperors of the last Chinese dynasty. +This was the celebrated Ming dynasty, which continued from 1366 till +1644, when, after a sanguinary struggle lasting for twenty-seven +years, it succumbed to the Manchu Tartars, who, under the title of the +Tsin dynasty, have occupied the throne to the present time. + +[Illustration: THE AVENUE.] + +It has been very truly remarked of the Chinese that they have probably +expended more labor over their public works than any other nation of +antiquity; and assuredly when any great national work is undertaken, +however rare the occurrence, it is invariably carried out on a scale +of unparalleled magnificence. It was, therefore, only fitting that the +tombs containing the emperors of their own native dynasty should be +constructed on a scale commensurate with the wealth and extent of the +empire whose destinies they swayed for nigh 300 years. The valley +contains altogether thirty tombs, each of which stands in the center +of a wooded inclosure several acres in extent, surrounded by a high +wall, with an imposing gateway. The largest and most celebrated is +that of Yen-wang, whose body reposes in a lofty building resting on an +immense brick mound pierced by a slanting tunnel, whose curious +acoustic properties entitle it to be ranked as a "whispering gallery." +In front of the mausoleum is a hall measuring 220 ft. long by over 90 +ft. broad, which contains the emperor's tablet. The roof of this +building is supported in the center by thirty-two pillars, composed of +single trees 60 ft. high and over 11 ft. in circumference, which are +said to have been brought from Corea. The transport of these enormous +blocks must have been a work of no ordinary difficulty, more +especially in the absence of good roads. According to the description +of a missionary who recently witnessed the moving of a somewhat +similar object, it would seem that the Chinese followed the practice +of the ancient Egyptians, as depicted on their tombs, and in a country +where labor is abundant such a method would be natural. + +An inscription near the entrance states that this tomb, among others, +was repaired by the Emperor Kienlung, who reigned in the early part of +last century; but like every other ancient building in China at the +present day, it is fast going to ruin for the want of ordinary care, +large trees being permitted to grow out of the very roof itself, +although there are several attendants residing in the inclosure; +while, doubtless, certain officials are entrusted with the care of +this splendid mausoleum, and draw their salaries regularly. But +_laisser faire_ is the order of the day everywhere in the neighborhood +of Peking, and nothing is ever repaired nowadays by any chance. + +[Illustration: THE ROAD TO PEKING.] + +A part of the original scheme, which shows the magnificent scale on +which the whole thing was planned and executed, was a fine paved road, +carried over streams and rivers by marble bridges and extending the +whole way from Peking, a distance of ten miles. On approaching the +valley where the tombs repose the road passes under three handsome +"pailaus," or gateways, and then through one of the most imposing +avenues that was ever constructed. This avenue, which extends for +about two-thirds of a mile, is flanked on either side with colossal +stone figures at intervals of about 50 yards, representing men and +animals in the following order: Six men, apparently warriors and +priests, in pairs, standing; four horses, four griffins, four +elephants, four camels, and four lions, the first pair in each set +standing, the second recumbent. As the Chinese have never achieved any +great distinction in the art of sculpture, the representations of +animal life are, needless to say, somewhat caricatured. But the +conception of the whole was magnificent, and the effect of this long +avenue of colossal figures standing in silent grandeur is as +impressive as anything that ever emanated from the genius of the +Chinese race.--_Ill. Naval and Military Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DYSPEPSIA: ITS CAUSES AND PREVENTION. + + +Dyspepsia has once been called the "American sickness," and although +this may be a slander against which many of the inhabitants of our +great republic might protest, bad digestion is a disease frequent +enough among us to justify us in considering its causes and in +ascertaining by what means this curse of modern civilization may be +avoided. A Frenchman, under the title "La dyspepsie des gens +d'esprit," in the Paris _Revue Scientifique_ of August 18, shows how +utterly disregarded are the sanitary rules at the dinners of well bred +people in France; and an American lady in a recent edition of a well +known New York daily humoristically enlarges upon the offenses +committed against health by persons of her own sex while dining in the +largest city of the United States. Speaking of the lunch of shop girls +up town, the contributor to the American paper deprecates the fact +that the young American girls employed in business houses at luncheon +time live almost entirely on sweets and food that renders little or no +nourishment, rather than procuring at the same cost a repast which, +though perhaps less dainty, would be far better for their +constitution. "Left to herself," the writer says, "Miss Saleslady, +pretty and refined though she may be, day after day and day after day +keeps her temper, and waits on her customers, leaning on a slim +luncheon of pie and tea. 'It is sweet and nice,' pleaded one girl to +me the other day, 'and it goes so much further than anything else.' + +"'Not further than bread and milk' I urged, 'and it is surely not half +as good for your complexion.' + +"'Oh, but the other ladies would laugh at me well if they saw me +eating bread and milk for my luncheon. I think myself a bit of +something light and nice, like eclairs or a charlotte russe, is ever +so much more ladylike and nice.' + +"Heaven save the mark! What sort of flesh and blood do they make to +put on the slender bones of a growing girl? How will they stand by +her, when perhaps she leaves the shop and chooses the life of wife and +mother? The answer is easy. When the pie-eating, cooky-feeding girl +gets married, put it down in your note book: One more dyspeptic, +peevish woman entered the lists of the unlovely." + +The contributor to the French review, although also condemning the +careless choice of food, more especially points out the evil +consequences of eating too hastily; and though M. Julva directs his +attack chiefly against the _gens d'esprit_, i.e., the well bred people +of France who neglect the rules of health for politeness' sake, his +words apply equally well to the American business man who sacrifices +his health during luncheon to the "almighty dollar." + +"The feverish activity of modern life," he says, "induces many people +to abridge the duration of their repast, and, particularly, luncheon +is taken too hastily--a practice the danger of which, as a cause of +dyspepsia, cannot be overrated." + +This practice might not be so dangerous if, during the short time +which we dedicate to our midday meal, we would at least imitate the +habit of the Japanese, whom politeness requires to be absolutely +silent while eating. When they like a certain dish, they express their +satisfaction by graceful gestures addressed to their host, but they +think it would offend him if they open their mouth for anything else +except eating. + +Watch, on the other hand, one of our lawyers at luncheon. He has just +dismissed his last client, at the moment when he should be already at +court, and in order not to be too late he has to lunch in double quick +time. He has to eat his viands without having time to masticate them, +and he swallows his big pieces, washing them down with several glasses +of wine and water, and hastens to his carriage almost without giving +himself time to breathe, in order not to miss his call. + +Look at a Parisian dining in town. French politeness forbids him to be +silent like the Japanese, and also requires of him not to speak with +his mouth full of food. And if this were not enough, French gallantry +commands him to serve the ladies first, so that just about when they +have finished, he may commence to eat. In addition to this, if he does +not want to appear ill bred, he must reply to all their questions, +which he would not be able to do if he did not gulp down his morsels +unchewed. What wonder, then, that most men have to suffer from eating +dinner in such a manner, while all discomfort could be avoided, if the +viands were served to one guest after the other in succession? + +We don't want to exaggerate. There are privileged stomachs which can +stand all that. But there are many to which half-masticated food is a +real poison. + +The unconscious dyspeptic constitutes an extremely frequent variety. +Dyspeptics rarely complain of suffering from the stomach; many of them +will even say to you that their stomach is excellent. But let us +remember the old fable of Menenius Agrippa: The whole organism suffers +when the stomach is ill treated. + +Premature calvity (baldness), some eruptions of acne (pustules of the +skin), a slight dyspnoea (difficulty in breathing) when mounting +stairs, a blush of heat on the cheeks a quarter of an hour after +luncheon, a violent craving for smoking after the repast, a feeling of +sleepiness, which, however, quickly fades toward ten o'clock in the +evening, little inclination to work during the first hours after +awakening in the morning, all these symptoms, or any part of them, +show that you have before you a candidate of the disease known as +bloating of the stomach or the gout. According to the wise enumeration +of Moliere, who was evidently prompted by Renaudot, such a person +begins with bradypepsia (slow digestion), then suffers from dyspepsia +(bad digestion), afterward from apepsia (indigestion), and later +lyentery (a lax or diarrhea in which food is discharged only half +digested), and at the last the vicious circle is often completed by +obesity, uric affections of the liver or bladder, and all the other +diseases belonging to that class. + +Unfortunately, we are still far from the time when the public will +appreciate that "prevention is better than cure." Perhaps this +fundamental principle of health will be honored during the 20th +century. At present it certainly is not. Meanwhile, those who have +ruined their health by modern city life take recourse for their cure +to a holiday, hasten to places where they find mineral waters, or try +laxatives or milk diet to improve their condition. They wish _to do +something for their health_ once or twice a year. How much better, if +they had not been _acting against their health all the year round_. + +It is extremely difficult to teach our people to eat healthily. You +will find no difficulty to persuade them to take medicine. People have +always time to swallow a pill, but you will certainly have trouble to +teach them to chew with leisure. How many people who find time every +year to spend the season at Vichy will tell you it is quite impossible +for them to spend five minutes more every day at luncheon time. And +nevertheless they would regain these few minutes a day with interest, +if they would avoid that host of maladies which will stop them one day +in the midst of their occupations. I have seen a good many of my +clients getting entirely rid of their rheumatic pains and gout and +ceasing to suffer from sleepless nights by observing the following +simple rules. + +In order to chew meat conveniently--and this is one of the main +points--one must accustom one's self never to mix meat and bread in +the same mouthful. Take a small mouthful, chew it about thirty times, +then swallow that part which has been reduced to pulp, and so on until +all has been masticated. In doing this you will soon find out that +roasted and broiled beef or mutton requires a longer trituration than +boiled meats or stews; you will also perceive that fish is more easily +masticated than meat, and you will finally understand why certain +dyspeptics are forced to limit their food to fish, eggs, and milk +diet. In fact, milk diet serves no other purpose than to furnish a +perfectly digestible nourishment. + +One of the indirect and unforeseen benefits of a careful mastication +is that people gradually become accustomed to be satisfied with a +comparatively small quantity of food, for as slow chewing is always +more or less tedious, those who observe this rule soon cease to be +great eaters, and also learn quickly to accustom themselves to another +very important rule, viz., to drink moderately while eating. Two +glasses of liquid will then quite suffice for a person who would drink +four if he ate his viands swallowing them down without chewing. + +Many obese dyspeptics when they once commence to masticate carefully +and to take liquid moderately while eating lose weight with an +astonishing rapidity and become cured of the bloating of the stomach +without being finally obliged to have recourse to the rigorous dry +diet of Prof. Bouchard. + +Wine and water, the French national drink, is an extremely frequent, +and very often misunderstood, cause of dyspepsia. A good many people +would enjoy excellent health if they were satisfied with pure water, +that favorite drink of the aged. It is quite perplexing sometimes to +see at the same table three neighbors, drinking at their dinner, the +one wine, the other beer, and the third tea. How much better would it +be if people, instead of choosing their habitual drink according to +the place that they come from, would select it more with regard to +their individual constitution! I know many who, after having, for +fifty years, quietly ignored the fact, have come to the recognition +that for them, wine, even if diluted with much water, is absolutely +hurtful, and who, by giving it up, and by taking pure water, tea, or +cider, to which Prof. C. attributes great success in his practice, +instead, have got rid of their ailments almost as if by enchantment. + +In conclusion, I should like to say a word with regard to salt, this +panacea of arthritic persons (persons suffering from arthritis, +swelling of the joints, as in gout). + +For many years I have been laboring under the wrong impression, that +salt is placed on the table merely for the purpose of salting boiled +eggs, which the cook cannot salt in advance. Great mistake! The wisdom +of nations has discovered that there are people for whom a great +quantity of salt is a necessity, and that there are others who would +become ill if they were to eat viands that are much salted. The salt +cellar is there in order to enable every one to salt his food +according to his own requirements. Many people are led by their +natural instinct to salt their viands in a proportion to suit them. +But there are others, among them, above all, the well bred persons +previously mentioned, who treat eating with disdain and for whom the +whole attraction of a repast is the charm of conversation, and to them +the idea of having recourse to the salt cellar never occurs. + +Whether salt is needed in order to add acid to the gastric juice or +whether it has an antiseptic action in the digestive channel, I do not +know. Certain, however, it is, that it possesses very appreciable +laxative qualities, and under its influence those who go to drink the +waters at Wiesbaden often see their intestinal functions restored to a +surprising degree. + +It is just as well, however, and even better, to take one's _Vichy at +home_, and nothing is more simple than to use one's _Wiesbaden at +home_, by using the salt cellar. The cure may then be completed by +distributing over a whole year the thirty warm baths which have to be +taken during the season at that watering place. The bath at 40° +Celsius is a real boon for arthritic persons. The warmer it is, +whether salt or not, the better it acts in producing an exuberant +perspiration, and the less is one apt to catch cold when leaving it. + +The above by no means exhausts the vast subject of dyspepsia and +arthritis. But without ignoring the utility of thermal waters, of +morning promenades, of dry frictions and gymnastics, the sufferers +should, above all, be advised to minutely masticate their food, to +limit the amount of liquids at meal time, to use salt, which will by +no means increase their thirst; and in certain cases to abstain +entirely from alcoholic drinks. Those who observe these rules may with +impunity dine out, although those so-called great dinners, where all +rules of health are left aside, are absolutely baneful for a great +number of the inhabitants of our cities. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW SURGICAL OPERATION. + + +Among the matters of interest which were brought before the British +Medical Association, at the recent Glasgow meeting, was an account by +Mr. Brudenell Carter of a method which he had devised of opening the +sheath of the optic nerve behind the eye, for the relief of pressure +within this sheath and within the cavity of the skull. The brain is +invested by firm membranes, which secrete a certain amount of fluid +and are continued down to the eye in the form of a sheath which +surrounds the optic nerve; and, whenever the pressure within the +cavity of the skull is increased, as by the growth of a brain tumor, +or even by excess of secretion from the membranes themselves, a +superabundance of fluid is apt to find its way down the nerve sheath +to the level of the eye, to subject the optic nerve to injurious +pressure, and, in many cases, to destroy the sight. It not +infrequently happens that the pressure within the brain cavity may be +increased by temporary or curable causes, which, nevertheless, +continue in action sufficiently long to produce permanent blindness, +even although the patient may, in other respects, recover. In view of +these conditions it was suggested by Dr. De Wecker, of Paris, sixteen +or seventeen years ago, that it might be possible to open the optic +nerve sheath, and thus not only to relieve the nerve from pressure and +to preserve it from injury, but also, on account of the position of +the eye relatively to the brain cavity, to drain the latter by +gravitation, and to relieve the brain as well as the eye. Dr. De +Wecker made two endeavors to accomplish this object, but he tried to +feel his way to the optic nerve without the aid of sight, and to +incise the sheath by means of an instrument carrying a concealed +knife, capable of being projected by means of a spring. The risks of +failure, and, still more, the risks of inflicting irreparable injury +upon the nerve, were such that he only attempted his operation in two +well nigh hopeless cases, and only one attempt to follow his example +has been recorded. Mr. Carter's attention was called to the matter +last year by a case in which the diminution of pressure within the +optic nerve sheath was manifestly desirable; and he devised a method +of operating by which the sheath could be exposed to view, and the +object attained with certainty, under the guidance of sight at every +step of the process. + +He read before the Medical Society of London, last year, an account of +the first case in which he operated, which was successful; and he read +an account of three more cases at Glasgow, in one of which the result +was negative, as far as sight was concerned, while in the other two +the patients were not only quickly restored to useful vision, in one +instance from complete, in the other from nearly complete, blindness, +but were at the same time relieved or cured of other symptoms, such as +headache and sickness, arising from direct pressure on the brain. In +his paper at Glasgow, Mr. Carter claimed for the new operation that it +could be performed with certainty and without risk either to life or +to any important structure, and that it afforded a reasonable prospect +of the preservation of sight in many forms of disease in which it is +now habitually or frequently lost. As in the case of every new +operation, time and further experience of its effects are required in +order to determine the precise limits of its usefulness. + +In the discussion which followed the paper, Mr. Bickerton, of +Liverpool, said that, in consequence of reading the account of Mr. +Carter's first case, he had himself performed the operation in two +instances, in one of which temporary restoration of sight was followed +by relapse, while in the second the ultimate issue was +favorable.--_London Times._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PUTZEYS' FLUSHING RESERVOIR. + + +Every sewer is more or less exposed to intermissions in the flow of +the water that it leads, and the result is a diminution in velocity +which leads to deposits of solid material. Hence the necessity of +regularly flushing the sewer with water, which removes from the sides +the substances that have attached themselves thereto, and which, +without such precaution, soon decompose. In a word, it is necessary +that a _perfect_ washing shall be assured, and this can be done only +by heavy rains or by strong currents of water. As regards rain, that +could not be relied upon; and to have a force of men specially charged +with the service of washing, that would be too costly, and so recourse +has been had to automatic apparatus. + +[Illustration: FLUSHING RESERVOIR.] + +The automatic siphons used for flushing sewers are characterized in +general by the presence, at the base of the discharge branch, of a +fixed or movable receiving vessel full of water. This vessel has the +inconvenience of breaking the effect of the charge, and the result is +that these apparatus do not render the services that might be expected +from them. Some of these apparatus have valves, floats, chains, +pulleys, and levers. These are still more defective, since their +operation is delicate. The parts of which they are composed easily get +out of order, and then the reservoir does no more flushing at all. A +good automatic flushing reservoir must therefore be of the greatest +simplicity, and its parts must be fixed and strong, and the outflow of +the water must be rapid and energetic and directly from the reservoir +into the sewer. In a word, its construction should be such that there +shall be no need of inspecting it, and that its operation be regular. + +The apparatus devised by Mr. E. Putzeys, Director of Works of the city +of Verviers, well fulfills the conditions of an excellent flushing +reservoir with an automatic siphon. The siphon has a double curve, but +may, however, have different forms according to the various uses for +which it may be employed, such as for flushing sewers, urinals, +closets, etc. + +The annexed figure represents the apparatus as arranged for flushing a +sewer. The apparatus operates as follows: In the bottom of the branch +of the siphon, S, there is always some water, so that, during the +filling of the reservoir by means of the cock seen in the figure, the +air is compressed in the branch S to a degree that cannot exceed the +pressure of an equal height of water to about double the height of the +siphon. The reservoir therefore can continue to fill without the water +escaping. + +The submersion of the small siphon, a, b, c, is less than that of the +principal siphon, S, and it follows that when the level of the +reservoir reaches a height equal to b, a, a new influx, however small +it be, causes the discharge of a few drops of water from the auxiliary +siphon, a, b, c, which is always full of water. At this moment the +water that it contains can no longer resist the thrust of the +compressed air in the branch of the siphon, S, and is therefore +forced, along with the compressed air, into the flushing pipe. + +By virtue of the principle of communicating vessels, the water of the +reservoir tends to resume its level in the interior of the apparatus, +and it then enters with such impetuosity that the siphon, whatever be +its dimensions, is primed. The entire reservoir empties +instantaneously, and the water flows to open the sewer. + +From the experiments made at Verviers by the inventor, it results +that, with a pipe 10 inches in diameter, the emptying of a 175 cubic +foot reservoir can be effected in 30 seconds. + +We may remark that with this apparatus we obtain the maximum of useful +effect, seeing that the work developed is represented by the total +head of the water diminished simply by losses of charge due to +friction in the pipes. In other apparatus the loss of charge is much +less, since the flushing is broken by a receiver. + +Putzeys' apparatus, therefore, with a much less discharge of water, is +capable of producing an effect superior to that of similar apparatus. +On account of its simplicity and plain character, there is no need of +precision in the installation of this apparatus, and horizontality, +even, is not a _sine qua non_ for its perfect operation. + +The siphon is very easily cleaned, and this is a great advantage, +since it permits of utilizing sewage matter for filling the flushing +reservoir.--_Chronique Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PEPSIN. + +By A. PERCY SMITH, F.I.C., F.C.S., Rugby. + + +The method usually adopted for estimating the peptonizing power of +pepsina porci consists in dissolving 1 to 2 grains in 8 to 12 ounces +of water, to which 40 to 60 minims of hydrochloric acid has been +added. 500 to 1,000 grains of hard-boiled white of egg, granulated by +rubbing through a wire sieve, is immersed in the liquid, and the whole +kept at 98° to 130° F. for four hours, when the undissolved albumen is +filtered off through muslin, and, after partial drying, is weighed to +ascertain the amount dissolved. The variable numbers above quoted +embrace various formulć recommended by different experimenters. + +This method of analysis is excessively crude and untrustworthy. When +hard-boiled white of egg is kept in warm water, it absorbs a +considerable quantity of that menstruum, as much as several units per +cent.; consequently, on weighing the residual albumen, you may find +that the weight is greater instead of less than that with which you +started, the gain in weight due to absorbed water more than +counterbalancing the loss obtaining through solution, as has happened +with indifferent samples of pepsin. Then who shall say when, by simple +air drying, the albumen has regained its former condition? The +enormous quantity of albumen is foreign to the usual habits of the +scientific analyst, and involves an enormous waste of time in +manipulation. + +One trial of this method was enough for me. The first modification I +adopted consisted in substituting for the large quantity of granulated +albumen a single half of the white of an egg in one piece. I likewise +arranged a check experiment in which the pepsin was omitted, other +conditions remaining unaltered. At the end of four hours the residual +pieces of albumen were placed on blotting paper to remove superfluous +moisture, and weighed. The gain in weight of the albumen in the check +experiment, due to absorbed water, was calculated into percentage, and +the same deducted from the weights of the other portions which had +been subjected to the action of various pepsins. This, although an +improvement upon the old method, proved likewise unreliable, because +the water absorbed was not equal in each experiment. The albumen which +was immersed in acidulated water only quickly dried, superficially, +when placed on blotting paper, whereas that which had been acted on by +pepsin was rendered glutinous and incapable of being dried in this +manner. In fact, one sample weighed considerably more than it did at +starting, even after deducting the allowance for water absorbed. + +I next tried much smaller pieces of albumen, about 1 c.c., in hope +that complete solution might ensue, and a time value be obtained. I +soon found, however, that the solubility does not depend upon the +mass, but upon the surface exposed. + +Finally I discarded altogether the use of fresh white of egg, and had +recourse to dry powdered albumen, prepared by drying in a steam oven +and levigation in a mortar. With this I succeeded in getting accurate +comparisons between the digestive powers of various pepsins. Albumen +in this form dissolves with rapidity, owing to its state of fine +division. Any remaining undissolved can be filtered off on a +counterpoised filter paper, and heated in a water oven until +absolutely dry. It is, however, unnecessary to do this when two +samples only are compared against each other, nor is it essential to +know the actual weight of albumen employed, provided it be the same in +each experiment. This is insured by placing some on the naked pan of +the balance (there is no objection to so doing, as it is a dry gritty +powder, and does not adhere to the metal), and counterpoising by a +similar addition to the other pan. + +Let the albumen fall on the center of the filtered liquid, avoiding, +if possible, contact with the glass of the beaker. It soon sinks, and +after the lapse of some time, a simple inspection will show which is +dissolving with the greater rapidity. Agitation assists solution. +Therefore take the two beakers, one in each hand, and rotate the +contents equally. When one sample has dissolved all the albumen, it is +manifestly superior to the other which has failed to do so in the +given time. If many samples have to be compared, it will be necessary +to start with known quantities of albumen, and weigh the undissolved +residues in the manner above indicated. + +An objection may possibly be raised to this modified method, viz., +that albumen as ingested is not in the form of a dry powder, and that +we ought to copy as nearly as possible the conditions existing in the +stomach. To this I would reply that it does not matter in the least, +to us, as analysts, what are the conditions which obtain in the +stomach; since there is no absolute test for pepsin, we can only +compare one sample against another, and that which dissolves the most +albumen in the shortest time is taken to be the best. + +Another imperfect method of analysis is that employed in the +examination of malt extracts for diastase, in which a certain weight +of extract ought to dissolve a certain weight of starch in ten +minutes, when if it does so dissolve it, the extract is a good one; if +not, it is to be condemned. The more correct way is to ascertain the +reducing power on Fehling's solution, before and after digestion with +an _excess_ of starch, and I intend to say a few words upon this +subject on a future occasion, when I have ascertained the maximum +amount of diastase existing in the best samples of malt.--_The +Analyst._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SUBTERRANEOUS FLORA AND FAUNA. + +By Dr. OTTO ZACHARIAS. + + +It is generally correct to say that air, light and moisture form the +chief conditions necessary for the development of organic plant or +animal life. One of these conditions, however, namely light, is not of +equal importance with the two others. For modern investigation and the +discoveries made during the progress of natural sciences have shown +that in the depths of the ocean, where an everlasting darkness reigns, +and where the temperature is extremely low, nevertheless a great +abundance of animal life is to be found, and that there exist living +beings, not only of the lowest organization, but even fishes and +crustaceans of very complicated structure, all of which thrive without +enjoying the slightest ray of light. + +A similar example of animal life in the absence of light is to be +found in the fauna of caves and grottoes. This was first made known to +the world by Austrian and American naturalists. The well known +Adelsberg grotto in Krain, and the gigantic Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, +furnished much interesting material for a detailed study of the +biological conditions of subterraneous animal life. It was gradually +discovered that in those dark places there existed not only insects, +spiders, crustaceans, centipedes, worms, and snails, but also a kind +of salamander and fishes. But what gave special interest to these +discoveries was the fact, ascertained by careful study, that not all +of these beings were gifted with normally developed organs of vision, +but that in some these organs had undergone a retrograde development, +while others were entirely blind. + +Among the latter, the blind fish of the Mammoth Cave (_Amblyopsis +spelacus_) is especially remarkable, because in this being the +retrograde development of the organ of vision is accompanied by the +production of certain ridges of skin on the body which are endowed +with an extreme sensitiveness of touch, and which, according to a work +lately published by Professor Von Leydig, are composed of little warts +in which the nerve fibers end. Nature, therefore, has in this case +compensated the amblyopsis for his loss of sight by endowing him with +a highly developed organ of feeling. + +A similar phenomenon is to be observed in the blind crab (_Cambaras +pellucidus_), which is also found in the Mammoth Cave, for in this +being, according to Professor Von Leydig, the little warts on the +interior feelers, which constitute the organ of smell, have also +received an abnormal development. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE SEMI-BLIND SALAMANDER (PROTEUS ANGUINEUS) + OF THE ADELSBERG GROTTO, IN AUSTRIA.] + +Better known than the blind fish and the blind crab of Kentucky is the +_Proteus anguineus_, a kind of salamander, of a pale rose color, +endowed with gills and found in the Adelsberg grotto in Austria. (Fig. +1.) + +This amphibium has an eye which lies very deep in the body and is +almost overgrown by the skin. But this eye is by no means as developed +as the organ of vision, for instance, of the water salamander (the +triton) or of the so-called axolotl, for it exists only in a kind of +embryonic development, and contains neither a vitreous humor nor a +lens for the refraction of the rays of light. As, however, the nerve +of vision exists, it is possible that this salamander may be able to +discern in some manner between light and darkness. + +The thinking student, when discovering such imperfect organs of sight, +will naturally ask how the eye of this salamander, which is so useless +for its real purpose, has come into existence, and he will weigh the +comparative value of the two following explanations. It may be assumed +that there existed once in the Adelsberg grotto a salamander which was +absolutely blind, and in which, in consequence of an innate power of +evolution, an organ of vision of the lowest kind was gradually formed. +But to this assumption the objection may be raised at once, why nature +should have produced an organ of vision in an animal living in a +grotto, where such an organ is absolutely useless, and where such a +development would be quite as paradoxical and improbable as, for +instance, the development of fins instead of legs in an animal living +on dry land. + +On the other hand, one may suppose, and this is the more probable +explanation, that the _Proteus anguineus_ is descended from a kind of +salamander, which possessed perfectly developed eyes in the beginning, +and that the imperfect organ of vision in the descendants living in +the dark caves is the result of gradual degeneration. This is the more +likely to be true as in many other cases, also, we find that organs +which become useless and cannot be employed have gradually +degenerated. + +Our common mole furnishes an example. Its eyes also have become small +and are deeply hidden in the muscles, although they are by no means as +much degenerated as in the _Proteus anguineus_, and are still +possessed of a lens and a retina. Their nerve of vision, however, has +become very imperfect, and its connection with the brain is +interrupted, so that the animal for this reason can have no perception +of light. Notwithstanding the above, however, it is doubtful whether +the degeneration and gradual disappearance of the visual organ is in +all cases the result of their being no longer employed, since there +exists in dark caves a kind of beetle, the _Machaerites_, in which +species the female only is blind, while the male has a well developed +organ of sight. In this case it cannot be maintained that the absence +of light has been the cause of the blindness of the female beetle, +because it would have acted equally upon the male. Nevertheless, no +other explanation can be found for the blindness. The problem, +therefore, is hitherto unsolved. + +Of late the investigations of naturalists have been extended to the +animal life existing not only in grottoes and caves, but also in mines +and pits created by the action of man, and this has led to many +interesting discoveries and remarkable results. A naturalist who has +especially enlarged our knowledge with regard to the subterraneous +fauna and flora is Dr. Robert Schneider, of Berlin, who made his +studies in the coal mines near Waldenburg and Altwasser, in Silesia, +the salt mines of Stassfurt and the metal mines of Klausthal, in the +Upper Harz Mountains. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--GROUP OF PYRENOMYCETES, A SPECIES OF FUNGI + FREQUENT IN THE WATERS OF MINES. + + a. Found in the mines of Waldenburg; b. In the brown-coal pits + near Westeregeln; c. In the Dorothea pit at Klausthal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. + + a. Rhizomorpha canalicularis of Hoffmann, b. Club fungus + (Clavaria deflexa) of Hoffmann, found in the mines at Klausthal.] + +As regards the subterraneous flora, Dr. Schneider's investigations +resulted in showing that the plants which thrive in the dark regions +under ground are those which possess no chlorophyl and are sensitive +to light. Those which vegetate most luxuriantly there are the _fungi_, +and among them especially the _pyrenomycetes_, which are frequent in +the waters of mines. Their general aspect is shown in a 480 times +magnified form in Fig. 2. They resemble fine threads of delicate +structure, and where found are always discovered in great abundance. +Most conspicuous by their shape and considerable size are the +_rhizomorphć_, Fig. 3a, and they are remarkable, not only for their +brilliant phosphorescence, but also for the peculiar fact that they +are only found in places where light does not enter. These +_rhizomorphć_, though this is not easily recognizable from their +external appearance, also belong to the fungi and are often seen in +strings of the length of over a meter and the thickness of a quill, +spreading out in peculiar branches and hanging down from moist beams +in dark places. Sometimes they grow like seaweed in the water of the +mines, and in this case they give much embarrassment to the miners, +because they are apt to obstruct the channels constructed for leading +off the superfluous water. In the mines of Freiberg these +_rhizomorphć_ exist in great abundance, and Humboldt already mentions +specimens of the length of 4˝ feet. Miners in Germany call them +_zwirn_ (thread). The student of natural sciences, when encountering +these peculiar forms of vegetation, will ask in how far they are the +product of their surrounding circumstances (i.e., of the absence of +light or the presence of moisture), and in order to find a reply to +this question experiments have been made to grow these _rhizomorphć_ +under different conditions of existence. These experiments have shown +that from several species of _rhizomorphć_ other ordinary fungi can be +developed, and that the subterraneous specimens therefore may be +considered a degeneration and variation of the fungi found above the +surface of the ground. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. + + a. Agaricus myurus of Hoffmann, a subterranean fungus. b. + Himantia villosa, a species of rhizomorpha found in the Upper + Harz Mountains.] + +In Fig. 4b the _Himantia villosa_ is represented, a rhizomorpha found +in the mines of the Upper Harz Mountains, thus showing another form of +this vegetable growth. Though it is difficult, as above stated, to +recognize by their shape the rhizormorphć as fungi, the origin of the +peculiar _Agaricus myurus_ of Hoffmann (Fig. 4a) will be much easier +discovered, though a retrograde development and degeneration has taken +place also in this fungus. It still shows, however, the elements of a +regular toadstool, only that the stem is much elongated and looks like +a thread or a tube, while the cap is small, and this explains how, by +gradual degeneration, the cap may disappear entirely, leaving nothing +but a stem, as, for instance, in the case of the _Clavaria deflexa_, +the club fungus, shown in Fig. 3b. + +In connection with the above it may be well to speak of the fungi +constituting the mould which often covers the roof and the doors in +the brown-coal mines of Halle, specimens of which are shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--FORMS OF MOULD FUNGI FOUND IN THE BROWN-COAL + MINES NEAR HALLE A. S.] + +We now come to the animal life in mines and pits. This is mostly +represented, of course, by lower organisms, as infusoria and worms. +Thus, in the slime on the bottom of the waters in mines, several +species of _amoebć_ are found, which consist of microscopically +small animated bodies, continually floating about, nourishing +themselves by absorbing organic matter, possessing sensation, +propagating, etc., and, in fact, having actually the qualities of real +animal nature. Further, we find in those subterraneous waters a +species of the sun infusorium (_Actinophrys_), which is especially +frequent in the mines of Klausthal. Fig. 6 shows one of these +peculiar little beings. Also the _Stylonychia_ (Fig. 7) is a +characteristic inhabitant of those places, and always present there. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE SUN INFUSORIUM (ACTINOPHRYS).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE RAPACIOUS INFUSORIUM (STYLONYCHIA).] + +It moves with great rapidity in the water by means of the numerous +hairs covering its body, can turn quickly in any direction, and thus +is enabled to catch suddenly the little beings on which it lives and +which it hunts; for which reason the stylonychia is called the +"rapacious infusorium." + +The above are organisms which can be seen only through the microscope, +but the fauna of mines contains also larger organisms, though they are +not found as regularly and are not as characteristic for those places +as the forms mentioned hitherto. Among these organisms there are +several species of worms, spiders, gnats, and, above all, crustaceans +of the lower class. The most interesting of the latter is perhaps a +variety of the sand flea (Fig. 8--_Gammarus pulex_). The crustacean +found in the pits of mines, which is related to the sand flea, shows, +according to Dr. R. Schneider, a slight degeneration of the organ of +sight, which has taken place in consequence of its adaptation to the +dark places, in which this variety of the _Gammarus pulex_ is found, +which can make no use of eyes, while the sand flea possesses them +fully developed. Otherwise, however, the two varieties are almost +absolutely alike, differing only in some details. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--THE SAND FLEA (GAMMARUS PULEX).] + +From the above the reader will see that "breathing in the rosy light," +as Schiller calls it, is not an absolutely necessary condition for the +existence of organic beings, but that life exists everywhere, where +there is air and moisture, and a temperature which is not always below +freezing point, though even eternal frost does not exclude life +entirely, as is proved by the existence of the glacier flea, showing +that even in the icy coverings of the Alps life still is possible. +Mephistopheles may therefore well say: + + "From water, earth, and air unfolding, +A thousand germs break forth and grow + In dry and wet, and warm and chilly; + And had I not the Flame reserved, why really, +There's nothing special of my own to show!" + +--_Leipziger Illustrirte Zeitung._ + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + +TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Continued from Supplement, No. 661, page 10558.] + +By H. MARSHALL WARD. + + +IX. + +In the months of April and May, the younger needle-like leaves of the +Scotch pine are occasionally seen to have assumed a yellow tinge, and +on closer examination this change in color, from green to yellow, is +seen to be due to the development of what look like small orange +colored vesicles standing off from the surface of the epidermis, and +which have in fact burst through from the interior of the leaf (Fig. +31). Between these larger orange yellow vesicles the lens shows +certain smaller brownish or almost black specks. Each of the vesicular +swellings is a form of fungus fructification known as an _Ćcidium_, +and each of the smaller specks is a fungus structure called a +_Spermogonium_, and both of these bodies are developed from a mycelium +in the tissues of the leaf. I must employ these technical terms, but +will explain them more in detail shortly: the point to be attended to +for the moment is that this fungus in the leaf has long been known +under the name of _Peridermium Pini_ (var. _acicola_, i.e., the +variety which lives upon the needle-like leaves). + + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--To the right is a pair of leaves of the + Scotch pine, with the blister-like Ćcidia a. of Peridermium Pini + (var. acicola) projecting from their tissues: these blisters are + orange yellow in color, and contain spores, as shown in Fig. 33. + Between the blisters are the minute spermogonia, b. To the left + is a small branch, killed at a a a by Peridermium Pini (var. + corticola), the blister-like yellow Ćcidia of the fungus being + very conspicuous. (Reduced, after Hartig.)] + +On the younger branches of the Scotch pine, the Weymouth pine, the +Austrian pine, and some others, there may also be seen in May and June +similar but larger bladder-like orange vesicles (_Ćcidia_) bursting +through the cortex (Fig. 31); and here, again, careful examination +shows the darker smaller _Spermogonia_ in patches between the +_Ćcidia_. These also arise from a fungus mycelium in the tissues of +the cortex, whence the fungus was named _Peridermium Pini_ (var. +_corticola_). It is thus seen that the fungus _Peridermium Pini_ was +regarded as a parasite of pines, and that it possessed two varieties, +one inhabiting the leaves and the other the cortex: the "varieties" +were so considered, because certain trivial differences were found in +the minute structure of the _Ćcidia_ and _Spermogonia_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Blisters (Ćcidia) of Peridermium Pini (var. + corticola) on a branch of the Scotch pine: some of the Ćcidia + have already burst at the apex and scattered their spores, b, b; + the others are still intact. (Natural size, after Hess).] + +If we cut thin vertical sections through a leaf and one of the +smallest _Ćcidia_, and examine the latter with the microscope, it will +be found to consist of a mass of spores arranged in vertical rows, +each row springing from a branch of the mycelium: the outermost of +these spores--i.e., those which form a compact layer close beneath the +epidermis--remain barren, and serve as a kind of membrane covering the +rest (Fig. 33, p). It is this membrane which protrudes like a blister +from the tissues. The hyphć of the fungus are seen running in all +directions between the cells of the leaf tissue, and as they rise up +and form the vertical chains of spores, the pressure gradually forces +up the epidermis of the leaf, bursts it, and the mass of orange yellow +powdery spores protrude to the exterior enveloped in the aforesaid +membrane of contiguous barren spores. If we examine older _Ćcidia_, it +will be found that this membrane bursts also at length, and the spores +escape. + +Similar sections across a _Spermogonium_ exhibit a structure which +differs slightly from the above. Here also the hyphć in the leaf turn +upward, and send delicate branches in a converging crowd beneath the +epidermis; the latter gives way beneath the pressure, and the free +tips of the hyphć constrict off very minute spore-like bodies. These +minute bodies are termed _Spermatia_, and I shall say no more about +them after remarking that they are quite barren, and that similar +sterile bodies are known to occur in very many of the fungi belonging +to this and other groups. + +Sections through the _Ćcidia_ and _Spermogonia_ on the cortex present +structures so similar, except in minute details which could only be +explained by lengthy descriptions and many illustrations, that I shall +not dwell upon them; simply reminding the reader that the resemblances +are so striking that systematic mycologists have long referred them to +a mere variety of the same fungus. + +Now as to the kind and amount of damage caused by the ravages of these +two forms of fungus. + +In the leaves, the mycelium is found running between the cells (Fig. +33, h), and absorbing or destroying their contents: since the leaves +do not fail the first season, and the mycelium remains living in their +tissues well into the second year, it is generally accepted that it +does very little harm. At the same time, it is evident that, if very +many leaves are being thus taxed by the fungus, they cannot be +supplying the tree with food materials in such quantities as if the +leaves were intact. However, the fungus is remarkable in this +respect--that it lives and grows for a year or two in the leaves, and +does not (as so many of its allies do) kill them after a few weeks. It +is also stated that only young pines are badly attacked by this form: +it is rare to find _Ćcidia_ on trees more than twenty years or so old. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Vertical section through a very young Ćcidium + of Peridermium Pini (var. acicola), with part of the subjacent + tissue of the leaf, h, the mycelium of the parasitic fungus + running between the cells of the leaf; immediately beneath the + epidermis of the leaf, the ends of the hyphć give rise to the + vertical rows of spores (b), the outermost of which (p) remain + barren, and form the membrane of the blister-like body. The + epidermis is already ruptured at p by the pressure of the young + Ćcidium. (After K. Hartig: highly magnified.)] + +Much more disastrous results can be traced directly to the action of +the mycelium in the cortex. The hyphć grow and branch between the +green cells of the true cortex, as well as in the vast tissues +beneath, and even make their way into the medullary rays and resin +canals in the wood, though not very deep. Short branches of the hyphć +pierce the cells, and consume their starch and other contents, causing +a large outflow of resin, which soaks into the wood or exudes from the +bark. It is probable that this effusion of turpentine into the tissues +of the wood, cambium, and cortex has much to do with the drying up of +the parts above the attacked portion of the stem: the tissues shrivel +up and die, the turpentine in the canals slowly sinking down into the +injured region. The drying up would of course occur if the conducting +portions are steeped in turpentine, preventing the conduction of water +from below. + +The mycelium lives for years in the cortex, and may be found killing +the young tissues just formed from the cambium during the early +summer: of course the annual ring of wood, etc., is here impoverished. +If the mycelium is confined to one side of the stem, a flat or +depressed spreading wound arises; if this extends all round, the parts +above must die. + +When fairly thick stems or branches have the mycelium on one side +only, the cambium is injured locally, and the thickening is of course +partial. The annual rings are formed as usual on the opposite side of +the stem, where the cambium is still intact, or they are even thicker +than usual, because the cambium there diverts to itself more than the +usual share of food substances; where the mycelium exists, however, +the cambium is destroyed, and no thickening layer is formed. From this +cause arise cancerous malformations which are very common in pine +woods (Fig. 34). + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Section across an old pine stem in the + cancerous region injured by Peridermium Pini (var. corticola). As + shown by the figures, the stem was fifteen years old when the + ravages of the fungus began to affect the cambium near a. The + mycelium, spreading in the cortex and cambium on all sides, + gradually restricted the action of the latter more and more; at + thirty years old, the still sound cambium only extended half way + round the stem--no wood being developed on the opposite side. By + the time the tree was eighty years old, only the small area of + cambium indicated by the thin line marked 80 was still alive; and + soon afterward the stem was completely "ringed," and dead, all + the tissues being suffused with resin. (After Hartig.)] + +Putting everything together, it is not difficult to explain the +symptoms of the disease. The struggle between the mycelium on the one +hand, which tries to extend all round in the cortex, and the tree +itself, on the other, as it tries to repair the mischief, will end in +the triumph of the fungus as soon as its ravages extend so far as to +cut off the water supply to the parts above: this will occur as soon +as the mycelium extends all round the cortex, or even sooner if the +effusion of turpentine hastens the blocking up of the channels. This +may take many years to accomplish. + +So far, and taking into account the enormous spread of this disastrous +disease, the obvious remedial measures seem to be, to cut down the +diseased trees--of course this should be done in the winter, or at +least before the spores come--and use the timber as best may be; but +we must first see whether such a suggestion needs modifying, after +learning more about the fungus and its habits. It appears clear, at +any rate, however, that every diseased tree removed means a source of +Ćcidiospores the less. Probably every one knows the common groundsel, +which abounds all over Britain and the Continent, and no doubt many of +my readers are acquainted with other species of the same genus +(_Senecio_) to which the groundsel belongs, and especially with the +ragwort (_Senecio Jacobća_). It has long been known that the leaves of +these plants, and of several allied species, are attacked by a fungus, +the mycelium of which spreads in the leaf passages, and gives rise to +powdery masses of orange yellow spores, arranged in vertical rows +beneath the stomata: these powdery masses of spores burst forth +through the epidermis, but are not clothed by any covering, such as +the _Ćcidia_ of _Peridermium Pini_, for instance. These groups of +yellow spores burst forth in irregular powdery patches, scattered over +the under sides of the leaves in July and August: toward the end of +the summer a slightly different form of spore, but similarly arranged, +springs from the same mycelium on the same patches. From the +differences in their form, time of appearance, and (as we shall see) +functions, these two kinds of spores have received different names. +Those first produced have numerous papillć on them, and were called +_Uredospores_, from their analogies with the uredospore of the rust of +wheat; the second kind of spore is smooth, and is called the +_Teleutospore_, also from analogies with the spores produced in the +late summer by the wheat rust. The fungus which produces these +uredospores and teleutospores was named and has been long +distinguished as _Coleosporium Senecionis_ (Pers.) We are not +immediately interested in the damage done by this parasite to the +weeds which it infests, and at any rate we might well be tempted to +rejoice in its destructive action on these garden pests. It is +sufficient to point out that the influence of the mycelium is to +shorten the lives of the leaves, and to rob the plant of food material +in the way referred to generally in my last article. + +What we are here more directly interested in is the following. A few +years ago Wolff showed that if the spores from the _Ćcidia Peridermium +Pini_ (var. _acicola_) are sown on the leaf of _Senecio_, the germinal +hyphć which grow out from the spores _enter the stomata of the +Senecio leaf, and there develop into the fungus called Coleosporium +Senecionis_. In other words, the fungus growing in the cortex of the +pine, and that parasitic on the leaves of the groundsel and its +allies, are one and the same: it spends part of its life on the tree +and the other part on the herb. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35. A spore of Peridermium Pini germinating. It + puts forth the long, branched germinal hyphć on the damp surface + of a leaf of Senecio, and one of the branches enters a stoma, and + forms a mycelium in the leaf: after some time, the mycelium gives + rise to the uredospores and teleutospores of Coleosporium + Senecionis. (After Tulasne: highly magnified.)] + +If I left the matter stated only in this bald manner, it is probable +that few of my readers would believe the wonder. But, as a matter of +fact, this phenomenon, on the one hand, is by no means a solitary +instance, for we know many of these fungi which require two host +plants in order to complete their life history; and, on the other +hand, several observers of the highest rank have repeated Wolff's +experiment and found his results correct. Hartig, for instance, to +whose indefatigable and ingenious researches we owe most that is known +of the disease caused by the _Peridermium_, has confirmed Wolff's +results. + +It was to the brilliant researches of the late Prof. De Bary that we +owe the first recognition of this remarkable phenomenon of +_heteroecism_--i.e., the inhabiting more than one host--of the +fungi. De Bary proved that the old idea of the farmer, that the rust +is very apt to appear on wheat growing in the neighborhood of berberry +bushes, was no fable; but on the contrary, that the yellow _Ćcidium_ +on the berberry is a phase in the life history of the fungus causing +the wheat rust. Many other cases are now known, e.g.., the _Ćcidium +abietinum_, on the spruce firs in the Alps, passes the other part of +its life on the rhododendrons of the same region. Another well known +example is that of the fungus _Gymnosporangium_, which injures the +wood of junipers. Oersted first proved that the other part of its life +is spent on the leaves of certain Rosaceć, and his discovery has been +repeatedly confirmed. I have myself observed the following +confirmation of this. The stems of the junipers so common in the +neighborhood of Silverdale (near Morecambe Bay) used to be distorted +with _Gymnosporangium_, and covered with the _teleutospores_ of this +fungus every spring: in July all the hawthorn hedges in the +neighborhood had their leaves covered with the Ćcidium form (formerly +called Roestelia), and it was quite easy to show that the fungus on +the hawthorn leaves was produced by sowing the _Gymnosporangium_ +spores on them. Many other well established cases of similar +heteroecism could be quoted. + +But we must return to the _Peridermium Pini_. It will be remembered +that I expressed myself somewhat cautiously regarding the +_Peridermium_ on the leaves (var. _acicola_). It appears that there is +need for further investigations into the life history of this form, +for it has been thought more than probable that it is not a mere +variety of the other, but a totally different species. + +Only so lately as 1883, however, Wolff succeeded in infecting the +leaves of _Senecio_ with the spores of _Peridermium Pini_ (_acicola_), +and developing the _Coleosporium_, thus showing that both the +varieties belong to the same fungus. + +It will be seen from the foregoing that in the study of the biological +relationships between any one plant which we happen to value because +it produces timber and any other which grows in the neighborhood there +may be (and there usually is) a series of problems fraught with +interest so deep scientifically, and so important economically, that +one would suppose no efforts would be spared to investigate them: no +doubt it will be seen as time progresses that what occasionally looks +like apathy with regard to these matters is in reality only apparent +indifference due to want of information. + +Returning once more to the particular case in question, it is obvious +that our new knowledge points to the desirability of keeping the seed +beds and nurseries especially clean from groundsel and weeds of that +description: on the one hand, such weeds are noxious in themselves, +and on the other they harbor the _Coleosporium_ form of the fungus +_Peridermium_ under the best conditions for infection. It may be added +that it is known that the fungus can go on being reproduced by the +_uredospores_ on the groundsel plants which live through the winter. + + * * * * * + + +In St. Genevieve and Cape Girardeau Counties, Mo., in the Niagara +limestone is found a handsome marble of a variegated liver color. Near +Sheppard Landing it is 80 feet thick, and at Janis Mill, in St. +Genevieve County, Dr. Shumard speaks of beds of fine texture and +various shades of flesh, yellow, green, pink, purple, and chocolate, +all handsomely blended. + + * * * * * + + +A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS + +Contained in Scientific American Supplement during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 A YEAR. SINGLE COPIES, 25 CTS. + +This is a Special Edition of the Scientific American, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/24322-8.zip b/24322-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5a941e --- /dev/null +++ b/24322-8.zip diff --git a/24322-h.zip b/24322-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c80f63a --- /dev/null +++ b/24322-h.zip diff --git a/24322-h/24322-h.htm b/24322-h/24322-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4903732 --- /dev/null +++ b/24322-h/24322-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5271 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, September 22, 1888</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + img {border: 0;} + p { text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + sub {font-size: 0.7em;} + sup {font-size: 0.7em;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center;} + + .longcaption {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-weight: bold; + } + + .center {text-align: center; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + .center table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + .right {text-align: right;} + + .tnote {color: blue; text-decoration: none; } + .signature {font-variant: small-caps; + text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .toc1 {vertical-align: top; text-align: left;} + .toc2, toc3 {text-align: left; } + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline;} + +--> +/*]]>*/ +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 664, +September 22,1888, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 664, September 22,1888 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 15, 2008 [EBook #24322] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Huub Bakker, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="center" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: -10%"> +<a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt= +"Issue Title" /></a></div> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 664</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 22, 1888</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXVI., No. 664.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td>PAGE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">I.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art01">ARCHITECTURE.—The Commercial Exchange, Paris.—History +of the new building, with its general design and architectural features.—2 +illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10607</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art02">The New Central Railway Station at Frankfort-on-the-Main.—A +full description of this gigantic structure, with its constructive +features and cost.—2 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10605</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">II.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art03">ART OF WAR.—Gun Practice in the French Navy.—Gun practice +at sea against a moving target.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10599</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art04">Modern Cavalry on the Field of Battle.—By Col. <span class="smcap">R. S. Liddell</span>.—An +exhaustive paper on this subject, treating of a much discussed +branch of military tactics</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10600</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">III.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art05">BIOLOGY.—Subterraneous Flora and Fauna.—By Dr. <span class="smcap">Otto +Zacharias</span>.—A popular article on the interesting subject of animal +and vegetable life underground.—8 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10612</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art06">CHEMISTRY.—Pepsin.—By <span class="smcap">A. Percy Smith</span>, F.I.C., F.C.S.—The +analysis of pepsin, difficulties of the usual method, and simple +comparative test, applicable by any one</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10611</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">V.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art07">CIVIL ENGINEERING.—Timber and Some of Its Diseases.—By +<span class="smcap">H. Marshall Ward</span>.—Continuation of this valuable series, +treating of fungus life and its destructive effects.—5 +illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10613</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY.—A Basis from which to Calculate Charges for +Electric Motor Service.—A practical paper treating of the percentage +of horse power hours used in different industries</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10608</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art09">ETHNOLOGY.—A Chinese Imperial Cemetery.—The cemetery +of the emperors of the Ming dynasty.—The remarkable statues +and buildings.—2 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10610</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art10">How a Mound was Built.—An interesting contribution to the +history of the Ohio mounds by Mr. <span class="smcap">Gerard Fowke</span></a></td> +<td class="toc3">10609</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art11">Some Abyssinian Customs.—The hair dressing of the Abyssinian +women.—Their method of grinding pepper.—3 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10609</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VIII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art12">MEDICINE AND SURGERY.—A New Surgical Operation.—Dr. +Brudenell Carter's operation for relieving pressure on the optic +nerve</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10611</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art13">Dyspepsia, its causes and prevention.—How this malady is caused +and how easily it may be guarded against, an essay in prophylaxis</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10610</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IX.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art14">MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.—Coal Tar as Fuel for Steam +Boilers.—By <span class="smcap">John McCrae</span>, of Dundee.—A review of the economy +of tar firing and of the method employed by the writer.—1 +illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10604</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art15">Steam Generator of Serpollet Brothers, producing steam instantaneously.—A +new inexplodible steam generator, its construction +and application to a tricycle.—3 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10602</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art16">Transmission of Power between Bodies Moving at Different Velocities.—A +simple system of transmitting power applicable in +many places</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10602</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">X.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art17">MISCELLANEOUS.—Note on Missouri Marble</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10614</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art18">Water Blast Pump.—A filter pump of simplified and improved +construction.—3 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10602</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art19">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Iron Sailing Ships.—Scotch sailing +ships, built of iron and steel, the favorite sizes and rigging +adopted.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10602</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art20">SANITARY ENGINEERING.—Putzeys' Flushing Reservoir.—A +French invention, applicable in sewage disposal and pipe +flushing.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10611</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XIII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art21">TECHNOLOGY.—Gas Lighting by High Power Burners.—A +review of a number of regenerative and other gas burners and +their practical success</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10603</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art22">Synchronizing Clocks.—A simple synchronizing mechanism described +and illustrated.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10604</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art23">Watch Cleaning and Repairing.—A long paper treating of the +details of watch cleaning from the practical standpoint</a></td> +<td class="toc3">10604</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="Page_10599" id="Page_10599"></a> +<a href="./images/image1.png"><img src="./images/image1a.png" width="379" height="500" alt="GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY." title="GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY." /></a> +<br /><span class="caption">GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY.</span> +</div> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a><a name="Page_10600" id="Page_10600"></a> +GUN PRACTICE IN THE FRENCH NAVY.</h2> + +<p>The gunners of the French fleet are possessed of a +skill which is recognized by all the maritime powers, +and these picked men proved this at the siege of Paris, +where they made themselves illustrious, not only by +their courage and their coolness, but also by the accuracy +of their firing.</p> + +<p>Nothing is neglected, moreover, to keep up the precision +of hand and eye that distinguishes them, and which +has become so much the more necessary in that it is no +longer a question of firing a broadside at the enemy and +reckoning on one ball being more fortunate than another +in damaging the enemy's ship. At present, the +most powerful ironclad has four, and sometimes six or +eight, guns of large caliber, which are of from 30 to 100 +tons. Every shot represents not only an enormous +sum, but also a prodigious force expended, and so +powder must not be used too lavishly, since the shot +should be in relation with the colossal power that it +represents, and the shell adopted in the navy is accompanied +with so disastrous effects that a single one, well +directed, is capable of reducing the enemy's ship to impotence. +So exercises in firing are becoming more and +more frequent, and they have a right to be multiplied, +inasmuch as the present guns are complicated affairs, +the maneuvering of which requires constant practice.</p> + +<p>Our engraving represents one of these exercises performed +by the Squadron of the North, which is of recent +organization, and which consists of the three ironclads +Marengo, Suffren, and Ocean, and three coast guards +Furieux, Fulminant, and Tonnerre. Each of the ironclads +is provided with four 27 cm. guns and four +24 cm. ones, not counting the revolving guns, which +constitute the small artillery reserved for fighting torpedo +boats. The Furieux has two 34 cm. guns, and the +Tonnerre and Fulminant each two 37 cm. ones.</p> + +<p>An endeavor is made, as far as possible, to practice +firing such as is done in a naval action, that is, at moving +targets. To this effect, the dispatch boat Epervier +tows a rectangular float about two meters in length, +upon which are arranged two canvas balloons kept +taut by a wooden framework. One of these balloons is +white and the other is black. Each is a meter in diameter, +and is supported by a rod which is usually a +meter in height. The vessels of the squadron successively +fire their large guns at this target, which moves +at a definite velocity. The shell, on dropping into +the water, raises an immense jet, which entirely hides +the balloons when the projectile falls in a line with and +sufficiently near the target.</p> + +<p>The smoke that envelops the ships, the thunder that +echoes in the calm of the sea, and the jet that rises in +the air produce a thrilling effect and give an idea of +the power of man carried to the last expression.—<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a> +MODERN CAVALRY ON THE FIELD OF BATTLE. +<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"> +</a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + +<p class="center">By Col. R. S. <span class="smcap">Liddell</span>.</p> + +<p>I feel that some apology is due from me for coming +down to Aldershot and giving my opinions before so +many officers whose daily experience renders them +much more capable than I am of bringing this subject +forward, and it was with some hesitation that I yielded +to the flattering invitation of the Military Society of +Aldershot to read a paper here to-day on cavalry. At +the same time, if it is thought that anything I can say +can increase the success that this society has already +met with, I can only add that I render my services +most willingly. It seems to me one of the many advantages +that these meetings possess is the bringing together +of the different branches of the service, and the +mutual information they afford of each other's arm. +When we look back only a few years, we have much to +be thankful for in the disappearance of a vast amount +of prejudice that used to exist between the different +branches. Each arm thought that theirs, and theirs +only, was worth studying. Infantry officers sometimes +said, as long as their arm was sufficiently numerous +and well equipped, that, with the exception of a few +scouts and orderlies, cavalry might be dispensed with. +Artillery might think that unless guns were largely +used, no infantry could ever make an attack at all; +while cavalry officers, who were perhaps the most +conservative of all, would point to the past, and show how +every battle that had ever been fought was won by +cavalry, and ever would be.</p> + +<p>Confidence in one's own arm is most desirable, and +should be fostered, if at the same time we can learn +how to work with others, remembering that while cavalry +gives the information to and hides the movements +of the army, while artillery shakes and disperses the +enemy's formation, and prepares the way for attack, it +is the infantry alone who can assault and hold the +position, and it is for their advance and to bring them +up to the point that determines the battle in the condition +most favorable to insure success that all the +efforts of the other two arms must be devoted. I have +made these preliminary remarks, as from my paper +being entirely given to the actions of cavalry, it might +appear that I am claiming more for that arm in the +battle field than is reasonable; but I wish it clearly +understood that whatever I may say is only in an auxiliary +sense to the action of infantry, and I trust that I +shall not be thought underestimating other arms, +while showing unbounded confidence in my own.</p> + +<p>The necessary rest required by Europe after the exhaustion +of the wars of Napoleon resulted in the long +peace which succeeded the campaign of 1815. This, +and the improvement that took place in fire arms in +the next forty years, gave room for speculation as to +whether cavalry would play as important a part in the +future as it had done in the past, under Marlborough, +Frederick the Great, Napoleon, and Wellington. The +Crimean war helped to confirm the opinion that the +days of cavalry had gone by. No account was made of +the enormous distance by sea that the cavalry had to +be transported, the unfavorable nature of the seat of +war for that arm, the little scope given in a campaign +that resolved itself into a siege, the smallness of the +cavalry force employed, and the difficulty in keeping +up a fresh supply of horses. After this war came the +introduction and improvement in the breech loader, +and with it opinions were strengthened that cavalry +duties would be still further limited, and its traditions +for a time appear to have been lost.</p> + +<p>The awakening from this transient period of theory +came from a nation not trained to arms, and it is to +the American civil war that we owe the revival that +took place in the use of the cavalry arm. The raids +made by the Confederates under Morgan, Stuart, Forrest, +and by the Federals under Sheridan, drew attention +to advanced cavalry work, such as scouting, reconnaissance, +outpost and dismounted work. As particular +examples we may select Morgan's boldest and greatest +raid in 1862, when he passed through Kentucky and +Indiana, capturing large stores from the enemy. By +his rapid and skillful marches the Federal officers were +completely bewildered. He was absent from his army +24 days, in which time he traveled 1,000 miles, capturing +17 towns and destroying all the government supplies +and arms. In a second raid he forced the Federal +army to fall back by taking possession of the railway +in its rear which brought it supplies. In October, 1862, +Stuart made his greatest raid through Pennsylvania, +around the Northern army. He set out with 1,800 +cavalry and four pieces of horse artillery, and crossed +the Potomac. The telegraph wires were cut in all +directions, railways obstructed, and a large number of +horses captured, and all the public stores and buildings +were destroyed. His position at this time was very +critical, 90 miles from his own army. He considered it +less dangerous to return by the opposite way to which +he came.</p> + +<p>Forrest used his cavalry in every possible manner, dismounting +in the battle field and employing it as infantry. +In October, 1864, during a raid, he impeded +the navigation of the Tennessee River, which was filled +with Federal gunboats. Choosing a strong position on +the bank, he masked his guns and awaited the approach +of the enemy's vessels. He captured a gunboat +and a transport, and manned them with his own +men; but his naval expedition did not last long. Pursued +by several gunboats, he had to run his ships on +shore, when the troopers gladly mounted their horses +again. His object was, however, gained—inspiring +alarm throughout the country and occupying a considerable +number of the enemy. Later on the Federals +copied this system, when the raids of Sheridan, +with his 10,000 horsemen, armed with the magazine +rifle and revolver, with sword attached to the saddle, +brought about the final overthrow of the Southern +army.</p> + +<p>The next campaign that took place was in 1866, +known as the "Seven Weeks' War," when large bodies +of cavalry were used by the Austrians and Prussians. +This campaign was of such short duration that there +was not sufficient time for the experience gained in the +use of cavalry to be utilized while the war lasted; but +when the war was over, both sides, having bought +their experience, set out to reorganize their systems, +and the course pursued by the Prussians after this campaign +in largely increasing their cavalry was fully justified +by the advantages reaped in the war in France +in 1870. At the close of the Franco-German war the +attention of the whole of Europe was called to the successful +use of German cavalry during the campaign, +more especially the advanced duties, when at times 60 +miles in breadth and 50 in advance of the army was +covered by the cavalry.</p> + +<p>In England, after the termination of this war, many +German military works of great value were translated +and published; the battle fields in France were visited +and described; every movement of both armies, strategical +and tactical, was studied. All this tended to +draw our attention to the extended use of the cavalry +arm in future campaigns, and the shortcomings of our +own system were carefully scrutinized. The movements +of our drill book were simplified, the careful +training of our men in shooting was more fully recognized, +and the teaching of advanced cavalry duties, +reconnaissance, outpost and dismounted work, were +gone into most thoroughly—in such a manner that I +may confidently appeal to those officers who have the +best opportunities of forming an opinion, whether our +cavalry does not bear comparison now with what is +being done in other armies, and in these matters is advancing +in a satisfactory manner. While all this good +work has been going on (and I would be the last to say +one word that might seem to depreciate its value) we +may perhaps have permitted the action of cavalry on +the field of battle to escape from sufficient notice.</p> + +<p>It is for this reason I will ask your permission to +bring before you this subject, believing that the opinions +of all branches of the service being brought to +bear upon it, considerable advantage maybe obtained. +It will be my endeavor to show, not by my own arguments, +but by quotations from others, that cavalry +still has an important part to take on the battle field, +and far from its duties ending when armies come in +contact, that it is still reserved to them, as has been the +case before, to decide, perhaps by only one charge, the +issue of a whole campaign. Prince Kraft in his letters +on cavalry says: "The battle of Mars-la-Tour, won by +the bold employment of cavalry, made possible the +blockade of Metz, and afterward the surrender of the +whole of Bazaine's army. So it may be said, without +exaggeration, that the charge of Bredow's six squadrons +on that day was the turning point of the Franco-German +campaign."</p> + +<p>Colonel Home, in his "Précis of Modern Tactics," +says: "The action of cavalry on the actual battle field +is by no means a thing of the past. The use of cavalry +with skill at the right moment and in the right numbers +has always been considered one of the most difficult +problems in war. Modern arms have increased +this difficulty manifold, but to say the day of cavalry +on the field of battle is past is merely another way of +saying that the knowledge of how it should be used is +wanting." Cavalry is apportioned to an army in two +capacities: (1) Divisional cavalry, that is (if possible) a +regiment, or as many squadrons as can be spared, attached +to each infantry division, acting under the +orders of the general of the division. (2) The cavalry +division, that is, a large body of cavalry composed of +several brigades, an independent body having its own +commander. On the march the divisional cavalry +covers the head and flanks of its own division: on the +field of battle it will be as near as possible to its division, +in the most sheltered spot that can be found; in +the early part of the battle it would be kept as much in +reserve as possible, écheloned in rear of one flank of its +own infantry. It would remain there until the artillery +and musketry had effected their work, and the +enemy's flanks had become thinned and shaken. Then, +when his infantry become tired and exhausted, under +cover of the smoke, the cavalry may be further advanced.</p> + +<p>Prince Kraft says: "At Sedan the divisional cavalry +were employed during the battle, charging by single +squadrons, patrolling and reconnoitering to obtain information +of the enemy and the ground. Every infantry +body is accompanied by patrols, however small." +An instance of the too early employment of cavalry in +a battle occurred at Waterloo, when Napoleon at the +commencement launched his cavalry into the fight. +The result was that although it far outnumbered the +English at first, it became so reduced, depressed, and +worn out, that it was unable afterward to offer full resistance +to the British squadrons, who were comparatively +fresh. Wellington, on the contrary, after his +first successes, kept his cavalry, as much as possible, in +reserve. The field of battle itself shows the proper +situation of cavalry, but the divisional cavalry on the +defensive side must always be at hand to fall upon the +flanks of the enemy's infantry when in extended order, +while that of the attacking side must be equally at +hand to prevent the flanks of its own infantry being +so attacked.</p> + +<p>In discussing the action of divisional cavalry, the +most advantageous time for its assisting in the combat +must be considered. At what moment, if any, can infantry +be attacked by cavalry? When opposed to a +force acting on the defensive, divisional cavalry has its +operations limited, and probably in the earlier part of +an engagement, confined to watching, and, if possible, +guarding the flanks of its own attacking infantry from +surprise. It is the cavalry on the defenders' side that +has the greatest opportunities. In both cases, however, +a rule must be made not to attack infantry when +it has taken up a favorable position, or before its ranks +have been shaken by artillery or musketry. Prince +Kraft, in speaking of Mars-la-Tour, says: "This same +day took place a series of cavalry charges of greater or +less importance, which all showed practically to the +cavalry the limits of their effective action against infantry. +The advancing infantry were brought to a +stand, infantry who gave way were ridden down, but +where the cavalry attacked infantry intact, the cavalry +were unable to prevail."</p> + +<p>The precision of modern fire arms has necessitated +great changes in infantry tactics. To advance against +the murderous fire of the present rifle, infantry is compelled +to adopt scattered formations in small lines, and +to move forward with sudden rushes. All this lends +itself to the attacks of an active cavalry. When these +infantry attacks take place, it may be presumed that +they have already been under arms some hours, have +marched some distance, and been exposed to considerable +loss from artillery and musketry fire. Their advance +in extended formation will have commenced at +about 1,000 yards, or earlier. By this time the squadrons +opposing them will have been brought to a more +advanced position, to the nearest point to their flank +where cover is afforded, and to carry this out successfully +requires skillful handling. Files must be extended, +and short rushes made with small bodies, say +half a troop if over exposed ground, into sheltered +places. It is true that cavalry cannot hide themselves +over exposed ground as infantry can, but they have +one advantage that nothing can deprive them of—rapidity +of motion; and the distance that would take +them say 10 seconds to traverse, viz., 150 yards, would +take infantry a minute.</p> + +<p>Prince Kraft writes: "No battle field is a <i>tabula +rasa</i>, for in the most exposed country there are depressions. +If strong skirmishing lines of infantry can advance +directly over a country devoid of cover, cavalry +can undoubtedly do the like, if by making use of the +lie of the ground they can gain the enemy's flank. A +skilled cavalry leader will thus undoubtedly find an +opportunity to get close to the enemy." Having arrived +at this more advanced position, say from 500 to +1,000 yards, according to the formation of the ground, +the nearer the better, the most favorable moment +to assail the flanks of the attacking infantry would +probably be immediately before the last belt of the +fighting line, and before the main body had re-enforced +them, as they are preparing for their last united rush, +and as their supports are doubling up to join them.</p> + +<p>At this moment the men would be to some extent out +of breath, their attention would be fixed on the point +about to be attacked, and their flanks would be +neglected. Cavalry should then descend upon them +at the utmost speed that can be extracted from the +horses, with a good interval from knee to knee. If +there is only one squadron, one troop should take the +flank or fighting line, while the other throws itself upon +the support. As the distance to be covered in the open +will probably be not more than from 200 to 400 yards, +they will be exposed to fire, supposing none of the +ground is undulating, for fifteen to thirty seconds +when at full speed. As they close on the infantry +neither the supports nor those in rear of them or their +artillery will dare to fire, on account of their own men. +If the infantry run to get into small squares, as is most +likely, the cavalry must endeavor to catch them before +they assemble. If they get together it may be too late +for the cavalry to stop. They must then throw themselves +upon them and trust to the supporting squadron +to complete the attack.</p> + +<p>Although it is rare that a battle field is on such +ground that there are no undulations to afford shelter +for cavalry in an advanced position, this may be the +case, and if so the enemy's infantry attack must be +allowed to take place, but even then, by cavalry showing +itself on the flanks for a moment, infantry would +get together and afford a better mark for fire, and the +progress of the attack would be delayed. The very +appearance of cavalry frequently frightens infantry +into masses. If the ground was too much exposed for +the charge, men might be dismounted, with their +carbines, at a safe distance to assist the infantry. If +mounted infantry were at hand, they would be utilized +in the same way, and the machine guns of the cavalry +would also pour in their volleys. If the enemy's attack +is successful, cavalry must then advance on their flanks +and take its chance, and if necessary sacrifice itself to +give its own infantry time to rally. If it is unsuccessful, +the cavalry must be ready to take every favorable +opportunity of molesting its broken ranks.</p> + +<p>Speaking of Mars-la-Tour, Prince Kraft says: "During +the battle a German infantry brigade was forced to +retire with heavy loss, and ran some danger of being +annihilated by the pursuing enemy. But the First +Dragoons of the Guards threw themselves on the pursuers. +<a name="Page_10601" id="Page_10601"></a>The enemy's infantry massed round the eagles +and ceased to press on, while the thin ranks of our infantry +were able to rally, and our guns were saved and +brought into position. The losses were heavy; half a +regiment of cavalry (250 horses) were sacrificed in order +to save the brigade." At Waterloo a French division of +infantry fled before three regiments of dragoons (the +Union Brigade). The Royal Dragoons and the Inniskillings +in first line, the Scots Greys on their left rear, +the whole under Sir William Ponsonby, acting in support +of the Highland Infantry Brigade, were awaiting +the attack of the whole of the 1st French Division under +Gen. Alix. The three Scotch regiments threw into +them a concentrated fire, and as they were staggered by +the shock Ponsonby gave the order to advance. Passing +through the Highlanders, the Greys having come up +into line, the three regiments charged the leading portion +of the French column, which yielded, and those in +rear were hurled back. The dragoons having the advantage +of the descent of the hill appeared to mow +down the mass, the Greys on the left pressed on +through the supporting brigade of the French, while +the Royals drove back the right, giving no time for +fire. Many threw down their arms, while hundreds of +prisoners were hurried off to the rear of the line. At +the same time the Inniskillings forced their way +through the center, when the remainder of the French +division broke and fled.</p> + +<p>It may be said that this took place before the introduction +of the rifle, and is therefore no example, but +it took place within the range of the weapon then in use, +and at that distance it was equally effective. The celebrated +charge of Bredow's brigade at Vieuville (Mars-la-Tour) +also shows what an energetic attack may do. It +had become necessary to demand a sacrifice from the +cavalry for the good of the army, to enable Prince Frederick +Charles, with only 24,000 infantry, to hold in check +Bazaine's army of 180,000 until his own main body came +up. Bredow's cavalry brigade consisted of six squadrons +of the 7th Cuirassiers and the 16th Uhlans. They +were ordered to make a breach in the front of the 16th +French Army Corps.</p> + +<p>The six squadrons advanced in column, the cuirassiers +leading, when they received the word to change +direction to the right, then to form line, which was +done under heavy fire. The cuirassiers getting into line +first, charged at once, the 16th following in echelon. In +a moment the batteries, vomiting flames, were reached +with a loud hurrah, and the gunners cut down at their +guns, when the whole brigade, which had now got into +one line, charged the long lines of infantry in rear, who +received them with a heavy fire from their chassepots. +These lines, too, were broken through, and the main +object of the charge was attained, but, carried away by +the ardor of the combat, they charged and took the +mitrailleuses, when the French cuirassiers, with a +dragoon brigade in support, come down upon them, +and compelled them to fall back. This they did, having +to force their way back through the enemy's masses +of infantry with enormous loss. The object, however, +was gained, and the attack of the French corps checked +and never resumed. The cavalry division covers the +advance of the whole army, and is a day or two in front +of it. It conceals and guards the army, while finding +out the movements of the enemy. It collects information, +and is also used with horse artillery on great enterprises +on the enemy's communications. Having +finished the reconnaissance and covering the army on +the day of battle, it falls back as the two opposing sides +come in contact, and awaits further orders. On the +battle field it should be placed so as to suffer as little +loss as possible—as a rule, in rear of the flanks. How +far must depend on the formation of the ground; if +shelter is to be obtained nearer the front, the better. +If not, then some 2,000 yards in rear of one flank would +seem advisable. Its duties are to guard the exposed +flank or flanks and rear of the army, while it watches +the cavalry of the enemy. If within range of artillery, +it should be kept on the move from front to rear. Its +strength should not be wasted or frittered away on +doubtful enterprises, as it maybe required for some decisive +blow, in pursuit, or in covering the retreat.</p> + +<p>Prince Kraft, speaking of the battle of St. Privat, +says: "On the 18th of August the gigantic fight of St. +Privat took place. The cavalry divisions were held +back in reserve, but the divisional cavalry took an +active part. During the battle a squadron of hussars +advanced and sent information of the enemy making a +flank movement." He also says: "At Sedan the +cavalry division was kept in reserve." The massing of +artillery at the commencement of a battle must expose +a long line with some weak spot to attack. If protected +by cavalry, then probably a cavalry combat will ensue. +Prince Kraft says: "The action of the masses of German +cavalry at Mars-la-Tour excited wonder and admiration; +they surprised the enemy's cavalry when in +bivouac, they met and surrounded the hostile infantry +in a threatening manner, and thus 8,000 cavalry occupied +65,000 infantry, until the Prussian infantry came +up. The cavalry made no charges which could not have +been successful, but carried out their task of occupying +the enemy almost without loss.</p> + +<p>"In the old days these squadrons would have charged +and ridden down the infantry. The change is the result +of the improvement in fire arms." During the early +stages of a battle, advanced parties, under officers +selected for the purpose, must be kept out from the +cavalry division to watch the enemy's movements, and +the information they should be able to afford should be +invaluable to the general-in-chief. An engagement with +the enemy's cavalry should not be sought unless they +are much weaker; but should the necessity arise, the +ground should be reconnoitered, and every advantage of +position taken to insure success. The attack being determined +on, the preparations for it should be carried +out rapidly. Echelon movements have many advantages. +They favor the formation of oblique lines, they +also insure in a charge direct to the front the bringing +up of squadron after squadron in support. The attack +of Vivian's Hussar Brigade upon the French reserves at +Waterloo gives a brilliant illustration of this, and has +been termed by Siborne the "crisis of Waterloo." This +celebrated charge, intended to be in line, became virtually +a charge in echelon of squadrons in consequence of +the rapid pace of the head of the column.</p> + +<p>"The movement of cavalry must be rapid and unexpected, +and bear the character of determined confidence; +an effort should be made by maneuvering to +come suddenly on the enemy's flank. A gentle declivity +for the final charge must be sought. The rapid, +vigorous, and determined charge in line on to cavalry, +riding knee to knee, is what is required." The charge +to be made effectual, the horses must be brought up in +wind, the gallop must not be begun too early; when +begun it must gradually be increased to a fast gallop, +the final charge for the last sixty yards made with every +horse extended. "Nothing, then, must be left undone to +excite the spirit of enthusiasm, even to ferocity; then, +and only then, the 'cheer' to be raised." At Waterloo +the charge of the heavy brigade, the 1st and 2d Life +Guards and King's Dragoon Guards, with the Blues in +support, is a good example of a successful attack on +cavalry. The French line of cavalry as it advanced presented +an imposing appearance.</p> + +<p>They had ascended the brow of the ridge, when a +vigorous fire from Ross' Horse Artillery was opened on +to them. In the next moment their trumpets sounded +the charge and they rushed to the attack, and as cuirassiers +approached the British squares, the Heavy Brigade +dashed into them. The shock was terrific. The +right of the Life Guards being thrown forward, came +first into collision. The right of the French was suddenly +thrown out by coming unexpectedly on to a hollow +way, and as they passed it the 2d Life Guards +came full speed upon them. The French cuirassiers +were driven back and pursued until the English brigade +came under infantry fire.</p> + +<p>The charge of the Heavy Cavalry Brigade at Balaklava, +under Gen. Scarlett, is another good example, +when the Russian cavalry, receiving the British charge +at a halt, were entirely overthrown. One of the greatest +difficulties after the charge is to know when and how +to stop, and it is then that the squadron and troop +leaders, well in front of their men, must use all their efforts +to carry out the ends of their commander. I think +this is the time when a strong whistle carried by the +commanding officer and the squadron leaders can be +used with good effect. Being an unusual sound, it would +attract attention. The battle being over, some of the +most serious duties of cavalry commence. If the enemy +is victorious, the pursuit has immediately to follow. +History points out the difficulty of carrying this out. +Uncertainty of the victory, or how far it can be counted +on, often delays its commencement. Battles are often +ended by nightfall, valuable time is lost, and the golden +opportunities are past. An active cavalry leader will, +however, without further orders at least, follow with +his advanced parties and not lose touch of the enemy. +He will soon learn the condition of the enemy, act accordingly, +harass his flanks and rear and play upon +him with his artillery.</p> + +<p>An example of another manner in which cavalry may +be employed after a victory can be taken from the +Egyptian campaign of 1882, when, after the battle of +Tel-el-Kebir, by a rapid advance of the cavalry some +fifty miles ahead of the infantry, the capital of the +country was captured by the English cavalry division.</p> + +<p>If the battle is lost, still greater are the responsibilities +of the cavalry. Detached squadrons with scouts must be +sent round the flanks to ascertain the strength of the +enemy sent in pursuit. Every available position must +be taken up by the horse artillery, and every advantage +seized for counter attack. Above all, accurate information +must be obtained for the general-in-chief of +the nature of the pursuit, in order that he may not +harass his main body by falling back further than +necessary. This subject, however, is beyond the scope +of this lecture, and is one of study of past campaigns.</p> + +<p>Of the action of cavalry in savage warfare, the recent +campaigns in Africa have given some experience. +In the presence of an enemy met with in such enormous +numbers as in the desert, cut off from all help, +knowing that unless you win you die, it seems to be +decided that our infantry must adopt the square as the +most suitable formation. In the Zulu war, the cavalry +at the battle of Ulundi was placed inside the square. +The experience met with there was exceptional, and +from the swarms of savages surrounding the square in +all directions it was considered desirable to keep the +17th Lancers in the center of it, in order that they +should not interfere with the infantry fire, and that +when the enemy was repulsed, they should be launched +out upon them, and this was done with perfect success. +It is, however, contrary to the instincts and traditions +of cavalry to be shut up in a square, and, where practicable, +I should think cavalry outside a square, even +at some distance out of the way of the infantry fire, +acting with horse artillery, would very much disturb +the attacking bodies of the enemy, and perhaps attract +away a portion of them, and they could be brought up, +when called upon to do so, to carry out the pursuit.</p> + +<p>In the first campaign on the east coast of the Soudan, +on the advance to El Teb and afterward to Tokar, +squadrons were sent in front and on the flanks of the +square with scouts thrown out to feel the way and obtain +information, while the main body of the cavalry +was echeloned on the rear and flank opposite an angle +of the square in the most suitable manner to avoid any +interference with its fire. During the action it remained +in this position until after the first attack on +the square, when it moved away past the square on +the outward flank and acted on the enemy's rear and +engaged their reserves until the action was over. During +the desert march in the Nile expedition, the 19th +Hussars, by its scouting, protected the square and gave +it timely notice of the approach of the enemy.</p> + +<p>In a country where a great deal of bush abounds the +effective charge of cavalry on to groups of savages is +very much curtailed. The Arabs throw themselves on +to the ground behind the prickly bushes, the ranks are +opened out as the horses avoid the thorns, and the men +get no chance of using their swords; but although +much execution is not achieved under these circumstances, +the natives have great fear of cavalry, and +they are prevented from attacking elsewhere. When +their attention is thus occupied, horse artillery and +machine guns might make great havoc among them. +At the action of Tamai, where the ground, from the +rocks and ravines of the neighboring mountains, was +unsuitable for cavalry charges, when one of the infantry +squares was broken, the cavalry advanced, and +one squadron of the 10th Hussars, dismounting, helped +to create a favorable diversion by pouring fire into the +flanks of the attacking Arabs.</p> + +<p>My remarks would, I think, be considered incomplete +if I did not touch on the question of cavalry +charging squares, as this point is always made very +prominent in all discussions on the action of cavalry. +I therefore must not pass it by. I will say at once that +I think it most undesirable, even under favorable circumstances, +that cavalry should charge a formed +square and men armed with the breech loader. At +best the gain can be but local and partial, while the +loss to the cavalry—an arm so difficult to keep up in +numbers—must be disastrous, and it seems to me that +if cavalry by its appearance can force infantry to form +square, it has done enough, and that the artillery, infantry, +and machine guns should do the rest. The +necessity might, however, arise, and by looking at the +past we see its possibility. At Langensalza two Prussian +squares were broken by the Hanoverian cavalry, +and the major part taken prisoners.</p> + +<p>We have only to turn to the recent campaigns in +Egypt to see the effect of determined rushes of men, +intending to succeed, charging on to squares carefully +formed on ground affording shelter, with an enormous +amount of fire being poured upon them. It will be +said that these men were fanatics, but our cavalry, too, +have been, and will be, fanatics in a charge; and +I still think, if the necessity recurs, that an attack, +properly conducted on favorable ground, one troop +charging on the corner of a square, followed by another +at double distance, others in echelon on both +flanks immediately following, the whole charging with +the greatest impetuosity, intended to win, will break +down any square that Englishmen are likely to meet +with. If we look back again on the past, we will find +many instances of British cavalry not being called +upon in vain to make a sacrifice. At Talavera, the +23d Light Dragoons, supported by the 1st Hussars of +the German Legion, advanced against the French +squares. In their impetuous rush they came upon a +hollow cleft covered with long grass, eight feet deep, +and eighteen feet broad. Too late to pull up, the foremost +rode headlong into it, some tumbled in, others +over it, some rode boldly at it and gained the other +side. Still they went on, swept past the infantry columns, +and fell upon a brigade of French chasseurs.</p> + +<p>At Balaklava 670 British horsemen were launched +against an entire wing of the Russian army. The brigade, +at first in two lines, the 11th Hussars, 17th Lancers, +and 13th Light Dragoons, followed by the 4th +Light Dragoons and 8th Hussars, advanced down a +gradual descent of three-quarters of a mile; the Russian +guns vomiting shell and shot upon them, one battery +bearing on their right, another on their left, and +all the intermediate ground covered with riflemen. +The guns were charged and forced through, the forces +drawn up in rear were overpowered. They then had +to turn, and, retiring up hill, ran through the same +gauntlet. In the Sikh war, at the battle of Ferozeshah, +the 3d Light Dragoons charged the enemy's entrenchments +at a point defended by some of their +heaviest batteries. When within 250 yards the regiment +moved at speed under a destructive fire of grape +and musketry, and pressing forward at the charge entered +the enemy's camp and captured the whole of the +batteries.</p> + +<p>Cavalry attacks have been made with success after +dark, and the advantage, of course, is gained of obviating +opposing fire. Prince Kraft mentions that after +the battle of Mars-la-Tour, the cavalry division, re-enforced +by the divisional cavalry, rode forward to complete +the advantages gained. It was almost night, and +fault has been found with making the attack in the +dark. If the ground is well known a night attack may +be advisable. While criticising it, we have to think +of the feelings of a half-defeated army about to bivouac +being attacked by unknown forces in the dark. In +this case, at Vionville, the enemy did not wait for a +second, but withdrew, and abandoned the whole field +of battle. Prince Kraft quotes the attack of Blücher +at Gross-Gorchen and a cavalry attack at Loon. During +the first Egyptian campaign the Life Guards made +an attack by moonlight at Kassassin.</p> + +<p>I have now, I think, touched lightly on some important +cavalry duties on a campaign. In some points +perhaps these remarks may appear contradictory. +How to combine keeping cavalry in reserve for any +great action it may be called upon to perform, while +using it unsparingly to assist on the battle field, if the +necessity arises. It may, however, be noticed that, +much as they may be criticised, few cavalry commanders +have been severely blamed when they have thought +it best to take the bolder course. To insure to cavalry +the power of carrying out its duties successfully in war, +organization and practice in peace is most essential. +Infantry may suddenly be increased without much deranging +its action in the field, but cavalry cannot be +hurried into an increased augmentation. In tactics +simplicity in every evolution and rapidity in execution +are the most important principles. This simplicity of +drill, I think, might be assisted if our squadrons were +divided into four divisions, zuges, or pelotons. When +squadrons have 48 files in the front rank there might +be four of these, while weak regiments with 36 files +could drill equally as well with three divisions. This +system, introduced by the late Gen. Valentine Baker +into the English service for a time, and now used by all +European countries, was found to work well.</p> + +<p>I think the whistle could be carried with advantage +by all cavalry officers. For advanced work attention can +be drawn by it without being heard at a distance like a +bugle. In movements the commanding officers would +find it useful to call the attention of leaders to himself, +especially in extended or échelon formation. I have +omitted to make much mention of the action of horse +artillery combined with cavalry, as it seems beyond +the limits of this paper; but it is one to which the +cavalry officer's attention requires to be brought most +strongly to bear. I would also have wished to have +made some remarks on the many advantages to be obtained +by having mounted infantry attached to cavalry. +I understand that this force would be under the orders +of the cavalry general, and if so, I think a cavalry division +well found in horse artillery, with mounted infantry, +whether conveyed on horses, or, where the +cavalry admitted of it, on cars, and accompanied by +machine guns on wheels, could act in such an independent +manner as to enable it to penetrate far ahead into +an enemy's country, or threaten his communications, +and be absent from its main body for many days or +weeks.</p> + +<p>As regards the English cavalry, I think it may be +said, without boasting, that the material is excellent. +The men are of the best physique, recruited from a +good class, and plenty of them to be had. The non-commissioned +officers are intelligent and always ready +for instruction; the riding compares favorably with +cavalry of other nations, certainly far better than any +<a name="Page_10602" id="Page_10602"></a>I have ever seen abroad, either German, Russian, or +French, and among all foreign countries we have the +reputation of being the best horsemen in the world, +which at all events has a good moral effect. Our horses +are undoubtedly first-rate, having more quality and +greater speed than foreigners. We have in our officers +the exact stuff we want. Their very sports and amusements +start them with all the makings of cavalry soldiers. +But the quickness of eye, the self-confidence +and readiness that these sports and games may give, +require nowadays more than ever something beyond +this to produce the trained cavalry leader. Cavalry is +an arm of opportunity, and above all others depends +greatly on its leaders, but with the chances now available +of reading, in every detail, the campaigns of the +past, if taken advantage of, as is now daily becoming +more common, we should produce in the future the +best and most accomplished cavalry officers that this +country or any other has ever seen.</p> + +<p>As there appeared to be a unanimity of opinion on +the lecture, there was no discussion, and the proceedings +closed with a vote of thanks to the lecturer.—<i>Broad +Arrow</i>.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +A lecture lately delivered at the Aldershot Military Society's library.</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a> +IRON SAILING SHIPS.</h2> + +<p>Messrs. Russell & Co., Greenock and Port Glasgow, +show at the Glasgow exhibition a very numerous and +varied show of sailing models. First, we find the noble +four-masted ships of from 1,800 tons to 2,200 tons, which +sail and carry well on their tonnage, and which are +worked by fewer hands than are required for a ship of +the same burden with three masts but squarer yards. +Some owners prefer the latter, and so Messrs. Russell +show not only such handsome specimens as the four-masted +Falls of Earn, but also the three-masted Ardencraig +and Soudan. One of the favorite models of this +firm is that of their 1,500 ton ship with three masts, represented +by the Cromartyshire, of which type they +have built a large number of vessels noted alike for +their carrying capacity and their excellent sailing +qualities. The Main, built for Mr. James Nourse, of +London, is a good specimen of their 1,700 ton ship, as +designed for the special trade of the owner, between +Calcutta, Demerara, and London. Their 1,300 ton +bark is represented by the model of the Aboukir Bay +and her sisters of the Bay Line, owned by Messrs. Hatfield, +Cameron & Co., of Glasgow; while their 1,000 +ton barks are shown in the model of the Banca, belonging +to Messrs. P. Denniston & Co., of the same +city. These are about the smallest class of sailing ships +built during recent years, the demands of the shipping +trade being such as to make it unprofitable to sail anything +smaller than about 1,500 tons; while the tendency +is to exceed 2,000 tons in burden, and to reach +even as high as 3,000 tons.—<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/image3.png"><img src="images/image3_th.png" width="600" height="309" alt="FOURMASTED IRON SHIP FALLS OF KARN." title="" /></a> +<br /><span class="caption">FOUR-MASTED IRON SHIP FALLS OF KARN.</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a> +WATER BLAST PUMP.</h2> + +<p>It is well known that the principle which is applied +to the construction of vacuum or filter pumps, and +which aims at the production of rarefied air in a certain +inclosed space, may also be applied to the production +of air <i>pressure</i>.</p> + +<p>A simple apparatus by which this may be accomplished +has recently been constructed by A. Beutell.</p> + +<p>A tall cylindrical flask, K (see cut), is provided with +an outlet tube near the bottom, and its stopper carries +two tubes, one (M) for the entrance of a jet of water, +and the other (L) for the exit of the compressed air, +which may be conducted to a blast lamp or wherever +air under pressure may be needed. The column of +water entering through M causes air to be sucked in +through the little hole at c, and this air, after arriving +in the flask, is gradually compressed by the continuously +entering water.</p> + +<p>In order that the apparatus may work properly, it is +necessary to construct the tube, M, in a particular manner, +and of certain definite proportions. Fig. 3 exhibits +its bore and shape in an enlarged view. A short distance +below the orifice of the tube it is slightly expanded, and +then gradually contracts to the place, <i>b</i>. It then again +expands to an oblong cavity, and contracts again to a +neck, <i>e</i>, which is a trifle wider than that at <i>b</i>, and which +must be so situated that the column of water passing +through <i>b</i> is exactly perpendicular to the center of the +aperture at <i>e</i>. The tube then expands again to its +original diameter, and is slightly curved, which is done +to prevent any of the compressed air in the cylinder, K, +from regurgitating upward.</p> + +<p>The outlet tube at A is preferably constructed as +shown in Fig. 2. Instead of being made of one piece, +it is there represented as consisting of two pieces joined +together by rubber tubing, a sort of check valve, G, +being introduced into the rubber joint. By regulating +the check valve, that is by approaching it more or less +to the exit of the tube, A, the outflow of water may be +regulated. It is important to adjust this so that the +cylindrical flask will always be at least half full, and +never over three-fourths filled. While the column of +water falls through the aperture at <i>b</i>, into the expanded +portion of M, it aspirates air through the little orifice, +<i>c</i>, communicating with the outer air, and this air is +carried along with it into the flask, where it accumulates +until it is under a pressure equal to that of the +column of water entering the apparatus, when the +latter will cease to flow. By allowing the air to escape +through L, more will be successively compressed, so +that a steady blast may be obtained.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/image2.png" width="531" height="495" alt="BEUTELL'S WATER BLAST PUMP." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">BEUTELL'S WATER BLAST PUMP.</span> +</div> + +<p>The proportions between the diameters of the expanded +and contracted portions of the glass tube, M, +are important. If the bore at <i>b</i> amounts to 2.5 millimeters, +that at e should be 3 millimeters. Under these +circumstances, and with a pressure of water equal to a +column of 61.7 cubic centimeters, the apparatus will +furnish 890 liters of air for every 1,000 liters of water +consumed. If the two diameters were: <i>b</i>, 1 millimeter, +and <i>e</i>, 2.4 mm., one liter of water aspirates 2.35 liters of +air. These proportions are, no doubt, capable of improvement.—<i>Chem. +Zeit. and Ch. Centralbl</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a> +TRANSMISSION OF POWER BETWEEN BODIES +MOVING AT DIFFERENT VELOCITIES.</h2> + +<p>A few months ago there was exhibited, in the society's +reading room, a working model of an application +to railway working of what the inventor calls "division +of the mass." In causing a body, moving at a +high velocity, to communicate motion to another at +rest, or moving at a lower velocity, he splits one of +them up into parts all the more numerous, and therefore +tenuous, as the difference in velocity is greater; +and this is accomplished by causing one of the parts to +take the form of a brush composed of metal fibers.</p> + +<p>In applying this principle to the transmission of +motion for driving machinery, a disk, fitted with segmental +brushes, is slid laterally along the shaft, so +that the fibers come into contact with radial projections +on a second disk; and, although the contact is +made instantaneously, the action is exerted gradually, +owing to the flexibility of the fibers. That is to say, +the full power is communicated without any shock.</p> + +<p>A similar arrangement, but with one of the disks +fixed, serves as a brake for arresting motion, and this +again without shock, but with gradually increasing +action. Where space is very much circumscribed, the +clutch and the brake may be combined, by fitting a +disk with brushes on one side, and projections on the +other, so that it may be brought by a lever against a +second disk, for transmitting motion, and against a +third, fixed, for stopping it.</p> + +<p>Safety appliances for arresting the descent of mine +cages, in the event of the rope breaking, have hitherto +depended upon the entrance of claws into the guides, +or the clipping of the latter, or the wedging of the +cage between the guides.</p> + +<p>In this application of the system, the guides of the +shaft are fitted with corrugated iron plates, and the +sides of the cage with steel brushes. In the normal +state of working, the brushes are kept clear of the +guides, but, should the rope break, a small brush, fitted +on a sector, constantly rubbing against the corrugations +of the guides, aided by a spring or counterweight, +brings the main brushes into contact with the +guides by a link arrangement, like that of the parallel +ruler, thus arresting the cage, and holding it suspended +until the brushes are gradually relaxed, for "braking" +the cage slowly down to the next landing.</p> + +<p>Many attempts have been made to cause a locomotive, +running at full speed, to exert such a mechanical +action as would set a signal to danger, so as to protect +the train from another following in the rear. By fitting +the engine with a steel brush, attached to the +axle boxes, so as to preserve a uniform height with +respect to the rails, a stationary lever may be gradually +moved, so that the signal is set at "danger" without +shock. Moreover, by means of another brush, in +the event of the engine being turned upon the wrong +line, a lever may be made to shut off the steam, apply +the brakes, blow the whistle, or move an index on a +dial, recording a neglect of duty, or may exert these +four actions simultaneously.</p> + +<p>All the above applications of this principle—"the +division of the mass"—have been tested experimentally, +the last named by the model above referred to. +The clutch arrangement has transmitted six horse +power from a petroleum motor, making 200 revolutions +a minute, to a dynamo making 2,000 revolutions, while +applications to industrial purposes are now being +made, both in this country and in Belgium. The inventor +of the system is M. Raymond Snyers, Ingénieur +des Mines, du Génie Civil, et des Arts et Manufactures, +of the Louvain University.—<i>Journal of the Society of +Arts</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a> +STEAM GENERATOR OF SERPOLLET BROTHERS, +PRODUCING STEAM INSTANTANEOUSLY.</h2> + +<p>The explosibility of a steam generator may be measured +by the relation of its total capacity to its vaporizing +power. The old fashioned generators and some of +the modern ones are so constructed as to contain from +fifteen to twenty times more water than they are able +to vaporize within one hour. Thus a great quantity of +heat is obtained and a uniform pressure assured, but the +steam-generating apparatus is costly, heavy, and cumbersome; +it requires a long time before the necessary +pressure is obtained, and the generator is only suitable +for a stationary installation and where it can uninterruptedly +work for a long period of time. Besides, the +enormous quantity of hot water under pressure constitutes +a constant danger, and the explosion of a steam +generator with boiler tubes becomes a real disaster.</p> + +<p>In order to satisfy the requirements which have +newly arisen in connection with navigation, locomotion, +small motors and apparatus which need for their working +an intermittent supply of steam, it became necessary +to modify the construction of steam boilers, to augment +their heating surface, to diminish their residue of +water, and to gradually construct so-called <i>inexplosible</i> +apparatus, of which the Belleville boiler forms one +of the most characteristic prototypes.</p> + +<p>In trying to reduce the inexplosibility to the utmost, +Messrs. Serpollet Brothers have succeeded in constructing +a type of boilers which may be called <i>absolutely inexplosible</i>, +and this result has been obtained by reducing +the capacity of the boiler to practically <i>nil</i>, thus +rendering the explosibility also <i>nil</i>, for under the circumstances +<a name="Page_10603" id="Page_10603"></a>the relation between capacity and vaporizing +power becomes itself <i>nil</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image4.png" width="429" height="500" alt="Fig. 1.—INSTANTANEOUS VAPORIZATION +BOILER OF MESSRS. SERPOLLET." title="" /><br /> + +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—INSTANTANEOUS VAPORIZATION +BOILER OF MESSRS. SERPOLLET.</span> + +<p class="longcaption">1. General view of boiler (experimental arrangement).<br /> +2. Cross section of boiler (natural size). The line +A B indicates, at somewhat exaggerated scale, the +cross section of the interior empty space of the +boiler. +</p></div> + +<p>The method employed for this purpose by Messrs. +Serpollet is an extremely simple one. A cylindrical +steel tube of convenient diameter and sufficient thickness +is rolled flat at a temperature below the white heat +of the metal, and the last touch of the rollers is given to +it when already cold. By this means a flat tube is obtained, +the empty interior space of which looks in a cross +section (Fig. 1, No. 2) like a black line not thicker than +a hair, and measures from 0.1 to 0.3 millimeter. This +tube is finally rolled up in the form of a spiral, or left +straight, according to the use to be made of it, and put +into an appropriate furnace (Fig. 1, No. 1). To either +end of the tube a joint is attached, the one for the purpose +of admitting the water, the other for admitting +the steam.</p> + +<p>When under these circumstances the tube has been +heated to a high temperature in a convenient fire box, +the water which has been pumped into it, by a feed +pump fastened to one of its extremities, is instantly +changed into steam and escapes at the other end at a +pressure and in a state of dryness depending on the +working conditions of the apparatus. The ingenious +and really original and novel idea in this invention is +this flattened tube, which constitutes an actual capillary +boiler inside of which the water squeezed in between +its walls cannot assume its spheroidal state, and +the formation of drops becomes absolutely impossible. +There exists no longer a residue of hot water, nor are +water gauges, safety valves, or any other of those numerous +accessories required which make all steam boilers +so complicated and which augment considerably +their cost.</p> + +<p>It also becomes unnecessary to connect the joint from +which the steam escapes by means of a valve with the +motor for which the steam is to be used. If the supply +of steam is to be stopped, this can be done by simply +suppressing the supply of water, <i>i.e.</i>, by <i>emptying the +boiler</i>.</p> + +<p>The regular working is assured by the quantity of +heat contained in the heated iron tube, to which, for +this purpose, an intentionally great thickness has been +given, and it is this heat of the iron which replaces the +heat furnished by the hot water in the steam generators +with boiler tubes. From the above it will be easy to +understand the general arrangement of the new steam +generator, when connected with its motor. This motor +works a small intermitting pump, which supplies the +capillary boiler with water, according to the quantity +consumed. The machine is started by means of a small +special pump worked by hand.</p> + +<p>Whenever the velocity of the motor tends to increase, +a centrifugal regulator placed upon the motor reduces +the action of the pump and, consequently, the supply +of water to the tube, thus checking the velocity of +the machine. If the velocity tends to slacken, the inverse +process is employed. In order to stop the machine, +it suffices to turn off the water furnished by the +pump by means of a three-way cock, and to send the +water back to the reservoir of supply. The boiler can +be emptied in less than a second, and the motor stops in +consequence of being deprived of motive power.</p> + +<p>The whole is marvelously simple, and creates astonishment +and admiration in the mind of even the most +skeptical persons who see the apparatus.</p> + +<p>The boiler of the one horse power type weighs 33 +kilogrammes. It consists of an iron tube having a +length of 2 meters and a height of 10.5 centimeters +after it has been flattened; the total heating surface +thus obtained being 48 square centimeters. The power +of vaporization amounts to 20 kilogrammes of water +per hour, while the quantity of coal consumed during +the same period amounts to only 4 kilogrammes, which +is comparatively little for a boiler of so small a power.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image5.png" width="600" height="483" alt="Fig. 2.—TRICYCLE PROPELLED BY A SERPOLLET +BOILER" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—TRICYCLE PROPELLED BY A SERPOLLET +BOILER</span> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 2 shows the first model of a tricycle constructed +by Messrs. Serpollet as an application of their boiler +for locomotion. The writer has seen the working of +this apparatus, and consequently is able to give some +data. The total weight of the machine is 185 kilogrammes, +or about 250 kilogrammes when mounted by +a person. The boiler is placed behind the tricycle, the +motor is under the seat, inside of which is the water +reservoir and the supply of coal. In the motor employed +in the present case the feed pump is a constant +supply pump, but by means of a directing lever turning +around its own axis and acting upon a three-way +cock, the water can be divided into two streams, the +one emptying into the feeding reservoir, the other into +the boiler. By varying the position of the cock, the +power of the machine can be modified and its velocity +regulated. The machine can be brought to a stop within +less than two meters by means of the combined action +of a brake and the complete suppression of water in +the boiler. In order to start the machine, the water is +sent into the tube by a little extra pump worked for a +moment by the left hand of the cyclist when starting.</p> + +<p>On July 25 some experiments were made before the +Society of Civil Engineers with the tricycle above +described, and on that occasion it traversed the Rue +Girardon and the Rue de Norvino to Montmartre +(streets in which the gradient rises to 15 centimeters +per meter) with a velocity of three meters per second.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 represents the arrangement of the first stationary +boiler of the new kind. The letters of reference will +suffice to indicate the position of the principal parts of +it, the forms of which may be varied according to the +object for which the boiler is to be used.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/image6.png"><img src="./images/image6_th.png" width="600" height="211" alt="Fig. 3.—COMPLETE VIEW OF A SERPOLLET BOILER." title="" /></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.—COMPLETE VIEW OF A SERPOLLET BOILER.<br /> +1. Exterior view. 2. Cross section. 3. Horizontal section at the height of the tube.</p></div> + +<p>Messrs. Serpollet are occupied at present with studying +the special arrangements which will be needed for +connecting their boiler with a quadricycle, a torpedo +boat, a stove, a locomotive, or a stationary machine of +10 horse power, and with rectangular parts.</p> + +<p>The inexplosibility of their boiler has been tested +during an experiment made before the engineers of +mines, on which occasion a manometer (steam gauge) +graduated for a pressure of upward 200 kilogrammes +per square centimeter was used, and the pressure raised +far beyond the limits indicated. The result was that +the hand of the manometer, being pressed against the +walls of the box, became bent, and though the boiler +was submitted to a pressure the degree of which it +was impossible to measure, it was not changed in the +slightest.</p> + +<p>Incrustation of the boiler is not to be feared, for, in +consequence of the great velocity with which the +steam circulates through the tube, the solid matter dissolved +in the water becomes pulverized and is forced +out, mechanically assisting to lubricate and polish the +parts of the motor.</p> + +<p>The invention of Messrs. Serpollet is still too new to +foretell all its possible applications, but their apparatus, +in its present form, is exactly the steam generator +which will be useful for producing a small motive force; +while it will be necessary to wait until it has been ascertained, +by further study, how the system can economically +be used for high motive power.</p> + +<p>The most natural and immediate application of the +invention seems to be its use for the electric lighting of +restaurants, in which case one of the instantaneous +vaporization tubes might be connected with stoves +which remain lighted all day, and which might thus +besides supply the necessary motive force to work a +small dynamo charging some accumulators.—<i>E. Hospitalier, +in La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a> +GAS LIGHTING BY HIGH-POWER BURNERS.</h2> + +<p>In the course of a communication presented to the +Societe Industrielle du Nord de la France by the manager +of the Wazemmes Gas Company, he made the +following remarks on gas lighting with high-power +burners:</p> + +<p>For gas of a standard illuminating value, the lighting +power increases with the temperature of the flame. +It also increases, under favorable conditions, if the +quantity of gas consumed by the burner in a certain +period is augmented. Thus, two burners consuming +60 liters (rather more than 2 cubic feet) of gas, placed +in juxtaposition, produce less light than one burner +consuming 120 liters. As it is impossible to indefinitely +increase the supply to ordinary burners, multiple-flame +burners have been invented, in which two or +more ordinary flames are united so that they may impinge +upon each other. By an ingenious arrangement +for bringing the air into contact with the multiple +flames, two excellent types of lamps are obtained, consuming +respectively 700 and 1,400 liters per hour, which +meet with a rapid demand in Paris, and in many other +towns, for lighting wide public thoroughfares, squares, +and large open spaces. If, however, it is desired to obtain +a flame with a much higher temperature, it is +necessary to resort to a special arrangement for heating +the air intended for combustion with the gas. The +principle of heating the air by means of waste heat +escaping with the products of the waste gas—the regenerative +principle—was adopted by Mr. F. Siemens, +and applied not only to gas burners, but to high temperature +stoves. With the Siemens burner on the regenerative +principle the following results are obtained: +With a consumption of 150 liters per hour, the light +of from 1 to 3 carcels; 250 to 300 liters, 6 to 7 carcels; +600 liters, 15 carcels; 800 liters, 20 to 22 carcels; 1,600 +liters, 46 to 48 carcels; 2,200 liters, 72 carcels. Unfortunately, +the construction of the Siemens Argand +lamps is very delicate, and, moreover, they have the +disadvantage of being heavy and rather unsightly. In +Germany they have been widely adopted; but in +France they have met with but little success. The +Schulke lamp is made on the same principle; and this +appears to be too delicate to come into general use. +One of the latest burners of the regenerative class is the +Wenham, which has been before the public for some +time in England and is now being adopted in France. +In point of fact it is merely a very effective improvement +on Breittmayer's burner, from which it differs +only in its construction; being produced in some elegant +styles, which lend themselves perfectly to the +decorations of private houses. The No. 2 lamp of this +type, with a consumption of 283 liters (10 cubic feet) +per hour, has given 126 candles, in a vertical direction +without reflectors: horizontally, 50 candles. But the +gas employed in the tests had an illuminating power +about 20 per cent. higher than that usual in Paris. +When experimenting in Paris with a No. 3 lamp in a +vertical direction, it showed a consumption of 34.6 +liters (1.2 cubic feet) per carcel obtained. The Wenham +lamp is constructed to give light in a vertical +direction; and by adopting a large reflector, the illuminating +power is increased 18 per cent. in a vertical +line and 55 per cent. at 80°, which is a highly satisfactory +result. There are at present five sizes of these +lamps. There is also the Delmas hot air burner, in +which the batswing flame is completely inclosed in a +glass, mounted with a sheet-iron casing, heated by the +products of combustion, through which the air passes +on its passage downward to feed the flame; and it +thus increases the temperature, improves the illuminating +power, and produces a beautiful steady light. +Mention also may be made of the Siemens radiated +heat burner, by means of which the heating of the air +is effected simply by the radiation of the metallic parts +of the appliance which are in contact with the flame. +These burners produce the light of 1 carcel (9.5 candles) +with a gas consumption of 70 liters (about 2½ cubic +feet), and are therefore, from an economical point of +view, intermediary between the high power and regenerative +burners. This degree of economy can be +ascertained by an ingenious arrangement of the air +supply in a burner with holes, which has been made in +in the laboratory of the Wazemmes Gas Company by +M. Verlé, the engineer, who has invented a very simple +burner called the "Lillois," with which the light of 1 +carcel is obtained with a consumption of 70 liters. +<a name="Page_10604" id="Page_10604"></a>This produces a tulip-shaped flame, and it has a +specially constructed glass arrangement on the outside +for regulating the combustion. Comparing the above-mentioned +burners with each other, we arrive at the +following results: The "Lillois" burner consumes 70 +liters of gas per carcel; the Siemens ordinary, 70 +liters; the Siemens-Breittmayer, 35 to 39 liters; the +Wenham, about 35 liters. Taking this into account, +and considering that a carcel corresponds with 105 liters +of gas consumed in the Bengal form of burner, we see +that the economy in gas might, by employing these +burners, reach from 33 to 71 per cent. If this is compared +with the batswing burner, which produces the +light of 1 carcel with a consumption of 120 liters of gas, +the economy is greater—varying, according to the type +of lamp, from 41 to 85 per cent.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a> +SYNCHRONIZING CLOCKS.</h2> + + +<p>At the recent meeting of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers, Dublin, Mr. Davey, of Leeds, spoke of +synchronizing mechanisms. He had occupied some of +his spare time in attempting to synchronize clocks +from a standard clock. The problem is similar to the +present one, except that it is rough-and-ready, compared +to the present one. He had a novel electrical +pendulum, to drive a seconds pendulum by electricity. +Electrical clocks are notoriously bad timekeepers; on +account of variation in the strength of the electrical +current, the battery falls off. He had constructed an +electric clock having a seconds pendulum, and recording +an impulse once a minute. On the pendulum he +had a little ratchet wheel, R, having thirty teeth. The +pawl was connected with a lever, M, fixed at the top. +On the face of the wheel a little pin rotates with the +wheel. On the side of the clock case was a contact +maker, which closed the circuit by the pin on the +ratchet wheel, R, once every minute. The weight was +lifted by the electric current, and by its fall gave an +impulse to the pendulum. The pendulum was a free +swinging pendulum for 59 sec., and the increase of the +arc could scarcely be detected.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image7.png" width="271" height="500" alt="DAVEY'S PENDULUM FOR SYNCHRONIZING +CLOCKS." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">DAVEY'S PENDULUM FOR SYNCHRONIZING +CLOCKS.</span> + +<p class='longcaption'>W, friction wheel attached to pendulum. L gives no impulse except +when the electro-magnet is excited. K, lever and weight lifted by +electro-magnet, E. A, open contact completed by pendulum each +swing. B, battery. R, ratchet wheel and pawl. M, lever fixed at +top. L, weight at end of bell crank lever, which drives pendulum +once each minute, being raised by the electro-magnets.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a> +COAL TAR AS FUEL FOR STEAM BOILERS.</h2> + +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">John <ins class="tnote" title="Original text M'Crae">McCrae</ins></span>, of Dundee.</p> + +<p>About three years ago, when the sudden and serious +fall took place in the value of the secondary products +produced in gas works, many gas managers—ever desirous +of doing their very best for their employers—were +forced to look around for some better market in +which to dispose of the products which had so seriously +fallen in value. This was no easy task; and even now +it forms very uphill work indeed. A comparatively +new market has been created for the disposal of boiled +tar at several of the German ports. But the expense +and difficulty of loading ships with tar in casks take +very much from the saving derived from the new manner +of disposal. It occurred to me, therefore, that we +must look nearer home for a remedy.</p> + +<p>In all gas works of any magnitude, a considerable +quantity of fuel must be employed for the purpose of +supplying the works with steam for the exhauster engines, +chemical apparatus, thawing purposes, etc. +Whether this fuel consists of coke or of coal, will not in +the least affect or alter my figures. I have no doubt if +any manager discovers that he is working more economically +by selling the coke and using a cheap small or +other coal, he will adopt the cheapest process. In +Dundee, where we get a good price for coke, I found, +for the purpose of steam fuel, it would be far cheaper +to buy small coal costing from 5s. to 5s. 6d. per ton delivered +in the works, and dispose of the coke. The +question of fuel then lay between coal and tar; and I +have experimented somewhat extensively to ascertain +the true relative values of the two classes of fuel. For +the purpose of this paper, and within the last few days, +I made a further examination into the question; and +the results arrived at will be those here quoted. The +coal we employed was what is known as Stravenhouse +small coal, which costs 5s. per ton delivered. The experiment +in each case lasted 48 hours. The tar employed +was what is known as boiled tar; the naphtha +having been previously removed, but the pitch oil left +in the tar. The value of this tar in Dundee is about +4s. per ton. The following are the figures:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align="left">Coal, 10 tons 16 cwt., at 5s.</td> +<td>£</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="left">Tar, 1,460 gallons (or 9 tons 3 cwt. 160 gallons = 1 ton), at 4s.</td> +<td> </td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td align="right" colspan="4">—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="left">Saving per day by using tar.</td> +<td>£</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">5</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>And this at the longest day, when we are using a mere +fraction of steam, as compared with our winter requirements, +and consequently the profit is proportionally +less than it will be when we are in full work.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 374px;"> +<img src="./images/image8.png" width="374" height="500" alt="coal tar burner" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>And now allow me to direct your attention for a +short time to the appliance made use of in accomplishing +this tar burning. On the wall is shown a diagram +giving in detail the injector known as C. & W. Walker's +patent tar sprayer burner; and it is supplied only +by that firm. The tar, which has been brought forward +to the boilers in a thoroughly liquid state, is discharged +from the center of the injector into the furnace +of the boiler. Surrounding the center nozzle of +the injector is an annular space through which high +pressure steam passes, also into the furnace. The +meaning of this steam moving along with the tar is to +force a draught, as well as to raise the temperature of +the tar, and so partially convert the tar into vapor; +thereby making the combustion more complete. The +flow of the tar is regulated by the very delicate sluices +attached to the injectors. These valves consist of elongated +cones and plugs, and are constructed not only for +the purpose of regulating the flow of tar, but also for +removing any obstruction or incrustation which may +accumulate in the nozzle. In order to keep the tar in +a liquid state (which in the winter time is not an easy +matter), a small steam pipe is passed through the center +of the tar pipe; but, of course, no steam is discharged +among the tar, as the presence of water in the injector +prevents its correct working. The steam pipe is simply +passed through the tar pipe, and a steam trap attached +to its end. In changing from the coal or coke fuel to +the tar, little or no difficulty is experienced, and very +rarely is a shovelful of any kind of solid material required. +The furnace bars have only to be kept covered +to prevent the waste of tar and the too rapid ingress of +air; and when the furnaces are in full work, and being +well and carefully attended to, the tar will be found to +have been nearly all consumed before reaching the +solid material covering the bars. The action is very +much the same as in the paraffin oil lamp. The wick +is the medium by which the oil is brought to the point +of combustion, where it is developed into light; but +the wick remains little injured, although in close proximity +to such intense heat. The oil burns, not the +wick. In the tar furnace, the tar itself burns, and the +tar only.</p> + +<p>It will be easily understood that a little experience is +necessary to enable the attendant to fully understand +the quantity of tar by which complete combustion is +to be obtained, and which in no case must be exceeded. +The moment one atom of tar is sent into the furnace +beyond that which can be thoroughly consumed, you +have then the most hideous discharge of black smoke +(carbon) which it is difficult to describe, but which can +be easily understood, and, I believe, can be seen within +a few miles of where we now sit. I should mention +that the injectors are fitted on the furnace doors; but +the connections are of such a nature that the doors can +be opened without disturbing any of the permanent +fittings.</p> + +<p>And now I have told you that the results detailed in +this short paper were those obtained in the Dundee +gas works. This is so; but were I to leave the matter +here, it might be inferred that I considered similar results +might be obtained in any and every gas works. +I would not mislead you; and therefore must detain +you for a few moments longer in order to show you how +my town is different from many others. Dundee is +very peculiarly situated in this respect. It is a long +distance from any tar distiller's works capable of dealing +with the large quantity of tar we have for sale +during the winter. A large portion of the value of our +tar must, therefore, go to the railway company, to +cover the cost of transit between the two points, and +so the tar distiller can allow us but a small figure for +it at the starting point. Then again, Dundee being +far distant from the coal fields, the coal is exceptionally +high in price. I quite believe that in many of the +west country towns the coal for which we are paying +5s. per ton could be had for 3s.; and the tar for which +we are receiving 4s. per ton, they would get not much +under the double of this. Therefore, you see, in a +place so circumstanced, the figures I have given would +be most misleading. Still, I doubt not there are places +as badly situated as Dundee; and it is to such places +that my remarks are directed. I believe also that, in +many towns distant from collieries, the tar might be +sold to manufacturers for use in their steam boilers; +and such an arrangement would, I think, prove advantageous +both to the seller and the user of this liquid +fuel.</p> + +<p>I think that as much has been said in regard to my +subject as is necessary; but permit me to add that I +believe there is a future for liquid fuels. I do not say +tar, but more concentrated fuels, such as crude naphthas, +paraffins, and pitch oil. When you see one of +our large steamers taking coal into her bunker, it must +have appeared to you that there was great waste of +power here. Every ton of coal laid in must require a +certain amount of power to carry it; and every ton of +coal so laid in reduces the cargo-carrying power to this +extent. A few gallons of oil will give you the steam-producing +power of a ton of coal; and this is a fact +which the owners of non-paying steamships should +note. Take our locomotives also. Everything I have +said in regard to steamships applies to them; and the +comfort to the stokers and the general reduction in +labor would be very marked indeed. Of course, it may +be argued that if there were such a large demand +created for oils for furnaces, the old fashioned law of +supply and demand might come into play, and so force +up the price of the article for which the increased demand +had taken place. But I think this state of matters +is rather remote, when we bear in mind the great +oil wells only now becoming developed, and the oils +from which can be run in bulk direct from the wells +into ships, and brought to this country at very low +rates.—<i>Journal of Gas Lighting.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a> +WATCH CLEANING AND REPAIRING.</h2> + +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">"Old Fogy."</span></p> + +<p>Before proceeding with what I consider the best +methods in this department of the watch and jewelry +business, I will say that I do not, by any means, consider +that my way is the best, for although I have +been in the business quite a while, yet I find that I +learn something new almost every day that I live, and +expect to do so, so long as I continue in the business. +Be very particular in selecting your tools; about three +widths of screwdrivers, and keep them in the best of +order, square across the point of blade, and never use +a screwdriver too narrow nor too wide for the screw, +and in using be careful not to let it slip, and thus mar +the plates or bridges of a watch. I also recommend +that the handles of these screwdrivers be of different +shapes or styles, so as to save time in picking up the +one you want (and just here I will say that every device +or method that saves time will be of great value to +the operator); then have about the same number of +tweezers (3), one of good, solid, heavy points, say 1/16 +inch wide at the points, for taking down a watch, and +handling the heavier parts, and then one a little finer, +and one very fine to work in about the train, hairspring, +etc., and always keep these tweezers in perfect +order at the points, so that whatever you handle, you +will not mar or drop the things you are handling. +Right in this connection I will say that I cannot find +tweezers that suit me. So I make my own, and you can +do the same if you will by selecting some nice steel. Then +a good assortment of pliers, cutting, flat, and round. +In selecting brushes, you will have to be very particular +and secure the open and straight bristle brushes, +which are also hard to find these latter years. Take +all the coarser brushes and hold them on a coarse grindstone, +running them whole length, both ways; this +takes off the new rough end of the bristles before using +first time. Then there are punches, broaches, drills, +calipers, countersinks, files, etc., etc. Besides this, I +have adopted the plan of making any tool I happen to +need for any special purpose, so that by making these +at the time I happen to want a tool that I cannot purchase, +I have accumulated quite a variety of odd tools; +among them are a varied lot of millers, for milling and +raising jewels, and deepening the countersink holes for +jewel settings and screw heads, also a tool for holding +a roller, to set the jewel pin, and one for holding the +hair spring collet, and a pair of tweezers for holding +jewels while cleaning, etc., etc. As to lathes, I have +found that there is a necessity of about two lathes; +one a Swiss, light running lathe for cementing any +pivot work, and I prefer these because they run much +lighter and easier than those heavier American lathes; +and yet if confined to but one lathe, I would use a small +sized American lathe, with a good assortment of split +chucks, particularly those with the smaller sized holes, +for holding balance staffs, wheel arbors, etc., which +come in use almost everyday, for taking off the burr +from the point of a balance pivot, which has come +from a collapse of the case; driving the end stones +down on the end of pivots, even sometimes to the extent +of heading them over inside of the hole jewel. +These small size split chucks I have found extremely +useful for the last named purpose, and I am not so +"sentimental" but that I oftener use these split chucks, +even for setting fine balance pivots, rather than take +time to cement them; and while I do not advise the +use of a split chuck for this purpose in every case, yet +with a little experience one can tell when a staff is held +so that the new pivot when set will "line" and be true, +and of a clear beat or swing. To make a very nice +pivot the cementing process is preferable, and yet, for +nearly a year, my old No. 1 American lathe was not +set up (for reasons I need not take space to explain), and +during that time I employed a very skillful workman +to do my pivoting, and this man would not think of +ever doing a nice job unless he cemented it, and I can +assure you that he put in more pivots out of line, and +out of true, in the course of those few months, than I +had done badly in my life. Speaking of "sentiment," +I will say that too many young workmen use the lathe +too much, and seem to depend on a fine looking lathe +and handsome tools, and spend too much time in using +the lathe and in decorating their bench with a fine display. +But don't construe this as meaning that one can +<a name="Page_10605" id="Page_10605"></a>do nice work with a jack knife and handsaw, for I most +certainly believe in a good and substantial set of tools, +or I would not have taken so much space in speaking +of them. Next, one must have a good bench, wide and +of good length: and if no other drawers, a shallow depth +drawer, exactly in center of the bench, with no knob +in front, but rather a lip running its whole length, underneath. +So that wherever you place your hand you +can pull it out. This drawer I would have large and +roomy (wide and long and extending back as far as the +depth of the bench will allow, but shallow, not deep +down in), and then partition it off by narrow slats, diagonally +across it, running these slats from the extreme +near right hand corner to the further and extreme left +hand corner, so that as you reach your right hand in +to take out a tool, you can grasp it naturally without +twisting or cramping your hand. About eight inches +below the top of the bench, I would place a skin +drawer (the name comes from the practice at watch +factories, formerly using sheepskins for the bottoms), +which is made with a square frame (say like a picture +frame), sliding on slats or a groove, so that it can be +drawn out toward the operator, and when so drawn, +the elbows will rest on this frame, with the wrists resting +on the edge of the top of the bench, thus giving a +firm support for both arms and hands, and this frame +having stretched across its bottom a skin or canvas, +will catch and retain anything that drops or rolls from +the bench. This latter drawer I consider almost an indispensable +article to doing good and successful work. +At the right hand of these two drawers named, running +down to floor if need be, there can be a series of +drawers for tools and materials. Now with these equipments, +and some others, not herein named, such as vise, +file block, bench stake or anvil, and a large variety of +such tools as will accumulate, I am ready to give you +my ideas regarding the cleaning and repairing of +watches. First and foremost, do not undertake any +job that you have any or considerable doubt but what +you can do successfully, and never leave a job worse +than you found it; and never mar, cut, or slash any +part of a watch. In other words, don't undertake a +job that you have doubts as to whether you can do it +correctly. One of my old masters told me never to +undertake to improve on the maker's work, and this, +while not true in every case (particularly cheap +watches), yet is a safe rule to go by. Never allow your +file, screwdriver, pliers, tweezers, or any tool to deface +any part of a watch. I shall speak of this as I proceed. +First, be careful and not let the movement +swing so as to in any way injure the balance, in taking +from case, and if a lever watch, take out the balance +the first thing after getting out of case. Now see that +the mainspring is let down and then remove the screws +from the plates, taking care not to damage or bend +any of the pivots as you do this. When all in pieces, +before you proceed to clean, examine with a strong +glass to see if the rim of any wheel is rubbing or clashing +with anything, particularly the center wheel in any +full plate American watch, for these wheels are often +dragging on the plate or striking the ratch wheel because +it is not true, and if examined before cleaning +the places where it drags, are a tell-tale of the mischief. +Also make any diagnosis of the watch that is needed +to discover any errors from wear or accident, and correct +them before going further, such as looking to each +jewel, pivot, and other parts, and make all necessary +repairs before cleaning. I have been in the habit for +several years of putting my balance wheel separate +from all connections, and trying its freedom in all positions, +and if you will try this method, you will be surprised +how many you will find that bind or are not +perfectly free in all positions, when you give them the +very slightest impulse by a twirl of the hand, holding +the plate. Then, too, a careful examination of each +jewel; you will be surprised how many are either +loose in the setting or plate. In regard to cleaning, I +use the old method (after trying all ways suggested)—that +of chalk (but I use the old lump chalk, for those +carpenters' chalk balls are made with some kind of +paste that adheres to the plate)—and have this lump of +chalk at my right hand, in a perforated bottom box, +so that any coarse pieces fall through to the floor, and +by rubbing the brush across it and then giving it a +slight rap, before applying it to plate, any hard or +heavy substance will fall out, and then with light pressure +with the brush that is medium soft (and prepared +on grindstone as before mentioned, if a new one) brush +the plates, with an occasional breathing on the surface, +clean the old oil or tarnish, and then peg out each hole +many times, until you are sure every hole is clean, by +pegging both sides, and then with a soft dust brush +dust thoroughly by striking the brush into the holes +on both sides. Of course, remove all end stones, and +clean out with soft pith, holding the jewels in a pair of +hook nose tweezers, mentioned. Should the plates +and wheels be very much soiled and oily, a covered dish +of alcohol is indispensable, and I have had a glass stopper +bottle, with ether, in which to dip the jewels, pallets, +and other small pieces, which takes the oil all off, +but be sure and clean off with soft pith or pegwood +such pieces as you have thus dipped. This ether will +carry all loose lint or other things to its bottom, from +hairsprings or roller table, and if held but a moment +will do effective work, and not loosen shellac.</p> + +<p>Regarding loose jewels, I am not so sentimental as +to refuse using some shellac, if the burnished lip has +been so thin as to be partially gone, thus loosening the +jewel to hold in the jewel, by taking small and minute +particles, and placing around the edge of the jewel, +and then holding the plate or bridge over an alcohol +flame, and allowing the shellac to flow around the jewel +and fasten it firm, and by this process I have kept jewels +firm in place for years, with no other attention than +the first, and as a rule this can be done and not show. +When you have thoroughly cleaned the different parts, +holding everything with soft tissue paper, then with +the paper put the watch together, never forcing any +part into place, and when screwed or pinned together, +try every wheel to see that there is the proper end and +side shake to each pivot, then introduce the balance +wheel, having been once tried alone as described, and +see that the banking pins are so adjusted that the +guard pin on the fork (lever) does not drag on either +side, and that the jewel pin enters the slot, clearing +the opposite corner, and that the guard pin is so in +position that it will not allow the pin to pass by at any +point and bring the jewel pin outside the lever, or so it +will strike in hollow, or on the corners of the hollow of +the roller. When you have oiled each pivot exactly on +its connecting point of bearing with just the right +amount of oil (of course, oil those jewels having end +stones before putting watch together), your watch is +ready for the dial, and in replacing the hands you cannot +be too particular about their being free and clearing +each other and the dial and glass. There is the +care of the mainspring I have intentionally reserved +till the last. There are lots of theories why a spring +will break just after cleaning, but I only know that +since I have adopted the method of never taking out +the spring (except when, after taking off the cap of +barrel, I find it is all gummed up with bad oil, and +then of course clean it) I have found that a spring does +not break any oftener than is common, even if the +watch is not cleaned; but I invariably remove the barrel +arbor and clean out the holes and the arbor itself.</p> + +<p>Of course to explain every detail of the method of +repairing the various parts of a watch would take more +space than you would allow in your journal, and hence +I will not attempt to go into minute detail, except perhaps +some of the more important items, and the most +common things found in everyday experience. Among +these are broken pivots, worn pivots (sometimes requiring +new ones), worn holes in plates, and at the intersection +of barrel arbor, ratch and bridge of Swiss watches, +etc., which, as a rule, require common sense as much as +practice, and it varies in different watches, so that the +common sense rule applies the best to nearly all of +these, and if you have not got common mechanical +sense, then you have mistaken your calling and should +do something else. In any of these repairs don't go it +blind, but study your case carefully and do the best +thing you study out. When there is a worn pivot hole +in a plate, and one side is countersunk for oil, then +have a punch rounded at the point, just the shape of +the countersink (and if you have not one make one, and +here is where my rule, that of making a tool as the +need comes for it, comes in play), and by screwing this +punch into the vise, and with a smooth, flat point +punch (slightly cornered of course) in one hand and +holding the plate or bridge with the other, with the +countersink on the punch, have a striker tap light and +quick blows, and you move the punch around on the +side most worn (and one side is almost invariably worn +most, throwing the wheel arbor out of upright) and +close up, even a little too much, and then with a round, +smooth broach enlarge it, so that it will be right size, +and this leaves it hard and smooth.</p> + +<p>Broken pivots, as I have hinted, I place the arbor in +a split chuck, and if true, I drill into the staff with a +drill, made from a nice piece of steel wire, the old and +ordinary shape of a drill, which is a trifle larger at the +cutting point than it is back of the point, and I make +these as I need them, and harden simply by holding +the wire in a flame till red hot, and then dash into an +apple, potato, soap, or pure rubber. Which is the best +of these I have as yet been unable to determine, so I +use either as the most handy. Take a good, tough and +small pointed graver and turn a slight center in the +end of arbor I am to drill, and then by giving my lathe +a back and forward motion, I begin to drill, and by +the sense of feeling I can tell whether my drill is cutting +or not, and if not, I have a small, smooth oilstone +at hand and sharpen the drill as often as it refuses to +cut, and if that drill will not cut, I make another.</p> + +<p>I make my drills of very small wire, filing them at +point and then tap the point (holding the wire in a +very fine pin vise), thus flattening as well as spreading +it, and then shape the cutting edges as spoken of +above. When you have drilled sufficiently to hold a +plug firmly, then have a piece of steel of spring temper +filed so as to fit closely and so straight that it will not +act too wedging (and split the arbor), drive it in, cut it +off and turn down, finishing with an oilstone slip, and +polish by running the lathe rapidly and with a piece of +thin boxwood (or hard pegwood) charged with diamantine, +being sure that the end of the pivot has no burr, +thrown either way, over end or on side, for such a +burr will cause a lack of freedom of a balance pivot +particularly. This matter of setting pivots requires a +longer experience than almost any other work, and it +needs a long practice to do a nice job. If your split +chuck will not hold your staff or arbor true, then use +cement; but in this, too, you must be sure that your +center is true, and that the sound pivot enters it perfectly. +Sometimes you meet with steel so hard that +you cannot touch it with a drill, in which case draw +the temper of the staff or arbor you are drilling, and +if it projects so little that you cannot draw the temper +without injury to the wheel, then unstake or separate +the wheel, and by drilling a hole into a piece of brass +wire, about the size of the staff you are drilling, insert +the staff in this hole, and then heat the wire near the +staff and thus gradually and yet effectively draw the +temper.</p> + +<p>I consider it well for young workmen to practice +pivot setting in some old and useless watch any spare +time they may have, and thus become adepts at this +work. Unhindered, I am not over on an average of +one-half hour in setting any ordinary pivot, especially +if I do not have to cement my work. If this is a balance +pivot, be very careful to see that your balance is +true and poised before putting on hairspring and roller. +There are some pivots that are underturned (to make +look tidy and light), and sometimes it is about an impossibility +to put in a new one, and in this case, if an +American watch, I always put in an entire new staff, +and hence keep a full assortment on hand.</p> + +<p>Regarding replacing broken jewels, I also keep a full +stock of these, turned (the setting) to match any make +or style of watch; except, of course, Swiss watches, +and for these I keep a large assortment of sizes, both of +cock and foot and wheel jewels, and a full stock once +procured, they last a long time and are a good investment, +for with them you can meet any emergency.</p> + +<p>In a Swiss watch, or any watch where the jewel is set +into the plate, have some one of the devices for throwing +up the burnished lip, and then select a jewel that +just fills the space, and then with a smooth pointed +punch, such as I described I used for closing up a pivot +hole, I turn this lip back by sliding this round pointed +punch around the outside, making it act as a burnish. +Cap jewels I either treat in the same manner as the +last, or cut away the setting, and insert them as they +are inserted in most Swiss watches.</p> + +<p>I have now taken up the more common repairs, and +will close by hastily speaking of the more rare cases, +and the adjustment of the hair spring, etc., etc. It is +often the case that there is never end shake to the balance +to make it absolutely safe when screwed into the +case, and when this happens I take the point of a sharp +graver and prick up a burr on the bridge, and never +on the plate, as any unskilled workman does, for the +under side of the bridge never being finished, you really +mar nothing, and sometimes this raising of the cock +(or bridge) becomes a necessity, to have it clear the rim +of the balance, which, if raised, it will clear, and then +by bending down the end of the cock at point where +the jewel is, and thus regulate the end shake. I hardly +know how to give directions how to proceed in adjusting +hairsprings, when they are disarranged, but if I +could see you, I could explain by example what I cannot +well do in words. To commence, a hairspring, when +there is no power applied to balance from the jewel +pin, should be, when pinned, just as free from any +twist or cramping as it would be if lying flat and free +on a smooth piece of glass, before it has been pinned +at either end, and when it is pinned in the watch (at +stud and collet) it should be thus free. To bring it thus +requires demonstration that cannot be made on paper, +unless you could make diagrams, too numerous for this +article.</p> + +<p>What I have said regarding it, however, gives an idea +of how a hairspring should be pinned. Common sense is +demanded here as elsewhere. To put a watch in beat, +too, is a very important item, which I do by placing +sharp pointed tweezers, first on one side of the arm of +balance and then on the other, and so pin my hairspring +in the stud, that it will let off as readily on one +side as the other. I had forgotten to say that every +watch should have a little oil on the face of the pallet +stones. I know full well that some workmen will say +that there should be none, but I can tell of scores of +watches that have failed and indeed stopped simply for +want of oil on the pallets. Selecting mainsprings, too, +needs much more care than is usually given to this department, +and as a rule even the watch factories fill +the barrel too full, that is, too long springs. Whether +I am correct in this or not, you cannot be too particular +in selecting the right strength, length, and width of +mainsprings. Mainsprings should be well and carefully +oiled.</p> + +<p>There are many ways of replacing broken teeth in +wheels, and the width of the web and the size of the +teeth has much to do with how they are put in, but I +usually dovetail them in, and then with the very tiniest +bit of soft solder fasten them, but in so doing be +positive you have got off all soldering fluid, that it will +not rust the pinion into which it meshes, and be very +particular to have it exactly like the rest of the teeth +in same wheel, and don't mar the web of the wheel +more than is possible.</p> + +<p>I will now draw this article to a close, well appreciating +the fact that I have only made a superficial attempt +to instruct younger men in the cleaning and repairing +of watches, for there is almost an endless variety of +special repairs coming almost unexpectedly to any one, +even if they have been in the business a long time, as I +have, and as I first said, I am learning daily some new +phase of the business, and am surprised that I never +had known it before. I have, too, taken perhaps more +space than I ought, regarding tools and bench, yet the +older I grow, the more I can see the importance of this +part, that I may be enabled to do work well and quick. +Besides, I have left such repairs as the chain and fusee, +uprighting wheels, repairing cases, adjustment to position, +heat and cold, isochronism, enlarging jewels, or +changing angles of pallet stones, etc., etc., all of which +I do as necessity demands, as well as the care of striking +watches, fly backs, etc., which, too, I make a +specialty of, and of chronometer escapement watches, +which would take more space than I feel disposed to +ask you to give me.—<i>American Jeweler</i>.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a> +THE NEW CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION AT +FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN.</h2> + + +<p>The new central railway station at Frankfort on the +Main is one of the most imposing structures of modern +times, not only as regards its dimensions, but also because +of the effect which its architectural proportions +produce upon the eye. Nobody looking at the long line +of buildings surrounded by gigantic perron halls can +help being impressed with their grandeur. The beholder, +however, is not only struck by the general aspect, but +also by the beauty of detail in this magnificent specimen +of the Renaissance style. The interior of the perron hall +shown in one of our engravings is especially impressive, +and every one will admire the graceful outlines of the +heavy iron structures in the upper part, which, in consequence +of their enormous height, look from below like +a spider web.</p> + +<p>The base and the earth works were begun in the +summer of 1881, and if we take into consideration the +fact that 2,700,000 cubic meters of sand and gravel +were necessary for the foundation, we will have some +idea of the scale on which the edifice was undertaken. +In 1883, the great hall, which has a width of 220 meters +and which will shortly be opened to traffic, was begun. +The perspective view of this portion of the station is +given in one of our engravings. Inspector Eggert +had the general management of the building, which +was erected after the plan submitted by him, and which +received the prize in the competition between the different +architects. Herr Frantz, a distinguished engineer, +who undertook the general supervision of the +construction, had an important part in the execution +of the entrance hall for the trains, and it was he, also, +who built the perron hall, after designs of Herr +Schwedler.</p> + +<p>The middle part of the station, which contains the +porch, the ticket offices, the baggage department, the +police quarters and the telegraph offices, projects, as +shown in the picture, considerably beyond the rest of +the building, and by the distinct membering of its +moulding stands out conspicuously from the whole. +Protruding portals of peculiar structure and corner +pavilions enliven the aspect of the wings of the edifice, +the great round arched windows of which are separated +from each other by powerful stone pillars. The corner +pavilions to the left in the view contain the so-called +imperial apartments for the reception of royal travelers, +and on the other side are the meeting hall and reception +rooms of the different railway administrations. +On the right and left of the imposing main vestibule, +which is distinguished by the strength and the beauty +of its style, lobbies with arched roofs lead to the waiting +and dining rooms, the ladies' rooms, the imperial +apartments and the above mentioned meeting hall of +the administration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Page_10606" id="Page_10606"></a> +<a href="./images/image9.png"><img src="./images/image9_th.png" width="600" height="387" alt="central railway station at Frankfort" title="" /> +</a><span class="caption">THE NEW CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION. FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN.<br />— +Drawn by Fr. Schurmann.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="Page_10607" id="Page_10607"></a>The ladies' and gentlemen's toilet rooms also are in +that part of the building.</p> + +<p>The architect has laid especial stress upon the architectural +ornamentation of the building. Upon the apex +of the arch over the main vestibule a great group will +be placed, representing Atlas carrying the world on his +shoulders, and supported in his work by the allegorical +figures of Steam and Electricity.</p> + +<p>This group, which is at the present moment being +executed in copper by Houwald, in Brunswick, is the +work of a Frankfort sculptor, Herr Gustav Herold. In +the arch itself, near the clock, we see two allegorical +female figures, over life size, in a sitting posture, modeled +by Prof. Gustav Kaupert in Frankfort, and representing +Day and Night. In front of the pillars supporting +the arch, two other female sitting figures, also +above life size, will be perceived. These were modeled +by Professor Calandrelli in Berlin, and represent Agriculture +and Commerce, and in the niches on both sides +there are the statues of Navigation and Industry, the +work of the sculptor Hundrieser, of Berlin. The two +side portals of the entrance hall are surmounted by +figures of boys, having a height 2.40 meters; on the left +the commercial traveler and traveling student, modelled +by Rudolph Eckhardt in Frankfort; on the right +the traveler for pleasure and the emigrant, the works +of the sculptor Scholl, of Mayence. The groups of the +corner pavilions, allegoric representations of machine +building and engineering, were modeled by Professor +Max Wiese, of Hanau. The figures, like the whole +building, are of Heibronn sandstone. Either wing has +a vestibule leading to the middle perron of the great +hall. They resemble in style the architecture of the front +of the middle building, only their arches are smaller. +Here also we meet rich architectural ornamentation +on the pillars in the great arch. The ornaments consist, +as in the former case, of allegorical figures of boys. +They have a height of 2.20 meters, and represent Agriculture +and Art Industry on the one side and Art and +the Retail Trade of Frankfort on the other side. The +two former figures are the work of the sculptor A. Brutt, +of Berlin; the two latter were modeled by Hermann +Becker, of Frankfort. The side facades are very long, +but of simpler style than the front of the building, and +connect with the perron halls, which on their part end +in semi-towers. There the offices of the administrations +are located. The main vestibule leads directly to the +middle of the perron in the large hall, which consists +of three naves, and into which enter the trains of six +railway lines, each separated from the other by perrons. +The perron hall has a length of 186 meters and a width +of 168 meters. The height of the naves, with their +low arched roofs, rises in the center to 28.5 meters. +Tunnels connect the different railway lines, in +order to assist the rapid transit of through trains. +The port also benefits by these tunnels. The inside +front of the main vestibule is very richly decorated. +In its center a large clock is situated, and on +both sides of it are colossal allegorical figures modeled +by F. Kruger, of Frankfort, and representing the +hours of Morning and Evening, while on the pillars +we perceive large male figures in a sitting posture, representing +the Defense of the Country and Mining, the +work of Herr Keller, of Frankfort. The pillars are +crowned by groups of sculpture, representing the +Honeymoon Travel and Instruction in Traveling, the +one modeled by A. C. Rumpf, and the other by Friedrich +Schierholz, of Frankfort.</p> + +<p>The whole edifice is fire proof, scarcely any wood having +been used in its erection. The hall as well as the +other parts of the building are heated by steam and +lighted by electricity. The whole cost of the structure +amounted to about $8,500,000.—<i>Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a> +THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.</h2> + +<p>At the beginning of the year 1881, the committee on +finances of the common council of Paris received a petition +from the central committee of the syndical +chambers asking for the establishment of an official +exchange for merchandise and commercial transactions +for the especial use of Parisian commerce. To this +petition was added a project of organization which +proposed the appropriation of the grain market, with +a clearing of the approaches. The Paris chamber of +commerce had likewise been for a long time contemplating +the establishment of a merchandise exchange, +and was studying the practical means of organizing it.</p> + +<p>Called upon to decide, the common council, at its +session of May 28, 1881, decreed that an official merchandise +exchange for the commerce of Paris should be +organized, and that the grain market, or any other +place considered favorable by the administration, +should be appropriated.</p> + +<p>Desirous of aiding in carrying out this decree, the +chamber of commerce offered its services to the city. +It proposed to take upon itself the responsibility of +organizing and managing the exchange, and of borrowing +the money necessary for converting the grain market +into a merchandise exchange, and for clearing the +approaches and opening Louvre Street.</p> + +<p>The study of this project soon became connected, +by reason of the proximity of the places, with the one +having for its object the enlarging of the central markets +and the construction of two pavilions to complete +them. It was recognized that it would be of interest +to make the appropriation necessary for the enlarging +of the markets and to unite the two operations. +After many vicissitudes, this project received the approval +of the common council.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/image11.png"><img src="./images/image11_th.png" width="600" height="312" alt="FIG. 1.—EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE OF PARIS." title="" /></a> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE OF PARIS.</span> +</div> + +<p>The contract for the work was given on the 2d of +March, 1886, to Mr. Blondel, the well known architect.</p> + +<p>Let us now see how the contract has been followed +out. The grain market was built in 1767, upon the site +of the hotel of Soissons. Of this, nothing was preserved +but the astronomical tower of Catherine de +Medicis, which still remains. The central part of the +market left free was soon covered with a wooden framework, +which was destroyed by fire in 1802. This was +then replaced by the architect Brunet with an iron +cupola covered with sheet copper. This market was +designed for the reception of the grain and flour +necessary to supply the city, but was soon supplanted +by public granaries, and then by general stores. It +afterward became a depot in which grain and flour +brokers received merchandise from shippers in order to +effect a sale of it. The abolition of the <i>factorat</i> gave +it its last blow.</p> + +<p>Let us examine the transformations made by Mr. +Blondel in the old structure. He began by excavating +under the entire extent of the market a basement 13 +ft. in depth. The old foundations of the circular walls, +which are more than 6 ft. thick, and which are extremely +solid, extend to a depth of about 2½ ft. beneath +the surface. The ceiling of the basement, in the +annular part between the walls, is formed of large T +iron girders, resting upon the circular walls. These +support transverse girders, which, in turn, support the +floor irons.</p> + +<p>The flooring of the hall is formed of ordinary floor +irons, assembled upon large girders, which are supported +here and there by cast iron columns. Under +this flooring there is a second one, leaving a free space +of about ten inches, in which will be placed the tubes +serving for ventilation. To these pipes will be joined +vertical ones debouching in the flooring of the hall.</p> + +<p>The old dome did not have apertures enough, and +the skylight even was not transparent, and so the lighting +of the hall was very defective. The mode of covering +the dome was therefore completely modified. The +copper was removed, and upon the old framework was +laid a wooden framework, to which will be nailed laths +designed to receive a slate roof. The slate will not extend +to the summit of the dome, but will leave above +it a spherical cap, which will be glazed, and through +which the light will enter the hall in abundance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/image10.png"> +<img src="./images/image10_th.png" width="600" height="461" alt="Fig. 2.—INTERNAL VIEW OF THE EXCHANGE." title="" /> +</a><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—INTERNAL VIEW OF THE EXCHANGE.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the basement will be installed the ventilating and +heating apparatus. Another part of the basement +will be occupied by the dynamo machines that are to +furnish the electric light. Another part will receive +the bake ovens that belong to the laboratory of the +committee on grain and flour. The rest of the basement +will be rented. The central part will probably +be converted into a cold room for the preservation of +early fruit and vegetables.</p> + +<p>On the ground floor, we find, in the first place, the +rooms that the contractor is to furnish gratuitously for +post office, telegraph, and telephones, and to licensed +brokers, and especially a hall of superb dimensions designed +for the public sale of raw materials by the +brokers.</p> + +<p>What remains of the ground floor will be devoted to +offices looking at once upon the hall and Viarones +Street. The entresol and the two stories will be connected +by several staircases. The various stories will +also be reached through elevators. A circular balcony +will extend around the hall at the level of each of the +two upper stories. These will be occupied by offices +smaller than those on the ground floor, which will, +some of them, get their light from the hall, and others +from the street.</p> + +<p>A part of the second story will be reserved for the +<a name="Page_10608" id="Page_10608"></a>service of the committees on grain and flour, who, as +experts, are called upon to determine to what type +each specimen is to be referred.</p> + +<p>From the exchange, let us pass to the annexes. The one +on the right is destined to become a large hotel for the +accommodation of provincial and foreign merchants. +The one to the left will be a tenement house, with +shops and apartments. Along each of these annexes, +on Viarones Street, will extend a covered colonnade.—<i>Abstract +from Le Genie Civil</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>A BASIS FROM WHICH TO CALCULATE +CHARGES FOR ELECTRIC MOTOR SERVICE.<a name="FNanchor_A_2" id="FNanchor_A_2"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_A_2" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + +<p>The theoretical side of the electric motor question +has been very ably presented to and discussed by this +association, but thus far the practical side has been +somewhat neglected.</p> + +<p>It will be my purpose in this paper, if possible, to +show that there is a general average controlling the use +of machinery which it will be safe for electric light and +power companies to follow in making their charges for +motor service, rather than adopt an arbitrary price per +horse power regardless of the character of service required +of the motor.</p> + +<p>I have arranged what might be called a power curve, +representing the approximate average actual service in +electric motors in connection with the several classes +of work represented in the list accompanying the diagram.</p> + +<p>This curve is calculated on motors which are only of +sufficient capacity in each case to carry the full load. +If the motor should be larger than is necessary to drive +the machinery, the percentage of actual service will, of +course, drop below that shown in the diagram.</p> + +<p>By adopting a basis of averages which shall be general +among members of this association, the charges +for a constant horse power of current may vary with +the circumstances of its first cost in each case, but the +general classification of motor service may be a comparatively +fixed rule. I am not prepared to say that +this is the best plan to follow, but respectfully submit +the following as a possible solution of the frequently +asked question, "How shall we charge for electric +motor service?"</p> + + +<h3>EXHAUST FANS.</h3> + +<p>First on the list of power consumers is the exhaust +fan, taking it in average use. There are, however, +circumstances under which its use will be limited to +as low as 70 or 75 per cent. of its contract hours of +service. As, for instance, in a dining room it may be +cut out except during meal hours, or entirely cut out +on cool days. In places of this description, however, +its contract use is usually limited to five or six months +in the year, and other than electric power is, by circumstances +of first cost and inconvenience, but a feeble +competitor.</p> + +<p>The first four applications on the accompanying list, +viz., exhaust fans, blowers, ceiling fans, and fan outfits, +are all more or less subject to the foregoing conditions, +and therefore currents supplied to motors for these +purposes command the maximum price per horse power. +One important feature in the installation of ceiling fans +is the countershafting to the motor. In one recent +case we had a complaint from a customer that the half +horse power motor sent him would not drive the ceiling +fans, and that the motor must be defective, and should +he return it for repairs. We immediately sent a representative +to find out the difficulty, which was found, +as is usual in such cases, in the countershafting, or rather +the want of it. The 3 in. pulley on the motor +was connected to a 6 in. pulley on the line shafting. +The rated speed of the motor was 2,000 revolutions, and +had it been able to develop this speed, would have +driven the line shaft 1,000 revolutions and the fans a +relative speed. To accomplish this would probably require +a motor of 3 or 4 H. P. The line shafting driving +ceiling fans usually runs about 75 revolutions. To give +this speed on the line shaft with a rated speed of 2,000 +on the 3 in. pulley of the motor would require a +countershaft with a 24 in. pulley belted to the motor. +On the same countershaft should be a 5 in. pulley +belted to a 15 or 16 in. pulley on the line shaft. Fully +three-fourths of the trouble found in electric motors +arises from improper shafting and belting. The average +make of 30 in. exhaust wheel, a ½ H. P. motor +should drive about 400 revolutions. Say, then, the +speed of the motor is 2,000 and the pulley 3 in., it would +require a 15 in. pulley on the fan to do the work. A 36 +in. wheel requires 1 H. P. to develop the same speed. +If the motor speed is 1,800, the pulley 4 in., it would require +an 18 in. pulley on the fan to do the work. These +are the most popular sizes of exhaust wheels.</p> + +<p>The next application on the list, open tank elevator +pumps, commands the highest price for current per +H. P. in the motor of any elevator application. The +methods of operating the open tank hydraulic elevators +in question are undoubtedly familiar to you all. Instead +of the usual steam pump, a power pump of some +approved design is substituted, and connected to the +motor by suitable countershafting to give the required +revolutions at the pump. The regulation of the motor +in this case should be controlled by the position of +water in the lower tank, as in the case of the steam +pump. And in this connection let me suggest the necessity +of great care, both in installation and insulation.</p> + +<p>On all installations in basements and cellars or elsewhere +where there is the slightest tendency to dampness, +raise the motor off the floor on a suitable frame +or stand and build around it on all sides of possible +approach a low platform, using glass insulators as legs +or standards to support it. So arrange this that the +motor or its connections cannot be reached except +when standing on this insulated platform, and the liability +to a shock will be reduced to the difference of +potential between the terminals of the machine. To +return to the subject. Let us take for an illustration an +elevator using 120 gallons of water per trip and consuming +one minute in making its entire up trip or +about two per round trip. The lower tank or water +supply is on a level with the pump. The upper tank +is 70 ft. above the pump, and in the piping to the upper +tank are five elbows. For each elbow add 2 ft. to +the elevation, or an approximate total elevation of 80 +ft. × 120 gallons gives us 9,600 foot gallons. This amount +would be required every two minutes if the elevator +was in absolutely constant operation, or 4,800 foot gallons +per minute × 8½ gives us 40,800 foot pounds. This +we must at least double to allow for friction in pump +shafting, etc., making 81,600 foot pounds, or about 2½ +H. P., say 3 required in the motor.</p> + +<p>This class of elevator is confined almost entirely to +passenger use. Therefore the service required of the +motor is much more constant and the margin between +the H. P. hours contracted for and the H. P. hours of +actual service much smaller than in any other elevator +use, excepting possibly the services in connection with +pressure tank elevators in the more popular office buildings. +In this case we have a maximum average use of +80, and instances such as the hotels, small office buildings, +etc., where the service will not exceed 60 of the +contract H. P. hours. In order, however, that the electric +light company shall derive the greatest benefit from +this inconstant service, the installation and wiring +should be the best, and only the most approved and +economical apparatus employed.</p> + +<p>The next application on our list, pressure tank pumps +in connection with elevators, represents a somewhat +smaller percentage of H. P. hours of actual service in +the motor as compared with the possible H. P. hours +than in the case of an open tank pump. In case of +the pressure tank the water reserve is usually limited, +and the motor therefore must be equal to the continuous +operation of the elevator at maximum load. Taking +this fact into consideration, and the circumstances +of elevator use being about the same in this case as in +the case of the open tank elevator, we have a greater +ratio of difference between the possible or contract +H. P. hours in the motor and the H. P. hours of actual +service, the maximum average use being about 70 per +cent. to 75 per cent. and the minimum as low as 35 +per cent. to 40 per cent., depending, of course, on +the character of building in which the elevator +is employed or the character of service. In calculating +the size of motor required on an elevator of +this description, a very convenient fact to remember is +that every pound of pressure per square inch is equivalent +to lifting water about 23 ft., or about 230 ft. per +100 pounds pressure, By reducing the required pressure +to a relative lift in feet, and knowing the amount +of water required by the elevator per minute, the motor +calculation becomes the same as in case of the open +tank elevator, the same allowances being made for friction, +etc., as in the first case. The regulation of the +motor in this case should be accomplished by the conditions +of pressure in the pressure tank, as is the case +with a steam pump employed in this service.</p> + +<p>The next application of importance on the list is +sewing machines. In the tests I have been able to +make on this class of work I have obtained some singular +results. One item of importance is the fact that +the single thread machines, which are lightest running, +consume the most power in operating. Paradoxical as +this may seem, it is easily explained. As a rule this +class of machine is used on light work, such as shirts, +ladies' underwear, etc., and operated at a higher speed +than any other class of machine. At equal speed the +volts consumed on a single thread machine as compared +with a shuttle machine is about as 2 to 3. In average +commercial use, however, the positions are reversed, +and the ratio of volts consumed in the single thread +as compared with the shuttle machine is about as 5 to +3. To double the speed on a sewing machine requires +about 2½ times the power. The difference in volts +consumed on the different makes of sewing machines +is so small that we may disregard it entirely, as well as +the character of work done by the machine, for the +heavier the work the slower the speed, and more frequent +and longer stops on the machine, thus keeping +the average volts per operator about constant in all +cases. This leaves the speed in stitches per minute at +the sewing machine the factor from which we must +calculate the power required in a sewing machine plant. +To illustrate this I will give you the record of two +cases which are about the average. Case No. 1 is a +shop in which are 30 sewing machines connected to a +2 H. P. motor. At the time tests were made there were +but twenty operators at work, leaving ten idle machines, +the entire shafting, however, being in operation. +The class of goods manufactured in this shop is a cheap +grade of cotton and wool pants, rather heavy goods to +sew. A volt meter across the terminals of the motor +gave the following readings with the current at 9 amperes: +Minimum 90 volts, maximum 148 volts, average +119, which gives us a minimum average per operator of +4.5 volts and a maximum average of 7.4 volts, or a general +average of 5.9 volts per operator. This motor was +driving the shafting for 30 machines, and as the average +operators employed the year round will not exceed +75 per cent. of the shop capacity, it will, I think, be +entirely fair to estimate the average volts per machine +rather than per operator, as the user of the motor has +contracted for power sufficient to drive his entire plant. +In this case, then, we have a minimum average of 3 +volts per machine and a maximum of 4.9 volts, or a +general average of say 4 volts per machine. A 2 horse +motor of 82 per cent. efficiency with 9 amperes of current +will require about 200 volts to develop 2 actual +H. P. Two hundred volts therefore is what the electric +light company contract to deliver, while, in reality, +they deliver only 129 volts or 60 percent., or a minimum +average of 90 volts or 45 per cent. of the power contracted +for. These machines were making about 1,200 +stitches per minute—an average of 4 volts per 100 +stitches.</p> + +<p>Case No. 2 is a shop in which there are 32 machines, +running about 1,200 stitches, each being supplied with +an individual motor of 1/8 H. P. capacity, and the class +of goods manufactured being men's summer clothing, +such as white duck vests, flannel coats and vests, etc., +the duck from which these vests are made being +about as hard work on a sewing machine as can be +found. In this shop were 24 operators at work. The +maximum volts in this case were 116 and the minimum +40, or general average of but 78 volts, or about +2½ volts per machine with 4 more operators than in +the first case, in which we had an average of 119 volts. +This shop has been paying the electric light company +$32 per month for more than a year, which is the price the +company charge for current for a 4 H. P. motor which +approximates 400 volts, the company contracts to deliver. +This gives us a minimum average use of but 10 +per cent. and a maximum of 29 per cent. with a general +average of 19½ per cent. In other words, the company +is saving in this shop the price of a 1/8 H. P. motor each +month, besides making a profit on the volts actually +delivered. On a contract for three years the electric +light company would be money in pocket if they +would present the customer with 30 small motors, +charging him $1 per month per motor for current, rather +than let him buy a 2 H. P. motor to operate the +same machines with the necessary shafting at a charge +of $18 per month for current. Taking this average in +case No. 2 of 2½ volts per machine, from a 50 light machine, +we could run not less than 900 sewing machines, +or about 18 to the arc lamp. At $1 per month per +machine an income of $900 per month would be derived +from a 50 light machine without any lamp expenses, +such as carbons, repairs on lamps, globes, etc. +On the average, in case No. 1, of 4 volts per machine, we +could operate but about 562, say 600 machines. Divided +up in shops of 30 machines and a 2 H. P. motor to each +shop, we would have 20 two H. P. motors. At a charge +of $18 per month each, we would have an earning capacity +of but $360 per month from the same 50 light +machine.</p> + +<p>This is but one page from the thus far unwritten history +of the much maligned small motor. Still the +question is frequently asked, "Can we sell current +for $1 per month for a small motor driving a sewing +machine and make a profit?" As a matter of fact, 50 +cents per month for small motors driving sewing machines +yields a better profit to the company supplying +the current than $10 per month per H. P. in large motors +to drive the same machines, besides the immense +advantage which the small motors possess of keeping +the circuit in much better balance, the fluctuations due +to the stopping and starting of large motors being at +times a serious matter. One electric light company, +making rather a specialty of these small machines, +rent the motor and supply the current for $1.25 per +month per sewing machine, and report that at this +price the motor pays them a better percentage of profit +than their lamps. This company have some 200 small +motors on their circuits.</p> + +<p>A more striking illustration of the advantages to the +electric light company in the subdivision of power +into the smallest possible units it would be hard to +find. There is a difference in efficiency of from 15 to +20 per cent. in these two sizes of motors, but this difference +is fully lost to the large motor in driving the +shafting, and the small motor still has the advantage +of being out of circuit entirely when the machine it is +driving is stopped. There is scarcely a manufacturing +industry which does not possess its busy and dull +seasons. This means that in no industry will over 75 +per cent. of the machines or machinery employed be +in average operation. The entire shafting in the shops +must be kept in operation the entire year, often for less +than 50 per cent. of the machinery. Subdivide these +same shops into as many small units as possible, and the +current necessary to operate the shafting for this idle +machinery will be saved, besides the saving from frequent +stops while the machinery is in active use.</p> + +<p>To return again to the list, the next two applications, +picture frame manufacturers and moulding manufacturers, +are very similar. Their busy seasons, as a rule, +are in the spring and fall, and also follow closely any +activity in house building. In the case of the larger +manufacturers in this line, a maximum average of 75 +per cent. will possibly be reached, but probably never +exceeded. In the case, however, of the picture dealer +who has a small shop in which he makes picture +frames and mouldings to order the actual service of the +motor will fall as low as 25 per cent. or 30 per cent. of +its contract hours, one case in our experience the +actual service having reached this low average. A fair +general average in this class of works would be about +60 per cent.</p> + +<p>The next application, nickel and silver platers and +buffers, are good contract customers as a rule; one case +in our experience showing but an average use of 20 per +cent. of the contract horse power hours. This, however, +is probably an exceptional case, and, as near as we +can estimate on this class of work, the actual motor +service will not exceed in any case 60 per cent. of the +contract hours; a fair average being probably 45 or +50 per cent.</p> + +<p>The next two applications, printing presses on news +and job work, are probably met with more frequently +than any other. On exclusively news work, the instances +where the motor is in service more than 3 or 4 +hours is rare. It is, however, usual in news offices to +find two or more job presses. If the newspaper printed +happens to be a morning paper, the hours of news +work are usually between 12 midnight and 4 o'clock in +the morning, the job work being done through the +day. I have in mind a case of this description. In +the shop is one cylinder press and three job presses +connected to a 2 H. P. motor. This motor is on an incandescent +circuit of 110 volts. To develop its rated +power at 110 volts would require about 16 amperes in +the motor. An ampere motor in series with the motor +while running off the morning paper with only the +cylinder press in operation stood at 12 amperes. For +3 hours this load was practically constant, when it was +thrown off entirely. This gave on the night service +but 30 per cent. of the contract hours. This motor required +5 amperes to drive the shafting, and but 8 amperes +or one H. P. to drive the three job presses with +the cylinder press off. Here then is but a 50 per cent. +use if the presses be used constantly; there are, however, +many days when they are comparatively idle, 30 to 40 +per cent., therefore, is a very safe estimate of the maximum +use of this motor on the day circuit, or, had the +motor been a 1 H. P., which would have been sufficient +to drive the job presses, the use would be 60 to 80 +per cent. of the contract hours, probably not above 60 +per cent. All printing offices will probably come within +this range, unless the motor be larger than is necessary +to do the work.</p> + +<p>Machine shops doing principally lathe work as a +matter of course use a larger percentage of their contracted +power than shops doing lathe and bench work +with the same hands. In no case will the service of the +motor exceed 65 or 70 per cent. of its contract use, for +machine shops, like sewing machine shops, will never +average over 75 per cent. of the shop capacity for operators +the year round. The average, especially in the +case of a shop doing much bench work, will fall as low +as 40 per cent.</p> + +<p>The driving of laundry machinery, which is our next +application, usually proves a profitable contract, according +to reports. This fact arises from the intermittent +use of the machinery. The heaviest service on +motor will probably be found during the early part of +each week, with a general falling off in work during +<a name="Page_10609" id="Page_10609"></a>the summer months, while the patrons of the laundry +are away at the sea-shore or in the mountains. In this +application, therefore, a 75 per cent. service would probably +be an exception, with, probably, many instances +where the service would fall below 50 per cent.</p> + +<p>The next application, model and pattern makers, are +small users of power, as their occupation requires a +large proportion of hand work. 50 per cent. service in +the motor will be found a fair average maximum use, +with instances as low as 20 or 25 per cent.</p> + +<p>The next application, direct power or belt elevators, +is another application frequently met. The average +service in the motor is also much smaller than in any +other elevator application. Let us suppose a case of +the familiar grip connected to the ordinary hand hoist, +with a lifting capacity of 2,000 pounds. In this case the +motor is in use only going up, and the usual brake is +used in coming down. Connected to this elevator, in +the loft of the building, we have a 5 H. P. motor +wired to a cut-out on the ground floor. We will call +the lift 45 feet and the time consumed per trip 1 minute. +We will allow 60 full trips of the elevator at full load, +at 2,000 lb. per trip, each day. This would approximate +10 car loads of merchandise handled by the elevator, +which is certainly above the average. This motor, +we will say, is on a ten hour day circuit. Its possible +horse power hours, therefore, would be 5 H. P. for 10 +hours, or 50 H. P. hours per day. 60 trips of 1 minute +each gives us exactly 1 hour's service of the full 5 H. P. +or 5 H. P. hours. To drive the shafting only while the +elevator is coming down or idle would require about +150 volts or 1½ H. P., and if this was in constant operation +the balance of the day, 9 hours, its total use on +shafting would be 13½ H. P. hours, which, added to +the 5 H. P. hours, gives us a grand total of 18½ H. P. +hours, or 37 per cent. of the contract hours. If, however, +the user of the motor avails himself of the cut-out +box, and cuts the current out when the motor is +not in use, the average use would drop to 20 or 25 per +cent., instead of 37 per cent. In the case of a direct +power passenger elevator, the use might possibly run +up to 60 per cent., but this would be exceptional.</p> + +<p>Coffee mills will average from 40 to 60 per cent. of +their contract hours, manufacturing jewelers about +the same, while retail jewelers will run as low as 25 +per cent. Ice cream freezers will not average over 25 +per cent., but as the contract season in this case is +usually short, they should be rated at least a 50 per +cent. basis, except possibly in cases where the customer +pays the cost of installation and wiring, which is usual +in these cases.</p> + +<p>A dentist is one of the smallest of power users, so +small, in fact, that if every one in a city were connected +with a circuit, the load from this cause would +never be felt. We will, however, put them down at +from 10 to 20 per cent.</p> + +<p>The optician uses a motor to turn his grind stones, +and its use in this case will average from 20 to 30 per +cent.</p> + +<p>The last application on the list—church organs—uses +only from 10 to 20 per cent. of the contract service.</p> + +<p>These are, of course, but few of the very many applications +of the electric motor, and if, as I trust, the +possible subsequent discussion of this general plan +may establish a basis for rating motor applications, +not only will the objects of this paper be obtained, but +a question of considerable annoyance now existing between +the motor man and the electric light or power +company will be solved.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, Mr. Chairman, I beg to suggest that +the supply and rates of charge for electric power have +become of sufficient importance to this association to +be represented by a permanent committee, whose duty +it should be to obtain from the different members of +the association, as far as possible, their experience in +the supply of power in such manner and form as shall +be deemed by the committee best suited to the wants +of this association.</p> + + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_A_2" id="Footnote_A_2"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_A_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> + Read before the electric light convention, New York, August, 1888.</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a> +SOME ABYSSINIAN CUSTOMS.</h2> + +<div class="center" style="width: 680px;"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;"> +<img src="./images/image12.png" width="271" height="500" alt="WOMAN WITH UNDRESSED HAIR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">WOMAN WITH UNDRESSED HAIR.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 387px;"> +<img src="./images/image13.png" width="387" height="500" alt="ABYSSINIAN HAIR DRESSER. +" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ABYSSINIAN HAIR DRESSER. +</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Abyssinian women have an extraordinary head of +hair. The hair, though not very long, is very bushy, +so that it takes the capillary artist no less than a day +to succeed in reducing this forest into a small bulk. +As it requires some force to draw the comb through +the hair, the operation is painful, and this is why the +Abyssinian women have it performed every forty or +fifty days only. The Abyssinian women of rank pass +their life in almost complete idleness, occupied almost +exclusively in bedecking themselves and in making or +receiving calls. It is not the same with the women of +the people. They have many labors to perform, and +are the ones who manipulate the grains, hydromel and +beer, and grind pepper in the <i>matt-biett</i>. This latter +operation is very painful, and so they take the +precaution to first close the nostrils with plugs of cotton. +Women who have children of a tender age go at +these operations with their progeniture upon the +back, after the manner of negro peoples.—<i>L'Illustration.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image14.png" width="496" height="500" alt="A PEPPER GRINDER." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A PEPPER GRINDER.</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a> +HOW A MOUND WAS BUILT.</h2> + +<p>"While exploring mounds in Ohio this season, under +the direction of the National Bureau of Ethnology," +says Mr. Gerard Fowke, in a paper prepared for <i>Science</i>, +"I used great care in the examination of one +mound in Pike County, in order to ascertain, if possible, +the exact method of its construction.</p> + +<p>"The mound was built upon the site of a house, +which had probably been occupied by those whose +skeletons were found. The roof had been supported by +side posts, and at intervals by additional inner posts. +The outer posts were arranged in pairs a few inches +apart, then an interval of about three feet, then two +more, and so on. They were all about eight inches in +diameter, and extended from two and a half to three +feet into the ground, except one a few feet from the +center, which went down fully five feet. All the holes +were filled with the loose dark dirt which results from +decay of wood; a few contained fragments of charcoal, +burned bones or stone, but no ashes; nor was the surrounding +earth at all burned.</p> + +<p>"Around the outside a trench from three to four feet +wide, and from eighteen to twenty inches deep, had +been dug, to carry away the water which fell from the +roof. Near the middle of this house, which measured +about forty feet from side to side, a large fire had been +kept burning for several hours, the ashes being removed +from time to time. The ash bed was elliptical +in form, measuring about thirteen feet from east to +west, and five from north to south. Under the center +of it was a hole, ten inches across and a foot deep, filled +with clean white ashes in which was a little charcoal, +packed very hard. At the western end, on the south +side (or farthest from the center of the house), was a +mass of burned animal bones, ashes, and charcoal. +This was continuous with the ash bed, though apparently +not a part of it. The bones were in small pieces, +and were, no doubt, the remains of a funeral feast or +offering.</p> + +<p>"After the fire died down, rude tools were used to +dig a grave at the middle of the house. It measured +ten feet in length, from east to west, by a little more +than six in breadth. The sides were straight, slanting +inward, with rounded corners. The bottom was nearly +level, fourteen inches deep, but slightly lower at the +center. Over the bottom, ashes had been thinly +sprinkled, and on these a single thickness of bark had +been laid. The sides had been lined with wood or bark +from two to four inches thick. When this was done, +two bodies were placed side by side in the grave, both +extended at full length on the back, with heads directly +west. One, judging from the bones and condition of +the teeth, was a woman of considerable age. She was +placed in the middle of the grave. Her right arm lay +along the side, the left hand being under the pelvic +bones of the other skeleton. This was apparently of a +man not much, if any, past maturity. The right arm +lay across the stomach, the left across the hips. This +skeleton was five feet ten inches in length; the other, +five feet four inches.</p> + +<p>"The space between the first skeleton and the south +side of the grave was covered with the ashes that had +been removed from the fire. Beginning at the feet in a +thin layer—a mere streak—they gradually increased in +thickness toward the head, where they were fully six +inches thick. The head was embedded in them. They +extended to the end of the grave, reaching across its +entire width and coming almost, but not quite, in contact +with the other head. A considerable amount of +the burned bones lay in the southwestern corner of the +grave, and the ashes along this part curved up over the +side until they merged into what remained of the ash +bed. This had extended to the west slightly beyond +the end of the grave.</p> + +<p>"As the earth removed from the grave had been +thrown out on every side, the bodies were in a hole +that was nearly two feet deep. The next step was to +cover them. There was no sign of bark, cloth, or any +other protecting material above them. They were +covered with a black sandy earth, which must have +been brought from the creek not far distant. This was +piled over them while wet, or at least damp enough to +pack firmly, as it required the pick to loosen it, and, +besides, was steeper on the sides than dry dirt would +have been. It reached just beyond the grave on every +side, and was about five and a half feet high, or as high +as it could be conveniently piled.</p> + +<p>"So far, all was plain enough; but now another +question presented itself that puzzled me not a little; +and that was, What became of the house? That there +had been one, the arrangement of the numerous post +holes plainly showed; but the large earth mound +above the tumulus or grave was perfectly solid above +the original surface, giving not the slightest evidence +that the posts or any part of the house had ever reached +up into it. I incline to the opinion that the great +fire near the middle of the house had been made from +the timbers composing it; that the upper timbers had +been torn down, and the posts cut off at the surface, +the whole being a kind of votive offering to the dead. +At any rate, it is plain that a house stood there until +<a name="Page_10610" id="Page_10610"></a>the time the mound was built; and it was not there +afterward.</p> + +<p>"For the purpose of covering the grave, sand was +brought from a ridge a short distance away. There +was no stratification, either horizontal or curving. +Earth had been piled up first around the black mass +forming the grave mound, and then different parties +had deposited their loads at convenient places, until +the mound assumed its final conical arrangement. The +lenticular masses through almost the whole mound +showed that the earth had been carried in skins or +small baskets. The completed mound was thirteen +feet high, and about one hundred feet in diameter.</p> + +<p>"Two and a half feet above the original surface was +an extended skeleton, head west. It lay just east of the +black earth over the grave. Sixteen feet south of the +grave, on the original surface, and within the outer +row of post holes, were two skeletons extended, heads +nearly west. It would seem that the flesh was removed +before burial, as the bones were covered with a dull +red substance, which showed a waxy texture when +worked with a knife blade.</p> + +<p>"No relics of any description were found with any of +the skeletons; but a fine copper bracelet was picked +up in a position that showed it was dropped accidentally."</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a> +A CHINESE IMPERIAL CEMETERY.</h2> + +<p class="center">By Lieut. Hon. <span class="smcap">H. N. Shore, R.N.</span></p> + +<p>Some ten miles north of Peking, in a valley where +silence reigns supreme, is situated one of the most remarkable +and imposing burial grounds in the world. +Here, nestling along the slopes of the inclosing mountains, +which form a natural amphitheater, are a series +of vast mausoleums where lie buried the emperors of +the last Chinese dynasty. This was the celebrated +Ming dynasty, which continued from 1366 till 1644, +when, after a sanguinary struggle lasting for twenty-seven +years, it succumbed to the Manchu Tartars, who, +under the title of the Tsin dynasty, have occupied the +throne to the present time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image15.png" width="600" height="249" alt="THE AVENUE." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">THE AVENUE.</span> +</div> + +<p>It has been very truly remarked of the Chinese that +they have probably expended more labor over their +public works than any other nation of antiquity; and +assuredly when any great national work is undertaken, +however rare the occurrence, it is invariably carried +out on a scale of unparalleled magnificence. It was, +therefore, only fitting that the tombs containing the +emperors of their own native dynasty should be constructed +on a scale commensurate with the wealth and +extent of the empire whose destinies they swayed for +nigh 300 years. The valley contains altogether thirty +tombs, each of which stands in the center of a wooded +inclosure several acres in extent, surrounded by a high +wall, with an imposing gateway. The largest and +most celebrated is that of Yen-wang, whose body reposes +in a lofty building resting on an immense brick +mound pierced by a slanting tunnel, whose curious +acoustic properties entitle it to be ranked as a "whispering +gallery." In front of the mausoleum is a hall +measuring 220 ft. long by over 90 ft. broad, which contains +the emperor's tablet. The roof of this building +is supported in the center by thirty-two pillars, composed +of single trees 60 ft. high and over 11 ft. in circumference, +which are said to have been brought from +Corea. The transport of these enormous blocks must +have been a work of no ordinary difficulty, more +especially in the absence of good roads. According to +the description of a missionary who recently witnessed +the moving of a somewhat similar object, it would +seem that the Chinese followed the practice of the +ancient Egyptians, as depicted on their tombs, and in +a country where labor is abundant such a method +would be natural.</p> + +<p>An inscription near the entrance states that this +tomb, among others, was repaired by the Emperor +Kienlung, who reigned in the early part of last century; +but like every other ancient building in China +at the present day, it is fast going to ruin for the want +of ordinary care, large trees being permitted to grow +out of the very roof itself, although there are several +attendants residing in the inclosure; while, doubtless, +certain officials are entrusted with the care of this +splendid mausoleum, and draw their salaries regularly. +But <i>laisser faire</i> is the order of the day everywhere in +the neighborhood of Peking, and nothing is ever repaired +nowadays by any chance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image16.png" width="600" height="223" alt="THE ROAD TO PEKING." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">THE ROAD TO PEKING.</span> +</div> + +<p>A part of the original scheme, which shows the magnificent +scale on which the whole thing was planned +and executed, was a fine paved road, carried over +streams and rivers by marble bridges and extending +the whole way from Peking, a distance of ten miles. +On approaching the valley where the tombs repose the +road passes under three handsome "pailaus," or gateways, +and then through one of the most imposing avenues +that was ever constructed. This avenue, which +extends for about two-thirds of a mile, is flanked on +either side with colossal stone figures at intervals of +about 50 yards, representing men and animals in the +following order: Six men, apparently warriors and +priests, in pairs, standing; four horses, four griffins, +four elephants, four camels, and four lions, the first +pair in each set standing, the second recumbent. As +the Chinese have never achieved any great distinction +in the art of sculpture, the representations of animal +life are, needless to say, somewhat caricatured. But +the conception of the whole was magnificent, and the +effect of this long avenue of colossal figures standing in +silent grandeur is as impressive as anything that ever +emanated from the genius of the Chinese race.—<i>Ill. +Naval and Military Magazine.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a> +DYSPEPSIA: ITS CAUSES AND PREVENTION.</h2> + +<p>Dyspepsia has once been called the "American sickness," +and although this may be a slander against +which many of the inhabitants of our great republic +might protest, bad digestion is a disease frequent +enough among us to justify us in considering its causes +and in ascertaining by what means this curse of modern +civilization may be avoided. A Frenchman, under +the title "La dyspepsie des gens d'esprit," in the Paris +<i>Revue Scientifique</i> of August 18, shows how utterly +disregarded are the sanitary rules at the dinners of well +bred people in France; and an American lady in a +recent edition of a well known New York daily +humoristically enlarges upon the offenses committed +against health by persons of her own sex while dining +in the largest city of the United States. Speaking of +the lunch of shop girls up town, the contributor to the +American paper deprecates the fact that the young +American girls employed in business houses at luncheon +time live almost entirely on sweets and food that renders +little or no nourishment, rather than procuring +at the same cost a repast which, though perhaps less +dainty, would be far better for their constitution. "Left +to herself," the writer says, "Miss Saleslady, pretty and +refined though she may be, day after day and day +after day keeps her temper, and waits on her customers, +leaning on a slim luncheon of pie and tea. 'It is sweet +and nice,' pleaded one girl to me the other day, 'and it +goes so much further than anything else.'</p> + +<p>"'Not further than bread and milk' I urged, 'and +it is surely not half as good for your complexion.'</p> + +<p>"'Oh, but the other ladies would laugh at me well if +they saw me eating bread and milk for my luncheon. I +think myself a bit of something light and nice, like +eclairs or a charlotte russe, is ever so much more ladylike +and nice.'</p> + +<p>"Heaven save the mark! What sort of flesh and blood +do they make to put on the slender bones of a growing +girl? How will they stand by her, when perhaps she +leaves the shop and chooses the life of wife and +mother? The answer is easy. When the pie-eating, +cooky-feeding girl gets married, put it down in your +note book: One more dyspeptic, peevish woman entered +the lists of the unlovely."</p> + +<p>The contributor to the French review, although also +condemning the careless choice of food, more especially +points out the evil consequences of eating too hastily; +and though M. Julva directs his attack chiefly against +the <i>gens d'esprit</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the well bred people of France +who neglect the rules of health for politeness' sake, his +words apply equally well to the American business +man who sacrifices his health during luncheon to the +"almighty dollar."</p> + +<p>"The feverish activity of modern life," he says, "induces +many people to abridge the duration of their +repast, and, particularly, luncheon is taken too hastily—a +practice the danger of which, as a cause of dyspepsia, +cannot be overrated."</p> + +<p>This practice might not be so dangerous if, during the +short time which we dedicate to our midday meal, we +would at least imitate the habit of the Japanese, whom +politeness requires to be absolutely silent while eating. +When they like a certain dish, they express their satisfaction +by graceful gestures addressed to their host, +but they think it would offend him if they open their +mouth for anything else except eating.</p> + +<p>Watch, on the other hand, one of our lawyers at +luncheon. He has just dismissed his last client, at the +moment when he should be already at court, and in +order not to be too late he has to lunch in double quick +time. He has to eat his viands without having time +to masticate them, and he swallows his big pieces, +washing them down with several glasses of wine and +water, and hastens to his carriage almost without giving +himself time to breathe, in order not to miss his +call.</p> + +<p>Look at a Parisian dining in town. French politeness +forbids him to be silent like the Japanese, and also +requires of him not to speak with his mouth full of food. +And if this were not enough, French gallantry commands +him to serve the ladies first, so that just about +when they have finished, he may commence to eat. +In addition to this, if he does not want to appear ill +bred, he must reply to all their questions, which he +would not be able to do if he did not gulp down his +morsels unchewed. What wonder, then, that most +men have to suffer from eating dinner in such a manner, +while all discomfort could be avoided, if the +viands were served to one guest after the other in succession?</p> + +<p>We don't want to exaggerate. There are privileged +stomachs which can stand all that. But there are +many to which half-masticated food is a real poison.</p> + +<p>The unconscious dyspeptic constitutes an extremely +frequent variety. Dyspeptics rarely complain of suffering +from the stomach; many of them will even say +to you that their stomach is excellent. But let us +remember the old fable of Menenius Agrippa: The +whole organism suffers when the stomach is ill treated.</p> + +<p>Premature calvity (baldness), some eruptions of acne +(pustules of the skin), a slight dyspnœa (difficulty in +breathing) when mounting stairs, a blush of heat +on the cheeks a quarter of an hour after luncheon, a +violent craving for smoking after the repast, a feeling +of sleepiness, which, however, quickly fades toward +ten o'clock in the evening, little inclination to +work during the first hours after awakening in the +morning, all these symptoms, or any part of them, show +that you have before you a candidate of the disease +known as bloating of the stomach or the gout. According +to the wise enumeration of Moliere, who was evidently +prompted by Renaudot, such a person begins +with bradypepsia (slow digestion), then suffers from +dyspepsia (bad digestion), afterward from apepsia (indigestion), +and later lyentery (a lax or diarrhea in which +food is discharged only half digested), and at the last the +vicious circle is often completed by obesity, uric affections +of the liver or bladder, and all the other diseases +belonging to that class.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, we are still far from the time when +the public will appreciate that "prevention is better +than cure." Perhaps this fundamental principle of +health will be honored during the 20th century. At +present it certainly is not. Meanwhile, those who +have ruined their health by modern city life take +recourse for their cure to a holiday, hasten to places +where they find mineral waters, or try laxatives or +milk diet to improve their condition. They wish <i>to do +something for their health</i> once or twice a year. How +much better, if they had not been <i>acting against their +health all the year round</i>.</p> + +<p>It is extremely difficult to teach our people to eat +healthily. You will find no difficulty to persuade them +to take medicine. People have always time to swallow +a pill, but you will certainly have trouble to teach +them to chew with leisure. How many people who +find time every year to spend the season at Vichy will +tell you it is quite impossible for them to spend five +minutes more every day at luncheon time. And nevertheless +they would regain these few minutes a day with +interest, if they would avoid that host of maladies +which will stop them one day in the midst of their +occupations. I have seen a good many of my clients +getting entirely rid of their rheumatic pains and gout +and ceasing to suffer from sleepless nights by observing +the following simple rules.</p> + +<p>In order to chew meat conveniently—and this is one +of the main points—one must accustom one's self never +to mix meat and bread in the same mouthful. Take a +small mouthful, chew it about thirty times, then swallow +that part which has been reduced to pulp, and so +on until all has been masticated. In doing this you +will soon find out that roasted and broiled beef or mutton +requires a longer trituration than boiled meats or +stews; you will also perceive that fish is more easily +masticated than meat, and you will finally understand +why certain dyspeptics are forced to limit their food to +fish, eggs, and milk diet. In fact, milk diet serves no +other purpose than to furnish a perfectly digestible +nourishment.</p> + +<p>One of the indirect and unforeseen benefits of a careful +mastication is that people gradually become accustomed +to be satisfied with a comparatively small quantity +of food, for as slow chewing is always more or +less tedious, those who observe this rule soon cease to +be great eaters, and also learn quickly to accustom +themselves to another very important rule, viz., to +drink moderately while eating. Two glasses of liquid +will then quite suffice for a person who would drink +four if he ate his viands swallowing them down without +chewing.</p> + +<p>Many obese dyspeptics when they once commence to +<a name="Page_10611" id="Page_10611"></a> carefully and to take liquid moderately +while eating lose weight with an astonishing rapidity +and become cured of the bloating of the stomach +without being finally obliged to have recourse to the +rigorous dry diet of Prof. Bouchard.</p> + +<p>Wine and water, the French national drink, is an +extremely frequent, and very often misunderstood, +cause of dyspepsia. A good many people would enjoy +excellent health if they were satisfied with pure water, +that favorite drink of the aged. It is quite perplexing +sometimes to see at the same table three neighbors, +drinking at their dinner, the one wine, the other beer, +and the third tea. How much better would it be if +people, instead of choosing their habitual drink according +to the place that they come from, would select +it more with regard to their individual constitution! I +know many who, after having, for fifty years, quietly +ignored the fact, have come to the recognition that +for them, wine, even if diluted with much water, is +absolutely hurtful, and who, by giving it up, and by +taking pure water, tea, or cider, to which Prof. C. attributes +great success in his practice, instead, have got +rid of their ailments almost as if by enchantment.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I should like to say a word with regard +to salt, this panacea of arthritic persons (persons +suffering from arthritis, swelling of the joints, as in +gout).</p> + +<p>For many years I have been laboring under the +wrong impression, that salt is placed on the table merely +for the purpose of salting boiled eggs, which the +cook cannot salt in advance. Great mistake! The +wisdom of nations has discovered that there are people +for whom a great quantity of salt is a necessity, and +that there are others who would become ill if they were +to eat viands that are much salted. The salt cellar is +there in order to enable every one to salt his food according +to his own requirements. Many people are +led by their natural instinct to salt their viands in a +proportion to suit them. But there are others, among +them, above all, the well bred persons previously mentioned, +who treat eating with disdain and for whom +the whole attraction of a repast is the charm of conversation, +and to them the idea of having recourse to +the salt cellar never occurs.</p> + +<p>Whether salt is needed in order to add acid to the +gastric juice or whether it has an antiseptic action in +the digestive channel, I do not know. Certain, however, +it is, that it possesses very appreciable laxative +qualities, and under its influence those who go to drink +the waters at Wiesbaden often see their intestinal +functions restored to a surprising degree.</p> + +<p>It is just as well, however, and even better, to take +one's <i>Vichy at home</i>, and nothing is more simple than to +use one's <i>Wiesbaden at home</i>, by using the salt cellar. +The cure may then be completed by distributing over +a whole year the thirty warm baths which have to be +taken during the season at that watering place. The +bath at 40° Celsius is a real boon for arthritic persons. +The warmer it is, whether salt or not, the better it acts +in producing an exuberant perspiration, and the less is +one apt to catch cold when leaving it.</p> + +<p>The above by no means exhausts the vast subject of +dyspepsia and arthritis. But without ignoring the +utility of thermal waters, of morning promenades, of +dry frictions and gymnastics, the sufferers should, above +all, be advised to minutely masticate their food, to +limit the amount of liquids at meal time, to use salt, +which will by no means increase their thirst; and in +certain cases to abstain entirely from alcoholic drinks. +Those who observe these rules may with impunity dine +out, although those so-called great dinners, where all +rules of health are left aside, are absolutely baneful for +a great number of the inhabitants of our cities.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a> +A NEW SURGICAL OPERATION.</h2> + +<p>Among the matters of interest which were brought +before the British Medical Association, at the recent +Glasgow meeting, was an account by Mr. Brudenell +Carter of a method which he had devised of opening +the sheath of the optic nerve behind the eye, for the +relief of pressure within this sheath and within the +cavity of the skull. The brain is invested by firm membranes, +which secrete a certain amount of fluid and +are continued down to the eye in the form of a sheath +which surrounds the optic nerve; and, whenever the +pressure within the cavity of the skull is increased, as +by the growth of a brain tumor, or even by excess of +secretion from the membranes themselves, a superabundance +of fluid is apt to find its way down the +nerve sheath to the level of the eye, to subject the +optic nerve to injurious pressure, and, in many cases, +to destroy the sight. It not infrequently happens that +the pressure within the brain cavity may be increased +by temporary or curable causes, which, nevertheless, +continue in action sufficiently long to produce permanent +blindness, even although the patient may, in +other respects, recover. In view of these conditions +it was suggested by Dr. De Wecker, of Paris, sixteen or +seventeen years ago, that it might be possible to open +the optic nerve sheath, and thus not only to relieve the +nerve from pressure and to preserve it from injury, but +also, on account of the position of the eye relatively to +the brain cavity, to drain the latter by gravitation, and +to relieve the brain as well as the eye. Dr. De Wecker +made two endeavors to accomplish this object, but he +tried to feel his way to the optic nerve without the aid +of sight, and to incise the sheath by means of an instrument +carrying a concealed knife, capable of being +projected by means of a spring. The risks of failure, +and, still more, the risks of inflicting irreparable injury +upon the nerve, were such that he only attempted his +operation in two well nigh hopeless cases, and only one +attempt to follow his example has been recorded. Mr. +Carter's attention was called to the matter last year by +a case in which the diminution of pressure within the +optic nerve sheath was manifestly desirable; and he +devised a method of operating by which the sheath +could be exposed to view, and the object attained with +certainty, under the guidance of sight at every step of +the process.</p> + +<p>He read before the Medical Society of London, last +year, an account of the first case in which he operated, +which was successful; and he read an account of three +more cases at Glasgow, in one of which the result was +negative, as far as sight was concerned, while in the +other two the patients were not only quickly restored +to useful vision, in one instance from complete, in the +other from nearly complete, blindness, but were at the +same time relieved or cured of other symptoms, such +as headache and sickness, arising from direct pressure +on the brain. In his paper at Glasgow, Mr. Carter +claimed for the new operation that it could be performed +with certainty and without risk either to life +or to any important structure, and that it afforded a +reasonable prospect of the preservation of sight in +many forms of disease in which it is now habitually or +frequently lost. As in the case of every new operation, +time and further experience of its effects are required +in order to determine the precise limits of its usefulness.</p> + +<p>In the discussion which followed the paper, Mr. +Bickerton, of Liverpool, said that, in consequence of +reading the account of Mr. Carter's first case, he had +himself performed the operation in two instances, in +one of which temporary restoration of sight was followed +by relapse, while in the second the ultimate issue +was favorable.—<i>London Times</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a> +PUTZEYS' FLUSHING RESERVOIR.</h2> + +<p>Every sewer is more or less exposed to intermissions +in the flow of the water that it leads, and the result is +a diminution in velocity which leads to deposits of +solid material. Hence the necessity of regularly flushing +the sewer with water, which removes from the sides +the substances that have attached themselves thereto, +and which, without such precaution, soon decompose. +In a word, it is necessary that a <i>perfect</i> washing shall +be assured, and this can be done only by heavy rains +or by strong currents of water. As regards rain, that +could not be relied upon; and to have a force of men +specially charged with the service of washing, that +would be too costly, and so recourse has been had to +automatic apparatus.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/image17.png" width="349" height="500" alt="FLUSHING RESERVOIR. +" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">FLUSHING RESERVOIR. +</span> +</div> + + +<p>The automatic siphons used for flushing sewers are +characterized in general by the presence, at the base of +the discharge branch, of a fixed or movable receiving +vessel full of water. This vessel has the inconvenience +of breaking the effect of the charge, and the result is +that these apparatus do not render the services that +might be expected from them. Some of these apparatus +have valves, floats, chains, pulleys, and levers. +These are still more defective, since their operation +is delicate. The parts of which they are composed +easily get out of order, and then the reservoir does no +more flushing at all. A good automatic flushing reservoir +must therefore be of the greatest simplicity, and +its parts must be fixed and strong, and the outflow of +the water must be rapid and energetic and directly +from the reservoir into the sewer. In a word, its construction +should be such that there shall be no need of +inspecting it, and that its operation be regular.</p> + +<p>The apparatus devised by Mr. E. Putzeys, Director +of Works of the city of Verviers, well fulfills the conditions +of an excellent flushing reservoir with an automatic +siphon. The siphon has a double curve, but may, +however, have different forms according to the various +uses for which it may be employed, such as for flushing +sewers, urinals, closets, etc.</p> + +<p>The annexed figure represents the apparatus as arranged +for flushing a sewer. The apparatus operates +as follows: In the bottom of the branch of the siphon, +S, there is always some water, so that, during the filling +of the reservoir by means of the cock seen in the +figure, the air is compressed in the branch S to a degree +that cannot exceed the pressure of an equal height +of water to about double the height of the siphon. +The reservoir therefore can continue to fill without the +water escaping.</p> + +<p>The submersion of the small siphon, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, is less +than that of the principal siphon, S, and it follows +that when the level of the reservoir reaches a height +equal to <i>b</i>, <i>a</i>, a new influx, however small it be, +causes the discharge of a few drops of water from the +auxiliary siphon, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, which is always full of water. +At this moment the water that it contains can no +longer resist the thrust of the compressed air in the +branch of the siphon, S, and is therefore forced, along +with the compressed air, into the flushing pipe.</p> + +<p>By virtue of the principle of communicating vessels, +the water of the reservoir tends to resume its level in +the interior of the apparatus, and it then enters with +such impetuosity that the siphon, whatever be its +dimensions, is primed. The entire reservoir empties +instantaneously, and the water flows to open the +sewer.</p> + +<p>From the experiments made at Verviers by the inventor, +it results that, with a pipe 10 inches in diameter, +the emptying of a 175 cubic foot reservoir can be +effected in 30 seconds.</p> + +<p>We may remark that with this apparatus we obtain +the maximum of useful effect, seeing that the work developed +is represented by the total head of the water +diminished simply by losses of charge due to friction +in the pipes. In other apparatus the loss of charge is +much less, since the flushing is broken by a receiver.</p> + +<p>Putzeys' apparatus, therefore, with a much less discharge +of water, is capable of producing an effect +superior to that of similar apparatus. On account of +its simplicity and plain character, there is no need of +precision in the installation of this apparatus, and +horizontality, even, is not a <i>sine qua non</i> for its perfect +operation.</p> + +<p>The siphon is very easily cleaned, and this is a great +advantage, since it permits of utilizing sewage matter +for filling the flushing reservoir.—<i>Chronique Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a> +PEPSIN.</h2> + +<p class="center">By A. <span class="smcap">Percy Smith</span>, F.I.C., F.C.S., Rugby.</p> + +<p>The method usually adopted for estimating the peptonizing +power of pepsina porci consists in dissolving 1 +to 2 grains in 8 to 12 ounces of water, to which 40 to 60 +minims of hydrochloric acid has been added. 500 to +1,000 grains of hard-boiled white of egg, granulated by +rubbing through a wire sieve, is immersed in the liquid, +and the whole kept at 98° to 130° F. for four hours, +when the undissolved albumen is filtered off through +muslin, and, after partial drying, is weighed to ascertain +the amount dissolved. The variable numbers +above quoted embrace various formulæ recommended +by different experimenters.</p> + +<p>This method of analysis is excessively crude and untrustworthy. +When hard-boiled white of egg is kept +in warm water, it absorbs a considerable quantity of +that menstruum, as much as several units per cent.; +consequently, on weighing the residual albumen, you +may find that the weight is greater instead of less than +that with which you started, the gain in weight due to +absorbed water more than counterbalancing the loss +obtaining through solution, as has happened with indifferent +samples of pepsin. Then who shall say when, +by simple air drying, the albumen has regained its former +condition? The enormous quantity of albumen is +foreign to the usual habits of the scientific analyst, and +involves an enormous waste of time in manipulation.</p> + +<p>One trial of this method was enough for me. The +first modification I adopted consisted in substituting +for the large quantity of granulated albumen a single +half of the white of an egg in one piece. I likewise arranged +a check experiment in which the pepsin was +omitted, other conditions remaining unaltered. At the +end of four hours the residual pieces of albumen were +placed on blotting paper to remove superfluous moisture, +and weighed. The gain in weight of the albumen +in the check experiment, due to absorbed water, was +calculated into percentage, and the same deducted +from the weights of the other portions which had been +subjected to the action of various pepsins. This, although +an improvement upon the old method, proved +likewise unreliable, because the water absorbed was +not equal in each experiment. The albumen which +was immersed in acidulated water only quickly dried, +superficially, when placed on blotting paper, whereas +that which had been acted on by pepsin was rendered +glutinous and incapable of being dried in this manner. +In fact, one sample weighed considerably more than it +did at starting, even after deducting the allowance for +water absorbed.</p> + +<p>I next tried much smaller pieces of albumen, about 1 +c.c., in hope that complete solution might ensue, and a +time value be obtained. I soon found, however, that +the solubility does not depend upon the mass, but +upon the surface exposed.</p> + +<p>Finally I discarded altogether the use of fresh white +of egg, and had recourse to dry powdered albumen, +prepared by drying in a steam oven and levigation in +a mortar. With this I succeeded in getting accurate +comparisons between the digestive powers of various +pepsins. Albumen in this form dissolves with rapidity, +owing to its state of fine division. Any remaining undissolved +can be filtered off on a counterpoised filter +paper, and heated in a water oven until absolutely dry. +It is, however, unnecessary to do this when two samples +only are compared against each other, nor is it essential +to know the actual weight of albumen employed, +provided it be the same in each experiment. This +is insured by placing some on the naked pan of the +balance (there is no objection to so doing, as it is a dry +gritty powder, and does not adhere to the metal), and +counterpoising by a similar addition to the other pan.</p> + +<p>Let the albumen fall on the center of the filtered +liquid, avoiding, if possible, contact with the glass of +the beaker. It soon sinks, and after the lapse of some +time, a simple inspection will show which is dissolving +with the greater rapidity. Agitation assists solution. +Therefore take the two beakers, one in each hand, and +rotate the contents equally. When one sample has +dissolved all the albumen, it is manifestly superior to +the other which has failed to do so in the given time. +If many samples have to be compared, it will be necessary +to start with known quantities of albumen, and +weigh the undissolved residues in the manner above +indicated.</p> + +<p>An objection may possibly be raised to this modified +method, viz., that albumen as ingested is not in the +form of a dry powder, and that we ought to copy as +nearly as possible the conditions existing in the +stomach. To this I would reply that it does not matter +in the least, to us, as analysts, what are the conditions +which obtain in the stomach; since there is no +absolute test for pepsin, we can only compare one sample +against another, and that which dissolves the most +albumen in the shortest time is taken to be the best.</p> + +<p>Another imperfect method of analysis is that employed +in the examination of malt extracts for diastase, +in which a certain weight of extract ought to dissolve +a certain weight of starch in ten minutes, when if it +does so dissolve it, the extract is a good one; if not, it is +to be condemned. The more correct way is to ascertain +<a name="Page_10612" id="Page_10612"></a>the reducing power on Fehling's solution, before +and after digestion with an <i>excess</i> of starch, and I intend +to say a few words upon this subject on a future +occasion, when I have ascertained the maximum +amount of diastase existing in the best samples of malt.—<i>The +Analyst</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a> +SUBTERRANEOUS FLORA AND FAUNA.</h2> + +<p class="center">By Dr. <span class="smcap">Otto Zacharias</span>.</p> + +<p>It is generally correct to say that air, light and moisture +form the chief conditions necessary for the development +of organic plant or animal life. One of these +conditions, however, namely light, is not of equal importance +with the two others. For modern investigation +and the discoveries made during the progress of +natural sciences have shown that in the depths of the +ocean, where an everlasting darkness reigns, and where +the temperature is extremely low, nevertheless a great +abundance of animal life is to be found, and that there +exist living beings, not only of the lowest organization, +but even fishes and crustaceans of very complicated +structure, all of which thrive without enjoying the +slightest ray of light.</p> + +<p>A similar example of animal life in the absence of +light is to be found in the fauna of caves and grottoes. +This was first made known to the world by Austrian +and American naturalists. The well known Adelsberg +grotto in Krain, and the gigantic Mammoth Cave in +Kentucky, furnished much interesting material for a +detailed study of the biological conditions of subterraneous +animal life. It was gradually discovered that in +those dark places there existed not only insects, spiders, +crustaceans, centipedes, worms, and snails, but +also a kind of salamander and fishes. But what gave +special interest to these discoveries was the fact, ascertained +by careful study, that not all of these beings +were gifted with normally developed organs of vision, +but that in some these organs had undergone a retrograde +development, while others were entirely blind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/image18.png" width="600" height="110" alt="Fig. 1.—THE SEMI-BLIND SALAMANDER (PROTEUS ANGUINEUS) OF THE +ADELSBERG GROTTO, IN AUSTRIA." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—THE SEMI-BLIND SALAMANDER (PROTEUS ANGUINEUS) OF THE +ADELSBERG GROTTO, IN AUSTRIA. +</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the latter, the blind fish of the Mammoth +Cave (<i>Amblyopsis spelacus</i>) is especially remarkable, because +in this being the retrograde development of the +organ of vision is accompanied by the production of +certain ridges of skin on the body which are endowed +with an extreme sensitiveness of touch, and which, according +to a work lately published by Professor Von +Leydig, are composed of little warts in which the +nerve fibers end. Nature, therefore, has in this case +compensated the amblyopsis for his loss of sight by endowing +him with a highly developed organ of feeling.</p> + +<p>A similar phenomenon is to be observed in the blind +crab (<i>Cambaras pellucidus</i>), which is also found in the +Mammoth Cave, for in this being, according to Professor +Von Leydig, the little warts on the interior feelers, +which constitute the organ of smell, have also received +an abnormal development.</p> + +<p>Better known than the blind fish and the blind +crab of Kentucky is the <i>Proteus anguineus</i>, a kind of +salamander, of a pale rose color, endowed with gills +and found in the Adelsberg grotto in Austria. (Fig. 1.)</p> + +<p>This amphibium has an eye which lies very deep in +the body and is almost overgrown by the skin. But +this eye is by no means as developed as the organ of +vision, for instance, of the water salamander (the triton) +or of the so-called axolotl, for it exists only in a +kind of embryonic development, and contains neither +a vitreous humor nor a lens for the refraction of the +rays of light. As, however, the nerve of vision exists, +it is possible that this salamander may be able to discern +in some manner between light and darkness.</p> + +<p>The thinking student, when discovering such imperfect +organs of sight, will naturally ask how the eye +of this salamander, which is so useless for its real purpose, +has come into existence, and he will weigh the +comparative value of the two following explanations. +It may be assumed that there existed once in the Adelsberg +grotto a salamander which was absolutely blind, +and in which, in consequence of an innate power of +evolution, an organ of vision of the lowest kind was +gradually formed. But to this assumption the objection +may be raised at once, why nature should have +produced an organ of vision in an animal living in a +grotto, where such an organ is absolutely useless, and +where such a development would be quite as paradoxical +and improbable as, for instance, the development +of fins instead of legs in an animal living on dry land.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/image19.png" width="400" height="185" alt="Fig. 2.—GROUP OF PYRENOMYCETES, A SPECIES OF +FUNGI FREQUENT IN THE WATERS OF MINES." title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—GROUP OF PYRENOMYCETES,<br />A SPECIES OF +FUNGI FREQUENT IN THE WATERS OF MINES.</span> +<p class="longcaption"><i>a</i>. Found in the mines of Waldenburg; <i>b</i>. In the brown-coal pits +near Westeregeln; <i>c</i>. In the Dorothea pit at Klausthal.</p> +</div> + + +<p>On the other hand, one may suppose, and this is the +more probable explanation, that the <i>Proteus anguineus</i> +is descended from a kind of salamander, which possessed +perfectly developed eyes in the beginning, and that the +imperfect organ of vision in the descendants living in +the dark caves is the result of gradual degeneration. +This is the more likely to be true as in many other cases, +also, we find that organs which become useless and cannot +be employed have gradually degenerated.</p> + +<p>Our common mole furnishes an example. Its eyes +also have become small and are deeply hidden in the +muscles, although they are by no means as much degenerated +as in the <i>Proteus anguineus</i>, and are still +possessed of a lens and a retina. Their nerve of vision, +however, has become very imperfect, and its connection +with the brain is interrupted, so that the animal for +this reason can have no perception of light. Notwithstanding +the above, however, it is doubtful whether +the degeneration and gradual disappearance of the +visual organ is in all cases the result of their being no +longer employed, since there exists in dark caves a kind +of beetle, the <i>Machaerites</i>, in which species the female +only is blind, while the male has a well developed organ +of sight. In this case it cannot be maintained that +the absence of light has been the cause of the blindness +of the female beetle, because it would have acted +equally upon the male. Nevertheless, no other explanation +can be found for the blindness. The problem, +therefore, is hitherto unsolved.</p> + +<p>Of late the investigations of naturalists have been +extended to the animal life existing not only in grottoes +and caves, but also in mines and pits created by the +action of man, and this has led to many interesting +discoveries and remarkable results. A naturalist who +has especially enlarged our knowledge with regard to +the subterraneous fauna and flora is Dr. Robert Schneider, +of Berlin, who made his studies in the coal mines +near Waldenburg and Altwasser, in Silesia, the salt +mines of Stassfurt and the metal mines of Klausthal, in +the Upper Harz Mountains.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 256px;"> +<img src="images/image20.png" width="256" height="500" alt="Fig. 3." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.</span> +<p class="longcaption"><i>a</i>. Rhizomorpha canalicularis of Hoffmann, <i>b</i>. Club +fungus (Clavaria deflexa) of Hoffmann, found in the +mines at Klausthal.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/image21.png" width="231" height="500" alt="Fig. 4." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.</span> +<p class="longcaption"><i>a</i>. Agaricus myurus of Hoffmann, a subterranean fungus. +<i>b</i>. Himantia villosa, a species of rhizomorpha +found in the Upper Harz Mountains. +</p> +</div> + +<p>As regards the subterraneous flora, Dr. Schneider's +investigations resulted in showing that the plants +which thrive in the dark regions under ground are +those which possess no chlorophyl and are sensitive +to light. Those which vegetate most luxuriantly there +are the <i>fungi</i>, and among them especially the <i>pyrenomycetes,</i> +which are frequent in the waters of mines. +Their general aspect is shown in a 480 times magnified +form in Fig. 2. They resemble fine threads of delicate +structure, and where found are always discovered in +great abundance. Most conspicuous by their shape +and considerable size are the <i>rhizomorphæ</i>, Fig. 3a, +and they are remarkable, not only for their brilliant +phosphorescence, but also for the peculiar fact that +they are only found in places where light does not +enter. These <i>rhizomorphæ</i>, though this is not easily +recognizable from their external appearance, also belong +to the fungi and are often seen in strings of the +length of over a meter and the thickness of a quill, +spreading out in peculiar branches and hanging down +from moist beams in dark places. Sometimes they +grow like seaweed in the water of the mines, and in +this case they give much embarrassment to the miners, +because they are apt to obstruct the channels constructed +for leading off the superfluous water. In the +mines of Freiberg these <i>rhizomorphæ</i> exist in great +abundance, and Humboldt already mentions specimens +of the length of 4½ feet. Miners in Germany call them +<i>zwirn</i> (thread). The student of natural sciences, +when encountering these peculiar forms of vegetation, +will ask in how far they are the product of their surrounding +circumstances (<i>i.e.</i>, of the absence of light or +the presence of moisture), and in order to find a reply +to this question experiments have been made to grow +these <i>rhizomorphæ</i> under different conditions of existence. +These experiments have shown that from +several species of <i>rhizomorphæ</i> other ordinary fungi +can be developed, and that the subterraneous specimens +therefore may be considered a degeneration and +variation of the fungi found above the surface of the +ground.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image22.png" width="300" height="399" alt="Fig. 5.—FORMS OF MOULD FUNGI FOUND +IN THE BROWN-COAL MINES NEAR +HALLE A. S." title="" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.—FORMS OF MOULD FUNGI FOUND +IN THE BROWN-COAL MINES NEAR +HALLE A. S. +</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="Page_10613" id="Page_10613"></a>In Fig. 4<i>b</i> the <i>Himantia villosa</i> is represented, a rhizomorpha +found in the mines of the Upper Harz Mountains, +thus showing another form of this vegetable +growth. Though it is difficult, as above stated, to recognize +by their shape the rhizormorphæ as fungi, the +origin of the peculiar <i>Agaricus myurus</i> of Hoffmann +(Fig. 4<i>a</i>) will be much easier discovered, though a retrograde +development and degeneration has taken +place also in this fungus. It still shows, however, the +elements of a regular toadstool, only that the stem is +much elongated and looks like a thread or a tube, +while the cap is small, and this explains how, by gradual +degeneration, the cap may disappear entirely, +leaving nothing but a stem, as, for instance, in the case +of the <i>Clavaria deflexa</i>, the club fungus, shown in +Fig. 3<i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>In connection with the above it may be well to speak +of the fungi constituting the mould which often covers +the roof and the doors in the brown-coal mines of +Halle, specimens of which are shown in Fig. 5.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image23.png" width="300" height="292" alt="Fig. 6.—THE SUN INFUSORIUM +(ACTINOPHRYS)." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.—THE SUN INFUSORIUM +(ACTINOPHRYS). +</span> +</div> + +<p>We now come to the animal life in mines and pits. +This is mostly represented, of course, by lower organisms, +as infusoria and worms. Thus, in the slime on +the bottom of the waters in mines, several species of +<i>amœbæ</i> are found, which consist of microscopically +small animated bodies, continually floating about, +nourishing themselves by absorbing organic matter, possessing +sensation, propagating, etc., and, in fact, having +actually the qualities of real animal nature. Further, +we find in those subterraneous waters a species of +the sun infusorium (<i>Actinophrys</i>), which is especially +frequent in the mines of Klausthal. Fig. 6. shows one +of these peculiar little beings. Also the <i>Stylonychia</i> +(Fig. 7) is a characteristic inhabitant of those places, +and always present there.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/image24.png" width="161" height="400" alt="Fig. 7.—THE RAPACIOUS INFUSORIUM +(STYLONYCHIA)." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.—THE RAPACIOUS INFUSORIUM +(STYLONYCHIA).</span> +</div> + +<p>It moves with great rapidity in the water by means +of the numerous hairs covering its body, can turn +quickly in any direction, and thus is enabled to catch +suddenly the little beings on which it lives and which +it hunts; for which reason the stylonychia is called the +"rapacious infusorium."</p> + +<p>The above are organisms which can be seen only +through the microscope, but the fauna of mines contains +also larger organisms, though they are not found +as regularly and are not as characteristic for those +places as the forms mentioned hitherto. Among these +organisms there are several species of worms, spiders, +gnats, and, above all, crustaceans of the lower class. +The most interesting of the latter is perhaps a variety +of the sand flea (Fig. 8—<i>Gammarus pulex</i>). The crustacean +found in the pits of mines, which is related to +the sand flea, shows, according to Dr. R. Schneider, a +slight degeneration of the organ of sight, which has +taken place in consequence of its adaptation to the +dark places, in which this variety of the <i>Gammarus +pulex</i> is found, which can make no use of eyes, while +the sand flea possesses them fully developed. Otherwise, +however, the two varieties are almost absolutely +alike, differing only in some details.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image25.jpg" width="350" height="193" alt="Fig. 8.—THE SAND FLEA (GAMMARUS PULEX). +" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.—THE SAND FLEA (GAMMARUS PULEX).</span> +</div> + +<p>From the above the reader will see that "breathing in +the rosy light," as Schiller calls it, is not an absolutely +necessary condition for the existence of organic beings, +but that life exists everywhere, where there is air and +moisture, and a temperature which is not always below +freezing point, though even eternal frost does not exclude +life entirely, as is proved by the existence of the +glacier flea, showing that even in the icy coverings of +the Alps life still is possible. Mephistopheles may +therefore well say:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="center poem"> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"From water, earth, and air unfolding,</span><br /> +A thousand germs break forth and grow<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In dry and wet, and warm and chilly;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And had I not the Flame reserved, why really,</span><br /> +There's nothing special of my own to show!"<br /> +</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="right">—<i>Leipziger Illustrirte Zeitung.</i></p> +<hr /> + +<p class="center">[NATURE.]</p> + + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a> +TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.<a name="FNanchor_A_3" id="FNanchor_A_3"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_A_3" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + + +<p class="center">By H. <span class="smcap">Marshall Ward</span>.</p> + +<h3>IX.</h3> + + +<p>In the months of April and May, the younger needle-like +leaves of the Scotch pine are occasionally seen to +have assumed a yellow tinge, and on closer examination +this change in color, from green to yellow, is seen +to be due to the development of what look like small +orange colored vesicles standing off from the surface of +the epidermis, and which have in fact burst through +from the interior of the leaf (Fig. 31). Between these +larger orange yellow vesicles the lens shows certain +smaller brownish or almost black specks. Each of the +vesicular swellings is a form of fungus fructification +known as an <i>Æcidium</i>, and each of the smaller specks +is a fungus structure called a <i>Spermogonium</i>, and both +of these bodies are developed from a mycelium in the +tissues of the leaf. I must employ these technical terms, +but will explain them more in detail shortly: the point +to be attended to for the moment is that this fungus in +the leaf has long been known under the name of <i>Peridermium +Pini</i> (var. <i>acicola</i>, <i>i.e</i>., the variety which lives +upon the needle-like leaves).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/image26.png" width="439" height="450" alt="Fig. 31." title="" /> +<p class="longcaption"><ins class="tnote" title="The figure was reversed in the orginal."><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31.</ins>—To the right is a pair of leaves of the Scotch pine, with the blister-like +Æcidia <i>a</i>. of Peridermium Pini (var. acicola) projecting from +their tissues: these blisters are orange yellow in color, and contain +spores, as shown in Fig. 33. Between the blisters are the minute +spermogonia, <i>b</i>. To the left is a small branch, killed at a a a by +Peridermium Pini (var. corticola), the blister-like yellow Æcidia of +the fungus being very conspicuous. (Reduced, after Hartig.) +</p></div> + + +<p>On the younger branches of the Scotch pine, the +Weymouth pine, the Austrian pine, and some others, +there may also be seen in May and June similar but +larger bladder-like orange vesicles (<i>Æcidia</i>) bursting +through the cortex (Fig. 31); and here, again, careful +examination shows the darker smaller <i>Spermogonia</i> in +patches between the <i>Æcidia</i>. These also arise from a +fungus mycelium in the tissues of the cortex, whence the +fungus was named <i>Peridermium Pini</i> (var. <i>corticola</i>). +It is thus seen that the fungus <i>Peridermium Pini</i> was +regarded as a parasite of pines, and that it possessed +two varieties, one inhabiting the leaves and the other +the cortex: the "varieties" were so considered, because +certain trivial differences were found in the minute +structure of the <i>Æcidia</i> and <i>Spermogonia</i>.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image27.png" width="169" height="400" alt="Fig. 32.—Blisters (Æcidia) of Peridermium Pini (var. corticola)" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32.—Blisters (Æcidia) of Peridermium Pini (var. corticola) on a +branch of the Scotch pine: some of the Æcidia have already burst +at the apex and scattered their spores, b, b; the others are still intact. +(Natural size, after Hess). +</span> +</div> + +<p>If we cut thin vertical sections through a leaf and +one of the smallest <i>Æcidia</i>, and examine the latter +with the microscope, it will be found to consist of a +mass of spores arranged in vertical rows, each row +springing from a branch of the mycelium: the outermost +of these spores—<i>i.e.</i>, those which form a compact +layer close beneath the epidermis—remain barren, and +serve as a kind of membrane covering the rest (Fig. 33, +<i>p</i>). It is this membrane which protrudes like a blister +from the tissues. The hyphæ of the fungus are seen +running in all directions between the cells of the leaf +tissue, and as they rise up and form the vertical chains +of spores, the pressure gradually forces up the epidermis +of the leaf, bursts it, and the mass of orange yellow +powdery spores protrude to the exterior enveloped in +the aforesaid membrane of contiguous barren spores. +If we examine older <i>Æcidia</i>, it will be found that this +membrane bursts also at length, and the spores escape.</p> + +<p>Similar sections across a <i>Spermogonium</i> exhibit a +structure which differs slightly from the above. Here +also the hyphæ in the leaf turn upward, and send delicate +branches in a converging crowd beneath the epidermis; +the latter gives way beneath the pressure, and +the free tips of the hyphæ constrict off very minute +spore-like bodies. These minute bodies are termed +<i>Spermatia</i>, and I shall say no more about them after +remarking that they are quite barren, and that similar +sterile bodies are known to occur in very many of the +fungi belonging to this and other groups.</p> + +<p>Sections through the <i>Æcidia</i> and <i>Spermogonia</i> on +the cortex present structures so similar, except in minute +details which could only be explained by lengthy +descriptions and many illustrations, that I shall not +dwell upon them; simply reminding the reader that +the resemblances are so striking that systematic mycologists +have long referred them to a mere variety of +the same fungus.</p> + +<p>Now as to the kind and amount of damage caused +by the ravages of these two forms of fungus.</p> + +<p>In the leaves, the mycelium is found running between +the cells (Fig. 33, <i>h</i>), and absorbing or destroying +their contents: since the leaves do not fail the first +season, and the mycelium remains living in their tissues +well into the second year, it is generally accepted that +it does very little harm. At the same time, it is evident +that, if very many leaves are being thus taxed by the +fungus, they cannot be supplying the tree with food +materials in such quantities as if the leaves were intact. +However, the fungus is remarkable in this respect—that +it lives and grows for a year or two in the leaves, +and does not (as so many of its allies do) kill them after +a few weeks. It is also stated that only young pines +are badly attacked by this form: it is rare to find +<i>Æcidia</i> on trees more than twenty years or so old.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image28.png" width="350" height="179" alt="Fig. 33.—Vertical section through a very young Æcidium of Peridermium +Pini (var. acicola)" title="" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.—Vertical section through a very young Æcidium of Peridermium +Pini (var. acicola), with part of the subjacent tissue of the leaf, h, +the mycelium of the parasitic fungus running between the cells of the +leaf; immediately beneath the epidermis of the leaf, the ends of the +hyphæ give rise to the vertical rows of spores (b), the outermost of +which (p) remain barren, and form the membrane of the blister-like +body. The epidermis is already ruptured at p by the pressure of the +young Æcidium. (After K. Hartig: highly magnified.) +</p></div> + +<p>Much more disastrous results can be traced directly +to the action of the mycelium in the cortex. The hyphæ +grow and branch between the green cells of the +true cortex, as well as in the vast tissues beneath, and +even make their way into the medullary rays and resin +canals in the wood, though not very deep. Short +branches of the hyphæ pierce the cells, and consume +their starch and other contents, causing a large outflow +of resin, which soaks into the wood or exudes from the +bark. It is probable that this effusion of turpentine +into the tissues of the wood, cambium, and cortex has +much to do with the drying up of the parts above the +attacked portion of the stem: the tissues shrivel up +and die, the turpentine in the canals slowly sinking +down into the injured region. The drying up would of +course occur if the conducting portions are steeped in +turpentine, preventing the conduction of water from +below.</p> + +<p>The mycelium lives for years in the cortex, and may +be found killing the young tissues just formed from +the cambium during the early summer: of course the +annual ring of wood, etc., is here impoverished. If +the mycelium is confined to one side of the stem, a flat +or depressed spreading wound arises; if this extends +all round, the parts above must die.</p> + +<p>When fairly thick stems or branches have the mycelium +on one side only, the cambium is injured locally, +and the thickening is of course partial. The annual +rings are formed as usual on the opposite side of the +stem, where the cambium is still intact, or they are +even thicker than usual, because the cambium there +diverts to itself more than the usual share of food substances; +where the mycelium exists, however, the cambium +is destroyed, and no thickening layer is formed. +From this cause arise cancerous malformations which +are very common in pine woods (Fig. 34).</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image29.png" width="300" height="183" alt="Fig. 34.—Section across an old pine stem in the cancerous region injured +by Peridermium Pini (var. corticola)." title="" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34.—Section across an old pine stem in the cancerous region injured +by Peridermium Pini (var. corticola). As shown by the figures, the +stem was fifteen years old when the ravages of the fungus began +to affect the cambium near a. The mycelium, spreading in the cortex +and cambium on all sides, gradually restricted the action of the +latter more and more; at thirty years old, the still sound cambium only +extended half way round the stem—no wood being developed on the +opposite side. By the time the tree was eighty years old, only the small +area of cambium indicated by the thin line marked 80 was still alive; +and soon afterward the stem was completely "ringed," and dead, +all the tissues being suffused with resin. (After Hartig.) +</p></div> + +<p>Putting everything together, it is not difficult to explain +the symptoms of the disease. The struggle between +the mycelium on the one hand, which tries to +extend all round in the cortex, and the tree itself, on +the other, as it tries to repair the mischief, will end in +the triumph of the fungus as soon as its ravages extend +so far as to cut off the water supply to the parts above: +this will occur as soon as the mycelium extends all +round the cortex, or even sooner if the effusion of turpentine +hastens the blocking up of the channels. This +may take many years to accomplish.</p> + +<p>So far, and taking into account the enormous spread +of this disastrous disease, the obvious remedial measures +seem to be, to cut down the diseased trees—of +course this should be done in the winter, or at least before +the spores come—and use the timber as best may +be; but we must first see whether such a suggestion +needs modifying, after learning more about the fungus +and its habits. It appears clear, at any rate, however, +that every diseased tree removed means a source of +Æcidiospores the less.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_10614" id="Page_10614"></a>Probably every one knows the common groundsel, +which abounds all over Britain and the Continent, +and no doubt many of my readers are acquainted with +other species of the same genus (<i>Senecio</i>) to which the +groundsel belongs, and especially with the ragwort +(<i>Senecio Jacobæa</i>). It has long been known that the +leaves of these plants, and of several allied species, are +attacked by a fungus, the mycelium of which spreads +in the leaf passages, and gives rise to powdery masses +of orange yellow spores, arranged in vertical rows beneath +the stomata: these powdery masses of spores +burst forth through the epidermis, but are not clothed +by any covering, such as the <i>Æcidia</i> of <i>Peridermium +Pini</i>, for instance. These groups of yellow spores +burst forth in irregular powdery patches, scattered +over the under sides of the leaves in July and August: +toward the end of the summer a slightly different form +of spore, but similarly arranged, springs from the same +mycelium on the same patches. From the differences +in their form, time of appearance, and (as we shall see) +functions, these two kinds of spores have received different +names. Those first produced have numerous +papillæ on them, and were called <i>Uredospores</i>, from +their analogies with the uredospore of the rust of +wheat; the second kind of spore is smooth, and is called +the <i>Teleutospore</i>, also from analogies with the spores produced +in the late summer by the wheat rust. The fungus +which produces these uredospores and teleutospores was +named and has been long distinguished as <i>Coleosporium +Senecionis</i> (Pers.) We are not immediately interested in +the damage done by this parasite to the weeds which it infests, and +at any rate we might well be tempted to rejoice +in its destructive action on these garden pests. It is sufficient +to point out that the influence of the mycelium is +to shorten the lives of the leaves, and to rob the plant of +food material in the way referred to generally in my +last article.</p> + +<p>What we are here more directly interested in is the +following. A few years ago Wolff showed that if the +spores from the <i>Æcidia Peridermium Pini</i> (var. <i>acicola</i>) +are sown on the leaf of <i>Senecio</i>, the germinal hyphæ +which grow out from the spores <i>enter the stomata of +the Senecio leaf, and there develop into the fungus +called Coleosporium Senecionis</i>. In other words, the +fungus growing in the cortex of the pine, and that parasitic +on the leaves of the groundsel and its allies, are +one and the same: it spends part of its life on the tree +and the other part on the herb.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image30.png" width="105" height="400" alt="Fig. 35. A spore of Peridermium Pini germinating. It puts forth the long, +branched germinal hyphæ" title="" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35. A spore of Peridermium Pini germinating. It puts forth the long, +branched germinal hyphæ on the damp surface of a leaf of Senecio, +and one of the branches enters a stoma, and forms a mycelium in the +leaf: after some time, the mycelium gives rise to the uredospores +and teleutospores of Coleosporium Senecionis. (After Tulasne: highly +magnified.) +</p></div> + +<p>If I left the matter stated only in this bald manner, +it is probable that few of my readers would believe the +wonder. But, as a matter of fact, this phenomenon, +on the one hand, is by no means a solitary instance, +for we know many of these fungi which require two +host plants in order to complete their life history; and, +on the other hand, several observers of the highest rank +have repeated Wolff's experiment and found his results +correct. Hartig, for instance, to whose indefatigable +and ingenious researches we owe most that is known of +the disease caused by the <i>Peridermium</i>, has confirmed +Wolff's results.</p> + +<p>It was to the brilliant researches of the late Prof. De +Bary that we owe the first recognition of this remarkable +phenomenon of <i>heterœcism</i>—<i>i. e.</i>, the inhabiting +more than one host—of the fungi. De Bary proved +that the old idea of the farmer, that the rust is very +apt to appear on wheat growing in the neighborhood +of berberry bushes, was no fable; but on the contrary, +that the yellow <i>Æcidium</i> on the berberry is a phase in +the life history of the fungus causing the wheat rust. +Many other cases are now known, <i>e. g.</i>, the <i>Æcidium +abietinum</i>, on the spruce firs in the Alps, passes the other +part of its life on the rhododendrons of the same region. +Another well known example is that of the fungus +<i>Gymnosporangium</i>, which injures the wood of junipers. +Oersted first proved that the other part of its life is +spent on the leaves of certain Rosaceæ, and his discovery +has been repeatedly confirmed. I have myself +observed the following confirmation of this. The stems +of the junipers so common in the neighborhood of Silverdale +(near Morecambe Bay) used to be distorted with +<i>Gymnosporangium</i>, and covered with the <i>teleutospores</i> +of this fungus every spring: in July all the hawthorn +hedges in the neighborhood had their leaves covered +with the Æcidium form (formerly called Rœstelia), and +it was quite easy to show that the fungus on the hawthorn +leaves was produced by sowing the <i>Gymnosporangium</i> +spores on them. Many other well established +cases of similar heterœcism could be quoted.</p> + +<p>But we must return to the <i>Peridermium Pini</i>. It +will be remembered that I expressed myself somewhat +cautiously regarding the <i>Peridermium</i> on the leaves +(var. <i>acicola</i>). It appears that there is need for further +investigations into the life history of this form, for it +has been thought more than probable that it is not a +mere variety of the other, but a totally different +species.</p> + +<p>Only so lately as 1883, however, Wolff succeeded in +infecting the leaves of <i>Senecio</i> with the spores of <i>Peridermium +Pini</i> (<i>acicola</i>), and developing the <i>Coleosporium,</i> +thus showing that both the varieties belong +to the same fungus.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the foregoing that in the study +of the biological relationships between any one plant +which we happen to value because it produces timber +and any other which grows in the neighborhood there +may be (and there usually is) a series of problems fraught +with interest so deep scientifically, and so important +economically, that one would suppose no efforts would +be spared to investigate them: no doubt it will be +seen as time progresses that what occasionally looks +like apathy with regard to these matters is in reality +only apparent indifference due to want of information.</p> + +<p>Returning once more to the particular case in question, +it is obvious that our new knowledge points to +the desirability of keeping the seed beds and nurseries +especially clean from groundsel and weeds of that description: +on the one hand, such weeds are noxious in +themselves, and on the other they harbor the <i>Coleosporium</i> +form of the fungus <i>Peridermium</i> under the +best conditions for infection. It may be added that it +is known that the fungus can go on being reproduced +by the <i>uredospores</i> on the groundsel plants which +live through the winter.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_A_3" id="Footnote_A_3"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_A_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 661, page 10558.</div> + +<hr /> + +<p><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>In St. Genevieve and Cape Girardeau Counties, Mo., +in the Niagara limestone is found a handsome marble +of a variegated liver color. Near Sheppard Landing it +is 80 feet thick, and at Janis Mill, in St. Genevieve +County, Dr. Shumard speaks of beds of fine texture +and various shades of flesh, yellow, green, pink, purple, +and chocolate, all handsomely blended.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h2> + +<p>Contained in <span class="smcap">Scientific American Supplement</span> +during the past ten years, sent <i>free of charge</i> to any +address. 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Address</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., 361 <span class="smcap">Broadway, New York</span>.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>The</h3> +<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<p class="center"><b>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</b></p> +<p class="center"><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.</b></p> + + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any +part of the United States or Canada. Six dollars a +year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span>, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, +10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span> can likewise +be supplied. 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