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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Our Common Insects, by Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Our Common Insects
+       A Popular Account of the Insects of Our Fields, Forests,
+       Gardens and Houses
+
+Author: Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+Release Date: January 23, 2008 [EBook #24409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR COMMON INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Janet Blenkinship and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+  [Illustration: AMERICAN SILK WORM (MALE).]
+
+
+
+
+  OUR
+
+  COMMON INSECTS.
+
+  A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE INSECTS
+
+  OF OUR
+
+  Fields, Forests, Gardens and Houses.
+
+
+  Illustrated with 4 Plates and 268 Woodcuts.
+
+  BY
+
+  A. S. PACKARD, JR.,
+
+  Author of "A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS."
+
+  SALEM.
+  NATURALISTS' AGENCY.
+  BOSTON: Estes & Lauriat. NEW YORK: Dodd & Mead.
+  1873.
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
+  F. W. PUTNAM & CO.,
+  in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
+
+  PRINTED AT
+  THE SALEM PRESS,
+  F. W. PUTNAM & CO.,
+  Proprietors.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+TO SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.
+
+
+MY DEAR SCUDDER:--You and I were drawn together many years ago by a
+common love for insects and their ways.
+
+I dedicate this little volume of ephemeral essays to you in recognition
+of your worth as a man and a scientist, and as a token of warm
+friendship.
+
+  Yours sincerely,
+
+  A. S. PACKARD, JR.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little volume mainly consists of a reprint of a series of essays
+which appeared in the "American Naturalist" (Vols. i-v, 1867-71). It is
+hoped that their perusal may lead to a better acquaintance with the
+habits and forms of our more common insects. The introduction was
+written expressly for this book, as well as Chapter XIII, "Hints on the
+Ancestry of Insects." The scientific reader may be drawn with greater
+interest to this chapter than to any other portion of the book. In this
+discussion of a perhaps abstruse and difficult theme, his indulgence is
+sought for whatever imperfections or deficiencies may appear. Our
+systems of classification may at least be tested by the application of
+the theory of evolution. The natural system, if we mistake not, is the
+genealogy of organized forms; when we can trace the latter, we establish
+the former. Considering how much naturalists differ in their views as to
+what is a natural classification, it is not strange that a genealogy of
+animals or plants seems absurd to many. To another generation of
+naturalists it must, perhaps, be left to decide whether to attempt the
+one is more unphilosophical than to attempt the other.
+
+Most of the cuts have already appeared in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects" and the "American Naturalist," where their original sources are
+given, while a few have been kindly contributed by Prof. A. E. Verrill,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, and Prof. C. V. Riley, and three
+are original.
+
+SALEM, June, 1873.
+
+
+
+
+OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+_What is an Insect?_ When we remember that the insects alone comprise
+four-fifths of the animal kingdom, and that there are upwards of 200,000
+living species, it would seem a hopeless task to define what an insect
+is. But a common plan pervades the structure of them all. The bodies of
+all insects consist of a succession of rings, or segments, more or less
+hardened by the deposition of a chemical substance called chitine; these
+rings are arranged in three groups: the head, the thorax, or middle
+body, and the abdomen or hind body. In the six-footed insects, such as
+the bee, moth, beetle or dragon fly, four of these rings unite early in
+embryonic life to form the head; the thorax consists of three, as may be
+readily seen on slight examination, and the abdomen is composed either
+of ten or eleven rings. The body, then, seems divided or _insected_ into
+three regions, whence the name _insect_.
+
+The head is furnished with a pair of antennæ, a pair of jaws
+(mandibles), and two pairs of maxillæ, the second and basal pair being
+united at their base to form the so-called labium, or under lip. These
+four pairs of appendages represent the four rings of the head, to which
+they are appended in the order stated above.
+
+A pair of legs is appended to each of the three rings of the thorax;
+while the first and second rings each usually carry a pair of wings.
+
+The abdomen contains the ovipositor; sometimes, as in the bees and
+wasps, forming a sting. In the spiders (Fig. 1), however, there are no
+antennæ, and the second maxillæ, or labium, is wanting. Moreover, there
+are four pairs of legs. The centipedes (Fig. 2, a Myriopod) also differ
+from the rest of the insects in having an indefinite number of abdominal
+rings, each bearing a pair of legs.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Spider (Tegenaria).]
+
+On examining the arrangement of the parts within, we find the nervous
+cord, consisting of two chains of swellings, or nerve-knots, resting
+upon the floor or under side of the body; and the heart, or dorsal
+vessel, situated just under the skin of the back; and in looking at
+living caterpillars, such as the cut-worm, and many thin-skinned aquatic
+larvæ, we can see this long tubular heart pulsating about as often as
+our own heart, and when the insect is held against its will, or is
+agitated, the rapidity of the pulsations increases just as with us.
+
+[Illustration: 2. Centipede.]
+
+Insects do not breathe as in the higher animals by taking the air into
+the mouth and filling the lungs, but there are a series of holes or
+pores along the side of the body, as seen in the grub of the humble bee,
+through which the air enters and is conveyed to every part of the body
+by an immense number of air tubes. (Fig. 3, air tubes, or tracheæ, in
+the caudal appendage of the larva of a dragon fly). These air tubes are
+everywhere bathed by the blood, by which the latter becomes oxygenated.
+
+[Illustration: 3. Caudal appendage of larva of Agrion.]
+
+Indeed the structure of an insect is entirely different from that of man
+or the quadrupeds, or any other vertebrate animal, and what we call
+head, thorax, abdomen, gills, stomach, skin, or lungs, or jaws, are
+called so simply for convenience, and not that they are made in the same
+way as those parts in the higher animals.
+
+An insect differs from a horse, for example, as much as a modern
+printing press differs from the press Franklin used. Both machines are
+made of iron, steel, wood, etc., and both print; but the plan of their
+structure differs throughout, and some parts are wanting in the simpler
+press which are present and absolutely essential in the other. So with
+the two sorts of animals; they are built up originally out of
+protoplasm, or the original jelly-like germinal matter, which fills the
+cells composing their tissues, and nearly the same chemical elements
+occur in both, but the mode in which these are combined, the arrangement
+of their products: the muscular, nervous and skin tissues, differ in the
+two animals. The plan of structure, namely, the form and arrangement of
+the body walls, the situation of the appendages to the body, and of the
+anatomical systems within, i.e., the nervous, digestive, circulatory,
+and respiratory systems, differ in their position in relation to the
+walls of the body. Thus while the two sorts of animals reproduce their
+kind, eat, drink and sleep, see, hear and smell, they perform these acts
+by different kinds of organs, situated sometimes on the most opposite
+parts of the body, so that there is no comparison save in the results
+which they accomplish; they only agree in being animals, and in having a
+common animal nature.
+
+[Illustration: 4. Different forms of jaws.]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Mouth parts of the Larva of a Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 6. Maxilla of a Beetle.]
+
+_How Insects Eat._ The jaws of insects (Fig. 4) are horny processes
+situated on each side of the mouth. They are variously toothed, so as to
+tear the food, and move horizontally instead of up and down as in the
+horse. The act of taking the food, especially if the insect be
+carnivorous in its habits, is quite complex, as not only the true jaws,
+but the accessory jaws (maxillæ, Fig. 5, _a_, upper, b, under side of
+the head of a young beetle; _at_, antennæ, _md_, mandible, _mx_,
+maxillæ, _mx_[1], labium) and the feelers (palpi) attached to the
+maxillæ, and the under lip (labium) are of great service in enabling the
+insect to detect its food both by the senses of touch and smell. The
+maxillæ are in the fully grown beetle (Fig. 6) divided into three lobes,
+the outermost forming the palpus, and the two others forming sharp
+teeth, often provided with hairs and minute brushes for cleansing the
+adjoining parts; these strong curved teeth are used in seizing the food
+and placing it between the grinders, where it is crushed, prepared for
+digestion and swallowed. Fig. 7 represents the mouth parts of the humble
+bee. (_b_, upper lip; _d_, mandible; _e_, maxilla; _f_, maxillary
+palpus; _g_, tongue; _ih_, labium and tabial palpi; _k_, eye.)
+
+[Illustration: 7. Mouth parts of a Humble Bee.]
+
+The alimentary canal passes through the middle of the body, the stomach
+forming usually a simple enlargement. Just before the stomach in certain
+insects, as the grasshopper, is a gizzard armed with rows of powerful
+horny teeth for finely crushing grass.
+
+Insects eat almost incredible quantities of food when young and growing
+rapidly. Mr. Trouvelot tells us in the "American Naturalist" that the
+food taken by a single American Silk-worm in fifty-six days is equal to
+eighty-six thousand times its primitive weight! On the other hand, after
+the insect has finished its transformations, it either takes no food at
+all, as in the May fly, or merely sips the honey of flowers, as in the
+butterfly, while the June beetle and many others like it eat the leaves
+of trees, and the tiger and ground beetles feed voraciously on other
+insects.
+
+_How Insects Walk._ In man and his allies, the vertebrates, the process
+of walking is a most difficult and apparently dangerous feat. To
+describe the mechanics of walking, the wonderful adaptation of the
+muscles and bones for the performance of this most ordinary action of
+life, would require a volume. The process is scarcely less complex in
+insects. Lyonnet found 3,993 muscles in a caterpillar, and while a large
+proportion belong to the internal organs, over a thousand assist in
+locomotion. Hence the muscular power of insects is enormous. A flea will
+leap two hundred times its own height, and certain large, solid beetles
+will move enormous weights as compared to the bulk of their bodies.
+
+[Illustration: 8. Larva of a beetle (Photuris).]
+
+In walking, as seen in the accompanying figure (Fig. 8), three legs are
+thrown forward at a time, two on one side and one on the other.
+
+Flies and many other insects can walk upside down, or on glass, as
+easily as on a level surface. A fly's foot, as in most other insects,
+consists of five joints (tarsal joints), to the last one of which is
+appended a pair of stout claws, beneath which is a flat, soft, fleshy
+cushion or pad, split into two (sometimes three) flaps, beset on the
+under surface with fine hairs. A part of these hairs are swollen at the
+end, which is covered with "an elastic membranous expansion, capable of
+close contact with a highly polished surface, from which a minute
+quantity of a clear, transparent fluid is emitted when the fly is
+actively moving." (T. West.) These hairs are hence called holding, or
+tenent, hairs. With the aid of these, but mainly, as Mr. West insists,
+by the pressure of the atmosphere, a fly is enabled to adhere to
+perfectly smooth surfaces. His studies show the following curious facts.
+"That atmospheric pressure, if the area of the flaps be alone
+considered, is equal to just one-half the weight of a fly. If the area
+covered by the tenent hairs be added, an increase of pressure is gained,
+equal to about one-fourth the weight of a fly. This leaves one-fourth to
+be accounted for by slight viscidity of the fluid, by the action I have
+so often alluded to, which may be called 'grasping,' by molecular
+attraction, and, doubtless, by other agents still more subtle, with
+which we have at present scarcely any acquaintance."
+
+_How Insects Fly._ Who of us, as remarked by an eminent ornithologist,
+can even now explain the long sustained, peculiar flight of the hawk, or
+turkey buzzard, as it sails in the air without changing the position of
+its wings? and, we would add, the somewhat similar flight of a
+butterfly? It is the poetry of motion, and a marvellous exhibition of
+grace and ease, combined with a wonderful underlying strength and
+lightness of the parts concerned in flight.
+
+Before we give a partial account of the results obtained by the delicate
+experiments of Professor Marey on the flight of birds and insects, our
+readers should be reminded of the great differences between an insect
+and a bird, remembering that the former, is, in brief, a chitinous sac,
+so to speak, or rather a series of three such spherical or elliptical
+sacs (the head, thorax and abdomen); the outer walls of the body forming
+a solid but light crust, to which are attached broad, membranous wings,
+the wing being a sort of membranous bag stretched over a framework of
+hollow tubes (the tracheæ), so disposed as to give the greatest
+lightness and strength to the wing. The wings are moved by powerful
+muscles of flight, filling up the cavity of the thorax, just as the
+muscles are the largest about the thorax of a bird. Moreover in the
+bodies of insects that fly (such as the bee, cockchafer, and dragon
+fly), as distinguished from those that creep exclusively, the air tubes
+(tracheæ) which ramify into every part of the body, are dilated here and
+there, especially in the base of the abdomen, into large sacs, which are
+filled with air when the insect is about to take flight, so that the
+specific gravity of the body is greatly diminished. Indeed, these air
+sacs, dilatable at will by the insect, may be compared to the swimming
+bladder of fishes, which enables them to rise and fall at will to
+different levels in the sea, thus effecting an immense saving of the
+labor of swimming. In the birds, as every body knows who has eaten a
+chicken, or attended the dissection of a Thanksgiving turkey, the soft
+parts are external, attached to the bony framework comprising the
+skeleton, the wing bones being directly connected with the central back
+bone; so that while these two sorts of animated flying machines are so
+different in structure, they yet act in much the same manner when on the
+wing. The difference between them is clearly stated by Marey, some of
+whose conclusions we now give almost word for word.
+
+The flight of butterflies and moths differs from that of birds in the
+almost vertical direction of the stroke of their wings, and in their
+faculty of sailing in the air without making any movements; though
+sometimes in the course they pursue they seem to resemble birds in their
+flight.
+
+The flight of insects and birds moreover differs in the form of the
+trajectory in space; in the inclination of the plane in which the wings
+beat; in the role of each of the two alternating (and in an inverse
+sense) movements that the wings execute; as also in the facility with
+which the air is decomposed during these different movements. As the
+wings of a fly are adorned with a brilliant array of colors, we can
+follow the trajectory or figure that each wing writes in the air. It is
+of the form of a figure of eight (Fig. 9), first discovered by Professor
+J. Bell Pettigrew of Edinburgh.
+
+[Illustration: 9. Figure cut by an insect's wing.]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Figure cut by a bird's wing.]
+
+By an ingenious machine, specially devised for the purpose, Professor
+Marey found that a bird's wing moves in an ellipse, with a pointed
+summit (Fig. 10). The insect beats the air in a distinctly horizontal
+plane, but the bird in a vertical plane. The wing of an insect is
+impervious to the air; while the bird's wing resists the air only on
+its under side. Hence, there are two sorts of effects; in the insect
+the up and down strokes are active; in the bird, the lowering of the
+wing is the only active period, though the return stroke seems to
+sustain the bird, the air acting on the wing. The bird's body is
+horizontal when the wing gives a downward stroke; but when the beat is
+upward, the bird is placed in an inclined plane like a winged
+projectile, and mounts up on the air by means of the inclined surfaces
+that it passively offers to the resistance of this fluid.
+
+[Illustration: 11. Trajectory of an insect's wing.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Trajectory of a bird's wing.]
+
+In an insect, an energetic movement is equally necessary to strike the
+air at both beats up and down. In the bird, on the contrary, one active
+beat only is necessary, the down beat. It creates at that time all the
+motive force that will be dispensed during the entire revolution of the
+wing. This difference is due to the difference in form of the wing. The
+difference between the two forms of flight is shown by an inspection of
+the two accompanying figures (11, 12). An insect's wing is small at the
+base and broad at the end. This breadth would be useless near the body,
+because at this point the wing does not move swiftly enough to strike
+the air effectively. The type of the insectean wing is designed, then,
+simply to strike the air. But in the bird the wing plays also a passive
+role, _i. e._, it receives the pressure of the air on its under side
+when the bird is projected rapidly onward by its acquired swiftness. In
+these conditions the whole animal is carried onward in space; all the
+points of its wing have the same velocity. The neighboring regions of
+the body are useful to press upon the air, which acts as on a paper
+kite. The base of the wing also, in the bird, is broad, and provided
+with feathers, which form a broad surface, on which the air presses with
+a force and method very efficacious in supporting the bird. Fig. 12
+gives an idea of this disposition of the wing at the active and passive
+time in a bird.
+
+The inner half of the wing is the passive part of the organ, while the
+external half, that which strikes the air, is the active part. A fly's
+wing makes 330 revolutions in a second, executing consequently 660
+simple oscillations; it ought at each time to impress a lateral
+deviation of the body of the insect, and destroy the velocity that the
+preceding oscillation has given it in a contrary direction. So that by
+this hypothesis the insect in its flight only utilizes fifty to one
+hundred parts (or one-half) of the resistance that the air furnishes it.
+
+[Illustration: 13. A bird on the wing.]
+
+In the bird (Fig. 13), at the time of lowering the wings, the oblique
+plane which strikes the air, in decomposing the resistance, produces a
+vertical component which resists the weight of the body, and a
+horizontal component which imparts swiftness. The horizontal component
+is not lost, but is utilized during the rise of the wing, as in a paper
+kite when held in the air against the wind. Thus the bird utilizes
+seventy-five out of one hundred parts of the resistance that the air
+furnishes. The style of flight of birds is, therefore, theoretically
+superior to that of insects. As to the division of the muscular force
+between the resistance of the air and the mass of the body of the bird,
+we should compare the exertion made in walking on sand, for example, as
+compared with walking on marble. This is easy to measure. When a fish
+strikes the water with its tail to propel itself forward, it performs a
+double task; one part consists in pushing backwards a certain mass of
+water with a certain swiftness, and the other in pushing on the body in
+spite of the resistance of the surrounding fluid. This last portion of
+the task only is utilized. It would be greater if the tail of the fish
+encountered a solid object. Almost all the propelling agencies employed
+in navigation undergo this loss of labor, which depends on the mobility
+of the _point d' appui_. The bird is placed among conditions especially
+unfavorable.
+
+_The Senses of Insects._ The eyes of insects are sometimes so large as
+to envelop the head like an Elizabethan ruffle, and the creature's head,
+as in the common house fly, seems all eyes. And this is almost literally
+the case, as the two great staring eyes that almost meet on the top of
+the head to form one, are made up of myriads of simple eyes. Each facet
+or simple eye is provided with a nerve filament which branches off from
+the main optic nerve, so that but one impression of the object perceived
+is conveyed to the brain; though it is taught by some that objects
+appear not only double but a thousand times multiplied. But we should
+remember that with our two eyes we see double only when the brain is
+diseased. Besides the large ordinary compound eyes, many insects possess
+small, simple eyes, like those of the spider. The great German
+anatomist, Johannes Müller, believed that the compound eyes were adapted
+for the perception of distant objects, while those nearer are seen by
+the simple eyes. But it may be objected to this view that the spiders,
+which have only simple eyes, apparently see both near and remote objects
+as well as insects.
+
+The sense of touch is diffused all over the body. As in the hairs of the
+head and face of man, those of insects are delicate tactile organs; and
+on the antennæ and legs (insects depending on this sense rather than
+that of sight) these appendages are covered with exquisitely fine
+hairs. It is thought by some that the senses of hearing and smell are
+lodged in the antennæ, these organs thus combining the sense of feeling
+with those of hearing and smelling. And the researches of anatomists
+lend much probability to the assertion, since little pits just under the
+skin are found, and even sometimes provided with grains of sand in the
+so-called ear of the lobster, etc., corresponding to the ear bones of
+the higher animals, the pits being connected with nerves leading to the
+brain. We have detected similar pits in the under side of the palpi of
+the Perla. It seems not improbable that these are organs of smell, and
+placed in that part of the appendage nearest the mouth, so as to enable
+the insect to select its proper food by its odor. Similar organs exist
+on the caudal appendages of a kind of fly (Chrysopila), while the long,
+many-jointed caudal filaments of the cockroach are each provided with
+nearly a hundred of these little pits, which seem to be so many noses.
+Thus Lespès, a Swiss anatomist, in his remarks on the auditory sacs,
+which he says are found in the antennæ of nearly all insects, declares
+that as we have in insects compound eyes, so we have compound ears. We
+might add that in the abdominal appendage of the cockroach we have a
+compound nose, while in the feelers of the Perla, and the caudal
+appendage of the Chrysopila, the "nose" is simple. We might also refer
+here to Siebold's discovery of ears at the base of the abdomen of some,
+and in the forelegs of other kinds, of grasshoppers. Thus we need not be
+surprised at finding ears and noses scattered, as it were, sometimes
+almost wantonly over the bodies of insects (in many worms the eyes are
+found all over the body), while in man and his allies, from the monkey
+down to the fish, the ears and nose invariably retain the same relative
+place in the head.
+
+_How Insects Grow._ When beginning our entomological studies no fact
+seemed more astonishing to our boyish mind than the thought that the
+little flies and midges were not the sons and daughters of the big
+ones. If every farmer and gardener knew this single fact it would be
+worth their while. The words _larva_ and _pupa_ will frequently occur in
+subsequent pages, and they should be explained. The caterpillar (Fig.
+14, _a_) represents the earliest stage or babyhood of the butterfly, and
+it is called _larva_, from the Latin, meaning a mask, because it was
+thought by the ancients to mask the form of the adult butterfly.
+
+[Illustration: 14. _a_ Larva, _b_ chrysalis of a butterfly.]
+
+When the caterpillar has ended its riotous life, for its appetite almost
+transforms its being into the very incarnation of gluttony, it suddenly,
+as if repenting of its former life as a _bon vivant_, seeks a solitary
+cell or hole where like a hermit it sits and leads apparently about as
+useless an existence. But meanwhile strange processes are going on
+beneath the skin; and after a few convulsive struggles the back splits
+open, and out wriggles the chrysalis, a gorgeous, mummy-like form, its
+body adorned with golden and silvery spots. Hence the word chrysalis
+(Fig. 14, _b_), from the Greek, meaning golden, while the Latin word
+_pupa_, meaning a baby or doll, is indicative of its youth. In this
+state it hangs suspended to a twig or other object; while the silk worm,
+and others of its kind, previous to moulting, or casting their skins,
+spin a silken cocoon, which envelops and protects the chrysalis.
+
+[Illustration: 15. Imago or adult Butterfly.]
+
+At the given time, and after the body of the adult has fully formed
+beneath the chrysalis skin, there is another moult, and the butterfly,
+with baggy, wet wings, creeps out. The body dries, the skin hardens, the
+wings expand, and in a few moments, sometimes an hour, the butterfly
+(Fig. 15) proudly sails aloft, the glory and pride of the insect world.
+
+We shall see in the ensuing chapters how varied are the larvæ and pupæ
+of insects, and under what different guises insects live in their early
+stages.
+
+[Illustration: Larva, pupa, and adult of a Leaf Beetle (Galeruca).]
+
+
+
+
+OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE HOME OF THE BEES.
+
+
+The history of the Honey bee, its wonderful instincts, its elaborate
+cells and complex economy, have engrossed the attention of the best
+observers, even from the time of Virgil, who sang of the Ligurian bee.
+The literature of the art of bee-keeping is already very extensive.
+Numerous bee journals and manuals of bee-keeping testify to the
+importance of this art, while able mathematicians have studied the mode
+of formation of the hexagonal cells,[1] and physiologists have
+investigated the intricate problems of the mode of generation and
+development of the bee itself.
+
+In discussing these difficult questions, we must rise from the study of
+the simple to the complex, remembering that--
+
+  "All nature widens upward. Evermore
+  The simpler essence lower lies:
+  More complex is more perfect--owning more
+  Discourse, more widely wise."
+
+and not forget to study the humbler allies of the Honey bee. We shall,
+in observing the habits and homes of the wild bees, gain a clearer
+insight into the mysteries of the hive.
+
+The great family of bees is divided into social and solitary species.
+The social kinds live in nests composed of numerous cells in which the
+young brood are reared. These cells vary in form from those which are
+quite regularly hexagonal, like those of the Hive bee, to those which
+are less regularly six-sided, as in the stingless bee of the tropics
+(Melipona), until in the Humble bee the cells are isolated and
+cylindrical in form.
+
+Before speaking of the wild bees, let us briefly review the life of the
+Honey bee. The queen bee having wintered over with many workers, lays
+her eggs in the spring, first in the worker, and, at a later period, in
+the drone-cells. Early in the summer the workers construct the large,
+flask-shaped queen-cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and
+in these the queen larvæ are fed with rich and choice food. The old
+queen deserts the nest, forming a new colony. The new-born queen takes
+her marriage flight high in the air with a drone, and on her return
+undertakes the management of the hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When
+the supply of queens is exhausted, the workers destroy the drones. The
+first brood of workers live about six weeks in summer, and then give way
+to a new brood. The queens, according to Von Berlepsch, are known to
+live five years, and during their whole life lay more than a million
+eggs.
+
+In the tropics, the Honey bee is replaced by the Meliponas and Trigonas.
+They are minute, stingless bees, which store up honey and live in
+colonies often of immense extent. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal,
+nearly approaching in regularity those of the Hive bee, while the honey
+cells are irregular, being much larger cavities, which hold about
+one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble bee. "Gardner, in his
+travels, states that many species of Melipona build in the hollow trunks
+of trees, others in banks; some suspend their nests from the branches of
+trees, whilst one species constructs its nest of clay, it being of large
+size." (F. Smith.)
+
+In a nest of the coal-black Trigona (Trigona carbonaria), from eastern
+Australia, Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum, found from four hundred
+to five hundred dead workers, but no females. The combs were arranged
+precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of honey-pots
+which were placed at the foot of the nest was two hundred and fifty. Mr.
+Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona contains several
+prolific females, as the great number of workers can only be thus
+explained, and M. Guérin found six females in a nest of the Tawny-footed
+Melipona (M. fulvipes).
+
+At home, our nearest ally of the true Honey bee, is the Humble bee
+(Bombus), of which over forty species are known to inhabit North
+America.
+
+The economy of the Humble bee is thus: the queen awakens in early spring
+from her winter's sleep under leaves or moss, or in the last year's
+nest, and selects a nesting place, generally in an abandoned nest of a
+field-mouse, or beneath a stump or sod, and "immediately," according to
+Mr. F. W. Putnam,[2] "collects" a small amount of pollen mixed with
+honey, and in this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually
+adding to the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not
+wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the eggs of
+another, but, as soon as food enough has been collected, she lays the
+eggs for a second. The eggs are laid, in contact with each other, in one
+cavity of the mass of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly
+covered. They are very soon developed; in fact, the lines are nowhere
+distinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and pupa, and
+again between the latter and the imago; a perfect series, showing this
+gradual transformation of the young to the imago can be found in almost
+every nest.
+
+[Illustration: 15. Cell and Eggs of Bombus.]
+
+"As soon as the larvæ are capable of motion and commence feeding, they
+eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, gradually separating,
+push their way in various directions. Eating as they move, and
+increasing in size quite rapidly, they soon make large cavities in the
+pollen mass. When they have attained their full size, they spin a silken
+wall about them, which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with
+a thin layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus forming a
+cell (Fig. 15, 1, cell containing a larva, on top of which (2) is a
+pollen mass containing three eggs). The larvæ now gradually attain the
+pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full development. They then
+cut their way out, and are ready to assume their duties as workers,
+small females, males or queens.
+
+"It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is due to
+their being constructed so peculiarly by the larvæ. After the first
+brood, composed of workers, has come forth, the queen bee devotes her
+time principally to her duties at home, the workers supplying the colony
+with honey and pollen. As the queen continues prolific, more workers are
+added, and the nest is rapidly enlarged.
+
+"About the middle of summer, eggs are deposited, which produce both
+small females and males." ... "All eggs laid after the last of July
+produce the large females, or queens, and, the males being still in the
+nest, it is presumed that the queens are impregnated at this time, as on
+the approach of cold weather all except the queens, of which there are
+several in each nest, die."
+
+While the Humble bee in some respects shows much less instinct than the
+solitary bees mentioned below, it stands higher in the series, however,
+from having workers, as well as males and females, who provide food for
+the young. The labors of the Mason bees, and their allies, terminate
+after the cell is once constructed and filled with pollen. The eggs are
+then left to hatch, and the young care for themselves, though the adult
+bee shows greater skill in architecture than the Humble bee. It is thus
+throughout nature. Many forms, comparatively low in the scale of life,
+astonish us with certain characters or traits, reminding us of beings
+much superior, physically and intellectually. The lower forms constantly
+reach up and in some way ally themselves with creatures far more highly
+organized. Thus the fish-like seal reminds us strikingly of the dog,
+both in the form of the head, in its docility and great intelligence
+when tamed, and even in its bark and the movements of the head.
+
+[Illustration: 16. Meloë.]
+
+The parasites of the Humble bee are numerous. Such are the species of
+Apathus, which so closely resembles the Humble bee itself, that it
+requires long study to distinguish it readily. Its habits are not known,
+other than that it is found in the nests of its host. It differs from
+the Humble bee in having no pollen-basket, showing that its larvæ must
+feed on the food stored up by their host, as it does not itself collect
+it. The mandibles also are not, like those of Bombus, trowel-shaped for
+architectural purposes, but acutely triangular, and are probably not
+used in building.
+
+The caterpillars of various moths consume the honey and waxen cells; the
+two-winged flies, Volucella and Conops, and the larvæ of what is either
+an Anthomyia or Tachina-like fly, and several species of another genus
+of flies, Anthrax, together with several beetles, such as the Meloë
+(Fig. 16), Stylops (Fig. 17, male; 18_b_, female; _a_, position in the
+body of its host), and Antherophagus prey upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 17. Male Stylops.]
+
+The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid wood reaches
+its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter bee (Xylocopa Virginica,
+Fig. 19). This bee is as large as, and some allied exotic species are
+often considerably larger than, the Humble bee, but not clothed with
+such dense hairs. We have received from Mr. James Angus, of West Farms,
+N. Y., a piece of trellis from a grape vine, made of pine wood,
+containing the cells and young in various stages of growth, together
+with the larvæ and chrysalids of Anthrax sinuosa (Fig. 20), a species of
+fly parasitic on the larva. The maggot buries its head in the soft body
+of the young bee and feeds on its juices.
+
+Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of July 19: "I
+asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yesterday, if he knew how
+long it took the Xylocopa to bore her tunnel. He said he thought she
+bored about one-quarter of an inch a day. I don't think myself she
+bores more than one-half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it
+takes her about two days to make her own length at the first start; but
+this being across the grain of the wood, may not be so easily done as
+the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always follows the grain
+of the wood, with the exception of the entrance, which is about her own
+length. The tunnels run from one to one and a half feet in length. They
+generally run in opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes
+other galleries are run, one directly above the other, using the same
+opening. I think they only make new tunnels when old ones are not to be
+found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. Some of the
+old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of them about an inch in
+diameter. I think this is caused by rasping off the sides to procure the
+necessary material for constructing their cells. The partitions are
+composed of wood raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to
+make them adhere.
+
+[Illustration: 18. Female Stylops.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. Carpenter Bee.]
+
+"The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other bees and wasps.
+I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa prefers making a new cell,
+to cleaning out the dirt and rubbish of the other species. I frequently
+find these bees remaining for a long time on the wing close to the
+opening, and bobbing their heads against the side, as if fanning air
+into the opening. I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes.
+Whether one bee or more makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take
+turns in boring, I cannot at present say. In opening the cells (Fig.
+21), more than one are generally found, even at this season. About two
+weeks ago; I found as many as seven, I think, in one."[3]
+
+The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths of an
+inch long. These partitions are constructed of the coarse dust or
+chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for our active little
+carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, moved by powerful
+muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes of hair for cleaning out the
+tunnel as she descends into the heart of the solid wood. She must throw
+out the chips she bites off with her powerful mandibles from the sides
+of the burrow, by means of her hind legs, passing the load of chips
+backwards out of the cell with her fore limbs, which she uses as hands.
+
+[Illustration: 20. Larva and Pupa of Anthrax.]
+
+The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened band of
+chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. One side,
+forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being beaten down and
+smoothed off by the bee. The other side of the partition, forming the
+top of the cell, is flat and rough.
+
+[Illustration: 21. Nest of Carpenter Bee.]
+
+At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells contained nearly
+full-grown larvæ, with some half developed. They were feeding on the
+masses of pollen, which were as large as a thick kidney bean, and
+occupied nearly half the cell. The larvæ (Fig. 21) resemble those of the
+Humble bee, but are slenderer, tapering more rapidly towards each end of
+the body.
+
+The habits and structure of the little green Ceratina ally it closely
+with Xylocopa. This pretty bee, named Ceratina dupla by Mr. Say, tunnels
+out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any pithy shrub,
+excavating them often to a depth of six or seven inches. She makes the
+walls just wide enough to admit her body, and of a depth capable of
+holding three or four, often five or six cells (Fig. 22). The finely
+built cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and
+nearly square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is
+rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long, and a
+little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at nearly equal
+distances apart, the slight interval between them being filled in with
+dirt.
+
+[Illustration: 22. Nest of Ceratina.]
+
+Dr. T. W. Harris states that May 15, 1832, one female laid its eggs in
+the hollow of an aster stalk. Three perfect insects were disclosed from
+it July 28th. The observations of Mr. Angus, who saw some bees making
+their cells May 18th, also confirm this account. The history of our
+little upholsterer is thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her
+cells, fills them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each mass.
+Thus in about two months the insect completes its transformations;
+within this period passing through the egg, the larva and chrysalid
+states, and then, as a bee, living a few days more, if a male; or if a
+female, living through the winter. Her life thus spans one year.
+
+The larva (Fig. 23) is longer than that of Megachile, and compared with
+that of Xylocopa, the different segments are much more convex, giving a
+serrate outline to the back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have
+found in the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an
+inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having four
+spines on the end of the body.
+
+[Illustration: 23. Larva of Ceratina.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. Nest of Tailor Bee.]
+
+In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more nicety than
+those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with her jaws a long deep
+well just the size of her body, and then stretches a thin, delicate
+cloth of silk drawn tight as a drum-head across each end of her
+chambers, which she then fills with a mixture of pollen and honey.
+
+[Illustration: 25. Tailor Bee.]
+
+Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free from danger.
+The most invidious foes enter and attack the brood. Three species of
+Ichneumon flies, two of which belong to the Chalcid family, lay their
+eggs within the body of the larva, and emerge from the dried larva and
+pupa skins of the bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite,
+belonging to the genus Anthophorabia, so called from being first known
+as a parasite on another bee (Anthophora), is a minute species found
+also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee.
+
+The interesting habits of the Leaf-cutting, or Tailor bee (Megachile),
+have always attracted attention. This bee is a stout, thick-bodied
+insect, with a large, square head, stout, sharp, scissors-like jaws, and
+with a thick mass of stout, dense hairs on the under side of the tail
+for carrying pollen, as she is not provided with the pollen-basket of
+the Honey and Humble bees.
+
+The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the elder (Fig.
+24), which we have received from Mr. James Angus; we have also found
+them in the hollows of the locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of
+the economy of M. centuncularis, our most common species. "My attention
+was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily engaged in
+bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was building under a
+board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under my window. Nearly the
+whole morning was occupied by the bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a
+rose bush growing about ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals
+of a half minute to a minute with the pieces, which she carried in such
+a manner as not to impede her steps when she alighted near her hole."
+When the Leaf-cutter bee wishes to cut out a piece of a leaf (Fig. 25)
+she alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her
+scissors-like jaws around through it, bearing off the piece in her hind
+legs. "About noon she had probably completed the cell, upon which she
+had been engaged, as, during the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing
+pollen, preparatory to laying her single egg in the cell. For about
+twenty days the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying
+them with pollen.... On the 28th of July, upon removing the board, it
+was found that the bee had made thirty cells, arranged in nine rows of
+unequal length, some being slightly curved to adapt them to the space
+under the board. The longest row contained six cells, and was two and,
+three-quarters inches in length; the whole leaf structure being equal to
+a length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the pieces of
+leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there must have been at
+least a thousand pieces used. In addition to the labor of making the
+cells, this bee, unassisted in all her duties, had to collect the
+requisite amount of pollen (and honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs
+therein, when completed. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of
+the cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight
+silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite hard and
+smooth on the inside, probably owing to the movements of the larva, and
+the consequent pressing of the sticky particles to the walls. In a short
+time the opening made was closed over by a very thin silken web. The
+cells, measured on the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in
+length, and .15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is
+somewhat curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the
+inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female bees came
+out, having cut their way through the sides of their cells." In three
+other cells "several hundred minute Ichneumons (Anthophorabia
+megachilis) were seen, which came forth as soon as the cells were
+opened."
+
+The habits of the little blue or green Mason bees (Osmia) are quite
+varied. They construct their cells in the stems of plants, and in rotten
+posts and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. A
+European species selects snail shells for its nest, wherein it builds
+its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under stones. Curtis
+found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a British species (Osmia
+paretina), placed on the under side of a flat stone, of which one-third
+were empty. Of the remainder, the most appeared between March and June,
+males appearing first; thirty-five more bees were developed the
+following spring. Thus there were three successive broods, for three
+succeeding years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving
+at maturity. This may partly account for _insect years_, which are like
+"apple years," seasons when bees and wasps, as well as other insects,
+abound in unusual numbers.
+
+[Illustration: 26. Nest of Osmia.]
+
+Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society
+of London, for 1864, states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana "are
+formed of mud, and each cell is built separately. The female bee,
+having deposited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some
+tufts of grass, immediately begins to excavate a small cavity in its
+upper surface, scraping the mud away from the centre towards the margin
+by means of her jaws. A small, shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is
+rough and uneven on the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the
+inner. On witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with
+three points: first, the rapidity with which the insect worked;
+secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position whilst
+excavating; and thirdly, her constantly going over work which had
+apparently been completed.... The lid is excavated and rendered concave
+on its outer or upper surface, and is convex and rough on its inner
+surface; and, in fact, is a simple repetition of the first-formed
+portion of the cell, a part of a hollow sphere."
+
+The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue species (O.
+lignivora). We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees with
+their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a maple tree
+several inches from the bark. The bee had industriously tunnelled out
+this elaborate burrow (Fig. 26), and, in this respect, resembled the
+habits of the Carpenter bee more closely than any other species of its
+genus.
+
+The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three-tenths of an inch
+wide. It contracted a little in width between the cell, showing that the
+bee worked intelligently, and wasted no more of her energies than was
+absolutely necessary. The burrow contained five cells, each half an inch
+long, being rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while
+the opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely. The
+cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing to a slight constriction just behind
+the mouth. The material of which the cell is composed is stout, silken,
+parchment-like, and very smooth within. The interstices between the
+cells are filled in with rather coarse chippings made by the bee.
+
+The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for a month
+afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly lapped up the drops
+of water supplied by its keeper, to whom it soon grew accustomed, and
+seemed to recognize.
+
+Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green Osmia
+simillima. It builds its little oval, somewhat urn-shaped cells against
+the roof of the large deserted galls of the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis
+confluentus), placing them, in this instance eleven in number, in two
+irregular rows, from which the mature bees issue through a hole in the
+gall (Fig. 27, with two separate cells). The earthen cells, containing
+the tough dense cocoons, were arranged irregularly so as to fit the
+concave vault of the larger gall, which was about two inches in
+diameter. On emerging from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful
+jaws an ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell.
+
+[Illustration: 27. Nest of Osmia in a gall.]
+
+In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia pacifica,
+the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the manuscript notes of Dr.
+Harris, is found in the perfect state in earthen cells beneath stones.
+The cell is oval cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of
+all the species of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is
+half an inch long, and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the
+cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long. We are
+not acquainted with the habits of the larva and pupa in this country,
+but Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species hatches in
+eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve days, when it
+becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken covering, and remains in an
+inactive state until the following spring, when it completes its
+transformations.
+
+In the economy of our wild bees we see the manifestation of a wonderful
+instinct, as well as the exhibition of a _limited reason_. We can
+scarcely deny to animals a kind of reason which apparently differs _only
+in degree_ from that of man. Each species works in a sphere limited by
+physical laws, but within that sphere it is a free agent. They have
+enough of instinct and reason to direct their lives, and to enable them
+to act their part in carrying out the plan of creation.
+
+[Illustration: Paper Wasp.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: The cells are not perfectly hexagonal. See the studies on
+the formation of the cells of the bee, by Professor J. Wyman, in the
+Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, 1866;
+and the author's Guide to the Study of Insects, p 123.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Notes on the Habits of the Humble Bee (Proceedings of the
+Essex Institute, vol. iv, 1864, p. 101).
+
+Mr. Angus also writes us as follows concerning the habits of the
+Wandering Humble bee (Bombus vagans): "I have found the males plentiful
+near our garden fence, within a hole such as would be made by a mouse.
+They seem to be quite numerous. I was attracted to it by the noise they
+were making in fanning at the opening. I counted at one time as many as
+seven thus employed, and the sound could be heard several yards off.
+Several males were at rest, but mostly on the wing, when they would make
+a dash among the fanners, and all would scatter and play about. The
+workers seem to be of a uniform size, and full as large as the males. I
+think the object of the fanning was to introduce air into the nest, as
+is done by the Honey bees."]
+
+[Footnote 3: "Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes
+of Xylocopa, which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a
+pine slat used in the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as
+follows:--Opening fully 3-8 wide; depth 7-16; whole length of tunnel 6
+5-16 inches. The tunnel branched both ways from the hole. One end, from
+opening, was 2 5-8, containing three cells, two with larva and pollen,
+the third empty. The other side of the opening, or the rest of the
+tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at work.
+I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about
+twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch.
+
+"I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order
+to ascertain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any
+others in them, I sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one
+side, at a depth of five and one half inches; the other side was four
+inches deep without bees. The morning was cool, so that the object in
+bobbing could not have been to introduce fresh currents of air, but must
+have had some relation to those inside. Their legs on such occasions
+are, as I have noticed, loaded with pollen."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HOME OF THE BEES.
+
+[_Concluded._]
+
+
+While the Andrena and Halictus bees, whose habits we now describe, are
+closely allied in form to the Hive bee, socially they are the
+"mud-sills" of bee society, ranking among the lowest forms of the family
+of bees. Their burrowing habits ally them with the ants, from whose
+nests their own burrows can scarcely be distinguished. Their economy
+does not seem to demand the exercise of so much of a true reasoning
+power and pliable instinct as characterizes bees, such as the Honey and
+Humble bee, which possess a high architectural skill. Moreover they are
+not social; they have no part in rearing and caring for their young, a
+fact that lends so much interest to the history of the Hive and Humble
+bee. In this respect they are far below the wasps, a family belonging
+next below in the system of Nature.
+
+A glance at the drawing (Fig. 28), of a burrow, with its side galleries,
+of the Andrena vicina, reveals the economy of one of our most common
+forms. Quite early in spring, when the sun and vernal breezes have dried
+up the soil, and the fields exchange their rusty hues for the rich green
+verdure of May, our Andrena, tired of its idle life among the blossoms
+of the willow, the wild cherry, and garden flowers, suddenly becomes
+remarkably industrious, and wields its spade-like jaws and busy feet
+with a strange and unwonted energy. Choosing some sunny, warm, grassy
+bank (these nests were observed in the "great pasture" of Salem), not
+always with a southern exposure however, the female sinks her deep well
+through the sod from six inches to a foot into the sandy soil beneath.
+She goes to work literally tooth and nail. Reasoning from observations
+made on several species of wasps, and also from studying the structure
+of her jaws and legs, it is evident that she digs in and loosens the
+soil with her powerful jaws, and then throws out the dirt with her legs.
+She uses her fore legs like hands, to pass the load of dirt to her hind
+legs, and then runs backward out of her hole to dump it down behind her.
+Mr. Emerton tells me that he never saw a bee in the act of digging but
+once, and then she left off after a few strokes. He also says, "they are
+harmless and inoffensive. On several occasions I have lain on the grass
+near their holes for hours, but not one attempted to sting me; and when
+taken between the fingers, they make but feeble resistance."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.
+
+Nest (natural size) of Andrena vicina, showing the main burrow, and the
+cells leading from it; the oldest cell containing the pupa (_a_) is
+situated nearest the surface, while those containing the larva (_b_) lie
+between the pupa and the cell (_e_) containing the pollen mass and egg
+resting upon it. The most recent cell (_f_) is the deepest down, and
+contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At _c_ is the beginning of a
+cell; _g_, level of the ground.]
+
+To enter somewhat into detail, we gather from the observations of Mr.
+Emerton (who has carefully watched the habits of these bees through
+several seasons) the following account of the economy of this bee: On
+the 4th of May the bees were seen digging their holes, most of which
+were already two inches deep, and one, six inches. The mounds of earth
+were so small as to be hardly noticed. At this time an Oil beetle was
+seen prowling about the holes. The presence of this dire foe of Andrena
+at this time, it will be seen in a succeeding chapter on the enemies of
+the bees, is quite significant. By the 15th of May, hundreds of Andrena
+holes were found in various parts of the pasture, and at one place, in a
+previous season, there were about two hundred found placed within a
+small area. One cell was dug up, but it contained no pollen. Four days
+later, several Andrenas were noticed resting from their toil at the
+opening of their burrows. On the 28th of May, in unearthing six holes,
+eight cells were found to contain pollen, and in two of them a small
+larva. The pellets of pollen are about the size of a small pea. They are
+hard and round at first, before the young has hatched, but as the larva
+grows, the mass becomes softer and more pasty, so that the larva buries
+its head in the mass, and greedily sucks it in. When is the pollen
+gathered by the bee and kneaded into the pellet-like mass? On July 4th,
+a cell was opened in which was a bee busily engaged preparing the
+pollen, which was loosely and irregularly piled up, while there was a
+larva in an adjoining cell nearly half an inch long. It would seem,
+then, that the bee comes in from the fields laden with her stores of
+pollen, which she elaborates into bee bread within her cell.
+
+When the bee returns to her cell she does not directly fly towards the
+entrance, since, as was noticed in a particular instance, she flew about
+for a long time in all directions without any apparent aim, until she
+finally settled near the hole, and walked into her subterranean retreat.
+On a rainy day, May 24th, our friend visited the colony, but found no
+bees flying about the holes. The little hillocks had been beaten down by
+the pitiless raindrops, and all traces of their industry effaced. On
+digging down, several bees were found, indicating that on rainy days
+they seek the shelter of their holes, and do not take refuge under
+leaves of the plants they frequent.
+
+On the 29th of June, six full-grown larvæ were exhumed, and one, about
+half grown. On the 20th of July, the colony seemed well organized, as,
+on laying open a burrow at the depth of six inches, he began to find
+cells. The upper ones, to the number of a dozen, were deserted and
+filled with earth and grass roots, and had evidently been built and used
+during the previous year. Below these were eight cells placed around the
+main vertical gallery, reaching down to the depth of thirteen inches,
+and all containing nearly full-grown larvæ of the bees, or else those of
+some parasitic bee (Nomada) which had devoured the food prepared for the
+young Andrena.
+
+About the first of August the larva transforms to a pupa or chrysalis,
+as at this time two pupæ were found in cells a foot beneath the surface.
+As shown in the cut, those cells situated lowest down seem to be the
+last to have been made, while the eggs laid in the highest are the first
+to hatch, and the larvæ disclosed from them, the first to change to
+pupæ. Four days later the pupæ of Cuckoo bees (Nomada) were found in the
+cells. No Andrenas were seen flying about at this time.
+
+On the 24th of August, to be still very circumstantial in our narrative
+though at the risk of being tedious, three burrows were unearthed, and
+in them three fully formed bees were found nearly ready to leave their
+cells, and in addition several pupæ. In some other cells there were
+three of the parasitic Nomada also nearly ready to come out, which
+seemed to be identical with some bees noticed playing very innocently
+about the holes early in the summer.
+
+On the last day of August, very few of the holes were open. A number of
+Oil beetles were strolling suspiciously about in the neighborhood, and
+some little black Ichneumon flies were seen running about among the
+holes.
+
+During mid-summer the holes were found closed night and day by clods of
+earth.
+
+The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short passages leading to the
+cells, which are slightly inclined downwards and outwards from the main
+gallery. The walls of the gallery are rough, but the cells are lined
+with a mucous-like secretion, which, on hardening, looks like the
+glazing of earthenware. This glazing is quite hard, and breaks up into
+angular pieces. It is evidently the work of the bee herself, and is not
+secreted and laid on by the larva. The diameter of the interior of the
+cell is about one-quarter of an inch, contracting a little at the mouth.
+When the cell is taken out, the dirt adheres for a line in thickness, so
+that it is of the size and form of an acorn.
+
+The larva of Andrena (Fig. 29) is soft and fleshy, like that of the
+Honey bee. Its body is flattened, bulging out prominently at the sides,
+and tapering more rapidly than usual towards each end of the body. The
+skin is very thin, so that along the back the heart or dorsal vessel may
+be distinctly seen, pulsating about sixty times a minute.
+
+Our cut (Fig. 28, _a_) also represents the pupa, or chrysalis, as seen
+lying in its cell. The limbs are folded close to the body in the most
+compact way possible. On the head of the semi-pupa, _i.e._, a transition
+state between the larva and pupa, there are two prominent tubercles
+situated behind the simple eyes, or ocelli; these are deciduous organs,
+apparently aiding the insect in moving about its cell. They disappear in
+the mature pupa.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31.
+
+Fig. 31. Larva of Halictus parallelus.
+
+Fig. 29. Larva of Andrena vicina.
+
+Fig. 30. Pupa of Halictus parallelus seen from beneath.]
+
+To those accustomed to rearing butterflies, and seeing the chrysalis at
+once assuming its perfected shape, after the caterpillar skin is thrown
+off, it may seem strange to hear one speak of a "half-pupa," and of
+stages intermediate between the larva and pupa. But the external changes
+of form, though rapidly passed through, consisting apparently of a mere
+sloughing off of the outer skin, are yet preceded by slow and very
+gradual alterations of tissues, resulting from the growth of cells. An
+inner layer of the larva-skin separates from the outer, and, by changes
+in the form of the muscles, is drawn into different positions, such as
+is assumed by the pupa, which thus lies concealed beneath the
+larva-skin. But a slight alteration is made in the general form of the
+larva, consisting mostly of an enlargement of the thoracic segments,
+which is often overlooked, even by the special student, though of great
+interest to the philosophic naturalist.
+
+From Mr. Emerton's observations we should judge that the pupa state
+lasted from three to four weeks, as the larvæ began to transform the
+first of August, and appeared during the last week of the same month as
+perfect bees.
+
+The Andrena is seen as late as the first week in September, and again
+early in April, about the flowers of the willow. It is one of the
+largest of its genus and a common species.
+
+Having, in a very fragmentary way, sketched the life history of our
+Andrena and had some glimpses of its subterranean life, let us now
+compare with it another genus of solitary bee (Halictus), quite closely
+allied in all respects, though a little lower in the scale.
+
+The Halictus parallelus excavates cells almost exactly like those of
+Andrena; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are smaller, though as
+deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest in a path a foot in depth. Another
+nest, discovered September 9th, was about six inches deep. The cells are
+in form like those of Andrena, and like them, are glazed within. The egg
+is rather slenderer and much curved; in form it is long, cylindrical,
+obtuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva (Fig. 31) is
+longer and slenderer, being quite different from the rather broad and
+flattened larva of Andrena. The body is rather thick behind, but in
+front tapers slowly towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its
+body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercle aiding the grub in moving
+about its cell. Its length is nearly one-half (.40) of an inch. On the
+pupa are four quite distinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line
+just in front of the ocelli; and there are also two larger, longer
+tubercles, on the outer side of each of which, an ocellus is situated.
+Figure 30 represents the pupa seen from beneath.
+
+Search was made on July 16th, where the ground was hard as stone for six
+inches in depth, below which the soil was soft and fine, and over twenty
+cells were dug out. "The upper cells contained nearly mature pupæ, and
+the lower ones, larvæ of various sizes, the smallest being hardly
+distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these small larvæ was in a
+cell by itself, and situated upon a lump of pollen, which was the size
+and shape of a pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew
+larger. These young were probably the offspring of several females, as
+four mature bees were found in the hole." The larva of an English
+species hatches in ten days after the eggs are laid.
+
+Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September, as on the ninth
+of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found several holes of the same species
+of bee, made in a hard gravel road near the turnpike. When opened, they
+were found to contain several bees with their young. September 2nd, of
+this year, the same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to
+leave the cell. It is probable that these bees winter over.
+
+We have incidentally noticed the presence in the nests of Andrena and
+Halictus of a stranger bee, clad in gay, fantastic hues, which lives a
+parasitic life on its hosts. This parasitism does not go far enough to
+cause the death of the host, since we find the young of the parasitic
+Cuckoo bee, in cells containing the young of the former.
+
+Mr. F. Smith, in his "Catalogue of British Bees," says of this genus:
+"No one appears to know anything beyond the mere fact of their entering
+the burrows of Andrenidæ and Apidæ, except that they are found in the
+cells of the working bees in their perfect condition: it is most
+probable that they deposit their eggs on the provision laid up by the
+working bee, that they close up the cell, and that the working bee,
+finding an egg deposited, commences a fresh cell for her own progeny."
+
+He has, however, found two specimens of Nomada, sexfasciata in the cells
+of the long-horned bee, Eucera longicornis. He also states, that while
+some species are constant in their attacks on certain Halicti and
+Andrenæ, others attack different species of these genera
+indiscriminately. In like manner another Cuckoo bee (Coelioxys) is
+parasitic on Megachile and Saropoda; Stelis is a parasite on Osmia, the
+Mason bee: and Melecta infests the cells of Anthophora.
+
+The observations of Mr. Emerton enable us still further to clear up the
+history of this obscure visitor. He found both the larva and pupa, as
+well as the perfect bee, in the cells of both genera; so that either
+both kinds of bee, when hatched from eggs laid in the same cell, feed on
+the same pollen mass, which therefore barely suffices for the
+nourishment of both; or the hostess, discovering the strange egg laid,
+cuckoo-like, in her own nest, has the forethought to deposit another
+ball of pollen to secure the safety of her young.
+
+Is such an act the operation of a blind instinct? Does it not rather
+ally our little bee with those higher animals which undoubtedly possess
+a reasoning power? Its _instinct_ teaches it to build cells, and prepare
+its pollen mass, and lay an egg thereon. Its _reason_ enables it, in
+such an instance as this, when the life of the brood is threatened, to
+guard against any such danger by means to which it does not habitually
+resort. This instance is paralleled by the case of our common summer
+Yellow bird, which, on finding an egg of the Cow bunting in its nest,
+often builds a new nest above it, to the certain destruction of the
+unwelcome egg in the nest beneath.
+
+In the structure of the bee, and in all its stages of growth, our
+parasite seems lower in the zoölogical scale than its host. It is
+structurally a degraded form of Working-bee, and its position socially
+is unenviable. It is lazy, not having the provident habits of the
+Working-bees; it aids not in the least, so far as we know, the
+cross-fertilization of plants--one great office in the economy of nature
+which most bees perform,--since it is not a pollen-gatherer, but on the
+contrary is seemingly a drag and hinderance to the course of nature. But
+yet nature kindly, and as if by a special interposition, provides for
+its maintenance, and the humble naturalist can only exclaim, "God is
+great, and his ways mysterious," and go on studying and collecting
+facts, leaving to his successors the more difficult task, but greater
+joy of discovering the cause and reason of things that are but a puzzle
+to the philosophers of this day.
+
+The larva of Nomada may be known from those of its host, by its
+slenderer body and smaller head, while the body is smoother and more
+cylindrical. Both sexes of Nomada imbricata and N. pulchella were found
+by Mr. Emerton, the former in both the Andrena and Halictus nests, and
+both were found in a single Andrena nest.
+
+[Illustration: Wood Wasp.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE.
+
+
+Very few bee-keepers are probably aware how many insect parasites infest
+the Honey bee. In our own literature we hear almost nothing of this
+subject, but in Europe much has been written on bee parasites. From Dr.
+Edward Assmuss' little work on the "Parasites of the Honey Bee," we
+glean some of the facts now presented, and which cannot fail to interest
+the general reader as well as the owner of bees.
+
+The study of the habits of animal parasites has of late gained much
+attention among naturalists, and both the honey and wild bees afford
+good examples of the singular relation between the host and the
+parasites which live upon it. Among insects generally, there are certain
+species which devour the contents of the egg of the victim. Others, and
+this is the most common mode of parasitism, attack the insect in its
+larva state; others, in the pupa state, and still others in the perfect,
+or imago state. Dr. Leidy has shown that the wood-devouring species of
+beetle, Passalus cornutus, and some Myriopods, or "thousand legs," are,
+in some cases, tenanted by myriads of microscopic plants and worms which
+luxuriate in the alimentary canal, while the "caterpillar-fungus"
+attacks sickly caterpillars, filling out their bodies, and sending out
+shoots into the air, so that the insect looks as if transformed into a
+vegetable.
+
+The Ichneumon flies, of which there are undoubtedly several thousand
+species in this country, are the most common insect parasites. Next to
+these are the different species of Tachina and its allied genera. These,
+like Ichneumons, live in the bodies of their hosts, consuming the fatty
+parts, and finishing their transformations just as the exhausted host
+is ready to die, issue from their bodies as flies, closely resembling
+the common housefly.
+
+A small fly has been found in Europe to be the most formidable foe of
+the hive bee, sometimes producing the well-known disease called
+"foul-brood," which is analogous to the typhus fever of man.
+
+[Illustration: 32. Phora and its Young.]
+
+This fly, belonging to the genus Phora (Fig. 32, Phora incrassata; _a_,
+larva; _b_, puparium; _c_, another species from Mammoth Cave), is a
+small insect about a line and a half long, and found in Europe during
+the summer and autumn flying slowly about flowers and windows, and in
+the vicinity of beehives. Its white, transparent larva is cylindrical, a
+little pointed before, but broader behind. The head is small and
+rounded, with short, three-jointed antennæ, and at the posterior end of
+the body are several slender spines. The puparium, or pupa case,
+inclosing the delicate chrysalis, is oval, consisting of eight segments,
+flattened above, with two large spines near the head, and four on the
+extremity of the body.
+
+When impelled by instinct to provide for the continuance of its species,
+the Phora enters the beehive and gains admission to a cell, when it
+bores with its ovipositor through the skin of the bee larva, laying its
+long oval egg in a horizontal position just under the skin. The embryo
+of the Phora is already well developed, so that in three hours after the
+egg is inserted in the body of its unsuspecting and helpless host, the
+embryo is nearly ready to hatch. In about two hours more it actually
+breaks off the larger end of the egg-shell and at once begins to eat the
+fatty tissues of its victim, its posterior half still remaining in the
+shell. In an hour more, it leaves the egg entirely and buries itself
+completely in the fatty portion of the young bee.
+
+The maggot moults three times. In twelve hours after the last moult it
+turns around with its head towards the posterior end of the body of its
+host, and in another twelve hours, having become full-fed, it bores
+through the skin of the young, eats its way through the brood-covering
+of the cell and falls to the bottom of the hive, where it changes to a
+pupa in the dust and dirt, or else creeps out of the door and transforms
+in the earth. Twelve days after, the fly appears.
+
+The young bee, emaciated and enfeebled by the attacks of its ravenous
+parasite, dies, and its decaying body fills the bottom of the cell with
+a slimy, foul-smelling mass, called "foul-brood." This gives rise to a
+miasma which poisons the neighboring brood, until the contagion (for the
+disease is analogous to typhus, jail or ship-fever) spreads through the
+whole hive, unless promptly checked by removing the cause and thoroughly
+cleansing the hive.
+
+Foul-brood sometimes attacks our American hives, and, though the cause
+may not be known, yet from the hints given above we hope to have the
+history of our species of Phora cleared up, should our disease be found
+to be sometimes due to the attacks of such a parasitic fly.
+
+[Illustration: 33. Bee Louse and Larva.]
+
+We figure the Bee louse of Europe (Fig. 33 b, Braula cæca), which is a
+singular wingless spider-like fly, allied to the wingless Sheep tick
+(Melophagus), the wingless Bat tick (Nycteribia) and the winged Horse
+fly (Hippobosca). The head is very large, without eyes or ocelli (simple
+eyes), while the ovate hind-body consists of five segments, and is
+covered with stiff hairs. It is one-half to two-thirds of a line long.
+This spider fly is "pupiparous," that is, the young, of which only a
+very few are produced, is not born until it has assumed the pupa state
+or is just about to do so. The larva (Fig. 33 _a_) is oval,
+eleven-jointed, and white in color. The very day it is hatched, it sheds
+its skin and changes to an oval puparium of a dark brown color.
+
+Its habits resemble those of the flea. Indeed, should we compress its
+body strongly, it would bear a striking resemblance to that insect. It
+is evidently a connecting link between the flea, and the two winged
+flies. Like the former it lives on the body of its host, and obtains its
+food by plunging its stout beak into the bee and sucking its blood.
+
+It has not been noticed in this country, but is liable to be imported on
+the bodies of Italian bees. Generally, one or two of the Braulas may, on
+close examination, be detected on the body of the bee; sometimes the
+poor bees are loaded down by as many as a hundred of these hungry
+blood-suckers. Assmuss recommends rubbing them off with a feather, as
+the bee goes in and out of the door of its hive.
+
+[Illustration: 34. Hive Trichodes.]
+
+Among the beetles are a few forms occasionally found in bees' nests and
+also parasitic on the body of the bee. Trichodes apiarius (Fig. 34, _a_,
+larva; _b_, pupa, front view) has long been known in Europe to attack
+the young bees. In its perfect, or beetle state it is found on flowers,
+like our Trichodes Nuttallii, which is commonly found on the Spiræa in
+August, and which may yet prove to enter our beehives. The larva devours
+the brood, but with the modern hive its ravages may be readily detected.
+
+[Illustration: 35. Meloë.]
+
+The Oil beetle, Meloë angusticollis (Fig. 35, male, differing from the
+female by having the antennæ as if twisted into a knot; Fig. 36, the
+active larva found on the body of the bee), is a large dark blue insect
+found crawling in the grass in the vicinity of the nests of Andrena,
+Halictus, and other wild bees in May, and again in August and
+September. The eggs are laid in a mass covered with earth at the root
+of some plant. During April and early in May, when the willows are in
+blossom, we have found the young recently hatched larvæ in considerable
+abundance creeping briskly over the bees, or with their heads plunged
+between the segments of the body, greedily sucking in the juices of
+their host. Those that we saw occurred on the Humble and other wild
+bees, and on various flies (Syrphus and Muscidæ), and there is no reason
+why they should not infest the Honey bee, which frequents similar
+flowers, as they are actually known to do in Europe. These larvæ are
+probably hatched out near where the bees hibernate, so as to creep into
+their bodies before they fly in the spring, as it would be impossible
+for them to crawl up a willow tree ten feet high or more, their feet
+being solely adapted for climbing over the hairy body of the bee, which
+they do not leave until about to undergo their strange and unusual
+transformations.
+
+[Illustration: Early Stages of Meloë.]
+
+In Europe, Assmuss states that on being brought into the nest by the
+bee, they leave the bee and devour the eggs in the bee cells, and then
+attack the bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their
+transformations to attain the beetle state, instead of at once assuming
+the pupa and imago forms, as in the Trichodes represented in fig. 34,
+they pass through a _hyper-metamorphosis_, as Fabre, a French
+naturalist, calls it. In other words, the changes in form which are
+preparatory to assuming the pupa and imago states are more marked and
+almost coequal with the larva and pupa states, so that the Meloë,
+instead of passing through three states (the egg, larva and pupa), in
+realty passes through these and two others in addition, which are
+intermediate. The whole subject of the metamorphosis of this beetle
+needs revision, but Fabre states that the larva, soon after entering the
+nest of its host, changes its skin and assumes a second larva form.
+Newport, who with Siebold has carefully described the metamorphoses of
+Meloë, does not mention this stage in its development, which Fabre calls
+"pseudo-chrysalis." It is motionless, the head is mask-like, without
+movable appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles. This
+is more properly speaking the semi-pupa, and the mature pupa grows
+beneath its mask-like form, which is finally moulted. This form,
+however, according to Fabre, changes its skin and turns into a third
+larva form (Fig. 37). After some time it assumes its true pupa form
+(Fig. 38), and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle.
+
+Fabre has also, in a lively and well-written account, given a history of
+Sitaris, a European beetle, somewhat resembling Meloë. He states that
+Sitaris lays its eggs near the entrance of bees' nests, and at the very
+moment that the bee lays her egg in the honey cell, the flattened, ovate
+Sitaris larva drops from the body of the bee upon which it has been
+living, and feasts upon the contents of the freshly laid egg. After
+eating this delicate morsel it devours the honey in the cells of the bee
+and changes into a white, cylindrical, nearly footless grub, and after
+it is full-fed, and has assumed a supposed "pupa" state, the skin,
+without bursting, incloses a kind of hard "pupa" skin, which is very
+similar in outline to the former larva, within whose skin is found a
+whitish larva which directly changes into the true pupa. In a succeeding
+state this pupa in the ordinary way changes to a beetle which belongs to
+the same group of Coleoptera as Meloë. We cannot but think, from
+observations made on the humble bee, the wasp, two species of moths and
+several other insects, that this "hyper-metamorphosis" is not so
+abnormal a mode of insect metamorphosis as has been supposed, and that
+the changes of these insects, made beneath the skin of the mature larva
+before assuming the pupa state, are almost as remarkable as those of
+Meloë and Sitaris, though less easily observed than they. Several other
+beetles allied to Meloë are known to be parasitic on wild bees, though
+the accounts of them are fragmentary.
+
+
+THE STYLOPS PARASITE.
+
+The history of Stylops, a beetle allied to Meloë, is no less strange
+than that of Meloë, and is in some respects still more interesting. On
+June 18th I captured an Andrena vicina which had been "stylopized." On
+looking at my capture I saw a pale reddish-brown triangular mark on the
+bee's abdomen; this was the flattened head and thorax of a female
+Stylops (Fig. 39_a_, position of the female of Stylops, seen in profile
+in the abdomen of the bee; Fig. 39_b_, the female seen from above. The
+head and thorax are soldered into a single flattened mass, the baggy
+hind-body being greatly enlarged like that of the gravid female of the
+white ant, and consisting of nine segments).
+
+[Illustration: 39. Female Stylops.]
+
+On carefully drawing out the whole body (Pl. 1, Fig. 6, as seen from
+above, and showing the alimentary canal ending in a blind sac; Fig.
+6_a_, side view), which is very extensible, soft and baggy, and
+examining it under a high power of the microscope, we saw multitudes, at
+least several hundred, of very minute larvæ, like particles of dust to
+the naked eye, issuing in every direction from the body of the parent
+now torn open in places, though most of them made their exit through an
+opening on the under side of the head-thorax. The Stylops, being hatched
+while still in the body of the parent, is, therefore viviparous. She
+probably never lays eggs.
+
+On the last of April, when the Mezereon was in blossom, I caught the
+singular looking male (Stylops Childreni, Fig. 40; a, side view; it is
+about one-fourth of an inch long), which was as unlike its partner as
+possible. I laid it under a tumbler, when the delicate insect flew and
+tumbled about till it died of exhaustion in a few hours.
+
+It appears, then, that the larvæ are hatched during the middle or last
+of June from eggs fertilized in April. The larvæ then crawl out upon the
+body of the bee, on which they are transported to the nest, where they
+enter, according to Peck's observations, the body of the larva, on whose
+fatty parts they feed. Previous to changing to a pupa the larva lives
+with its head turned towards that of its host, but before assuming the
+perfect state (which they do in the late summer or autumn) it must
+reverse its position. The female protrudes the front part of her body
+between the segments of the abdomen of her host, as represented in our
+figure. This change, Newport thinks, takes place after the bee-host has
+undergone its metamorphoses, though the bee does not leave her earthen
+cells until the following spring. Though the male Stylops deserts his
+host, his wingless partner is imprisoned during her whole life within
+her host, and dies immediately after giving birth to her myriad (for
+Newport thinks she produces over two thousand) offspring.
+
+[Illustration: 40. Male Stylops.]
+
+Xenos Peckii, an allied insect, was discovered by Dr. Peck to be
+parasitic in the body of wasps, and there are now known to be several
+species of this small but curious family, Stylopidæ, which are known to
+live parasitically on the bodies of our wild bees and wasps. The
+presence of these parasites finally exhausts the host, so that the
+sterile female bee dies prematurely.
+
+As in the higher animals, bees are afflicted with parasitic worms which
+induce disease and sometimes death. The well-known hair worm, Gordius,
+is an insect parasite. The adult form is about the size of a slender
+knitting needle, and is seen in moist soil and in pools. It lays,
+according to Dr. Leidy, "millions of eggs connected together in long
+cords." The microscopical, tadpole-shaped young penetrate into the
+bodies of insects frequenting damp localities. Fairly ensconced within
+the body of their unsuspecting host, they luxuriate on its fatty
+tissues, and pass through their metamorphoses into the adult form, when
+they desert their living house and take to the water to lay their eggs.
+In Europe, Siebold has described Gordius subbifurcus, which infests the
+drones of the Honey bee, and also other insects. Professor Siebold has
+also described Mermis albicans, which is a similar kind of hair worm,
+from two to five inches long, and whitish in color. This worm is also
+found, strangely enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers
+which frequent watery places to appease their thirst.
+
+[Illustration: 41. Bee fungus.]
+
+Thousands of insects are carried off yearly by parasitic fungi. The
+ravages of the Muscardine, caused by a minute fungus (Botrytris
+Bassiana), have threatened the extinction of silk culture in Europe, and
+the still more formidable disease called _pebrine_ is thought to be of
+vegetable origin. Dr. Leidy mentions a fungus which must annually carry
+off myriads of the Seventeen Year Locust. A somewhat similar fungus,
+Mucor mellitophorus (Fig. 41), infests bees, filling the stomach with
+microscopical colorless spores, so as greatly to weaken the insect.
+
+As there is a probability that many insects, parasites on the wild bees,
+may sooner or later afflict the Honey bee, and also to illustrate
+farther the complex nature of insect parasitism, we will for a moment
+look at some other bee parasites.
+
+[Illustration: Pl. 1
+
+PARASITES OF BEES.]
+
+Among the numerous insects preying in some way upon the Humble bee are
+to be found other species of bees and moths, flies and beetles. Insect
+parasites often imitate their host: Apathus (Plate I, Fig. 1, A.
+Ashtoni) can scarcely be distinguished from its host, and yet it lives
+cuckoo-like in the cells of the Humble bee, though we know not yet how
+injurious it really is. Then there are Conops and Volucella, the
+former of which lives like Tachina and Phora within the bee's body,
+while the latter devours the brood. The young (Plate I, Figs. 5, 5_a_)
+of another fly allied to Anthomyia, of which the Onion fly (Fig. 42) is
+an example, is also not unfrequently met with. A small beetle (Plate 1.
+Fig. 4, Antherophagus ochraceus) is a common inmate of Humble bees'
+nests, and probably feeds upon the wax and pollen. We have also found
+several larvæ (Fig. 43) of a beetle of which we do not know the adult
+form. Of similar habits is probably a small moth (Nephopteryx Edmandsii,
+Plate I, Figs. 2; 2_a_, larva; Fig. 2_b_, chrysalis, or pupa) which
+undoubtedly feeds upon the waxen walls of the bee cells, and thus, like
+the attacks of the common bee moth (Galleria cereana, whose habits are
+so well known as not to detain us, must prove very prejudicial to the
+well being of the colony. This moth is in turn infested by an Ichneumon
+fly (Microgaster nephoptericis, Plate I, Figs. 3, 3_a_) which must prove
+quite destructive.
+
+[Illustration: 42. Onion Fly and Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 43. Larva of Beetle.]
+
+The figures of the early stages of a minute ichneumon represented on the
+same plate (Fig. 7, larva, and 7_a_, pupa, of Anthophorabia megachilis)
+which is parasitic on Megachile, the Leaf-cutter bee, illustrates the
+transformations of the Ichneumon flies, the smallest species of which
+yet known (and we believe the smallest insect known at all) is the
+Pteratomus Putnami (Pl. I, Fig. 8, wanting the hind leg), or "winged
+atom," which is only one-ninetieth of an inch in length, and is
+parasitic on Anthophorabia, itself a parasite. A species of mite (Plate
+I, Figs. 9; 9_a_, the same seen from beneath) is always to be found In
+humble bees' nests, but it is not thought to be specially obnoxious to
+the bees themselves, though several species of mites (Gamasus, etc.) are
+known to be parasitic on insects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS.
+
+
+The butterflies and moths from their beauty and grace, have always been
+the favorites among amateur entomologists, and rare and costly works
+have been published in which their forms and gorgeous colors are
+represented in the best style of natural history art. We need only
+mention the folio volume of Madam Merian of the last century, Harris's
+Aurelian, the works of Cramer, Stoll, Drury, Hübner, Horsfield,
+Doubleday and Westwood, and Hewitson, as comprising the most luxurious
+and costly entomological works.
+
+Near the close of the last century, John Abbot went from London and
+spent several years in Georgia, rearing the larger and more showy
+butterflies and moths, and painting them in the larva, chrysalis and
+adult, or imago stage. These drawings he sent to London to be sold. Many
+of them were collected by Sir James Edward Smith, and published under
+the title of "The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous Insects of
+Georgia, collected from the Observations of John Abbot, with the Plants
+on which they Feed." (London, 1797. 2 vols., fol.) Besides these two
+rare volumes there are sixteen folio volumes of drawings by Abbot in the
+Library of the British Museum. This work is of especial interest to the
+American student as it illustrates the early stages of many of our
+butterflies and moths.
+
+Indeed the study of insects possesses most of its interest when we
+observe their habits and transformations. Caterpillars are always to be
+found, and with a little practice are easy to raise; we would therefore
+advise any one desirous of beginning the study of insects to take up the
+butterflies and moths. They are perhaps easier to study than any other
+group of insects, and are more ornamental in the cabinet. As a
+scientific study we would recommend it to ladies as next to botany in
+interest and in the ease in which specimens may be collected and
+examined. The example of Madam Merian, and several ladies in this
+country who have greatly aided science by their well filled cabinets,
+and critical knowledge of the various species and their transformations,
+is an earnest of what may be expected from their followers. Though the
+moths are easy to study compared with the bees, flies, beetles and bugs,
+and dragon flies, yet many questions of great interest in philosophical
+entomology have been answered by our knowledge of their structure and
+mode of growth. The great works of Herold on the evolution of a
+caterpillar; of Lyonet on the anatomy of the Cossus; of Newport on that
+of the Sphinx; and of Siebold on the parthenogenesis of insects, are
+proofs that the moths have engaged the attention of some of the master
+minds in science.
+
+The study of the transformations of the moths is also of great
+importance to one who would acquaint himself with the questions
+concerning the growth and metamorphoses and origin of animals. We should
+remember that the very words "metamorphosis" and "transformation," now
+so generally applied to other groups of animals and used in
+philosophical botany, were first suggested by those who observed that
+the moth and butterfly attain their maturity only by passing through
+wonderful changes of form and modes of life.
+
+The knowledge of the fact that all animals pass through some sort of a
+metamorphosis is very recent in physiology. Moreover the fact that these
+morphological eras in the life of an individual animal accord most
+unerringly with the gradation of forms in the type of which it is a
+member, was the discovery of the eminent physiologist Von Baer. Up to
+this time the true significance of the luxuriance and diversity of
+larval forms had never seriously engaged the attention of systematists
+in entomology.
+
+What can possibly be the meaning of all this putting on and taking off
+of caterpillar habiliments, or in other words, the process of moulting,
+with the frequent changes in ornamentation, and the seeming
+fastidiousness and queer fancies and strange conceits of these young and
+giddy insects seems hidden and mysterious to human observation. Indeed,
+few care to spend the time and trouble necessary to observe the insect
+through its transformations; and that done, if only the larva of the
+perfect insect can be identified and its form sketched how much was
+gained! A truthful and circumstantial biography, in all its relations,
+of a single insect has yet to be written!
+
+We should also apply our knowledge of the larval forms of insects to the
+details of their classification into families and genera, constantly
+collating our knowledge of the early stages with the structural
+relations that accompany them in the perfect state.
+
+The simple form of the caterpillar seems to be a concentration of the
+characters of the perfect insect, and presents easy characters by which
+to distinguish the minor groups; and the relative rank of the higher
+divisions will only be definitely settled when their forms and methods
+of transformation are thoroughly known. Thus, for example, in two groups
+of the large Attacus-like moths, which are so amply illustrated in Dr.
+Harris's "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation"; if we take the
+different forms of the caterpillars of the Tau moth of Europe, which are
+figured by Duponchel and Godard, we find that the very young larva has
+four horn-like processes on the front, and four on the back part of the
+body. The full grown larva of the Regalis moth, of the Southern and
+Middle states, is very similarly ornamented. It is an embryonic form,
+and therefore inferior in rank to the Tau moth. Multiply these horns
+over the surface of the body, lessen their size, and crown them with
+hairs, and we have our Io moth, so destructive to corn. Now take off the
+hairs, elongating and thinning out the tubercles, and make up the loss
+by the increased size of the worm, and we have the caterpillar of our
+common Cecropia moth. Again, remove the naked tubercles almost wholly,
+smooth off the surface of the body, and contract its length, thus giving
+a greater convexity and angularity to the rings, and we have before us
+the larva of the stately Luna moth that tops this royal family. Here are
+certain criteria for placing these insects before our minds in the order
+that nature has placed them. We have certain facts for determining which
+of these three insects is highest and which lowest in the scale, when we
+see the larva of the Luna moth throwing off successively the Io and
+Cecropia forms to take on its own higher features. So that there is a
+meaning in all this shifting of insect toggery.
+
+This is but an example of the many ways in which both pleasure and
+mental profit may be realized from the thoughtful study of caterpillar
+life.
+
+In collecting butterflies and moths for cabinet specimens, one needs a
+gauze net a foot and a half deep, with the wire frame a foot in
+diameter; a wide-mouthed bottle containing a parcel of cyanide of
+potassium gummed on the side, in which to kill the moths, which should,
+as soon as life is extinct, be pinned in a cork-lined collecting box
+carried in the coat pocket. The captures should then be spread and dried
+on a grooved setting board, and a cabinet formed of cork-lined boxes or
+drawers; as a substitute for cork, frames with paper tightly stretched
+over them may be used, or the pith of corn-stalks or palm wood.
+Caterpillars should be preserved in spirits, or in glycerine with a
+little alcohol added.
+
+Some persons ingeniously empty the skins and inflate them over a flame
+so that they may be pinned by the side of the adult.
+
+Some of the most troublesome and noxious insects are found among the
+moths. I need only mention the canker worm and American tent
+caterpillar, and the various kinds of cut worms, as instances.
+
+[Illustration: 43. Parasite of the American Silk Worm.]
+
+We must not, however, forget the good done by insects. They undoubtedly
+tend by their attacks to prevent an undue growth of vegetation. The
+pruning done to a tree or herb by certain insects undoubtedly causes a
+more healthy growth of the branches and leaves, and ultimately a greater
+production fruit. Again, as pollen-bearers, insects are a most powerful
+agency in nature. It is undoubtedly the fact that the presence, of bees
+in orchards increases the fruit crop, and thus the thousands of moths
+(though injurious as caterpillars), wild bees and other insects, that
+seem to live without purpose, are really, though few realize it, among
+the best friends and allies of man.
+
+Moreover, insects are of great use as scavengers; such are the young or
+maggots of the house fly, the mosquitoes, and numerous other forms, that
+seem created only to vex us when in the winged state. Still a larger
+proportion of insects are directly beneficial from their habit of
+attacking injurious species, such as the ichneumons (Fig. 43, the
+ichneumon of the American silk worm) and certain flies (Fig. 44,
+Tachina); also many carnivorous species of wasps beetles and flies,
+dragon flies and Aphis lions (Fig. 45, the lace-winged fly; adult, larva
+and eggs).
+
+[Illustration: 44. Tachina, parasite of Colorado Potato Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 45. The Lace-winged Fly, Its Larva and Eggs.]
+
+But few, however, suspect how enormous are the losses to crops in this
+country entailed by the attacks of the injurious species. In Europe, the
+subject of applied entomology has always attracted a great deal of
+attention. Most sumptuous works, elegant quartos prepared by naturalists
+known the world over, and published at government expense, together with
+smaller treatises, have frequently appeared; while the subject is taught
+in the numerous agricultural colleges and schools, especially of
+Germany.
+
+In the densely populated countries of Europe, the losses occasioned by
+injurious insects are most severely felt, though from many causes, such
+as the greater abundance of their insect parasites, and the far greater
+care taken by the people to exterminate their insect enemies, they have
+not proved so destructive as in our own land.
+
+In this connection I may quote from one of Dr. Asa Fitch's reports on
+the noxious insects of New York, where he says: "I find that in our
+wheat-fields here, the midge formed 59 per cent. of all the insects on
+this grain the past summer; whilst in France, the preceding summer, only
+7 per cent. of the insects on wheat were of this species. In France the
+parasitic destroyers amounted to 85 per cent.; while in this country our
+parasites form only 10 per cent."
+
+"A true knowledge of practical entomology may well be said to be in its
+infancy in our own country, when, as is well-known to agriculturists,
+the cultivation of wheat has almost been given up in New England, New
+York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia, from the attacks of the wheat
+midge, Hessian fly, joint worm, and chinch bug. According to Dr.
+Shimer's estimate, says Mr. Riley, in his Second Annual Report on the
+Injurious Insects of Missouri, which may be considered a reasonable
+one, in the year 1864 three-fourths of the wheat, and one-half of the
+corn crop were destroyed by the chinch bug throughout many extensive
+districts, comprising almost the entire North-West. At the annual rate
+of increase, according to the United States Census, in the State of
+Illinois, the wheat crop ought to have been about thirty millions of
+bushels, and the corn crop about one hundred and thirty-eight million
+bushels. Putting the cash value of wheat at $1.25, and that of corn at
+50 cents, the cash value of the corn and wheat destroyed by this
+insignificant little bug, no bigger than a grain of rice, in one single
+State and one single year, will therefore, according to the above
+figures, foot up to the astounding total of _over seventy-three millions
+of dollars_!"
+
+The imported cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapæ), recently introduced from
+Europe, is estimated by the Abbé Provatncher, a Canadian entomologist,
+to destroy annually two hundred and forty thousand dollars' worth of
+cabbages around Quebec. The Hessian fly, according to Dr. Fitch,
+destroyed fifteen million dollars' worth of wheat in New York State in
+one year (1854). The army worm of the North (Leucania unipuncta), which
+was so abundant in 1861, from New England to Kansas, was reported to
+have done damage that year in Eastern Massachusetts exceeding half a
+million of dollars. The joint worm (Isosoma hordei) alone sometimes cuts
+off whole fields of grain in Virginia and northward. The Colorado potato
+beetle is steadily moving eastward, now ravaging the fields in Indiana
+and Ohio, and only the forethought and ingenuity in devising means of
+checking its attacks, resulting from a thorough study of its habits,
+will deliver our wasted fields from its direful assaults.
+
+These are the injuries done by the more abundant kinds of insects
+injurious to crops. We should not forget that each fruit or shade tree,
+garden shrub or vegetable, has a host of insects peculiar to it, and
+which, year after year, renew their attacks. I could enumerate upwards
+of fifty species of insects which prey upon cereals and grass, and as
+many which infest our field crops. Some thirty well known species ravage
+our garden vegetables. There are nearly fifty species which attack the
+grape vine, and their number is rapidly increasing. About seventy-five
+species make their annual onset upon the apple tree, and nearly an equal
+number may be found upon the plum, pear, peach and cherry. Among our
+shade trees, over fifty species infest the oak; twenty-five the elm;
+seventy-five the walnut, and over one hundred species of insects prey
+upon the pine.
+
+Indeed, we may reasonably calculate the annual loss in our country
+alone, from noxious animals and the lower forms of plants, such as rust,
+smut and mildew, as (at a low estimate) not far from five hundred
+million dollars annually. Of this amount, at least one-tenth, or fifty
+million dollars, could probably be saved by human exertions.
+
+To save a portion of this annual loss of food stuffs, fruits and lumber,
+should be the first object of farmers and gardeners. When this saving is
+made, farming will become a profitable and safe profession. But while a
+few are well informed as to the losses sustained by injurious insects,
+and use means to ward off their attacks, their efforts are constantly
+foiled by the negligence of their neighbors. As illustrated so well by
+the history of the incursions of the army worm and canker worm, it is
+only by a combination between farmers and orchardists that these and
+other pests can be kept under. The matter can be best reached by
+legislation. We have fish and game laws; why should we not have an
+insect law? Why should we not frame a law providing that farmers, and
+all owning a garden or orchard, should cooperate in taking preventive
+measures against injurious insects, such as early or late planting of
+cereals, to avert the attacks of the wheat midge and Hessian fly; the
+burning of stubble in the autumn and spring to destroy the joint worm;
+the combined use of proper remedies against the canker worm, the
+various cut worms, and other noxious caterpillars? A law carried out by
+a proper State entomological constabulary, if it may be so designated,
+would compel the idle and shiftless to clear their farms and gardens of
+noxious animals.
+
+[Illustration: 46. Pickle Worm and its Moth.]
+
+Among some of the injurious insects reported on by Mr. Riley, the State
+Entomologist of Missouri, is a new pest to the cucumber in the West, the
+Pickle worm (Phacellura nitidalis, Fig. 46). This is a caterpillar which
+bores into the cucumbers when large enough to pickle, and which is
+occasionally found in pickles. Three or four worms sometimes occur in a
+cucumber, and in the garden a single one will cause it to rot. One of
+the most troublesome intruders in our graperies is the Vine dresser
+(Choerocampa pampinatrix, Fig. 47, larva and pupa; Fig. 48, adult), a
+single caterpillar of which will sometimes "strip a small vine of its
+leaves in a few nights," and occasionally nips off bunches of half-grown
+grapes.
+
+[Illustration: 48. Vine Dresser Moth.
+
+47. Vine Dresser and Chrysalis.]
+
+Another caterpillar, which is sometimes so abundant as nearly to
+defoliate the grape vine, is the eight spotted Alypia (Fig. 49; _a_,
+larva; _b_, side view of a segment). This must not be confounded with
+the bluish larva of the Wood Nymph, Eudryas grata (Fig. 50), which
+differs from the Alypia caterpillar in being bluish, and in wanting the
+white patches on the side of the body, and the more prominent hump on
+the end of the body. Another moth (Psychomorpha epimenis, Fig. 51,
+_a_, larva; _b_, side view of a segment; _c_, top view of the hump),
+also feeds on the grape, eating the terminal buds. It is also bluish,
+and wants the orange bands on the side of the body. Another moth of this
+family is the American Procris (Acoloithus Americana, Fig. 52_a_, larva;
+_b_, pupa; _c_, cocoon; _d_, _e_, imago); a dark blue moth, with a deep
+orange collar, whose black and yellow caterpillar is gregarious (Fig.
+53), living in companies of a dozen or more and eating the softer parts
+of the leaves. It is quite common in the Western and Southern States.
+The figure represents two separate broods of caterpillars feeding on
+either side of the midrib of the leaf. But if the moths are, as a rule,
+the enemies of our crops, there are the silk worms of the East and
+Southern Europe and California, which afford the means of support to
+multitudes of the poorer classes, and supply one of the most valuable
+articles of clothing. Blot out the silk worm, and we should remove one
+of the most important sources of national wealth, the annual revenue
+from the silk trade of the world amounting to $254,500,000.
+
+[Illustration: 49. Eight-spotted Alypia and Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 50. Eudryas grata.]
+
+[Illustration: 51. Larva of Psychomorpha.]
+
+[Illustration: 52. American Procris and Young.]
+
+[Illustration: 53. Larvæ of American Procris.]
+
+Silk culture is rapidly assuming importance in California, and though
+the Chinese silk worm has not been successfully cultivated in the
+Eastern States, yet the American silk worm, Teleas Polyphemus (see
+frontispiece, male; Fig. 54, larva; 55, pupa; 56, cocoon), can, we are
+assured by Mr. Trouvelot, be made a source of profit.
+
+This is a splendid member of the group of which the gigantic Attacus
+Atlas of China is a type. It is a large, fawn colored moth with a tawny
+tinge; the caterpillar is pale green, and is of the size indicated in
+the cut. Mr. Trouvelot says that of the several kinds of silk worms, the
+larva of the present species alone deserves attention. The cocoons of
+Platysamia Cecropia may be rendered of some commercial value, as the
+silk can be carded, but the chief objection is the difficulty of raising
+the larva.
+
+"The Polyphemus worm spins a strong, dense, oval cocoon, which is closed
+at each end, while the silk has a very strong and glossy fibre." Mr.
+Trouvelot, from whose interesting account in the first volume of the
+"American Naturalist" we quote, says that in 1865 "not less than a
+million could be seen feeding in the open air upon bushes covered with a
+net; five acres of woodland were swarming with caterpillar life." The
+bushes were scrub oaks, the worms being protected by a net. After
+meeting with such great success Mr. Trouvelot lost all his worms by
+pebrine, the germs being imported in eggs received from Japan through M.
+Guérin-Méneville of Paris. Enough, however, was done to prove that silk
+raising can be carried on profitably, when due precautions are taken, as
+far north as Boston. As this moth extends to the tropics, it can be
+reared with greater facility southwards. The cocoon is strong and dense,
+and closed at each end, so that the thread is continuous, while the silk
+has a very strong and glossy fibre.
+
+[Illustration: 54. American Silk Worm.]
+
+Next in value to the American silk worm, is the Ailanthus silk worm
+(Samia Cynthia) a species allied to our Callosamia Promethea. It
+originated from China, where it is cultivated, and was introduced into
+Italy in 1858, and thence spread into France, where it was introduced by
+M. Guérin-Méneville. Its silk is said to be much stronger than the fibre
+of cotton, and is a mean between fine wool and ordinary silk. The worm
+is very hardy, and can be reared in the open air both in this country
+and in Europe. The main drawback to its culture is the difficulty in
+unreeling the tough cocoon, and the shortness of the thread, the cocoon
+being open at one end.
+
+The Yama-maï moth (Antheræa Yama-maï) was introduced into France from
+Japan in 1861. It is closely allied to the Polyphemus moth, and its
+caterpillar also feeds on the oak. Its silk is said to be quite
+brilliant, but a little coarser and not so strong as that of the Bombyx
+mori. The Perny silk worm is extensively cultivated by the Chinese in
+Manchouria, where it feeds on the oak. Its silk is coarser than that of
+the common silk worm, but is yet fine, strong and glossy. Bengal has
+furnished the Tussah moth, which lives in India on the oak and a variety
+of other trees. It is largely raised in French and English India,
+according to Nogués, and is used in the manufacture of stuffs called
+corahs.
+
+[Illustration: 55. Chrysalis of American Silk Worm.]
+
+[Illustration: 56. Cocoon of American Silk Worm.]
+
+The last kind of importance is the Arrhindy silk worm, from India. It
+has been naturalized in France and Algeria by M. Guérin-Méneville, who
+has done so much in the application of entomology to practical life. It
+is closely allied to the Cynthia or Ailanthus worm, with the same kind
+of silk and a similar cocoon, and feeds on the castor oil plant.
+
+The diseases of silk worms naturally receive much attention. Like those
+afflicting mankind, they arise from bad air, resulting from too close
+confinement, bad food, and other adverse causes. The most fatal and
+wide-spread disease, and one which since 1854 has threatened the
+extermination of silk worms in Europe, is the _pebrine_. It is due to
+the presence of minute vegetable corpuscles, which attack both the worms
+and the eggs. It was this disease which swept off thousands of Mr.
+Trouvelot's Polyphemus worms, and put a sudden termination to his
+important experiments, the germs having been implanted in eggs of the
+Yama-maï moth imported from Japan by M. Guérin-Méneville, and which were
+probably infected as they passed through Paris. Though the disaster
+happened several years since, he tells us that it will be useless for
+him to attempt the raising of silk worms in the town where his
+establishment is situated, as the germs of the disease are most
+difficult to eradicate.
+
+So direful in France were the ravages of this disease that two of the
+most advanced naturalists in France, Quatrefages and Pasteur, were
+commissioned by the French government to investigate the disease.
+Pasteur found that the infected eggs differed in appearance from the
+sound ones, and could thus be sorted out by aid of the microscope and
+destroyed. Thus these investigations, carried on year after year, and
+seeming to the ignorant to tend to no practical end, resulted in saving
+to France her silk culture. During the past year (1871) so successful
+has his method proved that a French scientific journal expresses the
+hope of the complete reestablishment and prosperity of this great
+industry. A single person who obtained in 1871 in his nurseries 30,000
+ounces of eggs, hopes the next year to obtain 100,000 ounces, from which
+he expects to realize about one million dollars.
+
+[Illustration: The Potato Caterpillar.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE CLOTHES MOTH.
+
+
+For over a fortnight we once enjoyed the company of the caterpillar of a
+common clothes moth. It is a little pale, delicate worm (Fig. 57,
+magnified), about the size of a darning needle, and rather less than
+half an inch in length, with a pale horn-colored head, the ring next the
+head being of the same color. It has sixteen feet, the first six of them
+well developed and constantly in use to draw the slender body in and out
+of its case. Its head is armed with a formidable pair of jaws, with
+which, like a scythe, it mows its way through thick and thin.
+
+But the case is the most remarkable feature in the history of this
+caterpillar. Hardly has the helpless, tiny worm broken out of the egg,
+previously laid in some old garment of fur or wool, or perhaps in the
+haircloth of a sofa, when it begins to make a shelter by cutting the
+woolly fibres or soft hairs into bits, which it places at each end in
+successive layers, and, joining them together by silken threads,
+constructs a cylindrical tube (Fig. 58) of thick, warm felt, lined
+within with the finest silk the tiny worm can spin. The case is not
+perfectly cylindrical, being flattened slightly in the middle, and
+contracted a little just before each end, both of which are always kept
+open. The case before us is of a stone-gray color, with a black stripe
+along the middle, and with rings of the same color round each opening.
+Had the caterpillar fed on blue or yellow cloth, the case would, of
+course, have been of those colors. Other cases, made by larvæ which had
+been eating loose cotton, were quite irregular in form, and covered
+loosely with bits of cotton thread, which the little tailor had not
+trimmed off.
+
+Days go by. A vigorous course of dieting on its feast of wool has given
+stature to our hero. His case has grown uncomfortably small. Shall he
+leave it and make another? No housewife is more prudent and saving. Out
+come those scissor-jaws, and, lo! a fearful rent along each side of one
+end of the case. Two wedge-shaped patches mend the breach; the
+caterpillar retires for a moment and reappears at the other end; the
+scissors are once more pulled out; two rents appear, to be filled up by
+two more patches or gores, and our caterpillar once again breathes more
+freely, laughs and grows fat upon horse hair and lambs' wool. In this
+way he enlarges his case till he stops growing.
+
+[Illustration: 59. 58. 57.
+
+Early Stages of the Clothes Moth.]
+
+Our caterpillar seeming to be full-grown, and apparently out of
+employment, we cut the end of his case half off. Two or three days
+after, he had mended it from the inside, drawing the two edges together
+by silken threads, and, though he had not touched the outside, yet so
+neatly were the two parts joined together that we had to search for some
+time, with a lens, to find the scar.
+
+To keep our friend busy during the cold, cheerless weather, for it was
+mid-winter, we next cut a third of the case entirely off. Nothing
+daunted, the little fellow bustled about, drew in a mass of the woolly
+fibres, filling up the whole mouth of his den, and began to build on
+afresh, and from the inside, so that the new-made portion was smaller
+than the rest of the case. The creature worked very slowly, and the
+addition was left in a rough, unfinished state.
+
+We could easily spare these voracious little worms hairs enough to serve
+as food, and to afford material for the construction of their paltry
+cases; but that restless spirit that ever urges on all beings endowed
+with life and the power of motion, never forsakes the young clothes moth
+for a moment. He will not be forced to drag his heavy case over rough
+hairs and furzy wool, hence with his keen jaws he cuts his way through.
+Thus, the more he travels, the more mischief he does.
+
+After taking his fill of this sort of life he changes to a chrysalid
+(Fig. 59), and soon appears as one of those delicate, tiny, demure
+moths that fly in such numbers from early in the spring until the
+autumn.
+
+Very many do not recognize these moths in their perfect stage, so small
+are they, and vent their wrath on those great millers that fly around
+lamps in warm summer evenings. It need scarcely be said that these large
+millers are utterly guiltless of any attempts upon our wardrobes; they
+make their attacks in a more open form on our gardens and orchards.
+
+We will give a more careful description of the clothes moth, which was
+found in its different stages June 12th in a mass of loose cotton. The
+larva is white, with a tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly
+towards the tail, while the head is much of the color of gum-copal. The
+rings of the body are thickened above, especially on the thoracic ones,
+by two transverse thickened folds. It is one-fifth of an inch long.
+
+The body of the chrysalis, or pupa, is considerably curved, with the
+head smooth and rounded. The long antennæ, together with the hind legs,
+which are folded along the breast, reach to the tip of the hind body, on
+the upper surface of each ring of which is a short transverse row of
+minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving towards the mouth of
+its case, just before the moth appears. At first the chrysalis is
+whitish, but just before the exclusion of the moth becomes the color of
+varnish.
+
+When about to cast its pupa skin, the skin splits open on the back, and
+the perfect insect glides out. The act is so quickly over with, that the
+observer has to look sharp to observe the different steps in the
+operation.
+
+[Illustration: 60. Clothes Moth.]
+
+Our common clothes moth (Tinea flavifrontella, Fig. 60) is of a uniform
+light-buff color, with a silky iridescent lustre, the hind wings and
+abdomen being a little paler. The head is thickly tufted with hairs and
+is a little tawny, and the upper side of the densely hirsute feelers
+(palpi) is dusky. The wings are long and narrow, with the most beautiful
+and delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards the
+base of the wing.
+
+They begin to fly in May, and last all through the season, fluttering
+with a noiseless, stealthy flight in our apartments, and laying their
+eggs in our woollens.
+
+Successive broods of the clothes moth appear through the summer. In the
+autumn they cease eating, retire within their cases, and early in spring
+assume the chrysalis state.
+
+There are several allied species which have much the same habits, except
+that they do not all construct cases, but eat carpets, clothing,
+articles of food, grain, etc., and objects of natural history.
+
+Careful housewives are not much afflicted with these pests. The slovenly
+and thriftless are overrun with them. Early in June woollens and furs
+should be carefully dusted, shaken and beaten. Dr. T. W. Harris states
+that "powdered black pepper, strewed under the edge of carpets, is said
+to repel moths. Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine,
+camphor in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russia
+leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid aside for
+the summer; and furs and other small articles can be kept by being sewed
+in bags with bits of camphor wood, red cedar, or of Spanish cedar; while
+the cloth lining of carriages can be secured forever from the attacks of
+moths by being washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the
+corrosive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough not
+to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths can be most
+readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though its use must be
+much restricted from the disagreeable odor which remains. The recent
+experiments made with carbolic acid, however, convince us that this will
+soon take the place of other substances as a preventive and destroyer of
+noxious insects.
+
+[Illustration: The Juniper Sickle-wing.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE MOSQUITO AND ITS FRIENDS.
+
+
+The subject of flies becomes of vast moment to a Pharaoh, whose ears are
+dinned with the buzz of myriad winged plagues, mingled with angry cries
+from malcontent and fly-pestered subjects; or to the summer traveller in
+northern lands, where they oppose a stronger barrier to his explorations
+than the loftiest mountains or the broadest streams; or to the African
+pioneer, whose cattle, his main dependence, are stung to death by the
+Tsetze fly; or the fariner whose eyes on the evening of a warm spring
+day, after a placid contemplation of his growing acres of wheat blades,
+suddenly detects in dismay clouds of the Wheat midge and Hessian fly
+hovering over their swaying tops. The subject, indeed, has in such cases
+a national importance, and a few words regarding the main points in the
+habits of flies--how they grow, how they do not grow (after assuming the
+winged state), and how they bite; for who has not endured the smart and
+sting of these dipterous Shylocks, that almost torment us out of our
+existence while taking their drop of our heart's blood--may be welcome to
+our readers.
+
+[Illustration: 61. Head of the Mosquito.]
+
+The Mosquito will be our first choice. As she leaps off from her light
+bark, the cast chrysalis skin of her early life beneath the waters, and
+sails away in the sunlight, her velvety wings fringed with silken hairs,
+and her neatly bodiced trim figure (though her nose is rather salient,
+considering that it is half as long as her entire body), present a
+beauty and grace of form and movement quite unsurpassed by her dipterous
+allies. She draws near and softly alights upon the hand of the charmed
+beholder, subdues her trumpeting notes, folds her wings noiselessly upon
+her back, daintily sets down one foot after the other, and with an
+eagerness chastened by the most refined delicacy for the feelings of her
+victim, and with the air of Velpeau redivivus, drives through crushed
+and bleeding capillaries, shrinking nerves and injured tissues, a
+many-bladed lancet of marvellous fineness, of wonderful complexity and
+fitness. While engorging herself with our blood, we will examine under
+the microscope the mosquito's mouth. The head (Fig. 61) is rounded, with
+the two eyes occupying a large part of the surface, and nearly meeting
+on the top of the head. Out of the forehead, so to speak, grow the long,
+delicate, hairy antennm (_a_), and just below arises the long beak which
+consists of the bristle-like maxillæ (_mx_, with their palpi, _mp_) and
+mandibles (_m_), and the single hair-like labrum, these five
+bristle-like organs being laid in the hollowed labium (_l_). Thus massed
+into a single awl-like beak, the mosquito, without any apparent effort,
+thrusts them all except the labium into the flesh. Her hind body may be
+seen tilling with the red blood, until it cries quits, and the insect
+withdraws its sting and flies sluggishly away. In a moment the wounded
+parts itch slightly, though a very robust person may not notice the
+irritation, or a more delicate individual if asleep; though if weakened
+by disease, or if stung in a highly vascular and sensitive part, such as
+the eyelid, the bite becomes really a serious matter. Multiply the
+mosquito a thousand fold, and one flees their attacks and avoids their
+haunts as he would a nest of hornets. Early in spring the larva (Fig.
+62, A) of the mosquito may be found in pools and ditches. It remains at
+the bottom feeding upon decaying matter (thus acting as a scavenger, and
+in this state doing great benefit in clearing swamps of miasms), until
+it rises to the surface for air, which it inhales through a single
+respiratory tube (_c_) situated near the tail. When about to transform
+into the pupa state, it contracts and enlarges anteriorly near the
+middle, the larval skin is thrown off, and the insect appears in quite a
+different form (Fig. 62, a). The head and thorax are massed together,
+the rudiments of the mouth parts and of the wings and legs being folded
+upon the breast, while there are two breathing tubes (_d_) situated upon
+the back instead of the tail, which ends in two broad paddles (_a_); so
+that it comes to the surface, head foremost instead of tail first, a
+position according better with its increased age and experience in pond
+life. In a few days the pupa skin is cast; the insect, availing itself
+of its old habiliments as a raft upon which to float while its body is
+drying, grows lighter, and its wings expand for its marriage flight. The
+males are beautiful, both physically and morally, as they do not bite;
+their manners are more retiring than those of their stronger minded
+partners, as they rarely enter our dwellings, and live unnoticed in the
+woods. They may be easily distinguished from the females by their long
+maxillary palpi, and their thick, bushy, feathered antennæ. The female
+lays her elongated, oval eggs in a boat-shaped mass, which floats on the
+water. A mosquito lives three or four weeks in the water before changing
+to the adult or winged stage. How many days they live in the latter
+state we do not know.
+
+[Illustration: 62. Larva and Pupa of the Mosquito.]
+
+Our readers will understand, then, that all flies, like our mosquito for
+example, grow while in the larva and pupa state, _and after they acquire
+wings do not grow_, so that the small midges are not young mosquitoes,
+but the adult winged forms of an entirely different species and genus of
+fly; and the myriads of small flies, commonly supposed to be the young
+of larger flies, are adult forms belonging to different species of
+different genera, and perhaps of different families of the suborder of
+Diptera. The typical species of the genus Culex, to which the mosquito
+belongs, is Culex pipiens, described by Linnæus, and there are already
+over thirty North American species of this genus described in various
+works. Few insects live in the sea, but along the coast of New England
+a small, slender white larva (Fig. 63a, magnified, and head greatly
+enlarged; Fig. 64, pupa and fore foot of larva, showing the hooks),
+whose body is no thicker than a knitting needle, lives between tides,
+and has even been dredged at a depth of over a hundred feet, which
+transforms into a yellow mosquito-like fly (Fig. 65, with head of the
+female, magnified) which swarms in summer in immense numbers. I have
+called it provisionally Chironomus oceanicus, or Ocean gnat. The larvæ
+of other species have been found by Mr. S. I. Smith living at great
+depths in our Northern lakes. These kinds of gnats are usually seen
+early in spring hovering in swarms in mid air.
+
+[Illustration: 65. Ocean Gnat.]
+
+[Illustration: 63. Larva of Ocean Gnat.]
+
+[Illustration: 64. Pupa of Ocean Gnat.]
+
+The strange fact has been discovered by Grimm, a Russian naturalist,
+that the pupa of a feathered gnat is capable of laying eggs which
+produce young during the summer time. Previous to this it had been
+discovered that a larva of a gnat (Fig. 66 _a_, eggs from which the
+young are produced) which lives under the bark of trees in Europe, also
+produced young born alive.
+
+The Hessian fly (Fig. 67, _a_, larva; _b_ pupa; _c_, stalk of wheat
+injured by larvæ) and Wheat midge, which are allied to the mosquito, are
+briefly referred to in the calendar, so that we pass over these to
+consider another pest of our forests and prairies.
+
+[Illustration: 66. Viviparous gall larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 67. Hessian Fly and its Young.]
+
+The Black fly is even a more formidable pest than the mosquito. In the
+northern, subarctic regions, it opposes a barrier against travel. The
+Labrador fisherman spends his summer on the sea shore, scarcely daring
+to penetrate the interior on account of the swarms of these flies.
+During a summer residence on this coast, we sailed up the Esquimaux
+river for six or eight miles, spending a few hours at a house situated
+on the bank. The day was warm and but little wind blowing, and the
+swarms of black flies were absolutely terrific. In vain we frantically
+waved our net among them, allured by some rare moth; after making a few
+desperate charges in the face of the thronging pests, we had to retire
+to the house, where the windows actually swarmed with them; but here
+they would fly in our faces, crawl under one's clothes, where they even
+remain and bite in the night. The children in the house were sickly and
+worn by their unceasing torments; and the shaggy Newfoundland dogs whose
+thick coats would seem to be proof against their bites ran from their
+shelter beneath the bench and dashed into the river, their only retreat.
+In cloudy weather, unlike the mosquito, the black fly disappears, only
+flying when the sun shines. The bite of the black fly is often severe,
+the creature leaving a large clot of blood to mark the scene of its
+surgical triumphs. Prof. E. T. Cox, State Geologist of Indiana, has sent
+us specimens of a much larger fly, which Baron Osten Sacken refers to
+this genus, which is called on the prairies, where it is said to bite
+horses to death, the Buffalo Gnat. Westwood states that an allied fly
+(Rhagio Columbaschensis) is one of the greatest scourges of man and
+beast in Hungary, where it has been known to kill cattle.
+
+[Illustration: 68. Black fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 69. Black Fly Larva.]
+
+The Simulium molestum (Fig. 68, enlarged), as the black fly is called,
+lives during the larva state in the water. The larva of a Labrador
+species (Fig. 69, enlarged) which we found, is about a quarter of an
+inch long, and of the appearance here indicated. The pupa is also
+aquatic, having long respiratory filaments attached to each side of the
+front of the thorax. According to Westwood, "the posterior part of its
+body is enclosed in a semioval membranous cocoon, which is at first
+formed by the larva, the anterior part of which is eaten away before
+changing to a pupa, so as to be open in front. The imago is produced
+beneath the surface of the water, its fine silky covering serving to
+repel the action of the water."
+
+[Illustration: 70. Mycetobia.]
+
+Multitudes of a long, slender, white worm may often be found living in
+the dirt, and sour sap running from wounds in the elm tree. Two summers
+ago we discovered some of these larvæ, and on rearing them found that
+they were a species of Mycetobia (Fig. 70; _a_, larva; _b_, pupa). The
+larva is remarkable for having the abdominal segments divided into two
+portions, the hinder much smaller than the anterior division. Its whole
+length is a little over a third of an inch. The pupæ were found sticking
+out in considerable numbers from the tree, being anchored by the little
+spines at the tail. The head is square, ending in two horns, and the
+body is straight and covered with spines, especially towards the end of
+the tail. They were a fifth of an inch in length. The last of June the
+flies appeared, somewhat resembling gnats, and about a line long. The
+worms continued to infest the tree for six weeks, the flies remaining
+either upon or near it.
+
+[Illustration: 71. Mouth Parts of Tabanus.]
+
+We now come to that terror of our equine friends, the Horse fly, Gad, or
+Breeze fly. In its larval state, some species live in water, and in damp
+places under stones and pieces of wood, and others in the earth away
+from water, where they feed on animal, and, probably, on decaying
+matter. Mr. B. D. Walsh found an aquatic larva of this genus, which,
+within a short time, devoured eleven water snails. Thus at this stage of
+existence, this fly, often so destructive, even at times killing our
+horses, is beneficial. During the hotter parts of summer, and when the
+sun is shining brightly, thousands of these Horse flies appear on our
+marshes and inland prairies. There are many different kinds, over one
+hundred species of the genus Tabanus alone, living in North America. Our
+most common species is the "Green head," or Tabanus lineola. When about
+to bite, it settles quietly down upon the hand, face or foot, it matters
+not which, and thrusts its formidable lancet-like jaws deep into the
+flesh. Its bite is very painful, as we can testify from personal
+experience. We were told during the last summer that a horse, which
+stood fastened to a tree in a field near the marshes at Rowley, Mass.,
+was bitten to death by these Green heads; and it is known that horses
+and cattle are occasionally killed by their repeated harassing bites. In
+cloudy weather they do not fly, and they perish on the cool frosty
+nights of September. The Timb, or Tsetze fly, is a species of this group
+of flies, and while it does not attack man, plagues to death, and is
+said to poison by its bite, the cattle in certain districts of the
+interior of Africa, thus almost barring out explorers. On comparing the
+mouth-parts of the Horse fly (Fig. 71, mouth of T. lineola), we have all
+the parts seen in the mosquito, but greatly modified. Like the mosquito,
+the females alone bite, the male Horse fly being harmless, and
+frequenting flowers, living upon their sweets. The labrum (_lb_),
+mandibles (_m_) and maxillæ (_mx_), are short, stiff and lancet-like,
+and the maxillary palpi (_mp_; _a_, the five terminal joints of the
+antennæ) are large, stout, and two-jointed. While the jaws (both maxillæ
+and mandibles) are thrust into the flesh, the tongue (_l_) spreads
+around the tube thus formed by the lancets, and pumps up the blood
+flowing from the wound, by aid of the sucking stomach, or crop, being a
+sac appended to the throat. Other Gad flies, but much smaller, though as
+annoying to us in woods and fields, are the species of Golden eyed
+flies, Chrysops, which fly and buzz interminably about our ears, often
+taking a sudden nip. They plague cattle, settling upon them and drawing
+their blood at their leisure.
+
+[Illustration: 72. Carpet Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 73. Carpet Worm.]
+
+We turn to a comparatively unknown insect, which has occasionally
+excited some distrust in the minds of housekeepers. It is the carpet
+fly, Scenopinus pallipes (Fig. 72), which, in the larva state, is found
+under carpets, on which it is said to feed. The worm (Fig. 73) has a
+long, white, cylindrical body, divided into twelve segments, exclusive
+of the head, while the first eight abdominal segments are divided by a
+transverse suture, so that there appear to be seventeen abdominal
+segments, the sutures appearing too distinct in the cut. Mr. F. G.
+Sanborn has reared the fly, here figured, from the worm. The larva also
+lives in rotten wood; it is too scarce ever to prove very destructive in
+houses. Either this or a similar fly was once found, we are told by a
+scientific friend, in great numbers in a "rat" used in dressing a young
+lady's hair; the worms were living upon the hair stuffing.
+
+One of the most puzzling objects to the collector of shells or insects,
+is the almost spherical larva of Microdon globosus (Fig. 74). It is
+flattened and smooth beneath and seems to adhere to the under side of
+stones, where it might be mistaken for a snail.
+
+The Syrphus fly, or Aphis eater, deserves more than the passing notice
+which we bestow upon it. The maggot (Fig. 75, in the act of devouring an
+Aphis) is to be sought for established in a group of plant lice (Aphis),
+which it seizes by means of the long extensible front part of the body.
+The adult fly (Fig. 76) is gayly spotted and banded with yellow,
+resembling closely a wasp. It frequents flowers.
+
+[Illustration: 74. Microdon.]
+
+[Illustration: 75. Syrphus Larva.] 76. Syrphus Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 77. Larva of Rat-tailed Fly. 78. Rat-tailed Fly and its
+Pupa.]
+
+The singular rat-tailed pupa-case of Eristalis (Fig. 77) lives in water,
+and when in want of air, protrudes its long respiratory tube out into
+the air. We present the figure of an allied fly, Merodon Bardus (Fig.
+78; _a_, puparium, natural size). We will not describe at length the
+fly, as the admirable drawings of Mr. Emerton cannot fail to render it
+easily recognizable. The larva is much like the puparium or pupa case,
+here figured, which closely resembles that of Eristalis, in possessing
+along respiratory filament, showing that the maggot undoubtedly lives in
+the water, and when desirous of breathing, protrudes the tube out of the
+water, thus drawing in air enough to fill its internal respiratory tubes
+(tracheæ). The Merodon Narcissa probably lives in the soil, or in rotten
+wood, as the pupa-case has no respiratory tube, having instead a very
+short, sessile, truncated tube, scarcely as long as it is thick. The
+case itself is cylindrical, and rounded alike at each end.
+
+[Illustration: 79. Human Bot Worm.]
+
+We now come to the Bot flies, which are among the most extraordinary, in
+their habits, of all insects. The history of the Bot flies is in brief
+thus. The adult two-winged fly lays its eggs on the exterior of the
+animal to be infested. They are conveyed into the interior of the host,
+where they hatch, and the worm or maggot lives by sucking in the
+purulent matter, caused by the irritation set up by its presence in its
+host; or else the worm itself, after hatching, bores under the skin.
+When fully grown, it quits the body and finishes its transformations to
+the fly-state under ground. Many quadrupeds, from mice, squirrels, and
+rabbits, up to the ox, horse, and even the rhinoceros, suffer from their
+attacks, while man himself is not exempt. The body of the adult fly is
+stout and hairy, and it is easily recognized by having the opening of
+the mouth very small, the mouth-parts being very rudimentary. The larvæ
+are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, consisting of eleven
+segments, exclusive of the head, which are covered with rows of spines
+and tubercles, by which they move about within the body, thus irritating
+the animals in which they take up their abode. The breathing pores
+(stigmata) open in a scaly plate at the posterior end of the body. The
+mouth-parts (mandibles, etc.) of the subcutaneous larvæ consist of
+fleshy tubercles, while in those species which live in the stomachs and
+frontal sinuses of their host, they are armed with horny hooks.
+
+[Illustration: 80. Horse Bot Fly.]
+
+The larvæ attain their full size after moulting twice. Just before
+assuming the pupa state, the maggot leaves its peculiar dwelling place,
+descends into the ground and there becomes a pupa, though retaining its
+larval skin, which serves as a protection to it, whence it is called a
+"puparium."
+
+Several well-authenticated instances are on record of a species of bot
+fly inhabiting the body of man, in Central and South America, producing
+painful tumors under the skin of the arm, legs and abdomen. It is still
+under dispute whether this human bot fly is a true or accidental
+parasite, the more probable opinion being that its proper host is the
+monkey or dog. In Cayenne, this revolting grub is called the Ver macaque
+(Fig. 79); in Para, Ura; in Costa Rica, Torcel; and in New Granada,
+Gusano peludo, or Nuche. The Dermatobia noxialis, supposed to be the Ver
+moyocuil of the inhabitants of Mexico and New Granada, lives beneath the
+skin of the dog.
+
+[Illustration: 81. Bot Fly of Ox, and Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 82. Sheep Bot.]
+
+[Illustration: 83. Skin Bot Fly.]
+
+The Bot fly of the horse, (Gastrophilus equi, Fig. 80 and larva), is
+pale yellowish, spotted with red, with short, grayish, yellow hairs, and
+the wings are banded with reddish. She lays her eggs upon the knees of
+the horse. They are conveyed into the stomach, where the larva lives
+from May until October, and when full grown are found hanging by their
+mouth hooks on the edge of the rectum of the horse, whence they are
+carried out in the excrement. The pupa state lasts for thirty or forty
+days, and the perfect fly appears the next season, from June until
+October.
+
+The Bot fly of the ox (Hypoderma bovis, Fig. 81, and larva), is black
+and densely hairy, and the thorax is banded with yellow and white. The
+larva is found during the month of May, and also in summer, living in
+tumors on the backs of cattle. When fully grown, which is generally in
+July, they make their way out and fall to the ground, and live in the
+pupa-case from twenty-six to thirty days, the fly appearing from May
+until September. It is found all over the world. The Oestrus ovis, or
+sheep Bot fly (Fig. 82, larva), is of a dirty ash color. The abdomen is
+marbled with yellowish and white flecks, and is hairy at the end. This
+species of Bot fly is larviparous, i.e., the eggs are hatched within the
+body of the mother, the larvæ being produced alive. M. F. Brauer, of
+Vienna, the author of the most thorough work we have on these flies,
+tells me that he knows of but one other Bot fly (a species of
+Cephanomyia) which produces living larvæ instead of eggs. The eggs of
+certain other species of Bot flies do not hatch until three or four days
+after they are laid. The larvæ of the sheep Bot fly live, during April,
+May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also in the nasal
+cavity, whence they fall to the ground when fully grown. In twenty-four
+hours they change to pupæ, and the flies appear during the summer.
+
+We also figure the Cuterebra buccata (Fig. 83; _a_, side view,) which
+resembles in the larval state the ox Bot fly. Its habits are not known,
+though the young of other species infest the opossum, squirrel, hare,
+etc., living in subcutaneous tumors.
+
+[Illustration: The banded Lithacodes.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE HOUSE FLY AND ITS ALLIES.
+
+
+[Illustration: 84. Mouth-parts of the House fly.]
+
+The common House fly, Musca domestica, scarcely needs an introduction to
+any one of our readers, and its countenance is so well known that we
+need not present a portrait here. But a study of the proboscis of the
+fly reveals a wonderful adaptability of the mouth-parts of this insect
+to their uses. We have already noticed the most perfect condition of
+these parts as seen in the horse fly. In the proboscis of the house fly
+the hard parts are obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue like
+organ (Fig. 84), bent up beneath the head when at rest. The maxillæ are
+minute, their palpi (_mp_) being single-jointed, and the mandibles (_m_)
+are comparatively useless, being very short and small, compared with the
+lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or horse fly. But the structure of the
+tongue itself (labium, l) is most curious. When the fly settles upon a
+lump of sugar or other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it,
+and the broad knob-like end divides into two broad, flat, muscular
+leaves (_l_), which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the
+fly laps up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a
+framework of tracheal tubes. In the cut given above, Mr. Emerton has
+faithfully represented these modified trachæ, which end in hairs
+projecting externally. Thus the inside of this broad fleshy expansion
+is rough like a rasp, and as Newport states, "is easily employed by the
+insect in scraping or tearing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this
+curious structure that the busy house fly occasions much mischief to the
+covers of our books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving
+tracings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted appearance which
+it occasions on them. It is by means of these also that it teases us in
+the heat of summer, when it alights on the hand or face to sip the
+perspiration as it exudes from, and is condensed upon, the skin."
+
+[Illustration: 85. Larva; _a_, Pupa-case of House fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 86. Larva of Flesh fly.]
+
+Every one notices that house flies are most abundant around barns in
+August and September, and it is in the ordure of stables that the early
+stages of this insect are passed. No one has traced the transformations
+of this fly in our country, but we copy from Bouché's work on the
+transformations of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig.
+85), and pupa-case (_a_) of the Musca domestica of Europe, which is
+supposed to be our species. Bouché states that the larva is cylindrical,
+rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy, and yellowish white,
+and four lines long. The pupa-case, or puparium, is dark reddish-brown,
+and three lines in length. It remains in the pupa state from eight to
+fourteen days. In Europe it is preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies
+(Chalcids). The flesh fly, Musca Cæsar, or the Blue-bottle fly, feeds
+upon decaying animal matter. Its larva (Fig. 86) is long, cylindrical,
+the head being pointed, and the body conical, the posterior end being
+squarely docked. The larva of a Sargus-like form which feeds on offal,
+transforms into a flattened pupa-case (Fig. 87), provided with long,
+scattered hairs. The House fly disappears in autumn, at the approach of
+cold weather, though a few individuals pass through the winter,
+hibernating in houses, and when the rooms are heated may often be seen
+flying on the windows. Other species fly early in March, on warm days,
+having hibernated under leaves, and the bark of trees, moss, etc. An
+allied species, the M. vomitoria, is the Meat fly. Closely allied are
+the parasitic species of Tachina, which live within the bodies of
+caterpillars and other insects, and are among the most beneficial of
+insects, as they prey on thousands of injurious caterpillars. Another
+fly of this Muscid group, the Idia Bigoti, according to Coquerel and
+Mondiere, produces in the natives of Senegal, hard, red, fluctuating
+tumors, in which the larva resides.
+
+[Illustration: 87. Larva of a Sargus-like fly.]
+
+Many of the smaller Muscids mine leaves, running galleries within the
+leaf, or burrowing in seeds or under the bark of plants. We have often
+noticed blister-like swellings on the bark of the willow, which are
+occasioned by a cylindrical, short, fleshy larva (Fig. 88_a_, much
+enlarged), about a line in length, which changes to a pupa within the
+old larval skin, assuming the form here represented (Fig. 88_b_), and
+about the last of June changes to a small black fly (Fig. 88), which
+Baron Osten Sacken refers doubtfully to the genus Lonchæa.
+
+[Illustration: 86. Willow Blister fly.]
+
+The Apple midge frequently does great mischief to apples after they are
+gathered. Mr. F. G. Sanborn states that nine-tenths of the apple crop in
+Wrentham, Mass., were destroyed by a fly supposed to be the Molobrus
+mali, or Apple midge, described by Dr. Fitch. "The eggs were supposed to
+have been laid in fresh apples, in the holes made by the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella), whence the larvæ penetrated into all parts of
+the apple, working small cylindrical burrows about one-sixteenth of an
+inch in diameter." Mr. W. C. Fish has also sent me, from Sandwich,
+Mass., specimens of another kind of apple worm, which he writes has been
+very common in Barnstable county. "It attacks mostly the earlier
+varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for the old fashioned
+Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larvæ (Fig. 89 _a_) enter the fruit
+usually where it has been bored by the Apple worm (Carpocapsa), not
+uncommonly through the crescent-like puncture of the curculio, and
+sometimes through the calyx, when it has not been troubled by other
+insects. Many of them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon
+appears, successive generations of the maggots following until cold
+weather. I have frequently found the pupæ in the bottom of barrels in a
+cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the spring. In the early
+apples, the larvæ work about in every direction. If there be several in
+an apple, they make it unfit for use. Apples that appear perfectly sound
+when taken from the tree, will sometimes, if kept, be all alive with
+them in a few weeks." Baron Osten Sacken informs me that it is a
+Drosophila, "the species of which live in putrescent vegetable matter,
+especially fruits."
+
+[Illustration: 89. Apple Worm and its Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 90. Parent of the Cheese Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 91. Pupa case of Wine-fly.]
+
+An allied fly is the parent of the cheese maggot. The fly itself
+(Piophila casei, Fig. 90) is black, with metallic green reflections, and
+the legs are dark and paler at the knee-joints, the middle and hind pair
+of tarsi being dark honey yellow. The Wine fly is also a Piophila, and
+lives the life of a perpetual toper in old wine casks, and partially
+emptied beer, cider and wine bottles, where, with its pupa-case (Fig.
+91), it may be found floating dead in its favorite beverage.
+
+[Illustration: 92. Bird Tick.]
+
+We now come to the more degraded forms of flies which live parasitically
+on various animals. We figure, from a specimen in the Museum of the
+Peabody Academy of Science, the Bird tick (Ornithomyia, Fig. 92), which
+lives upon the Great Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened, adapted for
+its life under the feathers, where it gorges itself with the blood of
+its host.
+
+[Illustration: 93. The Horse Tick.]
+
+Here belongs also the Horse tick (Hippobosca equina, Fig. 93). It is
+about the size of the house fly, being black, with yellow spots on the
+thorax. Verrill[4] says that "it attacks by preference those parts where
+the hair is thinnest and the skin softest, especially under the belly
+and between the hind legs. Its bite causes severe pain, and will
+irritate the gentlest horses, often rendering them almost unmanageable,
+and causing them to kick dangerously. When found, they cling so firmly
+as to be removed with some difficulty, and they are so tough as not to
+be readily crushed. If one escapes when captured, it will instantly
+return to the horse, or, perchance, to the head of its captor, where it
+is an undesirable guest. Another species sometimes infests the ox."
+
+[Illustration: 94. Sheep Tick.]
+
+[Illustration: 95. Bat Tick.]
+
+In the wingless Sheep tick (Melophagus ovinus, Fig. 94, with the
+pupa-case on the left), the body is wingless and very hairy, and the
+proboscis is very long. The young are developed within the body of the
+parent, until they attain the pupa state, when she deposits the pupa
+case, which is nearly half as large as her abdomen. Other genera are
+parasitic on bats; among them are the singular spider-like Bat ticks
+(Nycteribia, Fig. 95), which have small bodies and enormous legs, and
+are either blind, or provided with four simple eyes. They are of small
+size, being only a line or two in length. Such degraded forms of Diptera
+have a remarkable resemblance to the spiders, mites, ticks, etc. The
+reader should compare the Nycteribia with the young six-footed moose
+tick figured farther on. Another spider-like fly is the Chionea valga
+(Fig. 96; and 97, larva of the European species), which is a degraded
+Tipula, The latter genus standing near the head of the Diptera. The
+Chionea, according to Harris, lives in its early, stages in the ground
+like many other gnats, and is found early in the spring, sometimes
+crawling over the snow. We have also figured and mentioned previously
+(page 41) the Bee louse, Braula, another wingless spider-like fly.
+
+[Illustration: 96. Spider fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 97. Larva of Spider fly.]
+
+The Flea is also a wingless fly, and is probably, as has been suggested
+by an eminent entomologist, as Baron Osten Sacken informs us, a degraded
+genus of the family to which Mycetobia belongs. Its transformations are
+very unlike those of the fly ticks, and agree closely with the early
+stages of Mycetophila, one of the Tipulid family. In its adult condition
+the flea combines the characters of the Diptera, with certain features
+of the grasshoppers and cockroaches, and the bugs. The body of the flea
+(Fig. 98, greatly magnified; _a_, antennæ; _b_, maxillæ, and their
+palpi, _c_; _d_, mandibles; the latter, with the labium, which is not
+shown in the figure, forming the acute beak) is much compressed, and
+there are minute wing-pads, instead of wings, present in some species.
+
+[Illustration: 98. Flea, magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: 99. Larva of Flea.]
+
+Dr. G. A. Perkins, of Salem, has succeeded in rearing in considerable
+numbers from the eggs, the larvæ of this flea. The larvæ (Fig. 99, much
+enlarged; _a_, antenna; _b_, the terminal segments of the abdomen), when
+hatched, are half a line in length. The body is long, cylindrical, and
+pure white, with thirteen segments exclusive of the head, and provided
+with rather long hairs. It is very active in its movements, and lives on
+blood clots, remaining on unswept floors of out-houses, or in the straw
+or bed of the animals they infest. In six days after the eggs are laid
+the larvæ appear, and in a few days after leaving the egg they mature,
+spin a rude cocoon, and change to pupæ, and the perfect insects appear
+in about ten days. A good authority states that the human flea does not
+exist in America. We never saw a specimen in this country.
+
+A practical point is how to rid dogs of fleas. As a preventive measure,
+we would suggest the frequent sweeping and cleansing of the floors of
+their kennels, and renewing the straw or chips composing their
+beds,--chips being the best material for them to sleep upon. Flea
+afflicted dogs should be washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or
+weak tobacco or petroleum water.
+
+A writer in "Science-Gossip" recommends the "use of the Persian Insect
+Destroyer, one package of which suffices for a good sized dog. The
+powder should be well rubbed in all over the skin, or the dog, if small,
+can be put into a bag previously dusted with the powder; in either case
+the dog should be washed soon after."
+
+[Illustration: 100. Chique.]
+
+One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of America is the
+Sarcopsylla penetrans, called by the natives the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho,
+Chique, or Pique (Fig. 100, enlarged; a, gravid female, natural size).
+The female, during the dry season, bores into the feet of the natives,
+the operation requiring but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating
+under the nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with
+eggs, the hind-body swelling out to the size of a pea; her presence
+often causes distressing sores. The Chigoe lays about sixty eggs,
+depositing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening of
+the oviduct. The young develop and feed upon the swollen body of the
+parent flea until they mature, when they leave the body of their host
+and escape to the ground. The best preventive is cleanliness and the
+constant wearing of shoes or slippers when in the house, and of boots
+when out of doors.
+
+[Illustration: The Willow Gall Fly.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE BORERS OF OUR SHADE TREES.
+
+
+In no way can the good taste and public spirit of our citizens be better
+shown than in the planting of shade trees. Regarded simply from a
+commercial point of view one cannot make a more paying investment than
+setting out an oak, elm, maple or other shade tree about his premises.
+To a second generation it becomes a precious heirloom, and the planter
+is duly held in remembrance for those finer qualities of heart and head,
+and the wise forethought which prompted a deed simple and natural, but a
+deed too often undone. What an increased value does a fine avenue of
+shade trees give to real estate in a city? And in the country the single
+stately elm rising gracefully and benignantly over the wayside cottage,
+year after year like a guardian angel sending down its blessings of
+shade, moisture and coolness in times of drought, and shelter from the
+pitiless storm, recalls the tenderest associations of generation after
+generation that go from the old homestead.
+
+Occasionally the tree, or a number of them, sicken and die, or linger
+out a miserable existence, and we naturally after failing to ascribe the
+cause to bad soil, want of moisture or adverse atmospheric agencies,
+conclude that the tree is infested with insects, especially if the bark
+in certain places seems diseased. Often the disease is in streets
+lighted by gas, attributed to the leakage of the gas. Such a case has
+come up recently at Morristown, New Jersey. An elm was killed by the Elm
+borer (Compsidea tridentata), and the owner was on the point of suing
+the Gas Company for the loss of the tree from the supposed leakage of a
+gas pipe. While the matter was in dispute, a gentleman of that city took
+the pains to peel off a piece of the bark and found, as he wrote me,
+"great numbers of the larvæ of this beetle in the bark and between the
+bark and the wood, while the latter is 'tattooed' with sinuous grooves
+in every direction and the tree is completely girdled by them in some
+places. There are three different sizes of the larvæ, evidently one, two
+and three years old, or more properly six, eighteen and thirty months
+old." The tree had to be cut down.
+
+Dr. Harris, in his "Treatise on Injurious Insects," gives an account of
+the ravages of this insect, which we quote: "On the 19th of June, 1846,
+Theophilus Parsons, Esq., sent me some fragments of bark and insects
+which were taken by Mr. J. Richardson from the decaying elms on Boston
+Common, and among the insects I recognized a pair of these beetles in a
+living state. The trees were found to have suffered terribly from the
+ravages of these insects. Several of them had already been cut down, as
+past recovery; others were in a dying state, and nearly all of them were
+more or less affected with disease or premature decay. Their bark was
+perforated, to the height of thirty feet from the ground, with numerous
+holes, through which insects had escaped; and large pieces had become so
+loose, by the undermining of the grubs, as to yield to slight efforts,
+and come off in flakes. The inner bark was filled with burrows of the
+grubs, great numbers of which, in various stages of growth, together
+with some in the pupa state, were found therein; and even the surface of
+the wood, in many cases, was furrowed with their irregular tracks. Very
+rarely did they seem to have penetrated far into the wood itself; but
+their operations were mostly confined to the inner layers of the bark,
+which thereby became loosened from the wood beneath. The grubs rarely
+exceed three-quarters of an inch in length. They have no feet, and they
+resemble the larvæ of other species of Saperda, except in being rather
+more flattened. They appear to complete their transformations in the
+third year of their existence.
+
+"The beetles probably leave their holes in the bark during the month of
+June and in the beginning of July, for, in the course of thirty years, I
+have repeatedly taken them at various dates, from the fifth of June to
+the tenth of July. It is evident, from the nature and extent of their
+depredations, that these insects have alarmingly hastened the decay of
+the elm trees on Boston Mall and Common, and that they now threaten
+their entire destruction. Other causes, however, have probably
+contributed to the same end. It will be remembered that these trees
+have greatly suffered, in past times, from the ravages of canker-worms.
+Moreover, the impenetrable state of the surface soil, the exhausted
+condition of the subsoil, and the deprivation of all benefit from the
+decomposition of accumulated leaves, which, in a state of nature, the
+trees would have enjoyed, but which a regard for neatness has
+industriously removed, have doubtless had no small influence in
+diminishing the vigor of the trees, and thus made them fall
+unresistingly a prey to insect devourers. The plan of this work
+precludes a more full consideration of these and other topics connected
+with the growth and decay of these trees; and I can only add, that it
+may be prudent to cut down and burn all that are much infested by the
+borers."
+
+[Illustration: 101. Elm Tree Beetle.]
+
+The Three-toothed Compsidea (Fig. 101), is a rather flat-bodied, dark
+brown beetle, with a rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes
+on the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of each wing
+cover. It is about one-half an inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: 102. Elm Tree Borer.]
+
+The larva (Fig. 102) is white, subcylindrical, a little flattened, with
+the lateral fold of the body rather prominent; the end of the body is
+flattened, obtuse, and nearly as wide at the end as at the first
+abdominal ring. The head is one-half as wide as the prothoracic ring,
+being rather large. The prothoracic ring, or segment just behind the
+head, is transversely oblong, being twice as broad as long; there is a
+pale dorsal corneous transversely oblong shield, being about two-thirds
+as long as wide, and nearly as long as the four succeeding segments;
+this plate is smooth, except on the posterior half, which is rough, with
+the front edge irregular and not extending far down the sides. Fine
+hairs arise from the front edge and side of the plate, and similar hairs
+are scattered over the body and especially around the end. On the upper
+side of each segment is a transversely oblong ovate roughened area, with
+the front edge slightly convex, and the hinder slightly arcuate. On the
+under side of each segment are similar rough horny plates, but arcuate
+in front, with the hinder edge straight.
+
+It differs from the larva of the Linden tree borer (Saperda vestita) in
+the body being shorter, broader, more hairy, with the tip of the abdomen
+flatter and more hairy. The prothoracic segment is broader and flatter,
+and the rough portion of the dorsal plates is larger and less
+tranversely ovate. The structure of the head shows that its generic
+distinctness from Saperda is well founded, as the head is smaller and
+flatter, the clypeus being twice as large, and the labrum broad and
+short, while in S. vestita it is longer than broad. The mandibles are
+much longer and slenderer, and the antennæ are much smaller than in S.
+vestita.
+
+[Illustration: 103. Linden Tree Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 104. Linden Tree Borer.]
+
+The Linden tree borer (Fig. 103) is a greenish snuff-yellow beetle, with
+six black spots near the middle of the back; and it is about
+eight-tenths of an inch in length, though often smaller. The beetles,
+according to Dr. Paul Swift, as quoted by Dr. Harris, were found (in
+Philadelphia) upon the small branches and leaves on the 28th day of May,
+and it is said that they come out as early as the first of the month,
+and continue to make their way through the back of the trunk and large
+branches during the whole of the warm season. They immediately fly into
+the top of the tree, and there feed upon the epidermis of the tender
+twigs, and the petioles of the leaves, often wholly denuding the latter,
+and causing the leaves to fall. They deposit their eggs, two or three in
+a place, upon the trunk or branches especially about the forks, making
+slight incisions or punctures for their reception with their strong
+jaws. As many as ninety eggs have been taken from a single beetle. The
+grubs (Fig. 104, _e_; _a_, enlarged view of the head seen from above;
+_b_, the under view of the same: _c_, side view, and _d_, two rings of
+the body enlarged), hatched from these eggs, undermine the bark to the
+extent of six or eight inches, in sinuous channels, or penetrate the
+solid wood an equal distance. It is supposed that three years are
+required to mature the insect. Various expedients have been tried to
+arrest their course, but without effect. A stream, thrown into the tops
+of trees from the hydrant, is often used with good success to dislodge
+other insects; but the borer-beetles, when thus disturbed, take wing and
+hover over the trees till all is quiet, and then alight and go to work
+again. The trunks and branches of some of the trees have been washed
+over with various preparations without benefit. Boring the trunk near
+the ground and putting in sulphur and other drugs, and plugging, have
+been tried with as little effect.
+
+[Illustration: 105. Poplar Tree Borer.]
+
+The city of Philadelphia has suffered grievously from this borer.
+
+[Illustration: 106. Broad-necked Prionus.]
+
+Dr. Swift remarks, in 1844, that "the trees in Washington and
+Independence Squares were first observed to have been attacked about
+seven years ago. Within two years it has been found necessary to cut
+down forty-seven European lindens in the former square alone, where
+there now remain only a few American lindens, and these a good deal
+eaten." In New England this beetle should be looked for during the first
+half of June.
+
+[Illustration: 107. Larva of the Plain Saperda.]
+
+The Poplar tree is infested by an other species of Saperda (S.
+calcarata). This is a much larger beetle than those above mentioned,
+being an inch or a little more in length. It is grey, irregularly
+striped, with ochre, and the wing-covers end in a sharp point. The grub
+(Fig. 105 _a_; _b_, top view of the head; _e_, under side) is about two
+inches long and whitish yellow. It has, with that of the Broad-necked
+Prionus (P. laticollis of Drury, Fig. 106, adult and pupa), as Harris
+states, "almost entirely destroyed the Lombardy poplar in this vicinity"
+(Boston). It bores in the trunks, and the beetle flies by night in
+August and September. We also figure the larva of another borer (Fig.
+107 _c_; _a_, top view of the head; _b_, under side; _e_, dorsal view of
+an abdominal segment; _d_, end of the body, showing its peculiar form),
+the Saperda inornata of Say, the beetle of which is black, with ash gray
+hairs, and without spines on the wing-covers. It is much smaller than
+any of the foregoing species, being nine-twentieths of an inch in
+length. Its habits are not known. We also figure the Locust and Hickory
+borer (Fig. 108; _a_, larva; _b_, pupa), which has swept off the locust
+tree from New England. The beautiful yellow banded beetles are very
+abundant on the flowers of the golden rod in September.
+
+[Illustration: 108. Locust Borer.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: The External and Internal Parasites of Man and Domestic
+Animals. By Prof. A. E. Verrill, 1870. We are indebted to the author for
+the use of this and the figures of the Bot fly of the horse, the turkey,
+duck and hog louse, the Cattle tick, the itch insect and mange insect of
+the horse.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS.
+
+
+The subject of our discourse is not only a disagreeable but too often a
+painful one. Not only is the mere mention of the creature's name of
+which we are to speak tabooed and avoided by the refined and polite, but
+the creature itself has become extinct and banished from the society of
+the good and respectable. Indeed under such happy auspices do a large
+proportion of the civilized world now live that their knowledge of the
+habits and form of a louse may be represented by a blank. Not so with
+some of their great-great-grandfathers and grandmothers, if history,
+sacred and profane, poetry,[5] and the annals of literature testify
+aright; for it is comparatively a recent fact in history that the louse
+has awakened to find himself an outcast and an alien. Among savage
+nations of all climes, some of which have been dignified with the apt,
+though high sounding name of Phthiriophagi, and among the Chinese and
+other semi-civilized peoples, these lords of the soil still flourish
+with a luxuriance and rankness of growth that never diminishes, so that
+we may say without exaggeration that certain mental traits and fleshly
+appetites induced by their consumption as an article of food may have
+been created, while a separate niche in our anthropological museums is
+reserved for the instruments of warfare, both offensive and defensive,
+used by their phthiriophagous hunters. Then have we not in the very
+centres of civilization the poor and degraded, which are most faithfully
+attended lay these revolting satellites!
+
+But bantering aside, there is no more engaging subject to the naturalist
+than that of animal parasites. Consider the great proportion of animals
+that gain their livelihood by stealing that of others. While a large
+proportion of plants are more or less parasitic, they gain, thereby in
+interest to the botanist, and many of them are eagerly sought as the
+choicest ornaments of our conservatories. Not so with their zoölogical
+confréres. All that is repulsive and uncanny is associated with them,
+and those who study them, though perhaps among the keenest intellects
+and most industrious observers, speak of them without the limits of
+their own circle in subdued whispers or under a protest, and their works
+fall under the eyes of the scantiest few. But the study of animal
+parasites has opened up new fields of research, all bearing most
+intimately on those two questions that ever incite the naturalist to the
+most laborious and untiring diligence--what is life and its origin? The
+subjects of the alternation of generations, or parthenogenesis, of
+embryology and biology, owe their great advance, in large degree, to the
+study of such animals as are parasitic, and the question whether the
+origin of species be due to creation by the action of secondary laws or
+not, will be largely met and answered by the study of the varied
+metamorphoses and modes of growth, the peculiar modification of organs
+that adapt them to their strange modes of life, and the consequent
+variation in specific characters so remarkably characteristic of those
+animals living parasitically upon others.[6]
+
+With these considerations in view surely a serious, thoughtful, and
+thorough study of the louse, in all its varieties and species, is
+neither belittling nor degrading, nor a waste of time. We venture to
+say, moreover, that more light will be thrown on the classification and
+morphology of insects by the study of the parasitic species, and other
+degraded, wingless forms that do not always live parasitically,
+especially of their embryology and changes after leaving the egg, than
+by years of study of the more highly developed insects alone. Among
+Hymenoptera the study of the minute Ichueumons, such as the
+Proctotrupids and Chalcids, especially the egg-parasites; among moths
+the study of the wingless canker-worm moth and Orgyla; among Diptera the
+flea, bee louse, sheep tick, bat tick, and other wingless flies; among
+Coleoptera, the Meloë, and singular Stylops and Xenos; among Neuroptera,
+the snow insect, Boreus, the Podura (Fig. 109) and Lepisma, and
+especially the hemipterous lice, will throw a flood of light on these
+prime subjects in philosophical entomology.
+
+[Illustration: 109. Podura.]
+
+Without farther apology, then, and very dependent on the labors of
+others for our information, we will say a few words on some interesting
+points in the natural history of lice. In the first place, how does the
+louse bite? It is the general opinion among physicians, supported by
+able entomologists, that the louse has jaws, and bites. But while the
+bird lice (Mallophaga) do have biting jaws, whence the Germans call them
+skin-eaters (_pelzfresser_), the mouth parts of the genus Pediculus, or
+true louse, resemble in their structure those of the bed-bug (Fig. 110),
+and other Hemiptera. In its form the louse closely resembles the
+bed-bug, and the two groups of lice, the Pediculi and Mallophaga, should
+be considered as families of Hemiptera, though degraded and at the base
+of the hemipterous series. The resemblance is carried out in the form of
+the egg, the mode of growth of the embryo, and the metamorphosis of the
+insect after leaving its egg.
+
+[Illustration: 110. Bed-bug.]
+
+Schiödte, a Danish entomologist, has, it seems to us, forever settled
+the question as to whether the louse bites the flesh or sucks blood, and
+decides a point interesting to physicians, _i.e._, that the loathsome
+disease called phthiriasis is a nonentity. From this source not only
+many living in poverty and squalor are said to have died, but also men
+of renown, among whom Denny in his work on the Anoplura, or lice, of
+Great Britain, mentions the name of "Pheretima, as recorded by
+Herodotus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the Dictator Sylla, the two Herods, the
+Emperor Maximian, and Phillip the Second." Schiödte, in his essay "On
+Phthirius, and on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus" (Annals and
+Magazine of Natural History, 1866, page 213), says that these statements
+will not bear examination, and that this disease should be placed on the
+"retired list," for such a malady is impossible to be produced by simply
+blood-sucking animals, and that they are only the disgusting attendants
+on other diseases. Our author thus describes the mouth parts of the
+louse.
+
+"Lice are no doubt to be regarded as bugs, simplified in structure and
+lowered in animal life in accordance with their mode of living as
+parasites, being small, flattened, apterous, myopic, crawling and
+climbing, with a conical head, moulded as it were to suit the rugosities
+of the surface they inhabit, provided with a soft, transversely furrowed
+skin, probably endowed with an acute sense of feeling, which can guide
+them in that twilight in which their mode of life places them. The
+peculiar attenuation of the head in front of the antennæ at once
+suggests to the practised eye the existence of a mouth adapted for
+suction. This mouth differs from that of the Hemiptera (bed-bug, etc.)
+generally, in the circumstance that the labium is capable of being
+retracted into the upper part of the head, which therefore presents a
+little fold, which is extended when the labium is protruded. In order to
+strengthen this part, a flat band of chitine is placed on the under
+surface, just as the shoemaker puts a small piece of gutta-percha into
+the back of an India-rubber shoe; as, however, the chitine is not very
+elastic, this band is rather thinner in the middle, in order that it may
+bend and fold a little when the skin is not extended by the lower lip.
+The latter consists, as usual, of two hard lateral pieces, of which the
+fore ends are united by a membrane so that they form a tube, of which
+the interior covering is a continuation of the elastic membrane in the
+top of the head; inside its orifice there are a number of small hooks,
+which assume different positions according to the degree of protrusion;
+if this is at its highest point the orifice is turned inside out, like a
+collar, whereby the small hooks are directed backwards, so that they can
+serve as barbs. These are the movements which the animal executes after
+having first inserted the labium through a sweat-pore. When the hooks
+have got a firm hold, the first pair of setæ (the real mandibles
+transformed) are protruded; these are, towards their points, united by a
+membrane so as to form a closed tube, from which, again, is inserted the
+second pair of setæ, or maxillæ, which in the same manner are
+transformed into a tube ending in four small lobes placed crosswise. It
+follows that when the whole instrument is exserted, we perceive a long
+membranous flexible tube hanging down from the labium, and along the
+walls of this tube the setiform mandibles and maxillæ in the shape of
+long narrow bands of chitine. In this way the tube of suction can be
+made longer or shorter as required, and easily adjusted to the thickness
+of the skin in the particular place where the animal is sucking, whereby
+access to the capillary system is secured at any part of the body. It is
+apparent, from the whole structure of the instrument, that it is by no
+means calculated on being used as a sting, but is rather to be compared
+to a delicate elastic probe, in the use of which the terminal lobes
+probably serve as feelers. As soon as the capillary system is reached,
+the blood will at once ascend into the narrow tube, after which the
+current is continued with increasing rapidity by means of the pulsation
+of the pumping ventricle and the powerful peristaltic movement of the
+digestive tube."
+
+[Illustration:[7]111. Mouth of the Louse.]
+
+If we compare the form of the louse (Fig. 112, Pediculus capitis, the
+head louse; Fig. 113, P. vestimenti, the body louse) with the young
+bed-bug as figured by Westwood (Modern Classification of Insects, ii,.p.
+475) we shall see a very close resemblance, the head of the young Cimex
+being proportionally larger than in the adult, while the thorax is
+smaller, and the abdomen is more ovate, less rounded; moreover the body
+is white and partially transparent.
+
+[Illustration: 113. Body Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 112. Head Louse.]
+
+Under a high power of the microscope specimens treated with diluted
+potash show that the mandibles and maxillæ arise near each other in the
+middle of the head opposite the eyes, their bases slightly diverging.
+Thence they converge to the mouth, over which they meet, and beyond are
+free, being hollow, thin bands of chitine, meeting like the maxillæ, or
+tongue, of butterflies to form a hollow tube for suction. The mandibles
+each suddenly end in a curved, slender filament, which is probably used
+as a tactile organ to explore the best sites in the flesh of their
+victim for drawing blood. On the other hand the maxillæ, which are much
+narrower than the mandibles, become rounded towards the end, bristle
+like, and tipped with numerous exceedingly fine barbs, by which the bug
+anchors itself in the flesh, while the blood is pumped through the
+mandibles. The base of the large, tubular labium, or beak, which
+ensheathes the mandibles and maxillæ, is opposite the end of the clypeus
+or front edge of the upper side of the head, and at a distance beyond
+the mouth equal to the breadth of the labium itself. The labium, which
+is divided into three joints, becomes flattened towards the tip, which
+is square, and ends in two thin membranous lobes, probably endowed with
+a slight sense of touch. On comparing these parts with those of the
+louse, it will be seen how much alike they are with the exception of the
+labium, a very variable organ in the Hemiptera. From the long sucker of
+the Pediculus, to the stout chitinous jaws of the Mallophaga, or bird
+lice, is a sudden transition, but on comparing the rest of the head and
+body it will be seen that the distinction only amounts to a family one,
+though Burmeister placed the Mallophaga among the Orthoptera
+(grasshoppers and crickets) on account of the mandibles being adapted
+for biting. It has been a common source of error to depend too much upon
+one or a single set of organs. Insects have been classified on
+characters drawn from the wings, or the number of the joints of the
+tarsi, or the form of the mouth parts. We must take into account in
+endeavoring to ascertain the limits of natural groups, as the internal
+anatomy and the embryology and metamorphosis of insects, before we can
+hope to obtain a natural classification.
+
+The family of bird lice is a very extensive one, embracing many genera,
+and several hundred species. One or more species infest the skin of all
+our domestic and wild mammals and birds, some birds sheltering beneath
+their feathers four or five species of lice. Before giving a hasty
+account of some of our more common species; we will give a sketch of the
+embryological history of the lice, with special reference to the
+structure of the mouth parts.
+
+[Illustration: 114. Embryo of the Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 115. Mouth Parts of the Louse.]
+
+The eggs (Fig. 114, egg of the head louse) are long, oval, somewhat
+pear-shaped, with the hinder end somewhat pointed, while the anterior
+end is flattened, and bears little conical micropyles (_m_, minute
+orifices for the passage of the spermatozoa into the egg), which vary in
+form in the different species and genera; the opposite end of the egg is
+provided with a few bristles. The female attaches her eggs to the hairs
+or feathers of her host.
+
+[Illustration: 116. Mouth Parts of the Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 118. Mouth Parts of Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 117. Mouth Parts of Louse.]
+
+After the egg has been fertilized by the male, the blastoderm, or
+primitive skin, forms, and subsequently two layers, or embryonal
+membranes, appear; the outer is called the amnion (Fig. 114, _am_),
+while the inner visceral membrane (_db_) partially wraps the rude form
+of the embryo in its folds. The head (_vk_) of the embryo is now
+directed towards the end of the egg on which the hairs are situated;
+afterwards the embryo revolves on its axis and the head lies next to the
+opposite end of the egg. Eight tubercles bud out from the under side of
+the head, of which the foremost and longest are the antennæ (_as_),
+those succeeding are the mandibles, maxillæ, and second maxillæ, or
+labium. Behind them arise six long, slender tubercles forming the legs,
+and the primitive streak rudely marks the lower wall of the thorax and
+abdomen not yet formed. Figure 115 represents the head and mouth parts
+of the embryo of the same louse; _vk_ is the forehead, or clypeus;
+_ant_, the antennæ; _mad_, the mandibles; _max_1, the
+first pair of maxillæ, and _max_^2, the second pair
+of maxillæ, or labium. Figure 116 represents the mouth parts of the
+same insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium
+elongated and closely folded together. Figure 117 represents the same
+still farther advanced; the mandibles (_mad_) are sharp, and resemble
+the jaws of the Mallophaga; and the maxillæ (_max_^1) and labium
+(_max_^2) are still large, while afterwards the labium becomes nearly
+obsolete. Figure 118 represents a front view of the mouth parts of a
+bird louse, Goniodes; _lb_, is the upper lip, or labrum, lying under the
+clypeus; _mad_, the mandibles; max, the maxillæ; _l_, the lyre-formed
+piece; and _pl_, the "plate."
+
+[Illustration: 119. Louse of Cow.]
+
+We will now describe some of the common species of lice found on a few
+of our domestic animals, and the mallophagous parasites occurring on
+certain mammals and birds. The family Pediculina, or true lice, is
+higher than the bird lice, their mouth parts, as well as the structure
+of the head, resembling the true Hemiptera, especially the bed bug. The
+clypeus, or front of the head, is much smaller than in the bird lice,
+the latter retaining the enlarged forehead of the embryo, it being in
+some species half as large as the rest of the head.
+
+All of our domestic mammals and birds are plagued by one or more species
+of lice. Figure 119 represents the Hæmatopinus vituli, which is brownish
+in color. As the specimen figured came from the Burnett collection of
+the Boston Society of Natural History, together with those of the goat
+louse, the louse of the common fowl, and of the cat, they are
+undoubtedly naturalized here. Quite a different species is the louse of
+the hog (H. suis, Fig. 120).
+
+[Illustration: 120. Louse of Hog.]
+
+The remaining parasites belong to the skin-biting lice, or Mallophaga,
+and I will speak of the several genera referred to in their natural
+order, beginning with the highest form and that which is nearest allied
+to Pediculus.
+
+[Illustration: 121. Louse of Domestic Fowl.]
+
+The common barn-yard fowl is infested by a louse that we have called
+Goniocotes Burnettii (Fig. 121), in honor of the late Dr. W. I. Burnett,
+a young and talented naturalist and physiologist, who paid more
+attention than any one else in this country to the study of these
+parasites, and made a large collection of them, now in the museum of the
+Boston Society of Natural History. It differs from the G. hologaster of
+Europe, which lives on the same bird, in the short second joint of the
+antennæ, which are also stouter; and in the long head, the clypeus being
+much longer and more acutely rounded; while the head is less hollowed
+out at the insertion of the antennæ. The abdomen is oval, and one-half
+as wide as long, with transverse, broad, irregular bands along the edges
+of the segments. The mandibles are short and straight, two toothed. The
+body is slightly yellowish, and variously streaked and banded with
+pitchy black. The duck is infested by a remarkably slender form (Fig.
+122, Philopterus squalidus). Figure 123 represents the louse of the cat,
+and another species (Fig. 124) of the same genus (Trichodes) lives upon
+the goat.
+
+The most degraded genus is Gyropus. Mr. C. Cook has found Gyropus ovalis
+of Europe abundant on the Guinea pig. A species is also found on the
+porpoise; an interesting fact, as this is the only insect we know of
+that lives parasitically on any marine animal.
+
+[Illustration: 122. Duck Louse.]
+
+The genus Goniodes (Fig. 125, G. stylifer, the turkey louse) is of great
+interest from a morphological and developmental point of view, as the
+antennæ are described and figured by Denny as being "in the males
+cheliform (Fig. 126, _a_, male; _b_, female); the first joint being very
+large and thick, the third considerably smaller, recurved towards the
+first, and forming a claw, the fourth and fifth very small, arising
+from the back of the third." He farther remarks, that "the males of this
+[which lives on the turkey] and all the other species of Goniodes, use
+the first and third joints of the antennæ with great facility, acting
+the part of a finger and thumb." The antennæ of the females are of the
+ordinary form. This hand-like structure, is, so far as we know, without
+a parallel among insects, the antennæ of the Hemiptera being almost
+uniformly filiform, and from two to nine-jointed. The design of this
+structure is probably to enable the male to grasp its consort and also
+perhaps to cling to the feathers, and thus give it a superiority over
+the weaker sex in its advances towards courtship. Why is this advantage
+possessed by the males of this genus alone? The world of insects, and of
+animals generally abounds in such instances, though existing in other
+organs, and the developmentist dimly perceives in such departures from a
+normal type of structure, the origin of new generic forms, whether due
+at first to a seemingly accidental variation, or, as in this instance,
+perhaps, to long use as prehensile organs through successive generations
+of lice having the antennæ slightly diverging from the typical
+condition, until the present form has been developed. Another generation
+of naturalists will perhaps unanimously agree that the Creator has thus
+worked through secondary laws, which many of the naturalists of the
+present day are endeavoring, in a truly scientific and honest spirit of
+inquiry, to discover.
+
+[Illustration: 124. Louse of the Goat.]
+
+[Illustration: 123. Louse of the Cat.]
+
+In their claw or leg-like form these male antennæ also repeat in the
+head, the general form of the legs, whose prehensile and grasping
+functions they assume. We have seen above that the appendages of the
+head and thorax are alike in the embryo, and the present case is an
+interesting example of the unity of type of the jointed appendages of
+insects, and articulates generally.
+
+[Illustration: 120. Antennæ of Goniodes.]
+
+Another point of interest in these degraded insects is, that the process
+of degradation begins either late in the life of the embryo or during
+the changes from the larval to the adult, or winged state. An instance
+of the latter may be observed in the wingless female of the canker worm,
+so different from the winged male; this difference is created after the
+larval stage, for the caterpillars of both sexes are the same, so far as
+we know. So with numerous other examples among the moths. In the louse,
+the embryo, late in its life, resembles the embryos of other insects,
+even Corixa, a member of a not remotely allied family. But just before
+hatching the insect assumes its degraded louse physiognomy. The
+developmentist would say that this process of degradation points to
+causes acting upon the insect just before or immediately after birth,
+inducing the retrogression and retardation of development, and would
+consider it as an argument for the evolution of specific forms by causes
+acting on the animal while battling with its fellows in the struggle for
+existence, and perhaps consider that the metamorphoses of the animal
+within the egg are due to a reflex action of the modes of life of the
+ancestors of the animal on the embryos of its descendants.
+
+[Illustration: 125. The Turkey Louse.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 5:
+
+  Ha! whare ye gaun, ye crowlin ferlie!
+  Your impudence protects you sairly:
+  I canna say but ye struift rarely,
+      Owre gauze and lace;
+  Tho' faith, I fear ye dine but sparely
+      On sic a place.
+
+  Ye ugly, creepin, blastic wormer,
+  Detested, shunn'd by saunt and sinner,
+  How dare ye set your fit upon her
+      Sae fine a lady!
+  Gae somewhere else and seek your dinner
+      On some poor body.
+
+(To a Louse.--Burns.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: We notice while preparing this article that a journal of
+Parasitology has for some time been issued in Germany--that favored land
+of specialists. It is the "Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde," edited by
+Dr. E. Hallier and F A. Zurn. 8vo, Jena.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Figure 111 represents the parts of the mouth in a large
+specimen of _Pediculus_ vestimenti, entirely protruding, and seen from
+above, magnified one hundred and sixty times; aa, the summit of the head
+with four bristles on each side; _bb_, the chitinous band, and _c_, the
+hind part of the lower lip, such as they appear through the skin by
+strong transmitted light; _dd_, the foremost protruding part of the
+lower lip (the haustellum); _ee_, the hooks turned outwards; _f_, the
+inner tube of suction, slightly bent and twisted; the two pairs of jaws
+are perceived on the outside as thin lines; a few blood globules are
+seen in the interior of the tube.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE DRAGON FLY.
+
+
+Were we to select from among the insects a type of all that is savage,
+relentless, and bloodthirsty, the Dragon fly would be our choice. From
+the moment of its birth until its death, usually a twelve-month, it
+riots in bloodshed and carnage. Living beneath the waters perhaps eleven
+months of its life, in the larva and pupa states, it is literally a
+walking pitfall for luckless aquatic insects; but when transformed into
+a fly, ever on the wing in pursuit of its prey, it throws off all
+concealment, and reveals the more unblushingly its rapacious character.
+
+Not only do its horrid visage and ferocious bearing frighten children,
+who call it the "Devil's Darning-needle," but it even distresses older
+persons, so that its name has become a byword. Could we understand the
+language of insects, what tales of horror would be revealed! What
+traditions, sagas, fables, and myths must adorn the annals of animal
+life regarding this Dragon among insects!
+
+To man, however, aside from its bad name and its repulsive aspect, which
+its gay trappings do not conceal, its whole life is beneficent. It is a
+scavenger, being like that class ugly and repulsive, and holding
+literally, among insects, the lowest rank in society. In the water, it
+preys upon young mosquitoes and the larvæ of other noxious insects. It
+thus aids in maintaining the balance of life, and cleanses the swamps of
+miasmata, thus purifying the air we breathe. During its existence of
+three or four weeks above the waters, its whole life is a continued good
+to man. It hawks over pools and fields and through gardens, decimating
+swarms of mosquitoes, flies, gnats, and other baneful insects. It is a
+true Malthus' delight, and, following that sanguinary philosopher, we
+may believe that our Dragon fly is an entomological Tamerlane or
+Napoleon sent into the world by a kind Providence to prevent too close a
+jostling among the myriads of insect life.
+
+We will, then, conquer our repugnance to its ugly looks and savage mien,
+and contemplate the hideous monstrosity,--as it is useless to deny that
+it combines the graces of the Hunchback of Notre Dame and Dickens'
+Quilp, with certain features of its own,--for the good it does in
+Nature.
+
+Even among insects, a class replete with forms the very incarnation of
+ugliness and the perfection of all that is hideous in nature, our Dragon
+fly is most conspicuous. Look at its enormous head, with its beetling
+brows, retreating face, and heavy under jaws,--all eyes and teeth,--and
+hung so loosely on its short, weak neck, sunk beneath its enormous
+hunchback,--for it is wofully round-shouldered,--while its long, thin
+legs, shrunken as if from disease, are drawn up beneath its breast, and
+what a hobgoblin it is!
+
+Its gleaming wings are, however, beautiful objects. They form a broad
+expanse of delicate parchment-like membrane drawn over an intricate
+network of veins. Though the body is bulky, it is yet light, and easily
+sustained by the wings. The long tail undoubtedly acts as a rudder to
+steady its flight.
+
+These insects are almost universally dressed in the gayest colors. The
+body is variously banded with rich shades of blue, green, and yellow,
+and the wings give off the most beautiful iridescent and metallic
+reflections.
+
+During July and August the various species of Libellula and its allies
+most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in bunches to the stems of
+rushes and other water-plants. In laying them, the Dragon fly, according
+to Mr. P. R. Uhler's observations, "alights upon water-plants, and,
+pushing the end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a
+bunch of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf. Libellula auripennis I have
+often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived in my observation
+that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the open ditch while balancing
+herself just a little way above the surface of the water. I have, also,
+seen her settled upon the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen
+submerged in part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty
+sure that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her eggs at
+one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not more than a dozen
+small yellow eggs. There must be more than one hundred eggs in one of
+the large bunches. The eggs of some of the Agrions are bright
+apple-green, but I cannot be sure that I have ever seen them in the very
+act of oviposition. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and
+grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to fall below
+the surface of the water; sometimes they fly against the surface, but I
+never saw what I could assert to be the projecting of the eggs from the
+body upon plants or into the water. The English entomologists assert
+that the female Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several
+inches to deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants." The Agrions,
+however, according to Lucaze Duthiers, a French anatomist, make, with
+the ovipositor, a little notch in the plant upon which they lay their
+eggs.
+
+[Illustration: 127. Under side of head of Diplax, with the labium or
+mask fully extended. _x_, _x_', _x_''the three subdivisions of the
+labium. _y_, the maxillæ or second pair of jaws.]
+
+These eggs soon hatch, probably during the heat of summer. The larva is
+very active in its habits, being provided with six legs, attached to the
+thorax, on the back of which are the little wing-pads, or rudimentary
+wings. The large head is provided with enormous eyes, while a pair of
+simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are placed near the origin of the small
+bristle-like feelers, or antennæ. Seen from beneath, instead of the
+formidable array of jaws and accessory organs commonly observed in most
+carnivorous larvæ, we see nothing but a broad, smooth mask covering the
+lower part of the face; as if from sheer modesty our young Dragon fly
+was endeavoring to conceal a gape. But wait a moment. Some unwary insect
+comes within striking distance. The battery of jaws is unmasked, and
+opens upon the victim. This mask (Fig. 127) is peculiar to the young,
+or larva and pupa of the Dragon fly. It is the labium, or under lip
+greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped extremity (Fig.
+127, _x_) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and retaining its
+prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up as to conceal the face,
+and thus the creature crawls about, to all appearance, the most innocent
+and lamb-like of insects.
+
+[Illustration: 128. Abdominal valves; _a_, side view.]
+
+Not only does the immature Dragon fly walk over the bottom of the pool
+or stream it inhabits, but it can also leap for a considerable distance,
+and by a most curious contrivance. By a syringe-like apparatus lodged in
+the end of the body, it discharges a stream of water for a distance of
+two or three inches behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards. This
+apparatus combines the functions of locomotion and respiration. There
+are, as usual, two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of the
+thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly carried on in
+the tail. The tracheæ are here collected in a large mass, sending their
+branches into folds of membrane lining the end of the alimentary canal,
+and which act like a piston to force out the water. The entrance to the
+canal is protected by three to five triangular horny valves (Fig. 128,
+9, 10, 128 _a_, side view), which open and shut at will. When open, the
+water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs, which extract the
+air from the water, which is then suddenly expelled by a strong muscular
+effort.
+
+[Illustration: 129. Agrion; _b_, False Gill of Larva.]
+
+In the smaller forms, such as Agrion (A. saucium, Fig. 129; Fig. 129
+_b_, side view of false gill, showing but one leaf), the respiratory
+leaves, called the tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within
+the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated by tracheæ, or
+air-vessels. They are not true gills, however, as the blood is not
+aerated in them. They only absorb air to supply the tracheæ, which
+aerate the blood only within the general cavity of the body. These false
+gills also act as a rudder to aid the insect in swimming.
+
+It is interesting to watch the Dragon flies through their
+transformations, as they can easily be kept in aquaria. Little, almost
+nothing, is known regarding their habits, and any one who can spend the
+necessary time and patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the
+different stages from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and
+figure them accurately, will do good service to science.
+
+[Illustration: 130. Pupa of Cordulia.]
+
+Mr. Uhler states that at present we know but little of the young stages
+of our species, but the larva and pupa of the Libellulas may be always
+known from the Æschnas by the shorter, deeper and more robust form, and
+generally by their thick clothing of hair. Figure 130 represents the
+pupa of Cordulia lateralis, and figure 131 that of a Dragon fly referred
+doubtfully to the genus Didymops. For descriptions and figures of other
+forms the reader may turn to Mr. Louis Cabot's essay "On the Immature
+State of the Odonata," published by the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: 131. Pupa of Didymops?]
+
+The pupa scarcely differs from the larva, except in having larger
+wing-pads (Fig. 132). It is still active, and as much of a gourmand as
+ever. When the insect is about to assume the pupa state, it moults its
+skin. The body having outgrown the larva skin, by a strong muscular
+effort a rent opens along the back of the thorax, and the insect having
+fastened its claws into some object at the bottom of the pool, the pupa
+gradually works its way out of the larva-skin. It is now considerably
+larger than before. Immediately after this tedious operation, its body
+is soft, but the crust soon hardens. This change, with most species,
+probably occurs early in summer.
+
+[Illustration: 132. Pupa of Æschna.]
+
+When about to change into the adult fly, the pupa climbs up some plant
+near the surface of the water. Again its back yawns wide open, and from
+the rent our Dragon fly slowly emerges. For an hour or more, it remains
+torpid and listless, with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless.
+The fluids leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and
+varied tints appear, and our Dragon fly rises into its new world of
+light and sunshine a gorgeous, but repulsive being. Tennyson thus
+describes these changes in "The Two Voices":--
+
+  To-day I saw the Dragon fly
+  Come from the wells where he did lie.
+  An inner impulse rent the veil
+  Of his old husk: from head to tail
+  Came out clear plates of sapphire mail.
+
+  He dried his wings; like gauze they grew;
+  Through crofts and pastures wet with dew
+  A living flash of light he flew.
+
+Of our more common, typical forms of Dragon flies, we figure a few,
+commonly observed during the summer. The three-spotted Dragon fly
+(Libellula trimaculata), of which figure 133 represents the male, is so
+called from the three dark clouds on the wings of the female. But the
+opposite sex differs in having a dark patch at the front edge of the
+wings, and a single broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing.
+
+Libellula quadrimaculata, the four-spotted Dragon fly (Fig. 134), is
+seen on the wing in June, flying through dry pine woods far from any
+standing water.
+
+[Illustration: 133. Libellula trimaculata, male.]
+
+[Illustration: 134. Libellula quadrimaculata.]
+
+The largest of our Dragon flies are the "Devil's Darning-needles,"
+Eschna heros and grandis, seen hawking about our gardens till dusk. They
+frequently enter houses, carrying dismay and terror among the children.
+The hind-body is long and cylindrical, and gaily colored with bright
+green and bluish bands and spots.
+
+[Illustration: 135. Diplax Berenice, male.]
+
+[Illustration: 136. Diplax Berenice, female.]
+
+[Illustration: 137. Larva of Diplax.]
+
+One of our most common Dragon flies is the ruby Dragon fly, Diplax
+rubicundula, which is yellowish-red. It is seen everywhere flying over
+pools, and also frequents dry sunny woods and glades. Another common
+form is Diplax Berenice (Fig. 135 male, Fig. 136 female. The
+accompanying cut (137) represents the larva, probably of this species,
+according to Mr. Uhler.) It is black, the head blue in front, spotted
+with yellow, while the thorax and abdomen are striped with yellow. There
+are fewer stripes on the body of the male, which has only four large
+yellow spots on each side of the abdomen. Still another pretty species
+is Diplax Elisa (Fig. 138). It is black, with the head yellowish and
+with greenish-yellow spots on the sides of the thorax and base of the
+abdomen. There are three dusky spots on the front edge of each wing, and
+a large cloud at the base of the hind pair towards the hind angles of
+the wing.
+
+Rather a rare form, and of much smaller stature is the Nannophya bella
+(Fig. 138, female). It was first detected in Baltimore, and we
+afterwards found it not unfrequently by a pond in Maine. Its abdomen is
+unusually short, and the reticulations of the wings are large and
+simple. The female is black, while the male is frosted over with a
+whitish powder. Many more species of this family are found in this
+country, and for descriptions of them we would refer the reader to Dr.
+Hagen's "Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America," published by the
+Smithsonian Institution.
+
+[Illustration: 138. Diplax Elisa.]
+
+[Illustration: 139. Nannophya bella.]
+
+[Illustration: 140. May Fly.]
+
+The Libellulidæ, or family of Dragon flies, and the Ephemeridæ, or May
+flies (Fig. 140), are the most characteristic of the Neuroptera, or
+veiny-winged insects. This group is a most interesting one to the
+systematist, as it is composed of so many heterogeneous forms which it
+is almost impossible to classify in our rigid and at present necessarily
+artificial systems. We divide them into families and sub-families,
+genera and sub-genera, species and varieties, but there is an endless
+shifting of characters in these groups. The different groups would seem
+well limited after studying certain forms, when to the systematist's
+sorrow, here comes a creature, perhaps mimicking an ant, or aphis, or
+other sort of bug, or even a butterfly, and for which they would be
+readily mistaken by the uninitiated. Bibliographers have gone mad over
+books that could not be classified. Imagine the despair of an
+insect-hunter and entomophile, as he sits down to his box of dried
+neuroptera. He seeks for a true neuropter in the white ant before him,
+but its very form and habits summon up a swarm of true ants; and then
+the little wingless book louse (Atropos, Fig. 141) scampering
+irreverently over the musty pages of his Systema Naturæ, reminds him of
+that closest friend of man--Pediculus vestimenti. Again, his studies
+lead him to that gorgeous inhabitant of the South, the butterfly-like
+Ascalaphus, with its resplendent wings, and slender, knobbed antennæ so
+much like those of butterflies, and visions of these beautiful insects
+fill his mind's eye; or sundry dun-colored caddis flies, modest,
+delicate neuroptera, with finely fringed wings and slender feelers,
+create doubts as to whether they are not really allies of the clothes
+moth, so close is the resemblance.
+
+[Illustration: 141. Death Tick.]
+
+Thus the student is constantly led astray by the wanton freaks Nature
+plays, and becomes sceptical as regards the truth of a natural system,
+though there is one to be discovered; and at last disgusted with the
+stiff and arbitrary systems of our books,--a disgust we confess most
+wholesome, if it only leads him into a closer communion with nature. The
+sooner one leaves those maternal apron-strings,--books,--and learns to
+identify himself with nature, and thus goes out of himself to affiliate
+with the spirit of the scene or object before him,--or, in other words,
+cultivates habits of the closest observation and most patient
+reflection,--be he painter or poet, philosopher or insect-hunter of low
+degree, he will gain an intellectual strength and power of interpreting
+nature, that is the gift of true genius.
+
+[Illustration: The Ant Lion and adult.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MITES AND TICKS.
+
+
+But few naturalists have busied themselves with the study of mites. The
+honored names of Hermann, Von Heyden, Dugés, Dujardin and Pagenstecher,
+Nicolet, Koch and Robin, and the lamented Claparède of Geneva, lead the
+small number who have published papers in scientific journals. After
+these, and except an occasional note by an amateur microscopist who
+occasionally pauses from his "diatomaniacal" studies, and looks upon a
+mite simply as a "microscopic object," to be classed in his micrographic
+Vade Mecum with mounted specimens of sheep's wool, and the hairs of
+other quadrupeds, a distorted proboscis of a fly, and podura scales, we
+read but little of mites and their habits. But few readers of our
+natural history text-books learn from their pages any definite facts
+regarding the affinities of these humble creatures, their organization
+and the singular metamorphosis a few have been known to pass through. We
+shall only attempt in the present article to indicate a few of the
+typical forms of mites, and sketch, with too slight a knowledge to speak
+with much authority, an imperfect picture of their appearance and modes
+of living.
+
+Mites are lowly organized Arachnids. This order of insects is divided
+into the Spiders, the Scorpions, the Harvestmen and the Mites (Acarina).
+They have a rounded oval body, without the usual division between the
+head-thorax and abdomen observable in spiders, the head-thorax and
+abdomen being merged in a single mass. There are four pairs of legs, and
+the mouth parts consist, as seen in the adjoining figure of a young tick
+(Fig. 142, young Ixodes albipictus), of a pair of maxillæ (_c_), which
+in the adult terminates in a two or three-jointed palpus, or feeler; a
+pair of mandibles (_b_), often covered with several rows of fine teeth,
+and ending in three or four larger hooks and a serrated labium (_a_).
+These parts form a beak which the mite or tick insinuates into the flesh
+of its host, upon the blood of which it subsists. While many of the
+mites are parasitic on animals, some are known to devour the eggs of
+insects and other mites, thrusting their beaks into the egg, and sucking
+the contents. We have seen a mite (Nothrus ovivorus, Fig. 143) busily
+engaged in destroying the eggs of a moth like that of the Canker worm,
+and Dr. Shimer has observed the Acarus? malus sucking the eggs of the
+Chinch bug. I have also observed another mite devouring the Aphides on
+the rose leaves in my garden, so that a few mites may be set down as
+beneficial to vegetation. While a few species are injurious to man, the
+larger part are beneficial, being either parasitic and baneful to other
+noxious animals, or more directly useful as scavengers, removing
+decaying animal and vegetable substances.
+
+[Illustration: 142, Ixodes albipictus and young.[8]]
+
+The transformations of the mites are interesting to the philosophic
+zoologist, since the young of certain forms are remarkably different
+from the adults, and in reaching the perfect state the mite passes
+through a metamorphosis more striking than that of many insects. The
+young on leaving the egg have six legs, as we have seen in the case of
+the Ixodes. Sometimes, however, as, for example, in the larva, as we may
+call it, of a European mite, Typhlodromus pyri, the adult of which,
+according to A. Scheuten, is allied to Acarus, and lives under the
+epidermis of the leaves of the pear in Europe (while Mr. T. Taylor, of
+the Department of Agriculture at Washington, has found a species in the
+pear leaves about Washington, and still another form in peach leaves),
+there are but two pairs of legs present, and the body is long,
+cylindrical and in a degree worm-like.
+
+I have had the good fortune to observe the different stages of a bird
+mite, intermediate in its form between the Acarus and Sarcoptes, or Itch
+mite. On March 6th, Mr. C. Cooke called my attention to certain little
+mites which were situated on the narrow groove between the main stem of
+the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of the feathers of the Downy
+Woodpecker, and subsequently we found the other forms in the down under
+the feathers. These long worm-like mites were evidently the young of a
+singular Sarcoptes-like mite, as they were found on the same specimen of
+Woodpecker at about the same date, and it is known that the growth of
+mites is rapid, the metamorphoses, judging by the information which we
+now possess, occupying usually but a few days.
+
+[Illustration: 143. Egg-eating Mite.]
+
+The young (though there is, probably, a still earlier hexapodous stage)
+of this Sarcoptid has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with four
+short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and ending in a
+stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to walk over smooth,
+hard surfaces. The body is square at the end, with a slight median
+indentation, and four long bristles of equal length. They remained
+motionless in the groove on the barb of the feather, and when removed
+seemed very inert and sluggish. A succeeding stage of this mite, which
+may be called the pupal, is considerably smaller than the larva and
+looks somewhat like the adult, the body having become shorter and
+broader. The adult is a most singular form, its body being rudely ovate,
+with the head sunken between the fore legs, which are considerably
+smaller than the second pair, while the third pair are twice as large as
+the second pair, and directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very
+small, not reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft and
+supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other
+bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature,
+originally ill-shapen, a haggard, unkempt appearance. The two stigmata
+or breathing pores open near the cleft in the end of the body, and the
+external opening of the oviduct is situated between the largest and
+third pair of legs. No males were observed. In a species of Acarus
+(Tyroglyphus), somewhat like the Cheese mite, which we have alive at
+the time of writing, in a box containing the remains of a Lucanus larva,
+which they seem to have consumed, as both young and old are swarming
+there by myriads, the young are oval and like the adults, except that
+they are six-legged, the fourth pair growing out after a succeeding
+moult.
+
+Such is a brief summary of what has been generally known regarding the
+metamorphoses of a few species of mites. In a few kinds no males have
+been found; the females have been isolated after being hatched, and yet
+have been known to lay eggs, which produced young without the
+interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has been noticed in
+several species.
+
+[Illustration: 144. Cheyletus.]
+
+These insects often suddenly appear in vast numbers on various articles
+of food and about houses, so as to be very annoying. Mr. J. J. H.
+Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass., has found a mite allied to the European
+species here figured (Fig. 144) very injurious to the seeds of the
+cabbage, which it sucked dry. This is an interesting form, and we have
+called it Cheyletus seminivorus It is of medium size, and especially
+noticeable from the tripartite palpi, which are divided into an outer,
+long, curved, claw-like lobe, with two rounded teeth at the base, and
+two inner, slender lobes pectinated on the inner side, the third
+innermost lobe being minute. The beak terminates in a sharp blade-like
+point.
+
+We have received a Cheyletus-like mite, said to have been "extracted
+from the human face" in New Orleans. The body is oblong, square behind;
+the head is long and pointed, while the maxillæ end in a long, curved,
+toothed, sickle-like blade. That this creature has the habits of the
+itch mite is suggested by the curious, large, hair-like spines with
+which the body and legs are sparsely armed, some being nearly half as
+long as the body. These hairs are covered with very fine spinules. Those
+on the end of the body are regularly spoon-shaped. These strange hairs,
+which are thickest on the legs, probably assisted the mite in anchoring
+itself in the skin of its host. We have read no account of this strange
+and interesting form. It is allied to the Acaropsis Mericourti which
+lives in the human face.
+
+A species, "apparently of the genus Gamasus," according to Dr. Leidy,
+has been found living in the ear (at the bottom of the external auditory
+meatus, and attached to the membrana tympani) of steers. "Whether this
+mite is a true parasite of the ear of the living ox, or whether it
+obtained access to the position in which it was found after the death of
+the ox in the slaughter house, has not yet been determined."
+
+We will now give a hasty glance at the different groups of mites,
+pausing to note those most interesting from their habits or relation to
+man.
+
+The most highly organized mite (and by its structure most closely allied
+to the spider) is the little red garden mite, belonging to the genus
+Trombidium, to which the genus Tetranychus is also nearly related. Our
+own species of the former genus have not been "worked up," or in other
+words identified and described, so that whether the European T.
+holosericeum Linn. is our species or not, we cannot tell. The larvæ of
+this and similar species are known to live parasitically upon Harvestmen
+(Phalangium), often called Daddy-long-legs; and upon Aphides,
+grasshoppers and other insects. Mr. Riley has made known to us through
+the "American Naturalist" (and from his account our information is
+taken), the habits of certain young of the garden mite (Trombidium)
+which are excessively annoying in the Southwestern States. The first is
+the Leptus? Americanus (Fig. 145), or American Harvest mite. It is only
+known as yet in the larval or Leptus state, when it is of the form
+indicated in the cut, and brick red in color. "This species is barely
+visible with the naked eye, moves readily and is found more frequently
+upon children than upon adults. It lives mostly on the scalp and under
+the arm pits, but is frequently found on the other parts of the body. It
+does not bury itself in the flesh, but simply insinuates the anterior
+part of the body just under the skin, thereby causing intense
+irritation, followed by a little red pimple. As with our common ticks,
+the irritation lasts only while the animal is securing itself, and its
+presence would afterwards scarcely be noticed but for the pimple which
+results."
+
+[Illustration: 145 _a._ American Harvest Mite; _b._ Irritating Harvest
+Mite; the dots underneath indicating the natural size.]
+
+The second species (Fig. 145 _b_, Leptus? irritans) is also only known
+in the Leptus stage. It is evidently the larva of a distinct genus from
+the other form, having enormous maxillæ and a broad body; it is also
+brick red. Mr. Riley says that "this is the most troublesome and,
+perhaps, best known of the two, causing intense irritation and swelling
+on all parts of the body, but more especially on the legs and around the
+ankles. Woe betide the person who, after bathing in the Mississippi
+anywhere in this latitude, is lured to some green dressing-spot of weeds
+or grass! He may, for the time, consider himself fortunate in getting
+rid of mud and dirt, but he will afterwards find to his sorrow that he
+exchanged them for something far more tenacious in these microscopic
+Harvest-mites. If he has obtained a good supply of them, he will in a
+few hours begin to suffer from severe itching, and for the next two or
+three days will be likely to scratch until his limbs are sore.
+
+"With the strong mandibles and the elbowed maxillæ which act like arms,
+this mite is able to bury itself completely in the flesh, thereby
+causing a red swelling with a pale pustulous centre containing watery
+matter. If, in scratching, he is fortunate enough to remove the mite
+before it enters, the part soon heals. But otherwise the irritation
+lasts for two, three or four days, the pustulous centre reappearing as
+often as it is broken.
+
+"The animal itself, on account of its minute size, is seldom seen, and
+the uninitiated, when first troubled with it, are often alarmed at the
+symptoms and at a loss to account for them. Fortunately these little
+plagues never attach themselves to persons in such immense numbers as do
+sometimes young or so-called 'seed' ticks; but I have known cases where,
+from the irritation and consequent scratching, the flesh had the
+appearance of being covered with ulcers; and in some localities, where
+these pests most abound, sulphur is often sprinkled during 'jigger'
+season in the boots or shoes as a protection.
+
+"Sulphur ointment is the best remedy against the effects of either of
+these mites, though when that cannot be obtained, saleratus water and
+salt water will partially allay the irritation.
+
+"The normal food of either must, apparently, consist of the juices of
+plants, and the love of blood proves ruinous to those individuals who
+get a chance to indulge it. For unlike the true Jigger, the female of
+which deposits eggs in the wound she makes, these Harvest-mites have no
+object of the kind, and when not killed by the hands of those they
+torment, they soon die victims to their sanguinary appetite."
+
+[Illustration: 146. Astoma of the Fly.]
+
+Another Leptus-like form is the parasite of the fly, described by Mr.
+Riley under the name of Astoma? muscarum (Fig. 146). How nearly allied
+it is to the European Astoma parasiticum we have not the means of
+judging.
+
+The European Tetranychus telarius Linn., or web-making mite, spins large
+webs on the leaves of the linden tree. Then succeed in the natural order
+the water mites (Hydrachna), which may be seen running over submerged
+sticks and on plants, mostly in fresh water, and rarely on the borders
+of the sea. The young after leaving the egg differ remarkably from the
+adults, so as to have been referred to a distinct genus (Achlysia) by
+the great French naturalist, Audouin. They live as parasites on various
+water insects, such as Dytiscus, Nepa and Hydrometra, and when mature
+live free in the water, though Von Baer observed an adult Hydrachna
+concharum living parasitically on the gills of the fresh-water mussel,
+Anodon. The species are of minute size. Collectors of beetles often meet
+with a species of Uropoda attached firmly to their specimens of
+dung-inhabiting or carrion beetles. It is a smoothly polished, round,
+flattened mite, with short, thick legs, scarcely reaching beyond the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: 147. Cattle Tick.]
+
+We now come to the Ticks, which comprise the largest mites. The genus
+Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker states that the Argas
+Persicus is very annoying to travellers in Persia. The habits of the
+wood ticks (Ixodes) are well known. Travellers in the tropics speak of
+the intolerable torment occasioned by these pests which, occurring
+ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to all sorts of
+reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself as he passes by within
+their reach. Sometimes cases fall within the practice of the physician,
+who is called to remove the tick, which is found sometimes literally
+buried beneath the skin. Mr. J. Stauffer writes me, that "on June 23d
+the daughter of Abraham Jackson (colored), playing among the leaves in a
+wood, near Springville, Lancaster County, Penn., on her return home
+complained of pain in the arm. No attention was paid to it till the next
+day, when a raised tumor was noticed, a small portion protruding through
+the skin, apparently like a splinter of wood. The child was taken to Dr.
+Morency, who applied the forceps, and after considerable pain to the
+child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes, nearly
+one-quarter of an inch long, and of an oval form and brown mahogany
+color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, centrally on the dorsal
+region." This tick proved, from Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be, without
+doubt, Ixodes unipunctata. It has also been found in Massachusetts by
+Mr. F. G. Sanborn.
+
+Another species is the Ixodes bovis (Fig. 147), the common cattle tick
+of the Western States and Central America. It is very annoying to horned
+cattle, gorging itself with their blood, but is by no means confined to
+them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the rattlesnake, the iguana,
+small mammals and undoubtedly any other animal that brushes by its
+lurking-place in the forest. It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened,
+seed-like creature, with the body oblong oval, and contracted just
+behind the middle. When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half
+an inch in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands of
+Mr. Riley, and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abundantly on horned
+cattle on the western coast of Nicaragua.
+
+We now come to the genus Acarus (Tyroglyphus), of which the cheese and
+sugar mites are examples. Some species of Acarian mites have been found
+in the lungs and blood-vessels, and even the intestinal canal of certain
+vertebrates, while the too familiar itch insect lurks under the skin of
+the hand and other parts of the body of certain uncleanly human bipeds.
+
+[Illustration: 148. Sugar Mite.]
+
+Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers and more
+authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of mites (Acarus
+sacchari, Fig. 148) found in unrefined or raw sugar. According to Prof.
+Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted in the "Journal of the Franklin
+Institute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel (who was the first to notice
+their general occurrence in the raw sugar sold at London) found them in
+a living state in no fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two samples.
+He did not detect them in a single specimen of refined sugar. In an
+inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr. Cameron, he
+reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains of sugar, so that in a
+pound's weight occurred one hundred thousand of these little creatures,
+which seem to have devoted themselves with a martyr-like zeal to the
+adulteration of sugar. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The
+disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the presence of
+this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works its way under the
+skin of the hand, in this case, however, of cleanly persons. Mr. Cameron
+states that "the kind of sugar which is both healthful and economical,
+is the dry, large-grained and light-colored variety."
+
+Closely allied to the preceding, is the Cheese mite (Acarus siro Linn.),
+which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonet states that during
+summer this mite is viviparous. Acarus farinæ DeGeer, as its name
+indicates, is found in flour. Other species have been known to occur in
+ulcers.
+
+[Illustration: 149. Mange Mite.]
+
+We should also mention the Mange insect of the horse (Psoroptes equi,
+Fig. 149, much enlarged; _a_, head more magnified). According to Prof.
+Verrill it is readily visible to the naked eye and swarms on horses
+afflicted with the mange, which is a disease analogous to the itch in
+man. It has a soft, depressed body, spiny beneath at the base of the
+legs and on the thorax. One or both of the two posterior pairs of feet
+bear suckers, and all are more or less covered with long, slender hairs.
+This insect may be destroyed by the same remedies as are used for lice
+and for the human itch. The best remedy is probably a solution of
+sulphuret of potassium.
+
+[Illustration: 150. Itch Mite.]
+
+[Illustration: 151. Nose Mite.]
+
+The itch insect (Sarcoptes scabiei, Fig. 150) was first recognized by an
+Arabian author of the twelfth century, as the cause of the disease which
+results from its attacks. The body of the insect is rounded, with the
+two hind pair of feet rudimentary and bearing long hairs. It buries
+itself in the skin on the more protected parts of the body, and by its
+punctures maintains a constant irritation. Other species are known to
+infest the sheep and dog. Another singular mite is the Demodex
+folliculorum (Fig. 151), which was discovered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin,
+buried in the diseased follicles of the wings of the nose in man. It is
+a long, slender, worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the
+larva state has six legs. This singular form is one of the lowest and
+most degraded of the order of Arachnids. A most singular mite was
+discovered by Newport on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and
+described by him under the name of Heteropus ventricosus. The body of
+the fully formed female is long and slender. After attaining this form,
+its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globular form,
+and the mass of mites look like little beads. Mr. Newport was unable to
+discover the male, and thought that this mite was parthenogenous. It
+will be seen that the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like
+appearance of the larva of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus. This
+is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a relationship to the
+Tardigrades and the Pentastoma, the latter being a degraded mite, and
+the lowest of its order, living parasitically within the bodies of other
+animals.
+
+[Illustration: Harvestman.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: The figure at the bottom on the left represents the adult,
+fully-gorged tick.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRISTLE-TAILS AND SPRING-TAILS.
+
+
+The Thysanura, as the Poduras and their allies, the Lepismas, are
+called, have been generally neglected by entomologists, and but few
+naturalists have paid special attention to them.[9] Of all those
+microscopists who have examined Podura scales as test objects, we wonder
+how many really know what a Podura is?
+
+In preparing the following account I have been under constant
+indebtedness to the admirable and exhaustive papers of Sir John Lubbock,
+in the London "Linnæan Transactions" (vols. 23, 26 and 27).
+Entomologists will be glad to learn that he is shortly going to press
+with a volume on the Poduras, which, in distinction from the Lepismas,
+to which he restricts the term Thysanura, he calls Collembola, in
+allusion to the sucker-like tubercle situated on the under side of the
+body, which no other insects are known to possess.
+
+The group of Bristle-tails, as we would dub the Lepismas in distinction
+from the Spring-tails, we will first consider. They are abundant in the
+Middle States under stones and leaves in forests, and northward are
+common in damp houses, while one beautiful species that we have never
+noticed elsewhere, is our "cricket on the hearth," abounding in the
+chinks and crannies of the range of our house, and also in closets,
+where it feeds on sugar, etc., and comes out like cockroaches, at night,
+shunning the light. Like the cockroaches, which it vaguely resembles in
+form, this species loves hot and dry localities, in distinction from the
+others which seek moisture as well as darkness. By some they are called
+"silver witches," and as they dart off, when disturbed, like a streak of
+light, their bodies being coated in a suit of shining mail, which the
+arrangement of the scales resembles, they have really a weird and
+ghostly look.
+
+The most complicated genus, and the one which stands at the head of the
+family, is Machilis, one species of which lives in the Northern and
+Middle States, and another in Oregon. They affect damp places, living
+under leaves and stones. They all have rounded, highly arched bodies,
+and large compound eyes, the two being united together. The maxillary
+palpi are greatly developed, but the chief characteristics are the
+two-jointed stylets arranged in nine pairs along each side of the
+abdomen, reminding us of the abdominal legs of Myriopods. The body ends
+in three long bristles, as in Lepisma.
+
+The Lepisma saccharina of Linnæus, if, as is probable, that is the name
+of our common species, is not uncommon in old damp houses, where it has
+the habits of the cockroach, eating cloths, tapestry, silken trimmings
+of furniture, and doing occasional damage to libraries by devouring the
+paste, and eating holes in the leaves and covers of books.
+
+In general form Lepisma may be compared to the larva of Perla, a
+net-veined Neuropterous insect, and also to the narrow-bodied species of
+cockroaches, minus the wings. The body is long and narrow, covered with
+rather coarse scales, and ends in three many jointed anal stylets, or
+bristles, which closely resemble the many jointed antennæ, which are
+remarkably long and slender. The thermophilous species already alluded
+to may be described as perhaps the type of the genus, the L. saccharina
+being simpler in its structure. The body is narrow and flattened; the
+basal joints of the legs being broad, flat and almost triangular, like
+the same joints in the cockroaches. The legs consist of six joints, the
+tarsal joints being large and two in number, and bearing a pair of
+terminal curved claws. The three thoracic segments are of nearly equal
+size, and the eight abdominal segments are also of similar size. The
+tracheæ are well developed, and may be readily seen in the legs. The end
+of the rather long and weak abdomen is propped up by two or three pairs
+of bristles, which are simple, not jointed, but moving freely at their
+insertion; thus they take the place of legs, and remind one of the
+abdominal legs of the Myriopods; and we shall see in certain other
+genera (Machilis and Campodea) of the Bristle-tails that there are
+actually two-jointed bristles arranged in pairs along the abdomen. They
+may probably be directly compared with the abdominal legs of Myriopods.
+Further study, however, of the homologies of these peculiar appendages,
+and especially a knowledge of the embryological development of Lepisma
+and Machilis, is needed before this interesting point can be definitely
+settled. The three many jointed anal stylets may, however, be directly
+compared with the similar appendages of Perla and Ephemera. The mode of
+insertion of the antennæ of this family is much like that of the
+Myriopods, the front of the head being flattened, and concealing the
+base of the antennæ, as in the Centipedes and Pauropus. Indeed, the head
+of any Thysanurous insect seen from above, bears a general resemblance
+in some of its features to that of the Centipede and its allies. So in a
+less degree does the head of the larvæ of certain Neuroptera and
+Coleoptera. The eyes are compound, the single facets forming a sort of
+heap. The clypeus and labrum, or upper lip, is, in all the Thysanura,
+carried far down on the under side of the head, the clypeus being almost
+obsolete in the Poduridæ, this being one of the most essential
+characters of that family. Indeed, it is somewhat singular that these
+and other important characteristics of this group have been almost
+entirely passed over by authors, who have consequently separated these
+insects from other groups on what appear to the writer as comparatively
+slight and inconsiderable characters. The mouth-parts of the Lepismatidæ
+(especially the thermophilous Lepisma, which we now describe) are most
+readily compared with those of the larva of Perla. The rather large,
+stout mandibles are concealed at their tips, under the upper lip, which
+moves freely up and down when the creature opens its mouth. The mandible
+is about one-third as broad as long, armed with three sharp teeth on the
+outer edge, and with a broad cutting edge within, and still further
+inwards a lot of straggling spinules. In all these particulars, the
+mandible of Lepisma is comparable with that of certain Coleoptera and
+Neuroptera. So also are the maxillæ and labium, though we are not aware
+that any one has indicated how close the homology is. The accompanying
+figure (152) of the maxilla of a beetle may serve as an example of the
+maxilla of the Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In these insects
+it consists almost invariably of three lobes, the outer being the
+palpus, the middle lobe the galea, and the innermost the lacinia; the
+latter undergoing the greatest modifications, forming a comb composed of
+spines and hairs varying greatly in relative size and length. How much
+the palpi vary in these groups of insects is well known. The galea
+sometimes forms a palpus-like appendage. Now these three lobes may be
+easily distinguished in the maxilla of Lepisma. The palpus instead of
+being directed forward, as in the insects mentioned above (in the pupa
+of Ephemera the maxilla is much like that of Lepisma), is inserted
+nearer the base than usual and thrown off at right angles to the
+maxilla, so that it is stretched out like a leg, and in moving about the
+insect uses its maxillæ partly as supports for its head. They are very
+long and large, and five or six-jointed. The galea, or middle division,
+forms a simple lobe, while the lacinia has two large chitinous teeth on
+the inner edge, and internally four or five hairs arising from a thin
+edge.
+
+[Illustration: 152. Maxilla.]
+
+The labium is much as in that of Perla, being broad and short, with a
+distinct median suture, indicating its former separation in embryonic
+life into a pair of appendages. The labial palpi are three-jointed, the
+joints being broad, and in life directed backwards instead of forwards
+as in the higher insects.
+
+There are five American species of the genus Lepisma in the Museum of
+the Peabody Academy. Besides the common L. saccharina? there are four
+undescribed species; one found about out-houses and cellars, and the
+heat-loving form, perhaps an imported, species, found in a kitchen in
+Salem, and apparently allied to the L. thermophila Lucas, of houses in
+Brest, France; and lastly two allied forms, one from Key West, and
+another from Polvon, Western Nicaragua, collected by Mr. McNiel. The
+last three species are beautifully ornamented with finely spinulated
+hairs arranged in tufts on the head; while the sides of the body, and
+edges of the basal joints of the legs are fringed with them.
+
+The interesting genus Nicoletia stands at the bottom of the group. It
+has the long, linear, scaleless body of Campodea, in the family below,
+but the head and its appendages are like Lepisma, the maxillary palpi
+being five-jointed, and the labial palpi four-jointed. The eyes are
+simple, arranged in a row of seven on each side of the head. The abdomen
+ends in three long and many jointed stylets, and there are the usual
+"false branchial feet" along each side of the abdomen. There are two
+European species which occur in greenhouses. No species have yet been
+found in America.
+
+[Illustration: 153. Japyx solifugus.]
+
+The next family of Thysanura is the Campodeæ, comprising the two genera
+Campodea and Japyx. These insects are much smaller than the Lepismidæ,
+and in some respects are intermediate between that family and the
+Poduridæ (including the Smynthuridæ).
+
+In this family the body is long and slender, and the segments much alike
+in size. There is a pair of spiracles on each thoracic ring. The
+mandibles are long and slender, ending in three or four teeth, and with
+the other appendages of the mouth are concealed within the head, "only
+the tips of the palpi (and of the maxillæ when these are opened)
+projecting a very little beyond the rounded entire margin of the
+epistoma," according to Haliday. The maxillæ are comb-shaped, due to the
+four slender, minutely ciliated spines placed within the outer tooth.
+The labium in Japyx is four-lobed and bears a small two-jointed palpus.
+The legs are five-jointed, the tarsi consisting of a single joint,
+ending in two large claws. The abdomen consists of ten segments, and in
+Campodea along each side is a series of minute, two-jointed appendages
+such as have been described in Machilis. These are wanting in Japyx.
+None of the species in this family have the body covered with scales.
+They are white, with a yellowish tinge.
+
+
+The more complicated genus of the two is Japyx (Fig. 153, Japyx
+solifugus, found under stones in Southern Europe; _a_, the mouth from
+beneath, with the maxillæ open; _b_, maxilla; _d_, mandible; _c_,
+outline of front of head seen from beneath, with the labial palpi in
+position) which, as remarked by the late Mr. Haliday (who has published
+an elaborate essay on this genus in the Linnæan Transactions, vol. 24,
+1864), resembles Forficula in the large forceps attached to its tail. An
+American species (J. Saussurii) lives in Mexico, and we look for its
+discovery in Texas.
+
+[Illustration: 154. Campodea staphylinus.]
+
+Campodea (C. staphylinus Westw., Fig. 154, enlarged; _a_, mandible; _b_,
+maxilla), otherwise closely related, has more rudimentary mouth-parts,
+and the abdomen ends in two many jointed appendages.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155. Larva of Perla.]
+
+Our common American species of Campodea (C. Americana) lives under
+stones in damp places. It is yellowish, about a sixth of an inch in
+length, is very agile in its movements, and would easily be mistaken for
+a very young Lithobius. A larger species and differing in having longer
+antennæ, has been found by Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, and has been
+described in the "American Naturalist" under the name of Campodea
+Cookei. Haliday has remarked that this family bears much resemblance to
+the Neuropterous larva of Perla (Fig. 155), as previously remarked by
+Gervais; and the many points of resemblance of this family and the
+Lepismidæ to the larval forms of some Neuroptera that are active in the
+pupa state (the Pseudoneuroptera of Erichson and other authors) are very
+striking. Campodea resembles the earliest larval form of Chloëon, as
+figured by Sir John Lubbock, even to the single jointed tarsus; and why
+these two Thysanurous families should be removed from the Neuroptera we
+are unable, at present, to understand, as to our mind they scarcely
+diverge from the Neuropterous type more than the Mallophaga, or biting
+lice, from the type of Hemiptera.
+
+Haliday, remarking on the opinion of Linnæus and Schrank, who referred
+Campodea to the old genus Podura, says with much truth, "it may be
+perhaps no unfair inference to draw, that the insect in question is in
+some measure intermediate between both," _i. e._, Podura and Lepisma.
+This is seen especially in the mouth-parts which are withdrawn into the
+head, and become very rudimentary, affording a gradual passage into the
+mouth-parts of the Poduridæ, which we now describe.
+
+The next group, the Podurelles of Nicolet, and Collembola of Lubbock,
+are considered by the latter, who has studied them with far more care
+than any one else, as "less closely allied" to the Lepismidæ "than has
+hitherto been supposed." He says "the presence of tracheæ, the structure
+of the mouth and the abdominal appendage; all indicate a wide
+distinction between the Lepismidæ and the Poduridæ. We must, indeed, in
+my opinion, separate them entirely from one another; and I would
+venture to propose for the group comprised in the old genus Podura, the
+term Collembola, as indicating the existence of a projection, or
+mammilla, enabling the creature to attach or glue itself to the body on
+which it stands." Then without expressing his views as to the position
+and affinities of the Lepismidæ, he remarks "as the upshot of all this,
+then, while the Collembola are clearly more nearly allied to the Insecta
+than to the Crustacea or Arachnida, we cannot, I think, regard them as
+Orthoptera or Neuroptera, or even as true insects. That is to say, the
+Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, etc., are in my
+opinion, more nearly allied to one another than they are to the Poduridæ
+or Smynthuridæ. On the other hand, we certainly cannot regard the
+Collembola as a group equivalent in value to the Insecta. If, then, we
+attempt to map out the Articulata, we must, I think, regard the
+Crustacea and Insecta as continents, the Myriopoda and Collembola as
+islands--of less importance, but still detached. Or, if we represent the
+divisions of the Articulata like the branching of a tree, we must
+picture the Collembola as a separate branch, though a small one, and
+much more closely connected with the Insecta than with the Crustacea or
+the Arachnida." Lamarck regarded them as more nearly allied to the
+Crustacea than Insecta. Gervais, also, in the "Histoire Naturelle des
+Insectes: Aptères," indicates a considerable diversity existing between
+the Lepismidæ and Poduridæ, though they are placed next to each other.
+Somewhat similar views have been expressed by so high an authority as
+Professor Dana, who, in the "American Journal of Science" (vol. 37,
+Jan., 1864), proposed a classification of insects based on the principle
+of cephalization, and divided the Hexapodous insects into three groups:
+the first (Ptero-prosthenics, or Ctenopters) comprising the Hymenoptera,
+Diptera, Aphaniptera (fleas), Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Trichoptera and
+Neuroptera; the second group (Ptero-metasthenics, or Elytropters)
+comprising the Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera; while the Thysanura
+compose the third group. Lubbock has given us a convenient historical
+view of the opinions of different authors regarding the classification
+of these insects, which we find useful. Nicolet, the naturalist who,
+previous to Lubbock, has given us the most correct and complete account
+of the Thysanura, regarded them as an order, equivalent to the
+Coleoptera or Diptera, for example. In this he followed Latreille, who
+established the order in 1796. The Abbé Bourlet adopted the same view.
+On the other hand Burmeister placed the Thysanura as a separate tribe
+between the Mallophaga (Bird Lice) and Orthoptera, and Gerstaecker
+placed them among the Orthoptera. Fabricius and Blainville put them with
+the Neuroptera, and the writer, in his "Guide to the Study of Insects,"
+and previously in 1863, ignorant of the views of the two last named
+authors, considered the Thysanura as degraded Neuroptera, and noticed
+their resemblance to the larvæ of Perla, Ephemera, and other Neuroptera,
+such as Rhaphidia and Panorpa, regarding them as standing "in the same
+relation to the rest of the Neuroptera [in the Linnæan sense], as the
+flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the lice and Thrips to the
+higher Hemiptera."
+
+After having studied the Thysanura enough to recognize the great
+difficulty of deciding as to their affinities and rank, the writer does
+not feel prepared to go so far as Dana and Lubbock, for reasons that
+will be suggested in the following brief account of the more general
+points in their structure, reserving for another occasion a final
+expression of his views as to their classification.
+
+The Poduridæ, so well known by name, as affording the scales used by
+microscopists as test objects, are common under stones and wet chips, or
+in damp places, cellars, mushrooms and about manure heaps. They need
+moisture, and consequently shade. They abound most in spring and autumn,
+laying their eggs at both seasons, though most commonly in the spring.
+During a mild December, they may be found in abundance under sticks and
+stones, even in situations so far north as Salem, Mass.
+
+[Illustration: 156. Smynthurus.]
+
+The body of the Poduras is rather short and thick, most so in Smynthurus
+(Fig. 156), and becoming long and slender in Tomocerus and Isotoma. The
+segments are inclined to be of unequal size, the prothoracic ring
+sometimes becoming almost obsolete, and some of the abdominal rings are
+much smaller than others; while in Lipura and Anura, the lowest forms of
+the group, the segments are all much alike in size.
+
+The head is in form much like that of certain larvæ of Neuroptera and of
+Forficula, an Orthopterous insect. The basal half of the head is marked
+off from the eye-bearing piece (epicranium) by a V-shaped suture[10]
+(Fig. 157, head of Degeeria; compare also the head of the larva of
+Forficula, Fig. 158, in which the suture is the same), and the insertion
+of the antennæ is removed far down the front, near the mouth, the
+clypeus being very short; this piece, so large and prominent in the
+higher insects, is not distinctly separated by suture from the
+surrounding parts of the head, thus affording one of the best
+distinctive characters of the Poduridæ. The eyes are situated on top of
+the head just behind the antennæ, and are simple, consisting of a group
+of from five to eight or ten united into a mass in Smynthurus, but
+separated in the Poduridæ (see Fig. 176, _e_, eye of Anurida). The
+antennæ are usually four-jointed, and vary in length in the different
+genera.
+
+[Illustration: 157. Head of Degeeria.]
+
+[Illustration: 158. Larva of Forficula.]
+
+The mouth-parts are very difficult to make out, but by soaking the
+insect in potash for twenty-four hours, thus rendering the body
+transparent, they can be satisfactorily observed. They are constructed
+on the same general type as the mouth-parts of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera and Coleoptera, and except in being degraded, and with
+certain parts obsolete, they do not essentially differ.[11] On observing
+the living Podura, the mouth seems a simple ring, with a minute labrum
+and groups of hairs and spinules, which the observer, partly by
+guess-work, can identify as jaws and maxillæ, and labium. But in
+studying the parts rendered transparent, we can identify the different
+appendages. Figure 159 shows the common Tomocerus plumbeus greatly
+enlarged (Fig. 160, seen from above), and as the mouth-parts of the
+whole group of Poduras are remarkably constant, a description of one
+genus will suffice for all. The labrum, or upper lip, is separated by a
+deep suture from the clypeus, and is trapezoidal in form. The mandibles
+and maxillæ are long and slender, and buried in the head, with the tips
+capable of being extended out from the ring surrounding the mouth for a
+very short distance. The mandibles (_md_, Fig. 159) are like those of
+the Neuroptera, Orthoptera and Coleoptera in their general form, the tip
+ending in from three to six teeth (three on one mandible and six on the
+other), while below, is a rough, denticulated molar surface, where the
+food seized by the terminal teeth is triturated and prepared to be
+swallowed. Just behind the mandibles are the maxillæ, which are
+trilobate at the end, as in the three orders of insects above named. The
+outer lobe, or palpus, is a minute membranous tubercle ending in a hair
+(Fig. 161, _mp_), while the middle lobe, or galea, is nearly obsolete,
+though I think I have seen it in Smynthurus, where it forms a lobe on
+the outside of the lacinia. The lacinia, or inner lobe (Fig. 161, _lc_;
+162, the same enlarged), in Tomocerus consists of two bundles of
+spinules, one broad like a ruffle, and the other slender, pencil-like,
+ending in an inner row of spines, like the spinules on the lacinia of
+the Japyx and Campodea and, more remotely, the laciniæ of the three
+sub-orders of insects above referred to. There is also a horny,
+prominent, three-toothed portion (Fig. 161, _g_). These homologies have
+never been made before, so far as the writer is aware, but they seem
+natural, and suggested by a careful examination and comparison with the
+above-mentioned mandibulate insects.
+
+[Illustration: 159. 161. 160. 162.
+
+Tomocerus plumbeus and mouth-parts, greatly enlarged.]
+
+The spring consists of a pair of three-jointed appendages, with the
+basal joints soldered together early in embryonic life, while the other
+two joints are free, forming a fork. It is longest in Smynthurus and
+Degeeria, and shortest in Achorutes (Fig. 172, _b_), where it forms a
+simple, forked tubercle; and is obsolete in Lipura and Anura, its place
+being indicated by an oval scar. The third joint varies in form, being
+hairy, serrate and knife-like in form, as in Tomocerus (Fig. 159, _a_),
+or minute, with a supplementary tooth, as in Achorutes (Fig. 172,
+_c_). This spring is in part homologous with the ovipositor of the
+higher insects, which originally consists of three pairs of tubercles,
+each pair arising apparently from the seventh, eighth, and ninth (the
+latter the penultimate) segments of the abdomen in the Hymenoptera. The
+spring of the Podura seems to be the homologue of the third pair of
+these tubercles, and is inserted on the penultimate segment. This
+comparison I have been able to make from a study of the embryology of
+Isotoma.
+
+[Illustration: 163. Catch holding spring of Achorutes.]
+
+Another organ, and one which, so far as I am aware, has been overlooked
+by previous observers, I am disposed to consider as possibly an
+ovipositor. In the genus Achorutes, it may be found in the segment just
+before the spring-bearing segment, and situated on the median line of
+the body. It consists (Fig. 163) of two squarish valves, from between
+which projects a pair of minute tubercles, or blades, with four rounded
+teeth on the under side. This pair of infinitesimal saws reminds one of
+the blades of the saw-fly, and I am at a loss what their use can be
+unless to cut and pierce so as to scoop out a shallow place in which to
+deposit an egg. It is homologous in situation with the middle pair of
+blades which composes the ovipositor of higher insects, and if it should
+prove to be used by the creature in laying its eggs, we should then
+have, with the spring, an additional point of resemblance to the
+Neuroptera and higher insects, and instead of this spring being an
+important differential character, separating the Thysanura from other
+insects, it binds them still closer, though still differing greatly in
+representing only a part of the ovipositor of the higher insects. (This
+is a catch for holding the spring in place.)
+
+But all the Poduras differ from other insects in possessing a remarkable
+organ situated on the basal segment of the abdomen. It is a small
+tubercle, with chitinous walls, forming two valves from between which is
+forced out a fleshy sucker, or, as in Smynthurus, a pair of long tubes,
+which are capable of being darted out on each side of the body, enabling
+the insect to attach itself to smooth surfaces, and rest in an inverted
+position.
+
+The eggs are laid few in number, either singly or several together, on
+the under side of stones, chips or, as in the case of Isotoma Walkerii,
+under the bark of trees. They are round, transparent. The development of
+the embryo of Isotoma in general accords with that of the Phryganeidæ
+and suggests on embryological grounds the near relationship of the
+Thysanura to the Neuroptera.
+
+[Illustration: 164. 165. 166. 167.
+
+Development of a Poduran.]
+
+The earliest stage observed was at the time of the appearance of the
+primitive band (Fig. 164, _a_, _b_, folding of the primitive band; _c_,
+the dotted line crosses the primitive band, and terminates in a large
+yolk granule) which surrounds the egg as in the Caddis flies. Soon
+after, the primitive segments appear (Fig. 165; 1, antennæ; 2,
+mandibles; 3, maxillæ; the labium was not seen; 5-7, legs; _c_, yolk
+surrounded by the primitive band) and seem to originate just as in the
+Caddis flies. Figure 166 is a front view of the embryo shortly before
+it is hatched; figure 167, side view of the same, the figures as in Fig.
+165; _sp_, spring; _l_, labrum. The labrum or upper lip, and the clypeus
+are large and as distinct as in the embryos of other insects, a fact to
+which we shall allude again. The large three-jointed spring is now well
+developed, and the inference is drawn that it represents a pair of true
+abdominal legs. The embryo when about to hatch throws off the egg-shell
+and amnion in a few seconds. The larva is perfectly white and is very
+active in its movements, running over the damp, inner surface of the
+bark. It is a little over a hundredth of an inch in length, and differs
+from the adult in being shorter and thicker, with the spring very short
+and stout. In fact the larva assumes the form of the lower genera of the
+family, such as Achorutes and Lipura, the adult more closely resembling
+Degeeria. The larva after its first moult retains its early clumsy form,
+and is still white. After a second moult it becomes purplish, and much
+more slender, as in the adult. The eggs are laid and the young hatched
+apparently within a period of from six to ten days.
+
+Returning to the stage indicated by figures 166 and 167, I am induced to
+quote some remarks published in the Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of
+Science, No. 2, p. 18, which seem to support the view that these insects
+are offshoots from the Neuroptera.
+
+"The front of the head is so entirely different from what it is in the
+adult, that certain points demand our attention. It is evident that at
+this period the development of the insect has gone on in all important
+particulars much as in other insects, especially the Neuropterous
+Mystacides as described by Zaddach. The head is longer vertically than
+horizontally, the frontal, or clypeal region is broad, and greater in
+extent than the epicranio-occipital region. The antennæ are inserted
+high up on the head, next the ocelli, falling down over the clypeal
+region. The clypeus, however, is merged with the epicranium, and the
+usual suture between them does not appear distinctly in after life,
+though its place is seen in figure 167 to be indicated by a slight
+indentation. The labrum is distinctly defined by a well marked suture,
+and forms a squarish, knob-like protuberance, and in size is quite large
+compared to the clypeus. From this time begins the process of
+degradation, when the insect assumes its Thysanurous characters, which
+consist in an approach to the form of the Myriopodous head, the front,
+or clypeal region being reduced to a minimum, and the antennæ and eyes
+brought in closer proximity to the mouth than in any other insects."
+
+Sir John Lubbock has given us an admirable account of the internal
+anatomy of these little creatures, his elaborate and patient dissections
+filling a great gap in our knowledge of their internal structure. The
+space at our disposal only permits us to speak briefly of the
+respiratory system. Lubbock found a simple system of tracheæ in
+Smynthurus which opens by "two spiracles in the head, opposite the
+insertion of the antennæ," _i. e._, on the back of the head. (Von Olfers
+says that they open on the prothorax.) Nicolet and Olfers claim to have
+found tracheæ in several lower genera (Orchesella, Tomocerus, and
+Achorutes and allied genera), but Lubbock was unable to detect them, and
+I may add that I have not yet been able after careful search to find
+them either in living specimens, or those rendered transparent by
+potash.
+
+Having given a hasty sketch of the external aspect of the Poduras, I
+extract from Lubbock's work a synopsis of the families and genera for
+the convenience of the student, adding the names of known American
+species, or indications of undescribed native forms.
+
+SMYNTHURIDÆ.--Body globular or ovoid; thorax and abdomen forming one
+mass; head vertical or inclined; antennæ of four or eight segments. Eyes
+eight on each side, on the top of the head. Legs long and slender.
+Saltatory appendage with a supplementary segment.
+
+Smynthurus. Antennæ four-jointed, bent at the insertion of the fourth,
+which is nearly as long as the other three, and appears to consist of
+many small segments. No conspicuous dorsal tubercles. (In this country
+Fitch has described five species: S. arvalis, elegans, hortensis,
+Novæboracensis, and signifer. Figure 156 represents a species found in
+Maine.)
+
+Dicyrtoma. Antennæ eight-jointed, five before, three after the bend. Two
+dorsal tubercles on the abdomen.
+
+Papirius.[12] Antennæ four-jointed, without a well-marked elbow, and
+with a short terminal segment offering the appearance of being
+many-jointed.
+
+PODURIDÆ.--This family comprises those species of the old genus Podura,
+in which the mouth has mandibles [also maxillæ and a labium], and the
+body is elongated, with a more or less developed saltatory appendage at
+the posterior extremity.
+
+Orchesella. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed with clubbed hairs. Antennæ long, six-jointed. Eyes six in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (One or two beautiful
+species live about Salem.)
+
+[Illustration: 168. Degeeria.]
+
+Degeeria. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed by clubbed hairs. Antennæ longer than the head and thorax,
+filiform, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side of the head.
+(Two species, Degeeria decem-fasciata, Pl. 10, Figs. 2, 3, and D.
+purpurascens, Figs. 4, 5, are figured in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects." Figure 168 represents a species found in Salem, Mass., closely
+allied to the European D. nivalis. Five species are already known in New
+England.)
+
+Seira. Body covered with scales. Antennæ four-jointed; terminal segment
+not ringed. Eyes on a dark patch. Thorax not projecting over the head.
+Abdominal segments unequal.
+
+Templetonia. Segments of the body subequal, clothed by clubbed hairs,
+and provided with scales. Antennæ longer than the head and thorax,
+five-jointed, with a small basal segment, and with the terminal portion
+ringed.
+
+Isotoma. Four anterior abdominal segments subequal, two posterior ones
+small; body clothed with simple hairs and without scales. Antennæ
+four-jointed, longer than the head; segments subequal. Eyes seven in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (Three species are
+found in Massachusetts, one of which (I. plumbea) is figured on Pl. 10,
+Figs. 6, 7, of the "Guide to the Study of Insects," third edition.)
+
+Tomocerus. Abdominal segments unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antennæ very long, four-jointed, the two terminal segments ringed. Eyes
+seven in number on each side. (The European T. plumbea, Podura plumbea
+of authors, is our species, and is common. Fig. 160, greatly enlarged,
+copied from Templeton; Fig. 159, side view, see also Fig. 161, where the
+mouth-parts are greatly enlarged, the lettering being the same, _md_,
+mandibles; _mx_, maxillæ; _mp_, maxillary palpus; _lb_, labium; _lp_,
+labial palpus; _lc_, lacinia; _g_, portion ending in three teeth; _l_,
+lobe of labium; _sp_, ventral sucking disk; the dotted line's passing
+through the body represent the course of the intestine; _b_, end of
+tibia, showing the tarsus, with the claw, and two accessory spines; _a_,
+third joint of the spring. Fig. 162, lacinia of maxilla greatly
+enlarged. Fig. 169, different forms of scales, showing the great
+variation in size and form, the narrow ones running into a linear form,
+becoming hairs. The markings are also seen to vary, showing, their
+unreliable character as test objects, unless a single scale is kept for
+use.)
+
+[Illustration: 169. Scales of Tomocerus.]
+
+[Illustration: 170. Lepidocyrtus.]
+
+[Illustration: 171. Scale of Lepidocyrtus.]
+
+Lepidocyrtus. Abdominal segment unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antennæ long, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side. (Fig.
+170, L. albinos, an European species, from Hardwicke's "Science Gossip."
+Fig. 171, a scale. Two species live in New England.)
+
+Podura. Abdominal segments subequal. Hairs simple, no scales. Antennæ
+four-jointed, shorter than the head. Eyes eight in number on each side.
+Saltatory appendage of moderate length.
+
+[Illustration: 172. Achorutes.]
+
+Achorutes. Abdominal segments subequal. Antennæ short, four-jointed.
+Eyes eight in number on each side. Saltatory appendage quite short.
+
+Figure 172 represents a species of this genus very abundant under the
+bark of trees, etc., in New England. It is of a blackish lead color;
+_a_, end of tibia bearing a tenant hair, with the tarsal joint and large
+claw; _b_, spring; _c_, the third joint of the spring, with the little
+spine at the base; figure 163, the supposed ovipositor; _a_, the two
+blades spread apart; _b_, side view. The mouth-parts in this genus are
+much as in Tomocerus, the maxillæ ending in a lacinia and palpus.
+
+[Illustration: 173. Lipura fimetaria.]
+
+The three remaining genera, Lipura, Anurida and Anura, are placed in the
+"family" Lipuridæ, which have no spring. Lubbock remarks that "this
+family contains as yet only two[13] genera, Lipura (Burmeister), in
+which the mouth is composed of the same parts as those in the preceding
+genera, and Anura (Gervais), in which the mandibles and maxillæ
+disappear." Our common white Lipura is the European L. fimetaria Linn.
+(Fig. 173, copied from Lubbock). The site of the spring is indicated by
+an oval scar.
+
+[Illustration: 174. 176. 175.
+
+Anurida maritima.]
+
+Figure 174 represents Anurida maritima found under stones between tide
+marks at Nantucket. It is regarded the same as the European species by
+Lubbock, to whom I had sent specimens for comparison. This genus differs
+in the form of the head from Lipura and also wants the terminal upcurved
+spines, while the antennæ are much more pointed. The legs (Fig. 175) end
+in a large, long, curved claw. On examining specimens soaked in potash,
+I have found that the mouth-parts of this species (Fig. 176,) _md_,
+mandibles; _mx_, maxillæ; _e_, eyes, and a singular accessory group of
+small cells, are like those of Achorutes, as previously noticed by
+Laboulbène. The mandibles, like those of other Poduras, end in from
+three to six teeth, and have a broad, many-toothed molar surface below.
+The maxillæ; end in a tridentate lacinia as usual, though the palpi and
+galea I have not yet studied.
+
+The genus Anura may be readily recognized by the mouth ending in an
+acutely conical beak, with its end quite free from the head and hanging
+down beneath it. The body is short and broad, much tuberculated, while
+the antennæ are short and pointed, and the legs are much shorter than in
+Lipura, not reaching more than a third of their length beyond the body.
+Our common form occurs under the bark of trees.
+
+For the reason that I can find no valid characters for separating these
+three genera as a family from the other Poduras, I am inclined to think
+that they form, by the absence of the spring, only a subdivision
+(perhaps a subfamily) of the Poduridæ.
+
+The best way to collect Poduras is, on turning up the stick or stone on
+the under side of which they live, to place a vial over them, allowing
+them to leap into it; they may be incited to leap by pushing a needle
+under the vial. They may also be collected by a bottle with a sponge
+saturated with ether or chloroform. They may be kept alive for weeks by
+keeping moist slips of blotting paper in the vial. In this way I have
+kept specimens of Degeeria, Tomocerus and Orchesella, from the middle of
+December till late in January. During this time they occasionally
+moulted, and Tomocerus plumbeus, after shedding its skin, ate it within
+a few hours. Poduras feed ordinarily on vegetable matter, such as dead
+leaves and growing cryptogamic vegetation. These little creatures can be
+easily preserved in a mixture of alcohol and glycerine, or pure alcohol,
+though without the glycerine the colors fade.
+
+We have entered more fully in this chapter into the details of structure
+than heretofore, too much so, perhaps, for the patience of our readers.
+But the study of the Poduras possesses the liveliest interest, since
+these lowest of all the six-footed insects may have been among the
+earliest land animals, and hence to them we may look with more or less
+success for the primitive, ancestral forms of insect life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 9: Nicolet, in the "Annales de la Societe Entomologique de
+France" (tome v, 1847), has given us the most comprehensive essay on the
+group, though Latreille had previously published an important essay, "De
+l'Organization Exterieure des Thysanoures" in the "Nouvelles Annales du
+Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1832," which I have not seen.
+Gervais has also given a useful account of them in the third volume of
+"Apteres" of Roret's Suite a Buffion,
+published in 1844.
+
+The Abbe Bourlet, Templeton, Westwood, and Haliday have published
+important papers on the Thysanura; and Meinert, a Danish naturalist, and
+Olfers, a German anatomist, have published important papers on the
+anatomy of the group. In this country Say and Fitch have described less
+than a dozen species, and the writer has described two American species
+of Campodea, C. Americana, our common form, and C. Cookei, discovered by
+Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, while Humbert has described in a French
+scientific journal a species of Jupyx (J. Saussurii) from Mexico.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The direct homology of these parts of the head (the
+occiput and the epicranium) with Perla, Forficula, etc., seems to me the
+best evidence we could have that the Poduræ are not an independent
+group. In these most fundamental characters they differ widely from the
+Myriopods. I am not aware that this important relation has been
+appreciated by observers.]
+
+[Footnote 11: As we descend to the soft, tube-like, suctorial (?) mouth
+of Anura, which is said not to have hard mouth-parts, we see the final
+point of degradation to which the mouth of the Thysanura is carried. I
+think that this gradual degradation of the mouth-parts in this group
+indicates that the appendages in these animals are not formed on an
+independent type, intermediate, so to speak, between the mandibulate and
+haustellate types, but are simply a modification (through disuse) of the
+mandibulate type as seen in Neuropterous insects.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Lubbock considers that Papirius should be placed in a
+distinct family from Smynthurus, because it wants tracheæ. Their
+presence or absence scarcely seems to us to be a family character, as
+they are wanting in the Poduridæ, and are not essential to the life of
+these animals, while in other respects Papirius seems to differ but
+slightly from Smynthurus.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Dr. Laboulbène has recently, and we think with good
+reason, separated Anura maritima from the genus Anura, under the name of
+Anurida maritima.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HINTS ON THE ANCESTRY OF INSECTS.
+
+
+[Illustration: 177. Pentastoma.]
+
+[Illustration: 178. Centipede.]
+
+Though our course through the different groups of insects may have
+seemed rambling and desultory enough, and pursued with slight reference
+to a natural classification of the insects of which we have spoken, yet
+beginning with the Hive bee, the highest intelligence in the vast world
+of insects, we have gradually, though with many a sudden step, descended
+to perhaps the most lowly organized forms among all the insects, the
+parasitic mites. While the Demodex is probably the humblest in its
+organization of any of the insects we have treated of, there is still
+another mite, which, some eminent naturalists continue to regard as a
+worm, which is yet lower in the scale. This is the Pentastoma (Fig. 177,
+P. tænioides), which lives in the manner of the tape worm a parasitic
+life in the higher animals, though instead of inhabiting the alimentary
+canal, the worm-like mite takes up its abode in the nostrils and frontal
+sinus of dogs and sheep, and sometimes of the horse. At first, however,
+it is found in the liver or lungs of various animals, sometimes in man.
+It is then in the earliest or larval state, and assumes its true mite
+form, being oval in shape, with minute horny jaws adapted for boring,
+and with two pairs of legs armed with sharp retractile claws. Such an
+animal as this is little higher than some worms, and indeed is lower
+than many of them.
+
+We should also not pass over in silence the Centipedes (Fig. 178,
+Scolopocryptops sexspinosa) and Galley worms, or Thousand legs and their
+allies (Myriopods), which by their long slender bodies, and great number
+of segments and feet, vaguely recall the worms. But they, with the
+mites, are true insects, as they are born with only three pairs of feet,
+as are the mites and ticks, and breathe by tracheæ; and thus a common
+plan of structure underlies the entire class of insects.
+
+[Illustration: 179. Young Pauropus.]
+
+[Illustration: 180. Spring-tail.]
+
+[Illustration: 181. Young Julus.]
+
+A very strange Myriopod has been discovered by Sir John Lubbock in
+Europe, and we have been fortunate enough to find a species in this
+country. It is the Pauropus. It consists, when fully grown, of nine
+segments, exclusive of the head, bearing nine pairs of feet. The young
+of Pauropus (Fig. 179) is born with three pairs of feet, and in its
+general appearance reminds us of a spring-tail (Fig. 180) as may be seen
+by a glance at the cut. This six-legged form of Pauropus may also be
+compared with the young galley worm (Fig. 181).
+
+[Illustration: 182. Leptus.]
+
+[Illustration: 183. Tardigrade.]
+
+Passing to the group of spiders and mites, we find that the young mites
+when first hatched have but three pairs of feet, while their parents
+have four, like the spiders. Figure 182 represents the larva (Leptus)
+of the red garden mites; while a figure of the "water bear," or
+Tardigrade (Fig. 183), is introduced to compare with it, as it bears a
+resemblance to the young of the mites, though their young are born with
+their full complement of legs, an exception to their nearest allies, the
+true mites. Now if we compare these early stages of mites and myriopods
+with those of the true six-footed insects, as in the larval Meloë,
+Cicada, Thrips and Dragon fly, we shall see quite plainly that they all
+share a common form. What does this mean? To the systematist who
+concerns himself with the classification of the myriads of different
+insects now living, it is a relief to find that all can be reduced to
+the comparatively simple forms sketched above. It is to him a proof of
+the unity of organization pervading the world of insects. He sees how
+nature, seizing upon this archetypal form has, by simple modifications
+of parts here and there, by the addition of wings and other organs
+wanting in these simple creatures, rung numberless changes in this
+elemental form. And starting from the simplest kinds, such as the
+Poduras, Spiders, Grasshoppers and May flies, allied creatures which we
+now know were the first to appear in the earlier geologic ages, we rise
+to the highest, the bees with their complex forms, their diversified
+economy and wonderful instincts. In ascending this scale of being, while
+there is a progress upwards, the beetles, for instance, being higher
+than the bugs and grasshoppers; and the butterflies and moths, on the
+whole, being more highly organized than the flies; and while we see the
+hymenopterous saw-flies, with their larvæ mimicking so closely the
+caterpillars of the butterflies, in the progress from the saw-flies up
+to the bees we behold a gradual loss of the lower saw-fly characters in
+the Cynips and Chalcid flies, and see in the sand-wasps and true wasps
+a constant and accelerating likeness to the bee form. Yet this
+continuity of improving organizations is often broken, and we often see
+insects which recall the earlier and more elementary forms.
+
+[Illustration: 184. Male Stylops.]
+
+Again, going back of the larval period, and studying the insect in the
+egg, we find that nearly all the insects yet observed agree most
+strikingly in their mode of growth, so that, for instance, the earlier
+stages of the germ of a bee, fly or beetle, bear a remarkable
+resemblance to each other, and suggest again, more forcibly than when we
+examine the larval condition, that a common design or pattern at first
+pervades all. In the light of the studies of Von Baer, of Lamarck and
+Darwin, should we be content to stop here, or does this ideal archetype
+become endowed with life and have a definite existence, becoming the
+ancestral form of all insects, the prototype which gave birth to the
+hundreds of thousands of insect forms which are now spread over our
+globe, just as we see daily happens where a single aphis may become the
+progenitor of a million offspring clustering on the same tree? Is there
+not something more than analogy in the two things, and is not the same
+life-giving force that evolves a million young Aphides from the germ
+stock of a single Aphis in a single season, the same in kind with the
+production of the living races of insects from a primeval ancestor? When
+we see the Aphis giving origin in one season to successive generations,
+the individuals of which may be counted by the million, it is no less
+mysterious than that other succession of forms of insect life which has
+peopled the globe during the successive chapters of its history. While
+we see in one case the origin of individual forms, and cannot explain
+what it is that starts the life in the germ and so unerringly guides the
+course of the growing embryo, it is illogical to deny that the same
+life-giving force is concerned in the production of specific and generic
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: 185. Female Stylops.]
+
+Who can explain the origin of the sexes? What is the cause that
+determines that one individual in a brood of Stylops, for example (Fig.
+184, male; Fig. 185, grub-like female in the body of its host), shall be
+but a grub, living as a parasite in the body of its host, while its
+fellow shall be winged and as free in its actions as the most highly
+organized insect? It is no less mysterious, because it daily occurs
+before our eyes. So perhaps none the less mysterious, and no more
+discordant with known natural laws may the law that governs the origin
+of species seem to those who come after us. Certainly the present
+attempts to discover that law, however fatuitous they may seem to many,
+are neither illogical, nor, judging by the impetus already given to
+biology, or the science of life, labor altogether spent in vain. The
+theory of evolution is a powerful tool, when judiciously used, that must
+eventually wrest many a secret from the grasp of nature.
+
+But whether true or unproved, the theory of evolution in some shape has
+actually been adopted by the large proportion of naturalists, who find
+it indispensable in their researches, and it will be used until found
+inadequate to explain facts. Notwithstanding the present distrust, and
+even fear, with which it is received by many, we doubt not but that in
+comparatively few years all will acknowledge that the theory of
+evolution will be to biology what the nebular hypothesis is to geology,
+or the atomic theory is to chemistry. While the evolution theory is as
+yet imperfect, and many objections, some seemingly insuperable, can be
+raised against it, it should be borne in mind that the nebular
+hypothesis is still comparatively crude and unsatisfactory, though
+indispensable as a working theory to the geologist; and in chemistry,
+though the atomic theory may not be satisfactorily demonstrated to some
+minds until an atom is actually brought to sight, it is yet invaluable
+in research.
+
+Many short sighted persons complain that such a theory sets in the
+back-ground the idea of a personal Creator; but minds no less devout,
+and perhaps a trifle more thoughtful, see the hand of a Creator not less
+in the evolution of plants and animals from prëexistent forms, through
+natural laws, than in the evolution of a summer's shower, through the
+laws discovered by the meteorologist, who looks back through myriads of
+ages to the causes that led to the distribution of mountain chains,
+ocean currents and trade winds, which combine to produce the necessary
+conditions resulting in that shower.
+
+Indeed, to the student of nature, the evolution theory in biology, with
+the nebular hypothesis, and the grand law in physics of the correlation
+of forces, all interdependent, and revealing to us the mode in which the
+Creator of the Universe works in the world of matter, together form an
+immeasurably grander conception of the order of creation and its
+Ordainer, than was possible for us to form before these laws were
+discovered and put to practical use. We may be allowed, then, in a
+reverent spirit of inquiry, to attempt to trace the ancestry of the
+insects, and without arriving, perhaps, at any certain result, for it is
+largely a matter of speculation, point out certain facts, the thoughtful
+consideration of which may throw light on this difficult and
+embarrassing question.
+
+Without much doubt the Poduras are the lowest of the six-footed insects.
+They are more embryonic in their appearance than others, as seen in the
+large size of the head compared with the rest of the body, the large,
+clumsy legs, and the equality in the size of the several segments
+composing the body. In other characters, such as the want of compound
+eyes, the absence of wings, the absence of a complete ovipositor, and
+the occasional want of tracheæ, they stand at the base of the insect
+series. That they are true insects, however, we endeavored to show in
+the previous chapter, and that they are neuropterous, we think is most
+probable, since not only in the structure of the insect after birth do
+they agree with the larvæ of certain neuropters, but, as we have shown
+in another place[14] in comparing the development of Isotoma, a Poduran,
+with that of a species of Caddis fly, the correspondence throughout the
+different embryological stages, nearly up to the time of hatching, is
+very striking. And it is a remarkable fact, as we have previously
+noticed, that when it begins to differ from the Caddis fly embryo, it
+begins to assume the Poduran characters, and its development
+consequently in some degree retrogrades, just as in the lice previous to
+hatching, as we have shown in a previous chapter, so that I think we are
+warranted at present in regarding the Thysanura, and especially the
+family of Podarids as degraded neuropters. Consequently the Poduras did
+not have an independent origin and do not, perhaps, represent a distinct
+branch of the genealogical tree of articulates. While the Poduras may be
+said to form a specialized type, the Bristle-tails (Lepisma, Machilis,
+Nicoletia and Campodea) are, as we have seen, much more highly
+organized, and form a generalized or comprehensive type. They resemble
+in their general form the larva of Ephemerids, and perhaps more closely
+the immature Perla, and also the wingless cockroaches.
+
+[Illustration: 186. Embryo of Diplax.]
+
+[Illustration: 187. Embryo of Louse.]
+
+Now such forms as these Thysanura, together with the mites and the
+singular Pauropus, we cannot avoid suspecting to have been among the
+earliest to appear upon the earth, and putting together the facts,
+first, of their low organization; secondly, of their comprehensive
+structure, resembling the larvæ of other insects; and thirdly, of their
+probable great antiquity, we naturally look to them as being related in
+form to what we may conceive to have been the ancestor of the class of
+insects. Not that the animals mentioned above were the actual ancestors,
+but that certain insects bearing a greater resemblance to them than any
+others with which we are acquainted, and belonging possibly to families
+and orders now extinct, were the prototypes and progenitors of the
+insects now known.
+
+[Illustration: 188. Embryo of Spider.]
+
+[Illustration: 189. Embryo of Podura.]
+
+Though the study of the embryology of insects is as yet in its infancy,
+still with the facts now in our possession we can state with tolerable
+certainty that at first the embryos of all insects are remarkably alike,
+and the process of development is much the same in all, as seen in the
+figure of Diplax (Fig. 186), the louse (Fig. 187), the spider (Fig. 188)
+and the Podura (Fig. 189), and we could give others bearing the same
+likeness. We notice that at a certain period in the life of the embryo
+all agree in having the head large, and bearing from two to four pairs
+of mouth organs, resembling the legs; the thorax is merged in with the
+abdomen, and the general form of the embryo is ovate. Now this general
+embryonic form characterizes the larva of the mites, of the myriopods
+and of the true insects. To such a generalized embryonic form to which
+the insects may be referred as the descendants, we would give the name
+of _Leptus_, as among Crustacea the ancestral form is referred to
+Nauplius, a larval form of the lower Crustacea, and through which the
+greater part of the Crabs, Shrimps, Barnacles, water fleas, etc., pass
+to attain their definite adult condition. A little water flea was
+described as a separate genus, Nauplius, before it was known to be the
+larva of a higher water flea, and so also Leptus was thought to be a
+mature mite. Accordingly, we follow the usage of certain naturalists in
+dealing with the Crustacea, and propose for this common primitive larval
+condition of insects the term Leptus.
+
+[Illustration: 190. Zoëa.]
+
+The first to discuss this subject of the ancestry of insects was Fritz
+Müller, who in his "Für Darwin,"[15] published in 1863, says, at the end
+of his work, "Having reached the Nauplius, the extreme outpost of the
+class, retiring farthest into the gray mist of primitive time, we
+naturally look round us to see whether ways may not be descried thence
+towards other bordering regions. * * * But I can see nothing certain.
+Even towards the nearer provinces of the Myriopoda and Arachnida I can
+find no bridge. For the Insecta alone, the development of the
+Malacostraca [Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, etc.] may perhaps present a
+point of union. Like many Zoëæ, the Insecta possess three pairs of limbs
+serving for the reception of nourishment, and three pairs serving for
+locomotion; like the Zoëæ they have an abdomen without appendages; as in
+all Zoëæ the mandibles in Insecta are destitute of palpi. Certainly but
+little in common, compared with the much which distinguishes these two
+animal forms. Nevertheless, the supposition that the Insecta had for
+their common ancestor a Zoëa which raised itself into a life on land,
+may be recommended for further examination" (p. 140).
+
+Afterwards Hæckel in his "Generelle Morphologie" (1866) and "History of
+Creation," published in 1868, reiterates the notion that the insects are
+derived from the larva (Zoëa, Fig. 190) of the crabs, though he is
+doubtful whether they did not originate directly from the worms.[16]
+
+It may be said in opposition to the view that the insects came
+originally from the same early crustacean resembling the larva of a crab
+or shrimp, that the differences between the two types are too great, or,
+in other words, the homologies of the two classes too remote,[17] and
+the two types are each too specialized to lead us to suppose that one
+was derived from the other. Moreover, we find through the researches of
+Messrs. Hartt and Scudder that there were highly developed insects, such
+as May flies, grasshoppers, etc., in the Devonian rocks of New
+Brunswick, leading us to expect the discovery of low insects even in the
+Upper Silurian rocks. At any rate this discovery pushes back the origin
+of insects beyond a time when there were true Zoëæ, as the shrimps and
+their allies are not actually known to exist so far back as the
+Silurian, not having as yet been found below the coal measures.
+
+
+The view that the insects were derived from a Zoëa was also sustained by
+Friedrich Brauer, the distinguished entomologist of Vienna, in a
+paper[18] read in March, 1869. Following the suggestion of Fritz Müller
+and Hæckel, he derives the ancestry of insects from the Zoëa of crabs
+and shrimps. However, he regards the Podurids as the more immediate
+ancestors of the true insects, selecting Campodea as the type of such an
+ancestral form, remarking that the "Campodea-stage has for the Insects
+and Myriopods the same value as the Zoëa for the Crustacea." He says
+nothing regarding the spiders and mites.
+
+At the same time[19] the writer, in criticising Hæckel's views of the
+derivation of insects from the Crustacea (ignorant of the fact that he
+had also suggested that the insects were possibly derived directly from
+the worms, and also independently of Brauer's opinions) declared his
+belief that though it seemed premature, after the discovery of highly
+organized winged insects in rocks so ancient as the Devonian, and with
+the late discovery of a land plant in the Lower Silurian rocks of
+Sweden,[20] to even guess as to the ancestry of insects, yet he would
+suggest that, instead of being derived from some Zoëa, "the ancestors of
+the insects (including the six-footed insects, spiders and myriopods)
+must have been worm-like and aquatic, and when the type became
+terrestrial we would imagine a form somewhat like the young Pauropus,
+which combines in a remarkable degree the characters of the myriopods
+and the degraded wingless insects, such as the Smynthurus, Podura, etc.
+Some such forms may have been introduced late in the Silurian period,
+for the interesting discoveries of fossil insects in the Devonian of New
+Brunswick, by Messrs. Hartt and Scudder, and those discovered by Messrs.
+Meek and Worthen in the lower part of the Coal Measures at Morris,
+Illinois, and described by Mr. Scudder, reveal carboniferous myriopods
+(two species of Euphorberia) more highly organized than Pauropus, and a
+carboniferous scorpion (Buthus?) closely resembling a species now living
+in California, together with another scorpion-like animal, Mazonia
+Woodiana, while the Devonian insects described from St. John by Mr.
+Scudder, are nearly as highly organized as our grasshoppers and May
+flies. Dr. Dawson has also discovered a well developed milleped
+(Xylobius) in the Lower Coal Measures of Nova Scotia; so that we must go
+back to the Silurian period in our search for the earliest ancestor, or
+(if not of Darwinian proclivities) prototype, of insects."
+
+Afterwards[21] the writer, carrying out the idea suggested above,
+"referred the ancestry of the Myriopods, Arachnids, and Hexapodous
+insects to a Leptus-like terrestrial animal, bearing a vague resemblance
+to the Nauplius form among Crustacea, inasmuch as the body is not
+differentiated into a head, thorax and abdomen [though the head may be
+free from the rest of the body] and there are three pairs of temporary
+locomotive appendages. Like Nauplius, which was first supposed to be an
+adult Entomostracan, the larval form of Trombidium had been described as
+a genus of mites under the name of Leptus (also Ocypete and Astoma) and
+was supposed to be adult."
+
+In the same year Sir John Lubbock[22] agrees with Brauer that the groups
+represented by Podura and Campodea may have been the ancestors of the
+insects, remarking that "the genus Campodea must be regarded as a form
+of remarkable interest, since it is the living representative of a
+primæval type from which not only the Collembola (Podura, etc.) and
+Thysanura, but the other great orders of insects, have all derived their
+origin."
+
+The comparison of the Leptus with the Nauplius, or pre-Zoëal stage of
+Crustacea, is much more natural. But here we are met with apparently
+insuperable difficulties. While the Nauplius (Fig. 191) has but three
+pairs of appendages, which become the two pairs of antennæ and
+succeeding pair of limbs of the adult, in the Leptus as the least number
+we have five pairs, two of which belong to the head (the maxillæ and
+mandibles) and three to the thorax; besides these is a true heed,
+distinct from the hinder region of the body. It is evident that the
+Leptus fundamentally differs from the Nauplius and begins life on a
+higher plane. We reject, therefore, the Crustacean origin of the
+insects. Our only refuge is in the worms, and how to account for the
+transmutation of any worm with which we are at present acquainted into a
+form like the Leptus, with its mandibulated mouth and jointed legs,
+seems at first well nigh impossible. We have the faintest possible
+indication in the structure of some mites, and of the Tardigrades and
+Pentastoma, where there is a striking recurrence, as we may term it, to
+a worm-like form, readily noticed by every observer, whatever his
+opinion may be on the developmental theory. In the Demodex we see a
+tendency of the mite to assume under peculiar circumstances an
+elongated, worm-like form. The mouth-parts are aborted (though from what
+we know of the embryology of other mites, they probably are indicated
+early in embryonic life), while the eight legs are not jointed, and form
+simple tubercles. In the Tardigrades, a long step lower, we have
+unjointed fleshy legs armed with from two to four claws, but the
+mouth-parts are essentially mite in character. A decided worm feature is
+the fact that they are hermaphrodites, each individual having ovaries
+and spermaries, as is the case with many worms.
+
+[Illustration: 191. Nauplius.]
+
+When we come to the singular creatures of which Pentastoma and
+Linguatula are the type, we have the most striking approximation to the
+worms in external form, but these are induced evidently by their
+parasitic mode of life. They lose the rudimentary jointed limbs which
+some (Linguatula especially) have well marked in the embryo, and from
+being oval, rudely mite-like in form, they elongate, and only the claws
+or simple curved hooks, like those of young tape worms, remain to
+indicate the original presence of true jointed legs.
+
+In seeking for the ancestry of our hypothetical Leptus among the worms,
+we are at best groping in the dark. We know of no ancestral form among
+the true Annelides, nor is it probable that it was derived from the
+intestinal worms. The only worm below the true Annelides that suggests
+any remote analogy to the insects is the singular and rare Peripatus,
+which lives on land in warm climates. Its body, not divided into rings,
+is provided with about thirty pairs of fleshy tubercles, each ending in
+two strong claws, and the head is adorned with a pair of fleshy
+tubercles. It is remotely possible that some Silurian land worm, if any
+such existed, allied to our living Peripatus, may have been the ancestor
+of a series of types now lost which resulted in an animal resembling the
+Leptus.
+
+[Illustration: 192. Platygaster error.]
+
+We may, however, as bearing upon this difficult question, cite some
+remarkable discoveries of Professor Ganin, a Russian naturalist, on the
+early stages of certain ichneumon parasites, which show some worm
+features in their embryonic development. In a species of Platygaster
+(Fig. 192, P. error of Fitch), which is a parasite on a two-winged gall
+fly, the earliest stage observed after the egg is laid is that in which
+the egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucleolus. Out of this
+cell (Fig. 193 _A_, _a_) arise two other cells. The central cell (_a_)
+gives origin to the embryo. The two outer ones multiply by subdivision
+and form the embryonal membrane, or "amnion," which is a provisional
+envelope and does not assist in building up the body of the germ. The
+central single cell, however, multiplies by the subdivision of its
+nucleus, thus building up the body of the germ. Figure 193 _B_, _g_,
+shows the yolk or germ just forming out of the nuclei (_a_) and _b_, the
+peripheral cells of the blastoderm skin, or "amnion." Figure 193 _C_
+shows the yolk transformed into the embryo (_g_), with the outer layer
+of blastodermic cells (_b_). The body of the germ is infolded, so that
+the embryo appears bent on itself. Figure 193 _D_ shows the embryo much
+farther advanced, with the two pairs of lobes (_md_, rudimentary
+mandibles; _d_, rudimentary pad-like organs, seen in a more advanced
+stage in _E_), and the bilobate tail (_st_). Figure 194 (_m_, mouth;
+_at_, rudimentary antennæ; _md_, mandibles; _d_, tongue-like appendages;
+_st_, anal stylets; the subject of this figure is of a different species
+from the insect previously figured, which, however, it closely
+resembles) shows the first larva stage after leaving the egg. This
+strange form, the author remarks, would scarcely be thought an insect,
+were not its origin and farther development known, but rather a
+parasitic Copepodous crustacean, whence he calls this the Cyclops-like
+stage. In this condition it clings to the inside of its
+host by means of its hook-like jaws (_md_), moving about like a Cestodes
+embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and down, and is
+of but little assistance in its efforts to change its place. Singularly
+enough, the nervous, vascular, and respiratory systems (tracheæ) are
+wanting, and the alimentary canal is a blind sac, remaining in an
+indifferent, or unorganized state. How long it remains in this state
+could not be ascertained.
+
+[Illustration: 193. Development of Platygaster.]
+
+[Illustration: 194. First Larva of Platygaster.]
+
+[Illustration: 195. Second Larva of Platygaster.]
+
+The second larval stage (Fig. 195; _oe_, oesophagus; _ng_,
+supra-oesophageal ganglion; _n_, nervous cord; _ga_, and _g_, genital
+organs; _ms_, band of muscles) is attained by means of a moult, as usual
+in the metamorphoses of insects. With the change of skin the larva
+entirely changes its form. So-called hypodermic cells are developed. The
+singular tail is dropped, the segments of the body disappear, and the
+body grows oval, while within begins a series of remarkable changes,
+like the ordinary development of the embryo of most other insects within
+the egg. The cells of the hypodermis multiply greatly, and lie one above
+the other in numerous layers. They give rise to a special primitive
+organ closely resembling the "primitive band" of all insect embryos. The
+alimentary canal is made anew, and the nervous and vascular systems now
+appear, but the tracheæ are not yet formed. It remains in this state for
+a much longer period than in the previous stage.
+
+[Illustration: 196. Third Larva of Polynema.]
+
+The third larval form only a few live to reach. This is of the usual
+long, oval form of the larvæ of the ichneumons, and the body has
+thirteen segments exclusive of the head. The muscular system has greatly
+developed and the larva is much more lively in its motions than before.
+The new organs that develop are the air tubes and fat bodies. The
+"imaginal disks" or rudimentary portions destined to develop and form
+the skin of the adult, or imago, arise in the pupa state, which
+resembles that of other ichneumons. These disks are only engaged, in
+Platygaster, in building up the rudimentary appendages, while in the
+flies (Muscidæ and Corethra) they build up the whole body, according to
+the remarkable discovery of Weismann.
+
+Not less interesting is the history of the development of a species of
+Polynema, another egg-parasite, which lays its eggs (one, seldom two) in
+the eggs of a small dragon fly, Agrion virgo, which oviposits in the
+parenchyma of the leaves of waterlilies. The eggs develop as in
+Platygaster. The earliest stage of the embryo is very remarkable. It
+leaves the egg when very small and immovable, and with scarcely a trace
+of organization, being a mere flask-shaped sac of cells.[23] It remains
+in this state five or six days.
+
+In the second stage, or Histriobdella-like form, the larva is, in its
+general appearance, like the low worm to which Ganin compares it. It may
+be described as bearing a general resemblance to the third and fully
+developed larval form (Fig. 196, _tg_, three pairs of abdominal
+tubercles destined to form the sting; _l_, rudiments of the legs; _fk_,
+portion of the fatty body; _at_, rudiments of the antennæ; _fl_,
+imaginal disks, or rudiments of the wings). No tracheæ are developed in
+the larva, nor do any exist in the imago. (Ganin thinks, that as these
+insects are somewhat aquatic, the adult insects flying over the surface
+of the water, the wings may act as respiratory organs, like gills.) It
+lives six to seven days before pupating, and remains from ten to twelve
+days in the pupa state.
+
+The origin of the sting is clearly ascertained. Ganin shows that it
+consists of three pairs of tubercles, situated respectively on the
+seventh, eighth, and ninth segments of the abdomen (Fig. 196, _tg_). The
+labium is not developed from a pair of tubercles, as is usual, but at
+once appears as an unpaired, or single organ. The pupa state lasts for
+five or six days, and when the imago appears it eats its way through a
+small round opening in the end of the skin of its host, the Agrion
+larva.
+
+[Illustration: 197. Development of Egg-parasites.]
+
+The development of Ophloneurus, another egg-parasite, agrees with that
+of Platygaster and Polynema. This egg-parasite passes its early life in
+the eggs of Pieris brassicæ, and two or three live to reach the imago
+state, though about six eggs are deposited by the female. The eggs are
+oval, and not stalked. The larva is at first of the form indicated by
+figure 197 _E_, and when fully grown becomes of a broad oval form, the
+body not being divided into segments. It differs from the genera already
+mentioned, in remaining within its egg membrane, and not assuming their
+strange forms. From the non-segmented, sac-like larva, it passes
+directly into the pupa state.
+
+The last egg-parasite noticed by Ganin, is Teleas, whose development
+resembles that of Platygaster. It is a parasite in the eggs of Gerris,
+the Water Boatman. Figure 197 _A_ represents the egg; _B_, _C_, and _D_,
+the first stage of the larva, the abdomen (or posterior division of the
+body) being furnished with a series of bristles on each side. (_B_
+represents the ventral, _C_ the dorsal, and _D_ the profile view; _at_,
+antennæ; _md_, hook-like mandibles; _mo_, mouth; _b_, bristles; _m_,
+intestine; _sw_, the tail; _ul_, under lip or labium.) In the second
+larval stage, which is oval in form, and not segmented, the primitive
+band is formed.
+
+In concluding the account of his remarkable discoveries, Ganin draws
+attention to the great differences in the formation of the eggs and the
+germs of these parasites from what occurs in other insects. The egg has
+no nutritive cells; the formation of the primitive band, usually the
+first indication of the germ, is retarded till the second larval stage
+is attained; and the embryonal membrane is not homologous with the
+so-called "amnion" of other insects, but may possibly be compared with
+the skin developed on the upper side of the low, worm-like acarian,
+Pentastomum, and the "larval skin" of the embryos of many low Crustacea.
+He says, also, that we cannot, perhaps, find the homologues of the
+provisional organs of the larvæ, such as the singularly shaped antennæ,
+the claw-like mandibles, the tongue-or ear-like appendages, in other
+Arthropoda (insects and Crustacea); but that they may be found in the
+parasitic Lernæan crustaceans, and in the leeches, such as Histriobella.
+He is also struck by the similarity in the development of these
+egg-parasites to that of a kind of leech (Nephelis), the embryo of which
+is provided with ciliæ, recalling the larva of Teleas (Fig. 197 _B_,
+_C_), while in the true leeches (Hirudo) the primitive band is not
+developed until after they have passed through a provisional larval
+stage.
+
+This complicated metamorphosis of the egg-parasites, Ganin also compares
+to the so-called "hyper-metamorphosis" of certain insects (Meloë,
+Sitaris, and the Stylopidæ) made known by Siebold, Newport and Fabre,
+and he considers it to be of the same nature.
+
+He also, in closing, compares such early larval forms as those given in
+figures 193 _E_ and 194, to the free swimming Copepoda. Finally, he says
+a few words on the theory of evolution, and remarks "there is no doubt
+that, if a solution of the questions arising concerning the genealogical
+relations of different animals among themselves is possible, comparative
+embryology will afford the first and truest principles." He modestly
+suggests that the facts presented in his paper will widen our views on
+the genetic relations of the insects to other animals, and refers to the
+opinion first expressed by Fritz Müller (Für Darwin, p. 91), and
+endorsed by Hæckel in his "Generelle Morphologie," that we must seek for
+the ancestors of insects and Arachnida in the Zoëa form of Crustacea. He
+cautiously remarks, however, that "the embryos and larvæ observed by me
+in the egg-parasites open up a new and wide field for a whole series of
+such considerations; but I will suppress them, since I am firmly
+convinced that a theory, which I build up to-day, can easily be
+destroyed with some few facts which I learn to-morrow. Since comparative
+embryology as a science does not yet exist, so do I think that all
+genetic theories are too premature, and without a strong scientific
+foundation."
+
+The writer is perhaps less cautious, but he cannot refrain from making
+some reflections suggested by the remarkable discoveries of Ganin. In
+the first place, these facts bear strongly on the theory of evolution by
+"acceleration and retardation." In the history of these early larval
+stages we see a remarkable acceleration in the growth of the embryo. A
+simple sac of unorganized cells, with a half-made intestine, so to
+speak, is hatched, and made to perform the duty of an ordinary, quite
+highly organized larva. Even the formation of the "primitive band,"
+usually the first indication of the organization of the germ, is
+postponed to a comparatively late period in larval life. The different
+anatomical systems, _i.e._, the heart with its vessels, the nervous
+system and the respiratory system (tracheæ), appear at longer or shorter
+intervals, while in one genus the tracheæ are not developed at all. Thus
+some portions of the animal are accelerated in their development more
+than others, while others are retarded, and in some species certain
+organs are not developed at all. Meanwhile all live in a fluid medium,
+with much the same habits, and surrounded with quite similar physical
+conditions.
+
+The highest degree of acceleration is seen in the reproductive organs
+of the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor, which produces a summer brood of
+young, alive, and living free in the body of the child-parent; and in
+the pupa of Chironomus, which has been recently shown by Von Grimm, a
+fellow countryman of Ganin, to produce young in the spring, while the
+adult fly lays eggs in the autumn in the usual manner. This is in fact a
+true virgin reproduction, and directly comparable to the alternation of
+generations observed in the jelly fishes, in Salpa, and certain
+intestinal worms. We can now, in the light of the researches of Siebold,
+Leuckart, Ganin and others, trace more closely than ever the connection
+between simple growth and metamorphosis, and metamorphosis and
+parthenogenesis, and perceive that they are but the terms of a single
+series. By the acceleration in the development of a single set of organs
+(the reproductive), no more wonderful than the acceleration and
+retardation of the other systems of organs, so clearly pointed out in
+the embryos of Platygaster and its allies, we see how parthenogenesis
+under certain conditions may result. The barren Platygaster larva, the
+fertile Cecidomyia larva, the fertile Aphis larva, the fertile
+Chironomus pupa, the fertile hydroid polype, and the fertile adult queen
+bee are simply animals in different degrees of organization, and with
+reproductive systems differing not in quality, but in the greater or
+less rapidity of their development as compared with the rest of the
+body.
+
+Another interesting point is, that while the larvæ vary so remarkably in
+form, the adult ichneumon flies are remarkably similar to one another.
+Do the differences in their larval history seem to point back to certain
+still more divergent ancestral forms?
+
+These remarkable hyper-metamorphoses remind us of the metamorphosis of
+the embryo of Echinoderms into the Pluteus-and Bipinnaria-forms of the
+starfish, sea urchins and Holothurians;[24] of the Actinotrocha-form
+larva of the Sipunculoid worms; of the Tornaria into Balanoglossus, the
+worm; of the Cercaria-form larva of Distoma; of the Pilidium-form larva
+of Nemertes; and the larval forms of the leeches;[25] as well as the
+mite Pentastomum, and certain other aberrant mites, such as Myobia.
+
+While Fritz Müller and Dohrn have considered the insects as having
+descended from the Crustacea (some primitive zoëa-form), and Dohrn has
+adduced the supposed zoëa-form larva of these egg-parasites as a proof,
+we cannot but think, in a subject so purely speculative as the ancestry
+of animals, that the facts brought out by Ganin tend to confirm our
+theory, that the ancestry of all the insects (including the Arachnids
+and Myriopods) should be traced directly to the worms. The development
+of the degraded, aberrant Arachnidan Pentastomum accords, in some
+important respects, with that of the intestinal worms. The Leptus-form
+larva of Julus, with its strange embryological development, in some
+respects so like that of some worms, points in that direction, as
+certainly as does the embryological development of the egg-parasite
+Ophioneurus. The Nauplius form of the embryo or larva of nearly all
+Crustacea, also points back to the worms as their ancestors, the
+divergence having perhaps originated, as we have suggested, in the
+Rotatoria.
+
+While the Crustacea may have resulted from a series of prototypes
+leading up from the Rotifers (Fig. 198), it is barely possible that one
+of these creatures may have given rise to a form resulting in two series
+of beings, one leading to the Leptus form, the other to the Nauplius.
+For the true Annelides (Chætopods) are too circumscribed and homogeneous
+a group to allow us to look to them for the ancestral forms of insects.
+But that the insects may have descended from some low worms is not
+improbable when we reflect that the Syllis and allied genera of
+Annelides bear appendages consisting of numerous joints; indeed, the
+strange Dujardinia rotifers, figured by Quatrefages, in its general form
+is remarkably like the larva of Chloëon. It has a quite distinct head,
+bearing five long, slender, jointed antennæ, and but eight or nine rings
+to the body, which ends in two long, many jointed appendages exactly
+like the tentacles. Quatrefages adds, that its movements are usually
+slow, but "when it wishes to move more rapidly, it moves its body
+alternately up and down with much vivacity, and shoots forwards by
+bounds, so to speak, a little after the manner of the larvæ of the
+mosquito" (Histoire Naturelle des Annelés, Tome 2, p. 69). The gills of
+aquatic insects only differ from those of worms in possessing tracheæ,
+though the gills of the Crustacea may be directly compared with those of
+insects.
+
+[Illustration: 198. A Rotifer.]
+
+But when once inside the circle of the class of insects the ground is
+firmer, as our knowledge is surer. Granting now that the Leptus-like
+ancestor of the six-footed insects has become established, it is not so
+difficult to see how the Poduræ and finally a form like Campodea
+appeared. Aquatic forms resembling the larva of the Ephemeræ, Perlæ and,
+more remotely, the Forficulæ and white ants of to-day were probably
+evolved with comparative suddenness. Given the evolution of forms like
+the earwigs (Forficula), cockroaches and white ants (Termes), the latter
+of which abounded in the coal period, and it was not a great step
+forward to the evolution of the Dragonflies, the Psocus, the Chrysopa,
+the lice or parasitic Hemiptera, together with Thrips, thus forming the
+establishment of lines of development leading up to those Neuroptera
+with a complete metamorphosis, and finally to the grasshoppers and other
+forms of Orthoptera, together with the Hemiptera.
+
+[Illustration: 199. Chrysopa.]
+
+[Illustration: 200. Panorpa.]
+
+We have thus advanced from wingless to winged forms, _i. e._, from
+insects without a metamorphosis to those with a partial metamorphosis
+like the Perlas; to the May flies and Dragon flies, in which the adult
+is still more unlike the larva; to the Chrysopa (Fig. 199) and Forceps
+Tails (Panorpa, Fig. 200) and Caddis flies, in which, especially the
+latter, the metamorphosis is complete, the pupa being inactive and
+enclosed in a cocoon.
+
+[Illustration: 201. Embryo of Diplax.]
+
+Having assumed the creation of our Leptus by evolutional laws, we must
+now account for the appearance of tracheæ and those organs so dependent
+on them, the wings, which, by their presence and consequent changes in
+the structure of the crust of the body, afford such distinctive
+characters to the flying insects, and raise them so far above the
+creeping spiders and centipedes. Our Leptus at first undoubtedly
+breathed through the skin, as do most of the Poduras, since we have been
+unable to find tracheæ in them, nor even in the prolarva of a genus of
+minute ichneumon egg parasites, nor in the Linguatulæ and Tardigrades,
+and some mites, such as the Itch insect and the Demodex, and other
+Acari. In the Myriopod, Pauropus, Lubbock was unable to find any traces
+of tracheæ. If we examine the embryo of an insect shortly before birth,
+as in the young Dragon fly (figure 201, the dotted line _t_ crosses the
+rudimentary tracheæ), we find it to consist of two simple tubes with
+few branches, while there are no stigmata, or breathing holes, to be
+seen in the sides of the body. This fact sustains the view of
+Gegenbaur[26] that at first the tracheæ formed two simple tubes in the
+body-cavity, and that the primary office of these tubes was for
+lightening the body, and that their function as respiratory tubes was a
+secondary one. The aquatic Protoleptus, as we may term the ancestor of
+Leptus, may have had such tubes as these, which acted like the swimming
+bladder of fishes for lightening the body, as suggested by Gegenbaur. It
+is known that the swimming bladder of fishes becomes developed into the
+lungs of air-breathing vertebrates and man himself. As our Leptus
+adopted a terrestrial life and needed more air, a connection was
+probably formed by a minute branch on each side of the body with some
+minute pore (for such exist, whose uses are as yet unknown) through the
+skin, which finally became specialized into a stigma, or breathing pore;
+and from the tracheal system being closed, we now have the open tracheal
+system of land insects.
+
+The next inquiry is as to the origin of the wings. Here the question
+arises if wingless forms are exceptional among the winged insects, and
+the loss of wings is obviously dependent on the habits (as in the lice),
+and environment of the species (as in beetles living on islands, which
+are apt to lose the hinder pair of wings), why may not their acquisition
+in the first place have been due to external agencies; and, as they are
+suddenly discarded, why may they not have suddenly appeared in the first
+place? In aquatic larvæ there are often external gill-like organs, being
+simple sacs permeated by tracheæ (as in Agrion, Fig. 129, or the May
+flies). These organs are virtually aquatic wings, aiding the insect in
+progression as well as in aërating the blood, as in the true wings. They
+are very variable in position, some being developed at the extremity of
+the abdomen, as in Agrion, or along the sides, as in the May flies, or
+filiform and arranged in tufts on the under side of the body, as in
+Perla; and the naturalist is not surprised to find them absent or
+present in accordance with the varying habits of the animal. For
+example, in the larvæ of the larger Dragon flies (Libellula, etc.) they
+are wanting, while in Agrion and its allies they are present.
+
+Now we conceive that wings formed in much the same way, and with no more
+disturbance, so to speak, to the insect's organization, appeared during
+a certain critical period in the metamorphosis of some early insect. As
+soon as this novel mode of locomotion became established we can easily
+see how surrounding circumstances would favor their farther development
+until the presence of wings became universal. If space permitted us to
+pursue this interesting subject farther, we could show how invariably
+correlated in form and structure are the wings of insects to the varied
+conditions by which they are surrounded, and which we are forced to
+believe stand in the relation of cause to effect. Again, why should the
+wings always appear on the thorax and on the upper instead of the under
+side? As this is the seat of the centre of gravity, it is evident that
+cosmical laws as well as the more immediate laws of biology determine
+the position and nature of the wings of an insect.
+
+Correlated with the presence of wings is the wonderful differentiation
+of the crust, especially of the thorax, where each segment consists of a
+number of distinct pieces; while in the spiders and Myriopods the
+segments are as simple as in the abdominal segments of the winged
+insect. It is not difficult here to trace a series leading up from the
+Poduras, in which the segments are like those of spiders, to the
+wonderful complexity of the parts in the thoracic segments of the
+Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera.
+
+In his remarks "On the Origin of Insects,"[27] Sir John Lubbock says, "I
+feel great difficulty in conceiving by what natural process an insect
+with a suctorial mouth like that of a gnat or butterfly could be
+developed from a powerfully mandibulate type like the Orthoptera, or
+even from the Neuroptera." Is it not more difficult to account for the
+origin of the mouth-parts at all? They are developed as tubercles or
+folds in the tegument, and are homologous with the legs. Figure 186
+shows that the two sorts of limbs are at one time identical in form and
+relative position. The thought suggests itself that these long, soft,
+finger-like appendages may have been derived from the tentacles of the
+higher worms, but the grounds for this opinion are uncertain. At any
+rate, the earliest form of limb must have been that of a soft tubercle
+armed with one, or two, or many terminal claws, as seen in aquatic
+larvæ, such as Chironomus (Fig. 202), Ephydra (Fig. 203 _a_, _b_, _c_,
+pupa) and many others. As the Protoleptus assumed a terrestrial life and
+needed to walk, the rudimentary feet would tend to elongate, and in
+consequence need the presence of chitine to harden the integument, until
+the habit of walking becoming fixed, the necessity of a jointed
+structure arose. After this the different needs of the offspring of such
+an insect, with their different modes of taking food, vegetable or
+animal, would induce the diverse forms of simple, or raptorial, or
+leaping or digging limbs. A peculiar use of the anterior members, as
+seen in grasping the food and conveying it to the mouth (perhaps
+originally a simple orifice with soft lips, as in Peripatus), would tend
+to cause such limbs to be grouped together, to concentrate around the
+mouth-opening, and to be directed constantly forwards. With use, as in
+the case of legs, these originally soft mouth-feet would gradually
+harden at the extremities, until serviceable in biting, when they would
+become jaws and palpi. Given a mouth and limbs surrounding it, and we at
+once have a rude head set off from the rest of the body. And in fact
+such is the history of the development of these parts in the embryo. At
+first the head is indicated by the buds forming the rudiments of limbs;
+the segments to which they are attached do not form a true head until
+after the mouth-parts have attained their jaw-like characters, and it is
+not until the insect is about to be hatched, that the head is definitely
+walled in.
+
+[Illustration: 202. Foot of Chironomus.]
+
+[Illustration: 203. Ephydra.]
+
+We have arrived, then, at our Leptus, with a head bearing two pairs of
+jaws. The spiders and mites do not advance beyond this stage. But in the
+true insects and Myriopods, we have the addition of special sense
+organs, the antennæ, and another pair of appendages, the labial palpi.
+It is evident that in the ancestor of these two groups the first pair of
+appendages became early adapted for purely sensory purposes, and were
+naturally projected far in advance of the mouth, forming the antennæ.
+
+Before considering the changes from the mandibulate form of insects to
+those with mouth parts adapted for piercing and sucking, we must
+endeavor to learn how far it was possible for the caterpillar or maggot
+to become evolved from the Leptus-like larvæ of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera, Hemiptera and most Coleoptera. I may quote from a previous
+article[28] a few words in relation to two kinds of larvæ most prevalent
+among insects. "There are two forms of insectean larvæ which are pretty
+constant. One we call _leptiform_, from its general resemblance to the
+larvæ of the mites (Leptus). The larvæ of all the Neuroptera, except
+those of the Phryganeidæ and Panorpidæ (which are cylindrical and
+resemble caterpillars), are more or less leptiform, _i. e._, have a
+flattened or oval body, with large thoracic legs. Such are the larvæ of
+the Orthoptera and Hemiptera, and the Coleoptera (except the
+Curculionidæ; possibly the Cerambycidæ and Buprestidæ, which approach
+the maggot-like form of the larvæ of weevils). On the other hand, taking
+the caterpillar or bee larva, with their cylindrical, fleshy bodies, in
+most respects typical of larval forms of the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera
+and Diptera, as the type of the _cruciform_ larva, etc. * * * The larvæ
+of the earliest insects were probably leptiform, and the cruciform
+condition is consequently an acquired one, as suggested by Fritz
+Müller."[29] It seems that these two sorts of larvæ had also been
+distinguished by Dr. Brauer in the article already referred to, with
+which, however, the writer was unacquainted at the time of writing the
+above quoted article. The similar views presented may seem to indicate
+that they are founded in nature. Dr. Brauer, after remarking that the
+Podurids seemed to fulfil Hæckel's idea of what were the most primitive
+insects, and noticing how closely they resemble the larvæ of Myriopods,
+says, "specially interesting are those forms among the Poduridæ which
+are described as Campodea and Japyx, since the larvæ of a great number
+of insects may be traced back to them"; but he adds, and with this view
+we are unable to agree, "while others, the caterpillar-like forms
+(Raupenform), resulted from them by a retrograde process, and also
+the still lower maggot-like forms. While on the one hand Campodea, with
+its abdominal feet, and the larva of Lithobius are related, so on the
+other the Lepismatidæ, which are very near the Blattariæ, are nearly
+related to the Myriopods, since their abdominal segments often bear
+appendages (Machilis). The Campodea-form appears in most of the
+Pseudoneuroptera [Libellulids, Ephemerids, Perlids, Psocids and Termes],
+Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, perhaps modified in the Strepsiptera
+[Stylops and Xenos] and Coccidæ in their first stage of development, and
+indeed in many of these at their first moult." Farther on he says, "A
+larger part of the most highly developed insects assume another
+larva-form, which appears not only as a later acquisition, through
+accommodation with certain definite relations, but also arises as such
+before our eyes. The larvæ of butterflies and moths, of saw flies and
+Panorpæ, show the form most distinctly, and I call this the caterpillar
+form (Raupenform). That this is not the primitive form, but one later
+acquired, we see in the beetles. The larvæ of Meloë and Sitaris in their
+fully grown condition possess the caterpillar form, but the new born
+larvæ of these genera show the Campodea form. The last form is lost as
+soon as the larva begins its parasitic mode of life. * * * The larger
+part of the beetles, the Neuroptera in part, the bees and flies (the
+last with the most degraded maggot form) possess larvæ of this second
+form." He considers that the caterpillar form is a degraded Campodea
+form, the result of its stationary life in plants or in wood.
+
+[Illustration: Pl 2. EXAMPLES OF LEPTIFORM LARVÆ.
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Figure 1, different forms of Leptus; 2, Diplax;
+3, Coccinella larva; 4, Cicada larva; 5, Cicindela larva; 6, Ant Lion;
+7, Calligrapha larva; 8, Aphis larva; 9, Hemerobius larva; 10, Glyrinua
+larva; 11, Carabid larva; 12, Meloë larva.]
+
+[Illustration: Pl 3. EXAMPLES OF ERUCIFORM LARVÆ.
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. Figure 1. Panorpa larva; 2, Phryganea larva; 3,
+Weevil larva; 4, third larva of Meloë; 5, Chionea larva; 6, Carpet Worm;
+7, Phora larva; 8, Wheat Caterpillar; 9, Sphinx Caterpillar; 10,
+Acronycta? larva; 11, Saw Fly larva; 12, Abia Saw Fly larva; 13,
+Halictus larva; 14, Andrena larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 204. Tipula Larva.]
+
+For reasons which we will not pause here to discuss, we have always
+regarded the eruciform type of larva as the highest. That it is the
+result of degradation from the Leptus or Campodea form, we should be
+unwilling to admit, though the maggots of flies have perhaps retrograded
+from such forms as the larvæ of the mosquitoes and crane flies
+(Tipulids, Fig. 204).
+
+That the cylindrical form of the bee grub and caterpillar is the result
+of modification through descent is evident in the caterpillar-like form
+of the immature Caddis fly (Pl. 3, fig. 2). Here the fundamental
+characters of the larva are those of the Corydalus and Sialis and
+Panorpa, types of closely allied groups. The features that remind us of
+caterpillars are superadded, evidently the result of the peculiar
+tube-inhabiting habits of the young Caddis fly. In like manner the
+caterpillar-form is probably the result of the leaf-eating life of a
+primitive Leptiform larva. In like manner the soft-bodied maggot of the
+weevil is evidently the result of its living habitually in cavities in
+nuts and fruits. Did the soft, baggy female Stylops live exposed, like
+its allies in other families, to an out-of-doors life, its skin would
+inevitably become hard and chitinous. In these and multitudes of other
+cases the adaptation of the form of the insect to its mode of life is
+one of cause and effect, and not a bit less wonderful after we know what
+induced the change of form.
+
+Having endeavored to show that the caterpillar is a later production
+than the young, wingless cockroach, with which geological facts
+harmonize, we have next to account for the origin of a metamorphosis in
+insects. Here it is necessary to disabuse the reader's mind of the
+prevalent belief that the terms larva, pupa and imago are fixed and
+absolute. If we examine at a certain season the nest of a humble bee, we
+shall find the occupants in every stage of growth from the egg to the
+pupa, and even to the perfectly formed bee ready to break out of its
+larval cell. So slight are the differences between the different stages
+that it is difficult to say where the larval stage ends and the pupa
+begins, so also where the pupal state ends and the imago begins. The
+following figures (205-208) will show four of the most characteristic
+stages of growth, but it should be remembered that there are
+intermediate stages between. Now we have noticed similar stages in the
+growth of a moth, though a portion of them are concealed beneath the
+hard, dense chrysalis skin. The external differences between the larval
+and pupal states are fixed for a large part of the year in most
+butterflies and moths, though even in this respect there is every
+possible variation, some moths or butterflies passing through their
+transformations in a few weeks, others requiring several months, while
+still others take a year, the majority of the moths living under ground
+in the pupa state for eight or nine months. The stages of metamorphosis
+in the Diptera are no more suddenly acquired than in the bee or
+butterfly. In all these insects the rudiments of the wings, legs, and
+even of the ovipositor of the adult exist in the young larva. We have
+found somewhat similar intermediate stages in the metamorphoses of the
+beetles. The insects we have mentioned are those with a "complete
+metamorphosis." We have seen that even in them the term "complete" is a
+relative and not absolute expression, and that the terms larva and pupa
+are convenient designations for states varying in duration, and assumed
+to fulfil certain ends of existence, and even then dependent on length
+of seasons, variation in climate, and even on the locality. When we
+descend to the insects with an "incomplete" metamorphosis, as in the May
+fly, we find that, as in the case of Chloëon, Sir John Lubbock has
+described twenty-one stages of existence, and let him who can say where
+the larval ends and the pupal or imaginal stages begin. So in a stronger
+sense with the grasshopper and cockroach. The adult state in these
+insects is attained after a number of moults of the skin, during each of
+which the insect gradually draws nearer to the final winged form. But
+even the so-called pupæ, or half winged individuals known not to be
+adult, in some cases feel the sexual impulse, while a number of species
+in each of the families represented by these two insects never acquire
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: 205. Larva. 206. Semi-pupa.
+
+207. Advanced Semi-pupa. 208. Pupa.
+
+EARLY STAGES OF THE HUMBLE BEE.]
+
+
+Still how did the perfect metamorphosis arise? We can only answer this
+indirectly by pointing to the Panorpa and Caddis flies, with their
+nearly perfect metamorphosis, though more nearly allied otherwise to
+those Neuroptera with an incomplete metamorphosis, as the lace-winged
+fly, than the insects of any other suborder. If, among a group of
+insects such as the Neuroptera, we find different families with all
+grades of perfection in metamorphosis, it is possible that larger and
+higher groups may exist in which these modes of metamorphosis may be
+fixed and characteristic of each. Had we more space for the exposition
+of many known facts, the sceptic might perceive that by observing how
+arbitrary and dependent on the habits of the insects are the
+metamorphoses of some groups, the fixed modes of other and more general
+groups may be seen to be probably due to biological causes, or in other
+words have been acquired through changes of habits or of the temperature
+of the seasons and of climates. Many facts crowd upon us, which might
+serve as illustrations and proofs of the position we have taken. For
+instance, though we have in tropics rainy and dry seasons when, in the
+latter, insects remain quiescent in the chrysalis state as in the
+temperate and frigid zones, yet did not the change from the earlier ages
+of the globe, when the temperature of the earth was nearly the same the
+world over, to the times of the present distribution of heat and cold in
+zones, possibly have its influence on the metamorphoses of insects and
+other animals? It is a fact that the remains of those insects with a
+complete metamorphosis (the bees, butterflies and moths, flies and
+beetles) abound most in the later deposits, while those with an
+incomplete metamorphosis are fewer in number and the earliest to appear.
+Again, certain groups of insects are not found in the polar regions.
+Their absence is evidently due to the adverse climatic conditions of
+those regions. The development of the same groups is striking in the
+tropics, where the sum of environing conditions all tend to favor the
+multiplication of insect forms.
+
+It should be observed that some insects, as the grasshopper, for
+example, as Müller says, "quit the egg in a form which is distinguished
+from that of the adult insect almost solely by the want of wings," while
+the freshly hatched young of the bee, we may add, is farthest from the
+form of the adult. It is evident that in the young grasshoppers, the
+metamorphoses have been passed through, so to speak, in the egg, while
+the bee larva is almost embryonic in its build. The helpless young
+maggot of the wasp, which is fed solely by the parent, may be compared
+to the human infant, while the lusty young grasshopper, which
+immediately on hatching takes to the grass or clover field with all the
+enthusiasm of a duckling to its native pond, may be likened to that
+young feathered mariner. The lowest animals, as a rule, are at birth
+most like the adult. So with the earliest known crustacea. The king
+crabs, and in all probability the primeval trilobites, passed through
+their metamorphoses chiefly in the egg. So in the ancient Nebaliads
+(Peltocaris, Discinocaris and Ceratiocaris), if we may follow the
+analogy of the recent Nebalia, the young probably closely resembled the
+adult, while the living crabs and shrimps usually pass through the most
+marked metamorphoses. Among the worms, the highest, and perhaps the most
+recent forms, pass through the most remarkable metamorphoses.
+
+[Illustration: 209. Jaws of Ant Lion.]
+
+Another puzzle for the evolutionist to solve is how to account for the
+change from the caterpillar with its powerful jaws, to the butterfly
+with its sucking or haustellate mouth-parts. We shall best approach the
+solution of this difficult problem by a study of a wide range of facts,
+but a few of which can be here noticed. The older entomologists divided
+insects into haustellate or suctorial, and mandibulate or biting
+insects, the butterfly being an example of one, and the beetle serving
+to illustrate the other category. But we shall find in studying the
+different groups that these are relative and not absolute terms. We find
+mandibulate insects with enormous jaws, like the Dytiscus, or Chrysopa
+larva or ant lion, perforated, as in the former, or enclosing, as in the
+latter two insects, the maxillæ (_b_), which slide backward and forward
+within the hollowed mandibles (_a_, Fig. 209, jaws of the ant lion),
+along which the blood of their victims flows. They suck the blood, and
+do not tear the flesh of their prey. The enormous mandibles of the adult
+Corydalus are too large for use and, as Walsh observed, are converted
+in the male into simple clasping organs. And to omit a number of
+instances, in the suctorial Hemiptera or bugs we have different grades
+of structure in the mouth-parts. In the biting lice (Mallophaga) the
+mouth is mandibulate; in the Thrips it is mandibulate, the jaws being
+free, and the maxillæ bearing palpi, while the Pediculi are suctorial,
+and the true bugs are eminently so. But in the bed bug it is easy to see
+that the beak is made up of the two pairs of jaws, which are simply
+elongated and adapted for piercing and sucking. Among the so-called
+haustellate insects the mouth-parts vary so much in different groups,
+and such different organs separately or combined perform the function of
+sucking, that the term haustellate loses its significance and even
+misleads the student. For example, in the house fly the tongue (Fig. 210
+_l_, the mandibles, _m_, and maxillæ, _mp_, are useless), a fleshy
+prolongation of the labium or second maxillæ, is the sucker, while the
+mandibles and maxillæ are used as lancets by the horse fly (Fig. 211,
+_m_, mandibles, _mx_, maxillæ). The maxillæ in the butterfly are united
+to form the sucking tube, while in the bee the end of the labium (Fig.
+212) is specially adapted for lapping, not sucking, the nectar of
+flowers. But even in the butterfly, or more especially the moth, there
+is a good deal of misapprehension about the structure of the so-called
+"tongue." The mouth-parts of the caterpillar exist in the moth. The
+mandibles of the caterpillar occur in the head of the moth as two small
+tubercles (Fig. 213, _m_). They are aborted in the adult. While the
+maxillæ are as a rule greatly developed in the moth, in the caterpillar
+they are minute and almost useless. The labium or second maxillæ, so
+large in the moth, serves simply as a spinneret in the caterpillar. But
+we find a great amount of variation in the tongue or sucker of moths,
+and in the silk moths the maxillæ are rudimentary, and there is no
+tongue, these organs being but little more developed than in the
+caterpillar. Figure 213, B, shows the minute blade-like maxilla of the
+magnificent Luna moth, an approximation to the originally blade-like
+form in beetles and Neuroptera. The maxillæ in this insect are minute,
+rudimentary, and of no service to the creature, which does not take
+food. In other moths of the same family we have found the maxillæ
+longer, and touching at their tips, though too widely separate at base
+to form a sucking tube, while in others the maxillæ are curved, and meet
+to form a true tube.
+
+[Illustration: 210. Mouth-parts of the House fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 211. Mouth-parts of Horse fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 212. Head of Humble bee.]
+
+[Illustration: 213. Mouth-parts of Moths.]
+
+In the Cecropia moth it is difficult to trace the rudiments of the
+maxillæ at all, and thus we have in the whole range of the moths, every
+gradation from the wholly aborted maxillæ of the Platysamia Cecropia, to
+those of Macrosila cluentius of Madagascar, which form a tongue,
+according to Mr. Wallace, nine and a quarter inches in length, probably
+to enable their owner to probe the deep nectaries of certain orchids.
+These changes in form and size are certainly correlated with important
+differences in habits, and the evolutionist can as rightly say that the
+structural changes were induced by use and disuse and change of habits
+and the environment of the animal, as on the other hand the advocate of
+special creation claims that the two are simply correlated, and that is
+all we know about it.
+
+[Illustration: 214. Ichneumon Fly.]
+
+Another set of organs, placed on quite another region of the body, unite
+to form the sting of the bee, or its equivalent the ovipositor of other
+hymenopterous insects, such as the Ichneumon fly (Fig. 214), the "saw"
+of the saw fly, and the augur of the Cicada. These are all formed on the
+same plan, arising early in the larval stage as three pairs of little
+tubercles, which ultimately form long blades, the innermost constituting
+the true ovipositor. We have found that one pair of these organs forms
+the "spring" of the Podura, and that in these insects it is three
+jointed, and thus is morphologically a pair of legs soldered together at
+their base. We would venture to regard the ovipositor of insects as
+probably representing three pairs of abdominal legs, comparable with
+those of the Myriopods, and even, as we have suggested in another place,
+the three pairs of jointed spinnerets of spiders. Thus the ovipositor of
+the bee has a history, and is not apparently a special creation, but a
+structure gradually developed to subserve the use of a defensive organ.
+
+So the organs of special sense in insects are in most cases simply
+altered hairs. The hairs themselves are modified epithelial cells. The
+eyes of insects, simple and compound, are at first simply epithelial
+cells, modified for a special purpose, and even the egg is but a
+modified epithelial cell attached to the walls of the ovary, which in
+turn is morphologically but a gland. Thus Nature deals in simples, and
+with her units of structure elaborates as her crowning work a temple in
+which the mind of man, formed in the image of God, may dwell. Her
+results are not the less marvellous because we are beginning to dimly
+trace the process by which they arise. It should not lessen our awe and
+reverence for Deity, if with minds made to adore, we also essay to trace
+the movements of His hand in the origin of the forms of life.
+
+Some writers of the evolution school are strenuous in the belief that
+the evolution hypothesis overthrows the idea of archetypes, and plans of
+structure. But a true genealogy of animals and plants represents a
+natural system, and the types of animals, be they four, as Cuvier
+taught, or five, or more, are recognized by naturalists through the
+study of dry, hard, anatomical facts. Accepting, then, the type of
+articulates as founded in nature from the similar modes of development
+and points of structure perceived between the worms and the crustacea on
+the one hand, and the worms and insects on the other, have we not a
+strong genetic bond uniting these three great groups into one grand
+subkingdom, and can we not in imagination perceive the successive steps
+by which the Creator, acting through the laws of evolution, has built up
+the great articulate division of the animal kingdom?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 14: Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science, II.
+Embryological Studies on Diplax, Perithemis, and the Thysanurus genus
+Isotoma. Salem, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Translated in 1859 by Mr. Dallas under the title "Facts
+for Darwin."]
+
+[Footnote 16: "Whether that common stem-form of all the Tracheata
+[Insects, Myriopods and Spiders] which I have called Protracheata in my
+'General Morphology' has developed directly from the true Annelides
+(Coelminthes), or, the next thing to this (_zunachst_), out of
+Zoea-form Crustacea (Zoepoda), will be hereafter established only
+through a sufficient knowledge and comparison of the structure and mode
+of growth of the Tracheata, Crustacea and Annelides. In either case is
+the root of the Tracheata, as also of the Crustacea, to be sought in the
+group of the true jointed worms (Annelides, Gephyrea and Rotatoria." He
+considers the first insect to have appeared after the Silurian period,
+viz., in the Devonian.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The Zoëa is born with eight pairs of jointed appendages
+belonging to the head, and with no thoracic limbs, while in insects
+there are but four pairs of cephalic appendages and three pairs of legs.
+Correlated with this difference is the entirely different mode of
+grouping the body segments, the head and thorax being united into one
+region in the crab, but separate in the insects, the body being as a
+rule divided into a head, thorax and abdomen, while these regions are
+much less distinctly marked in the crabs, and liable in the different
+orders to great variations. The great differences between the Crustacea
+and insects are noticeable at an early period in the egg.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Considerations on the Transmutation of Insects in the
+Sense of the Theory of Descent. Read before the Imperial
+Zoological-botanical Society in Vienna, April 3, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 19: American Naturalist, vol. 3, p. 45, March, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See Prof. Torell's discovery of Eophyton Linnæanum, a
+supposed land plant allied to the rushes and grasses of our day, in
+certain Swedish rocks of Lower Cambrian age. The writer has, through the
+kindness of Prof. Torell, seen specimens of these plants in the Museum
+of the Geological Survey at Stockholm. Mr. Murray, of the Canadian
+Geological Survey, was the first to discover in America (Labrador,
+Straits of Belle Isle) this same genus of plants. They are described and
+figured by Mr. Billings, who speaks of them as "slender, cylindrical,
+straight, reed-like plants," in the "Canadian Naturalist" for August,
+1872.
+
+Should the terrestrial nature of these plants be established on farther
+evidence, then we are warranted in supposing that there were isolated
+patches of land in the Cambrian or Primordial period, and if there was
+land there must have been bodies of fresh water, hence there may have
+been both terrestrial and aquatic insects, possibly of forms like the
+Podurids, May flies, Perlæ, mites and Pauropus of the present day. There
+was at any rate land in the Upper Silurian period, as Dr. J. W. Dawson
+describes land plants (Psilophyton) from the Lower Heiderberg Rocks of
+Gaspe, New Brunswick, corresponding in age with the Ludlow rocks of
+England.
+
+We might also state in this connection that Dr. Dawson, the eminent
+fossil botanist of Montreal, concludes from the immense masses of carbon
+in the form of graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, that "the
+Laurentian period was probably an age of most prolific vegetable growth.
+* * * Whether the vegetation of the Laurentian was wholly aquatic or in
+part terrestrial we have no means of knowing." In 1855, Dr. T. Sterry
+Hunt asserted "that the presence of iron ores, not less than that of
+graphite, points to the existence of organic life even during the
+Laurentian or so-called Azoic period." In 1861 he went farther and
+stated his belief in "the existence of an abundant vegetation during the
+Laurentian period." The Eophyton in Labrador occurs above the Trilobite
+(Paradoxides) beds, while in Sweden they occur below.]
+
+[Footnote 21: In a communication made to the Boston Society of Natural
+History, Oct. 17, 1870 (see also "American Naturalist" for Feb. and
+Sept., 1871).]
+
+[Footnote 22: On the Origin of Insects, a paper read before the Linnæan
+Society of London Nov. 2, 1871, and reported in abstract in "Nature,"
+Nov. 9, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 23: This reminds us (though Ganin does not mention it) of the
+development of the embryo of Julus, the Thousand legs, which, according
+to Newport, hatches the 25th day after the egg is laid. At this period
+the embryo is partially organized, having faint traces of segments, and
+is still enveloped in its embryonal membranes and retains its connection
+with the shell. In this condition it remains for seventeen days, when it
+throws off its embryonal membrane, and becomes detached from the shell.]
+
+[Footnote 24: It is a suggestive fact that these deciduous forms give
+way through histolysis to true larval forms, just as in some flies
+(Musca vomitoria) the true larval form goes under, and the adult form is
+built up from the imaginal disks of the larva. In an analogous manner
+the deciduous, pluteus-condition of the young Echinoderm perishes and is
+absorbed by the growing body of the permanent adult stage. This
+deciduous stage of the ichneumon may accordingly be termed the prelarval
+stage. Now as we find insects with and without this prelarval stage, and
+in the radiates quite different degrees of metamorphoses, the inquiry
+arises how far these differences are correlated with, and consequently
+dependent upon, the physical surroundings of these animals in the free
+swimming condition. Merely to point out the differences in the mode of
+development of animals is an interesting matter, and one could do worse
+things, but the philosophical naturalist cannot rest here. He must seek
+how these differences were brought about.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Leuckart, in his great work, "Die Menschlichen Parasiten,"
+p. 700, after the analogy of Hirudo, which develops a primitive streak
+late in larval life, ventures to consider the first indications of the
+germ of Nemertes in its larval, Pilidium form as a primitive streak. He
+also suggests that the development of the later larval forms of the
+Echinoderms is the same in kind.
+
+Moreover, nearly twenty years ago (1854) Zaddach, a German naturalist,
+contended that the worms are closely allied in their mode of development
+to the insects and crustaceans. He compares the mode of development of a
+leech (Clepsine) and certain bristle-bearing worms (Sænuris, Lumbricatus
+and Uaxes); and we may now from Kowalensky's researches (1871) add the
+common earth worm (Lumbricus), in which there is no such metamorphosis
+as in the sea Nereids, to that of insects; the mode of formation of the
+primitive band in the leeches and earth worms being much like that of
+insects. This confirms the view of Leuckart and Ganin, who both seem to
+have overlooked Zaddach's remarks. Moreover, the rings of the harder
+bodied worms, as Zaddach says, contain chitine, as in the insects.
+Zaddach also enters into farther details, which in his opinion ally the
+worms nearer to the insects than many naturalists at his time were
+disposed to allow. The singular Echinoderes has some remarkable
+Arthropod characters.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Vergleichende Anatomie, 2te Auflage, 1870, p. 437. I
+should, however, here add that I am told by Mr. Putnam that some fishes
+which have no swim-bladder, are surface-swimmers, and _vice versa_.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Reported In "Nature" for Nov. 9, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The Embryology of Chrysopa, and its bearings on the
+Classification of the Neuroptera, "American Naturalist," vol. v. Sept.,
+1871.]
+
+[Footnote 29: "It is my opinion that the 'incomplete metamorphosis' of
+the Orthoptera is the primitive one, _inherited_ from the original
+parents of all insects, and the 'complete metamorphosis' of the
+Coleoptera, Diptera, etc., a subsequently acquired one." _Fuer Darwin_,
+English Trans., p. 121.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+INSECT CALENDAR.
+
+
+In this calendar I propose to especially notice the injurious insects.
+References to the times of their appearance must be necessarily vague,
+and apply only, in a very general way, to the Northern States. Insects
+appear in Texas about six weeks earlier than in Virginia, in the Middle
+States six weeks earlier than in northern New England and the
+North-western States, and in New England about six weeks earlier than in
+Labrador. The time of the appearance of insects corresponds to the time
+of the flowering or leafing out of certain trees and herbs; for
+instance, the larvæ of the American Tent caterpillar and of the Canker
+worm hatch just as the apple tree begins to leaf out; a little later the
+Plant lice appear, to feast on the tender leaves; and when, during the
+first week in June, our forests and orchards are fully leafed out, hosts
+of insects are marshalled to ravage and devour their foliage.
+
+
+_The Insects of Early Spring._
+
+In April the gardener should scrape and wash thoroughly all his fruit
+trees, so as to rub off the eggs of the bark lice which hatch out early
+in May. Many injurious caterpillars and insects of all kinds winter
+under loose pieces of bark, or under matting and straw at the base of
+the trees. Search should also be made for the eggs of the Canker worm
+and the American Tent caterpillar, which last are laid in bunches half
+an inch long on the terminal shoots of many of our fruit trees. A little
+labor spent in this way will save many dollars' worth of fruit. The
+"castings" of the Apple Tree Borer (Saperda bivittata) should be looked
+for at the base of the tree, and its ravages be promptly arrested. Its
+presence can also be detected, it is said, by the dark appearance of the
+bark, where the grub is at work: cut in and pull out the young grub. It
+is the best time of the year to catch and kill this pest. Cylindrical
+bark borers, which are little round, black, weevil-like beetles, often
+causing "fire-blight" in pears, etc., are now flying about fruit trees
+to lay their eggs; and many other weevils and boring beetles, especially
+the Pea weevil (Bruchus pisi, Fig. 215), the Pine weevil (Pissodes
+strobi, Fig. 216), and Hylobius pales and Hylurgus terebrans, also
+infesting the pine, now abound, and the collector can obtain many
+specimens not met with at other times.
+
+[Illustration: 215. Pea Weevil and Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 216 Pine Weevil and Young.]
+
+The housewife must now guard against the intrusion of Clothes moths
+(Tinea), while many other species of minute moths (Tineids) and of
+Leaf-rollers (Tortricidæ) will be flying about orchards and gardens just
+as the buds are beginning to unfold; especially the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella). On warm days myriads of these and other insects
+may be seen filling the air; it is the busiest time of their lives, as
+all are on errands of love to their kind, but of mischief to the
+agriculturist.
+
+When the May Flower--"O commendable flowre and most in minde"--blooms,
+and the willows hang out their golden catkins, we shall hear the hum of
+the wild bee, and the insect hunter will reap a rich harvest of
+rarities. Seek now on the abdomen of various wild bees, such as Andrena,
+for that most eccentric of all our insects, the Stylops Childreni. The
+curious larvæ of the Oil beetle may be found abundantly on the bodies of
+various species of Bombus, Andrena and Halictus, with their heads
+plunged in between the segments of the bee's body.
+
+[Illustration: 217. The Comma Butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: 218. Tachina.]
+
+The beautiful moth, Adela, with its immensely long antennæ, may be seen,
+with other smaller moths, feeding on the blossoms of the willow. The
+Ants wake from their winter's sleep and throw up their hillocks, and the
+"thriving pismire" issues from his vaulted galleries constructed in some
+decaying log or stump, while the Angle worms emulate late their
+six-footed neighbors. During the mild days of March, ere the snow has
+melted away--
+
+  "The dandy Butterfly,
+  All exquisitely drest,"
+
+will visit our gardens. Such are various kinds of Vanessa and Grapta
+(Fig. 217, G. c-argenteum[30]). The beautiful Brephos infans flies
+before the snow disappears.
+
+  "The Gnat, old back-bent fellow,
+  In frugal frieze coat drest,"
+
+will celebrate the coming of Spring, with his choral dance. Such is
+Trichocera hyemalis, which may be seen in multitudes towards twilight on
+mild evenings. Many flies are now on the wing, such as Tachina (Fig.
+218) and its allies; the four spotted Mosquito, Anopheles
+quadrimaculatus, and the delicate species of Chironomus, whose males
+have such beautifully feathered antennæ, assemble in swarms. Now is the
+time for the collector to turn up stones and sticks by the river's side
+and in grassy damp pastures, for Ground beetles (Carabidæ), and to
+frequent sunny paths for the gay Cicindela and the Bombylius fly, or
+fish in brooks and pools for water beetles and various larvæ of
+Neuroptera and Diptera; while many flies and beetles are attracted to
+freshly cut maples or birches running with sap; indeed, many insects,
+rarely found elsewhere, assemble in quantities about the stumps of these
+trees, from which the sap oozes in March and April.
+
+In April the injurious insects in the Northern States have scarcely
+begun their work of destruction, as the buds do not unfold before the
+first of May. We give an account, however, of some of the beneficial
+insects which are now to be found in grass-lands and in gardens. The
+farmer should know his true insect friends as well as his insect foes.
+We introduce to our readers a large family of ground-beetles (Carabidæ,
+from Carabus, the name of the typical genus) which prey on those insects
+largely injurious to crops. A study of the figures will familiarize our
+readers with the principal forms. They are dark-colored, brown or black,
+with metallic hues, and are seen in spring and throughout the summer,
+running in grass, or lurking under stones and sticks in damp places,
+whence they sally forth to hunt by night, when many vegetable-eating
+insects are most active.
+
+[Illustration: 219. Calosoma scrutator.]
+
+[Illustration: 220. Calosoma calidum and Larva.]
+
+The larvæ are found in much the same situations as the mature beetles.
+They are, elongate, oblong, and rather broad, the terminal ring of the
+body being armed with two horny hooks, and having a single fleshy leg
+beneath; and are usually black in color. The larva of Calosoma (C.
+calidum, Fig. 220; _a_, the beetle; and Fig. 219, C. scrutator) ascends
+trees to feed on caterpillars, such as the Canker worm. When about to
+transform to the pupa state, it forms a rude cocoon in the earth. The
+beetle lies in wait for its prey in shallow pits excavated in pastures.
+We once saw it fiercely attack a May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) nearly
+twice its size; it tore open the hard sides of its clumsy and helpless
+victim with tiger-like ferocity. Carabus (Fig. 221, C. serratus Say, and
+pupa of Carabus auronitens of Europe, after Westwood) is a closely
+allied form, with very similar habits.
+
+[Illustration: 221. Carabus and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 222. Brachinus.]
+
+[Illustration: 223. Casnonia.]
+
+[Illustration: 224. Pangus.]
+
+[Illustration: 225. Agonum.]
+
+[Illustration: 226. Carabid Larva.]
+
+A much smaller form is the curious Bombardier beetle, Brachinus (Fig.
+222, B. fumans), with its narrow head and heart-shaped prothorax. It is
+remarkable for discharging with quite an explosion from the end of its
+body a pungent fluid, probably as a protection against its enemies. An
+allied genus is Casnonia (Fig. 223, C. Pensylvanica), which has a long
+neck and spotted wing covers. Figure 224, Pangus caliginosus, and figure
+225, Agonum cupripenne, represent two common forms. The former is black,
+while the latter is a pretty insect, greenish, with purplish-red
+wing-covers, and black legs.
+
+Figure 226, enlarged about three times, represents a singular larva
+found by Mr. J. H. Emerton under a stone early in spring. Dr. LeConte,
+to whom we sent a figure, supposes that it may possibly be a larva of
+Harpalus, or Pangus caliginosus. It is evidently a young Carabid. The
+under side is represented.
+
+
+_The Insects of May._
+
+During this month there is great activity among the insects. As the
+flowers bloom and the leaves appear, multitudes wake from their long
+winter sleep, and during this month pass through the remainder of their
+transformations, and prepare for the summer campaign. Most insects
+hibernate in the chrysalis or pupa state, while many winter in the
+caterpillar or larva state, such as the larvæ of several Noctuidæ and
+the "yellow-bear," and other caterpillars of Arctia and its allies.
+Other insects hibernate in the adult or imago form, either as beetles,
+butterflies or certain species of bees.
+
+It is well known that the Queen Humble bee winters under the moss, or in
+her old nest. During the present month her rovings seem to have a more
+definite object, and she seeks some deserted mouse's nest, or hollow in
+a tree or stump, and there stows away her pellets of pollen, containing
+two or three eggs apiece, which, late in the summer, are to form the
+nucleus of a well-appointed colony. The Carpenter bees (Ceratina and
+Xylocopa, the latter of which is found in abundance south of New
+England) are busy in refitting and tunnelling the hollows of the grape;
+while the Ceratina hollows out the stem of the elder, or blackberry.
+This little upholsterer bee carpets her honey-tight apartment, storing
+it with food for her young, and later in the season, in June, several of
+these cartridge-like cells, whose silken walls resemble the finest and
+most delicate parchment, may be found in the hollow stems of these
+plants. The Mason bee (Osmia) places her nest in a more exposed site,
+building her earthen cells of pellets of moistened mud, either situated
+under a stone, or in some more sheltered place; for instance, in a
+deserted oak-gall, ranging half a dozen of them side by side along the
+vault of this strange domicile. Meanwhile their more lowly relatives,
+the Andrena and Halictus bees, are engaged in tunnelling the side of
+some sunny bank or path, running long galleries underground, sometimes
+for a foot or more, at the farthest end of which are to be found, in
+summer, little earthen urn-like cells, in which the grubs live upon the
+pollen stored up for them in little balls of the size of a pea. Later in
+the month, the Gall flies (Cynips), those physiological puzzles, sting
+the leaves of our oaks of different species, giving rise to the strange
+excrescences and manifold deformities which deface the stems and leaves
+of our most beautiful forest trees.
+
+[Illustration: 227. Chrysophanus Thoe.[31]] 31 A: The lower side of the
+wings is figured on the right side of this and Figs. 228 and 229.
+
+[Illustration: 228. Argynnis Aphrodite.]
+
+[Illustration: 229. Melitæa Phaeton.]
+
+When the Kalmia, Rhodora, and wild cherries are in bloom, many of our
+most beautiful butterflies appear; such are the different species of
+Chrysophanus (Fig. 227), Lycæna, Thecla and Argynnis (Fig. 228). At this
+time we have found the rare larva of Melitæa Phaeton (Fig. 229) clothed
+in the richest red and velvety black, feeding daintily upon the hazel
+nut, and tender leaves of the golden rod. In June, it changes to the
+chrysalis state, and early in July the butterfly rises from the cold,
+damp bogs, where we have oftenest found it, clad in its rich dress of
+velvety black and red.
+
+Later still, when the lilac blooms, and farther south the broad-leaved
+Kalmia, the gaily-colored Humming Bird moth (Sesia) visits the flowers
+in company with the Swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio Turnus). At
+twilight, the Hawk moth (Sphinx) darts noiselessly through our gardens,
+as soon as the honeysuckles, pinks and lilies are in blossom.
+
+[Illustration: 230. D. 12-punctata.]
+
+[Illustration: 231. Diabrotica vittata.]
+
+Among the flies, mosquitoes now appear, though they have not yet,
+perhaps, strayed far from their native swamps and fens; and their
+mammoth allies, the Daddy-long-legs (Tipula), rise from the fields and
+mould of our gardens in great numbers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232. Plum Weevil and Young.]
+
+Of the beetles, those which feed on leaves now become specially active.
+The Squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fig. 231, and Fig. 230, D.
+12-punctata) now attacks the squash plants before they are fairly up;
+and the Plum weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 232) will sting the
+newly formed fruit, late in the month, or early in June. Many other
+weevils now abound, stinging the seeds and fruit, and depositing their
+eggs just under the skin. So immense are the numbers of insects which
+fill the air and enliven the fields and woodlands just as summer comes
+in, that a bare enumeration of them would overcrowd our pages, and tire
+the reader.
+
+[Illustration: 233. May Fly.]
+
+A word, however, about our water insects. Late in the month the May fly
+(Ephemera, Fig. 233) appears, often rising in immense numbers, from the
+surface of pools and sluggish brooks. In Europe, whole clouds of these
+delicate forms, with their thin white wings, have been known to fall
+like snow upon the ground, when the peasants gather them up in heaps to
+enrich their gardens and farms.
+
+The Case worms, or Caddis flies (Fig. 234), begin now to leave their
+portable houses, formed of pieces of leaves, or sticks and fine gravel,
+or even of shells, as in an European species, and fly over the water,
+resting on the overhanging trees.
+
+A few busy Mosquito Hawks, or Dragon flies (Libellula), herald the
+coming of the summer brood of these indefatigable friends of the
+agriculturist. During their whole life below the waters, these
+entomological Herods have slain and sucked the blood of myriads of
+infant mosquitoes and other insects; and now in their new world above
+the waters, with still more intensified powers of doing mischief,
+happily, however, to flies mostly obnoxious to man, they riot in
+bloodshed and carnage.
+
+[Illustration: 234. Different Forms of Case Worms.]
+
+This is the season to stock the fresh-water aquarium. Go to the nearest
+brook, gather a sprig or two of the water cress, which spreads so
+rapidly, a root of the eel grass, and plant them in a glass dish or deep
+jar. Pour in your water, let the sand and sediment settle, and then put
+in a few Tadpoles, a Newt (Salamander), Snails (Limnæa, Planorbis and
+Valvata), Caddis flies and Water beetles, together with the gatherings
+from a thicket of eel grass, or other submerged plants, being rich in
+the young of various flies, Ephemeras, Dragon flies and Water fleas
+(Entomostraca, Fig. 235), which last are beautiful objects for the
+microscope, and in a few days the occupants will feel at home, and the
+aquarium will be swarming with life, affording amusement and occupation
+for many a dull hour, by day or at night, in watching the marvels of
+insect transformations, and plant-growth.
+
+Among the injurious hymenoptera, which abound late in this month, is
+the Rose Saw fly (Selandria rosæ, Fig. 236) and S. cerasi. The eggs are
+then laid, and the last of June, or early in July, the slug-like larvæ
+mature, and the perfect insects fly in July. Various Gall flies now lay
+their eggs in the buds, leaves and stems of various kinds of oaks,
+blackberries, blueberries and other plants.
+
+[Illustration: 235. Water Flea.]
+
+[Illustration: 236. Selandria rosæ.]
+
+Dipterous Gall flies are now laying their eggs in cereals. The Hessian
+fly (Cecidomyia destructor) has two broods, the fly appearing both in
+spring and autumn. The fly lays twenty or thirty eggs in a crease in the
+leaf of the young plant. In about four days, in warm weather, they
+hatch, and the pale-red larvæ crawl down the leaf, working their way in
+between it and the main stalk, passing downward till they come to a
+joint, just above which they remain, a little below the surface of the
+ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here they imbibe
+the sap by suction alone, and, by the simple pressure of their bodies
+become imbedded in the side of the stem. Two or three larvæ thus
+imbedded serve to weaken the plant and cause it to wither and die. The
+second brood of larvæ remains through the winter in the flax-seed, or
+puparium. By turning the stubble with the plough in the autumn and early
+spring, its imago may be destroyed, and thus its ravages may be checked.
+(Figure 237 represents the female, which is about one-third as large as
+a mosquito: _a_, the larva; _b_, the pupa; and _c_ represents the joint
+near the ground where the maggots live.) The same may be said of the
+Wheat midge (Cecidomyia tritici), which attacks the wheat in the ear,
+and which transforms an inch deep beneath the surface.
+
+[Illustration: 237. Hessian Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 238. Turnip Butterfly.]
+
+Among the butterflies which appear this month are the Turnip butterfly
+(Pontia oleracea, Fig. 238,) which lays its eggs the last of the month.
+The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and in about two weeks the larva
+changes to a chrysalis. Thanaos junevalis and T. Brizo fly late in May.
+The caterpillars live on the pea and other papilionaceous plants. Thecla
+Auburniana, T. Niphon, and other species fly in dry, sunny fields, some
+in April. Argynnis Myrina flies from the last of May through June, and a
+second brood appears in August and September. Vanessa J-album and V.
+interrogationis appear in May, and again in August and September. The
+caterpillars of the latter species live on the elm, lime and hop-vine.
+Grapta comma also feeds on the hop. Alypia 8-maculata (Fig. 49) flies at
+this time, and in August its larva feeds on the grape. Sphinx gordius,
+S. 5-maculata (Fig. 239) and other Sphinges and Sesia (the Clear-winged
+moth), appear the last of May. Arctia Arge, A. virgo, A. phalerata and
+other species fly from the last of May through the summer. Hyphantria
+textor, the Fall-weaver, is found in May or June. The moth of the
+Salt-marsh caterpillar appears at this time, and various Cut worms
+(Agrotis, Fig. 240) abound, hiding in the daytime under stones and
+sticks, etc., while various Tineids and Tortrices, or Leaf-rolling
+caterpillars, begin to devour tender leaves and buds and opening
+blossoms of flowers and fruit trees.
+
+[Illustration: 239. Sphinx 5-maculata, Larva and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 240. Cut Worm and Moth.]
+
+The White-pine weevil flies about in warm days. We have found its
+burrows winding irregularly over the inner surface of the bark and
+leading into the sap-wood. Each cell, in which it hibernates, in the
+middle of March, contains the yellowish white footless grub. Early in
+April it changes to a pupa, and a month after the beetle appears, and in
+a few days deposits its egg under the bark of old pine trees. It also
+oviposits in the terminal shoots of pine saplings, dwarfing and
+permanently deforming the tree. Associated with this weevil we have
+found the smaller, rounder, more cylindrical, whitish grubs of the
+Hylurgus terebrans, which mines the inner layers of the bark, slightly
+grooving the sap-wood. Later in April it pupates, and its habits accord
+in general with those of Pissodes strobi. Another Pine weevil also
+abounds at this time, as well as Otiorhynchus picipes (Fig. 241), which
+injures beans, etc.
+
+[Illustration: 241. Garden Weevil.]
+
+Cylindrical bark-borers, which are little, round, weevil-like beetles,
+are now flying about fruit trees, to lay their eggs in the bark.
+Associated with the Pissodes, we may find in April the galleries of
+Tomicus pini, branching out from a common centre. They are filled up
+with fine sawdust, and, according to Dr. Fitch, are notched in the sides
+"in which the eggs have been placed, where they would remain undisturbed
+by the beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the gallery."
+These little beetles have not the long snouts of the weevils, hence they
+cannot bore through the outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the
+preceding year, and distribute the eggs along the sides (Fitch). Another
+Tomicus, more dangerous than the preceding, feeds exclusively in the
+sap-wood, running solitary galleries for a distance of two inches
+towards the centre of the tree. We figure Tomicus xylographus Say (Fig.
+242, enlarged). It is the most formidable enemy to the white pine in the
+North, and the yellow pine in the South that we have. It also flies in
+May. Ptinus fur (Fig. 243, much enlarged) is now found in out-houses,
+and is destructive to cloth, furs, etc., resembling the Larder-beetle
+(Dermestes) in its habits. It is fourteen hundredths of an inch in
+length.
+
+[Illustration: 242. Pine Weevil.]
+
+[Illustration: 243. Ptinus and Larva.]
+
+
+_The Insects of June._
+
+Early in the month the Parsnip butterfly (Papilio Asterias) may be seen
+flying about, preparatory to laying its eggs for the brood of
+caterpillars which appear in August. At the time of the flowering of the
+raspberry and blackberry, the young larva of Vanessa Antiopa, one of our
+most abundant butterflies, may be found living socially on the leaves of
+the willow; while the mature larva of another much smaller butterfly,
+the little Copper skipper (Chrysophanus Americans), so abundant at this
+time, may sometimes be found on the clover. It is a short, oval,
+greenish worm, with very short legs. The dun-colored skippers (Hesperia)
+abound towards the middle of the month, darting over the flowers of the
+blueberry and blackberry, in sunny openings in the forests.
+
+The family of Hawk moths (Sphinges) now appear in greater abundance,
+hovering at twilight over flower-beds, and, during this time, deposit
+their eggs on the leaves of various fruit-trees. The American Tent
+caterpillar makes its cocoon, and assumes the pupa state. The
+caterpillar passes several days within the cocoon, in what may be
+called the semi-pupa states during which period the chrysalis skin is
+forming beneath the contracted and loosened larva skin. We once
+experimented on a larva which had just completed its cocoon, to learn
+how much silk it could produce. On removing its cocoon it made another
+of the same thickness; but on destroying this second one it spun a third
+but frail web, scarcely concealing its form. A minute Ichneumon
+parasite, allied to Platygaster, lays its eggs within those of this
+moth, as we once detected one under a bunch of eggs, and afterwards
+reared a few from the same lot of eggs. A still more minute egg-parasite
+(Fig. 244) we have seen ovipositing in the early spring, in the eggs of
+the Canker-worm.
+
+[Illustration: 244. Canker worm Egg-parasite.]
+
+Among that beautiful family of moths, the Phalænidæ, comprising the
+Geometers, Loopers, or Span-worms, are two formidable foes to fruit
+growers. The habits of the Canker worm should be well known. With proper
+care and well-directed energy, we believe their attacks can be in a
+great measure prevented. The English sparrow, doves and other
+insectivorous birds, if there are any others that eat them, should be
+domesticated in order to reduce the number of these pests. More care
+than has yet been taken should be devoted to destroying the eggs laid in
+the autumn, and also the wingless females, as they crawl up the trees in
+the spring and autumn to lay their eggs. The evil is usually done before
+the farmer is well aware that the calamity has fallen upon him. As soon
+as, and even before the trees have fairly leafed out, they should be
+visited morning, noon and night, shaken and thoroughly examined and
+cleared of the caterpillars. By well-concerted action among
+agriculturists, who should form a Board of Destruction, numbering every
+man, woman and child on the farm, this fearful scourge may be abated by
+the simplest means, as the cholera or any epidemic disease can in a
+great measure be averted by taking proper sanitary precautions. The
+Canker worms hatch out during the early part of May, from eggs laid in
+the fall and spring, on the branches of various fruit-trees. Just as the
+buds unfold, the young caterpillars make little holes through the tender
+leaves, eating the pulpy portions, not touching the veins and midribs.
+When four weeks old they creep to the ground, or let themselves down by
+spinning a silken thread, and burrow from two to six inches in the soil,
+where they change to chrysalids in a day or two, and in this state live
+till late in the fall, or until the early spring, when they assume the
+imago or moth form. The sexes then unite, and the eggs are deposited for
+the next generation.
+
+The Canker worm is widely distributed, though its ravages used to be
+confined mostly to the immediate vicinity of Boston. We have seen
+specimens of the moth from Illinois. Riley has found it in Missouri.
+
+[Illustration: 245. Abraxas ribearia.]
+
+The Abraxas ribearia of Fitch (Fig. 245, moth), the well-known Currant
+worm, defoliates whole rows of currant bushes. This pretty caterpillar
+may be easily known by its body being of a deep golden color, spotted
+with black. The bushes should be visited morning, noon and night, and
+thoroughly shaken (killing the caterpillars) and sprinkled with ashes.
+
+[Illustration: 246. May Beetle and Young.]
+
+Among multitudes of beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to the crops, are the
+May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca, Fig. 246), whose larva, a large white
+grub, is injurious to the roots of grass and to strawberry vines. The
+Rose beetle appears about the time of the blossoming of the rose. The
+Fire-flies now show their light during mild evenings, and on hot sultry
+days the shrill rasping song of the male Cicada, for "they all have
+voiceless wives," cuts the air: The Chinch-bug, that fell destroyer of
+our wheat crops, appears, according to Harris, in the middle of the
+month, and "may be seen in their various stages of growth on all kinds
+of grain, on corn and herds-grass during the whole summer." So widely
+spread is this insect at present, that we have even detected it in
+August on the summit of Mount Washington.
+
+[Illustration: 247. Pemphigus.]
+
+The Diptera, or two-winged flies, contain hosts of noxious insects, such
+as the various Cecidomyians, or two-winged Gall flies, which now sting
+the culms of the wheat and grasses, and various grains, and leaves of
+trees, producing gall-like excrescences of varying form. Legions of
+these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over
+wheat fields and shrubbery. A strong north west wind, at such times, is
+of incalculable value to the farmer. Moreover, minute flies, allied to
+the house fly, such as Tephritis, Oscinis, etc., now attack the young
+cereals, doing immense injury to grain.
+
+[Illustration: 248. Apple Bark Louse.]
+
+Millions of Aphides, or Plant lice, now infest our shade and fruit
+trees, crowding every green leaf, into which they insert their tiny
+beaks, sucking in the sap, causing the leaves to curl up and wither.
+They also attack the stems and even the roots of plants, though these
+latter (Pemphigus, Fig. 247) differ generically from the true Plant
+lice. Fruit trees should be again washed and rubbed to kill off the
+young Bark lice, of which the common apple Bark louse (Aspidiotus
+conchiformis, Fig. 248), whose oyster-shaped scales may be found in
+myriads on neglected trees, is a too familiar example. Another pest of
+apple trees is the woolly Blight (Eriosoma lanigera). These insects
+secrete from the surface of the body a downy, cottony substance which
+conceals the animal, and when they are, as usual, grouped together on
+the trees, makes them look like patches of mould. The natural insect
+enemies of the Plant lice now abound; such are the Lady bugs
+(Coccinella, Fig. 249); the larva of the Syrphus fly (Fig. 76), which
+devours immense quantities, and the larva of the Golden-eyed,
+Lace-winged fly (Chrysopa, Fig. 256).
+
+[Illustration: 249. Coccinella and Young.]
+
+The last days of June are literally the heyday and jubilee of insect
+life. The entomological world holds high carnival, though in this
+country they are, perhaps, more given to mass-meetings and caucuses. The
+earth, the air, and the water teem with insect life. The insects of
+mid-summer, now appear. Among the butterflies, the Wood Satyrus
+(Neonympha Eurythris) skips in its low flight through the pines. The
+larva of Grapta Progne appears on the currants, and feeds beneath the
+leaves on hot sunny days. The larva of Cynthia cardui may be found on
+the hollyhocks; the pupa state lasts twelve days, the butterfly
+appearing in the middle or last of July. The Hyphantria textor now lays
+its smooth, spherical eggs in broad patches on the under side of the
+leaves of the apple, which the caterpillar will ravage in August; and
+its ally, the Halesidota caryæ, we have found ovipositing the last week
+in the month on the leaves of the butternut. The Squash bug, Coreus
+(Gonocerus) tristis (Fig. 250) is now very abundant, gathering about the
+roots of the squash vines, often in immense numbers, blackening the
+stems with their dark, blackish-brown bodies. This insect is easily
+distinguished from the yellow striped Squash beetle previously
+mentioned, by its much greater size, and its entirely different
+structure and habits. It is a true bug (Hemipter, of which the bed-bug
+is an example), piercing the leaves and stalks, and drawing out the sap
+with its long sucker.
+
+[Illustration: 250. Squash Bug.]
+
+In June, also, we have found that beautiful butterfly, Militæa Phaeton
+rising from the low, cold swamps. Its larva transforms early in June or
+the last week in May, into a beautiful chrysalis. The larva hibernates
+through the winter, and may be found early in spring feeding on the
+leaves of the aster, the Viburnum dentatum and hazel. It is black and
+deep orange-red, with long, thick-set, black spines.
+
+The Currant borer, Trochilium tipuliforme (Fig. 251), a beautiful,
+slender, agile, deep blue moth, with transparent wings, flies the last
+of the month about currant bushes, and its chrysalids may be found in
+May in the stems. Among moths, that of the American Tent caterpillar
+flies during the last of June and July, and its white cocoons can be
+detected under bark, and in sheltered parts of fences and out-houses.
+
+Among others of the interesting group of Silk worms (Bombycidæ) are
+Lithosa, Crocota and allies, which fly in the daytime, and the different
+species of Arctia, and the white Arctians, Spilosoma, and Leucarctia,
+the parent of the Salt-marsh Caterpillar.
+
+[Illustration: 251. Currant Moth.]
+
+Many Leaf rollers, Tortrices, are rolling up leaves in various ways for
+their habitations, and to conceal them from too prying birds; and hosts
+of young Tineans are now mining leaves, and excavating the interior of
+seeds and various fruits. Grape-growers should guard against the attacks
+of a species of Tortrix (Penthina vitivorana) which rolls the leaves of
+the grape, and, according to Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, "in
+mid-summer deposits its eggs in the grape; a single egg in a grape. Its
+presence is soon indicated by a reddish color on that side of the yet
+green grape, and on opening it, the winding channel opened by the larva
+in the pulp is seen, and the minute worm, which is white, with a dark
+head, is found at the end of the channel. It continues to feed upon the
+pulp of the fruit, and when it reaches the seeds, eats out their
+interior; and if the supply from one grape is extinguished before its
+growth is completed, it fastens this to an adjoining grape with a web,
+and burrows into it. It finally grows to about one-half of an inch in
+length, becomes brown, almost black, the head retaining its cinnamon
+color. When it leaves the grape it is very active, and has the power of
+letting itself down by a thread of silk. All my efforts to obtain the
+cocoons failed until I placed fresh grape leaves in the jar containing
+the grapes. The larvæ immediately betook themselves to these, and,
+cutting a curved line through the leaf thus), sometimes two lines thus
+(), folded the edge or edges over, and in the fold assumed the chrysalis
+form. From specimens saved, I shall hope to obtain the perfect insect
+this season, and perhaps obtain information which will aid in checking
+its increase. Already it is so abundant that it is necessary to examine
+every branch of ripe grapes, and clip out the infested berries before
+sending them to the table. A rapid increase in its numbers would
+interfere seriously with the cultivation of the grape in this locality."
+
+The Rose beetle (Macrodactyla subspinosa) appears in great abundance.
+The various species of Buprestis are abundant; among them are the
+Peach-borer (Dicerca divaricata), which may be now found flying about
+peach and cherry trees; and Chrysobothris fulvogutta, and C. Harrisii,
+about white pines. A large weevil (Arrhenodes septentrionalis), which
+lives under the bark of the white oak, appears in June and July. The
+Chinch bug begins its terrible ravages in the wheat fields. The various
+species of Chrysopa or Lace-winged flies, appear during this month.
+
+
+_The Insects of July._
+
+During mid-summer the bees and wasps are very busy building their nests
+and rearing their young. The Humble bees, late in June and the first of
+this month, send out their first broods of workers, and about the middle
+of the month the second lot of eggs are laid, which produce the
+smaller-sized females and males, while eggs laid late in the month and
+early in August, produce the larger-sized queens, which soon hatch.
+These hibernate. The habits of their peculiar parasite, Apathus, an
+insect which closely resembles the Humble bee, are still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: 252. White-faced Wasp.]
+
+The Leaf-cutter bee (Megachile) may be seen flying about with pieces of
+rose-leaf, with which she builds, for a period of twenty days, her
+cells, often thirty in number, using for this purpose, according to Mr.
+F. W. Putnam's estimate,[32] at least one thousand pieces! The bees
+referred to "worked so diligently that they ruined five or six
+rose-bushes, not leaving a single unblighted leaf uncut, and were then
+forced to take the leaves of a locust tree as a substitute."
+
+The Paper-making wasps, of which Vespa maculata (Fig. 252), the
+"White-faced wasp," is our largest species, are now completing their
+nests, and feeding their young with flies. The Solitary wasp (Odynerus
+albophaleratus) fills its earthen cells with minute caterpillars, which
+it paralyzes with its poisonous sting. A group of mud-cells, each stored
+with food for the single larva within, we once found concealed in a
+deserted nest of the American Tent caterpillar. Numerous species of Wood
+wasps (Crabronidæ) are engaged in tunnelling the stems of the
+blackberry, the elder, and syringa, and enlarging and refitting old nail
+holes, and burrowing in rotten wood, storing their cells with flies,
+caterpillars, aphides and spiders, according to the habit of each
+species. Eumenes fraterna, which attaches its single, large, thin-walled
+cell of mud to the stems of plants, is, according to Dr. T. W. Harris,
+known to store it with Canker worms. Pelopæus, the Mud-dauber, is now
+building its earthen cells, plastering them on old rafters and stone
+walls.
+
+The Saw flies (Tenthredo), etc., abound in our gardens this month. The
+Selandria vitis attacks the vine, while Selandria rosæ, the Rose slug,
+injures the rose. The disgusting Pear slug-worm (S. cerasi), often live
+twenty to thirty on a leaf, eating the parenchyma, or softer tissues,
+leaving the blighted leaf. The leaves should be sprinkled with a mixture
+of whale-oil soap and water, in the proportion of two pounds of soap to
+fifteen gallons of water.
+
+[Illustration: 253. Imported Cabbage Butterfly.]
+
+Among the butterflies, Melitæa Ismeria, in the south, and M. Harrisii,
+in the north, are sometimes seen. A second brood of Colias Philodice,
+the common sulphur-yellow butterfly, appears, and Pieris oleracea visits
+turnip-patches. It lays its eggs in June on the leaves, and the
+full-grown, dark-green, hairy larva may be found in August. The Pieria
+rapæ, or imported cabbage butterfly (Fig. 253, male) is now also
+abundant. Its green hairy larva is fearfully prevalent about Boston and
+New York. The last of the month a new brood of Grapta comma appears, and
+a second brood of the larva of Chrysophanus Americanus may be found on
+the sorrel.
+
+The larvæ of Pyrrarctia Isabella hatch out the first week in July, and
+the snuff-colored moth enters our windows at night, in company with a
+host of night-flying moths. These large moths, many of which are
+injurious to crops, are commonly thought to feed on clothes and carpets.
+The true carpet and clothes moths are minute species, which flutter
+noiselessly about our apartments. Their narrow, feathery wings are edged
+with long silken fringes, and almost the slightest touch kills them.
+
+[Illustration: 254. Apple Borer, Larva and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 255. Lady Bug and Pupa.]
+
+Among beetles, the various borers, such as the Saperda, or apple tree
+borer (Fig. 254) are now pairing, and fly in the hot sun about trees.
+Nearly each tree has its peculiar enemy, which drives its galleries into
+the trunk and branches of the tree. Among the Tiger beetles, frequenting
+sandy places, the large Cicindela generosa and the Cicindela hirticollis
+are most common. The grotesque larvæ live in deep holes in sand-banks.
+
+[Illustration: 256. Lace-winged Fly and Eggs.]
+
+[Illustration: 257. Forceps-tail.]
+
+The nine-spotted Lady Bug, Coccinella novemnotata (Fig. 255, with pupa)
+is one of a large group of beetles, most beneficial from their habit of
+feeding on the plant lice. We figure another enemy of the Aphides,
+Chrysopa, and its eggs (Fig. 256), mounted each on a long silken stalk,
+thus placed above the reach of harm.
+
+Among other beneficial insects belonging to the Neuroptera, is the
+immense family of Libellulidæ, or Dragon flies. The Forceps-tail, or
+Panorpa, P. rufescens (Fig. 257), is found in bushy fields and
+shrubbery. They prey on smaller insects, and the males are armed at the
+extremity of the body with an enormous forceps-like apparatus.
+
+
+_The Insects of August._
+
+During this month great multitudes of bugs (Hemiptera) are found in our
+fields and gardens; and to this group of insects the present chapter
+will be devoted. They are nearly all injurious to crops, as they live on
+the sap of plants, stinging them with their long suckers. Their
+continued attacks cause the leaves to wither and blight.
+
+The grain Aphis, in certain years, desolates our wheat fields. We have
+seen the heads black with these terrible pests. They pierce the grain,
+extract the sap, causing it to shrink and lose the greater part of its
+bulk. It is a most insidious and difficult foe to overcome.
+
+[Illustration: 258. Leaf-hopper of the Vine.]
+
+The various leaf-hoppers, Tettigonia (Fig. 258) and Ceresa, abound on
+the leaves of plants, sadly blighting them; and the Tettigonias frequent
+damp, wet, swampy places. A very abundant species on grass produces what
+is called "frog's spittle." It can easily be traced through all its
+changes by frequently examining the mass of froth which surrounds it.
+Tettigonia Vitis blights the leaf of the grape-vine. It is a tenth of an
+inch long, and is straw-yellow, striped with red. Tettigonia rosæ, a
+still smaller species, infests the rose, often to an alarming extent.
+
+The Notonecta, or water boatman, is much like a Tettigonia, but its
+wings are transparent on the outer half, and its legs are fringed with
+long hairs, being formed for swimming. It rows over the surface in
+pursuit of insects. Notonecta undulata Say (Fig. 259) is a common form
+in New England.
+
+Another insect hunter is the singular Ranatra fusca (Fig. 260). It is
+light brown in color, with a long respiratory tube which it raises above
+the surface of the water when it wishes to breathe. This species
+connects the Water-boatman with the Water-skaters, or Gerris, a familiar
+insect, of which Gerris paludum (Fig. 261) is commonly seen running over
+the surface of streams and pools.
+
+[Illustration: 259. Notonecta.]
+
+[Illustration: 260. Ranatra.]
+
+[Illustration: 261. Water Skater.]
+
+[Illustration: 262. Pirates.]
+
+Reduvius and its allies belong to a large family of very useful insects,
+as they prey largely on caterpillars and noxious insects. Such is
+Pirates picipes (Fig. 262), a common species. It is an ally of Reduvius
+personates, a valued friend to man, as in Europe it destroys the
+bed-bug. Its specific name is derived from its habit while immature, of
+concealing itself in a case of dust, the better to approach its prey.
+
+[Illustration: 263. Phymata.]
+
+Another friend of the agriculturist is the Phymata erosa (Fig. 263). Mr.
+F. G. Sanborn states that "these insects have been taken in great
+numbers upon the linden trees in the city of Boston, and were seen in
+the act of devouring the Aphides, which have infested the shade trees of
+that city for several years past. They are described by a gentleman who
+watched their operations with great interest, as 'stealing up to a
+louse, coolly seizing and tucking it under the arm, then inserting the
+beak and sucking it dry.' They are supposed to feed also on other
+vegetable-eating insects as well as the plant louse."
+
+Phytocoris lineolaris swarms in our gardens during this month. It is
+described and figured in "Harris's Treatise on Insects." Closely allied,
+though generally wingless, is that enemy of our peace, the bed-bug. It
+has a small somewhat triangular head, orbicular thorax, and large,
+round, flattened abdomen. It is generally wingless, having only two
+small wing-pads instead. The eggs are oval, white; the young escape by
+pushing off a lid at one end of the shell. They are white, transparent,
+differing from the perfect insect in having a broad, triangular head,
+and short, thick antennæ. Indeed, this is the general form of lice
+(Pediculus Vestimenti, and P. capitis), to which the larva of Cimex has
+the closest affinity. Some Cimices are parasites, infesting pigeons,
+swallows, etc., in this way also showing their near relation to lice.
+Besides the Reduvius, the cockroach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug,
+and destroys large numbers. Houses have been cleared of bugs after being
+thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.
+
+During this month the ravages of grasshoppers are, in the West, very
+wide-spread. We have received from Major F. Hawn, of Leavenworth,
+Kansas, a most interesting account of the Red-legged locust (Caloptenus
+femur-rubrum). "They commence depositing their eggs in the latter part
+of August. They are fusiform, slightly gibbous, and of a buff-color.
+They are placed about three-fourths of an inch beneath the surface, in a
+compact mass around a vertical axis, pointing obliquely up and outwards,
+and are partially cemented together, the whole presenting a cylindrical
+structure, not unlike a small cartridge. They commence hatching in
+March, but it requires a range of temperature above 60º F. to bring them
+to maturity, and under such conditions they become fledged in
+thirty-three days, and in from three to five days after they enter upon
+their migratory flight.
+
+"Their instincts are very strong. When food becomes scarce at one point,
+a portion of them migrate to new localities, and this movement takes
+place simultaneously over large areas. In their progress they stop at no
+obstacle they can surmount. In these excursions they often meet with
+other trains from an opposite direction, when both join in one.
+
+"The insects are voracious, but discriminating in their choice of food,
+yet I know of no plant they reject if pressed by hunger; not even the
+foliage of shrubs and trees, including pine and cedar."
+
+[Illustration: 264. Seventeen Year Locust, Eggs and Pupa.]
+
+During this month the Seventeen-year locust (Cicada septendecim of
+Linnæus, Fig. 264) has disappeared, and only a few Harvest flies, as the
+two other species we have are called, raise their shrill cry during the
+dog-days. But as certain years are marked by the appearance of vast
+swarms in the Middle States, we cannot do better than to give a brief
+summary of its history, which we condense in part from Dr. Harris' work.
+
+The Seventeen-year locust ranges from South-eastern and Western
+Massachusetts to Louisiana. Of its distribution west of the Mississippi
+Valley, we have no accurate knowledge. In Southern Massachusetts, they
+appear in oak forests about the middle of June. After pairing, the
+female, by means of her powerful ovipositor, bores a hole obliquely to
+the pith, and lays therein from ten to twenty slender white eggs, which
+are arranged in pairs, somewhat like the grains on an ear of wheat, and
+implanted in the limb. She thus oviposits several times in a twig, and
+passes from one to another, until she has laid four or five hundred
+eggs. After this she soon dies. The eggs hatch in about two weeks,
+though some observers state that they do not hatch for from forty to
+over fifty days after being laid. The active grubs are provided with
+three pairs of legs. After leaving the egg they fall to the ground,
+burrow into it, and seek the roots of plants whose juices they suck by
+means of their long beaks. They sometimes attack the roots of fruit
+trees, such as the pear and apple. They live nearly seventeen years in
+the larva state, and then in the spring change to the pupa, which
+chiefly differs from the larva by having rudimentary wings. The damage
+done by the larvæ and pupæ, then, consists in their sucking the sap from
+the roots of forest, and occasionally fruit trees.
+
+Regarding its appearance, Mr. L. B. Case writes us (June 15) from
+Richmond, Indiana: "Just now we are having a tremendous quantity of
+locusts in our forests and adjoining fields, and people are greatly
+alarmed about them; some say they are Egyptian locusts, etc. This
+morning they made a noise, in the woods about half a mile east of us,
+very much like the continuous sound of frogs in the early spring, or
+just before a storm at evening. It lasted from early in the morning
+until evening." Mr. V. T. Chambers writes us that it is abounding in the
+vicinity of Covington, Kentucky, "in common with a large portion of the
+Western country." He points out some variations in color from those
+described by Dr. Fitch, from New York, and states that those occurring
+in Kentucky are smaller than those of which the measurements are given
+by Dr. Fitch, and states that "these differences indicate that the
+groups, appearing in different parts of the country at intervals of
+seventeen years, are of different varieties." A careful comparison of
+large numbers collected from different broods, in different localities,
+and different years, would alone give the facts to decide this
+interesting point. Mr. Riley has shown that in the Southern States a
+variety appears every thirteen years.
+
+Regarding the question raised by Mr. Chambers, whether the sting of this
+insect is poisonous, and which he is inclined to believe to be in part
+true, we might say that naturalists generally believe it to be harmless.
+No hemiptera are known to be poisonous, that is, to have a poison-gland
+connected with the sting, like that of the bee, and careful dissections
+by the eminent French naturalist, Lacaze-Duthiers, of three European
+species of Cicada, have not revealed any poison apparatus at the base of
+the sting. Another proof that it does not pour poison into the wound
+made by the ovipositor is, that the twig thus pierced and wounded does
+not swell, as in the case of plants wounded by Gall flies, which,
+perhaps, secrete an irritating poison, giving rise to tumors of various
+shapes. Many insects sting without poisoning the wound; the bite of the
+mosquito, black fly, flea, the bed bug, and other hemipterous insects,
+are simply punctured wounds, the saliva introduced being slightly
+irritant, and to a perfectly healthy constitution they are not
+poisonous, though they may grievously afflict some persons, causing the
+adjacent parts to swell, and in some weak constitutions induce severe
+sickness. Regarding this point, Mr. Chambers writes: "I have heard--not
+through the papers--within a few days past of a child, within some
+twenty miles of this place, dying from the sting of a Cicada, but have
+not had an opportunity to inquire into the truth of the story, but the
+following you may rely on. A negro woman in the employment of A. V.
+Winston, Esq., at Burlington, Boone County, Ky., fifteen miles distant
+from here, went barefooted into his garden a few days since, and while
+there was stung or bitten in the foot by a Cicada. The foot immediately
+swelled to huge proportions, but by various applications the
+inflammation was allayed, and the woman recovered. Mr. Winston, who
+relates this, stands as high for intelligence and veracity as any one in
+this vicinity. I thought, on first hearing the story, that probably the
+sting was by some other insect, but Mr. Winston says that he saw the
+Cicada. But perhaps this proves that the sting is _not_ fatal; that
+depends on the subject. Some persons suffer terribly from the bite of a
+mosquito, while others scarcely feel them. The cuticle of a negro's foot
+is nearly impenetrable, and perhaps the sting would have been more
+dangerous in a more tender part." It is not improbable that the sting
+was made by a wasp (Stizus) which preys on the Cicada. Dr. Le Baron and
+Mr Riley believe the wound to be made by the beak, which is the more
+probable solution of the problem.
+
+A word more about the Seventeen-year Cicada. Professor Orton writes us
+from Yellow Springs, Ohio, that this insect has done great damage to the
+apple, peach, and quince trees, and is shortening the fruit crop very
+materially. By boring into twigs bearing fruit, the branches break and
+the fruit goes with them. "Many orchards have lost full two years'
+growth. Though the plum and cherry trees seemed exempt, they attacked
+the grape, blackberry, raspberry, elm (white and slippery), maple, white
+ash, willow, catalpa, honey-locust and wild rose. We have traces of the
+Cicada this year from Columbus, Ohio, to St. Louis. Washington and
+Philadelphia have also had a visitation."
+
+[Illustration: 265. Hop Vine Moth and Young.]
+
+[Illustration: 266. Humble Bee Parasite.]
+
+We figure the Hop-vine moth and the larva (Fig. 265) which abound on
+hops the last of summer. Also, the Ilythia colonella (Fig. 266, a,
+pupa), known in England to be a parasite of the Humble bee. We have
+frequently met with it here, though not in Humble bees' nests. The larvæ
+feed directly upon the young bees, according to Curtis (Farm Insects).
+The Spindle-worm moth (Gortyna zeæ), whose caterpillar lives in the
+stalks of Indian corn, and also in dahlias, flies this month. The
+withering of the leaves when the corn is young, shows the presence of
+this pest. The beetles of various cylindrical Bark borers and Blight
+beetles (Tomicus and Scolytus) appear again this month. During this
+month the Tree cricket (Oecanthus niveus, Fig. 267) lays its eggs in
+the branches of peach trees. It will also eat tobacco leaves.
+
+[Illustration: 267. Tree Cricket.]
+
+We figure (268) the moth of Ennomos subsignaria, the larva of which is
+so injurious to shade trees in New York City. It is a widely diffused
+species, occurring probably throughout the Northern States. We have
+taken the moth in Northern Maine. We have received from Mr. W. V.
+Andrews the supposed larvæ of this moth. They are "loopers," that is,
+they walk with a looping gait, as if measuring off the ground they walk
+over, whence the name "Geometers," more usually applied to them. They
+are rather stout, brown, and roughened like a twig of the tree they
+inhabit, with an unusually large rust-red head, and red prop-legs, while
+the tip of the body is also red. They are a little over an inch long.
+
+[Illustration: 268. Ennomos subsignaria.]
+
+
+_The Insects of September._
+
+Few new insects make their first appearance for the season during this
+month. Most of the species which abound in the early part of the month
+are the August forms, which live until they are killed by the frosts
+late in the month. From this cause there is towards the end of the month
+a very sensible diminution of the number of insects.
+
+The early frosts warn these delicate creatures of approaching cold.
+Hence the whole insect population is busied late in the month in looking
+out snug winter quarters, or providing for the continuance of the
+species. Warned by the cool and frosty nights, multitudes of
+caterpillars prepare to spin their dense silken cocoons, which guard
+them against frost and cold. Such are the "Spinners," as the Germans
+call them, the Silk moths, of which the American Silk worm is a fair
+example. The last of September it spins its dense cocoon, in which it
+hibernates in the chrysalis state.
+
+The larvæ of those moths, such as the Sphinges, or Hawk moths, which
+spin no cocoon, descend deep into the earth, where they transform into
+chrysalids and lie in deep earthen cocoons.
+
+The wild bees may now be found frequenting flowers in considerable
+numbers. Both sexes of the Humble bee, the Leaf-cutter bee, and other
+smaller genera abound during the warm days.
+
+One's attention during an unusually warm and pleasant day in this month
+is attracted by clouds of insects filling the air, especially towards
+sunset, when the slanting rays of the sun shine through the winged
+hosts. On careful investigation these insects will prove to be nearly
+all ants, and, perhaps, to belong to a single species. Looking about on
+the ground, an unusual activity will be noticed in the ant-hills. This
+is the swarming of the ants. The autumnal brood of females has appeared,
+and this is their marriage day.
+
+The history of a _formicarium_, or ant's nest, is as follows: The
+workers, only, hibernate, and are found early in the spring, taking care
+of the eggs and larvæ produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
+course of the summer these eggs and larvaæ arrive at maturity, and swarm
+on a hot sultry day, usually early in September. The females, after
+their marriage flight, for the small diminutive males seek their company
+at this time, descend and enter the ground to lay their eggs for new
+colonies, or, as Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers
+and retained in the old colonies. Having no more inclination to fly,
+they pluck off their wings and may be seen running about wingless.
+
+Dr. C. C. Abbot gives us the following account of the swarming of a
+species in New Jersey: "On the afternoon of Oct. 6th, at about 4 P. M.,
+we were attracted to a part of the large yard surrounding our home, by a
+multitude of large sized insects that filled the air, and appeared to
+be of some unusual form of insect life, judging of them from a distance.
+On closer inspection these creatures proved to be a brood of red ants
+(Formica) that had just emerged from their underground home and were now
+for the first time using their delicate wings. The sky, at the time, was
+wholly overcast; the wind strong, southeast; thermometer 66º Fahr.
+Taking a favorable position near the mass, as they slowly crawled from
+the ground, up the blades of grass and stems of clover and small weeds,
+we noted, first, that they seemed dazed, without any method in their
+movements, save an ill-defined impression that they must go somewhere.
+Again, they were pushed forward, usually by those coming after them,
+which seemed to add to their confusion. As a brood or colony of insects,
+their every movement indicated that they were wholly ill at ease.
+
+"Once at the end of a blade of grass, they seemed even more puzzled as
+to what to do. If not followed by a fellow ant, as was usually the case,
+they would invariably fall down again to the earth, and sometimes repeat
+this movement until a new comer joined in the ascent, when the
+_uncertain_ individual would be forced to use his wings. This flight
+would be inaugurated by a very rapid buzzing of the wings, as though to
+dry them, or prove their owner's power over them, but which it is
+difficult to say. After a short rest, the violent movement of the wings
+would recommence, and finally losing fear, as it were, the ant would let
+go his hold upon the blade of grass and rise slowly upwards. It could,
+in fact, scarcely be called flight. The steady vibration of the wings
+simply bore them upwards, ten, twenty or thirty feet, until they were
+caught by a breeze, or by the steadier wind that was moving at an
+elevation equal to the height of the surrounding pine and spruce trees.
+So far as we were able to discover, their wings were of the same use to
+them, in transporting them from their former home, that the 'wings' of
+many seeds are, in scattering them; both are wholly at the mercy of the
+winds.
+
+"Mr. Bates, in describing the habits of the Saüba ants (Oecodoma
+cephalotes) says,[33] 'The successful _début_ of the winged males and
+females depends likewise on the workers. It is amusing to see the
+activity and excitement which reign in an ant's nest when the exodus of
+the winged individuals is taking place. The workers clear the roads of
+exit, and show the most lively interest in their departure, although it
+is highly improbable that any of them will return to the same colony.
+The swarming or exodus of the winged males and females of the Saüba ant
+takes place in January and February, that is, at the commencement of the
+rainy season. They come out in the evening in vast numbers, causing
+quite a commotion in the streets and lanes.' We have quoted this passage
+from Mr. Bates' fascinating book, because of the great similarity and
+dissimilarity in the movements of the two species at this period of
+their existence. Remembering, at the time the above remarks concerning
+the South American species, we looked carefully for the workers, in this
+instance, and failed to discover above half a dozen wingless ants above
+ground, and these were plodding about, very indifferent, as it appeared
+to us, to the fate or welfare of their winged brothers. And on digging
+down a few inches, we could find but comparatively few individuals in
+the nest, and could detect no movements on their parts that referred to
+the exodus of winged individuals, then going on.
+
+"On the other hand, the time of day agrees with the remarks of Mr.
+Bates. When we first noticed them, about 4 P. M., they had probably just
+commenced their flight. It continued until nearly 7 P. M., or a
+considerable time after sundown. The next morning, there was not an
+individual, winged or wingless, to be seen above ground; the nest itself
+was comparatively empty; and what few occupants there were seemed to be
+in a semi-torpid condition. Were they simply resting after the fatigue
+and excitement of yesterday?
+
+"It was not possible for us to calculate what proportion of these winged
+ants were carried by the wind too far to return to their old home; but
+certainly a large proportion were caught by the surrounding trees; and
+we found, on search, some of these crawling down the trunks of the
+trees, with their wings in a damaged condition. How near the trees must
+be for them to reach their old home, we should like to learn; and what
+tells them, 'which road to take?' Dr. Duncan states,[34] 'It was
+formerly supposed that the females which alighted at a great distance
+from their old nests returned again, but Huber, having great doubts
+upon this subject, found that some of them, after having left the males,
+fell on to the ground in out-of-the-way places, whence they could not
+possibly return to the original nest!' We unfortunately did not note the
+sex of those individuals that we intercepted in their return (?) trip;
+but we can not help expressing our belief that, at least in this case,
+there was scarcely an appreciable amount of 'returning' on the part of
+those whose exodus we have just described; although so many were caught
+by the nearer trees and shrubbery. Is it probable that these insects
+could find their way to a small underground nest, where there was no
+'travel' in the vicinity, other than the steady departure of
+individuals, who, like themselves, were terribly bothered with the wings
+they were carrying about with them?" (_American Naturalist._)
+
+We have noticed that those females that do not return to the old nest
+found new ones. In Maine and Massachusetts we have for several
+successive years noticed the swarming of certain species of ants during
+an unusually warm and sultry day early in September.
+
+The autumnal brood of Plant lice now occur in great numbers on various
+plants. The last brood, however, does not consist exclusively of males
+and females, for of some of the wingless individuals previously supposed
+to be perfect insects of both sexes, Dr. W. I. Burnett found that many
+were in reality of the ordinary gemmiparous form, such as those
+composing the early summer broods.
+
+The White Pine Plant lice (Lachnus strobi) may be seen laying their long
+string of black oval eggs on the needles of the pine. They are
+accompanied by hosts of two-winged flies, Ichneumons, and in the night
+by many moths which feed on the Aphis-honey they secrete, and which
+drops upon the leaves beneath.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 30: The right side represents the under side of the wings.]
+
+[Footnote
+
+[Footnote 32: See "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv, p.
+105.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Naturalist on the River Amazons, vol. 1, p. 32.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Transformations of Insects, p. 205.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abraxas ribearia, 202.
+
+  Acarus, 124.
+
+  Acceleration, theory of evolution by, 167.
+
+  Achorutes, 145.
+
+  Adela, 189.
+
+  Agrion, 109.
+
+  Agrion, egg-parasite of, 164.
+
+  Agrotis, 197.
+
+  Alternation of generations, 168.
+
+  Alypia, 57, 197.
+
+  American tent caterpillar, 187.
+
+  Amnion, 166.
+
+  Ancestral forms, 151.
+
+  Andrena, 31, 45, 192.
+
+  Angle worms, 189.
+
+  Annelida, 161, 170.
+
+  Anopheles, 189.
+
+  Ant, 217.
+
+  Antenna, origin of, 174.
+
+  Antherophagus, 49.
+
+  Ant lion, 115, 182.
+
+  Ants, 189.
+
+  Anura, 136, 145, 147.
+
+  Anurida, 146.
+
+  Apathus, 47.
+
+  Aphis, 151, 203.
+
+  Aphis eater, 75.
+
+  Aphis of grain, 209.
+
+  Apple borer, 208.
+
+  Apple insects, 83.
+
+  Apple tree borer, 187.
+
+  April, insects of, 187.
+
+  Agonum, 191.
+
+  Aquarium, 195.
+
+  Arachnida, ancestry of, 189.
+
+  Archetype, 186.
+
+  Archetypes in Insects, 150.
+
+  Arctia, 197.
+
+  Argas, 123.
+
+  Argynnis, 193, 197.
+
+  Army worm, 55.
+
+  Arrhenodes, 206.
+
+  Arthropoda, 166.
+
+  Aspidiotus, 203.
+
+  Assmus, Edward, on parasites of honey bee, 39.
+
+  Astoma, 122, 159.
+
+  August, insects of, 209.
+
+
+  Band, primitive, 163, 167.
+
+  Bark borer, 188, 216.
+
+  Bark louse, 203.
+
+  Barnacle, 155.
+
+  Bed bug, 96, 183.
+
+  Bees, 17, 168, 206.
+
+  Bee louse, 41.
+
+  Beneficial insects, 190.
+
+  Billings on Eophyton, 158.
+
+  Bird tick, 84.
+
+  Black fly, 73.
+
+  Blight insect, 203.
+
+  Bombardier beetle, 191.
+
+  Borer, 187.
+
+  Bot fly, 77.
+
+  Botrytis, 47.
+
+  Brachinus, 191.
+
+  Brauer, F., on ancestry of insects, 157.
+    On two larval forms, 175.
+
+  Braula, 41.
+
+  Breeze fly, 74.
+
+  Brephos, 189.
+
+  Bristle tail, 127.
+
+  Bruchus, 188.
+
+  Buprestis, 206.
+
+
+  Cabbage butterfly, 55, 207.
+
+  Caddis fly, 153.
+
+  Caddis fly larva, 178.
+
+  Caddis worm, 195.
+
+  Calendar, Insect, 187.
+
+  Caloptenus, 211.
+
+  Calosoma, 190.
+
+  Campodea, 133, 159, 170, 178.
+
+  Campodea-stage of insects, 157.
+
+  Canker worm, 187, 201.
+
+  Carabidæ, 189, 190.
+
+  Carabus, 191.
+
+  Carboniferous insects, 158.
+    Myriopods, 158.
+    Scorpion, 158.
+
+  Carpenter bee, 192.
+
+  Carpet fly, 75.
+
+  Case worms, 195.
+
+  Casnonia, 191.
+
+  Caterpillar, origin of, 175, 179.
+
+  Cecidomyia, 168, 196, 203.
+
+  Cecidomyia tritici, 197.
+
+  Centipede, 149.
+
+  Ceratina, 24, 192.
+
+  Ceresa, 209.
+
+  Cestodes, 162.
+
+  Cheese maggot, 83.
+
+  Cheese mite, 124.
+
+  Cheyletus, 119.
+
+  Chigoe, 86.
+
+  Chinch bug, 55, 203.
+
+  Chionea, 85.
+
+  Chironomus, 168, 189.
+
+  Chloëon, 170, 180.
+
+  Chrysobothris, 206.
+
+  Chrysopa, 171, 182, 208.
+
+  Chrysophanus, 193, 207.
+
+  Cicada, 212.
+
+  Cicindela, 189.
+
+  Clothes moth, 64, 188.
+
+  Coccinella, 204.
+
+  Coddling moth, 188.
+
+  Coleopterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Collembola, 133, 159.
+
+  Comprehensive type, 154.
+
+  Compsidea, 90.
+
+  Conotrachelus, 194.
+
+  Copepoda, 167.
+
+  Corydalus, mandibles of, 182.
+
+  Crab, 155, 156.
+
+  Crustacea, differences of from insects, 157.
+
+  Currant borer, 204.
+
+  Currant worm, 202.
+
+  Cut worm, 197.
+
+  Cyclops-like stage, 162.
+
+  Cynips, 193.
+
+
+  Daddy-long-legs, 194.
+
+  Dawson's discovery of fossil myriopods, 159.
+
+  Dawson on fossil land plants of Upper Silurian, 158.
+
+  Degeeria, 143.
+
+  Demodex, 125, 148, 160.
+
+  Devil's darning-needle, 106.
+
+  Devonian formation, insects in, 158.
+
+  Diabrotica, 194.
+
+  Dicerca, 206.
+
+  Dicyrtoma, 142.
+
+  Diplax, 113, 154.
+
+  Dipterous gall fly, 196.
+
+  Dipterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Dohrn, Anton, on ancestry of insects, 169.
+
+  Dragon fly, 106, 171, 195.
+
+  Dujardinia, 170.
+
+  Dytiscus, 182.
+
+
+  Ear wig, 136.
+
+  Echinoderes, 169.
+
+  Egg parasites, 201.
+
+  Egg parasite of Agrion, 164.
+
+  Eggs of canker worm, 187.
+
+  Elm tree insects, 90.
+
+  Embryology, comparative. 167.
+
+  Embryology of Podura, 140.
+
+  Ennomos, 216.
+
+  Ephemera, 154, 194.
+
+  Ephydra, 174.
+
+  Eruciform larva, 175.
+
+  Euphorberia, 158.
+
+  Evolution theory, 152.
+
+  Eyes of insects, 185.
+
+
+  Fabre on hyper-metamorphosis, 43.
+
+  Fall weaver, 197.
+
+  Fire fly, 202.
+
+  Flea, 86.
+
+  Forceps Tail, 171.
+
+  Forficula, 136.
+
+  Fossil insects, 158.
+    Myriopods, 158.
+    Scorpion, 158.
+
+  Foul brood, 40.
+
+
+  Gad fly, 74.
+
+  Galley worm, 149.
+
+  Gall flies, 193.
+
+  Gall fly, 72, 203.
+
+  Gall fly, two-winged, 196.
+
+  Gamasus, 120.
+
+  Ganin on embryology of insects, 161.
+
+  Gegenbaur on tracheæ, 172.
+
+  Generalized types, 154.
+
+  Generation, alternate, 168.
+
+  Gerris, 210.
+
+  Gerris, egg-parasite of, 166.
+
+  Gills of insects, 172.
+
+  Gnat, 71, 189.
+
+  Gonocerus, 204.
+
+  Gordius, 46.
+
+  Gortyna, 215.
+
+  Grain Aphis, 209.
+
+  Grape insects, 57.
+
+  Grape leaf roller, 205.
+
+  Grape saw fly, 207.
+
+  Grapta, 189, 204, 207.
+
+  Grasshopper, 181, 211.
+
+  Green head, 74.
+
+  Grimm on parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+
+  Hæckel, Ernst, on ancestry of insects, 156.
+
+  Hairs of insects, 185.
+
+  Hair worm, 46.
+
+  Halictus, 31, 192.
+
+  Handily, A. H., on Thysanura, 133.
+
+  Hartt's discovery of fossil insects in New Brunswick, 158.
+
+  Harvest bugs, 122.
+
+  Haustellate insects, 183.
+
+  Hawk moth, 194, 200.
+
+  Head of insects, mode of formation of, 174.
+
+  Heart, iv.
+
+  Hemiptera, 209.
+
+  Hemipterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Hessian fly, 72, 196.
+
+  Heteropus, 126.
+
+  Hibernation of insects, 192.
+
+  Hirudo, 166.
+
+  Histolysis, 168.
+
+  Histriobdella, 166.
+
+  Histriobdella stage of Polynema, 164.
+
+  Hop vine moth, 215.
+
+  Horse tick, 84.
+
+  House fly, 80.
+
+  Humble bee parasite, 215.
+
+  Humming bird moth, 194.
+
+  Hunt on organic life in the Laurentian period, 158.
+
+  Hylobius pales, 188.
+
+  Hylurgus terebrans, 188.
+
+  Hymenopterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Hyper-metamorphosis of insects, 166.
+
+  Hyphantria, 204.
+
+  Hypodermis, 163.
+
+
+  Ichneumon, 161, 201.
+
+  Illinois, fossil insects of, 159.
+
+  Ilythia, 215.
+
+  Injurious insects, 190.
+
+  Insects, ancestry of, 150.
+
+  Insects, archetypes of, 150.
+
+  Insects, beneficial, 190.
+
+  Insect calendar, 187.
+
+  Insects, embryology of, 154, 155.
+
+  Insects, flight of, ix.
+
+  Insects in the Devonian formation, 158.
+
+  Insects, metamorphosis of, 166.
+
+  Insects, origin of, 156.
+
+  Insects, reason in, 30, 37.
+
+  Insects, respiration of, 171.
+
+  Insects, senses of, xiii.
+
+  Insects, sexes in, 52.
+
+  Insects, transformations of, xiv, 50.
+
+  Insects, wingless, 171.
+
+  Intestinal worms, 161.
+
+  Isotoma, 140, 143.
+
+  Itch mite, 125.
+
+  Ixodes, 117, 123.
+
+
+  Japyx, 132.
+
+  Jaws of insects, origin of, 174.
+
+  Jelly fishes, 168.
+
+  Joint worm, 55.
+
+  Julus, 149, 169.
+
+  Julus, embryology of, 164.
+
+  July, insects of, 206.
+
+  June, insects of, 200.
+
+
+  Kowaleusky's researches on embryology of worms, 169.
+
+
+  Labium, vi, 165.
+
+  Lachnosterna fusca, 202.
+
+  Lachnus, 220.
+
+  Lady bird, 208.
+
+  Larva, ernciform, 175.
+    Leptiform, 175.
+    Two kinds of, 175.
+
+  Larval skin of crustacea, 166.
+
+  Leaf cutter bee, 26, 206.
+
+  Leaf roller, 188, 197, 205.
+
+  Leeches, 166.
+
+  Legs of insects, 173.
+
+  Leidy, J., on internal parasites of insects, 39, 46.
+
+  Lepidocyrtus, 144.
+
+  Lepidopterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Lepisma, 128.
+
+  Leptiform larva, 175.
+
+  Leptus, 120, 155, 159.
+
+  Lespès, on sense of hearing in insects, xiv.
+
+  Leucania, 55.
+
+  Leuckart on embryology of Hirudo, 168.
+    Parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Libellula, 107, 195.
+
+  Linden tree insects, 90.
+
+  Linguatula, 160.
+
+  Lipura, 145.
+
+  Lithobius, 178.
+
+  Locust tree insects, 93.
+
+  Louse, 96, 154.
+
+  Lubbock's discovery of Pauropus, 149.
+
+  Lubbock, Sir John, on Thysanura, 133;
+    on the origin of insects, 159, 173.
+
+  Machilis, 128.
+
+  Macrodactylus, 206.
+
+  Macrosila cluentius, 184.
+
+  Maggot, origin of, 175, 178.
+
+  Mandible, vi.
+
+  Mandibles of moths, 183.
+
+  Mandibulate insects, 183.
+
+  Mange mite, 125.
+
+  Marey on the flight of insects, ix.
+
+  Mason bee, 192.
+
+  Maxillæ, vi.
+
+  Maxilla of moths, 184.
+
+  May beetle, 202.
+
+  May fly, 194.
+
+  May, insects of, 192.
+
+  Mazonia, 158.
+
+  Meat fly, 82.
+
+  Meek's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
+
+  Megachile, 26.
+
+  Melipona, 18.
+
+  Melitæa, 193, 207.
+
+  Melitæa Phaeton, 204.
+
+  Meloë, 21, 42.
+
+  Metamorphosis of insects, 166, 175;
+    origin of, 179.
+
+  Miastor, 168.
+
+  Microgaster, 49.
+
+  Mites, 116, 149.
+
+  Mosquito, 68.
+
+  Mosquito hawk, 195.
+
+  Mouth-parts of insects, origin of, 173.
+
+  Mucor, 47.
+
+  Mud dauber, 207.
+
+  Müller, Fritz, on ancestry of insects, 156, 169.
+
+  Müller, J., on sight in insects, xiii.
+
+  Murray's discovery of Eophyton in America, 158.
+
+  Musca, 80, 168.
+
+  Muscardine, 47.
+
+  Mycetobia, 73.
+
+  Myobia, 169.
+
+  Myriopoda, 149.
+    Ancestry of, 159.
+
+
+  Nannophya, 114.
+
+  Nauplius, 155, 160.
+
+  Nebalia, 182.
+
+  Nephelis, 166.
+
+  Nephopteryx, 49.
+
+  Neuropterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  New Brunswick, fossil insects of, 158.
+
+  Newport, on embryology of Julus, 164.
+
+  Nicoletia, 131.
+
+  Nomada, 38.
+
+  Notonecta, 209.
+
+  Nova Scotia, fossil insects of, 159.
+
+
+  Ocypete, 159.
+
+  Odynerus, 207.
+
+  Oecanthus, 216.
+
+  Oil beetle, 188.
+
+  Onion fly, 49.
+
+  Ophioneurus, embryology of, 165.
+
+  Orchesella, 143.
+
+  Ornithomyia, 84.
+
+  Orthopterous larvæ, 175.
+
+  Osmia, 27.
+
+  Otiorhynchus, 199.
+
+  Ovipositor of Cicada, 185.
+
+
+  Palpus, vi.
+    Origin of, 174.
+
+  Pangus, 191.
+
+  Panorpa, 171, 209.
+
+  Paper wasp, 207.
+
+  Papilio Asterias, 200.
+
+  Papirins, 142.
+
+  Parasite of insect eggs, 164.
+
+  Parsnip butterfly, 200.
+
+  Parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Pasteur on the silk worm disease, 63.
+
+  Pauropus, 149, 154, 158, 171.
+
+  Peach borer, 206.
+
+  Pear slug, 207.
+
+  Pea weevil, 188.
+
+  Peck, W. D., on the habits of Stylops and Xenos, 45, 46.
+
+  Pelopæus, 207.
+
+  Pentastoma, 148, 160.
+
+  Peripatus, 161.
+
+  Perla, 154.
+
+  Phora, 40.
+
+  Phymata, 211.
+
+  Phytocoris, 211.
+
+  Pickle worm, 57.
+
+  Pieris, 55, 197, 207.
+
+  Pieris brassicæ, egg parasite of, 165.
+
+  Pine plant louse, 220.
+
+  Pine weevil, 188, 199.
+
+  Piophila, 83.
+
+  Pirates, 210.
+
+  Pissodes strobi, 188.
+
+  Plan of structure, 186.
+
+  Plant louse, 220.
+
+  Platygaster, embryology of, 161.
+
+  Plum weevil, 194.
+
+  Podura, 133, 135, 144, 153, 154, 159, 170.
+    Catch of, 139.
+    Spring of, 137.
+
+  Podurids, the ancestors of the true insects, 157.
+
+  Poisonous insects, 214.
+
+  Polynema, embryology of, 164.
+
+  Poplar tree insects, 92.
+
+  Potato insects, 63.
+
+  Prelarval stage of ichneumons, 168.
+
+  Primitive band, 163, 166.
+
+  Primitive insects, 175.
+
+  Prionus, 93.
+
+  Procris, 60.
+
+  Protoleptus, 172, 174.
+
+  Pseudoneuroptera, 178.
+
+  Ptinus fur, 200.
+
+  Putnam, F. W., on habits of the bees, 19, 26.
+
+  Pyrrharctia, 207.
+
+
+  Ranatra, 210.
+
+  Rat-tailed fly, 76.
+
+  Reduvius, 210.
+
+  Reproduction, virgin, 168.
+
+  Respiration of insects, 171.
+
+  Retardation, theory of evolution by, 167.
+
+  Rose beetle, 206.
+
+  Rose saw fly, 196.
+
+  Rose slug, 207.
+
+  Rotatoria, ancestors of crustacea, 169.
+
+
+  Salpa, 168.
+
+  Saperda, 91, 208.
+
+  Sarcoptes, 125.
+
+  Saw fly, 196, 207.
+
+  Saw of saw fly, 185.
+
+  Schiödte on the mouth-parts of the louse, 96.
+
+  Scolopocryptops, 149.
+
+  Scorpion, fossil, 158.
+
+  Scudder on fossil insects of New Brunswick and Illinois, 158.
+
+  Seira, 143.
+
+  Selandria, 207.
+
+  Selandria rosæ, 196.
+
+  September, insects of, 216.
+
+  Sesia, 194.
+
+  Seventeen year locust, 212.
+
+  Sexes, origin of, 152.
+
+  Sheep tick, 85.
+
+  Shrimp, 155.
+
+  Siebold, T. von, on the ears of grasshoppers, xiv.
+
+  Siebold on parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Silk worm, 51.
+
+  Silver witches, 128.
+
+  Simulium, 73.
+
+  Sitaris, 44.
+
+  Smith, F., on stingless bees, 18.
+    On parasitic bees, 37.
+
+  Smynthurus, 142.
+
+  Species, origin of, 152.
+
+  Sphinx, 194, 197, 200, 207.
+
+  Spider, 155.
+
+  Spider fly, 85.
+
+  Spindle worm, 215.
+
+  Spinneret of caterpillars, 183;
+    of spiders, 185.
+
+  Spring, insects of, 187.
+
+  Spring of Podura, 185.
+
+  Spring tail, 127.
+
+  Squash beetle, 194.
+
+  Squash bug, 204.
+
+  Sting of bee, 185.
+
+  Sting, origin of, 165.
+
+  Stylops, 21, 45, 152, 179, 188.
+
+  Sucker of insects, 183.
+
+  Sugar mite, 124.
+
+  Swarming of ants, 217.
+
+  Syllis, 170.
+
+  Syrphus, 75.
+
+
+  Tabanus, 74.
+
+  Tachina, 39, 189.
+
+  Tailor bee, 26.
+
+  Tardigrade, 150, 160.
+
+  Teleas, embryology of, 166.
+
+  Templetonia, 143.
+
+  Tent caterpillar, 187.
+
+  Tenthredo, 207.
+
+  Tettigonia, 209.
+
+  Thanaos, 197.
+
+  Thecla, 197.
+
+  Thorax of insects, 173.
+
+  Thysanura, 127, 154.
+
+  Ticks, 116.
+
+  Tinea, 64, 188.
+
+  Tipula, 194.
+
+  Tomicus, 199.
+
+  Tomocerus, 137, 143.
+
+  Tongue of insects, 183.
+
+  Torell's discovery of Eophyton in Sweden, 158.
+
+  Tortrices, 205.
+
+  Tortricidæ, 188.
+
+  Trachea, iv.
+
+  Tracheæ, absence of in Polynema, 165.
+
+  Tracheæ, origin of, 171.
+
+  Tree cricket, 216.
+
+  Trichocera hyemalis, 189.
+
+  Trichodes, 42.
+
+  Trigona, 18.
+
+  Trochilium tipuliforme, 205.
+
+  Trombidium, 120, 159.
+
+  Trouvelot, L., on amount eaten by silk worms, vii, 60.
+
+  Turnip butterfly, 197.
+
+
+  Uhler, P. R., on habits of the dragon fly, 107, 110.
+
+
+  Verrill, A. E., on the parasites of man and the domestic animals, 84.
+
+  Vine dresser, 59.
+
+  Virgin reproduction, 168.
+
+
+  Wasp, 206.
+
+  Water bear, 150.
+
+  Water boatman, 166, 209.
+
+  Waterhouse, G. R., on habits of Osmia, 27.
+
+  Weevil, 179, 188, 194.
+
+  Weismann on growth of insects, 164.
+
+  West, Tuffen, on the foot of the fly, viii.
+
+  Wheat midge, 197.
+
+  Wine fly, 83.
+
+  Wingless insects, 171.
+
+  Wings of insects as respiratory organs, 165.
+
+  Wings, origin of, 172.
+
+  Worthen's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
+
+  Worms, the ancestors of insects, 160, 169.
+
+  Wyman, Jeffries, on the cells of the honey bee, 17.
+
+
+  Xenos, 46.
+
+  Xylobius, 159.
+
+  Xylocopa, 21.
+
+
+  Zaddach on development of worms, insects and crustaceans, 169.
+
+  Zoëa, 156.
+
+
+_The only American Text Book of Entomology._
+
+A Guide to the Study of Insects,
+
+Being a popular introduction to the study of Entomology, and a treatise
+on Injurious and Beneficial Insects, with descriptions and accounts of
+the habits of Insects, their transformations, development and
+classification.
+
+By A. S. PACKARD, Jr., M. D.,
+
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+Entomology at _Bowdoin College_, and Entomologist to the _Mass. State
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+
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+
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+Habits; with remarks upon subterranean life in general.
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+A FAMILIAR Description of a Few Flowers. From the French of M. EMM. LE
+MAOUT, Translated by Miss A. L. PAGE. This little work of 55 pages,
+illustrated by 47 woodcuts, has been translated for the purpose of
+placing within the reach of those interested in object teaching a manual
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our Common Insects, by A. S. Packard Jr.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Our Common Insects, by Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Our Common Insects
+       A Popular Account of the Insects of Our Fields, Forests,
+              Gardens and Houses
+
+Author: Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+Release Date: January 23, 2008 [EBook #24409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR COMMON INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Janet Blenkinship and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="650" height="330" alt="AMERICAN SILK WORM (MALE)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">AMERICAN SILK WORM (MALE).</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+  <h1>OUR<br /><br />
+
+  COMMON INSECTS.</h1>
+
+  <h2>A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE INSECTS</h2>
+
+  <h2>OF OUR</h2>
+
+  <h2>Fields, Forests, Gardens and Houses.</h2>
+
+
+  <h3>Illustrated with 4 Plates and 268 Woodcuts.</h3>
+
+  <h4>BY</h4>
+
+  <h2>A. S. PACKARD, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span>,</h2>
+
+<p class="center">Author of "<span class="smcap">A Guide To the Study of Insects.</span>"<br />
+SALEM<br />
+NATURALISTS' AGENCY.<br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Boston</span>: Estes &amp; Lauriat. <span class="smcap">New York</span>: Dodd &amp; Mead.<br />
+1873.<br /><br />
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by<br />
+  F. W. PUTNAM &amp; CO.,<br />
+  in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.<br /><br />
+
+  PRINTED AT<br />
+  THE SALEM PRESS,<br />
+  F. W. PUTNAM &amp; CO.,<br />
+  Proprietors.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#DEDICATION">DEDICATION.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#PREFACE">PREFACE.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INTRODUCTORY">INTRODUCTORY.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INDEX">INDEX.</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="DEDICATION" id="DEDICATION"></a>DEDICATION.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="centerbox">
+<h3>TO SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Scudder</span>:&mdash;You and I were drawn together many years ago by a
+common love for insects and their ways.</p>
+
+<p>I dedicate this little volume of ephemeral essays to you in recognition
+of your worth as a man and a scientist, and as a token of warm
+friendship.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yours sincerely,</span>
+</p>
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">A. S. Packard, Jr.</span><br /><br /></p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This little volume mainly consists of a reprint of a series of essays
+which appeared in the "American Naturalist" (Vols. i-v, 1867-71). It is
+hoped that their perusal may lead to a better acquaintance with the
+habits and forms of our more common insects. The introduction was
+written expressly for this book, as well as Chapter XIII, "Hints on the
+Ancestry of Insects." The scientific reader may be drawn with greater
+interest to this chapter than to any other portion of the book. In this
+discussion of a perhaps abstruse and difficult theme, his indulgence is
+sought for whatever imperfections or deficiencies may appear. Our
+systems of classification may at least be tested by the application of
+the theory of evolution. The natural system, if we mistake not, is the
+genealogy of organized forms; when we can trace the latter, we establish
+the former. Considering how much naturalists differ in their views as to
+what is a natural classification, it is not strange that a genealogy of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span>animals or plants seems absurd to many. To another generation of
+naturalists it must, perhaps, be left to decide whether to attempt the
+one is more unphilosophical than to attempt the other.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the cuts have already appeared in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects" and the "American Naturalist," where their original sources are
+given, while a few have been kindly contributed by Prof. A. E. Verrill,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, and Prof. C. V. Riley, and three
+are original.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Salem</span>, June, 1873.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>OUR COMMON INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 234px;">
+<img src="images/f001.jpg" width="234" height="250" alt="1. Spider (Tegenaria)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">1. Spider (Tegenaria).</span>
+</div>
+<p><i>What is an Insect?</i> When we remember that the insects alone comprise
+four-fifths of the animal kingdom, and that there are upwards of 200,000
+living species, it would seem a hopeless task to define what an insect
+is. But a common plan pervades the structure of them all. The bodies of
+all insects consist of a succession of rings, or segments, more or less
+hardened by the deposition of a chemical substance called chitine; these
+rings are arranged in three groups: the head, the thorax, or middle
+body, and the abdomen or hind body. In the six-footed insects, such as
+the bee, moth, beetle or dragon fly, four of these rings unite early in
+embryonic life to form the head; the thorax consists of three, as may be
+readily seen on slight examination, and the abdomen is composed either
+of ten or eleven rings. The body, then, seems divided or <i>insected</i> into
+three regions, whence the name <i>insect</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The head is furnished with a pair of antenn&aelig;, a pair of jaws
+(mandibles), and two pairs of maxill&aelig;, the second and basal pair being
+united at their base to form the so-called labium, or under lip. These
+four pairs of appendages represent the four rings of the head, to which
+they are appended in the order stated above.</p>
+
+<p>A pair of legs is appended to each of the three rings of the thorax;
+while the first and second rings each usually carry a pair of wings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/f002.jpg" width="80" height="250" alt="2. Centipede." title="" />
+<span class="caption">2. Centipede.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The abdomen contains the ovipositor; sometimes, as in the bees and
+wasps, forming a sting. In the spiders (Fig. 1), however, there are no
+antenn&aelig;, and the second maxill&aelig;, or labium, is wanting. Moreover, there
+are four pairs of legs. The centipedes (Fig. 2, a Myriopod) also differ
+from the rest of the insects in having an indefinite number of abdominal
+rings, each bearing a pair of legs.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>On examining the arrangement of the parts within, we find the nervous
+cord, consisting of two chains of swellings, or nerve-knots, resting
+upon the floor or under side of the body; and the heart, or dorsal
+vessel, situated just under the skin of the back; and in looking at
+living caterpillars, such as the cut-worm, and many thin-skinned aquatic
+larv&aelig;, we can see this long tubular heart pulsating about as often as
+our own heart, and when the insect is held against its will, or is
+agitated, the rapidity of the pulsations increases just as with us.</p>
+
+
+<p>Insects do not breathe as in the higher animals by taking the air into
+the mouth and filling the lungs, but there are a series of holes or
+pores along the side of the body, as seen in the grub of the humble bee,
+through which the air enters and is conveyed to every part of the body
+by an immense number of air tubes. (Fig. 3, air tubes, or trache&aelig;, in
+the cau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>dal appendage of the larva of a dragon fly). These air tubes are
+everywhere bathed by the blood, by which the latter becomes oxygenated.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Indeed the structure of an insect is entirely different from that of man
+or the quadrupeds, or any other vertebrate animal, and what we call
+head, thorax, abdomen, gills, stomach, skin, or lungs, or jaws, are
+called so simply for convenience, and not that they are made in the same
+way as those parts in the higher animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/f003.jpg" width="450" height="111" alt="3. Caudal appendage of larva of Agrion." title="" />
+<span class="caption">3. Caudal appendage of larva of Agrion.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An insect differs from a horse, for example, as much as a modern
+printing press differs from the press Franklin used. Both machines are
+made of iron, steel, wood, etc., and both print; but the plan of their
+structure differs throughout, and some parts are wanting in the simpler
+press which are present and absolutely essential in the other. So with
+the two sorts of animals; they are built up originally out of
+protoplasm, or the original jelly-like germinal matter, which fills the
+cells composing their tissues, and nearly the same chemical elements
+occur in both, but the mode in which these are combined, the arrangement
+of their products: the muscular, nervous and skin tissues, differ in the
+two animals. The plan of structure, namely, the form and arrangement of
+the body walls, the situation of the appendages to the body, and of the
+anatomical systems within, i.e., the nervous, digestive, circulatory,
+and respiratory systems, differ in their position in relation to the
+walls of the body. Thus while the two sorts of animals reproduce their
+kind, eat, drink and sleep, see, hear and smell, they perform these acts
+by different kinds of organs, situated sometimes on the most opposite
+parts of the body, so that there is no comparison save in the results
+which they accomplish; they only agree in being animals, and in having a
+common animal nature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/f004.jpg" width="450" height="115" alt="4. Different forms of jaws." title="" />
+<span class="caption">4. Different forms of jaws.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f005.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="5. Mouth parts of the Larva of a Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">5. Mouth parts of the Larva of a Beetle.</span>
+</div><div class="figright" style="width: 119px;">
+<img src="images/f006.jpg" width="119" height="180" alt="6. Maxilla of a Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">6. Maxilla of a Beetle.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;"><i>How Insects Eat.</i> The jaws of insects (Fig. 4) are horny processes
+situated on each side of the mouth. They are variously toothed, so as to
+tear the food, and move horizontally instead of up and down as in the
+horse. The act of taking the food, especially if the insect be
+carnivorous in its habits, is quite complex, as not only the true jaws,
+but the accessory jaws (maxill&aelig;, Fig. 5, <i>a</i>, upper, b, under side of
+the head of a young beetle; <i>at</i>, antenn&aelig;, <i>md</i>, mandible, <i>mx</i>,
+maxill&aelig;, <i>mx</i>[1], labium) and the feelers (palpi) attached to the
+maxill&aelig;, and the under lip (labium) are of great service in enabling the
+insect to detect its food both by the senses of touch and smell. The
+maxill&aelig; are in the fully grown beetle (Fig. 6) divided into three lobes,
+the outermost forming the palpus, and the two others forming sharp
+teeth, often provided with hairs and minute brushes for cleansing the
+adjoining parts; these strong curved teeth are used in seizing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> the food
+and placing it between the grinders, where it is crushed, prepared for
+digestion and swallowed. Fig. 7 represents the mouth parts of the humble
+bee. (<i>b</i>, upper lip; <i>d</i>, mandible; <i>e</i>, maxilla; <i>f</i>, maxillary
+palpus; <i>g</i>, tongue; <i>ih</i>, labium and tabial palpi; <i>k</i>, eye.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;">
+<img src="images/f007.jpg" width="437" height="500" alt="7. Mouth parts of a Humble Bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">7. Mouth parts of a Humble Bee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The alimentary canal passes through the middle of the body, the stomach
+forming usually a simple enlargement. Just before the stomach in certain
+insects, as the grasshopper, is a gizzard armed with rows of powerful
+horny teeth for finely crushing grass.</p>
+
+<p>Insects eat almost incredible quantities of food when young and growing
+rapidly. Mr. Trouvelot tells us in the "American Naturalist" that the
+food taken by a single American Silk-worm in fifty-six days is equal to
+eighty-six thousand times its primitive weight! On the other hand, after
+the insect has finished its transformations, it either takes no food at
+all, as in the May fly, or merely sips the honey of flowers, as in the
+butterfly, while the June beetle and many others like it eat the leaves
+of trees, and the tiger and ground beetles feed voraciously on other
+insects.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><i>How Insects Walk.</i> In man and his allies, the vertebrates, the process
+of walking is a most difficult and apparently dangerous feat. To
+describe the mechanics of walking, the wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> adaptation of the
+muscles and bones for the performance of this most ordinary action of
+life, would require a volume. The process is scarcely less complex in
+insects. Lyonnet found 3,993 muscles in a caterpillar, and while a large
+proportion belong to the internal organs, over a thousand assist in
+locomotion. Hence the muscular power of insects is enormous. A flea will
+leap two hundred times its own height, and certain large, solid beetles
+will move enormous weights as compared to the bulk of their bodies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 99px;">
+<img src="images/f008.jpg" width="99" height="180" alt="8. Larva of a beetle (Photuris)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">8. Larva of a beetle (Photuris).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In walking, as seen in the accompanying figure (Fig. 8), three legs are
+thrown forward at a time, two on one side and one on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Flies and many other insects can walk upside down, or on glass, as
+easily as on a level surface. A fly's foot, as in most other insects,
+consists of five joints (tarsal joints), to the last one of which is
+appended a pair of stout claws, beneath which is a flat, soft, fleshy
+cushion or pad, split into two (sometimes three) flaps, beset on the
+under surface with fine hairs. A part of these hairs are swollen at the
+end, which is covered with "an elastic membranous expansion, capable of
+close contact with a highly polished surface, from which a minute
+quantity of a clear, transparent fluid is emitted when the fly is
+actively moving." (T. West.) These hairs are hence called holding, or
+tenent, hairs. With the aid of these, but mainly, as Mr. West insists,
+by the pressure of the atmosphere, a fly is enabled to adhere to
+perfectly smooth surfaces. His studies show the following curious facts.
+"That atmospheric pressure, if the area of the flaps be alone
+considered, is equal to just one-half the weight of a fly. If the area
+covered by the tenent hairs be added, an increase of pressure is gained,
+equal to about one-fourth the weight of a fly. This leaves one-fourth to
+be accounted for by slight viscidity of the fluid, by the action I have
+so often alluded to, which may be called 'grasping,' by molecular
+attraction, and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> doubtless, by other agents still more subtle, with
+which we have at present scarcely any acquaintance."</p>
+
+<p><i>How Insects Fly.</i> Who of us, as remarked by an eminent ornithologist,
+can even now explain the long sustained, peculiar flight of the hawk, or
+turkey buzzard, as it sails in the air without changing the position of
+its wings? and, we would add, the somewhat similar flight of a
+butterfly? It is the poetry of motion, and a marvellous exhibition of
+grace and ease, combined with a wonderful underlying strength and
+lightness of the parts concerned in flight.</p>
+
+<p>Before we give a partial account of the results obtained by the delicate
+experiments of Professor Marey on the flight of birds and insects, our
+readers should be reminded of the great differences between an insect
+and a bird, remembering that the former, is, in brief, a chitinous sac,
+so to speak, or rather a series of three such spherical or elliptical
+sacs (the head, thorax and abdomen); the outer walls of the body forming
+a solid but light crust, to which are attached broad, membranous wings,
+the wing being a sort of membranous bag stretched over a framework of
+hollow tubes (the trache&aelig;), so disposed as to give the greatest
+lightness and strength to the wing. The wings are moved by powerful
+muscles of flight, filling up the cavity of the thorax, just as the
+muscles are the largest about the thorax of a bird. Moreover in the
+bodies of insects that fly (such as the bee, cockchafer, and dragon
+fly), as distinguished from those that creep exclusively, the air tubes
+(trache&aelig;) which ramify into every part of the body, are dilated here and
+there, especially in the base of the abdomen, into large sacs, which are
+filled with air when the insect is about to take flight, so that the
+specific gravity of the body is greatly diminished. Indeed, these air
+sacs, dilatable at will by the insect, may be compared to the swimming
+bladder of fishes, which enables them to rise and fall at will to
+different levels in the sea, thus effecting an immense saving of the
+labor of swimming. In the birds, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> every body knows who has eaten a
+chicken, or attended the dissection of a Thanksgiving turkey, the soft
+parts are external, attached to the bony framework comprising the
+skeleton, the wing bones being directly connected with the central back
+bone; so that while these two sorts of animated flying machines are so
+different in structure, they yet act in much the same manner when on the
+wing. The difference between them is clearly stated by Marey, some of
+whose conclusions we now give almost word for word.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 128px;">
+<img src="images/f009.jpg" width="128" height="250" alt="9. Figure cut by an insect&#39;s wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">9. Figure cut by an insect&#39;s wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flight of butterflies and moths differs from that of birds in the
+almost vertical direction of the stroke of their wings, and in their
+faculty of sailing in the air without making any movements; though
+sometimes in the course they pursue they seem to resemble birds in their
+flight.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 128px;">
+<img src="images/f009.jpg" width="128" height="250" alt="9. Figure cut by an insect&#39;s wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">9. Figure cut by an insect&#39;s wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flight of insects and birds moreover differs in the form of the
+trajectory in space; in the inclination of the plane in which the wings
+beat; in the role of each of the two alternating (and in an inverse
+sense) movements that the wings execute; as also in the facility with
+which the air is decomposed during these different movements. As the
+wings of a fly are adorned with a brilliant array of colors, we can
+follow the trajectory or figure that each wing writes in the air. It is
+of the form of a figure of eight (Fig. 9), first discovered by Professor
+J. Bell Pettigrew of Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;">
+<img src="images/f010.jpg" width="136" height="200" alt="10. Figure cut by a bird&#39;s wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">10. Figure cut by a bird&#39;s wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>By an ingenious machine, specially devised for the purpose, Professor
+Marey found that a bird's wing moves in an ellipse, with a pointed
+summit (Fig. 10). The insect beats the air in a distinctly horizontal
+plane, but the bird in a vertical plane. The wing of an insect is
+impervious to the air; while the bird's wing resists the air only on
+its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> under side. Hence, there are two sorts of effects; in the insect
+the up and down strokes are active; in the bird, the lowering of the
+wing is the only active period, though the return stroke seems to
+sustain the bird, the air acting on the wing. The bird's body is
+horizontal when the wing gives a downward stroke; but when the beat is
+upward, the bird is placed in an inclined plane like a winged
+projectile, and mounts up on the air by means of the inclined surfaces
+that it passively offers to the resistance of this fluid.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In an insect, an energetic movement is equally necessary to strike the
+air at both beats up and down. In the bird, on the contrary, one active
+beat only is necessary, the down beat. It creates at that time all the
+motive force that will be dispensed during the entire revolution of the
+wing. This difference is due to the difference in form of the wing. The
+difference between the two forms of flight is shown by an inspection of
+the two accompanying figures (11, 12). An insect's wing is small at the
+base and broad at the end. This breadth would be useless near the body,
+because at this point the wing does not move swiftly enough to strike
+the air effectively. The type of the insectean wing is designed, then,
+simply to strike the air. But in the bird the wing plays also a passive
+role, <i>i. e.</i>, it receives the pressure of the air on its under side
+when the bird is projected rapidly onward by its acquired swiftness. In
+these conditions the whole animal is carried onward in space; all the
+points of its wing have the same velocity. The neighboring regions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> of
+the body are useful to press upon the air, which acts as on a paper
+kite. The base of the wing also, in the bird, is broad, and provided
+with feathers, which form a broad surface, on which the air presses with
+a force and method very efficacious in supporting the bird. Fig. 12
+gives an idea of this disposition of the wing at the active and passive
+time in a bird.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/f011.jpg" width="350" height="96" alt="11. Trajectory of an insect&#39;s wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">11. Trajectory of an insect&#39;s wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/f012.jpg" width="350" height="111" alt="12. Trajectory of a bird&#39;s wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">12. Trajectory of a bird&#39;s wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The inner half of the wing is the passive part of the organ, while the
+external half, that which strikes the air, is the active part. A fly's
+wing makes 330 revolutions in a second, executing consequently 660
+simple oscillations; it ought at each time to impress a lateral
+deviation of the body of the insect, and destroy the velocity that the
+preceding oscillation has given it in a contrary direction. So that by
+this hypothesis the insect in its flight only utilizes fifty to one
+hundred parts (or one-half) of the resistance that the air furnishes it.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f013.jpg" width="500" height="126" alt="13. A bird on the wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">13. A bird on the wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the bird (Fig. 13), at the time of lowering the wings, the oblique
+plane which strikes the air, in decomposing the resistance, produces a
+vertical component which resists the weight of the body, and a
+horizontal component which imparts swiftness. The horizontal component
+is not lost, but is utilized during the rise of the wing, as in a paper
+kite when held in the air against the wind. Thus the bird utilizes
+seventy-five out of one hundred parts of the resistance that the air
+furnishes. The style of flight of birds is, therefore, theoretically
+superior to that of insects. As to the division of the muscular force
+between the resistance of the air and the mass of the body of the bird,
+we should compare the exertion made in walking on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> sand, for example, as
+compared with walking on marble. This is easy to measure. When a fish
+strikes the water with its tail to propel itself forward, it performs a
+double task; one part consists in pushing backwards a certain mass of
+water with a certain swiftness, and the other in pushing on the body in
+spite of the resistance of the surrounding fluid. This last portion of
+the task only is utilized. It would be greater if the tail of the fish
+encountered a solid object. Almost all the propelling agencies employed
+in navigation undergo this loss of labor, which depends on the mobility
+of the <i>point d' appui</i>. The bird is placed among conditions especially
+unfavorable.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Senses of Insects.</i> The eyes of insects are sometimes so large as
+to envelop the head like an Elizabethan ruffle, and the creature's head,
+as in the common house fly, seems all eyes. And this is almost literally
+the case, as the two great staring eyes that almost meet on the top of
+the head to form one, are made up of myriads of simple eyes. Each facet
+or simple eye is provided with a nerve filament which branches off from
+the main optic nerve, so that but one impression of the object perceived
+is conveyed to the brain; though it is taught by some that objects
+appear not only double but a thousand times multiplied. But we should
+remember that with our two eyes we see double only when the brain is
+diseased. Besides the large ordinary compound eyes, many insects possess
+small, simple eyes, like those of the spider. The great German
+anatomist, Johannes M&uuml;ller, believed that the compound eyes were adapted
+for the perception of distant objects, while those nearer are seen by
+the simple eyes. But it may be objected to this view that the spiders,
+which have only simple eyes, apparently see both near and remote objects
+as well as insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f014.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="14. a Larva, b chrysalis of a butterfly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">14. <i>a</i> Larva, <i>b</i> chrysalis of a butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sense of touch is diffused all over the body. As in the hairs of the
+head and face of man, those of insects are delicate tactile organs; and
+on the antenn&aelig; and legs (insects depending on this sense rather than
+that of sight) these appendages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> are covered with exquisitely fine
+hairs. It is thought by some that the senses of hearing and smell are
+lodged in the antenn&aelig;, these organs thus combining the sense of feeling
+with those of hearing and smelling. And the researches of anatomists
+lend much probability to the assertion, since little pits just under the
+skin are found, and even sometimes provided with grains of sand in the
+so-called ear of the lobster, etc., corresponding to the ear bones of
+the higher animals, the pits being connected with nerves leading to the
+brain. We have detected similar pits in the under side of the palpi of
+the Perla. It seems not improbable that these are organs of smell, and
+placed in that part of the appendage nearest the mouth, so as to enable
+the insect to select its proper food by its odor. Similar organs exist
+on the caudal appendages of a kind of fly (Chrysopila), while the long,
+many-jointed caudal filaments of the cockroach are each provided with
+nearly a hundred of these little pits, which seem to be so many noses.
+Thus Lesp&egrave;s, a Swiss anatomist, in his remarks on the auditory sacs,
+which he says are found in the antenn&aelig; of nearly all insects, declares
+that as we have in insects compound eyes, so we have compound ears. We
+might add that in the abdominal appendage of the cockroach we have a
+compound nose, while in the feelers of the Perla, and the caudal
+appendage of the Chrysopila, the "nose" is simple. We might also refer
+here to Siebold's discovery of ears at the base of the abdomen of some,
+and in the forelegs of other kinds, of grasshoppers. Thus we need not be
+surprised at finding ears and noses scattered, as it were, sometimes
+almost wantonly over the bodies of insects (in many worms the eyes are
+found all over the body), while in man and his allies, from the monkey
+down to the fish, the ears and nose invariably retain the same relative
+place in the head.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><i>How Insects Grow.</i> When beginning our entomological studies no fact
+seemed more astonishing to our boyish mind than the thought that the
+little flies and midges were not the sons and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> daughters of the big
+ones. If every farmer and gardener knew this single fact it would be
+worth their while. The words <i>larva</i> and <i>pupa</i> will frequently occur in
+subsequent pages, and they should be explained. The caterpillar (Fig.
+14, <i>a</i>) represents the earliest stage or babyhood of the butterfly, and
+it is called <i>larva</i>, from the Latin, meaning a mask, because it was
+thought by the ancients to mask the form of the adult butterfly.</p>
+
+
+<p>When the caterpillar has ended its riotous life, for its appetite almost
+transforms its being into the very incarnation of gluttony, it suddenly,
+as if repenting of its former life as a <i>bon vivant</i>, seeks a solitary
+cell or hole where like a hermit it sits and leads apparently about as
+useless an existence. But meanwhile strange processes are going on
+beneath the skin; and after a few convulsive struggles the back splits
+open, and out wriggles the chrysalis, a gorgeous, mummy-like form, its
+body adorned with golden and silvery spots. Hence the word chrysalis
+(Fig. 14, <i>b</i>), from the Greek, meaning golden, while the Latin word
+<i>pupa</i>, meaning a baby or doll, is indicative of its youth. In this
+state it hangs suspended to a twig or other object; while the silk worm,
+and others of its kind, previous to moulting, or casting their skins,
+spin a silken cocoon, which envelops and protects the chrysalis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/f015.jpg" width="350" height="208" alt="15. Imago or adult Butterfly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">15. Imago or adult Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>At the given time, and after the body of the adult has fully formed
+beneath the chrysalis skin, there is another moult, and the butterfly,
+with baggy, wet wings, creeps out. The body dries, the skin hardens, the
+wings expand, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> in a few moments, sometimes an hour, the butterfly
+(Fig. 15) proudly sails aloft, the glory and pride of the insect world.</p>
+
+<p>We shall see in the ensuing chapters how varied are the larv&aelig; and pup&aelig;
+of insects, and under what different guises insects live in their early
+stages.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="Larva, pupa, and adult of a Leaf Beetle (Galeruca)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Larva, pupa, and adult of a Leaf Beetle (Galeruca).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br />OUR COMMON INSECTS.<br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HOME OF THE BEES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The history of the Honey bee, its wonderful instincts, its elaborate
+cells and complex economy, have engrossed the attention of the best
+observers, even from the time of Virgil, who sang of the Ligurian bee.
+The literature of the art of bee-keeping is already very extensive.
+Numerous bee journals and manuals of bee-keeping testify to the
+importance of this art, while able mathematicians have studied the mode
+of formation of the hexagonal cells,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and physiologists have
+investigated the intricate problems of the mode of generation and
+development of the bee itself.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing these difficult questions, we must rise from the study of
+the simple to the complex, remembering that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"All nature widens upward. Evermore</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">The simpler essence lower lies:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">More complex is more perfect&mdash;owning more</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Discourse, more widely wise."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>and not forget to study the humbler allies of the Honey bee. We shall,
+in observing the habits and homes of the wild bees, gain a clearer
+insight into the mysteries of the hive.</p>
+
+<p>The great family of bees is divided into social and solitary species.
+The social kinds live in nests composed of numerous cells in which the
+young brood are reared. These cells vary in form from those which are
+quite regularly hexagonal, like those of the Hive bee, to those which
+are less regularly six-sided, as in the stingless bee of the tropics
+(Melipona), until in the Humble bee the cells are isolated and
+cylindrical in form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Before speaking of the wild bees, let us briefly review the life of the
+Honey bee. The queen bee having wintered over with many workers, lays
+her eggs in the spring, first in the worker, and, at a later period, in
+the drone-cells. Early in the summer the workers construct the large,
+flask-shaped queen-cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and
+in these the queen larv&aelig; are fed with rich and choice food. The old
+queen deserts the nest, forming a new colony. The new-born queen takes
+her marriage flight high in the air with a drone, and on her return
+undertakes the management of the hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When
+the supply of queens is exhausted, the workers destroy the drones. The
+first brood of workers live about six weeks in summer, and then give way
+to a new brood. The queens, according to Von Berlepsch, are known to
+live five years, and during their whole life lay more than a million
+eggs.</p>
+
+<p>In the tropics, the Honey bee is replaced by the Meliponas and Trigonas.
+They are minute, stingless bees, which store up honey and live in
+colonies often of immense extent. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal,
+nearly approaching in regularity those of the Hive bee, while the honey
+cells are irregular, being much larger cavities, which hold about
+one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble bee. "Gardner, in his
+travels, states that many species of Melipona build in the hollow trunks
+of trees, others in banks; some suspend their nests from the branches of
+trees, whilst one species constructs its nest of clay, it being of large
+size." (F. Smith.)</p>
+
+<p>In a nest of the coal-black Trigona (Trigona carbonaria), from eastern
+Australia, Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum, found from four hundred
+to five hundred dead workers, but no females. The combs were arranged
+precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of honey-pots
+which were placed at the foot of the nest was two hundred and fifty. Mr.
+Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona contains several
+prolific females, as the great number of workers can only be thus
+explained, and M. Gu&eacute;rin found six females in a nest of the Tawny-footed
+Melipona (M. fulvipes).</p>
+
+<p>At home, our nearest ally of the true Honey bee, is the Humble bee
+(Bombus), of which over forty species are known to inhabit North
+America.</p>
+
+<p>The economy of the Humble bee is thus: the queen awakens in early spring
+from her winter's sleep under leaves or moss,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> or in the last year's
+nest, and selects a nesting place, generally in an abandoned nest of a
+field-mouse, or beneath a stump or sod, and "immediately," according to
+Mr. F. W. Putnam,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> "collects" a small amount of pollen mixed with
+honey, and in this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually
+adding to the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not
+wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the eggs of
+another, but, as soon as food enough has been collected, she lays the
+eggs for a second. The eggs are laid, in contact with each other, in one
+cavity of the mass of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly
+covered. They are very soon developed; in fact, the lines are nowhere
+distinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and pupa, and
+again between the latter and the imago; a perfect series, showing this
+gradual transformation of the young to the imago can be found in almost
+every nest.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f015a.jpg" width="300" height="191" alt="15. Cell and Eggs of Bombus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">15. Cell and Eggs of Bombus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"As soon as the larv&aelig; are capable of motion and commence feeding, they
+eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, gradually separating,
+push their way in various directions. Eating as they move, and
+increasing in size quite rapidly, they soon make large cavities in the
+pollen mass. When they have attained their full size, they spin a silken
+wall about them, which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with
+a thin layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus forming a
+cell (Fig. 15, 1, cell containing a larva, on top of which (2) is a
+pollen mass containing three eggs). The larv&aelig; now gradually at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>tain the
+pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full development. They then
+cut their way out, and are ready to assume their duties as workers,
+small females, males or queens.</p>
+
+<p>"It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is due to
+their being constructed so peculiarly by the larv&aelig;. After the first
+brood, composed of workers, has come forth, the queen bee devotes her
+time principally to her duties at home, the workers supplying the colony
+with honey and pollen. As the queen continues prolific, more workers are
+added, and the nest is rapidly enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>"About the middle of summer, eggs are deposited, which produce both
+small females and males." ... "All eggs laid after the last of July
+produce the large females, or queens, and, the males being still in the
+nest, it is presumed that the queens are impregnated at this time, as on
+the approach of cold weather all except the queens, of which there are
+several in each nest, die."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 272px;">
+<img src="images/f016.jpg" width="272" height="300" alt="16. Melo&euml;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">16. Melo&euml;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>While the Humble bee in some respects shows much less instinct than the
+solitary bees mentioned below, it stands higher in the series, however,
+from having workers, as well as males and females, who provide food for
+the young. The labors of the Mason bees, and their allies, terminate
+after the cell is once constructed and filled with pollen. The eggs are
+then left to hatch, and the young care for themselves, though the adult
+bee shows greater skill in architecture than the Humble bee. It is thus
+throughout nature. Many forms, comparatively low in the scale of life,
+astonish us with certain characters or traits, reminding us of beings
+much superior, physically and intellectually. The lower forms constantly
+reach up and in some way ally themselves with creatures far more highly
+organized. Thus the fish-like seal reminds us strikingly of the dog,
+both in the form of the head, in its docility and great intelligence
+when tamed, and even in its bark and the movements of the head.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The parasites of the Humble bee are numerous. Such are the species of
+Apathus, which so closely resembles the Humble bee itself, that it
+requires long study to distinguish it readily. Its habits are not known,
+other than that it is found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> in the nests of its host. It differs from
+the Humble bee in having no pollen-basket, showing that its larv&aelig; must
+feed on the food stored up by their host, as it does not itself collect
+it. The mandibles also are not, like those of Bombus, trowel-shaped for
+architectural purposes, but acutely triangular, and are probably not
+used in building.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of various moths consume the honey and waxen cells; the
+two-winged flies, Volucella and Conops, and the larv&aelig; of what is either
+an Anthomyia or Tachina-like fly, and several species of another genus
+of flies, Anthrax, together with several beetles, such as the Melo&euml;
+(Fig. 16), Stylops (Fig. 17, male; 18<i>b</i>, female; <i>a</i>, position in the
+body of its host), and Antherophagus prey upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f017.jpg" width="500" height="394" alt="17. Male Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">17. Male Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid wood reaches
+its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter bee (Xylocopa Virginica,
+Fig. 19). This bee is as large as, and some allied exotic species are
+often considerably larger than, the Humble bee, but not clothed with
+such dense hairs. We have received from Mr. James Angus, of West Farms,
+N. Y., a piece of trellis from a grape vine, made of pine wood,
+containing the cells and young in various stages of growth, together
+with the larv&aelig; and chrysalids of Anthrax sinuosa (Fig. 20), a species of
+fly parasitic on the larva. The maggot buries its head in the soft body
+of the young bee and feeds on its juices.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;">
+<img src="images/f018.jpg" width="245" height="350" alt="18. Female Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">18. Female Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of July 19: "I
+asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yesterday, if he knew how
+long it took the Xylocopa to bore her tunnel. He said he thought she
+bored about one-quarter of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> inch a day. I don't think myself she
+bores more than one-half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it
+takes her about two days to make her own length at the first start; but
+this being across the grain of the wood, may not be so easily done as
+the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always follows the grain
+of the wood, with the exception of the entrance, which is about her own
+length. The tunnels run from one to one and a half feet in length. They
+generally run in opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes
+other galleries are run, one directly above the other, using the same
+opening. I think they only make new tunnels when old ones are not to be
+found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. Some of the
+old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of them about an inch in
+diameter. I think this is caused by rasping off the sides to procure the
+necessary material for constructing their cells. The partitions are
+composed of wood raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to
+make them adhere.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f019.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="19. Carpenter Bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">19. Carpenter Bee.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;">
+<img src="images/f021.jpg" width="110" height="400" alt="21. Nest of Carpenter Bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">21. Nest of Carpenter Bee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 154px;">
+<img src="images/f020.jpg" width="154" height="220" alt="20. Larva and Pupa of Anthrax." title="" />
+<span class="caption">20. Larva and Pupa of Anthrax.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other bees and wasps.
+I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa prefers making a new cell,
+to cleaning out the dirt and rubbish of the other species. I frequently
+find these bees remaining for a long time on the wing close to the
+opening, and bobbing their heads against the side, as if fanning air
+into the opening. I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes.
+Whether one bee or more makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take
+turns in boring, I cannot at present say. In opening the cells (Fig.
+21), more than one are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> generally found, even at this season. About two
+weeks ago; I found as many as seven, I think, in one."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 58px;">
+<img src="images/f022.jpg" width="58" height="300" alt="22. Nest of Ceratina." title="" />
+<span class="caption">22. Nest of<br />Ceratina.</span>
+</div>
+<p>The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths of an
+inch long. These partitions are constructed of the coarse dust or
+chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for our active little
+carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, moved by powerful
+muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes of hair for cleaning out the
+tunnel as she descends into the heart of the solid wood. She must throw
+out the chips she bites off with her powerful mandibles from the sides
+of the burrow, by means of her hind legs, passing the load of chips
+backwards out of the cell with her fore limbs, which she uses as hands.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened band of
+chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. One side,
+forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being beaten down and
+smoothed off by the bee. The other side of the partition, forming the
+top of the cell, is flat and rough.</p>
+
+
+<p>At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells contained nearly
+full-grown larv&aelig;, with some half developed. They were feeding on the
+masses of pollen, which were as large as a thick kidney bean, and
+occupied nearly half the cell. The larv&aelig; (Fig. 21) resemble those of the
+Humble bee, but are slenderer, tapering more rapidly towards each end of
+the body.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>The habits and structure of the little green Ceratina ally it closely
+with Xylocopa. This pretty bee, named Ceratina dupla by Mr. Say, tunnels
+out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any pithy shrub,
+excavating them often to a depth of six or seven inches. She makes the
+walls just wide enough to admit her body, and of a depth capable of
+holding three or four, often five or six cells (Fig. 22). The finely
+built cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and
+nearly square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is
+rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long, and a
+little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at nearly equal
+distances apart, the slight interval between them being filled in with
+dirt.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f023.jpg" width="200" height="61" alt="23. Larva of Ceratina." title="" />
+<span class="caption">23. Larva of Ceratina.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Dr. T. W. Harris states that May 15, 1832, one female laid its eggs in
+the hollow of an aster stalk. Three perfect insects were disclosed from
+it July 28th. The observations of Mr. Angus, who saw some bees making
+their cells May 18th, also confirm this account. The history of our
+little upholsterer is thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her
+cells, fills them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each mass.
+Thus in about two months the insect completes its transformations;
+within this period passing through the egg, the larva and chrysalid
+states, and then, as a bee, living a few days more, if a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> male; or if a
+female, living through the winter. Her life thus spans one year.</p>
+
+<p>The larva (Fig. 23) is longer than that of Megachile, and compared with
+that of Xylocopa, the different segments are much more convex, giving a
+serrate outline to the back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have
+found in the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an
+inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having four
+spines on the end of the body.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more nicety than
+those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with her jaws a long deep
+well just the size of her body, and then stretches a thin, delicate
+cloth of silk drawn tight as a drum-head across each end of her
+chambers, which she then fills with a mixture of pollen and honey.</p>
+
+<div class="centered" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 121px;">
+<img src="images/f024.jpg" width="121" height="300" alt="24. Nest of Tailor Bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">24. Nest of Tailor Bee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f025.jpg" width="400" height="343" alt="25. Tailor Bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">25. Tailor Bee.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free from danger.
+The most invidious foes enter and attack the brood. Three species of
+Ichneumon flies, two of which belong to the Chalcid family, lay their
+eggs within the body of the larva, and emerge from the dried larva and
+pupa skins of the bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite,
+belonging to the genus Anthophorabia, so called from being first known
+as a parasite on another bee (Anthophora), is a minute species found
+also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The interesting habits of the Leaf-cutting, or Tailor bee (Megachile),
+have always attracted attention. This bee is a stout, thick-bodied
+insect, with a large, square head, stout, sharp, scissors-like jaws, and
+with a thick mass of stout, dense hairs on the under side of the tail
+for carrying pollen, as she is not provided with the pollen-basket of
+the Honey and Humble bees.</p>
+
+<p>The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the elder (Fig.
+24), which we have received from Mr. James Angus; we have also found
+them in the hollows of the locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of
+the economy of M. centuncularis, our most common species. "My attention
+was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily engaged in
+bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was building under a
+board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under my window. Nearly the
+whole morning was occupied by the bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a
+rose bush growing about ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals
+of a half minute to a minute with the pieces, which she carried in such
+a manner as not to impede her steps when she alighted near her hole."
+When the Leaf-cutter bee wishes to cut out a piece of a leaf (Fig. 25)
+she alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her
+scissors-like jaws around through it, bearing off the piece in her hind
+legs. "About noon she had probably completed the cell, upon which she
+had been engaged, as, during the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing
+pollen, preparatory to laying her single egg in the cell. For about
+twenty days the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying
+them with pollen.... On the 28th of July, upon removing the board, it
+was found that the bee had made thirty cells, arranged in nine rows of
+unequal length, some being slightly curved to adapt them to the space
+under the board. The longest row contained six cells, and was two and,
+three-quarters inches in length; the whole leaf structure being equal to
+a length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the pieces of
+leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there must have been at
+least a thousand pieces used. In addition to the labor of making the
+cells, this bee, unassisted in all her duties, had to collect the
+requisite amount of pollen (and honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs
+therein, when completed. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of
+the cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight
+silken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite hard and
+smooth on the inside, probably owing to the movements of the larva, and
+the consequent pressing of the sticky particles to the walls. In a short
+time the opening made was closed over by a very thin silken web. The
+cells, measured on the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in
+length, and .15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is
+somewhat curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the
+inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female bees came
+out, having cut their way through the sides of their cells." In three
+other cells "several hundred minute Ichneumons (Anthophorabia
+megachilis) were seen, which came forth as soon as the cells were
+opened."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;">
+<img src="images/f026.jpg" width="147" height="400" alt="26. Nest of Osmia.]" title="" />
+<span class="caption">26. Nest of Osmia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The habits of the little blue or green Mason bees (Osmia) are quite
+varied. They construct their cells in the stems of plants, and in rotten
+posts and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. A
+European species selects snail shells for its nest, wherein it builds
+its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under stones. Curtis
+found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a British species (Osmia
+paretina), placed on the under side of a flat stone, of which one-third
+were empty. Of the remainder, the most appeared between March and June,
+males appearing first; thirty-five more bees were developed the
+following spring. Thus there were three successive broods, for three
+succeeding years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving
+at maturity. This may partly account for <i>insect years</i>, which are like
+"apple years," seasons when bees and wasps, as well as other insects,
+abound in unusual numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society
+of London, for 1864, states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana "are
+formed of mud, and each cell is built<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> separately. The female bee,
+having deposited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some
+tufts of grass, immediately begins to excavate a small cavity in its
+upper surface, scraping the mud away from the centre towards the margin
+by means of her jaws. A small, shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is
+rough and uneven on the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the
+inner. On witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with
+three points: first, the rapidity with which the insect worked;
+secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position whilst
+excavating; and thirdly, her constantly going over work which had
+apparently been completed.... The lid is excavated and rendered concave
+on its outer or upper surface, and is convex and rough on its inner
+surface; and, in fact, is a simple repetition of the first-formed
+portion of the cell, a part of a hollow sphere."</p>
+
+<p>The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue species (O.
+lignivora). We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees with
+their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a maple tree
+several inches from the bark. The bee had industriously tunnelled out
+this elaborate burrow (Fig. 26), and, in this respect, resembled the
+habits of the Carpenter bee more closely than any other species of its
+genus.</p>
+
+<p>The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three-tenths of an inch
+wide. It contracted a little in width between the cell, showing that the
+bee worked intelligently, and wasted no more of her energies than was
+absolutely necessary. The burrow contained five cells, each half an inch
+long, being rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while
+the opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely. The
+cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing to a slight constriction just behind
+the mouth. The material of which the cell is composed is stout, silken,
+parchment-like, and very smooth within. The interstices between the
+cells are filled in with rather coarse chippings made by the bee.</p>
+
+<p>The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for a month
+afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly lapped up the drops
+of water supplied by its keeper, to whom it soon grew accustomed, and
+seemed to recognize.</p>
+
+<p>Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green Osmia
+simillima. It builds its little oval, somewhat urn-shaped cells against
+the roof of the large deserted galls of the oak-gall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> fly (Diplolepis
+confluentus), placing them, in this instance eleven in number, in two
+irregular rows, from which the mature bees issue through a hole in the
+gall (Fig. 27, with two separate cells). The earthen cells, containing
+the tough dense cocoons, were arranged irregularly so as to fit the
+concave vault of the larger gall, which was about two inches in
+diameter. On emerging from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful
+jaws an ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 542px;">
+<img src="images/f027.jpg" width="542" height="450" alt="27. Nest of Osmia in a gall." title="" />
+<span class="caption">27. Nest of Osmia in a gall.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia pacifica,
+the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the manuscript notes of Dr.
+Harris, is found in the perfect state in earthen cells beneath stones.
+The cell is oval cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of
+all the species of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is
+half an inch long, and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the
+cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long. We are
+not acquainted with the habits of the larva and pupa in this country,
+but Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species hatches in
+eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve days, when it
+becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken covering, and remains in an
+inactive state until the following spring, when it completes its
+transformations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the economy of our wild bees we see the manifestation of a wonderful
+instinct, as well as the exhibition of a <i>limited reason</i>. We can
+scarcely deny to animals a kind of reason which apparently differs <i>only
+in degree</i> from that of man. Each species works in a sphere limited by
+physical laws, but within that sphere it is a free agent. They have
+enough of instinct and reason to direct their lives, and to enable them
+to act their part in carrying out the plan of creation.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="350" height="246" alt=" Paper Wasp." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> Paper Wasp.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HOME OF THE BEES.</h3>
+
+<h4>[<i>Concluded.</i>]</h4>
+
+
+<p>While the Andrena and Halictus bees, whose habits we now describe, are
+closely allied in form to the Hive bee, socially they are the
+"mud-sills" of bee society, ranking among the lowest forms of the family
+of bees. Their burrowing habits ally them with the ants, from whose
+nests their own burrows can scarcely be distinguished. Their economy
+does not seem to demand the exercise of so much of a true reasoning
+power and pliable instinct as characterizes bees, such as the Honey and
+Humble bee, which possess a high architectural skill. Moreover they are
+not social; they have no part in rearing and caring for their young, a
+fact that lends so much interest to the history of the Hive and Humble
+bee. In this respect they are far below the wasps, a family belonging
+next below in the system of Nature.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;">
+<img src="images/f028.jpg" width="146" height="400" alt="Fig. 28." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.<br />Nest (natural size) of Andrena vicina, showing the main burrow, and the
+cells leading from it; the oldest cell containing the pupa (<i>a</i>) is
+situated nearest the surface, while those containing the larva (<i>b</i>) lie
+between the pupa and the cell (<i>e</i>) containing the pollen mass and egg
+resting upon it. The most recent cell (<i>f</i>) is the deepest down, and
+contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At <i>c</i> is the beginning of a
+cell; <i>g</i>, level of the ground.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A glance at the drawing (Fig. 28), of a burrow, with its side galleries,
+of the Andrena vicina, reveals the economy of one of our most common
+forms. Quite early in spring, when the sun and vernal breezes have dried
+up the soil, and the fields exchange their rusty hues for the rich green
+verdure of May, our Andrena, tired of its idle life among the blossoms
+of the willow, the wild cherry, and garden flowers, suddenly becomes
+remarkably industrious, and wields its spade-like jaws and busy feet
+with a strange and unwonted energy. Choosing some sunny, warm, grassy
+bank (these nests were observed in the "great pasture" of Salem), not
+always with a southern exposure however, the female sinks her deep well
+through the sod from six inches to a foot into the sandy soil beneath.
+She goes to work literally tooth and nail. Reasoning from observations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+made on several species of wasps, and also from studying the structure
+of her jaws and legs, it is evident that she digs in and loosens the
+soil with her powerful jaws, and then throws out the dirt with her legs.
+She uses her fore legs like hands, to pass the load of dirt to her hind
+legs, and then runs backward out of her hole to dump it down behind her.
+Mr. Emerton tells me that he never saw a bee in the act of digging but
+once, and then she left off after a few strokes. He also says, "they are
+harmless and inoffensive. On several occasions I have lain on the grass
+near their holes for hours, but not one attempted to sting me; and when
+taken between the fingers, they make but feeble resistance."</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>To enter somewhat into detail, we gather from the observations of Mr.
+Emerton (who has carefully watched the habits of these bees through
+several seasons) the following account of the economy of this bee: On
+the 4th of May the bees were seen digging their holes, most of which
+were already two inches deep, and one, six inches. The mounds of earth
+were so small as to be hardly noticed. At this time an Oil beetle was
+seen prowling about the holes. The presence of this dire foe of Andrena
+at this time, it will be seen in a succeeding chapter on the enemies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> of
+the bees, is quite significant. By the 15th of May, hundreds of Andrena
+holes were found in various parts of the pasture, and at one place, in a
+previous season, there were about two hundred found placed within a
+small area. One cell was dug up, but it contained no pollen. Four days
+later, several Andrenas were noticed resting from their toil at the
+opening of their burrows. On the 28th of May, in unearthing six holes,
+eight cells were found to contain pollen, and in two of them a small
+larva. The pellets of pollen are about the size of a small pea. They are
+hard and round at first, before the young has hatched, but as the larva
+grows, the mass becomes softer and more pasty, so that the larva buries
+its head in the mass, and greedily sucks it in. When is the pollen
+gathered by the bee and kneaded into the pellet-like mass? On July 4th,
+a cell was opened in which was a bee busily engaged preparing the
+pollen, which was loosely and irregularly piled up, while there was a
+larva in an adjoining cell nearly half an inch long. It would seem,
+then, that the bee comes in from the fields laden with her stores of
+pollen, which she elaborates into bee bread within her cell.</p>
+
+<p>When the bee returns to her cell she does not directly fly towards the
+entrance, since, as was noticed in a particular instance, she flew about
+for a long time in all directions without any apparent aim, until she
+finally settled near the hole, and walked into her subterranean retreat.
+On a rainy day, May 24th, our friend visited the colony, but found no
+bees flying about the holes. The little hillocks had been beaten down by
+the pitiless raindrops, and all traces of their industry effaced. On
+digging down, several bees were found, indicating that on rainy days
+they seek the shelter of their holes, and do not take refuge under
+leaves of the plants they frequent.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of June, six full-grown larv&aelig; were exhumed, and one, about
+half grown. On the 20th of July, the colony seemed well organized, as,
+on laying open a burrow at the depth of six inches, he began to find
+cells. The upper ones, to the number of a dozen, were deserted and
+filled with earth and grass roots, and had evidently been built and used
+during the previous year. Below these were eight cells placed around the
+main vertical gallery, reaching down to the depth of thirteen inches,
+and all containing nearly full-grown larv&aelig; of the bees, or else those of
+some parasitic bee (Nomada) which had devoured the food prepared for the
+young Andrena.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>About the first of August the larva transforms to a pupa or chrysalis,
+as at this time two pup&aelig; were found in cells a foot beneath the surface.
+As shown in the cut, those cells situated lowest down seem to be the
+last to have been made, while the eggs laid in the highest are the first
+to hatch, and the larv&aelig; disclosed from them, the first to change to
+pup&aelig;. Four days later the pup&aelig; of Cuckoo bees (Nomada) were found in the
+cells. No Andrenas were seen flying about at this time.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th of August, to be still very circumstantial in our narrative
+though at the risk of being tedious, three burrows were unearthed, and
+in them three fully formed bees were found nearly ready to leave their
+cells, and in addition several pup&aelig;. In some other cells there were
+three of the parasitic Nomada also nearly ready to come out, which
+seemed to be identical with some bees noticed playing very innocently
+about the holes early in the summer.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of August, very few of the holes were open. A number of
+Oil beetles were strolling suspiciously about in the neighborhood, and
+some little black Ichneumon flies were seen running about among the
+holes.</p>
+
+<p>During mid-summer the holes were found closed night and day by clods of
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short passages leading to the
+cells, which are slightly inclined downwards and outwards from the main
+gallery. The walls of the gallery are rough, but the cells are lined
+with a mucous-like secretion, which, on hardening, looks like the
+glazing of earthenware. This glazing is quite hard, and breaks up into
+angular pieces. It is evidently the work of the bee herself, and is not
+secreted and laid on by the larva. The diameter of the interior of the
+cell is about one-quarter of an inch, contracting a little at the mouth.
+When the cell is taken out, the dirt adheres for a line in thickness, so
+that it is of the size and form of an acorn.</p>
+
+<p>The larva of Andrena (Fig. 29) is soft and fleshy, like that of the
+Honey bee. Its body is flattened, bulging out prominently at the sides,
+and tapering more rapidly than usual towards each end of the body. The
+skin is very thin, so that along the back the heart or dorsal vessel may
+be distinctly seen, pulsating about sixty times a minute.</p>
+
+<p>Our cut (Fig. 28, <i>a</i>) also represents the pupa, or chrysalis, as seen
+lying in its cell. The limbs are folded close to the body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> in the most
+compact way possible. On the head of the semi-pupa, <i>i.e.</i>, a transition
+state between the larva and pupa, there are two prominent tubercles
+situated behind the simple eyes, or ocelli; these are deciduous organs,
+apparently aiding the insect in moving about its cell. They disappear in
+the mature pupa.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 137px;">
+<img src="images/f029-1.jpg" width="137" height="400" alt=" Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29. Larva of Andrena vicina.<br />30. Pupa of Halictus parallelus seen from beneath.<br />Fig. 31. Larva of Halictus parallelus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To those accustomed to rearing butterflies, and seeing the chrysalis at
+once assuming its perfected shape, after the caterpillar skin is thrown
+off, it may seem strange to hear one speak of a "half-pupa," and of
+stages intermediate between the larva and pupa. But the external changes
+of form, though rapidly passed through, consisting apparently of a mere
+sloughing off of the outer skin, are yet preceded by slow and very
+gradual alterations of tissues, resulting from the growth of cells. An
+inner layer of the larva-skin separates from the outer, and, by changes
+in the form of the muscles, is drawn into different positions, such as
+is assumed by the pupa, which thus lies concealed beneath the
+larva-skin. But a slight alteration is made in the general form of the
+larva, consisting mostly of an enlargement of the thoracic segments,
+which is often overlooked, even by the special student, though of great
+interest to the philosophic naturalist.</p>
+
+<p>From Mr. Emerton's observations we should judge that the pupa state
+lasted from three to four weeks, as the larv&aelig; began to transform the
+first of August, and appeared during the last week of the same month as
+perfect bees.</p>
+
+<p>The Andrena is seen as late as the first week in September, and again
+early in April, about the flowers of the willow. It is one of the
+largest of its genus and a common species.</p>
+
+<p>Having, in a very fragmentary way, sketched the life history of our
+Andrena and had some glimpses of its subterranean life, let us now
+compare with it another genus of solitary bee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> (Halictus), quite closely
+allied in all respects, though a little lower in the scale.</p>
+
+<p>The Halictus parallelus excavates cells almost exactly like those of
+Andrena; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are smaller, though as
+deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest in a path a foot in depth. Another
+nest, discovered September 9th, was about six inches deep. The cells are
+in form like those of Andrena, and like them, are glazed within. The egg
+is rather slenderer and much curved; in form it is long, cylindrical,
+obtuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva (Fig. 31) is
+longer and slenderer, being quite different from the rather broad and
+flattened larva of Andrena. The body is rather thick behind, but in
+front tapers slowly towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its
+body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercle aiding the grub in moving
+about its cell. Its length is nearly one-half (.40) of an inch. On the
+pupa are four quite distinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line
+just in front of the ocelli; and there are also two larger, longer
+tubercles, on the outer side of each of which, an ocellus is situated.
+Figure 30 represents the pupa seen from beneath.</p>
+
+<p>Search was made on July 16th, where the ground was hard as stone for six
+inches in depth, below which the soil was soft and fine, and over twenty
+cells were dug out. "The upper cells contained nearly mature pup&aelig;, and
+the lower ones, larv&aelig; of various sizes, the smallest being hardly
+distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these small larv&aelig; was in a
+cell by itself, and situated upon a lump of pollen, which was the size
+and shape of a pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew
+larger. These young were probably the offspring of several females, as
+four mature bees were found in the hole." The larva of an English
+species hatches in ten days after the eggs are laid.</p>
+
+<p>Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September, as on the ninth
+of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found several holes of the same species
+of bee, made in a hard gravel road near the turnpike. When opened, they
+were found to contain several bees with their young. September 2nd, of
+this year, the same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to
+leave the cell. It is probable that these bees winter over.</p>
+
+<p>We have incidentally noticed the presence in the nests of Andrena and
+Halictus of a stranger bee, clad in gay, fantastic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> hues, which lives a
+parasitic life on its hosts. This parasitism does not go far enough to
+cause the death of the host, since we find the young of the parasitic
+Cuckoo bee, in cells containing the young of the former.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. F. Smith, in his "Catalogue of British Bees," says of this genus:
+"No one appears to know anything beyond the mere fact of their entering
+the burrows of Andrenid&aelig; and Apid&aelig;, except that they are found in the
+cells of the working bees in their perfect condition: it is most
+probable that they deposit their eggs on the provision laid up by the
+working bee, that they close up the cell, and that the working bee,
+finding an egg deposited, commences a fresh cell for her own progeny."</p>
+
+<p>He has, however, found two specimens of Nomada, sexfasciata in the cells
+of the long-horned bee, Eucera longicornis. He also states, that while
+some species are constant in their attacks on certain Halicti and
+Andren&aelig;, others attack different species of these genera
+indiscriminately. In like manner another Cuckoo bee (C&oelig;lioxys) is
+parasitic on Megachile and Saropoda; Stelis is a parasite on Osmia, the
+Mason bee: and Melecta infests the cells of Anthophora.</p>
+
+<p>The observations of Mr. Emerton enable us still further to clear up the
+history of this obscure visitor. He found both the larva and pupa, as
+well as the perfect bee, in the cells of both genera; so that either
+both kinds of bee, when hatched from eggs laid in the same cell, feed on
+the same pollen mass, which therefore barely suffices for the
+nourishment of both; or the hostess, discovering the strange egg laid,
+cuckoo-like, in her own nest, has the forethought to deposit another
+ball of pollen to secure the safety of her young.</p>
+
+<p>Is such an act the operation of a blind instinct? Does it not rather
+ally our little bee with those higher animals which undoubtedly possess
+a reasoning power? Its <i>instinct</i> teaches it to build cells, and prepare
+its pollen mass, and lay an egg thereon. Its <i>reason</i> enables it, in
+such an instance as this, when the life of the brood is threatened, to
+guard against any such danger by means to which it does not habitually
+resort. This instance is paralleled by the case of our common summer
+Yellow bird, which, on finding an egg of the Cow bunting in its nest,
+often builds a new nest above it, to the certain destruction of the
+unwelcome egg in the nest beneath.</p>
+
+<p>In the structure of the bee, and in all its stages of growth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> our
+parasite seems lower in the zo&ouml;logical scale than its host. It is
+structurally a degraded form of Working-bee, and its position socially
+is unenviable. It is lazy, not having the provident habits of the
+Working-bees; it aids not in the least, so far as we know, the
+cross-fertilization of plants&mdash;one great office in the economy of nature
+which most bees perform,&mdash;since it is not a pollen-gatherer, but on the
+contrary is seemingly a drag and hinderance to the course of nature. But
+yet nature kindly, and as if by a special interposition, provides for
+its maintenance, and the humble naturalist can only exclaim, "God is
+great, and his ways mysterious," and go on studying and collecting
+facts, leaving to his successors the more difficult task, but greater
+joy of discovering the cause and reason of things that are but a puzzle
+to the philosophers of this day.</p>
+
+<p>The larva of Nomada may be known from those of its host, by its
+slenderer body and smaller head, while the body is smoother and more
+cylindrical. Both sexes of Nomada imbricata and N. pulchella were found
+by Mr. Emerton, the former in both the Andrena and Halictus nests, and
+both were found in a single Andrena nest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="290" height="199" alt=" Wood Wasp." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> Wood Wasp.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Very few bee-keepers are probably aware how many insect parasites infest
+the Honey bee. In our own literature we hear almost nothing of this
+subject, but in Europe much has been written on bee parasites. From Dr.
+Edward Assmuss' little work on the "Parasites of the Honey Bee," we
+glean some of the facts now presented, and which cannot fail to interest
+the general reader as well as the owner of bees.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the habits of animal parasites has of late gained much
+attention among naturalists, and both the honey and wild bees afford
+good examples of the singular relation between the host and the
+parasites which live upon it. Among insects generally, there are certain
+species which devour the contents of the egg of the victim. Others, and
+this is the most common mode of parasitism, attack the insect in its
+larva state; others, in the pupa state, and still others in the perfect,
+or imago state. Dr. Leidy has shown that the wood-devouring species of
+beetle, Passalus cornutus, and some Myriopods, or "thousand legs," are,
+in some cases, tenanted by myriads of microscopic plants and worms which
+luxuriate in the alimentary canal, while the "caterpillar-fungus"
+attacks sickly caterpillars, filling out their bodies, and sending out
+shoots into the air, so that the insect looks as if transformed into a
+vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>The Ichneumon flies, of which there are undoubtedly several thousand
+species in this country, are the most common insect parasites. Next to
+these are the different species of Tachina and its allied genera. These,
+like Ichneumons, live in the bodies of their hosts, consuming the fatty
+parts, and finishing their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> transformations just as the exhausted host
+is ready to die, issue from their bodies as flies, closely resembling
+the common housefly.</p>
+
+<p>A small fly has been found in Europe to be the most formidable foe of
+the hive bee, sometimes producing the well-known disease called
+"foul-brood," which is analogous to the typhus fever of man.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f032.jpg" width="550" height="215" alt="32. Phora and its Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">32. Phora and its Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This fly, belonging to the genus Phora (Fig. 32, Phora incrassata; <i>a</i>,
+larva; <i>b</i>, puparium; <i>c</i>, another species from Mammoth Cave), is a
+small insect about a line and a half long, and found in Europe during
+the summer and autumn flying slowly about flowers and windows, and in
+the vicinity of beehives. Its white, transparent larva is cylindrical, a
+little pointed before, but broader behind. The head is small and
+rounded, with short, three-jointed antenn&aelig;, and at the posterior end of
+the body are several slender spines. The puparium, or pupa case,
+inclosing the delicate chrysalis, is oval, consisting of eight segments,
+flattened above, with two large spines near the head, and four on the
+extremity of the body.</p>
+
+<p>When impelled by instinct to provide for the continuance of its species,
+the Phora enters the beehive and gains admission to a cell, when it
+bores with its ovipositor through the skin of the bee larva, laying its
+long oval egg in a horizontal position just under the skin. The embryo
+of the Phora is already well developed, so that in three hours after the
+egg is inserted in the body of its unsuspecting and helpless host, the
+embryo is nearly ready to hatch. In about two hours more it actually
+breaks off the larger end of the egg-shell and at once begins to eat the
+fatty tissues of its victim, its posterior half still remaining in the
+shell. In an hour more, it leaves the egg entirely and buries itself
+completely in the fatty portion of the young bee.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The maggot moults three times. In twelve hours after the last moult it
+turns around with its head towards the posterior end of the body of its
+host, and in another twelve hours, having become full-fed, it bores
+through the skin of the young, eats its way through the brood-covering
+of the cell and falls to the bottom of the hive, where it changes to a
+pupa in the dust and dirt, or else creeps out of the door and transforms
+in the earth. Twelve days after, the fly appears.</p>
+
+<p>The young bee, emaciated and enfeebled by the attacks of its ravenous
+parasite, dies, and its decaying body fills the bottom of the cell with
+a slimy, foul-smelling mass, called "foul-brood." This gives rise to a
+miasma which poisons the neighboring brood, until the contagion (for the
+disease is analogous to typhus, jail or ship-fever) spreads through the
+whole hive, unless promptly checked by removing the cause and thoroughly
+cleansing the hive.</p>
+
+<p>Foul-brood sometimes attacks our American hives, and, though the cause
+may not be known, yet from the hints given above we hope to have the
+history of our species of Phora cleared up, should our disease be found
+to be sometimes due to the attacks of such a parasitic fly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f033.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="33. Bee Louse and Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">33. Bee Louse and Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We figure the Bee louse of Europe (Fig. 33 b, Braula c&aelig;ca), which is a
+singular wingless spider-like fly, allied to the wingless Sheep tick
+(Melophagus), the wingless Bat tick (Nycteribia) and the winged Horse
+fly (Hippobosca). The head is very large, without eyes or ocelli (simple
+eyes), while the ovate hind-body consists of five segments, and is
+covered with stiff hairs. It is one-half to two-thirds of a line long.
+This spider fly is "pupiparous," that is, the young, of which only a
+very few are pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>duced, is not born until it has assumed the pupa state
+or is just about to do so. The larva (Fig. 33 <i>a</i>) is oval,
+eleven-jointed, and white in color. The very day it is hatched, it sheds
+its skin and changes to an oval puparium of a dark brown color.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f034.jpg" width="300" height="244" alt="34. Hive Trichodes." title="" />
+<span class="caption">34. Hive Trichodes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its habits resemble those of the flea. Indeed, should we compress its
+body strongly, it would bear a striking resemblance to that insect. It
+is evidently a connecting link between the flea, and the two winged
+flies. Like the former it lives on the body of its host, and obtains its
+food by plunging its stout beak into the bee and sucking its blood.</p>
+
+<p>It has not been noticed in this country, but is liable to be imported on
+the bodies of Italian bees. Generally, one or two of the Braulas may, on
+close examination, be detected on the body of the bee; sometimes the
+poor bees are loaded down by as many as a hundred of these hungry
+blood-suckers. Assmuss recommends rubbing them off with a feather, as
+the bee goes in and out of the door of its hive.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Among the beetles are a few forms occasionally found in bees' nests and
+also parasitic on the body of the bee. Trichodes apiarius (Fig. 34, <i>a</i>,
+larva; <i>b</i>, pupa, front view) has long been known in Europe to attack
+the young bees. In its perfect, or beetle state it is found on flowers,
+like our Trichodes Nuttallii, which is commonly found on the Spir&aelig;a in
+August, and which may yet prove to enter our beehives. The larva devours
+the brood, but with the modern hive its ravages may be readily detected.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;">
+<img src="images/f035.jpg" width="177" height="200" alt="35. Melo&euml;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">35. Melo&euml;.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Oil beetle, Melo&euml; angusticollis (Fig. 35, male, differing from the
+female by having the antenn&aelig; as if twisted into a knot; Fig. 36, the
+active larva found on the body of the bee), is a large dark blue insect
+found crawling in the grass in the vicinity of the nests of Andrena,
+Halictus, and other wild bees in May, and again in August and
+September.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> The eggs are laid in a mass covered with earth at the root
+of some plant. During April and early in May, when the willows are in
+blossom, we have found the young recently hatched larv&aelig; in considerable
+abundance creeping briskly over the bees, or with their heads plunged
+between the segments of the body, greedily sucking in the juices of
+their host. Those that we saw occurred on the Humble and other wild
+bees, and on various flies (Syrphus and Muscid&aelig;), and there is no reason
+why they should not infest the Honey bee, which frequents similar
+flowers, as they are actually known to do in Europe. These larv&aelig; are
+probably hatched out near where the bees hibernate, so as to creep into
+their bodies before they fly in the spring, as it would be impossible
+for them to crawl up a willow tree ten feet high or more, their feet
+being solely adapted for climbing over the hairy body of the bee, which
+they do not leave until about to undergo their strange and unusual
+transformations.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="550" height="487" alt="Early Stages of Melo&euml;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Early Stages of Melo&euml;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Europe, Assmuss states that on being brought into the nest by the
+bee, they leave the bee and devour the eggs in the bee cells, and then
+attack the bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their
+transformations to attain the beetle state, instead of at once assuming
+the pupa and imago forms, as in the Trichodes represented in fig. 34,
+they pass through a <i>hyper-metamorphosis</i>, as Fabre, a French
+naturalist, calls it. In other words, the changes in form which are
+preparatory to assuming the pupa and imago states are more marked and
+almost coequal with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> the larva and pupa states, so that the Melo&euml;,
+instead of passing through three states (the egg, larva and pupa), in
+realty passes through these and two others in addition, which are
+intermediate. The whole subject of the metamorphosis of this beetle
+needs revision, but Fabre states that the larva, soon after entering the
+nest of its host, changes its skin and assumes a second larva form.
+Newport, who with Siebold has carefully described the metamorphoses of
+Melo&euml;, does not mention this stage in its development, which Fabre calls
+"pseudo-chrysalis." It is motionless, the head is mask-like, without
+movable appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles. This
+is more properly speaking the semi-pupa, and the mature pupa grows
+beneath its mask-like form, which is finally moulted. This form,
+however, according to Fabre, changes its skin and turns into a third
+larva form (Fig. 37). After some time it assumes its true pupa form
+(Fig. 38), and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle.</p>
+
+<p>Fabre has also, in a lively and well-written account, given a history of
+Sitaris, a European beetle, somewhat resembling Melo&euml;. He states that
+Sitaris lays its eggs near the entrance of bees' nests, and at the very
+moment that the bee lays her egg in the honey cell, the flattened, ovate
+Sitaris larva drops from the body of the bee upon which it has been
+living, and feasts upon the contents of the freshly laid egg. After
+eating this delicate morsel it devours the honey in the cells of the bee
+and changes into a white, cylindrical, nearly footless grub, and after
+it is full-fed, and has assumed a supposed "pupa" state, the skin,
+without bursting, incloses a kind of hard "pupa" skin, which is very
+similar in outline to the former larva, within whose skin is found a
+whitish larva which directly changes into the true pupa. In a succeeding
+state this pupa in the ordinary way changes to a beetle which belongs to
+the same group of Coleoptera as Melo&euml;. We cannot but think, from
+observations made on the humble bee, the wasp, two species of moths and
+several other insects, that this "hyper-metamorphosis" is not so
+abnormal a mode of insect metamorphosis as has been supposed, and that
+the changes of these insects, made beneath the skin of the mature larva
+before assuming the pupa state, are almost as remarkable as those of
+Melo&euml; and Sitaris, though less easily observed than they. Several other
+beetles allied to Melo&euml; are known to be parasitic on wild bees, though
+the accounts of them are fragmentary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>THE STYLOPS PARASITE.</h4>
+
+<p>The history of Stylops, a beetle allied to Melo&euml;, is no less strange
+than that of Melo&euml;, and is in some respects still more interesting. On
+June 18th I captured an Andrena vicina which had been "stylopized." On
+looking at my capture I saw a pale reddish-brown triangular mark on the
+bee's abdomen; this was the flattened head and thorax of a female
+Stylops (Fig. 39<i>a</i>, position of the female of Stylops, seen in profile
+in the abdomen of the bee; Fig. 39<i>b</i>, the female seen from above. The
+head and thorax are soldered into a single flattened mass, the baggy
+hind-body being greatly enlarged like that of the gravid female of the
+white ant, and consisting of nine segments).</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="222" height="300" alt="39. Female Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">39. Female Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+<p>On carefully drawing out the whole body (Pl. 1, Fig. 6, as seen from
+above, and showing the alimentary canal ending in a blind sac; Fig.
+6<i>a</i>, side view), which is very extensible, soft and baggy, and
+examining it under a high power of the microscope, we saw multitudes, at
+least several hundred, of very minute larv&aelig;, like particles of dust to
+the naked eye, issuing in every direction from the body of the parent
+now torn open in places, though most of them made their exit through an
+opening on the under side of the head-thorax. The Stylops, being hatched
+while still in the body of the parent, is, therefore viviparous. She
+probably never lays eggs.</p>
+
+<p>On the last of April, when the Mezereon was in blossom, I caught the
+singular looking male (Stylops Childreni, Fig. 40; a, side view; it is
+about one-fourth of an inch long), which was as unlike its partner as
+possible. I laid it under a tumbler, when the delicate insect flew and
+tumbled about till it died of exhaustion in a few hours.</p>
+
+<p>It appears, then, that the larv&aelig; are hatched during the middle or last
+of June from eggs fertilized in April. The larv&aelig; then crawl out upon the
+body of the bee, on which they are transported to the nest, where they
+enter, according to Peck's observations, the body of the larva, on whose
+fatty parts they feed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> Previous to changing to a pupa the larva lives
+with its head turned towards that of its host, but before assuming the
+perfect state (which they do in the late summer or autumn) it must
+reverse its position. The female protrudes the front part of her body
+between the segments of the abdomen of her host, as represented in our
+figure. This change, Newport thinks, takes place after the bee-host has
+undergone its metamorphoses, though the bee does not leave her earthen
+cells until the following spring. Though the male Stylops deserts his
+host, his wingless partner is imprisoned during her whole life within
+her host, and dies immediately after giving birth to her myriad (for
+Newport thinks she produces over two thousand) offspring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="550" height="511" alt="40. Male Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">40. Male Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Xenos Peckii, an allied insect, was discovered by Dr. Peck to be
+parasitic in the body of wasps, and there are now known to be several
+species of this small but curious family, Stylopid&aelig;, which are known to
+live parasitically on the bodies of our wild bees and wasps. The
+presence of these parasites finally exhausts the host, so that the
+sterile female bee dies prematurely.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 305px;">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="305" height="399" alt="41. Bee fungus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">41. Bee fungus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As in the higher animals, bees are afflicted with parasitic worms which
+induce disease and sometimes death. The well-known hair worm, Gordius,
+is an insect parasite. The adult form is about the size of a slender
+knitting needle, and is seen in moist soil and in pools. It lays,
+according to Dr. Leidy, "millions of eggs connected together in long
+cords." The mi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>croscopical, tadpole-shaped young penetrate into the
+bodies of insects frequenting damp localities. Fairly ensconced within
+the body of their unsuspecting host, they luxuriate on its fatty
+tissues, and pass through their metamorphoses into the adult form, when
+they desert their living house and take to the water to lay their eggs.
+In Europe, Siebold has described Gordius subbifurcus, which infests the
+drones of the Honey bee, and also other insects. Professor Siebold has
+also described Mermis albicans, which is a similar kind of hair worm,
+from two to five inches long, and whitish in color. This worm is also
+found, strangely enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers
+which frequent watery places to appease their thirst.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Thousands of insects are carried off yearly by parasitic fungi. The
+ravages of the Muscardine, caused by a minute fungus (Botrytris
+Bassiana), have threatened the extinction of silk culture in Europe, and
+the still more formidable disease called <i>pebrine</i> is thought to be of
+vegetable origin. Dr. Leidy mentions a fungus which must annually carry
+off myriads of the Seventeen Year Locust. A somewhat similar fungus,
+Mucor mellitophorus (Fig. 41), infests bees, filling the stomach with
+microscopical colorless spores, so as greatly to weaken the insect.</p>
+
+<p>As there is a probability that many insects, parasites on the wild bees,
+may sooner or later afflict the Honey bee, and also to illustrate
+farther the complex nature of insect parasitism, we will for a moment
+look at some other bee parasites.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="430" height="700" alt="Pl. 1" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Pl. 1<br />PARASITES OF BEES.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Among the numerous insects preying in some way upon the Humble bee are
+to be found other species of bees and moths, flies and beetles. Insect
+parasites often imitate their host: Apathus (Plate I, Fig. 1, A.
+Ashtoni) can scarcely be distinguished from its host, and yet it lives
+cuckoo-like in the cells of the Humble bee, though we know not yet how
+injurious it really is. Then there are Conops and Volucella, the
+former<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> of which lives like Tachina and Phora within the bee's body,
+while the latter devours the brood. The young (Plate I, Figs. 5, 5<i>a</i>)
+of another fly allied to Anthomyia, of which the Onion fly (Fig. 42) is
+an example, is also not unfrequently met with. A small beetle (Plate 1.
+Fig. 4, Antherophagus ochraceus) is a common inmate of Humble bees'
+nests, and probably feeds upon the wax and pollen. We have also found
+several larv&aelig; (Fig. 43) of a beetle of which we do not know the adult
+form. Of similar habits is probably a small moth (Nephopteryx Edmandsii,
+Plate I, Figs. 2; 2<i>a</i>, larva; Fig. 2<i>b</i>, chrysalis, or pupa) which
+undoubtedly feeds upon the waxen walls of the bee cells, and thus, like
+the attacks of the common bee moth (Galleria cereana, whose habits are
+so well known as not to detain us, must prove very prejudicial to the
+well being of the colony. This moth is in turn infested by an Ichneumon
+fly (Microgaster nephoptericis, Plate I, Figs. 3, 3<i>a</i>) which must prove
+quite destructive.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="500" height="234" alt="42. Onion Fly and Maggot. 43. Larva of Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">42. Onion Fly and Maggot.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 43. Larva of Beetle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The figures of the early stages of a minute ichneumon represented on the
+same plate (Fig. 7, larva, and 7<i>a</i>, pupa, of Anthophorabia megachilis)
+which is parasitic on Megachile, the Leaf-cutter bee, illustrates the
+transformations of the Ichneumon flies, the smallest species of which
+yet known (and we believe the smallest insect known at all) is the
+Pteratomus Putnami (Pl. I, Fig. 8, wanting the hind leg), or "winged
+atom," which is only one-ninetieth of an inch in length, and is
+parasitic on Anthophorabia, itself a parasite. A species of mite (Plate
+I, Figs. 9; 9<i>a</i>, the same seen from beneath) is always to be found In
+humble bees' nests, but it is not thought to be specially obnoxious to
+the bees themselves, though several species of mites (Gamasus, etc.) are
+known to be parasitic on insects.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The butterflies and moths from their beauty and grace, have always been
+the favorites among amateur entomologists, and rare and costly works
+have been published in which their forms and gorgeous colors are
+represented in the best style of natural history art. We need only
+mention the folio volume of Madam Merian of the last century, Harris's
+Aurelian, the works of Cramer, Stoll, Drury, H&uuml;bner, Horsfield,
+Doubleday and Westwood, and Hewitson, as comprising the most luxurious
+and costly entomological works.</p>
+
+<p>Near the close of the last century, John Abbot went from London and
+spent several years in Georgia, rearing the larger and more showy
+butterflies and moths, and painting them in the larva, chrysalis and
+adult, or imago stage. These drawings he sent to London to be sold. Many
+of them were collected by Sir James Edward Smith, and published under
+the title of "The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous Insects of
+Georgia, collected from the Observations of John Abbot, with the Plants
+on which they Feed." (London, 1797. 2 vols., fol.) Besides these two
+rare volumes there are sixteen folio volumes of drawings by Abbot in the
+Library of the British Museum. This work is of especial interest to the
+American student as it illustrates the early stages of many of our
+butterflies and moths.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed the study of insects possesses most of its interest when we
+observe their habits and transformations. Caterpillars are always to be
+found, and with a little practice are easy to raise; we would therefore
+advise any one desirous of beginning the study of insects to take up the
+butterflies and moths. They are perhaps easier to study than any other
+group of insects, and are more ornamental in the cabinet. As a
+scientific<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> study we would recommend it to ladies as next to botany in
+interest and in the ease in which specimens may be collected and
+examined. The example of Madam Merian, and several ladies in this
+country who have greatly aided science by their well filled cabinets,
+and critical knowledge of the various species and their transformations,
+is an earnest of what may be expected from their followers. Though the
+moths are easy to study compared with the bees, flies, beetles and bugs,
+and dragon flies, yet many questions of great interest in philosophical
+entomology have been answered by our knowledge of their structure and
+mode of growth. The great works of Herold on the evolution of a
+caterpillar; of Lyonet on the anatomy of the Cossus; of Newport on that
+of the Sphinx; and of Siebold on the parthenogenesis of insects, are
+proofs that the moths have engaged the attention of some of the master
+minds in science.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the transformations of the moths is also of great
+importance to one who would acquaint himself with the questions
+concerning the growth and metamorphoses and origin of animals. We should
+remember that the very words "metamorphosis" and "transformation," now
+so generally applied to other groups of animals and used in
+philosophical botany, were first suggested by those who observed that
+the moth and butterfly attain their maturity only by passing through
+wonderful changes of form and modes of life.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge of the fact that all animals pass through some sort of a
+metamorphosis is very recent in physiology. Moreover the fact that these
+morphological eras in the life of an individual animal accord most
+unerringly with the gradation of forms in the type of which it is a
+member, was the discovery of the eminent physiologist Von Baer. Up to
+this time the true significance of the luxuriance and diversity of
+larval forms had never seriously engaged the attention of systematists
+in entomology.</p>
+
+<p>What can possibly be the meaning of all this putting on and taking off
+of caterpillar habiliments, or in other words, the process of moulting,
+with the frequent changes in ornamentation, and the seeming
+fastidiousness and queer fancies and strange conceits of these young and
+giddy insects seems hidden and mysterious to human observation. Indeed,
+few care to spend the time and trouble necessary to observe the insect
+through its transformations; and that done, if only the larva of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the
+perfect insect can be identified and its form sketched how much was
+gained! A truthful and circumstantial biography, in all its relations,
+of a single insect has yet to be written!</p>
+
+<p>We should also apply our knowledge of the larval forms of insects to the
+details of their classification into families and genera, constantly
+collating our knowledge of the early stages with the structural
+relations that accompany them in the perfect state.</p>
+
+<p>The simple form of the caterpillar seems to be a concentration of the
+characters of the perfect insect, and presents easy characters by which
+to distinguish the minor groups; and the relative rank of the higher
+divisions will only be definitely settled when their forms and methods
+of transformation are thoroughly known. Thus, for example, in two groups
+of the large Attacus-like moths, which are so amply illustrated in Dr.
+Harris's "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation"; if we take the
+different forms of the caterpillars of the Tau moth of Europe, which are
+figured by Duponchel and Godard, we find that the very young larva has
+four horn-like processes on the front, and four on the back part of the
+body. The full grown larva of the Regalis moth, of the Southern and
+Middle states, is very similarly ornamented. It is an embryonic form,
+and therefore inferior in rank to the Tau moth. Multiply these horns
+over the surface of the body, lessen their size, and crown them with
+hairs, and we have our Io moth, so destructive to corn. Now take off the
+hairs, elongating and thinning out the tubercles, and make up the loss
+by the increased size of the worm, and we have the caterpillar of our
+common Cecropia moth. Again, remove the naked tubercles almost wholly,
+smooth off the surface of the body, and contract its length, thus giving
+a greater convexity and angularity to the rings, and we have before us
+the larva of the stately Luna moth that tops this royal family. Here are
+certain criteria for placing these insects before our minds in the order
+that nature has placed them. We have certain facts for determining which
+of these three insects is highest and which lowest in the scale, when we
+see the larva of the Luna moth throwing off successively the Io and
+Cecropia forms to take on its own higher features. So that there is a
+meaning in all this shifting of insect toggery.</p>
+
+<p>This is but an example of the many ways in which both pleasure and
+mental profit may be realized from the thoughtful study of caterpillar
+life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In collecting butterflies and moths for cabinet specimens, one needs a
+gauze net a foot and a half deep, with the wire frame a foot in
+diameter; a wide-mouthed bottle containing a parcel of cyanide of
+potassium gummed on the side, in which to kill the moths, which should,
+as soon as life is extinct, be pinned in a cork-lined collecting box
+carried in the coat pocket. The captures should then be spread and dried
+on a grooved setting board, and a cabinet formed of cork-lined boxes or
+drawers; as a substitute for cork, frames with paper tightly stretched
+over them may be used, or the pith of corn-stalks or palm wood.
+Caterpillars should be preserved in spirits, or in glycerine with a
+little alcohol added.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons ingeniously empty the skins and inflate them over a flame
+so that they may be pinned by the side of the adult.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most troublesome and noxious insects are found among the
+moths. I need only mention the canker worm and American tent
+caterpillar, and the various kinds of cut worms, as instances.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 246px;">
+<img src="images/img059.jpg" width="246" height="250" alt="43. Parasite of the American Silk Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption">43. Parasite of the American Silk Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must not, however, forget the good done by insects. They undoubtedly
+tend by their attacks to prevent an undue growth of vegetation. The
+pruning done to a tree or herb by certain insects undoubtedly causes a
+more healthy growth of the branches and leaves, and ultimately a greater
+production fruit. Again, as pollen-bearers, insects are a most powerful
+agency in nature. It is undoubtedly the fact that the presence, of bees
+in orchards increases the fruit crop, and thus the thousands of moths
+(though injurious as caterpillars), wild bees and other insects, that
+seem to live without purpose, are really, though few realize it, among
+the best friends and allies of man.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, insects are of great use as scavengers; such are the young or
+maggots of the house fly, the mosquitoes, and numerous other forms, that
+seem created only to vex us when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> in the winged state. Still a larger
+proportion of insects are directly beneficial from their habit of
+attacking injurious species, such as the ichneumons (Fig. 43, the
+ichneumon of the American silk worm) and certain flies (Fig. 44,
+Tachina); also many carnivorous species of wasps beetles and flies,
+dragon flies and Aphis lions (Fig. 45, the lace-winged fly; adult, larva
+and eggs).</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img060a.jpg" width="250" height="207" alt="44. Tachina, parasite of Colorado Potato Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">44. Tachina, parasite of<br />Colorado Potato Beetle.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 4em;">But few, however, suspect how enormous are the losses to crops in this
+country entailed by the attacks of the injurious species. In Europe, the
+subject of applied entomology has always attracted a great deal of
+attention. Most sumptuous works, elegant quartos prepared by naturalists
+known the world over, and published at government expense, together with
+smaller treatises, have frequently appeared; while the subject is taught
+in the numerous agricultural colleges and schools, especially of
+Germany.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img060b.jpg" width="500" height="330" alt="45. The Lace-winged Fly, Its Larva and Eggs." title="" />
+<span class="caption">45. The Lace-winged Fly, Its Larva and Eggs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the densely populated countries of Europe, the losses occasioned by
+injurious insects are most severely felt, though from many causes, such
+as the greater abundance of their insect parasites, and the far greater
+care taken by the people to exterminate their insect enemies, they have
+not proved so destructive as in our own land.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection I may quote from one of Dr. Asa Fitch's reports on
+the noxious insects of New York, where he says: "I find that in our
+wheat-fields here, the midge formed 59 per cent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> of all the insects on
+this grain the past summer; whilst in France, the preceding summer, only
+7 per cent. of the insects on wheat were of this species. In France the
+parasitic destroyers amounted to 85 per cent.; while in this country our
+parasites form only 10 per cent."</p>
+
+<p>"A true knowledge of practical entomology may well be said to be in its
+infancy in our own country, when, as is well-known to agriculturists,
+the cultivation of wheat has almost been given up in New England, New
+York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia, from the attacks of the wheat
+midge, Hessian fly, joint worm, and chinch bug. According to Dr.
+Shimer's estimate, says Mr. Riley, in his Second Annual Report on the
+Injurious Insects of Missouri, which may be considered a reasonable
+one, in the year 1864 three-fourths of the wheat, and one-half of the
+corn crop were destroyed by the chinch bug throughout many extensive
+districts, comprising almost the entire North-West. At the annual rate
+of increase, according to the United States Census, in the State of
+Illinois, the wheat crop ought to have been about thirty millions of
+bushels, and the corn crop about one hundred and thirty-eight million
+bushels. Putting the cash value of wheat at $1.25, and that of corn at
+50 cents, the cash value of the corn and wheat destroyed by this
+insignificant little bug, no bigger than a grain of rice, in one single
+State and one single year, will therefore, according to the above
+figures, foot up to the astounding total of <i>over seventy-three millions
+of dollars</i>!"</p>
+
+<p>The imported cabbage butterfly (Pieris rap&aelig;), recently introduced from
+Europe, is estimated by the Abb&eacute; Provatncher, a Canadian entomologist,
+to destroy annually two hundred and forty thousand dollars' worth of
+cabbages around Quebec. The Hessian fly, according to Dr. Fitch,
+destroyed fifteen million dollars' worth of wheat in New York State in
+one year (1854). The army worm of the North (Leucania unipuncta), which
+was so abundant in 1861, from New England to Kansas, was reported to
+have done damage that year in Eastern Massachusetts exceeding half a
+million of dollars. The joint worm (Isosoma hordei) alone sometimes cuts
+off whole fields of grain in Virginia and northward. The Colorado potato
+beetle is steadily moving eastward, now ravaging the fields in Indiana
+and Ohio, and only the forethought and ingenuity in devising means of
+checking its attacks, resulting from a thorough study<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of its habits,
+will deliver our wasted fields from its direful assaults.</p>
+
+<p>These are the injuries done by the more abundant kinds of insects
+injurious to crops. We should not forget that each fruit or shade tree,
+garden shrub or vegetable, has a host of insects peculiar to it, and
+which, year after year, renew their attacks. I could enumerate upwards
+of fifty species of insects which prey upon cereals and grass, and as
+many which infest our field crops. Some thirty well known species ravage
+our garden vegetables. There are nearly fifty species which attack the
+grape vine, and their number is rapidly increasing. About seventy-five
+species make their annual onset upon the apple tree, and nearly an equal
+number may be found upon the plum, pear, peach and cherry. Among our
+shade trees, over fifty species infest the oak; twenty-five the elm;
+seventy-five the walnut, and over one hundred species of insects prey
+upon the pine.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, we may reasonably calculate the annual loss in our country
+alone, from noxious animals and the lower forms of plants, such as rust,
+smut and mildew, as (at a low estimate) not far from five hundred
+million dollars annually. Of this amount, at least one-tenth, or fifty
+million dollars, could probably be saved by human exertions.</p>
+
+<p>To save a portion of this annual loss of food stuffs, fruits and lumber,
+should be the first object of farmers and gardeners. When this saving is
+made, farming will become a profitable and safe profession. But while a
+few are well informed as to the losses sustained by injurious insects,
+and use means to ward off their attacks, their efforts are constantly
+foiled by the negligence of their neighbors. As illustrated so well by
+the history of the incursions of the army worm and canker worm, it is
+only by a combination between farmers and orchardists that these and
+other pests can be kept under. The matter can be best reached by
+legislation. We have fish and game laws; why should we not have an
+insect law? Why should we not frame a law providing that farmers, and
+all owning a garden or orchard, should cooperate in taking preventive
+measures against injurious insects, such as early or late planting of
+cereals, to avert the attacks of the wheat midge and Hessian fly; the
+burning of stubble in the autumn and spring to destroy the joint worm;
+the combined use of proper remedies against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> the canker worm, the
+various cut worms, and other noxious caterpillars? A law carried out by
+a proper State entomological constabulary, if it may be so designated,
+would compel the idle and shiftless to clear their farms and gardens of
+noxious animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="550" height="453" alt="46. Pickle Worm and its Moth." title="" />
+<span class="caption">46. Pickle Worm and its Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among some of the injurious insects reported on by Mr. Riley, the State
+Entomologist of Missouri, is a new pest to the cucumber in the West, the
+Pickle worm (Phacellura nitidalis, Fig. 46). This is a caterpillar which
+bores into the cucumbers when large enough to pickle, and which is
+occasionally found in pickles. Three or four worms sometimes occur in a
+cucumber, and in the garden a single one will cause it to rot. One of
+the most troublesome intruders in our graperies is the Vine dresser
+(Ch&oelig;rocampa pampinatrix, Fig. 47, larva and pupa; Fig. 48, adult), a
+single caterpillar of which will sometimes "strip a small vine of its
+leaves in a few nights," and occasionally nips off bunches of half-grown
+grapes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img064a.jpg" width="500" height="256" alt="48. Vine Dresser Moth." title="" />
+<span class="caption">48. Vine Dresser Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img064b.jpg" width="500" height="564" alt="47. Vine Dresser and Chrysalis." title="" />
+<span class="caption">47. Vine Dresser and Chrysalis.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img065a.jpg" width="300" height="281" alt="49. Eight-spotted Alypia and Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">49. Eight-spotted Alypia and Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img065b.jpg" width="250" height="141" alt="50. Eudryas grata." title="" />
+<span class="caption">50. Eudryas grata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another caterpillar, which is sometimes so abundant as nearly to
+defoliate the grape vine, is the eight spotted Alypia (Fig. 49; <i>a</i>,
+larva; <i>b</i>, side view of a segment). This must not be confounded with
+the bluish larva of the Wood Nymph, Eudryas grata (Fig. 50), which
+differs from the Alypia caterpillar in being bluish, and in wanting the
+white patches on the side of the body, and the more prominent hump on
+the end of the body.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> Another moth (Psychomorpha epimenis, Fig. 51,
+<i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, side view of a segment; <i>c</i>, top view of the hump),
+also feeds on the grape, eating the terminal buds. It is also bluish,
+and wants the orange bands on the side of the body. Another moth of this
+family is the American Procris (Acoloithus Americana, Fig. 52<i>a</i>, larva;
+<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, cocoon; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, imago); a dark blue moth, with a deep
+orange collar, whose black and yellow caterpillar is gregarious (Fig.
+53), living in companies of a dozen or more and eating the softer parts
+of the leaves. It is quite common in the Western and Southern States.
+The figure represents two separate broods of caterpillars feeding on
+either side of the midrib of the leaf. But if the moths are, as a rule,
+the enemies of our crops, there are the silk worms of the East and
+Southern Europe and California, which afford the means of support to
+multitudes of the poorer classes, and supply one of the most valuable
+articles of clothing. Blot out the silk worm, and we should remove one
+of the most important sources of national wealth, the annual revenue
+from the silk trade of the world amounting to $254,500,000.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img065c.jpg" width="500" height="122" alt="51. Larva of Psychomorpha." title="" />
+<span class="caption">51. Larva of Psychomorpha.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img066a.jpg" width="350" height="222" style="margin-top: 4em;" alt="52. American Procris and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">52. American Procris and Young.</span>
+</div><div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img066b.jpg" width="350" height="369" alt="53. Larv&aelig; of American Procris." title="" />
+<span class="caption">53. Larv&aelig; of American Procris.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Silk culture is rapidly assuming importance in California, and though
+the Chinese silk worm has not been successfully cultivated in the
+Eastern States, yet the American silk worm, Teleas Polyphemus (see
+frontispiece, male; Fig. 54, larva; 55, pupa; 56, cocoon), can, we are
+assured by Mr. Trouvelot, be made a source of profit.</p>
+
+<p>This is a splendid member of the group of which the gigantic Attacus
+Atlas of China is a type. It is a large, fawn colored moth with a tawny
+tinge; the caterpillar is pale green, and is of the size indicated in
+the cut. Mr. Trouvelot says that of the several kinds of silk worms, the
+larva of the present species alone deserves attention. The cocoons of
+Platysamia Cecropia may be rendered of some commercial value, as the
+silk can be carded, but the chief objection is the difficulty of raising
+the larva.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 206px;">
+<img src="images/img067.jpg" width="206" height="350" alt="54. American Silk Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption">54. American Silk Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The Polyphemus worm spins a strong, dense, oval cocoon, which is closed
+at each end, while the silk has a very strong and glossy fibre." Mr.
+Trouvelot, from whose interesting account in the first volume of the
+"American Naturalist" we quote, says that in 1865 "not less than a
+million could be seen feeding in the open air upon bushes covered with a
+net; five acres of woodland were swarming with caterpillar life."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> The
+bushes were scrub oaks, the worms being protected by a net. After
+meeting with such great success Mr. Trouvelot lost all his worms by
+pebrine, the germs being imported in eggs received from Japan through M.
+Gu&eacute;rin-M&eacute;neville of Paris. Enough, however, was done to prove that silk
+raising can be carried on profitably, when due precautions are taken, as
+far north as Boston. As this moth extends to the tropics, it can be
+reared with greater facility southwards. The cocoon is strong and dense,
+and closed at each end, so that the thread is continuous, while the silk
+has a very strong and glossy fibre.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Next in value to the American silk worm, is the Ailanthus silk worm
+(Samia Cynthia) a species allied to our Callosamia Promethea. It
+originated from China, where it is cultivated, and was introduced into
+Italy in 1858, and thence spread into France, where it was introduced by
+M. Gu&eacute;rin-M&eacute;neville. Its silk is said to be much stronger than the fibre
+of cotton, and is a mean between fine wool and ordinary silk. The worm
+is very hardy, and can be reared in the open air both in this country
+and in Europe. The main drawback to its culture is the difficulty in
+unreeling the tough cocoon, and the shortness of the thread, the cocoon
+being open at one end.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img068a.jpg" width="200" height="112" alt="55. Chrysalis of American Silk Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption">55. Chrysalis of American Silk Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Yama-ma&iuml; moth (Anther&aelig;a Yama-ma&iuml;) was introduced into France from
+Japan in 1861. It is closely allied to the Polyphemus moth, and its
+caterpillar also feeds on the oak. Its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> silk is said to be quite
+brilliant, but a little coarser and not so strong as that of the Bombyx
+mori. The Perny silk worm is extensively cultivated by the Chinese in
+Manchouria, where it feeds on the oak. Its silk is coarser than that of
+the common silk worm, but is yet fine, strong and glossy. Bengal has
+furnished the Tussah moth, which lives in India on the oak and a variety
+of other trees. It is largely raised in French and English India,
+according to Nogu&eacute;s, and is used in the manufacture of stuffs called
+corahs.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img068b.jpg" width="200" height="95" alt=" 56. Cocoon of American Silk Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> 56. Cocoon of American Silk Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The last kind of importance is the Arrhindy silk worm, from India. It
+has been naturalized in France and Algeria by M. Gu&eacute;rin-M&eacute;neville, who
+has done so much in the application of entomology to practical life. It
+is closely allied to the Cynthia or Ailanthus worm, with the same kind
+of silk and a similar cocoon, and feeds on the castor oil plant.</p>
+
+<p>The diseases of silk worms naturally receive much attention. Like those
+afflicting mankind, they arise from bad air, resulting from too close
+confinement, bad food, and other adverse causes. The most fatal and
+wide-spread disease, and one which since 1854 has threatened the
+extermination of silk worms in Europe, is the <i>pebrine</i>. It is due to
+the presence of minute vegetable corpuscles, which attack both the worms
+and the eggs. It was this disease which swept off thousands of Mr.
+Trouvelot's Polyphemus worms, and put a sudden termination to his
+important experiments, the germs having been implanted in eggs of the
+Yama-ma&iuml; moth imported from Japan by M. Gu&eacute;rin-M&eacute;neville, and which were
+probably infected as they passed through Paris. Though the disaster
+happened several years since, he tells us that it will be useless for
+him to attempt the raising of silk worms in the town where his
+establishment is situated, as the germs of the disease are most
+difficult to eradicate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>So direful in France were the ravages of this disease that two of the
+most advanced naturalists in France, Quatrefages and Pasteur, were
+commissioned by the French government to investigate the disease.
+Pasteur found that the infected eggs differed in appearance from the
+sound ones, and could thus be sorted out by aid of the microscope and
+destroyed. Thus these investigations, carried on year after year, and
+seeming to the ignorant to tend to no practical end, resulted in saving
+to France her silk culture. During the past year (1871) so successful
+has his method proved that a French scientific journal expresses the
+hope of the complete reestablishment and prosperity of this great
+industry. A single person who obtained in 1871 in his nurseries 30,000
+ounces of eggs, hopes the next year to obtain 100,000 ounces, from which
+he expects to realize about one million dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="450" height="160" alt="The Potato Caterpillar." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Potato Caterpillar.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CLOTHES MOTH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>For over a fortnight we once enjoyed the company of the caterpillar of a
+common clothes moth. It is a little pale, delicate worm (Fig. 57,
+magnified), about the size of a darning needle, and rather less than
+half an inch in length, with a pale horn-colored head, the ring next the
+head being of the same color. It has sixteen feet, the first six of them
+well developed and constantly in use to draw the slender body in and out
+of its case. Its head is armed with a formidable pair of jaws, with
+which, like a scythe, it mows its way through thick and thin.</p>
+
+<p>But the case is the most remarkable feature in the history of this
+caterpillar. Hardly has the helpless, tiny worm broken out of the egg,
+previously laid in some old garment of fur or wool, or perhaps in the
+haircloth of a sofa, when it begins to make a shelter by cutting the
+woolly fibres or soft hairs into bits, which it places at each end in
+successive layers, and, joining them together by silken threads,
+constructs a cylindrical tube (Fig. 58) of thick, warm felt, lined
+within with the finest silk the tiny worm can spin. The case is not
+perfectly cylindrical, being flattened slightly in the middle, and
+contracted a little just before each end, both of which are always kept
+open. The case before us is of a stone-gray color, with a black stripe
+along the middle, and with rings of the same color round each opening.
+Had the caterpillar fed on blue or yellow cloth, the case would, of
+course, have been of those colors. Other cases, made by larv&aelig; which had
+been eating loose cotton, were quite irregular in form, and covered
+loosely with bits of cotton thread, which the little tailor had not
+trimmed off.</p>
+
+<p>Days go by. A vigorous course of dieting on its feast of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> wool has given
+stature to our hero. His case has grown uncomfortably small. Shall he
+leave it and make another? No housewife is more prudent and saving. Out
+come those scissor-jaws, and, lo! a fearful rent along each side of one
+end of the case. Two wedge-shaped patches mend the breach; the
+caterpillar retires for a moment and reappears at the other end; the
+scissors are once more pulled out; two rents appear, to be filled up by
+two more patches or gores, and our caterpillar once again breathes more
+freely, laughs and grows fat upon horse hair and lambs' wool. In this
+way he enlarges his case till he stops growing.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="350" height="200" alt="59. 58. 57." title="" />
+<span class="caption">59. 58. 57.<br />Early Stages of the Clothes Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Our caterpillar seeming to be full-grown, and apparently out of
+employment, we cut the end of his case half off. Two or three days
+after, he had mended it from the inside, drawing the two edges together
+by silken threads, and, though he had not touched the outside, yet so
+neatly were the two parts joined together that we had to search for some
+time, with a lens, to find the scar.</p>
+
+<p>To keep our friend busy during the cold, cheerless weather, for it was
+mid-winter, we next cut a third of the case entirely off. Nothing
+daunted, the little fellow bustled about, drew in a mass of the woolly
+fibres, filling up the whole mouth of his den, and began to build on
+afresh, and from the inside, so that the new-made portion was smaller
+than the rest of the case. The creature worked very slowly, and the
+addition was left in a rough, unfinished state.</p>
+
+<p>We could easily spare these voracious little worms hairs enough to serve
+as food, and to afford material for the construction of their paltry
+cases; but that restless spirit that ever urges on all beings endowed
+with life and the power of motion, never forsakes the young clothes moth
+for a moment. He will not be forced to drag his heavy case over rough
+hairs and furzy wool, hence with his keen jaws he cuts his way through.
+Thus, the more he travels, the more mischief he does.</p>
+
+<p>After taking his fill of this sort of life he changes to a chrysalid
+(Fig. 59), and soon appears as one of those delicate, tiny,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> demure
+moths that fly in such numbers from early in the spring until the
+autumn.</p>
+
+<p>Very many do not recognize these moths in their perfect stage, so small
+are they, and vent their wrath on those great millers that fly around
+lamps in warm summer evenings. It need scarcely be said that these large
+millers are utterly guiltless of any attempts upon our wardrobes; they
+make their attacks in a more open form on our gardens and orchards.</p>
+
+<p>We will give a more careful description of the clothes moth, which was
+found in its different stages June 12th in a mass of loose cotton. The
+larva is white, with a tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly
+towards the tail, while the head is much of the color of gum-copal. The
+rings of the body are thickened above, especially on the thoracic ones,
+by two transverse thickened folds. It is one-fifth of an inch long.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the chrysalis, or pupa, is considerably curved, with the
+head smooth and rounded. The long antenn&aelig;, together with the hind legs,
+which are folded along the breast, reach to the tip of the hind body, on
+the upper surface of each ring of which is a short transverse row of
+minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving towards the mouth of
+its case, just before the moth appears. At first the chrysalis is
+whitish, but just before the exclusion of the moth becomes the color of
+varnish.</p>
+
+<p>When about to cast its pupa skin, the skin splits open on the back, and
+the perfect insect glides out. The act is so quickly over with, that the
+observer has to look sharp to observe the different steps in the
+operation.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img072.jpg" width="150" height="115" alt="60. Clothes Moth." title="" />
+<span class="caption">60. Clothes Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our common clothes moth (Tinea flavifrontella, Fig. 60) is of a uniform
+light-buff color, with a silky iridescent lustre, the hind wings and
+abdomen being a little paler. The head is thickly tufted with hairs and
+is a little tawny, and the upper side of the densely hirsute feelers
+(palpi) is dusky. The wings are long and narrow, with the most beautiful
+and delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards the
+base of the wing.</p>
+
+<p>They begin to fly in May, and last all through the season, fluttering
+with a noiseless, stealthy flight in our apartments, and laying their
+eggs in our woollens.</p>
+
+<p>Successive broods of the clothes moth appear through the summer. In the
+autumn they cease eating, retire within their cases, and early in spring
+assume the chrysalis state.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are several allied species which have much the same habits, except
+that they do not all construct cases, but eat carpets, clothing,
+articles of food, grain, etc., and objects of natural history.</p>
+
+<p>Careful housewives are not much afflicted with these pests. The slovenly
+and thriftless are overrun with them. Early in June woollens and furs
+should be carefully dusted, shaken and beaten. Dr. T. W. Harris states
+that "powdered black pepper, strewed under the edge of carpets, is said
+to repel moths. Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine,
+camphor in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russia
+leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid aside for
+the summer; and furs and other small articles can be kept by being sewed
+in bags with bits of camphor wood, red cedar, or of Spanish cedar; while
+the cloth lining of carriages can be secured forever from the attacks of
+moths by being washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the
+corrosive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough not
+to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths can be most
+readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though its use must be
+much restricted from the disagreeable odor which remains. The recent
+experiments made with carbolic acid, however, convince us that this will
+soon take the place of other substances as a preventive and destroyer of
+noxious insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="250" height="168" alt="The Juniper Sickle-wing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Juniper Sickle-wing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MOSQUITO AND ITS FRIENDS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The subject of flies becomes of vast moment to a Pharaoh, whose ears are
+dinned with the buzz of myriad winged plagues, mingled with angry cries
+from malcontent and fly-pestered subjects; or to the summer traveller in
+northern lands, where they oppose a stronger barrier to his explorations
+than the loftiest mountains or the broadest streams; or to the African
+pioneer, whose cattle, his main dependence, are stung to death by the
+Tsetze fly; or the fariner whose eyes on the evening of a warm spring
+day, after a placid contemplation of his growing acres of wheat blades,
+suddenly detects in dismay clouds of the Wheat midge and Hessian fly
+hovering over their swaying tops. The subject, indeed, has in such cases
+a national importance, and a few words regarding the main points in the
+habits of flies&mdash;how they grow, how they do not grow (after assuming the
+winged state), and how they bite; for who has not endured the smart and
+sting of these dipterous Shylocks, that almost torment us out of our
+existence while taking their drop of our heart's blood&mdash;may be welcome to
+our readers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<img src="images/img075.jpg" width="313" height="350" alt="61. Head of the Mosquito." title="" />
+<span class="caption">61. Head of the Mosquito.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Mosquito will be our first choice. As she leaps off from her light
+bark, the cast chrysalis skin of her early life beneath the waters, and
+sails away in the sunlight, her velvety wings fringed with silken hairs,
+and her neatly bodiced trim figure (though her nose is rather salient,
+considering that it is half as long as her entire body), present a
+beauty and grace of form and movement quite unsurpassed by her dipterous
+allies. She draws near and softly alights upon the hand of the charmed
+beholder, subdues her trumpeting notes, folds her wings noiselessly upon
+her back, daintily sets down one foot after the other, and with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> an
+eagerness chastened by the most refined delicacy for the feelings of her
+victim, and with the air of Velpeau redivivus, drives through crushed
+and bleeding capillaries, shrinking nerves and injured tissues, a
+many-bladed lancet of marvellous fineness, of wonderful complexity and
+fitness. While engorging herself with our blood, we will examine under
+the microscope the mosquito's mouth. The head (Fig. 61) is rounded, with
+the two eyes occupying a large part of the surface, and nearly meeting
+on the top of the head. Out of the forehead, so to speak, grow the long,
+delicate, hairy antennm (<i>a</i>), and just below arises the long beak which
+consists of the bristle-like maxill&aelig; (<i>mx</i>, with their palpi, <i>mp</i>) and
+mandibles (<i>m</i>), and the single hair-like labrum, these five
+bristle-like organs being laid in the hollowed labium (<i>l</i>). Thus massed
+into a single awl-like beak, the mosquito, without any apparent effort,
+thrusts them all except the labium into the flesh. Her hind body may be
+seen tilling with the red blood, until it cries quits, and the insect
+withdraws its sting and flies sluggishly away. In a moment the wounded
+parts itch slightly, though a very robust person may not notice the
+irritation, or a more delicate individual if asleep; though if weakened
+by disease, or if stung in a highly vascular and sensitive part, such as
+the eyelid, the bite becomes really a serious matter. Multiply the
+mosquito a thousand fold, and one flees their attacks and avoids their
+haunts as he would a nest of hornets. Early in spring the larva (Fig.
+62, A) of the mosquito may be found in pools and ditches. It remains at
+the bottom feeding upon decaying matter (thus acting as a scavenger, and
+in this state doing great benefit in clearing swamps of miasms), until
+it rises to the surface for air, which it inhales through a single
+respiratory tube (<i>c</i>) situated near the tail. When about to transform
+into the pupa state, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> contracts and enlarges anteriorly near the
+middle, the larval skin is thrown off, and the insect appears in quite a
+different form (Fig. 62, a). The head and thorax are massed together,
+the rudiments of the mouth parts and of the wings and legs being folded
+upon the breast, while there are two breathing tubes (<i>d</i>) situated upon
+the back instead of the tail, which ends in two broad paddles (<i>a</i>); so
+that it comes to the surface, head foremost instead of tail first, a
+position according better with its increased age and experience in pond
+life. In a few days the pupa skin is cast; the insect, availing itself
+of its old habiliments as a raft upon which to float while its body is
+drying, grows lighter, and its wings expand for its marriage flight. The
+males are beautiful, both physically and morally, as they do not bite;
+their manners are more retiring than those of their stronger minded
+partners, as they rarely enter our dwellings, and live unnoticed in the
+woods. They may be easily distinguished from the females by their long
+maxillary palpi, and their thick, bushy, feathered antenn&aelig;. The female
+lays her elongated, oval eggs in a boat-shaped mass, which floats on the
+water. A mosquito lives three or four weeks in the water before changing
+to the adult or winged stage. How many days they live in the latter
+state we do not know.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="350" height="229" alt="62. Larva and Pupa of the Mosquito." title="" />
+<span class="caption">62. Larva and Pupa of the Mosquito.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our readers will understand, then, that all flies, like our mosquito for
+example, grow while in the larva and pupa state, <i>and after they acquire
+wings do not grow</i>, so that the small midges are not young mosquitoes,
+but the adult winged forms of an entirely different species and genus of
+fly; and the myriads of small flies, commonly supposed to be the young
+of larger flies, are adult forms belonging to different species of
+different genera, and perhaps of different families of the suborder of
+Diptera. The typical species of the genus Culex, to which the mosquito
+belongs, is Culex pipiens, described by Linn&aelig;us, and there are already
+over thirty North American species of this genus described in various
+works. Few insects live in the sea, but along the coast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> of New England
+a small, slender white larva (Fig. 63a, magnified, and head greatly
+enlarged; Fig. 64, pupa and fore foot of larva, showing the hooks),
+whose body is no thicker than a knitting needle, lives between tides,
+and has even been dredged at a depth of over a hundred feet, which
+transforms into a yellow mosquito-like fly (Fig. 65, with head of the
+female, magnified) which swarms in summer in immense numbers. I have
+called it provisionally Chironomus oceanicus, or Ocean gnat. The larv&aelig;
+of other species have been found by Mr. S. I. Smith living at great
+depths in our Northern lakes. These kinds of gnats are usually seen
+early in spring hovering in swarms in mid air.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img077a.jpg" width="400" height="328" alt="65. Ocean Gnat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">65. Ocean Gnat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img077b.jpg" width="200" height="176" alt="63. Larva of Ocean Gnat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">63. Larva of Ocean Gnat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;">
+<img src="images/img077c.jpg" width="131" height="200" alt="64. Pupa of Ocean Gnat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">64. Pupa of Ocean Gnat.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The strange fact has been discovered by Grimm, a Russian naturalist,
+that the pupa of a feathered gnat is capable of laying eggs which
+produce young during the summer time. Previous to this it had been
+discovered that a larva of a gnat (Fig. 66 <i>a</i>, eggs from which the
+young are produced) which lives under the bark of trees in Europe, also
+produced young born alive.</p>
+
+<p>The Hessian fly (Fig. 67, <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i> pupa; <i>c</i>, stalk of wheat
+injured by larv&aelig;) and Wheat midge, which are allied to the mosquito, are
+briefly referred to in the calendar, so that we pass over these to
+consider another pest of our forests and prairies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f067.jpg" width="300" height="232" alt="67. Hessian Fly and its Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">67. Hessian Fly and its Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 65px;">
+<img src="images/f066.jpg" width="65" height="200" alt="66. Viviparous gall larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">66. Viviparous gall larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Black fly is even a more formidable pest than the mosquito. In the
+northern, subarctic regions, it opposes a barrier against travel. The
+Labrador fisherman spends his summer on the sea shore, scarcely daring
+to penetrate the interior on account of the swarms of these flies.
+During a summer residence on this coast, we sailed up the Esquimaux
+river for six or eight miles, spending a few hours at a house situated
+on the bank. The day was warm and but little wind blowing, and the
+swarms of black flies were absolutely terrific. In vain we frantically
+waved our net among them, allured by some rare moth; after making a few
+desperate charges in the face of the thronging pests, we had to retire
+to the house, where the windows actually swarmed with them; but here
+they would fly in our faces, crawl under one's clothes, where they even
+remain and bite in the night. The children in the house were sickly and
+worn by their unceasing torments; and the shaggy Newfoundland dogs whose
+thick coats would seem to be proof against their bites ran from their
+shelter beneath the bench and dashed into the river, their only retreat.
+In cloudy weather, unlike the mosquito, the black fly disappears, only
+flying when the sun shines. The bite of the black fly is often severe,
+the creature leaving a large clot of blood to mark the scene of its
+surgical triumphs. Prof. E. T. Cox, State Geologist of Indiana, has sent
+us specimens of a much larger fly, which Baron Osten Sacken refers to
+this genus, which is called on the prairies, where it is said to bite
+horses to death, the Buffalo Gnat. Westwood states that an allied fly
+(Rhagio Columbaschensis) is one of the greatest scourges of man and
+beast in Hungary, where it has been known to kill cattle.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;">
+<img src="images/img079a.jpg" width="136" height="130" alt="68. Black fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">68. Black fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 59px;">
+<img src="images/img079b.jpg" width="59" height="200" alt="69. Black Fly Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">69. Black Fly Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Simulium molestum (Fig. 68, enlarged), as the black fly is called,
+lives during the larva state in the water. The larva of a Labrador
+species (Fig. 69, enlarged) which we found, is about a quarter of an
+inch long, and of the appearance here indicated. The pupa is also
+aquatic, having long respiratory filaments attached to each side of the
+front of the thorax. According to Westwood, "the posterior part of its
+body is enclosed in a semioval membranous cocoon, which is at first
+formed by the larva, the anterior part of which is eaten away before
+changing to a pupa, so as to be open in front. The imago is produced
+beneath the surface of the water, its fine silky covering serving to
+repel the action of the water."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;">
+<img src="images/img079c.jpg" width="133" height="250" alt="70. Mycetobia." title="" />
+<span class="caption">70. Mycetobia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;">Multitudes of a long, slender, white worm may often be found living in
+the dirt, and sour sap running from wounds in the elm tree. Two summers
+ago we discovered some of these larv&aelig;, and on rearing them found that
+they were a species of Mycetobia (Fig. 70; <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa). The
+larva is remarkable for having the abdominal segments divided into two
+portions, the hinder much smaller than the anterior division. Its whole
+length is a little over a third of an inch. The pup&aelig; were found sticking
+out in considerable numbers from the tree, being anchored by the little
+spines at the tail. The head is square, ending in two horns, and the
+body is straight and covered with spines, especially towards the end of
+the tail. They were a fifth of an inch in length. The last of June the
+flies appeared, somewhat resembling gnats, and about a line long. The
+worms continued to infest the tree for six weeks, the flies remaining
+either upon or near it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 143px;">
+<img src="images/img080.jpg" width="143" height="180" alt="71. Mouth Parts of Tabanus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">71. Mouth Parts of Tabanus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now come to that terror of our equine friends, the Horse fly, Gad, or
+Breeze fly. In its larval state, some species live in water, and in damp
+places under stones and pieces of wood, and others in the earth away
+from water, where they feed on animal, and, probably, on decaying
+matter. Mr. B. D. Walsh found an aquatic larva of this genus, which,
+within a short time, devoured eleven water snails. Thus at this stage of
+existence, this fly, often so destructive, even at times killing our
+horses, is beneficial. During the hotter parts of summer, and when the
+sun is shining brightly, thousands of these Horse flies appear on our
+marshes and inland prairies. There are many different kinds, over one
+hundred species of the genus Tabanus alone, living in North America. Our
+most common species is the "Green head," or Tabanus lineola. When about
+to bite, it settles quietly down upon the hand, face or foot, it matters
+not which, and thrusts its formidable lancet-like jaws deep into the
+flesh. Its bite is very painful, as we can testify from personal
+experience. We were told during the last summer that a horse, which
+stood fastened to a tree in a field near the marshes at Rowley, Mass.,
+was bitten to death by these Green heads; and it is known that horses
+and cattle are occasionally killed by their repeated harassing bites. In
+cloudy weather they do not fly, and they perish on the cool frosty
+nights of September. The Timb, or Tsetze fly, is a species of this group
+of flies, and while it does not attack man, plagues to death, and is
+said to poison by its bite, the cattle in certain districts of the
+interior of Africa, thus almost barring out explorers. On comparing the
+mouth-parts of the Horse fly (Fig. 71, mouth of T. lineola), we have all
+the parts seen in the mosquito, but greatly modified. Like the mosquito,
+the females alone bite, the male Horse fly being harmless, and
+frequenting flowers, living upon their sweets. The labrum (<i>lb</i>),
+mandibles (<i>m</i>) and maxill&aelig; (<i>mx</i>), are short, stiff and lancet-like,
+and the maxillary palpi (<i>mp</i>; <i>a</i>, the five terminal joints of the
+antenn&aelig;) are large, stout, and two-jointed. While the jaws (both maxill&aelig;
+and mandibles) are thrust into the flesh, the tongue (<i>l</i>) spreads
+around the tube thus formed by the lancets, and pumps up the blood
+flowing from the wound, by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> aid of the sucking stomach, or crop, being a
+sac appended to the throat. Other Gad flies, but much smaller, though as
+annoying to us in woods and fields, are the species of Golden eyed
+flies, Chrysops, which fly and buzz interminably about our ears, often
+taking a sudden nip. They plague cattle, settling upon them and drawing
+their blood at their leisure.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img081a.jpg" width="300" height="199" alt="72. Carpet Fly" title="" />
+<span class="caption">72. Carpet Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 46px;">
+<img src="images/img081b.jpg" width="46" height="200" alt="73. Carpet Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption">73. Carpet Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We turn to a comparatively unknown insect, which has occasionally
+excited some distrust in the minds of housekeepers. It is the carpet
+fly, Scenopinus pallipes (Fig. 72), which, in the larva state, is found
+under carpets, on which it is said to feed. The worm (Fig. 73) has a
+long, white, cylindrical body, divided into twelve segments, exclusive
+of the head, while the first eight abdominal segments are divided by a
+transverse suture, so that there appear to be seventeen abdominal
+segments, the sutures appearing too distinct in the cut. Mr. F. G.
+Sanborn has reared the fly, here figured, from the worm. The larva also
+lives in rotten wood; it is too scarce ever to prove very destructive in
+houses. Either this or a similar fly was once found, we are told by a
+scientific friend, in great numbers in a "rat" used in dressing a young
+lady's hair; the worms were living upon the hair stuffing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img082ab.jpg" width="550" height="197" alt="74. Microdon.  75. Syrphus Larva. 76. Syrphus Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">74. Microdon.  75. Syrphus Larva. 76. Syrphus Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the most puzzling objects to the collector of shells or insects,
+is the almost spherical larva of Microdon globosus (Fig. 74). It is
+flattened and smooth beneath and seems to adhere to the under side of
+stones, where it might be mistaken for a snail.</p>
+
+<p>The Syrphus fly, or Aphis eater, deserves more than the passing notice
+which we bestow upon it. The maggot (Fig. 75, in the act of devouring an
+Aphis) is to be sought for established in a group of plant lice (Aphis),
+which it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> seizes by means of the long extensible front part of the body.
+The adult fly (Fig. 76) is gayly spotted and banded with yellow,
+resembling closely a wasp. It frequents flowers.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img082b.jpg" width="550" height="215" alt="77. Larva of Rat-tailed Fly. 78. Rat-tailed Fly and its
+Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">77. Larva of Rat-tailed Fly. 78. Rat-tailed Fly and its
+Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The singular rat-tailed pupa-case of Eristalis (Fig. 77) lives in water,
+and when in want of air, protrudes its long respiratory tube out into
+the air. We present the figure of an allied fly, Merodon Bardus (Fig.
+78; <i>a</i>, puparium, natural size). We will not describe at length the
+fly, as the admirable drawings of Mr. Emerton cannot fail to render it
+easily recognizable. The larva is much like the puparium or pupa case,
+here figured, which closely resembles that of Eristalis, in possessing
+along respiratory filament, showing that the maggot undoubtedly lives in
+the water, and when desirous of breathing, protrudes the tube out of the
+water, thus drawing in air enough to fill its internal respiratory tubes
+(trache&aelig;). The Merodon Narcissa probably lives in the soil, or in rotten
+wood, as the pupa-case has no respiratory tube, having instead a very
+short, sessile, truncated tube, scarcely as long as it is thick. The
+case itself is cylindrical, and rounded alike at each end.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;">
+<img src="images/img083a.jpg" width="104" height="200" alt="79. Human Bot Worm." title="" />
+<span class="caption">79. Human Bot Worm.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the Bot flies, which are among the most extraordinary, in
+their habits, of all insects. The history of the Bot flies is in brief
+thus. The adult two-winged fly lays its eggs on the exterior of the
+animal to be infested. They are conveyed into the interior of the host,
+where they hatch, and the worm or maggot lives by sucking in the
+purulent matter, caused by the irritation set up by its presence in its
+host; or else the worm itself, after hatching, bores under the skin.
+When fully grown, it quits the body and finishes its transformations to
+the fly-state under ground. Many quadrupeds, from mice, squirrels, and
+rabbits, up to the ox, horse, and even the rhinoceros, suffer from their
+attacks, while man himself is not exempt. The body of the adult fly is
+stout and hairy, and it is easily recognized by having the opening of
+the mouth very small, the mouth-parts being very rudimentary. The larv&aelig;
+are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, consisting of eleven
+segments, exclusive of the head, which are covered with rows of spines
+and tubercles, by which they move about within the body, thus irritating
+the animals in which they take up their abode. The breathing pores
+(stigmata) open in a scaly plate at the posterior end of the body. The
+mouth-parts (mandibles, etc.) of the subcutaneous larv&aelig; consist of
+fleshy tubercles, while in those species which live in the stomachs and
+frontal sinuses of their host, they are armed with horny hooks.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img083b.jpg" width="250" height="236" alt="80. Horse Bot Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">80. Horse Bot Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; attain their full size after moulting twice. Just before
+assuming the pupa state, the maggot leaves its peculiar dwelling place,
+descends into the ground and there becomes a pupa, though retaining its
+larval skin, which serves as a protection to it, whence it is called a
+"puparium."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Several well-authenticated instances are on record of a species of bot
+fly inhabiting the body of man, in Central and South America, producing
+painful tumors under the skin of the arm, legs and abdomen. It is still
+under dispute whether this human bot fly is a true or accidental
+parasite, the more probable opinion being that its proper host is the
+monkey or dog. In Cayenne, this revolting grub is called the Ver macaque
+(Fig. 79); in Para, Ura; in Costa Rica, Torcel; and in New Granada,
+Gusano peludo, or Nuche. The Dermatobia noxialis, supposed to be the Ver
+moyocuil of the inhabitants of Mexico and New Granada, lives beneath the
+skin of the dog.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img084a.jpg" width="550" height="314" alt="81. Bot Fly of Ox, and Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">81. Bot Fly of Ox, and Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/img084b.jpg" width="61" height="150" alt="82. Sheep Bot." title="" />
+<span class="caption">82. Sheep Bot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img084c.jpg" width="250" height="231" alt="83. Skin Bot Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">83. Skin Bot Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Bot fly of the horse, (Gastrophilus equi, Fig. 80 and larva), is
+pale yellowish, spotted with red, with short, grayish, yellow hairs, and
+the wings are banded with reddish. She lays her eggs upon the knees of
+the horse. They are conveyed into the stomach, where the larva lives
+from May until October, and when full grown are found hanging by their
+mouth hooks on the edge of the rectum of the horse, whence they are
+carried out in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> excrement. The pupa state lasts for thirty or forty
+days, and the perfect fly appears the next season, from June until
+October.</p>
+
+<p>The Bot fly of the ox (Hypoderma bovis, Fig. 81, and larva), is black
+and densely hairy, and the thorax is banded with yellow and white. The
+larva is found during the month of May, and also in summer, living in
+tumors on the backs of cattle. When fully grown, which is generally in
+July, they make their way out and fall to the ground, and live in the
+pupa-case from twenty-six to thirty days, the fly appearing from May
+until September. It is found all over the world. The &OElig;strus ovis, or
+sheep Bot fly (Fig. 82, larva), is of a dirty ash color. The abdomen is
+marbled with yellowish and white flecks, and is hairy at the end. This
+species of Bot fly is larviparous, i.e., the eggs are hatched within the
+body of the mother, the larv&aelig; being produced alive. M. F. Brauer, of
+Vienna, the author of the most thorough work we have on these flies,
+tells me that he knows of but one other Bot fly (a species of
+Cephanomyia) which produces living larv&aelig; instead of eggs. The eggs of
+certain other species of Bot flies do not hatch until three or four days
+after they are laid. The larv&aelig; of the sheep Bot fly live, during April,
+May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also in the nasal
+cavity, whence they fall to the ground when fully grown. In twenty-four
+hours they change to pup&aelig;, and the flies appear during the summer.</p>
+
+<p>We also figure the Cuterebra buccata (Fig. 83; <i>a</i>, side view,) which
+resembles in the larval state the ox Bot fly. Its habits are not known,
+though the young of other species infest the opossum, squirrel, hare,
+etc., living in subcutaneous tumors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img085.jpg" width="200" height="139" alt="The banded Lithacodes." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The banded Lithacodes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HOUSE FLY AND ITS ALLIES.</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 217px;">
+<img src="images/img086.jpg" width="217" height="250" alt="84. Mouth-parts of the House fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">84. Mouth-parts of the House fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common House fly, Musca domestica, scarcely needs an introduction to
+any one of our readers, and its countenance is so well known that we
+need not present a portrait here. But a study of the proboscis of the
+fly reveals a wonderful adaptability of the mouth-parts of this insect
+to their uses. We have already noticed the most perfect condition of
+these parts as seen in the horse fly. In the proboscis of the house fly
+the hard parts are obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue like
+organ (Fig. 84), bent up beneath the head when at rest. The maxill&aelig; are
+minute, their palpi (<i>mp</i>) being single-jointed, and the mandibles (<i>m</i>)
+are comparatively useless, being very short and small, compared with the
+lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or horse fly. But the structure of the
+tongue itself (labium, l) is most curious. When the fly settles upon a
+lump of sugar or other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it,
+and the broad knob-like end divides into two broad, flat, muscular
+leaves (<i>l</i>), which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the
+fly laps up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a
+framework of tracheal tubes. In the cut given above, Mr. Emerton has
+faithfully represented these modified trach&aelig;, which end in hairs
+projecting externally.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> Thus the inside of this broad fleshy expansion
+is rough like a rasp, and as Newport states, "is easily employed by the
+insect in scraping or tearing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this
+curious structure that the busy house fly occasions much mischief to the
+covers of our books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving
+tracings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted appearance which
+it occasions on them. It is by means of these also that it teases us in
+the heat of summer, when it alights on the hand or face to sip the
+perspiration as it exudes from, and is condensed upon, the skin."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/img087a.jpg" width="80" height="200" alt="85. Larva; a, Pupa-case of House fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">85. Larva;<br /><i>a</i>, Pupa-case of House fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/img087b.jpg" width="61" height="200" alt="86. Larva of Flesh fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">86. Larva of Flesh fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>Every one notices that house flies are most abundant around barns in
+August and September, and it is in the ordure of stables that the early
+stages of this insect are passed. No one has traced the transformations
+of this fly in our country, but we copy from Bouch&eacute;'s work on the
+transformations of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig.
+85), and pupa-case (<i>a</i>) of the Musca domestica of Europe, which is
+supposed to be our species. Bouch&eacute; states that the larva is cylindrical,
+rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy, and yellowish white,
+and four lines long. The pupa-case, or puparium, is dark reddish-brown,
+and three lines in length. It remains in the pupa state from eight to
+fourteen days. In Europe it is preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies
+(Chalcids). The flesh fly, Musca C&aelig;sar, or the Blue-bottle fly, feeds
+upon decaying animal matter. Its larva (Fig. 86) is long, cylindrical,
+the head being pointed, and the body conical, the posterior end being
+squarely docked. The larva of a Sargus-like form which feeds on offal,
+transforms into a flattened pupa-case (Fig. 87), provided with long,
+scattered hairs. The House fly disappears in autumn, at the approach of
+cold weather, though a few individuals pass through the winter,
+hibernating in houses, and when the rooms are heated may often be seen
+flying on the windows. Other species fly early in March, on warm days,
+having hibernated under leaves, and the bark of trees, moss, etc. An
+allied spe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>cies, the M. vomitoria, is the Meat fly. Closely allied are
+the parasitic species of Tachina, which live within the bodies of
+caterpillars and other insects, and are among the most beneficial of
+insects, as they prey on thousands of injurious caterpillars. Another
+fly of this Muscid group, the Idia Bigoti, according to Coquerel and
+Mondiere, produces in the natives of Senegal, hard, red, fluctuating
+tumors, in which the larva resides.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 113px;">
+<img src="images/img088a.jpg" width="113" height="200" alt="87. Larva of a Sargus-like fly" title="" />
+<span class="caption">87. Larva of a Sargus-like fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the smaller Muscids mine leaves, running galleries within the
+leaf, or burrowing in seeds or under the bark of plants. We have often
+noticed blister-like swellings on the bark of the willow, which are
+occasioned by a cylindrical, short, fleshy larva (Fig. 88<i>a</i>, much
+enlarged), about a line in length, which changes to a pupa within the
+old larval skin, assuming the form here represented (Fig. 88<i>b</i>), and
+about the last of June changes to a small black fly (Fig. 88), which
+Baron Osten Sacken refers doubtfully to the genus Lonch&aelig;a.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img088b.jpg" width="300" height="129" alt="86. Willow Blister fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">86. Willow Blister fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Apple midge frequently does great mischief to apples after they are
+gathered. Mr. F. G. Sanborn states that nine-tenths of the apple crop in
+Wrentham, Mass., were destroyed by a fly supposed to be the Molobrus
+mali, or Apple midge, described by Dr. Fitch. "The eggs were supposed to
+have been laid in fresh apples, in the holes made by the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella), whence the larv&aelig; penetrated into all parts of
+the apple, working small cylindrical burrows about one-sixteenth of an
+inch in diameter." Mr. W. C. Fish has also sent me, from Sandwich,
+Mass., specimens of another kind of apple worm, which he writes has been
+very common in Barnstable county. "It attacks mostly the earlier
+varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for the old fashioned
+Summer, or High-top<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> Sweet. The larv&aelig; (Fig. 89 <i>a</i>) enter the fruit
+usually where it has been bored by the Apple worm (Carpocapsa), not
+uncommonly through the crescent-like puncture of the curculio, and
+sometimes through the calyx, when it has not been troubled by other
+insects. Many of them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon
+appears, successive generations of the maggots following until cold
+weather. I have frequently found the pup&aelig; in the bottom of barrels in a
+cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the spring. In the early
+apples, the larv&aelig; work about in every direction. If there be several in
+an apple, they make it unfit for use. Apples that appear perfectly sound
+when taken from the tree, will sometimes, if kept, be all alive with
+them in a few weeks." Baron Osten Sacken informs me that it is a
+Drosophila, "the species of which live in putrescent vegetable matter,
+especially fruits."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img089a.jpg" width="250" height="141" style="margin-top: 2em;" alt="89. Apple Worm and its Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">89. Apple Worm and its Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img089b.jpg" width="250" height="172" alt=" 90. Parent of the Cheese Maggot." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> 90. Parent of the Cheese Maggot.</span>
+</div></div>
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 56px;">
+<img src="images/img089c.jpg" width="56" height="150" alt="91. Pupa case of Wine-fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">91. Pupa case of Wine-fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;">An allied fly is the parent of the cheese maggot. The fly itself
+(Piophila casei, Fig. 90) is black, with metallic green reflections, and
+the legs are dark and paler at the knee-joints, the middle and hind pair
+of tarsi being dark honey yellow. The Wine fly is also a Piophila, and
+lives the life of a perpetual toper in old wine casks, and partially
+emptied beer, cider and wine bottles, where, with its pupa-case (Fig.
+91), it may be found floating dead in its favorite beverage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img090a.jpg" width="260" height="164" alt="92. Bird Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">92. Bird Tick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img090b.jpg" width="260" height="178" alt="93. The Horse Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">93. The Horse Tick.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">We now come to the more degraded forms of flies which live parasitically
+on various animals. We figure, from a specimen in the Museum of the
+Peabody Academy of Science, the Bird tick (Ornithomyia, Fig. 92), which
+lives upon the Great Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened, adapted for
+its life under the feathers, where it gorges itself with the blood of
+its host.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Here belongs also the Horse tick (Hippobosca equina, Fig. 93). It is
+about the size of the house fly, being black, with yellow spots on the
+thorax. Verrill<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> says that "it attacks by preference those parts where
+the hair is thinnest and the skin softest, especially under the belly
+and between the hind legs. Its bite causes severe pain, and will
+irritate the gentlest horses, often rendering them almost unmanageable,
+and causing them to kick dangerously. When found, they cling so firmly
+as to be removed with some difficulty, and they are so tough as not to
+be readily crushed. If one escapes when captured, it will instantly
+return to the horse, or, perchance, to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> head of its captor, where it
+is an undesirable guest. Another species sometimes infests the ox."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img091a.jpg" width="200" height="216" alt="94. Sheep Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">94. Sheep Tick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<img src="images/img091b.jpg" width="170" height="240" alt="95. Bat Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">95. Bat Tick.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In the wingless Sheep tick (Melophagus ovinus, Fig. 94, with the
+pupa-case on the left), the body is wingless and very hairy, and the
+proboscis is very long. The young are developed within the body of the
+parent, until they attain the pupa state, when she deposits the pupa
+case, which is nearly half as large as her abdomen. Other genera are
+parasitic on bats; among them are the singular spider-like Bat ticks
+(Nycteribia, Fig. 95), which have small bodies and enormous legs, and
+are either blind, or provided with four simple eyes. They are of small
+size, being only a line or two in length. Such degraded forms of Diptera
+have a remarkable resemblance to the spiders, mites, ticks, etc. The
+reader should compare the Nycteribia with the young six-footed moose
+tick figured farther on. Another spider-like fly is the Chionea valga
+(Fig. 96; and 97, larva of the European species), which is a degraded
+Tipula, The latter genus standing near the head of the Diptera. The
+Chionea, according to Harris, lives in its early, stages in the ground
+like many other gnats, and is found early in the spring, sometimes
+crawling over the snow. We have also figured and mentioned previously
+(page <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>) the Bee louse, Braula, another wingless spider-like fly.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;">
+<img src="images/img091c.jpg" width="110" height="180" alt="96. Spider fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">96. Spider fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 53px;">
+<img src="images/img091d.jpg" width="53" height="210" alt="97. Larva of Spider fly" title="" />
+<span class="caption">97. Larva of Spider fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">The Flea is also a wingless fly, and is probably, as has been suggested
+by an eminent entomologist, as Baron Osten Sacken informs us, a degraded
+genus of the family to which Mycetobia belongs. Its transformations are
+very unlike those of the fly ticks, and agree closely with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> early
+stages of Mycetophila, one of the Tipulid family. In its adult condition
+the flea combines the characters of the Diptera, with certain features
+of the grasshoppers and cockroaches, and the bugs. The body of the flea
+(Fig. 98, greatly magnified; <i>a</i>, antenn&aelig;; <i>b</i>, maxill&aelig;, and their
+palpi, <i>c</i>; <i>d</i>, mandibles; the latter, with the labium, which is not
+shown in the figure, forming the acute beak) is much compressed, and
+there are minute wing-pads, instead of wings, present in some species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/img092a.jpg" width="450" height="277" alt="98. Flea, magnified." title="" />
+<span class="caption">98. Flea, magnified.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 143px;">
+<img src="images/img092b.jpg" width="143" height="200" alt="99. Larva of Flea." title="" />
+<span class="caption">99. Larva of Flea.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Dr. G. A. Perkins, of Salem, has succeeded in rearing in considerable
+numbers from the eggs, the larv&aelig; of this flea. The larv&aelig; (Fig. 99, much
+enlarged; <i>a</i>, antenna; <i>b</i>, the terminal segments of the abdomen), when
+hatched, are half a line in length. The body is long, cylindrical, and
+pure white, with thirteen segments exclusive of the head, and provided
+with rather long hairs. It is very active in its movements, and lives on
+blood clots, remaining on unswept floors of out-houses, or in the straw
+or bed of the animals they infest. In six days after the eggs are laid
+the larv&aelig; appear, and in a few days after leaving the egg they mature,
+spin a rude cocoon, and change to pup&aelig;, and the perfect insects appear
+in about ten days. A good authority states that the human flea does not
+exist in America. We never saw a specimen in this country.</p>
+
+<p>A practical point is how to rid dogs of fleas. As a preventive measure,
+we would suggest the frequent sweeping and cleansing of the floors of
+their kennels, and renewing the straw or chips<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> composing their
+beds,&mdash;chips being the best material for them to sleep upon. Flea
+afflicted dogs should be washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or
+weak tobacco or petroleum water.</p>
+
+<p>A writer in "Science-Gossip" recommends the "use of the Persian Insect
+Destroyer, one package of which suffices for a good sized dog. The
+powder should be well rubbed in all over the skin, or the dog, if small,
+can be put into a bag previously dusted with the powder; in either case
+the dog should be washed soon after."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img093a.jpg" width="200" height="100" alt="100. Chique." title="" />
+<span class="caption">100. Chique.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of America is the
+Sarcopsylla penetrans, called by the natives the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho,
+Chique, or Pique (Fig. 100, enlarged; a, gravid female, natural size).
+The female, during the dry season, bores into the feet of the natives,
+the operation requiring but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating
+under the nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with
+eggs, the hind-body swelling out to the size of a pea; her presence
+often causes distressing sores. The Chigoe lays about sixty eggs,
+depositing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening of
+the oviduct. The young develop and feed upon the swollen body of the
+parent flea until they mature, when they leave the body of their host
+and escape to the ground. The best preventive is cleanliness and the
+constant wearing of shoes or slippers when in the house, and of boots
+when out of doors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img093b.jpg" width="350" height="285" alt="The Willow Gall Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Willow Gall Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BORERS OF OUR SHADE TREES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In no way can the good taste and public spirit of our citizens be better
+shown than in the planting of shade trees. Regarded simply from a
+commercial point of view one cannot make a more paying investment than
+setting out an oak, elm, maple or other shade tree about his premises.
+To a second generation it becomes a precious heirloom, and the planter
+is duly held in remembrance for those finer qualities of heart and head,
+and the wise forethought which prompted a deed simple and natural, but a
+deed too often undone. What an increased value does a fine avenue of
+shade trees give to real estate in a city? And in the country the single
+stately elm rising gracefully and benignantly over the wayside cottage,
+year after year like a guardian angel sending down its blessings of
+shade, moisture and coolness in times of drought, and shelter from the
+pitiless storm, recalls the tenderest associations of generation after
+generation that go from the old homestead.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally the tree, or a number of them, sicken and die, or linger
+out a miserable existence, and we naturally after failing to ascribe the
+cause to bad soil, want of moisture or adverse atmospheric agencies,
+conclude that the tree is infested with insects, especially if the bark
+in certain places seems diseased. Often the disease is in streets
+lighted by gas, attributed to the leakage of the gas. Such a case has
+come up recently at Morristown, New Jersey. An elm was killed by the Elm
+borer (Compsidea tridentata), and the owner was on the point of suing
+the Gas Company for the loss of the tree from the supposed leakage of a
+gas pipe. While the matter was in dispute, a gentleman of that city took
+the pains to peel off a piece of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> bark and found, as he wrote me,
+"great numbers of the larv&aelig; of this beetle in the bark and between the
+bark and the wood, while the latter is 'tattooed' with sinuous grooves
+in every direction and the tree is completely girdled by them in some
+places. There are three different sizes of the larv&aelig;, evidently one, two
+and three years old, or more properly six, eighteen and thirty months
+old." The tree had to be cut down.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Harris, in his "Treatise on Injurious Insects," gives an account of
+the ravages of this insect, which we quote: "On the 19th of June, 1846,
+Theophilus Parsons, Esq., sent me some fragments of bark and insects
+which were taken by Mr. J. Richardson from the decaying elms on Boston
+Common, and among the insects I recognized a pair of these beetles in a
+living state. The trees were found to have suffered terribly from the
+ravages of these insects. Several of them had already been cut down, as
+past recovery; others were in a dying state, and nearly all of them were
+more or less affected with disease or premature decay. Their bark was
+perforated, to the height of thirty feet from the ground, with numerous
+holes, through which insects had escaped; and large pieces had become so
+loose, by the undermining of the grubs, as to yield to slight efforts,
+and come off in flakes. The inner bark was filled with burrows of the
+grubs, great numbers of which, in various stages of growth, together
+with some in the pupa state, were found therein; and even the surface of
+the wood, in many cases, was furrowed with their irregular tracks. Very
+rarely did they seem to have penetrated far into the wood itself; but
+their operations were mostly confined to the inner layers of the bark,
+which thereby became loosened from the wood beneath. The grubs rarely
+exceed three-quarters of an inch in length. They have no feet, and they
+resemble the larv&aelig; of other species of Saperda, except in being rather
+more flattened. They appear to complete their transformations in the
+third year of their existence.</p>
+
+<p>"The beetles probably leave their holes in the bark during the month of
+June and in the beginning of July, for, in the course of thirty years, I
+have repeatedly taken them at various dates, from the fifth of June to
+the tenth of July. It is evident, from the nature and extent of their
+depredations, that these insects have alarmingly hastened the decay of
+the elm trees on Boston Mall and Common, and that they now threaten
+their entire destruction. Other causes, however, have probably
+con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>tributed to the same end. It will be remembered that these trees
+have greatly suffered, in past times, from the ravages of canker-worms.
+Moreover, the impenetrable state of the surface soil, the exhausted
+condition of the subsoil, and the deprivation of all benefit from the
+decomposition of accumulated leaves, which, in a state of nature, the
+trees would have enjoyed, but which a regard for neatness has
+industriously removed, have doubtless had no small influence in
+diminishing the vigor of the trees, and thus made them fall
+unresistingly a prey to insect devourers. The plan of this work
+precludes a more full consideration of these and other topics connected
+with the growth and decay of these trees; and I can only add, that it
+may be prudent to cut down and burn all that are much infested by the
+borers."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img096a.jpg" width="150" height="148" alt="101. Elm Tree Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">101. Elm Tree Beetle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;">
+<img src="images/img096b.jpg" width="103" height="200" alt="102. Elm Tree Borer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">102. Elm Tree Borer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Three-toothed Compsidea (Fig. 101), is a rather flat-bodied, dark
+brown beetle, with a rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes
+on the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of each wing
+cover. It is about one-half an inch in length.</p>
+
+
+<p>The larva (Fig. 102) is white, subcylindrical, a little flattened, with
+the lateral fold of the body rather prominent; the end of the body is
+flattened, obtuse, and nearly as wide at the end as at the first
+abdominal ring. The head is one-half as wide as the prothoracic ring,
+being rather large. The prothoracic ring, or segment just behind the
+head, is transversely oblong, being twice as broad as long; there is a
+pale dorsal corneous transversely oblong shield, being about two-thirds
+as long as wide, and nearly as long as the four succeeding segments;
+this plate is smooth, except on the posterior half, which is rough, with
+the front edge irregular and not extending far down the sides. Fine
+hairs arise from the front edge and side of the plate, and similar hairs
+are scattered over the body and especially around the end. On the upper
+side of each segment is a transversely oblong ovate roughened area, with
+the front edge slightly convex, and the hinder slightly arcuate. On the
+under side of each segment are similar rough horny plates, but arcuate
+in front, with the hinder edge straight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It differs from the larva of the Linden tree borer (Saperda vestita) in
+the body being shorter, broader, more hairy, with the tip of the abdomen
+flatter and more hairy. The prothoracic segment is broader and flatter,
+and the rough portion of the dorsal plates is larger and less
+tranversely ovate. The structure of the head shows that its generic
+distinctness from Saperda is well founded, as the head is smaller and
+flatter, the clypeus being twice as large, and the labrum broad and
+short, while in S. vestita it is longer than broad. The mandibles are
+much longer and slenderer, and the antenn&aelig; are much smaller than in S.
+vestita.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img097b.jpg" width="500" height="373" alt="104. Linden Tree Borer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">104. Linden Tree Borer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 127px;">
+<img src="images/img097a.jpg" width="127" height="180" alt="103. Linden Tree Beetle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">103. Linden Tree Beetle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Linden tree borer (Fig. 103) is a greenish snuff-yellow beetle, with
+six black spots near the middle of the back; and it is about
+eight-tenths of an inch in length, though often smaller. The beetles,
+according to Dr. Paul Swift, as quoted by Dr. Harris, were found (in
+Philadelphia) upon the small branches and leaves on the 28th day of May,
+and it is said that they come out as early as the first of the month,
+and continue to make their way through the back of the trunk and large
+branches during the whole of the warm season. They immediately fly into
+the top of the tree, and there feed upon the epidermis of the tender
+twigs, and the petioles of the leaves, often wholly denuding the latter,
+and causing the leaves to fall. They deposit their eggs, two or three in
+a place, upon the trunk or branches especially about the forks, making
+slight incisions or punctures for their reception with their strong<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+jaws. As many as ninety eggs have been taken from a single beetle. The
+grubs (Fig. 104, <i>e</i>; <i>a</i>, enlarged view of the head seen from above;
+<i>b</i>, the under view of the same: <i>c</i>, side view, and <i>d</i>, two rings of
+the body enlarged), hatched from these eggs, undermine the bark to the
+extent of six or eight inches, in sinuous channels, or penetrate the
+solid wood an equal distance. It is supposed that three years are
+required to mature the insect. Various expedients have been tried to
+arrest their course, but without effect. A stream, thrown into the tops
+of trees from the hydrant, is often used with good success to dislodge
+other insects; but the borer-beetles, when thus disturbed, take wing and
+hover over the trees till all is quiet, and then alight and go to work
+again. The trunks and branches of some of the trees have been washed
+over with various preparations without benefit. Boring the trunk near
+the ground and putting in sulphur and other drugs, and plugging, have
+been tried with as little effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 750px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 247px;">
+<img src="images/img098a.jpg" width="247" height="300" alt="105. Poplar Tree Borer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">105. Poplar Tree Borer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img098b.jpg" width="350" height="297" alt="106. Broad-necked Prionus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">106. Broad-necked Prionus.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The city of Philadelphia has suffered grievously from this borer.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Dr. Swift remarks, in 1844, that "the trees in Washington and
+Independence Squares were first observed to have been attacked about
+seven years ago. Within two years it has been found necessary to cut
+down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> forty-seven European lindens in the former square alone, where
+there now remain only a few American lindens, and these a good deal
+eaten." In New England this beetle should be looked for during the first
+half of June.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img099a.jpg" width="400" height="301" alt="107. Larva of the Plain Saperda." title="" />
+<span class="caption">107. Larva of the Plain Saperda.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img099b.jpg" width="260" height="137" alt="108. Locust Borer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">108. Locust Borer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Poplar tree is infested by an other species of Saperda (S.
+calcarata). This is a much larger beetle than those above mentioned,
+being an inch or a little more in length. It is grey, irregularly
+striped, with ochre, and the wing-covers end in a sharp point. The grub
+(Fig. 105 <i>a</i>; <i>b</i>, top view of the head; <i>e</i>, under side) is about two
+inches long and whitish yellow. It has, with that of the Broad-necked
+Prionus (P. laticollis of Drury, Fig. 106, adult and pupa), as Harris
+states, "almost entirely destroyed the Lombardy poplar in this vicinity"
+(Boston). It bores in the trunks, and the beetle flies by night in
+August and September. We also figure the larva of another borer (Fig.
+107 <i>c</i>; <i>a</i>, top view of the head; <i>b</i>, under side; <i>e</i>, dorsal view of
+an abdominal segment; <i>d</i>, end of the body, showing its peculiar form),
+the Saperda inornata of Say, the beetle of which is black, with ash gray
+hairs, and without spines on the wing-covers. It is much smaller than
+any of the foregoing species, being nine-twentieths of an inch in
+length. Its habits are not known. We also figure the Locust and Hickory
+borer (Fig. 108; <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa), which has swept off the locust
+tree from New England. The beautiful yellow banded beetles are very
+abundant on the flowers of the golden rod in September.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The subject of our discourse is not only a disagreeable but too often a
+painful one. Not only is the mere mention of the creature's name of
+which we are to speak tabooed and avoided by the refined and polite, but
+the creature itself has become extinct and banished from the society of
+the good and respectable. Indeed under such happy auspices do a large
+proportion of the civilized world now live that their knowledge of the
+habits and form of a louse may be represented by a blank. Not so with
+some of their great-great-grandfathers and grandmothers, if history,
+sacred and profane, poetry,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and the annals of literature testify
+aright; for it is comparatively a recent fact in history that the louse
+has awakened to find himself an outcast and an alien. Among savage
+nations of all climes, some of which have been dignified with the apt,
+though high sounding name of Phthiriophagi, and among the Chinese and
+other semi-civilized peoples, these lords of the soil still flourish
+with a luxuriance and rankness of growth that never diminishes, so that
+we may say without exaggeration that certain mental traits and fleshly
+appetites<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> induced by their consumption as an article of food may have
+been created, while a separate niche in our anthropological museums is
+reserved for the instruments of warfare, both offensive and defensive,
+used by their phthiriophagous hunters. Then have we not in the very
+centres of civilization the poor and degraded, which are most faithfully
+attended lay these revolting satellites!</p>
+
+<p>But bantering aside, there is no more engaging subject to the naturalist
+than that of animal parasites. Consider the great proportion of animals
+that gain their livelihood by stealing that of others. While a large
+proportion of plants are more or less parasitic, they gain, thereby in
+interest to the botanist, and many of them are eagerly sought as the
+choicest ornaments of our conservatories. Not so with their zo&ouml;logical
+confr&eacute;res. All that is repulsive and uncanny is associated with them,
+and those who study them, though perhaps among the keenest intellects
+and most industrious observers, speak of them without the limits of
+their own circle in subdued whispers or under a protest, and their works
+fall under the eyes of the scantiest few. But the study of animal
+parasites has opened up new fields of research, all bearing most
+intimately on those two questions that ever incite the naturalist to the
+most laborious and untiring diligence&mdash;what is life and its origin? The
+subjects of the alternation of generations, or parthenogenesis, of
+embryology and biology, owe their great advance, in large degree, to the
+study of such animals as are parasitic, and the question whether the
+origin of species be due to creation by the action of secondary laws or
+not, will be largely met and answered by the study of the varied
+metamorphoses and modes of growth, the peculiar modification of organs
+that adapt them to their strange modes of life, and the consequent
+variation in specific characters so remarkably characteristic of those
+animals living parasitically upon others.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>With these considerations in view surely a serious, thoughtful, and
+thorough study of the louse, in all its varieties and species, is
+neither belittling nor degrading, nor a waste of time. We venture to
+say, moreover, that more light will be thrown on the classification and
+morphology of insects by the study of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> the parasitic species, and other
+degraded, wingless forms that do not always live parasitically,
+especially of their embryology and changes after leaving the egg, than
+by years of study of the more highly developed insects alone. Among
+Hymenoptera the study of the minute Ichueumons, such as the
+Proctotrupids and Chalcids, especially the egg-parasites; among moths
+the study of the wingless canker-worm moth and Orgyla; among Diptera the
+flea, bee louse, sheep tick, bat tick, and other wingless flies; among
+Coleoptera, the Melo&euml;, and singular Stylops and Xenos; among Neuroptera,
+the snow insect, Boreus, the Podura (Fig. 109) and Lepisma, and
+especially the hemipterous lice, will throw a flood of light on these
+prime subjects in philosophical entomology.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 119px;">
+<img src="images/img102a.jpg" width="119" height="250" alt="Illustration: 109. Podura." title="" />
+<span class="caption">109. Podura.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;">
+<img src="images/img102b.jpg" width="137" height="150" alt="110. Bed-bug." title="" />
+<span class="caption">110. Bed-bug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Without farther apology, then, and very dependent on the labors of
+others for our information, we will say a few words on some interesting
+points in the natural history of lice. In the first place, how does the
+louse bite? It is the general opinion among physicians, supported by
+able entomologists, that the louse has jaws, and bites. But while the
+bird lice (Mallophaga) do have biting jaws, whence the Germans call them
+skin-eaters (<i>pelzfresser</i>), the mouth parts of the genus Pediculus, or
+true louse, resemble in their structure those of the bed-bug (Fig. 110),
+and other Hemiptera. In its form the louse closely resembles the
+bed-bug, and the two groups of lice, the Pediculi and Mallophaga, should
+be considered as families of Hemiptera, though degraded and at the base
+of the hemipterous series. The resemblance is carried out in the form of
+the egg, the mode of growth of the embryo, and the metamorphosis of the
+insect after leaving its egg.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Schi&ouml;dte, a Danish entomologist, has, it seems to us, forever settled
+the question as to whether the louse bites the flesh or sucks blood, and
+decides a point interesting to physicians, <i>i.e.</i>, that the loathsome
+disease called phthiriasis is a nonentity. From this source not only
+many living in poverty and squalor are said to have died, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> also men
+of renown, among whom Denny in his work on the Anoplura, or lice, of
+Great Britain, mentions the name of "Pheretima, as recorded by
+Herodotus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the Dictator Sylla, the two Herods, the
+Emperor Maximian, and Phillip the Second." Schi&ouml;dte, in his essay "On
+Phthirius, and on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus" (Annals and
+Magazine of Natural History, 1866, page 213), says that these statements
+will not bear examination, and that this disease should be placed on the
+"retired list," for such a malady is impossible to be produced by simply
+blood-sucking animals, and that they are only the disgusting attendants
+on other diseases. Our author thus describes the mouth parts of the
+louse.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 109px;">
+<img src="images/img104.jpg" width="109" height="400" alt="111. Mouth of the Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">111. Mouth of the Louse.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></span>
+</div>
+<p>"Lice are no doubt to be regarded as bugs, simplified in structure and
+lowered in animal life in accordance with their mode of living as
+parasites, being small, flattened, apterous, myopic, crawling and
+climbing, with a conical head, moulded as it were to suit the rugosities
+of the surface they inhabit, provided with a soft, transversely furrowed
+skin, probably endowed with an acute sense of feeling, which can guide
+them in that twilight in which their mode of life places them. The
+peculiar attenuation of the head in front of the antenn&aelig; at once
+suggests to the practised eye the existence of a mouth adapted for
+suction. This mouth differs from that of the Hemiptera (bed-bug, etc.)
+generally, in the circumstance that the labium is capable of being
+retracted into the upper part of the head, which therefore presents a
+little fold, which is extended when the labium is protruded. In order to
+strengthen this part, a flat band of chitine is placed on the under
+surface, just as the shoemaker puts a small piece of gutta-percha into
+the back of an India-rubber shoe; as, however, the chitine is not very
+elastic, this band is rather thinner in the middle, in order that it may
+bend and fold a little when the skin is not extended by the lower lip.
+The latter consists, as usual, of two hard lateral pieces, of which the
+fore ends are united by a membrane so that they form a tube, of which
+the interior covering is a continuation of the elastic membrane in the
+top of the head; inside its orifice there are a number of small hooks,
+which assume different positions according to the degree of protrusion;
+if this is at its highest point the orifice is turned inside out, like a
+collar, whereby the small hooks are directed backwards, so that they can
+serve as barbs. These are the movements which the animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> executes after
+having first inserted the labium through a sweat-pore. When the hooks
+have got a firm hold, the first pair of set&aelig; (the real mandibles
+transformed) are protruded; these are, towards their points, united by a
+membrane so as to form a closed tube, from which, again, is inserted the
+second pair of set&aelig;, or maxill&aelig;, which in the same manner are
+transformed into a tube ending in four small lobes placed crosswise. It
+follows that when the whole instrument is exserted, we perceive a long
+membranous flexible tube hanging down from the labium, and along the
+walls of this tube the setiform mandibles and maxill&aelig; in the shape of
+long narrow bands of chitine. In this way the tube of suction can be
+made longer or shorter as required, and easily adjusted to the thickness
+of the skin in the particular place where the animal is sucking, whereby
+access to the capillary system is secured at any part of the body. It is
+apparent, from the whole structure of the instrument, that it is by no
+means calculated on being used as a sting, but is rather to be compared
+to a delicate elastic probe, in the use of which the terminal lobes
+probably serve as feelers. As soon as the capillary system is reached,
+the blood will at once ascend into the narrow tube, after which the
+current is continued with increasing rapidity by means of the pulsation
+of the pumping ventricle and the powerful peristaltic movement of the
+digestive tube."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>If we compare the form of the louse (Fig. 112, Pediculus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> capitis, the
+head louse; Fig. 113, P. vestimenti, the body louse) with the young
+bed-bug as figured by Westwood (Modern Classification of Insects, ii,.p.
+475) we shall see a very close resemblance, the head of the young Cimex
+being proportionally larger than in the adult, while the thorax is
+smaller, and the abdomen is more ovate, less rounded; moreover the body
+is white and partially transparent.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/img105a.jpg" width="80" height="160" alt="113. Body Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">113. Body Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 95px;">
+<img src="images/img105b.jpg" width="95" height="160" alt="112. Head Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">112. Head Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under a high power of the microscope specimens treated with diluted
+potash show that the mandibles and maxill&aelig; arise near each other in the
+middle of the head opposite the eyes, their bases slightly diverging.
+Thence they converge to the mouth, over which they meet, and beyond are
+free, being hollow, thin bands of chitine, meeting like the maxill&aelig;, or
+tongue, of butterflies to form a hollow tube for suction. The mandibles
+each suddenly end in a curved, slender filament, which is probably used
+as a tactile organ to explore the best sites in the flesh of their
+victim for drawing blood. On the other hand the maxill&aelig;, which are much
+narrower than the mandibles, become rounded towards the end, bristle
+like, and tipped with numerous exceedingly fine barbs, by which the bug
+anchors itself in the flesh, while the blood is pumped through the
+mandibles. The base of the large, tubular labium, or beak, which
+ensheathes the mandibles and maxill&aelig;, is opposite the end of the clypeus
+or front edge of the upper side of the head, and at a distance beyond
+the mouth equal to the breadth of the labium itself. The labium, which
+is divided into three joints, becomes flattened towards the tip, which
+is square, and ends in two thin membranous lobes, probably endowed with
+a slight sense of touch. On comparing these parts with those of the
+louse, it will be seen how much alike they are with the exception of the
+labium, a very variable organ in the Hemiptera. From the long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> sucker of
+the Pediculus, to the stout chitinous jaws of the Mallophaga, or bird
+lice, is a sudden transition, but on comparing the rest of the head and
+body it will be seen that the distinction only amounts to a family one,
+though Burmeister placed the Mallophaga among the Orthoptera
+(grasshoppers and crickets) on account of the mandibles being adapted
+for biting. It has been a common source of error to depend too much upon
+one or a single set of organs. Insects have been classified on
+characters drawn from the wings, or the number of the joints of the
+tarsi, or the form of the mouth parts. We must take into account in
+endeavoring to ascertain the limits of natural groups, as the internal
+anatomy and the embryology and metamorphosis of insects, before we can
+hope to obtain a natural classification.</p>
+
+<p>The family of bird lice is a very extensive one, embracing many genera,
+and several hundred species. One or more species infest the skin of all
+our domestic and wild mammals and birds, some birds sheltering beneath
+their feathers four or five species of lice. Before giving a hasty
+account of some of our more common species; we will give a sketch of the
+embryological history of the lice, with special reference to the
+structure of the mouth parts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;">
+<img src="images/img106a.jpg" width="159" height="300" alt="114. Embryo of the Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">114. Embryo of the Louse.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img106b.jpg" width="250" height="252" style="margin-top: 3em;" alt="115. Mouth Parts of the Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">115. Mouth Parts of the Louse.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The eggs (Fig. 114, egg of the head louse) are long, oval, somewhat
+pear-shaped, with the hinder end somewhat pointed, while the anterior
+end is flattened, and bears little conical micro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>pyles (<i>m</i>, minute
+orifices for the passage of the spermatozoa into the egg), which vary in
+form in the different species and genera; the opposite end of the egg is
+provided with a few bristles. The female attaches her eggs to the hairs
+or feathers of her host.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img107a.jpg" width="250" height="198" style="margin-top: 2.5em;" alt="116. Mouth Parts of the Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">116. Mouth Parts of the Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img107c.jpg" width="250" height="235" alt="117. Mouth Parts of Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">117. Mouth Parts of Louse.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img107b.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="118. Mouth Parts of Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">118. Mouth Parts of Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the egg has been fertilized by the male, the blastoderm, or
+primitive skin, forms, and subsequently two layers, or embryonal
+membranes, appear; the outer is called the amnion (Fig. 114, <i>am</i>),
+while the inner visceral membrane (<i>db</i>) partially wraps the rude form
+of the embryo in its folds. The head (<i>vk</i>) of the embryo is now
+directed towards the end of the egg on which the hairs are situated;
+afterwards the embryo revolves on its axis and the head lies next to the
+opposite end of the egg. Eight tubercles bud out from the under side of
+the head, of which the foremost and longest are the antenn&aelig; (<i>as</i>),
+those succeeding are the mandibles, maxill&aelig;, and second maxill&aelig;, or
+labium. Behind them arise six long, slender tubercles forming the legs,
+and the primitive streak rudely marks the lower wall of the thorax and
+abdomen not yet formed. Figure 115 represents the head and mouth parts
+of the embryo of the same louse; <i>vk</i> is the forehead, or clypeus;
+<i>ant</i>, the antenn&aelig;; <i>mad</i>, the mandibles; <i>max</i><sup>1</sup>, the
+first pair of maxill&aelig;, and <i>max</i><sup>2</sup>, the second pair
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> maxill&aelig;, or labium. Figure 116 represents the mouth parts of the
+same insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium
+elongated and closely folded together. Figure 117 represents the same
+still farther advanced; the mandibles (<i>mad</i>) are sharp, and resemble
+the jaws of the Mallophaga; and the maxill&aelig; (<i>max</i>^1) and labium
+(<i>max</i>^2) are still large, while afterwards the labium becomes nearly
+obsolete. Figure 118 represents a front view of the mouth parts of a
+bird louse, Goniodes; <i>lb</i>, is the upper lip, or labrum, lying under the
+clypeus; <i>mad</i>, the mandibles; max, the maxill&aelig;; <i>l</i>, the lyre-formed
+piece; and <i>pl</i>, the "plate."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;">
+<img src="images/img108a.jpg" width="167" height="280" alt="119. Louse of Cow." title="" />
+<span class="caption">119. Louse of Cow.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 205px;">
+<img src="images/img108b.jpg" width="205" height="280" alt="120. Louse of Hog." title="" />
+<span class="caption">120. Louse of Hog.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">We will now describe some of the common species of lice found on a few
+of our domestic animals, and the mallophagous parasites occurring on
+certain mammals and birds. The family Pediculina, or true lice, is
+higher than the bird lice, their mouth parts, as well as the structure
+of the head, resembling the true Hemiptera, especially the bed bug. The
+clypeus, or front of the head, is much smaller than in the bird lice,
+the latter retaining the enlarged forehead of the embryo, it being in
+some species half as large as the rest of the head.</p>
+
+<p>All of our domestic mammals and birds are plagued by one or more species
+of lice. Figure 119 represents the H&aelig;matopinus vituli, which is brownish
+in color. As the specimen figured came from the Burnett collection of
+the Boston Society of Natural History, together with those of the goat
+louse, the louse of the common fowl, and of the cat, they are
+undoubtedly naturalized here. Quite a different species is the louse of
+the hog (H. suis, Fig. 120).</p>
+
+
+<p>The remaining parasites belong to the skin-biting lice, or Mallophaga,
+and I will speak of the several genera referred to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> in their natural
+order, beginning with the highest form and that which is nearest allied
+to Pediculus.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;">
+<img src="images/img109a.jpg" width="151" height="200" alt="121. Louse of Domestic Fowl." title="" />
+<span class="caption">121. Louse of Domestic Fowl.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common barn-yard fowl is infested by a louse that we have called
+Goniocotes Burnettii (Fig. 121), in honor of the late Dr. W. I. Burnett,
+a young and talented naturalist and physiologist, who paid more
+attention than any one else in this country to the study of these
+parasites, and made a large collection of them, now in the museum of the
+Boston Society of Natural History. It differs from the G. hologaster of
+Europe, which lives on the same bird, in the short second joint of the
+antenn&aelig;, which are also stouter; and in the long head, the clypeus being
+much longer and more acutely rounded; while the head is less hollowed
+out at the insertion of the antenn&aelig;. The abdomen is oval, and one-half
+as wide as long, with transverse, broad, irregular bands along the edges
+of the segments. The mandibles are short and straight, two toothed. The
+body is slightly yellowish, and variously streaked and banded with
+pitchy black. The duck is infested by a remarkably slender form (Fig.
+122, Philopterus squalidus). Figure 123 represents the louse of the cat,
+and another species (Fig. 124) of the same genus (Trichodes) lives upon
+the goat.</p>
+
+<p>The most degraded genus is Gyropus. Mr. C. Cook has found Gyropus ovalis
+of Europe abundant on the Guinea pig. A species is also found on the
+porpoise; an interesting fact, as this is the only insect we know of
+that lives parasitically on any marine animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 72px;">
+<img src="images/img109b.jpg" width="72" height="200" alt="122. Duck Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">122. Duck Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genus Goniodes (Fig. 125, G. stylifer, the turkey louse) is of great
+interest from a morphological and developmental point of view, as the
+antenn&aelig; are described and figured by Denny as being "in the males
+cheliform (Fig. 126, <i>a</i>, male; <i>b</i>, female); the first joint being very
+large and thick, the third considerably smaller, recurved towards the
+first, and forming a claw, the fourth and fifth very small,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> arising
+from the back of the third." He farther remarks, that "the males of this
+[which lives on the turkey] and all the other species of Goniodes, use
+the first and third joints of the antenn&aelig; with great facility, acting
+the part of a finger and thumb." The antenn&aelig; of the females are of the
+ordinary form. This hand-like structure, is, so far as we know, without
+a parallel among insects, the antenn&aelig; of the Hemiptera being almost
+uniformly filiform, and from two to nine-jointed. The design of this
+structure is probably to enable the male to grasp its consort and also
+perhaps to cling to the feathers, and thus give it a superiority over
+the weaker sex in its advances towards courtship. Why is this advantage
+possessed by the males of this genus alone? The world of insects, and of
+animals generally abounds in such instances, though existing in other
+organs, and the developmentist dimly perceives in such departures from a
+normal type of structure, the origin of new generic forms, whether due
+at first to a seemingly accidental variation, or, as in this instance,
+perhaps, to long use as prehensile organs through successive generations
+of lice having the antenn&aelig; slightly diverging from the typical
+condition, until the present form has been developed. Another generation
+of naturalists will perhaps unanimously agree that the Creator has thus
+worked through secondary laws, which many of the naturalists of the
+present day are endeavoring, in a truly scientific and honest spirit of
+inquiry, to discover.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;">
+<img src="images/img110a.jpg" width="157" height="250" alt="124. Louse of the Goat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">124. Louse of the Goat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;">
+<img src="images/img110b.jpg" width="153" height="250" alt="123. Louse of the Cat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">123. Louse of the Cat.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">In their claw or leg-like form these male antenn&aelig; also repeat in the
+head, the general form of the legs, whose prehensile and grasping
+functions they assume. We have seen above that the appendages of the
+head and thorax are alike in the embryo, and the present case is an
+interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>ing example of the unity of type of the jointed appendages of
+insects, and articulates generally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
+<img src="images/f125.jpg" width="196" height="250" alt="120. Antenn&aelig; of Goniodes." title="" />
+<span class="caption">120. Antenn&aelig; of Goniodes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;">
+<img src="images/f126.jpg" width="120" height="250" alt="125. The Turkey Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">125. The Turkey Louse.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Another point of interest in these degraded insects is, that the process
+of degradation begins either late in the life of the embryo or during
+the changes from the larval to the adult, or winged state. An instance
+of the latter may be observed in the wingless female of the canker worm,
+so different from the winged male; this difference is created after the
+larval stage, for the caterpillars of both sexes are the same, so far as
+we know. So with numerous other examples among the moths. In the louse,
+the embryo, late in its life, resembles the embryos of other insects,
+even Corixa, a member of a not remotely allied family. But just before
+hatching the insect assumes its degraded louse physiognomy. The
+developmentist would say that this process of degradation points to
+causes acting upon the insect just before or immediately after birth,
+inducing the retrogression and retardation of development, and would
+consider it as an argument for the evolution of specific forms by causes
+acting on the animal while battling with its fellows in the struggle for
+existence, and perhaps consider that the metamorphoses of the animal
+within the egg are due to a reflex action of the modes of life of the
+ancestors of the animal on the embryos of its descendants.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DRAGON FLY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Were we to select from among the insects a type of all that is savage,
+relentless, and bloodthirsty, the Dragon fly would be our choice. From
+the moment of its birth until its death, usually a twelve-month, it
+riots in bloodshed and carnage. Living beneath the waters perhaps eleven
+months of its life, in the larva and pupa states, it is literally a
+walking pitfall for luckless aquatic insects; but when transformed into
+a fly, ever on the wing in pursuit of its prey, it throws off all
+concealment, and reveals the more unblushingly its rapacious character.</p>
+
+<p>Not only do its horrid visage and ferocious bearing frighten children,
+who call it the "Devil's Darning-needle," but it even distresses older
+persons, so that its name has become a byword. Could we understand the
+language of insects, what tales of horror would be revealed! What
+traditions, sagas, fables, and myths must adorn the annals of animal
+life regarding this Dragon among insects!</p>
+
+<p>To man, however, aside from its bad name and its repulsive aspect, which
+its gay trappings do not conceal, its whole life is beneficent. It is a
+scavenger, being like that class ugly and repulsive, and holding
+literally, among insects, the lowest rank in society. In the water, it
+preys upon young mosquitoes and the larv&aelig; of other noxious insects. It
+thus aids in maintaining the balance of life, and cleanses the swamps of
+miasmata, thus purifying the air we breathe. During its existence of
+three or four weeks above the waters, its whole life is a continued good
+to man. It hawks over pools and fields and through gardens, decimating
+swarms of mosquitoes, flies, gnats, and other baneful insects. It is a
+true Malthus' delight, and, following that sanguinary philosopher, we
+may believe that our Dragon fly is an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> entomological Tamerlane or
+Napoleon sent into the world by a kind Providence to prevent too close a
+jostling among the myriads of insect life.</p>
+
+<p>We will, then, conquer our repugnance to its ugly looks and savage mien,
+and contemplate the hideous monstrosity,&mdash;as it is useless to deny that
+it combines the graces of the Hunchback of Notre Dame and Dickens'
+Quilp, with certain features of its own,&mdash;for the good it does in
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Even among insects, a class replete with forms the very incarnation of
+ugliness and the perfection of all that is hideous in nature, our Dragon
+fly is most conspicuous. Look at its enormous head, with its beetling
+brows, retreating face, and heavy under jaws,&mdash;all eyes and teeth,&mdash;and
+hung so loosely on its short, weak neck, sunk beneath its enormous
+hunchback,&mdash;for it is wofully round-shouldered,&mdash;while its long, thin
+legs, shrunken as if from disease, are drawn up beneath its breast, and
+what a hobgoblin it is!</p>
+
+<p>Its gleaming wings are, however, beautiful objects. They form a broad
+expanse of delicate parchment-like membrane drawn over an intricate
+network of veins. Though the body is bulky, it is yet light, and easily
+sustained by the wings. The long tail undoubtedly acts as a rudder to
+steady its flight.</p>
+
+<p>These insects are almost universally dressed in the gayest colors. The
+body is variously banded with rich shades of blue, green, and yellow,
+and the wings give off the most beautiful iridescent and metallic
+reflections.</p>
+
+<p>During July and August the various species of Libellula and its allies
+most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in bunches to the stems of
+rushes and other water-plants. In laying them, the Dragon fly, according
+to Mr. P. R. Uhler's observations, "alights upon water-plants, and,
+pushing the end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a
+bunch of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf. Libellula auripennis I have
+often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived in my observation
+that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the open ditch while balancing
+herself just a little way above the surface of the water. I have, also,
+seen her settled upon the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen
+submerged in part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty
+sure that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her eggs at
+one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not more than a dozen
+small yellow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> eggs. There must be more than one hundred eggs in one of
+the large bunches. The eggs of some of the Agrions are bright
+apple-green, but I cannot be sure that I have ever seen them in the very
+act of oviposition. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and
+grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to fall below
+the surface of the water; sometimes they fly against the surface, but I
+never saw what I could assert to be the projecting of the eggs from the
+body upon plants or into the water. The English entomologists assert
+that the female Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several
+inches to deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants." The Agrions,
+however, according to Lucaze Duthiers, a French anatomist, make, with
+the ovipositor, a little notch in the plant upon which they lay their
+eggs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<img src="images/f127.jpg" width="299" height="500" alt="127. Under side of head of Diplax" title="" />
+<span class="caption">127. Under side of head of Diplax, with the labium or
+mask fully extended. <i>x</i>, <i>x</i>', <i>x</i>''the three subdivisions of the
+labium. <i>y</i>, the maxill&aelig; or second pair of jaws.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>These eggs soon hatch, probably during the heat of summer. The larva is
+very active in its habits, being provided with six legs, attached to the
+thorax, on the back of which are the little wing-pads, or rudimentary
+wings. The large head is provided with enormous eyes, while a pair of
+simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are placed near the origin of the small
+bristle-like feelers, or antenn&aelig;. Seen from beneath, instead of the
+formidable array of jaws and accessory organs commonly observed in most
+carnivorous larv&aelig;, we see nothing but a broad, smooth mask covering the
+lower part of the face; as if from sheer modesty our young Dragon fly
+was endeavoring to conceal a gape. But wait a moment. Some unwary insect
+comes within striking distance. The battery of jaws is unmasked, and
+opens upon the victim.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> This mask (Fig. 127) is peculiar to the young,
+or larva and pupa of the Dragon fly. It is the labium, or under lip
+greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped extremity (Fig.
+127, <i>x</i>) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and retaining its
+prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up as to conceal the face,
+and thus the creature crawls about, to all appearance, the most innocent
+and lamb-like of insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 405px;">
+<img src="images/f128.jpg" width="405" height="250" alt="128. Abdominal valves; a, side view." title="" />
+<span class="caption">128. Abdominal valves; <i>a</i>, side view.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;">
+<img src="images/f129.jpg" width="233" height="300" alt="129. Agrion; b, False Gill of Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">129. Agrion; <i>b</i>, False Gill of Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not only does the immature Dragon fly walk over the bottom of the pool
+or stream it inhabits, but it can also leap for a considerable distance,
+and by a most curious contrivance. By a syringe-like apparatus lodged in
+the end of the body, it discharges a stream of water for a distance of
+two or three inches behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards. This
+apparatus combines the functions of locomotion and respiration. There
+are, as usual, two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of the
+thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly carried on in
+the tail. The trache&aelig; are here collected in a large mass, sending their
+branches into folds of membrane lining the end of the alimentary canal,
+and which act like a piston to force out the water. The entrance to the
+canal is protected by three to five triangular horny valves (Fig. 128,
+9, 10, 128 <i>a</i>, side view), which open and shut at will. When open, the
+water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs, which extract the
+air from the water, which is then suddenly expelled by a strong muscular
+effort.</p>
+
+
+<p>In the smaller forms, such as Agrion (A. saucium, Fig. 129;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> Fig. 129
+<i>b</i>, side view of false gill, showing but one leaf), the respiratory
+leaves, called the tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within
+the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated by trache&aelig;, or
+air-vessels. They are not true gills, however, as the blood is not
+aerated in them. They only absorb air to supply the trache&aelig;, which
+aerate the blood only within the general cavity of the body. These false
+gills also act as a rudder to aid the insect in swimming.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to watch the Dragon flies through their
+transformations, as they can easily be kept in aquaria. Little, almost
+nothing, is known regarding their habits, and any one who can spend the
+necessary time and patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the
+different stages from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and
+figure them accurately, will do good service to science.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;">
+<img src="images/f130.jpg" width="133" height="180" style="margin-top: 2em;" alt="130. Pupa of Cordulia." title="" />
+<span class="caption">130. Pupa of Cordulia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/f131.jpg" width="260" height="219" alt="131. Pupa of Didymops?" title="" />
+<span class="caption">131. Pupa of Didymops?</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Mr. Uhler states that at present we know but little of the young stages
+of our species, but the larva and pupa of the Libellulas may be always
+known from the &AElig;schnas by the shorter, deeper and more robust form, and
+generally by their thick clothing of hair. Figure 130 represents the
+pupa of Cordulia lateralis, and figure 131 that of a Dragon fly referred
+doubtfully to the genus Didymops. For descriptions and figures of other
+forms the reader may turn to Mr. Louis Cabot's essay "On the Immature
+State of the Odonata," published by the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The pupa scarcely differs from the larva, except in having larger
+wing-pads (Fig. 132). It is still active, and as much of a gourmand as
+ever. When the insect is about to assume the pupa state, it moults its
+skin. The body having outgrown the larva skin, by a strong muscular
+effort a rent opens along the back of the thorax, and the insect having
+fastened its claws into some object at the bottom of the pool, the pupa
+gradually works its way out of the larva-skin. It is now considerably
+larger than before. Immediately after this tedious operation, its body
+is soft, but the crust soon hardens. This change, with most species,
+probably occurs early in summer.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f132.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="132. Pupa of &AElig;schna." title="" />
+<span class="caption">132. Pupa of &AElig;schna.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>When about to change into the adult fly, the pupa climbs up some plant
+near the surface of the water. Again its back yawns wide open, and from
+the rent our Dragon fly slowly emerges. For an hour or more, it remains
+torpid and listless, with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless.
+The fluids leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and
+varied tints appear, and our Dragon fly rises into its new world of
+light and sunshine a gorgeous, but repulsive being. Tennyson thus
+describes these changes in "The Two Voices":&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">To-day I saw the Dragon fly</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Come from the wells where he did lie.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">An inner impulse rent the veil</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Of his old husk: from head to tail</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Came out clear plates of sapphire mail.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">He dried his wings; like gauze they grew;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Through crofts and pastures wet with dew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">A living flash of light he flew.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Of our more common, typical forms of Dragon flies, we figure a few,
+commonly observed during the summer. The three-spotted Dragon fly
+(Libellula trimaculata), of which figure 133 represents the male, is so
+called from the three dark clouds on the wings of the female. But the
+opposite sex differs in having a dark patch at the front edge of the
+wings, and a single broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing.</p>
+
+<p>Libellula quadrimaculata, the four-spotted Dragon fly (Fig.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> 134), is
+seen on the wing in June, flying through dry pine woods far from any
+standing water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f133.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt="133. Libellula trimaculata, male." title="" />
+<span class="caption">133. Libellula trimaculata, male.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f134.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="134. Libellula quadrimaculata." title="" />
+<span class="caption">134. Libellula quadrimaculata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The largest of our Dragon flies are the "Devil's Darning-needles,"
+Eschna heros and grandis, seen hawking about our gardens till dusk. They
+frequently enter houses, carrying dismay and terror among the children.
+The hind-body is long and cylindrical, and gaily colored with bright
+green and bluish bands and spots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f135.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt="135. Diplax Berenice, male." title="" />
+<span class="caption">135. Diplax Berenice, male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f136.jpg" width="400" height="275" alt="136. Diplax Berenice, female." title="" />
+<span class="caption">136. Diplax Berenice, female.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 90px;">
+<img src="images/f137.jpg" width="90" height="160" alt="137. Larva of Diplax." title="" />
+<span class="caption">137. Larva of Diplax.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of our most common Dragon flies is the ruby Dragon fly, Diplax
+rubicundula, which is yellowish-red. It is seen everywhere flying over
+pools, and also frequents dry sunny woods and glades. Another common
+form is Diplax Berenice (Fig. 135 male, Fig. 136 female. The
+accompanying cut (137) represents the larva, probably of this species,
+according to Mr. Uhler.) It is black, the head blue in front, spotted
+with yellow, while the thorax and abdomen are striped with yellow. There
+are fewer stripes on the body of the male, which has only four large
+yellow spots on each side of the abdomen. Still another pretty species
+is Diplax Elisa (Fig. 138). It is black, with the head yellowish and
+with greenish-yellow spots on the sides of the thorax and base of the
+abdomen. There are three dusky spots on the front edge of each wing, and
+a large cloud at the base of the hind pair towards the hind angles of
+the wing.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f138.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="138. Diplax Elisa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">138. Diplax Elisa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rather a rare form, and of much smaller stature is the Nannophya bella
+(Fig. 138, female). It was first detected in Baltimore, and we
+afterwards found it not unfrequently by a pond in Maine. Its abdomen is
+unusually short, and the reticulations of the wings are large and
+simple. The female is black, while the male is frosted over with a
+whitish powder. Many more species of this family are found in this
+country, and for descriptions of them we would refer the reader to Dr.
+Hagen's "Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America," published by the
+Smithsonian Institution.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f139.jpg" width="250" height="170" alt="139. Nannophya bella." title="" />
+<span class="caption">139. Nannophya bella.</span>
+</div><div class="figright" style="width: 215px;">
+<img src="images/f140.jpg" width="215" height="250" alt="140. May Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">140. May Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The Libellulid&aelig;, or family of Dragon flies, and the Ephemerid&aelig;, or May
+flies (Fig. 140), are the most characteristic of the Neuroptera, or
+veiny-winged insects. This group is a most interesting one to the
+systematist, as it is composed of so many heterogeneous forms which it
+is almost impossible to classify in our rigid and at present necessarily
+artificial systems. We divide them into families and sub-families,
+genera and sub-genera, species and varieties, but there is an endless
+shifting of characters in these groups. The different groups would seem
+well limited after studying certain forms, when to the systematist's
+sorrow, here comes a creature, perhaps mimicking an ant, or aphis, or
+other sort of bug, or even a butterfly, and for which they would be
+readily mistaken by the uninitiated. Bibliographers have gone mad over
+books that could not be classified. Imagine the despair of an
+insect-hunter and entomophile, as he sits down to his box of dried
+neuroptera. He seeks for a true neuropter in the white ant before him,
+but its very form and habits summon up a swarm of true ants; and then
+the little wingless book louse (Atropos, Fig. 141) scampering
+irreverently over the musty pages of his Systema Natur&aelig;, reminds him of
+that closest friend of man&mdash;Pediculus vestimenti. Again, his studies
+lead him to that gorgeous inhabitant of the South, the butterfly-like
+Ascalaphus, with its resplendent wings, and slender, knobbed antenn&aelig; so
+much like those of butterflies, and visions of these beautiful insects
+fill his mind's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> eye; or sundry dun-colored caddis flies, modest,
+delicate neuroptera, with finely fringed wings and slender feelers,
+create doubts as to whether they are not really allies of the clothes
+moth, so close is the resemblance.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 237px;">
+<img src="images/f141.jpg" width="237" height="280" alt="141. Death Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">141. Death Tick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;">Thus the student is constantly led astray by the wanton freaks Nature
+plays, and becomes sceptical as regards the truth of a natural system,
+though there is one to be discovered; and at last disgusted with the
+stiff and arbitrary systems of our books,&mdash;a disgust we confess most
+wholesome, if it only leads him into a closer communion with nature. The
+sooner one leaves those maternal apron-strings,&mdash;books,&mdash;and learns to
+identify himself with nature, and thus goes out of himself to affiliate
+with the spirit of the scene or object before him,&mdash;or, in other words,
+cultivates habits of the closest observation and most patient
+reflection,&mdash;be he painter or poet, philosopher or insect-hunter of low
+degree, he will gain an intellectual strength and power of interpreting
+nature, that is the gift of true genius.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img121b.jpg" width="550" height="234" alt="The Ant Lion and adult." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Ant Lion and adult.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>MITES AND TICKS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>But few naturalists have busied themselves with the study of mites. The
+honored names of Hermann, Von Heyden, Dug&eacute;s, Dujardin and Pagenstecher,
+Nicolet, Koch and Robin, and the lamented Clapar&egrave;de of Geneva, lead the
+small number who have published papers in scientific journals. After
+these, and except an occasional note by an amateur microscopist who
+occasionally pauses from his "diatomaniacal" studies, and looks upon a
+mite simply as a "microscopic object," to be classed in his micrographic
+Vade Mecum with mounted specimens of sheep's wool, and the hairs of
+other quadrupeds, a distorted proboscis of a fly, and podura scales, we
+read but little of mites and their habits. But few readers of our
+natural history text-books learn from their pages any definite facts
+regarding the affinities of these humble creatures, their organization
+and the singular metamorphosis a few have been known to pass through. We
+shall only attempt in the present article to indicate a few of the
+typical forms of mites, and sketch, with too slight a knowledge to speak
+with much authority, an imperfect picture of their appearance and modes
+of living.</p>
+
+<p>Mites are lowly organized Arachnids. This order of insects is divided
+into the Spiders, the Scorpions, the Harvestmen and the Mites (Acarina).
+They have a rounded oval body, without the usual division between the
+head-thorax and abdomen observable in spiders, the head-thorax and
+abdomen being merged in a single mass. There are four pairs of legs, and
+the mouth parts consist, as seen in the adjoining figure of a young tick
+(Fig. 142, young Ixodes albipictus), of a pair of maxill&aelig; (<i>c</i>), which
+in the adult terminates in a two or three-jointed palpus, or feeler; a
+pair of mandibles (<i>b</i>), often covered with several rows of fine teeth,
+and ending in three or four larger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> hooks and a serrated labium (<i>a</i>).
+These parts form a beak which the mite or tick insinuates into the flesh
+of its host, upon the blood of which it subsists. While many of the
+mites are parasitic on animals, some are known to devour the eggs of
+insects and other mites, thrusting their beaks into the egg, and sucking
+the contents. We have seen a mite (Nothrus ovivorus, Fig. 143) busily
+engaged in destroying the eggs of a moth like that of the Canker worm,
+and Dr. Shimer has observed the Acarus? malus sucking the eggs of the
+Chinch bug. I have also observed another mite devouring the Aphides on
+the rose leaves in my garden, so that a few mites may be set down as
+beneficial to vegetation. While a few species are injurious to man, the
+larger part are beneficial, being either parasitic and baneful to other
+noxious animals, or more directly useful as scavengers, removing
+decaying animal and vegetable substances.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;">
+<img src="images/f142.jpg" width="486" height="500" alt="142. Ixodes albipictus and young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">142. Ixodes albipictus and young.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The transformations of the mites are interesting to the philosophic
+zoologist, since the young of certain forms are remarkably different
+from the adults, and in reaching the perfect state the mite passes
+through a metamorphosis more striking than that of many insects. The
+young on leaving the egg have six legs, as we have seen in the case of
+the Ixodes. Sometimes, however, as, for example, in the larva, as we may
+call it, of a European mite, Typhlodromus pyri, the adult of which,
+according to A. Scheuten, is allied to Acarus, and lives under the
+epidermis of the leaves of the pear in Europe (while Mr. T. Taylor, of
+the Department of Agriculture at Washington, has found a species in the
+pear leaves about Washington, and still another form in peach leaves),
+there are but two pairs of legs present, and the body is long,
+cylindrical and in a degree worm-like.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I have had the good fortune to observe the different stages of a bird
+mite, intermediate in its form between the Acarus and Sarcoptes, or Itch
+mite. On March 6th, Mr. C. Cooke called my attention to certain little
+mites which were situated on the narrow groove between the main stem of
+the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of the feathers of the Downy
+Woodpecker, and subsequently we found the other forms in the down under
+the feathers. These long worm-like mites were evidently the young of a
+singular Sarcoptes-like mite, as they were found on the same specimen of
+Woodpecker at about the same date, and it is known that the growth of
+mites is rapid, the metamorphoses, judging by the information which we
+now possess, occupying usually but a few days.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 140px;">
+<img src="images/f143.jpg" width="140" height="160" alt="143. Egg-eating Mite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">143. Egg-eating Mite.</span>
+</div>
+<p>The young (though there is, probably, a still earlier hexapodous stage)
+of this Sarcoptid has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with four
+short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and ending in a
+stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to walk over smooth,
+hard surfaces. The body is square at the end, with a slight median
+indentation, and four long bristles of equal length. They remained
+motionless in the groove on the barb of the feather, and when removed
+seemed very inert and sluggish. A succeeding stage of this mite, which
+may be called the pupal, is considerably smaller than the larva and
+looks somewhat like the adult, the body having become shorter and
+broader. The adult is a most singular form, its body being rudely ovate,
+with the head sunken between the fore legs, which are considerably
+smaller than the second pair, while the third pair are twice as large as
+the second pair, and directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very
+small, not reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft and
+supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other
+bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature,
+originally ill-shapen, a haggard, unkempt appearance. The two stigmata
+or breathing pores open near the cleft in the end of the body, and the
+external opening of the oviduct is situated between the largest and
+third pair of legs. No males were observed. In a species of Acarus
+(Tyroglyphus), somewhat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> like the Cheese mite, which we have alive at
+the time of writing, in a box containing the remains of a Lucanus larva,
+which they seem to have consumed, as both young and old are swarming
+there by myriads, the young are oval and like the adults, except that
+they are six-legged, the fourth pair growing out after a succeeding
+moult.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief summary of what has been generally known regarding the
+metamorphoses of a few species of mites. In a few kinds no males have
+been found; the females have been isolated after being hatched, and yet
+have been known to lay eggs, which produced young without the
+interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has been noticed in
+several species.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f144.jpg" width="250" height="246" alt="144. Cheyletus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">144. Cheyletus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These insects often suddenly appear in vast numbers on various articles
+of food and about houses, so as to be very annoying. Mr. J. J. H.
+Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass., has found a mite allied to the European
+species here figured (Fig. 144) very injurious to the seeds of the
+cabbage, which it sucked dry. This is an interesting form, and we have
+called it Cheyletus seminivorus It is of medium size, and especially
+noticeable from the tripartite palpi, which are divided into an outer,
+long, curved, claw-like lobe, with two rounded teeth at the base, and
+two inner, slender lobes pectinated on the inner side, the third
+innermost lobe being minute. The beak terminates in a sharp blade-like
+point.</p>
+
+<p>We have received a Cheyletus-like mite, said to have been "extracted
+from the human face" in New Orleans. The body is oblong, square behind;
+the head is long and pointed, while the maxill&aelig; end in a long, curved,
+toothed, sickle-like blade. That this creature has the habits of the
+itch mite is suggested by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> curious, large, hair-like spines with
+which the body and legs are sparsely armed, some being nearly half as
+long as the body. These hairs are covered with very fine spinules. Those
+on the end of the body are regularly spoon-shaped. These strange hairs,
+which are thickest on the legs, probably assisted the mite in anchoring
+itself in the skin of its host. We have read no account of this strange
+and interesting form. It is allied to the Acaropsis Mericourti which
+lives in the human face.</p>
+
+<p>A species, "apparently of the genus Gamasus," according to Dr. Leidy,
+has been found living in the ear (at the bottom of the external auditory
+meatus, and attached to the membrana tympani) of steers. "Whether this
+mite is a true parasite of the ear of the living ox, or whether it
+obtained access to the position in which it was found after the death of
+the ox in the slaughter house, has not yet been determined."</p>
+
+<p>We will now give a hasty glance at the different groups of mites,
+pausing to note those most interesting from their habits or relation to
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The most highly organized mite (and by its structure most closely allied
+to the spider) is the little red garden mite, belonging to the genus
+Trombidium, to which the genus Tetranychus is also nearly related. Our
+own species of the former genus have not been "worked up," or in other
+words identified and described, so that whether the European T.
+holosericeum Linn. is our species or not, we cannot tell. The larv&aelig; of
+this and similar species are known to live parasitically upon Harvestmen
+(Phalangium), often called Daddy-long-legs; and upon Aphides,
+grasshoppers and other insects. Mr. Riley has made known to us through
+the "American Naturalist" (and from his account our information is
+taken), the habits of certain young of the garden mite (Trombidium)
+which are excessively annoying in the Southwestern States. The first is
+the Leptus? Americanus (Fig. 145), or American Harvest mite. It is only
+known as yet in the larval or Leptus state, when it is of the form
+indicated in the cut, and brick red in color. "This species is barely
+visible with the naked eye, moves readily and is found more frequently
+upon children than upon adults. It lives mostly on the scalp and under
+the arm pits, but is frequently found on the other parts of the body. It
+does not bury itself in the flesh, but simply insinuates the anterior
+part of the body just under the skin, thereby causing intense
+irritation, followed by a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> red pimple. As with our common ticks,
+the irritation lasts only while the animal is securing itself, and its
+presence would afterwards scarcely be noticed but for the pimple which
+results."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f145.jpg" width="550" height="316" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">145 <i>a</i>. American Harvest Mite; <i>b</i>. Irritating Harvest
+Mite; the dots underneath indicating the natural size.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second species (Fig. 145 <i>b</i>, Leptus? irritans) is also only known
+in the Leptus stage. It is evidently the larva of a distinct genus from
+the other form, having enormous maxill&aelig; and a broad body; it is also
+brick red. Mr. Riley says that "this is the most troublesome and,
+perhaps, best known of the two, causing intense irritation and swelling
+on all parts of the body, but more especially on the legs and around the
+ankles. Woe betide the person who, after bathing in the Mississippi
+anywhere in this latitude, is lured to some green dressing-spot of weeds
+or grass! He may, for the time, consider himself fortunate in getting
+rid of mud and dirt, but he will afterwards find to his sorrow that he
+exchanged them for something far more tenacious in these microscopic
+Harvest-mites. If he has obtained a good supply of them, he will in a
+few hours begin to suffer from severe itching, and for the next two or
+three days will be likely to scratch until his limbs are sore.</p>
+
+<p>"With the strong mandibles and the elbowed maxill&aelig; which act like arms,
+this mite is able to bury itself completely in the flesh, thereby
+causing a red swelling with a pale pustulous centre containing watery
+matter. If, in scratching, he is fortunate enough to remove the mite
+before it enters, the part soon heals. But otherwise the irritation
+lasts for two, three or four days, the pustulous centre reappearing as
+often as it is broken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"The animal itself, on account of its minute size, is seldom seen, and
+the uninitiated, when first troubled with it, are often alarmed at the
+symptoms and at a loss to account for them. Fortunately these little
+plagues never attach themselves to persons in such immense numbers as do
+sometimes young or so-called 'seed' ticks; but I have known cases where,
+from the irritation and consequent scratching, the flesh had the
+appearance of being covered with ulcers; and in some localities, where
+these pests most abound, sulphur is often sprinkled during 'jigger'
+season in the boots or shoes as a protection.</p>
+
+<p>"Sulphur ointment is the best remedy against the effects of either of
+these mites, though when that cannot be obtained, saleratus water and
+salt water will partially allay the irritation.</p>
+
+<p>"The normal food of either must, apparently, consist of the juices of
+plants, and the love of blood proves ruinous to those individuals who
+get a chance to indulge it. For unlike the true Jigger, the female of
+which deposits eggs in the wound she makes, these Harvest-mites have no
+object of the kind, and when not killed by the hands of those they
+torment, they soon die victims to their sanguinary appetite."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 132px;">
+<img src="images/f146.jpg" width="132" height="180" alt="146. Astoma of the Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">146. Astoma of the Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another Leptus-like form is the parasite of the fly, described by Mr.
+Riley under the name of Astoma? muscarum (Fig. 146). How nearly allied
+it is to the European Astoma parasiticum we have not the means of
+judging.</p>
+
+<p>The European Tetranychus telarius Linn., or web-making mite, spins large
+webs on the leaves of the linden tree. Then succeed in the natural order
+the water mites (Hydrachna), which may be seen running over submerged
+sticks and on plants, mostly in fresh water, and rarely on the borders
+of the sea. The young after leaving the egg differ remarkably from the
+adults, so as to have been referred to a distinct genus (Achlysia) by
+the great French naturalist, Audouin. They live as parasites on various
+water insects, such as Dytiscus, Nepa and Hydrometra, and when mature
+live free in the water, though Von Baer observed an adult Hydrachna
+concharum living parasitically on the gills of the fresh-water mussel,
+Anodon. The species are of minute size. Collectors of beetles often meet
+with a species of Uropoda attached firmly to their specimens of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+dung-inhabiting or carrion beetles. It is a smoothly polished, round,
+flattened mite, with short, thick legs, scarcely reaching beyond the
+body.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f147.jpg" width="200" height="179" alt="147. Cattle Tick." title="" />
+<span class="caption">147. Cattle Tick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now come to the Ticks, which comprise the largest mites. The genus
+Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker states that the Argas
+Persicus is very annoying to travellers in Persia. The habits of the
+wood ticks (Ixodes) are well known. Travellers in the tropics speak of
+the intolerable torment occasioned by these pests which, occurring
+ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to all sorts of
+reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself as he passes by within
+their reach. Sometimes cases fall within the practice of the physician,
+who is called to remove the tick, which is found sometimes literally
+buried beneath the skin. Mr. J. Stauffer writes me, that "on June 23d
+the daughter of Abraham Jackson (colored), playing among the leaves in a
+wood, near Springville, Lancaster County, Penn., on her return home
+complained of pain in the arm. No attention was paid to it till the next
+day, when a raised tumor was noticed, a small portion protruding through
+the skin, apparently like a splinter of wood. The child was taken to Dr.
+Morency, who applied the forceps, and after considerable pain to the
+child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes, nearly
+one-quarter of an inch long, and of an oval form and brown mahogany
+color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, centrally on the dorsal
+region." This tick proved, from Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be, without
+doubt, Ixodes unipunctata. It has also been found in Massachusetts by
+Mr. F. G. Sanborn.</p>
+
+<p>Another species is the Ixodes bovis (Fig. 147), the common cattle tick
+of the Western States and Central America. It is very annoying to horned
+cattle, gorging itself with their blood, but is by no means confined to
+them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the rattlesnake, the iguana,
+small mammals and undoubtedly any other animal that brushes by its
+lurking-place in the forest. It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened,
+seed-like creature, with the body oblong oval, and contracted just
+behind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> the middle. When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half
+an inch in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands of
+Mr. Riley, and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abundantly on horned
+cattle on the western coast of Nicaragua.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the genus Acarus (Tyroglyphus), of which the cheese and
+sugar mites are examples. Some species of Acarian mites have been found
+in the lungs and blood-vessels, and even the intestinal canal of certain
+vertebrates, while the too familiar itch insect lurks under the skin of
+the hand and other parts of the body of certain uncleanly human bipeds.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 157px;">
+<img src="images/f148.jpg" width="157" height="200" alt="148. Sugar Mite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">148. Sugar Mite.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers and more
+authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of mites (Acarus
+sacchari, Fig. 148) found in unrefined or raw sugar. According to Prof.
+Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted in the "Journal of the Franklin
+Institute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel (who was the first to notice
+their general occurrence in the raw sugar sold at London) found them in
+a living state in no fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two samples.
+He did not detect them in a single specimen of refined sugar. In an
+inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr. Cameron, he
+reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains of sugar, so that in a
+pound's weight occurred one hundred thousand of these little creatures,
+which seem to have devoted themselves with a martyr-like zeal to the
+adulteration of sugar. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The
+disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the presence of
+this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works its way under the
+skin of the hand, in this case, however, of cleanly persons. Mr. Cameron
+states that "the kind of sugar which is both healthful and economical,
+is the dry, large-grained and light-colored variety."</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the preceding, is the Cheese mite (Acarus siro Linn.),
+which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonet states that during
+summer this mite is viviparous. Acarus farin&aelig; DeGeer, as its name
+indicates, is found in flour. Other species have been known to occur in
+ulcers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f149-0.jpg" width="550" height="362" alt="149. Mange Mite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">149. Mange Mite.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;150. Itch Mite.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We should also mention the Mange insect of the horse (Psoroptes equi,
+Fig. 149, much enlarged; <i>a</i>, head more magnified). According to Prof.
+Verrill it is readily visible to the naked eye and swarms on horses
+afflicted with the mange, which is a disease analogous to the itch in
+man. It has a soft, depressed body, spiny beneath at the base of the
+legs and on the thorax. One or both of the two posterior pairs of feet
+bear suckers, and all are more or less covered with long, slender hairs.
+This insect may be destroyed by the same remedies as are used for lice
+and for the human itch. The best remedy is probably a solution of
+sulphuret of potassium.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 46px;">
+<img src="images/f151.jpg" width="46" height="160" alt="151. Nose Mite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">151. Nose Mite.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The itch insect (Sarcoptes scabiei, Fig. 150) was first recognized by an
+Arabian author of the twelfth century, as the cause of the disease which
+results from its attacks. The body of the insect is rounded, with the
+two hind pair of feet rudimentary and bearing long hairs. It buries
+itself in the skin on the more protected parts of the body, and by its
+punctures maintains a constant irritation. Other species are known to
+infest the sheep and dog. Another singular mite is the Demodex
+folliculorum (Fig. 151), which was discovered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin,
+buried in the diseased follicles of the wings of the nose in man. It is
+a long, slender, worm-like form, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> eight short legs, and in the
+larva state has six legs. This singular form is one of the lowest and
+most degraded of the order of Arachnids. A most singular mite was
+discovered by Newport on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and
+described by him under the name of Heteropus ventricosus. The body of
+the fully formed female is long and slender. After attaining this form,
+its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globular form,
+and the mass of mites look like little beads. Mr. Newport was unable to
+discover the male, and thought that this mite was parthenogenous. It
+will be seen that the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like
+appearance of the larva of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus. This
+is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a relationship to the
+Tardigrades and the Pentastoma, the latter being a degraded mite, and
+the lowest of its order, living parasitically within the bodies of other
+animals.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<img src="images/img132.jpg" width="278" height="300" alt="Harvestman." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Harvestman.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>BRISTLE-TAILS AND SPRING-TAILS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Thysanura, as the Poduras and their allies, the Lepismas, are
+called, have been generally neglected by entomologists, and but few
+naturalists have paid special attention to them.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Of all those
+microscopists who have examined Podura scales as test objects, we wonder
+how many really know what a Podura is?</p>
+
+<p>In preparing the following account I have been under constant
+indebtedness to the admirable and exhaustive papers of Sir John Lubbock,
+in the London "Linn&aelig;an Transactions" (vols. 23, 26 and 27).
+Entomologists will be glad to learn that he is shortly going to press
+with a volume on the Poduras, which, in distinction from the Lepismas,
+to which he restricts the term Thysanura, he calls Collembola, in
+allusion to the sucker-like tubercle situated on the under side of the
+body, which no other insects are known to possess.</p>
+
+<p>The group of Bristle-tails, as we would dub the Lepismas in distinction
+from the Spring-tails, we will first consider. They are abundant in the
+Middle States under stones and leaves in forests, and northward are
+common in damp houses, while one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> beautiful species that we have never
+noticed elsewhere, is our "cricket on the hearth," abounding in the
+chinks and crannies of the range of our house, and also in closets,
+where it feeds on sugar, etc., and comes out like cockroaches, at night,
+shunning the light. Like the cockroaches, which it vaguely resembles in
+form, this species loves hot and dry localities, in distinction from the
+others which seek moisture as well as darkness. By some they are called
+"silver witches," and as they dart off, when disturbed, like a streak of
+light, their bodies being coated in a suit of shining mail, which the
+arrangement of the scales resembles, they have really a weird and
+ghostly look.</p>
+
+<p>The most complicated genus, and the one which stands at the head of the
+family, is Machilis, one species of which lives in the Northern and
+Middle States, and another in Oregon. They affect damp places, living
+under leaves and stones. They all have rounded, highly arched bodies,
+and large compound eyes, the two being united together. The maxillary
+palpi are greatly developed, but the chief characteristics are the
+two-jointed stylets arranged in nine pairs along each side of the
+abdomen, reminding us of the abdominal legs of Myriopods. The body ends
+in three long bristles, as in Lepisma.</p>
+
+<p>The Lepisma saccharina of Linn&aelig;us, if, as is probable, that is the name
+of our common species, is not uncommon in old damp houses, where it has
+the habits of the cockroach, eating cloths, tapestry, silken trimmings
+of furniture, and doing occasional damage to libraries by devouring the
+paste, and eating holes in the leaves and covers of books.</p>
+
+<p>In general form Lepisma may be compared to the larva of Perla, a
+net-veined Neuropterous insect, and also to the narrow-bodied species of
+cockroaches, minus the wings. The body is long and narrow, covered with
+rather coarse scales, and ends in three many jointed anal stylets, or
+bristles, which closely resemble the many jointed antenn&aelig;, which are
+remarkably long and slender. The thermophilous species already alluded
+to may be described as perhaps the type of the genus, the L. saccharina
+being simpler in its structure. The body is narrow and flattened; the
+basal joints of the legs being broad, flat and almost triangular, like
+the same joints in the cockroaches. The legs consist of six joints, the
+tarsal joints being large and two in number, and bearing a pair of
+terminal curved claws. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> three thoracic segments are of nearly equal
+size, and the eight abdominal segments are also of similar size. The
+trache&aelig; are well developed, and may be readily seen in the legs. The end
+of the rather long and weak abdomen is propped up by two or three pairs
+of bristles, which are simple, not jointed, but moving freely at their
+insertion; thus they take the place of legs, and remind one of the
+abdominal legs of the Myriopods; and we shall see in certain other
+genera (Machilis and Campodea) of the Bristle-tails that there are
+actually two-jointed bristles arranged in pairs along the abdomen. They
+may probably be directly compared with the abdominal legs of Myriopods.
+Further study, however, of the homologies of these peculiar appendages,
+and especially a knowledge of the embryological development of Lepisma
+and Machilis, is needed before this interesting point can be definitely
+settled. The three many jointed anal stylets may, however, be directly
+compared with the similar appendages of Perla and Ephemera. The mode of
+insertion of the antenn&aelig; of this family is much like that of the
+Myriopods, the front of the head being flattened, and concealing the
+base of the antenn&aelig;, as in the Centipedes and Pauropus. Indeed, the head
+of any Thysanurous insect seen from above, bears a general resemblance
+in some of its features to that of the Centipede and its allies. So in a
+less degree does the head of the larv&aelig; of certain Neuroptera and
+Coleoptera. The eyes are compound, the single facets forming a sort of
+heap. The clypeus and labrum, or upper lip, is, in all the Thysanura,
+carried far down on the under side of the head, the clypeus being almost
+obsolete in the Podurid&aelig;, this being one of the most essential
+characters of that family. Indeed, it is somewhat singular that these
+and other important characteristics of this group have been almost
+entirely passed over by authors, who have consequently separated these
+insects from other groups on what appear to the writer as comparatively
+slight and inconsiderable characters. The mouth-parts of the Lepismatid&aelig;
+(especially the thermophilous Lepisma, which we now describe) are most
+readily compared with those of the larva of Perla. The rather large,
+stout mandibles are concealed at their tips, under the upper lip, which
+moves freely up and down when the creature opens its mouth. The mandible
+is about one-third as broad as long, armed with three sharp teeth on the
+outer edge, and with a broad cutting edge within, and still further
+inwards a lot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> of straggling spinules. In all these particulars, the
+mandible of Lepisma is comparable with that of certain Coleoptera and
+Neuroptera. So also are the maxill&aelig; and labium, though we are not aware
+that any one has indicated how close the homology is. The accompanying
+figure (152) of the maxilla of a beetle may serve as an example of the
+maxilla of the Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In these insects
+it consists almost invariably of three lobes, the outer being the
+palpus, the middle lobe the galea, and the innermost the lacinia; the
+latter undergoing the greatest modifications, forming a comb composed of
+spines and hairs varying greatly in relative size and length. How much
+the palpi vary in these groups of insects is well known. The galea
+sometimes forms a palpus-like appendage. Now these three lobes may be
+easily distinguished in the maxilla of Lepisma. The palpus instead of
+being directed forward, as in the insects mentioned above (in the pupa
+of Ephemera the maxilla is much like that of Lepisma), is inserted
+nearer the base than usual and thrown off at right angles to the
+maxilla, so that it is stretched out like a leg, and in moving about the
+insect uses its maxill&aelig; partly as supports for its head. They are very
+long and large, and five or six-jointed. The galea, or middle division,
+forms a simple lobe, while the lacinia has two large chitinous teeth on
+the inner edge, and internally four or five hairs arising from a thin
+edge.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;">
+<img src="images/img136.jpg" width="106" height="150" alt="152. Maxilla." title="" />
+<span class="caption">152. Maxilla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The labium is much as in that of Perla, being broad and short, with a
+distinct median suture, indicating its former separation in embryonic
+life into a pair of appendages. The labial palpi are three-jointed, the
+joints being broad, and in life directed backwards instead of forwards
+as in the higher insects.</p>
+
+<p>There are five American species of the genus Lepisma in the Museum of
+the Peabody Academy. Besides the common L. saccharina? there are four
+undescribed species; one found about out-houses and cellars, and the
+heat-loving form, perhaps an imported, species, found in a kitchen in
+Salem, and apparently allied to the L. thermophila Lucas, of houses in
+Brest, France; and lastly two allied forms, one from Key West, and
+another from Polvon, Western Nicaragua, collected by Mr. McNiel. The
+last three species are beautifully ornamented with finely spinulated
+hairs arranged in tufts on the head; while the sides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> of the body, and
+edges of the basal joints of the legs are fringed with them.</p>
+
+<p>The interesting genus Nicoletia stands at the bottom of the group. It
+has the long, linear, scaleless body of Campodea, in the family below,
+but the head and its appendages are like Lepisma, the maxillary palpi
+being five-jointed, and the labial palpi four-jointed. The eyes are
+simple, arranged in a row of seven on each side of the head. The abdomen
+ends in three long and many jointed stylets, and there are the usual
+"false branchial feet" along each side of the abdomen. There are two
+European species which occur in greenhouses. No species have yet been
+found in America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<img src="images/f153.jpg" width="363" height="500" alt="153. Japyx solifugus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">153. Japyx solifugus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next family of Thysanura is the Campode&aelig;, comprising the two genera
+Campodea and Japyx. These insects are much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> smaller than the Lepismid&aelig;,
+and in some respects are intermediate between that family and the
+Podurid&aelig; (including the Smynthurid&aelig;).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;">
+<img src="images/f154.jpg" width="168" height="350" alt="154. Campodea staphylinus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">154. Campodea staphylinus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this family the body is long and slender, and the segments much alike
+in size. There is a pair of spiracles on each thoracic ring. The
+mandibles are long and slender, ending in three or four teeth, and with
+the other appendages of the mouth are concealed within the head, "only
+the tips of the palpi (and of the maxill&aelig; when these are opened)
+projecting a very little beyond the rounded entire margin of the
+epistoma," according to Haliday. The maxill&aelig; are comb-shaped, due to the
+four slender, minutely ciliated spines placed within the outer tooth.
+The labium in Japyx is four-lobed and bears a small two-jointed palpus.
+The legs are five-jointed, the tarsi consisting of a single joint,
+ending in two large claws. The abdomen consists of ten segments, and in
+Campodea along each side is a series of minute, two-jointed appendages
+such as have been described in Machilis. These are wanting in Japyx.
+None of the species in this family have the body covered with scales.
+They are white, with a yellowish tinge.</p>
+
+
+<p>The more complicated genus of the two is Japyx (Fig. 153, Japyx
+solifugus, found under stones in Southern Europe; <i>a</i>, the mouth from
+beneath, with the maxill&aelig; open; <i>b</i>, maxilla; <i>d</i>, mandible; <i>c</i>,
+outline of front of head seen from beneath, with the labial palpi in
+position) which, as remarked by the late Mr. Haliday (who has published
+an elaborate essay on this genus in the Linn&aelig;an Transactions, vol. 24,
+1864), resembles Forficula in the large forceps attached to its tail. An
+American species (J. Saussurii) lives in Mexico, and we look for its
+discovery in Texas.</p>
+
+
+<p>Campodea (C. staphylinus Westw., Fig. 154, enlarged; <i>a</i>, mandible; <i>b</i>,
+maxilla), otherwise closely related, has more rudimentary mouth-parts,
+and the abdomen ends in two many jointed appendages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;">
+<img src="images/f155.jpg" width="131" height="150" alt="Fig. 155. Larva of Perla." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 155. Larva of Perla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our common American species of Campodea (C. Americana) lives under
+stones in damp places. It is yellowish, about a sixth of an inch in
+length, is very agile in its movements, and would easily be mistaken for
+a very young Lithobius. A larger species and differing in having longer
+antenn&aelig;, has been found by Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, and has been
+described in the "American Naturalist" under the name of Campodea
+Cookei. Haliday has remarked that this family bears much resemblance to
+the Neuropterous larva of Perla (Fig. 155), as previously remarked by
+Gervais; and the many points of resemblance of this family and the
+Lepismid&aelig; to the larval forms of some Neuroptera that are active in the
+pupa state (the Pseudoneuroptera of Erichson and other authors) are very
+striking. Campodea resembles the earliest larval form of Chlo&euml;on, as
+figured by Sir John Lubbock, even to the single jointed tarsus; and why
+these two Thysanurous families should be removed from the Neuroptera we
+are unable, at present, to understand, as to our mind they scarcely
+diverge from the Neuropterous type more than the Mallophaga, or biting
+lice, from the type of Hemiptera.</p>
+
+<p>Haliday, remarking on the opinion of Linn&aelig;us and Schrank, who referred
+Campodea to the old genus Podura, says with much truth, "it may be
+perhaps no unfair inference to draw, that the insect in question is in
+some measure intermediate between both," <i>i. e.</i>, Podura and Lepisma.
+This is seen especially in the mouth-parts which are withdrawn into the
+head, and become very rudimentary, affording a gradual passage into the
+mouth-parts of the Podurid&aelig;, which we now describe.</p>
+
+<p>The next group, the Podurelles of Nicolet, and Collembola of Lubbock,
+are considered by the latter, who has studied them with far more care
+than any one else, as "less closely allied" to the Lepismid&aelig; "than has
+hitherto been supposed." He says "the presence of trache&aelig;, the structure
+of the mouth and the abdominal appendage; all indicate a wide
+distinction between the Lepismid&aelig; and the Podurid&aelig;. We must, indeed, in
+my opinion, separate them entirely from one another; and I would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+venture to propose for the group comprised in the old genus Podura, the
+term Collembola, as indicating the existence of a projection, or
+mammilla, enabling the creature to attach or glue itself to the body on
+which it stands." Then without expressing his views as to the position
+and affinities of the Lepismid&aelig;, he remarks "as the upshot of all this,
+then, while the Collembola are clearly more nearly allied to the Insecta
+than to the Crustacea or Arachnida, we cannot, I think, regard them as
+Orthoptera or Neuroptera, or even as true insects. That is to say, the
+Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, etc., are in my
+opinion, more nearly allied to one another than they are to the Podurid&aelig;
+or Smynthurid&aelig;. On the other hand, we certainly cannot regard the
+Collembola as a group equivalent in value to the Insecta. If, then, we
+attempt to map out the Articulata, we must, I think, regard the
+Crustacea and Insecta as continents, the Myriopoda and Collembola as
+islands&mdash;of less importance, but still detached. Or, if we represent the
+divisions of the Articulata like the branching of a tree, we must
+picture the Collembola as a separate branch, though a small one, and
+much more closely connected with the Insecta than with the Crustacea or
+the Arachnida." Lamarck regarded them as more nearly allied to the
+Crustacea than Insecta. Gervais, also, in the "Histoire Naturelle des
+Insectes: Apt&egrave;res," indicates a considerable diversity existing between
+the Lepismid&aelig; and Podurid&aelig;, though they are placed next to each other.
+Somewhat similar views have been expressed by so high an authority as
+Professor Dana, who, in the "American Journal of Science" (vol. 37,
+Jan., 1864), proposed a classification of insects based on the principle
+of cephalization, and divided the Hexapodous insects into three groups:
+the first (Ptero-prosthenics, or Ctenopters) comprising the Hymenoptera,
+Diptera, Aphaniptera (fleas), Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Trichoptera and
+Neuroptera; the second group (Ptero-metasthenics, or Elytropters)
+comprising the Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera; while the Thysanura
+compose the third group. Lubbock has given us a convenient historical
+view of the opinions of different authors regarding the classification
+of these insects, which we find useful. Nicolet, the naturalist who,
+previous to Lubbock, has given us the most correct and complete account
+of the Thysanura, regarded them as an order, equivalent to the
+Coleoptera or Diptera, for example. In this he followed Latreille, who
+established the order in 1796.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> The Abb&eacute; Bourlet adopted the same view.
+On the other hand Burmeister placed the Thysanura as a separate tribe
+between the Mallophaga (Bird Lice) and Orthoptera, and Gerstaecker
+placed them among the Orthoptera. Fabricius and Blainville put them with
+the Neuroptera, and the writer, in his "Guide to the Study of Insects,"
+and previously in 1863, ignorant of the views of the two last named
+authors, considered the Thysanura as degraded Neuroptera, and noticed
+their resemblance to the larv&aelig; of Perla, Ephemera, and other Neuroptera,
+such as Rhaphidia and Panorpa, regarding them as standing "in the same
+relation to the rest of the Neuroptera [in the Linn&aelig;an sense], as the
+flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the lice and Thrips to the
+higher Hemiptera."</p>
+
+<p>After having studied the Thysanura enough to recognize the great
+difficulty of deciding as to their affinities and rank, the writer does
+not feel prepared to go so far as Dana and Lubbock, for reasons that
+will be suggested in the following brief account of the more general
+points in their structure, reserving for another occasion a final
+expression of his views as to their classification.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;">
+<img src="images/f156.jpg" width="115" height="180" alt="156. Smynthurus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">156. Smynthurus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Podurid&aelig;, so well known by name, as affording the scales used by
+microscopists as test objects, are common under stones and wet chips, or
+in damp places, cellars, mushrooms and about manure heaps. They need
+moisture, and consequently shade. They abound most in spring and autumn,
+laying their eggs at both seasons, though most commonly in the spring.
+During a mild December, they may be found in abundance under sticks and
+stones, even in situations so far north as Salem, Mass.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The body of the Poduras is rather short and thick, most so in Smynthurus
+(Fig. 156), and becoming long and slender in Tomocerus and Isotoma. The
+segments are inclined to be of unequal size, the prothoracic ring
+sometimes becoming almost obsolete, and some of the abdominal rings are
+much smaller than others; while in Lipura and Anura, the lowest forms of
+the group, the segments are all much alike in size.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;">
+<img src="images/f157.jpg" width="127" height="150" alt="157. Head of Degeeria." title="" />
+<span class="caption">157. Head of Degeeria.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;">
+<img src="images/f158.jpg" width="189" height="200" alt="158. Larva of Forficula." title="" />
+<span class="caption">158. Larva of Forficula.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The head is in form much like that of certain larv&aelig; of Neuroptera and of
+Forficula, an Orthopterous insect. The basal half of the head is marked
+off from the eye-bearing piece (epi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>cranium) by a V-shaped suture<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+(Fig. 157, head of Degeeria; compare also the head of the larva of
+Forficula, Fig. 158, in which the suture is the same), and the insertion
+of the antenn&aelig; is removed far down the front, near the mouth, the
+clypeus being very short; this piece, so large and prominent in the
+higher insects, is not distinctly separated by suture from the
+surrounding parts of the head, thus affording one of the best
+distinctive characters of the Podurid&aelig;. The eyes are situated on top of
+the head just behind the antenn&aelig;, and are simple, consisting of a group
+of from five to eight or ten united into a mass in Smynthurus, but
+separated in the Podurid&aelig; (see Fig. 176, <i>e</i>, eye of Anurida). The
+antenn&aelig; are usually four-jointed, and vary in length in the different
+genera.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The mouth-parts are very difficult to make out, but by soaking the
+insect in potash for twenty-four hours, thus rendering the body
+transparent, they can be satisfactorily observed. They are constructed
+on the same general type as the mouth-parts of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera and Coleoptera, and except in being degraded, and with
+certain parts obsolete, they do not essentially differ.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> On observing
+the living Podura, the mouth seems a simple ring, with a minute labrum
+and groups of hairs and spinules, which the observer, partly by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+guess-work, can identify as jaws and maxill&aelig;, and labium. But in
+studying the parts rendered transparent, we can identify the different
+appendages. Figure 159 shows the common Tomocerus plumbeus greatly
+enlarged (Fig. 160, seen from above), and as the mouth-parts of the
+whole group of Poduras are remarkably constant, a description of one
+genus will suffice for all. The labrum, or upper lip, is separated by a
+deep suture from the clypeus, and is trapezoidal in form. The mandibles
+and maxill&aelig; are long and slender, and buried in the head, with the tips
+capable of being extended out from the ring surrounding the mouth for a
+very short distance. The mandibles (<i>md</i>, Fig. 159) are like those of
+the Neuroptera, Orthoptera and Coleoptera in their general form, the tip
+ending in from three to six teeth (three on one mandible and six on the
+other), while below, is a rough, denticulated molar surface, where the
+food seized by the terminal teeth is triturated and prepared to be
+swallowed. Just behind the mandibles are the maxill&aelig;, which are
+trilobate at the end, as in the three orders of insects above named. The
+outer lobe, or palpus, is a minute membranous tubercle ending in a hair
+(Fig. 161, <i>mp</i>), while the middle lobe, or galea, is nearly obsolete,
+though I think I have seen it in Smynthurus, where it forms a lobe on
+the outside of the lacinia. The lacinia, or inner lobe (Fig. 161, <i>lc</i>;
+162, the same enlarged), in Tomocerus consists of two bundles of
+spinules, one broad like a ruffle, and the other slender, pencil-like,
+ending in an inner row of spines, like the spinules on the lacinia of
+the Japyx and Campodea and, more remotely, the lacini&aelig; of the three
+sub-orders of insects above referred to. There is also a horny,
+prominent, three-toothed portion (Fig. 161, <i>g</i>). These homologies have
+never been made before, so far as the writer is aware, but they seem
+natural, and suggested by a careful examination and comparison with the
+above-mentioned mandibulate insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;">
+<img src="images/img144.jpg" width="419" height="600" alt="159. 161. 160. 162." title="" />
+<span class="caption">159. 161. 160. 162.<br />Tomocerus plumbeus and mouth-parts, greatly enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The spring consists of a pair of three-jointed appendages, with the
+basal joints soldered together early in embryonic life, while the other
+two joints are free, forming a fork. It is longest in Smynthurus and
+Degeeria, and shortest in Achorutes (Fig. 172, <i>b</i>), where it forms a
+simple, forked tubercle; and is obsolete in Lipura and Anura, its place
+being indicated by an oval scar. The third joint varies in form, being
+hairy, serrate and knife-like in form, as in Tomocerus (Fig. 159, <i>a</i>),
+or minute, with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> supplementary tooth, as in Achorutes (Fig. 172,
+<i>c</i>). This spring is in part homologous with the ovipositor of the
+higher insects, which originally consists of three pairs of tubercles,
+each pair arising apparently from the seventh, eighth, and ninth (the
+latter the penultimate) segments of the abdomen in the Hymenoptera. The
+spring of the Podura seems to be the homologue of the third pair of
+these tubercles, and is inserted on the penultimate segment. This
+comparison I have been able to make from a study of the embryology of
+Isotoma.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;">
+<img src="images/f163.jpg" width="114" height="180" alt="163. Catch holding spring of Achorutes." title="" />
+<span class="caption">163. Catch holding spring of Achorutes.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Another organ, and one which, so far as I am aware, has been overlooked
+by previous observers, I am disposed to consider as possibly an
+ovipositor. In the genus Achorutes, it may be found in the segment just
+before the spring-bearing segment, and situated on the median line of
+the body. It consists (Fig. 163) of two squarish valves, from between
+which projects a pair of minute tubercles, or blades, with four rounded
+teeth on the under side. This pair of infinitesimal saws reminds one of
+the blades of the saw-fly, and I am at a loss what their use can be
+unless to cut and pierce so as to scoop out a shallow place in which to
+deposit an egg. It is homologous in situation with the middle pair of
+blades which composes the ovipositor of higher insects, and if it should
+prove to be used by the creature in laying its eggs, we should then
+have, with the spring, an additional point of resemblance to the
+Neuroptera and higher insects, and instead of this spring being an
+important differential character, separating the Thysanura from other
+insects, it binds them still closer, though still differing greatly in
+representing only a part of the ovipositor of the higher insects. (This
+is a catch for holding the spring in place.)</p>
+
+<p>But all the Poduras differ from other insects in possessing a remarkable
+organ situated on the basal segment of the abdomen. It is a small
+tubercle, with chitinous walls, forming two valves from between which is
+forced out a fleshy sucker, or, as in Smynthurus, a pair of long tubes,
+which are capable of being darted out on each side of the body, enabling
+the insect to attach itself to smooth surfaces, and rest in an inverted
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid few in number, either singly or several together, on
+the under side of stones, chips or, as in the case<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> of Isotoma Walkerii,
+under the bark of trees. They are round, transparent. The development of
+the embryo of Isotoma in general accords with that of the Phryganeid&aelig;
+and suggests on embryological grounds the near relationship of the
+Thysanura to the Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 548px;">
+<img src="images/f164-7.jpg" width="548" height="600" alt="164. 165. 166. 167." title="" />
+<span class="caption">164. 165. 166. 167.<br />Development of a Poduran.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The earliest stage observed was at the time of the appearance of the
+primitive band (Fig. 164, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, folding of the primitive band; <i>c</i>,
+the dotted line crosses the primitive band, and terminates in a large
+yolk granule) which surrounds the egg as in the Caddis flies. Soon
+after, the primitive segments appear (Fig. 165; 1, antenn&aelig;; 2,
+mandibles; 3, maxill&aelig;; the labium was not seen; 5-7, legs; <i>c</i>, yolk
+surrounded by the primitive band) and seem to originate just as in the
+Caddis flies. Figure 166 is a front view of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> the embryo shortly before
+it is hatched; figure 167, side view of the same, the figures as in Fig.
+165; <i>sp</i>, spring; <i>l</i>, labrum. The labrum or upper lip, and the clypeus
+are large and as distinct as in the embryos of other insects, a fact to
+which we shall allude again. The large three-jointed spring is now well
+developed, and the inference is drawn that it represents a pair of true
+abdominal legs. The embryo when about to hatch throws off the egg-shell
+and amnion in a few seconds. The larva is perfectly white and is very
+active in its movements, running over the damp, inner surface of the
+bark. It is a little over a hundredth of an inch in length, and differs
+from the adult in being shorter and thicker, with the spring very short
+and stout. In fact the larva assumes the form of the lower genera of the
+family, such as Achorutes and Lipura, the adult more closely resembling
+Degeeria. The larva after its first moult retains its early clumsy form,
+and is still white. After a second moult it becomes purplish, and much
+more slender, as in the adult. The eggs are laid and the young hatched
+apparently within a period of from six to ten days.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the stage indicated by figures 166 and 167, I am induced to
+quote some remarks published in the Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of
+Science, No. 2, p. 18, which seem to support the view that these insects
+are offshoots from the Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<p>"The front of the head is so entirely different from what it is in the
+adult, that certain points demand our attention. It is evident that at
+this period the development of the insect has gone on in all important
+particulars much as in other insects, especially the Neuropterous
+Mystacides as described by Zaddach. The head is longer vertically than
+horizontally, the frontal, or clypeal region is broad, and greater in
+extent than the epicranio-occipital region. The antenn&aelig; are inserted
+high up on the head, next the ocelli, falling down over the clypeal
+region. The clypeus, however, is merged with the epicranium, and the
+usual suture between them does not appear distinctly in after life,
+though its place is seen in figure 167 to be indicated by a slight
+indentation. The labrum is distinctly defined by a well marked suture,
+and forms a squarish, knob-like protuberance, and in size is quite large
+compared to the clypeus. From this time begins the process of
+degradation, when the insect assumes its Thysanurous characters, which
+consist in an approach to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> form of the Myriopodous head, the front,
+or clypeal region being reduced to a minimum, and the antenn&aelig; and eyes
+brought in closer proximity to the mouth than in any other insects."</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Lubbock has given us an admirable account of the internal
+anatomy of these little creatures, his elaborate and patient dissections
+filling a great gap in our knowledge of their internal structure. The
+space at our disposal only permits us to speak briefly of the
+respiratory system. Lubbock found a simple system of trache&aelig; in
+Smynthurus which opens by "two spiracles in the head, opposite the
+insertion of the antenn&aelig;," <i>i. e.</i>, on the back of the head. (Von Olfers
+says that they open on the prothorax.) Nicolet and Olfers claim to have
+found trache&aelig; in several lower genera (Orchesella, Tomocerus, and
+Achorutes and allied genera), but Lubbock was unable to detect them, and
+I may add that I have not yet been able after careful search to find
+them either in living specimens, or those rendered transparent by
+potash.</p>
+
+<p>Having given a hasty sketch of the external aspect of the Poduras, I
+extract from Lubbock's work a synopsis of the families and genera for
+the convenience of the student, adding the names of known American
+species, or indications of undescribed native forms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Smynthurid&aelig;.</span>&mdash;Body globular or ovoid; thorax and abdomen forming one
+mass; head vertical or inclined; antenn&aelig; of four or eight segments. Eyes
+eight on each side, on the top of the head. Legs long and slender.
+Saltatory appendage with a supplementary segment.</p>
+
+<p>Smynthurus. Antenn&aelig; four-jointed, bent at the insertion of the fourth,
+which is nearly as long as the other three, and appears to consist of
+many small segments. No conspicuous dorsal tubercles. (In this country
+Fitch has described five species: S. arvalis, elegans, hortensis,
+Nov&aelig;boracensis, and signifer. Figure 156 represents a species found in
+Maine.)</p>
+
+<p>Dicyrtoma. Antenn&aelig; eight-jointed, five before, three after the bend. Two
+dorsal tubercles on the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>Papirius.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Antenn&aelig; four-jointed, without a well-marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> elbow, and
+with a short terminal segment offering the appearance of being
+many-jointed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Podurid&aelig;.</span>&mdash;This family comprises those species of the old genus Podura,
+in which the mouth has mandibles [also maxill&aelig; and a labium], and the
+body is elongated, with a more or less developed saltatory appendage at
+the posterior extremity.</p>
+
+<p>Orchesella. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed with clubbed hairs. Antenn&aelig; long, six-jointed. Eyes six in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (One or two beautiful
+species live about Salem.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 82px;">
+<img src="images/f168.jpg" width="82" height="180" alt="168. Degeeria." title="" />
+<span class="caption">168. Degeeria.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Degeeria. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed by clubbed hairs. Antenn&aelig; longer than the head and thorax,
+filiform, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side of the head.
+(Two species, Degeeria decem-fasciata, Pl. 10, Figs. 2, 3, and D.
+purpurascens, Figs. 4, 5, are figured in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects." Figure 168 represents a species found in Salem, Mass., closely
+allied to the European D. nivalis. Five species are already known in New
+England.)</p>
+
+<p>Seira. Body covered with scales. Antenn&aelig; four-jointed; terminal segment
+not ringed. Eyes on a dark patch. Thorax not projecting over the head.
+Abdominal segments unequal.</p>
+
+<p>Templetonia. Segments of the body subequal, clothed by clubbed hairs,
+and provided with scales. Antenn&aelig; longer than the head and thorax,
+five-jointed, with a small basal segment, and with the terminal portion
+ringed.</p>
+
+
+<p>Isotoma. Four anterior abdominal segments subequal, two posterior ones
+small; body clothed with simple hairs and without scales. Antenn&aelig;
+four-jointed, longer than the head; segments subequal. Eyes seven in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (Three species are
+found in Massachusetts, one of which (I. plumbea) is figured on Pl. 10,
+Figs. 6, 7, of the "Guide to the Study of Insects," third edition.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 850px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f169.jpg" width="300" height="174" style="margin-top: 4em;" alt="169. Scales of Tomocerus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">169. Scales of Tomocerus.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;">
+<img src="images/f171.jpg" width="228" height="300" alt="171. Scale of Lepidocyrtus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">171. Scale of Lepidocyrtus.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 197px;">
+<img src="images/f170.jpg" width="197" height="250" alt="170. Lepidocyrtus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">170. Lepidocyrtus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tomocerus. Abdominal segments unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antenn&aelig; very long, four-jointed, the two terminal segments ringed. Eyes
+seven in number on each side. (The European T. plumbea, Podura plumbea
+of authors, is our spe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>cies, and is common. Fig. 160, greatly enlarged,
+copied from Templeton; Fig. 159, side view, see also Fig. 161, where the
+mouth-parts are greatly enlarged, the lettering being the same, <i>md</i>,
+mandibles; <i>mx</i>, maxill&aelig;; <i>mp</i>, maxillary palpus; <i>lb</i>, labium; <i>lp</i>,
+labial palpus; <i>lc</i>, lacinia; <i>g</i>, portion ending in three teeth; <i>l</i>,
+lobe of labium; <i>sp</i>, ventral sucking disk; the dotted line's passing
+through the body represent the course of the intestine; <i>b</i>, end of
+tibia, showing the tarsus, with the claw, and two accessory spines; <i>a</i>,
+third joint of the spring. Fig. 162, lacinia of maxilla greatly
+enlarged. Fig. 169, different forms of scales, showing the great
+variation in size and form, the narrow ones running into a linear form,
+becoming hairs. The markings are also seen to vary, showing, their
+unreliable character as test objects, unless a single scale is kept for
+use.)</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Lepidocyrtus. Abdominal segment unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antenn&aelig; long, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side. (Fig.
+170, L. albinos, an European species, from Hardwicke's "Science Gossip."
+Fig. 171, a scale. Two species live in New England.)</p>
+
+
+<p>Podura. Abdominal segments subequal. Hairs simple, no scales. Antenn&aelig;
+four-jointed, shorter than the head. Eyes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> eight in number on each side.
+Saltatory appendage of moderate length.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f172-3.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="172. Achorutes. 173. Lipura fimetaria." title="" />
+<span class="caption">172. Achorutes.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 173. Lipura fimetaria.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Achorutes. Abdominal segments subequal. Antenn&aelig; short, four-jointed.
+Eyes eight in number on each side. Saltatory appendage quite short.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 172 represents a species of this genus very abundant under the
+bark of trees, etc., in New England. It is of a blackish lead color;
+<i>a</i>, end of tibia bearing a tenant hair, with the tarsal joint and large
+claw; <i>b</i>, spring; <i>c</i>, the third joint of the spring, with the little
+spine at the base; figure 163, the supposed ovipositor; <i>a</i>, the two
+blades spread apart; <i>b</i>, side view. The mouth-parts in this genus are
+much as in Tomocerus, the maxill&aelig; ending in a lacinia and palpus.</p>
+
+
+<p>The three remaining genera, Lipura, Anurida and Anura, are placed in the
+"family" Lipurid&aelig;, which have no spring. Lubbock remarks that "this
+family contains as yet only two<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> genera, Lipura (Burmeister), in
+which the mouth is composed of the same parts as those in the preceding
+genera, and Anura (Gervais), in which the mandibles and maxill&aelig;
+disappear." Our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> common white Lipura is the European L. fimetaria Linn.
+(Fig. 173, copied from Lubbock). The site of the spring is indicated by
+an oval scar.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f174-6.jpg" width="500" height="470" alt="174. 176. 175. Anurida maritima." title="" />
+<span class="caption">174. 176. 175. Anurida maritima.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figure 174 represents Anurida maritima found under stones between tide
+marks at Nantucket. It is regarded the same as the European species by
+Lubbock, to whom I had sent specimens for comparison. This genus differs
+in the form of the head from Lipura and also wants the terminal upcurved
+spines, while the antenn&aelig; are much more pointed. The legs (Fig. 175) end
+in a large, long, curved claw. On examining specimens soaked in potash,
+I have found that the mouth-parts of this species (Fig. 176,) <i>md</i>,
+mandibles; <i>mx</i>, maxill&aelig;; <i>e</i>, eyes, and a singular accessory group of
+small cells, are like those of Achorutes, as previously noticed by
+Laboulb&egrave;ne. The mandibles, like those of other Poduras, end in from
+three to six teeth, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> have a broad, many-toothed molar surface below.
+The maxill&aelig;; end in a tridentate lacinia as usual, though the palpi and
+galea I have not yet studied.</p>
+
+<p>The genus Anura may be readily recognized by the mouth ending in an
+acutely conical beak, with its end quite free from the head and hanging
+down beneath it. The body is short and broad, much tuberculated, while
+the antenn&aelig; are short and pointed, and the legs are much shorter than in
+Lipura, not reaching more than a third of their length beyond the body.
+Our common form occurs under the bark of trees.</p>
+
+<p>For the reason that I can find no valid characters for separating these
+three genera as a family from the other Poduras, I am inclined to think
+that they form, by the absence of the spring, only a subdivision
+(perhaps a subfamily) of the Podurid&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>The best way to collect Poduras is, on turning up the stick or stone on
+the under side of which they live, to place a vial over them, allowing
+them to leap into it; they may be incited to leap by pushing a needle
+under the vial. They may also be collected by a bottle with a sponge
+saturated with ether or chloroform. They may be kept alive for weeks by
+keeping moist slips of blotting paper in the vial. In this way I have
+kept specimens of Degeeria, Tomocerus and Orchesella, from the middle of
+December till late in January. During this time they occasionally
+moulted, and Tomocerus plumbeus, after shedding its skin, ate it within
+a few hours. Poduras feed ordinarily on vegetable matter, such as dead
+leaves and growing cryptogamic vegetation. These little creatures can be
+easily preserved in a mixture of alcohol and glycerine, or pure alcohol,
+though without the glycerine the colors fade.</p>
+
+<p>We have entered more fully in this chapter into the details of structure
+than heretofore, too much so, perhaps, for the patience of our readers.
+But the study of the Poduras possesses the liveliest interest, since
+these lowest of all the six-footed insects may have been among the
+earliest land animals, and hence to them we may look with more or less
+success for the primitive, ancestral forms of insect life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>HINTS ON THE ANCESTRY OF INSECTS.</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/f177.jpg" width="61" height="200" alt="177. Pentastoma." title="" />
+<span class="caption">177. Pentastoma.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 64px;">
+<img src="images/f178.jpg" width="64" height="200" alt="178. Centipede." title="" />
+<span class="caption">178. Centipede.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Though our course through the different groups of insects may have
+seemed rambling and desultory enough, and pursued with slight reference
+to a natural classification of the insects of which we have spoken, yet
+beginning with the Hive bee, the highest intelligence in the vast world
+of insects, we have gradually, though with many a sudden step, descended
+to perhaps the most lowly organized forms among all the insects, the
+parasitic mites. While the Demodex is probably the humblest in its
+organization of any of the insects we have treated of, there is still
+another mite, which, some eminent naturalists continue to regard as a
+worm, which is yet lower in the scale. This is the Pentastoma (Fig. 177,
+P. t&aelig;nioides), which lives in the manner of the tape worm a parasitic
+life in the higher animals, though instead of inhabiting the alimentary
+canal, the worm-like mite takes up its abode in the nostrils and frontal
+sinus of dogs and sheep, and sometimes of the horse. At first, however,
+it is found in the liver or lungs of various animals, sometimes in man.
+It is then in the earliest or larval state, and assumes its true mite
+form, being oval in shape, with minute horny jaws adapted for boring,
+and with two pairs of legs armed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> with sharp retractile claws. Such an
+animal as this is little higher than some worms, and indeed is lower
+than many of them.</p>
+
+<p>We should also not pass over in silence the Centipedes (Fig. 178,
+Scolopocryptops sexspinosa) and Galley worms, or Thousand legs and their
+allies (Myriopods), which by their long slender bodies, and great number
+of segments and feet, vaguely recall the worms. But they, with the
+mites, are true insects, as they are born with only three pairs of feet,
+as are the mites and ticks, and breathe by trache&aelig;; and thus a common
+plan of structure underlies the entire class of insects.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f179.jpg" width="130" height="250" alt="179. Young Pauropus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">179. Young Pauropus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;">
+<img src="images/f181.jpg" width="162" height="250" alt="181. Young Julus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">181. Young Julus.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 182px;">
+<img src="images/f180.jpg" width="182" height="300" alt="180. Spring-tail." title="" />
+<span class="caption">180. Spring-tail.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>A very strange Myriopod has been discovered by Sir John Lubbock in
+Europe, and we have been fortunate enough to find a species in this
+country. It is the Pauropus. It consists, when fully grown, of nine
+segments, exclusive of the head, bearing nine pairs of feet. The young
+of Pauropus (Fig. 179) is born with three pairs of feet, and in its
+general appearance reminds us of a spring-tail (Fig. 180) as may be seen
+by a glance at the cut. This six-legged form of Pauropus may also be
+compared with the young galley worm (Fig. 181).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 147px;">
+<img src="images/f183.jpg" width="147" height="300" alt="183. Tardigrade." title="" />
+<span class="caption">183. Tardigrade.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;">
+<img src="images/img156a.jpg" width="143" height="180" alt="182. Leptus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">182. Leptus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Passing to the group of spiders and mites, we find that the young mites
+when first hatched have but three pairs of feet, while their parents
+have four, like the spiders. Figure 182<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> represents the larva (Leptus)
+of the red garden mites; while a figure of the "water bear," or
+Tardigrade (Fig. 183), is introduced to compare with it, as it bears a
+resemblance to the young of the mites, though their young are born with
+their full complement of legs, an exception to their nearest allies, the
+true mites. Now if we compare these early stages of mites and myriopods
+with those of the true six-footed insects, as in the larval Melo&euml;,
+Cicada, Thrips and Dragon fly, we shall see quite plainly that they all
+share a common form. What does this mean? To the systematist who
+concerns himself with the classification of the myriads of different
+insects now living, it is a relief to find that all can be reduced to
+the comparatively simple forms sketched above. It is to him a proof of
+the unity of organization pervading the world of insects. He sees how
+nature, seizing upon this archetypal form has, by simple modifications
+of parts here and there, by the addition of wings and other organs
+wanting in these simple creatures, rung numberless changes in this
+elemental form. And starting from the simplest kinds, such as the
+Poduras, Spiders, Grasshoppers and May flies, allied creatures which we
+now know were the first to appear in the earlier geologic ages, we rise
+to the highest, the bees with their complex forms, their diversified
+economy and wonderful instincts. In ascending this scale of being, while
+there is a progress upwards, the beetles, for instance, being higher
+than the bugs and grasshoppers; and the butterflies and moths, on the
+whole, being more highly organized than the flies; and while we see the
+hymenopterous saw-flies, with their larv&aelig; mimicking so closely the
+caterpillars of the butterflies, in the progress from the saw-flies up
+to the bees we behold a gradual loss of the lower saw-fly characters in
+the Cynips and Chalcid flies, and see in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> the sand-wasps and true wasps
+a constant and accelerating likeness to the bee form. Yet this
+continuity of improving organizations is often broken, and we often see
+insects which recall the earlier and more elementary forms.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img157.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="184. Male Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">184. Male Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Again, going back of the larval period, and studying the insect in the
+egg, we find that nearly all the insects yet observed agree most
+strikingly in their mode of growth, so that, for instance, the earlier
+stages of the germ of a bee, fly or beetle, bear a remarkable
+resemblance to each other, and suggest again, more forcibly than when we
+examine the larval condition, that a common design or pattern at first
+pervades all. In the light of the studies of Von Baer, of Lamarck and
+Darwin, should we be content to stop here, or does this ideal archetype
+become endowed with life and have a definite existence, becoming the
+ancestral form of all insects, the prototype which gave birth to the
+hundreds of thousands of insect forms which are now spread over our
+globe, just as we see daily happens where a single aphis may become the
+progenitor of a million offspring clustering on the same tree? Is there
+not something more than analogy in the two things, and is not the same
+life-giving force that evolves a million young Aphides from the germ
+stock of a single Aphis in a single season, the same in kind with the
+production of the living races of insects from a primeval ancestor? When
+we see the Aphis giving origin in one season to successive generations,
+the individuals of which may be counted by the million, it is no less
+mysterious than that other succession of forms of insect life which has
+peopled the globe during the successive chapters of its history. While
+we see in one case the origin of individual forms, and cannot explain
+what it is that starts the life in the germ and so unerringly guides the
+course of the growing embryo, it is illogical to deny that the same
+life-giving force is concerned in the production of specific and generic
+forms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;">
+<img src="images/img158.jpg" width="229" height="300" alt="185. Female Stylops." title="" />
+<span class="caption">185. Female Stylops.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Who can explain the origin of the sexes? What is the cause that
+determines that one individual in a brood of Stylops, for example (Fig.
+184, male; Fig. 185, grub-like female in the body of its host), shall be
+but a grub, living as a parasite in the body of its host, while its
+fellow shall be winged and as free in its actions as the most highly
+organized insect? It is no less mysterious, because it daily occurs
+before our eyes. So perhaps none the less mysterious, and no more
+discordant with known natural laws may the law that governs the origin
+of species seem to those who come after us. Certainly the present
+attempts to discover that law, however fatuitous they may seem to many,
+are neither illogical, nor, judging by the impetus already given to
+biology, or the science of life, labor altogether spent in vain. The
+theory of evolution is a powerful tool, when judiciously used, that must
+eventually wrest many a secret from the grasp of nature.</p>
+
+<p>But whether true or unproved, the theory of evolution in some shape has
+actually been adopted by the large proportion of naturalists, who find
+it indispensable in their researches, and it will be used until found
+inadequate to explain facts. Notwithstanding the present distrust, and
+even fear, with which it is received by many, we doubt not but that in
+comparatively few years all will acknowledge that the theory of
+evolution will be to biology what the nebular hypothesis is to geology,
+or the atomic theory is to chemistry. While the evolution theory is as
+yet imperfect, and many objections, some seemingly insuperable, can be
+raised against it, it should be borne in mind that the nebular
+hypothesis is still comparatively crude and unsatisfactory, though
+indispensable as a working theory to the geologist; and in chemistry,
+though the atomic theory may not be satisfactorily demonstrated to some
+minds until an atom is actually brought to sight, it is yet invaluable
+in research.</p>
+
+<p>Many short sighted persons complain that such a theory sets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> in the
+back-ground the idea of a personal Creator; but minds no less devout,
+and perhaps a trifle more thoughtful, see the hand of a Creator not less
+in the evolution of plants and animals from pr&euml;existent forms, through
+natural laws, than in the evolution of a summer's shower, through the
+laws discovered by the meteorologist, who looks back through myriads of
+ages to the causes that led to the distribution of mountain chains,
+ocean currents and trade winds, which combine to produce the necessary
+conditions resulting in that shower.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, to the student of nature, the evolution theory in biology, with
+the nebular hypothesis, and the grand law in physics of the correlation
+of forces, all interdependent, and revealing to us the mode in which the
+Creator of the Universe works in the world of matter, together form an
+immeasurably grander conception of the order of creation and its
+Ordainer, than was possible for us to form before these laws were
+discovered and put to practical use. We may be allowed, then, in a
+reverent spirit of inquiry, to attempt to trace the ancestry of the
+insects, and without arriving, perhaps, at any certain result, for it is
+largely a matter of speculation, point out certain facts, the thoughtful
+consideration of which may throw light on this difficult and
+embarrassing question.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f186.jpg" width="200" height="144" alt="186. Embryo of Diplax." title="" />
+<span class="caption">186. Embryo of Diplax.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;">
+<img src="images/f187.jpg" width="138" height="260" alt="187. Embryo of Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">187. Embryo of Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Without much doubt the Poduras are the lowest of the six-footed insects.
+They are more embryonic in their appearance than others, as seen in the
+large size of the head compared with the rest of the body, the large,
+clumsy legs, and the equality in the size of the several segments
+composing the body. In other characters, such as the want of compound
+eyes, the absence of wings, the absence of a complete ovipositor, and
+the occasional want of trache&aelig;, they stand at the base of the insect
+series. That they are true insects, however, we endeavored to show in
+the previous chapter, and that they are neuropterous, we think is most
+probable, since not only in the structure of the insect after birth do
+they agree with the larv&aelig; of certain neuropters, but, as we have shown
+in another place<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> in comparing the development of Isotoma, a Poduran,
+with that of a species of Caddis fly, the correspondence throughout the
+different embryological stages, nearly up to the time of hatching, is
+very striking. And it is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> remarkable fact, as we have previously
+noticed, that when it begins to differ from the Caddis fly embryo, it
+begins to assume the Poduran characters, and its development
+consequently in some degree retrogrades, just as in the lice previous to
+hatching, as we have shown in a previous chapter, so that I think we are
+warranted at present in regarding the Thysanura, and especially the
+family of Podarids as degraded neuropters. Consequently the Poduras did
+not have an independent origin and do not, perhaps, represent a distinct
+branch of the genealogical tree of articulates. While the Poduras may be
+said to form a specialized type, the Bristle-tails (Lepisma, Machilis,
+Nicoletia and Campodea) are, as we have seen, much more highly
+organized, and form a generalized or comprehensive type. They resemble
+in their general form the larva of Ephemerids, and perhaps more closely
+the immature Perla, and also the wingless cockroaches.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f188.jpg" width="160" height="200" alt="188. Embryo of Spider." title="" />
+<span class="caption">188. Embryo of Spider.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/f189.jpg" width="179" height="200" alt="Embryo of Podura." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Embryo of Podura.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now such forms as these Thysanura, together with the mites and the
+singular Pauropus, we cannot avoid suspecting to have been among the
+earliest to appear upon the earth, and putting together the facts,
+first, of their low organization; secondly, of their comprehensive
+structure, resembling the larv&aelig; of other insects; and thirdly, of their
+probable great antiquity, we naturally look to them as being related in
+form to what we may conceive to have been the ancestor of the class of
+insects. Not that the animals mentioned above were the actual ancestors,
+but that certain insects bearing a greater resemblance to them than any
+others with which we are acquainted, and belonging possibly to families
+and orders now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> extinct, were the prototypes and progenitors of the
+insects now known.</p>
+
+
+<p>Though the study of the embryology of insects is as yet in its infancy,
+still with the facts now in our possession we can state with tolerable
+certainty that at first the embryos of all insects are remarkably alike,
+and the process of development is much the same in all, as seen in the
+figure of Diplax (Fig. 186), the louse (Fig. 187), the spider (Fig. 188)
+and the Podura (Fig. 189), and we could give others bearing the same
+likeness. We notice that at a certain period in the life of the embryo
+all agree in having the head large, and bearing from two to four pairs
+of mouth organs, resembling the legs; the thorax is merged in with the
+abdomen, and the general form of the embryo is ovate. Now this general
+embryonic form characterizes the larva of the mites, of the myriopods
+and of the true insects. To such a generalized embryonic form to which
+the insects may be referred as the descendants, we would give the name
+of <i>Leptus</i>, as among Crustacea the ancestral form is referred to
+Nauplius, a larval form of the lower Crustacea, and through which the
+greater part of the Crabs, Shrimps, Barnacles, water fleas, etc., pass
+to attain their definite adult condition. A little water flea was
+described as a separate genus, Nauplius, before it was known to be the
+larva of a higher water flea, and so also Leptus was thought to be a
+mature mite. Accordingly, we follow the usage of certain naturalists in
+dealing with the Crustacea, and propose for this common primitive larval
+condition of insects the term Leptus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<img src="images/f190.jpg" width="138" height="250" alt="190. Zo&euml;a." title="" />
+<span class="caption">190. Zo&euml;a.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The first to discuss this subject of the ancestry of insects was Fritz
+M&uuml;ller, who in his "F&uuml;r Darwin,"<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> published in 1863, says, at the end
+of his work, "Having reached the Nauplius, the extreme outpost of the
+class, retiring farthest into the gray mist of primitive time, we
+naturally look round us to see whether ways may not be descried thence
+towards other bordering regions. * * * But I can see nothing certain.
+Even towards the nearer provinces of the Myriopoda and Arachnida I can
+find no bridge. For the Insecta alone, the development of the
+Malacostraca [Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, etc.] may perhaps present a
+point of union. Like many Zo&euml;&aelig;, the Insecta possess three pairs of limbs
+serving for the reception of nourishment, and three pairs serving for
+locomotion; like the Zo&euml;&aelig; they have an abdomen without appendages; as in
+all Zo&euml;&aelig; the mandibles in Insecta are destitute of palpi. Certainly but
+little in common, compared with the much which distinguishes these two
+animal forms. Nevertheless, the supposition that the Insecta had for
+their common ancestor a Zo&euml;a which raised itself into a life on land,
+may be recommended for further examination" (p. 140).</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards H&aelig;ckel in his "Generelle Morphologie" (1866) and "History of
+Creation," published in 1868, reiterates the notion that the insects are
+derived from the larva (Zo&euml;a, Fig. 190) of the crabs, though he is
+doubtful whether they did not originate directly from the worms.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>It may be said in opposition to the view that the insects came<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+originally from the same early crustacean resembling the larva of a crab
+or shrimp, that the differences between the two types are too great, or,
+in other words, the homologies of the two classes too remote,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and
+the two types are each too specialized to lead us to suppose that one
+was derived from the other. Moreover, we find through the researches of
+Messrs. Hartt and Scudder that there were highly developed insects, such
+as May flies, grasshoppers, etc., in the Devonian rocks of New
+Brunswick, leading us to expect the discovery of low insects even in the
+Upper Silurian rocks. At any rate this discovery pushes back the origin
+of insects beyond a time when there were true Zo&euml;&aelig;, as the shrimps and
+their allies are not actually known to exist so far back as the
+Silurian, not having as yet been found below the coal measures.</p>
+
+
+<p>The view that the insects were derived from a Zo&euml;a was also sustained by
+Friedrich Brauer, the distinguished entomologist of Vienna, in a
+paper<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> read in March, 1869. Following the suggestion of Fritz M&uuml;ller
+and H&aelig;ckel, he derives the ancestry of insects from the Zo&euml;a of crabs
+and shrimps. However, he regards the Podurids as the more immediate
+ancestors of the true insects, selecting Campodea as the type of such an
+ancestral form, remarking that the "Campodea-stage has for the Insects
+and Myriopods the same value as the Zo&euml;a for the Crustacea." He says
+nothing regarding the spiders and mites.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> the writer, in criticising H&aelig;ckel's views of the
+derivation of insects from the Crustacea (ignorant of the fact that he
+had also suggested that the insects were possibly derived directly from
+the worms, and also independently of Brauer's opinions) declared his
+belief that though it seemed premature, after the discovery of highly
+organized winged insects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> in rocks so ancient as the Devonian, and with
+the late discovery of a land plant in the Lower Silurian rocks of
+Sweden,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> to even guess as to the ancestry of insects, yet he would
+suggest that, instead of being derived from some Zo&euml;a, "the ancestors of
+the insects (including the six-footed insects, spiders and myriopods)
+must have been worm-like and aquatic, and when the type became
+terrestrial we would imagine a form somewhat like the young Pauropus,
+which combines in a remarkable degree the characters of the myriopods
+and the degraded wingless insects, such as the Smynthurus, Podura, etc.
+Some such forms may have been introduced late in the Silurian period,
+for the interesting discoveries of fossil insects in the Devonian of New
+Brunswick, by Messrs. Hartt and Scudder, and those discovered by Messrs.
+Meek and Worthen in the lower part of the Coal Measures at Morris,
+Illinois, and described by Mr. Scudder, reveal carboniferous myriopods
+(two species of Euphorberia) more highly organized than Pauropus, and a
+carboniferous scorpion (Buthus?) closely resembling a species now living
+in California, together with another scorpion-like animal, Mazonia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+Woodiana, while the Devonian insects described from St. John by Mr.
+Scudder, are nearly as highly organized as our grasshoppers and May
+flies. Dr. Dawson has also discovered a well developed milleped
+(Xylobius) in the Lower Coal Measures of Nova Scotia; so that we must go
+back to the Silurian period in our search for the earliest ancestor, or
+(if not of Darwinian proclivities) prototype, of insects."</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> the writer, carrying out the idea suggested above,
+"referred the ancestry of the Myriopods, Arachnids, and Hexapodous
+insects to a Leptus-like terrestrial animal, bearing a vague resemblance
+to the Nauplius form among Crustacea, inasmuch as the body is not
+differentiated into a head, thorax and abdomen [though the head may be
+free from the rest of the body] and there are three pairs of temporary
+locomotive appendages. Like Nauplius, which was first supposed to be an
+adult Entomostracan, the larval form of Trombidium had been described as
+a genus of mites under the name of Leptus (also Ocypete and Astoma) and
+was supposed to be adult."</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Sir John Lubbock<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> agrees with Brauer that the groups
+represented by Podura and Campodea may have been the ancestors of the
+insects, remarking that "the genus Campodea must be regarded as a form
+of remarkable interest, since it is the living representative of a
+prim&aelig;val type from which not only the Collembola (Podura, etc.) and
+Thysanura, but the other great orders of insects, have all derived their
+origin."</p>
+
+<p>The comparison of the Leptus with the Nauplius, or pre-Zo&euml;al stage of
+Crustacea, is much more natural. But here we are met with apparently
+insuperable difficulties. While the Nauplius (Fig. 191) has but three
+pairs of appendages, which become the two pairs of antenn&aelig; and
+succeeding pair of limbs of the adult, in the Leptus as the least number
+we have five pairs, two of which belong to the head (the maxill&aelig; and
+mandibles) and three to the thorax; besides these is a true heed,
+distinct from the hinder region of the body. It is evident that the
+Leptus fundamentally differs from the Nauplius and begins life on a
+higher plane. We reject, therefore, the Crustacean origin of the
+insects. Our only refuge is in the worms, and how to account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> for the
+transmutation of any worm with which we are at present acquainted into a
+form like the Leptus, with its mandibulated mouth and jointed legs,
+seems at first well nigh impossible. We have the faintest possible
+indication in the structure of some mites, and of the Tardigrades and
+Pentastoma, where there is a striking recurrence, as we may term it, to
+a worm-like form, readily noticed by every observer, whatever his
+opinion may be on the developmental theory. In the Demodex we see a
+tendency of the mite to assume under peculiar circumstances an
+elongated, worm-like form. The mouth-parts are aborted (though from what
+we know of the embryology of other mites, they probably are indicated
+early in embryonic life), while the eight legs are not jointed, and form
+simple tubercles. In the Tardigrades, a long step lower, we have
+unjointed fleshy legs armed with from two to four claws, but the
+mouth-parts are essentially mite in character. A decided worm feature is
+the fact that they are hermaphrodites, each individual having ovaries
+and spermaries, as is the case with many worms.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f191.jpg" width="400" height="397" alt="191. Nauplius." title="" />
+<span class="caption">191. Nauplius.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>When we come to the singular creatures of which Pentastoma and
+Linguatula are the type, we have the most striking approximation to the
+worms in external form, but these are induced evidently by their
+parasitic mode of life. They lose the rudimentary jointed limbs which
+some (Linguatula especially) have well marked in the embryo, and from
+being oval, rudely mite-like in form, they elongate, and only the claws
+or simple curved hooks, like those of young tape worms, remain to
+indicate the original presence of true jointed legs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>In seeking for the ancestry of our hypothetical Leptus among the worms,
+we are at best groping in the dark. We know of no ancestral form among
+the true Annelides, nor is it probable that it was derived from the
+intestinal worms. The only worm below the true Annelides that suggests
+any remote analogy to the insects is the singular and rare Peripatus,
+which lives on land in warm climates. Its body, not divided into rings,
+is provided with about thirty pairs of fleshy tubercles, each ending in
+two strong claws, and the head is adorned with a pair of fleshy
+tubercles. It is remotely possible that some Silurian land worm, if any
+such existed, allied to our living Peripatus, may have been the ancestor
+of a series of types now lost which resulted in an animal resembling the
+Leptus.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f192.jpg" width="220" height="173" alt="192. Platygaster error." title="" />
+<span class="caption">192. Platygaster error.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We may, however, as bearing upon this difficult question, cite some
+remarkable discoveries of Professor Ganin, a Russian naturalist, on the
+early stages of certain ichneumon parasites, which show some worm
+features in their embryonic development. In a species of Platygaster
+(Fig. 192, P. error of Fitch), which is a parasite on a two-winged gall
+fly, the earliest stage observed after the egg is laid is that in which
+the egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucleolus. Out of this
+cell (Fig. 193 <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>) arise two other cells. The central cell (<i>a</i>)
+gives origin to the embryo. The two outer ones multiply by subdivision
+and form the embryonal membrane, or "amnion," which is a provisional
+envelope and does not assist in building up the body of the germ. The
+central single cell, however, multiplies by the subdivision of its
+nucleus, thus building up the body of the germ. Figure 193 <i>B</i>, <i>g</i>,
+shows the yolk or germ just forming out of the nuclei (<i>a</i>) and <i>b</i>, the
+peripheral cells of the blastoderm skin, or "amnion." Figure 193 <i>C</i>
+shows the yolk transformed into the embryo (<i>g</i>), with the outer layer
+of blastodermic cells (<i>b</i>). The body of the germ is infolded, so that
+the embryo appears bent on itself. Figure 193 <i>D</i> shows the embryo much
+farther advanced, with the two pairs of lobes (<i>md</i>, rudimentary
+mandibles; <i>d</i>, rudimentary pad-like organs, seen in a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> advanced
+stage in <i>E</i>), and the bilobate tail (<i>st</i>). Figure 194 (<i>m</i>, mouth;
+<i>at</i>, rudimentary antenn&aelig;; <i>md</i>, mandibles; <i>d</i>, tongue-like appendages;
+<i>st</i>, anal stylets; the subject of this figure is of a different species
+from the insect previously figured, which, however, it closely
+resembles) shows the first larva stage after leaving the egg. This
+strange form, the author remarks, would scarcely be thought an insect,
+were not its origin and farther development known, but rather a
+parasitic Copepodous crustacean, whence he calls this the Cyclops-like
+stage. In this condition it clings to the inside of its
+host by means of its hook-like jaws (<i>md</i>), moving about like a Cestodes
+embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and down, and is
+of but little assistance in its efforts to change its place. Singularly
+enough, the nervous, vascular, and respiratory systems (trache&aelig;) are
+wanting, and the alimentary canal is a blind sac, remaining in an
+indifferent, or unorganized state. How long it remains in this state
+could not be ascertained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/f193.jpg" width="600" height="545" alt="193. Development of Platygaster." title="" />
+<span class="caption">193. Development of Platygaster.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;">
+<img src="images/f194.jpg" width="176" height="400" alt="194. First Larva of Platygaster." title="" />
+<span class="caption">194. First Larva of Platygaster.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 288px;">
+<img src="images/f195.jpg" width="288" height="400" alt="195. Second Larva of Platygaster." title="" />
+<span class="caption">195. Second Larva of Platygaster.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The second larval stage (Fig. 195; <i>&oelig;</i>, &oelig;sophagus; <i>ng</i>,
+supra-&oelig;sophageal ganglion; <i>n</i>, nervous cord; <i>ga</i>, and <i>g</i>, genital
+organs; <i>ms</i>, band of muscles) is attained by means of a moult, as usual
+in the metamorphoses of insects. With the change of skin the larva
+entirely changes its form. So-called hypodermic cells are developed. The
+singular tail is dropped, the segments of the body disappear, and the
+body grows oval, while within begins a series of remarkable changes,
+like the ordinary development of the embryo of most other insects within
+the egg. The cells of the hypodermis multiply greatly, and lie one above
+the other in numerous layers. They give rise to a special primitive
+organ closely resembling the "primitive band" of all insect embryos. The
+alimentary canal is made anew, and the nervous and vascu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>lar systems now
+appear, but the trache&aelig; are not yet formed. It remains in this state for
+a much longer period than in the previous stage.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;">
+<img src="images/f196.jpg" width="127" height="300" alt="196. Third Larva of Polynema." title="" />
+<span class="caption">196. Third Larva of Polynema.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The third larval form only a few live to reach. This is of the usual
+long, oval form of the larv&aelig; of the ichneumons, and the body has
+thirteen segments exclusive of the head. The muscular system has greatly
+developed and the larva is much more lively in its motions than before.
+The new organs that develop are the air tubes and fat bodies. The
+"imaginal disks" or rudimentary portions destined to develop and form
+the skin of the adult, or imago, arise in the pupa state, which
+resembles that of other ichneumons. These disks are only engaged, in
+Platygaster, in building up the rudimentary appendages, while in the
+flies (Muscid&aelig; and Corethra) they build up the whole body, according to
+the remarkable discovery of Weismann.</p>
+
+<p>Not less interesting is the history of the development of a species of
+Polynema, another egg-parasite, which lays its eggs (one, seldom two) in
+the eggs of a small dragon fly, Agrion virgo, which oviposits in the
+parenchyma of the leaves of waterlilies. The eggs develop as in
+Platygaster. The earliest stage of the embryo is very remarkable. It
+leaves the egg when very small and immovable, and with scarcely a trace
+of organization, being a mere flask-shaped sac of cells.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It remains
+in this state five or six days.</p>
+
+<p>In the second stage, or Histriobdella-like form, the larva is, in its
+general appearance, like the low worm to which Ganin compares it. It may
+be described as bearing a general resemblance to the third and fully
+developed larval form (Fig. 196, <i>tg</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> three pairs of abdominal
+tubercles destined to form the sting; <i>l</i>, rudiments of the legs; <i>fk</i>,
+portion of the fatty body; <i>at</i>, rudiments of the antenn&aelig;; <i>fl</i>,
+imaginal disks, or rudiments of the wings). No trache&aelig; are developed in
+the larva, nor do any exist in the imago. (Ganin thinks, that as these
+insects are somewhat aquatic, the adult insects flying over the surface
+of the water, the wings may act as respiratory organs, like gills.) It
+lives six to seven days before pupating, and remains from ten to twelve
+days in the pupa state.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the sting is clearly ascertained. Ganin shows that it
+consists of three pairs of tubercles, situated respectively on the
+seventh, eighth, and ninth segments of the abdomen (Fig. 196, <i>tg</i>). The
+labium is not developed from a pair of tubercles, as is usual, but at
+once appears as an unpaired, or single organ. The pupa state lasts for
+five or six days, and when the imago appears it eats its way through a
+small round opening in the end of the skin of its host, the Agrion
+larva.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;">
+<img src="images/f197.jpg" width="488" height="500" alt="197. Development of Egg-parasites." title="" />
+<span class="caption">197. Development of Egg-parasites.</span>
+</div>
+<p>The development of Ophloneurus, another egg-parasite, agrees with that
+of Platygaster and Polynema. This egg-parasite passes its early life in
+the eggs of Pieris brassic&aelig;, and two or three live to reach the imago
+state, though about six eggs are deposited by the female. The eggs are
+oval, and not stalked. The larva is at first of the form indicated by
+figure 197 <i>E</i>, and when fully grown becomes of a broad oval form, the
+body not being divided into segments. It differs from the genera already
+mentioned, in remaining within its egg membrane, and not assuming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> their
+strange forms. From the non-segmented, sac-like larva, it passes
+directly into the pupa state.</p>
+
+<p>The last egg-parasite noticed by Ganin, is Teleas, whose development
+resembles that of Platygaster. It is a parasite in the eggs of Gerris,
+the Water Boatman. Figure 197 <i>A</i> represents the egg; <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i>,
+the first stage of the larva, the abdomen (or posterior division of the
+body) being furnished with a series of bristles on each side. (<i>B</i>
+represents the ventral, <i>C</i> the dorsal, and <i>D</i> the profile view; <i>at</i>,
+antenn&aelig;; <i>md</i>, hook-like mandibles; <i>mo</i>, mouth; <i>b</i>, bristles; <i>m</i>,
+intestine; <i>sw</i>, the tail; <i>ul</i>, under lip or labium.) In the second
+larval stage, which is oval in form, and not segmented, the primitive
+band is formed.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding the account of his remarkable discoveries, Ganin draws
+attention to the great differences in the formation of the eggs and the
+germs of these parasites from what occurs in other insects. The egg has
+no nutritive cells; the formation of the primitive band, usually the
+first indication of the germ, is retarded till the second larval stage
+is attained; and the embryonal membrane is not homologous with the
+so-called "amnion" of other insects, but may possibly be compared with
+the skin developed on the upper side of the low, worm-like acarian,
+Pentastomum, and the "larval skin" of the embryos of many low Crustacea.
+He says, also, that we cannot, perhaps, find the homologues of the
+provisional organs of the larv&aelig;, such as the singularly shaped antenn&aelig;,
+the claw-like mandibles, the tongue-or ear-like appendages, in other
+Arthropoda (insects and Crustacea); but that they may be found in the
+parasitic Lern&aelig;an crustaceans, and in the leeches, such as Histriobella.
+He is also struck by the similarity in the development of these
+egg-parasites to that of a kind of leech (Nephelis), the embryo of which
+is provided with cili&aelig;, recalling the larva of Teleas (Fig. 197 <i>B</i>,
+<i>C</i>), while in the true leeches (Hirudo) the primitive band is not
+developed until after they have passed through a provisional larval
+stage.</p>
+
+<p>This complicated metamorphosis of the egg-parasites, Ganin also compares
+to the so-called "hyper-metamorphosis" of certain insects (Melo&euml;,
+Sitaris, and the Stylopid&aelig;) made known by Siebold, Newport and Fabre,
+and he considers it to be of the same nature.</p>
+
+<p>He also, in closing, compares such early larval forms as those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> given in
+figures 193 <i>E</i> and 194, to the free swimming Copepoda. Finally, he says
+a few words on the theory of evolution, and remarks "there is no doubt
+that, if a solution of the questions arising concerning the genealogical
+relations of different animals among themselves is possible, comparative
+embryology will afford the first and truest principles." He modestly
+suggests that the facts presented in his paper will widen our views on
+the genetic relations of the insects to other animals, and refers to the
+opinion first expressed by Fritz M&uuml;ller (F&uuml;r Darwin, p. 91), and
+endorsed by H&aelig;ckel in his "Generelle Morphologie," that we must seek for
+the ancestors of insects and Arachnida in the Zo&euml;a form of Crustacea. He
+cautiously remarks, however, that "the embryos and larv&aelig; observed by me
+in the egg-parasites open up a new and wide field for a whole series of
+such considerations; but I will suppress them, since I am firmly
+convinced that a theory, which I build up to-day, can easily be
+destroyed with some few facts which I learn to-morrow. Since comparative
+embryology as a science does not yet exist, so do I think that all
+genetic theories are too premature, and without a strong scientific
+foundation."</p>
+
+<p>The writer is perhaps less cautious, but he cannot refrain from making
+some reflections suggested by the remarkable discoveries of Ganin. In
+the first place, these facts bear strongly on the theory of evolution by
+"acceleration and retardation." In the history of these early larval
+stages we see a remarkable acceleration in the growth of the embryo. A
+simple sac of unorganized cells, with a half-made intestine, so to
+speak, is hatched, and made to perform the duty of an ordinary, quite
+highly organized larva. Even the formation of the "primitive band,"
+usually the first indication of the organization of the germ, is
+postponed to a comparatively late period in larval life. The different
+anatomical systems, <i>i.e.</i>, the heart with its vessels, the nervous
+system and the respiratory system (trache&aelig;), appear at longer or shorter
+intervals, while in one genus the trache&aelig; are not developed at all. Thus
+some portions of the animal are accelerated in their development more
+than others, while others are retarded, and in some species certain
+organs are not developed at all. Meanwhile all live in a fluid medium,
+with much the same habits, and surrounded with quite similar physical
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The highest degree of acceleration is seen in the reproductive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> organs
+of the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor, which produces a summer brood of
+young, alive, and living free in the body of the child-parent; and in
+the pupa of Chironomus, which has been recently shown by Von Grimm, a
+fellow countryman of Ganin, to produce young in the spring, while the
+adult fly lays eggs in the autumn in the usual manner. This is in fact a
+true virgin reproduction, and directly comparable to the alternation of
+generations observed in the jelly fishes, in Salpa, and certain
+intestinal worms. We can now, in the light of the researches of Siebold,
+Leuckart, Ganin and others, trace more closely than ever the connection
+between simple growth and metamorphosis, and metamorphosis and
+parthenogenesis, and perceive that they are but the terms of a single
+series. By the acceleration in the development of a single set of organs
+(the reproductive), no more wonderful than the acceleration and
+retardation of the other systems of organs, so clearly pointed out in
+the embryos of Platygaster and its allies, we see how parthenogenesis
+under certain conditions may result. The barren Platygaster larva, the
+fertile Cecidomyia larva, the fertile Aphis larva, the fertile
+Chironomus pupa, the fertile hydroid polype, and the fertile adult queen
+bee are simply animals in different degrees of organization, and with
+reproductive systems differing not in quality, but in the greater or
+less rapidity of their development as compared with the rest of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting point is, that while the larv&aelig; vary so remarkably in
+form, the adult ichneumon flies are remarkably similar to one another.
+Do the differences in their larval history seem to point back to certain
+still more divergent ancestral forms?</p>
+
+<p>These remarkable hyper-metamorphoses remind us of the metamorphosis of
+the embryo of Echinoderms into the Pluteus-and Bipinnaria-forms of the
+starfish, sea urchins and Holothurians;<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> of the Actinotrocha-form
+larva of the Sipunculoid worms;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> of the Tornaria into Balanoglossus, the
+worm; of the Cercaria-form larva of Distoma; of the Pilidium-form larva
+of Nemertes; and the larval forms of the leeches;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> as well as the
+mite Pentastomum, and certain other aberrant mites, such as Myobia.</p>
+
+<p>While Fritz M&uuml;ller and Dohrn have considered the insects as having
+descended from the Crustacea (some primitive zo&euml;a-form), and Dohrn has
+adduced the supposed zo&euml;a-form larva of these egg-parasites as a proof,
+we cannot but think, in a subject so purely speculative as the ancestry
+of animals, that the facts brought out by Ganin tend to confirm our
+theory, that the ancestry of all the insects (including the Arachnids
+and Myriopods) should be traced directly to the worms. The development
+of the degraded, aberrant Arachnidan Pentastomum accords, in some
+important respects, with that of the intestinal worms. The Leptus-form
+larva of Julus, with its strange embryological development, in some
+respects so like that of some worms, points in that direction, as
+certainly as does the embryological development of the egg-parasite
+Ophioneurus. The Nauplius form of the embryo or larva of nearly all
+Crustacea, also points back to the worms as their ancestors, the
+divergence having perhaps originated, as we have suggested, in the
+Rotatoria.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/f198.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="198. A Rotifer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">198. A Rotifer.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>While the Crustacea may have resulted from a series of prototypes
+leading up from the Rotifers (Fig. 198), it is barely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> possible that one
+of these creatures may have given rise to a form resulting in two series
+of beings, one leading to the Leptus form, the other to the Nauplius.
+For the true Annelides (Ch&aelig;topods) are too circumscribed and homogeneous
+a group to allow us to look to them for the ancestral forms of insects.
+But that the insects may have descended from some low worms is not
+improbable when we reflect that the Syllis and allied genera of
+Annelides bear appendages consisting of numerous joints; indeed, the
+strange Dujardinia rotifers, figured by Quatrefages, in its general form
+is remarkably like the larva of Chlo&euml;on. It has a quite distinct head,
+bearing five long, slender, jointed antenn&aelig;, and but eight or nine rings
+to the body, which ends in two long, many jointed appendages exactly
+like the tentacles. Quatrefages adds, that its movements are usually
+slow, but "when it wishes to move more rapidly, it moves its body
+alternately up and down with much vivacity, and shoots forwards by
+bounds, so to speak, a little after the manner of the larv&aelig; of the
+mosquito" (Histoire Naturelle des Annel&eacute;s, Tome 2, p. 69). The gills of
+aquatic insects only differ from those of worms in possessing trache&aelig;,
+though the gills of the Crustacea may be directly compared with those of
+insects.</p>
+
+
+<p>But when once inside the circle of the class of insects the ground is
+firmer, as our knowledge is surer. Granting now that the Leptus-like
+ancestor of the six-footed insects has become established, it is not so
+difficult to see how the Podur&aelig; and finally a form like Campodea
+appeared. Aquatic forms resembling the larva of the Ephemer&aelig;, Perl&aelig; and,
+more remotely, the Forficul&aelig; and white ants of to-day were probably
+evolved with comparative suddenness. Given the evolution of forms like
+the earwigs (Forficula), cockroaches and white ants (Termes), the latter
+of which abounded in the coal period, and it was not a great step
+forward to the evolution of the Dragon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>flies, the Psocus, the Chrysopa,
+the lice or parasitic Hemiptera, together with Thrips, thus forming the
+establishment of lines of development leading up to those Neuroptera
+with a complete metamorphosis, and finally to the grasshoppers and other
+forms of Orthoptera, together with the Hemiptera.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f199.jpg" width="250" height="84" style="margin-top: 3em;" alt="199. Chrysopa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">199. Chrysopa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f200.jpg" width="250" height="168" alt="200. Panorpa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">200. Panorpa.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">We have thus advanced from wingless to winged forms, <i>i. e.</i>, from
+insects without a metamorphosis to those with a partial metamorphosis
+like the Perlas; to the May flies and Dragon flies, in which the adult
+is still more unlike the larva; to the Chrysopa (Fig. 199) and Forceps
+Tails (Panorpa, Fig. 200) and Caddis flies, in which, especially the
+latter, the metamorphosis is complete, the pupa being inactive and
+enclosed in a cocoon.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 92px;">
+<img src="images/f201.jpg" width="92" height="250" alt="201. Embryo of Diplax." title="" />
+<span class="caption">201. Embryo of Diplax.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having assumed the creation of our Leptus by evolutional laws, we must
+now account for the appearance of trache&aelig; and those organs so dependent
+on them, the wings, which, by their presence and consequent changes in
+the structure of the crust of the body, afford such distinctive
+characters to the flying insects, and raise them so far above the
+creeping spiders and centipedes. Our Leptus at first undoubtedly
+breathed through the skin, as do most of the Poduras, since we have been
+unable to find trache&aelig; in them, nor even in the prolarva of a genus of
+minute ichneumon egg parasites, nor in the Linguatul&aelig; and Tardigrades,
+and some mites, such as the Itch insect and the Demodex, and other
+Acari. In the Myriopod, Pauropus, Lubbock was unable to find any traces
+of trache&aelig;. If we examine the embryo of an insect shortly before birth,
+as in the young Dragon fly (figure 201, the dotted line <i>t</i> crosses the
+rudimentary trache&aelig;), we find it to consist of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> two simple tubes with
+few branches, while there are no stigmata, or breathing holes, to be
+seen in the sides of the body. This fact sustains the view of
+Gegenbaur<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> that at first the trache&aelig; formed two simple tubes in the
+body-cavity, and that the primary office of these tubes was for
+lightening the body, and that their function as respiratory tubes was a
+secondary one. The aquatic Protoleptus, as we may term the ancestor of
+Leptus, may have had such tubes as these, which acted like the swimming
+bladder of fishes for lightening the body, as suggested by Gegenbaur. It
+is known that the swimming bladder of fishes becomes developed into the
+lungs of air-breathing vertebrates and man himself. As our Leptus
+adopted a terrestrial life and needed more air, a connection was
+probably formed by a minute branch on each side of the body with some
+minute pore (for such exist, whose uses are as yet unknown) through the
+skin, which finally became specialized into a stigma, or breathing pore;
+and from the tracheal system being closed, we now have the open tracheal
+system of land insects.</p>
+
+<p>The next inquiry is as to the origin of the wings. Here the question
+arises if wingless forms are exceptional among the winged insects, and
+the loss of wings is obviously dependent on the habits (as in the lice),
+and environment of the species (as in beetles living on islands, which
+are apt to lose the hinder pair of wings), why may not their acquisition
+in the first place have been due to external agencies; and, as they are
+suddenly discarded, why may they not have suddenly appeared in the first
+place? In aquatic larv&aelig; there are often external gill-like organs, being
+simple sacs permeated by trache&aelig; (as in Agrion, Fig. 129, or the May
+flies). These organs are virtually aquatic wings, aiding the insect in
+progression as well as in a&euml;rating the blood, as in the true wings. They
+are very variable in position, some being developed at the extremity of
+the abdomen, as in Agrion, or along the sides, as in the May flies, or
+filiform and arranged in tufts on the under side of the body, as in
+Perla; and the naturalist is not surprised to find them absent or
+present in accordance with the varying habits of the animal. For
+example, in the larv&aelig; of the larger Dragon flies (Libellula, etc.) they
+are wanting, while in Agrion and its allies they are present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now we conceive that wings formed in much the same way, and with no more
+disturbance, so to speak, to the insect's organization, appeared during
+a certain critical period in the metamorphosis of some early insect. As
+soon as this novel mode of locomotion became established we can easily
+see how surrounding circumstances would favor their farther development
+until the presence of wings became universal. If space permitted us to
+pursue this interesting subject farther, we could show how invariably
+correlated in form and structure are the wings of insects to the varied
+conditions by which they are surrounded, and which we are forced to
+believe stand in the relation of cause to effect. Again, why should the
+wings always appear on the thorax and on the upper instead of the under
+side? As this is the seat of the centre of gravity, it is evident that
+cosmical laws as well as the more immediate laws of biology determine
+the position and nature of the wings of an insect.</p>
+
+<p>Correlated with the presence of wings is the wonderful differentiation
+of the crust, especially of the thorax, where each segment consists of a
+number of distinct pieces; while in the spiders and Myriopods the
+segments are as simple as in the abdominal segments of the winged
+insect. It is not difficult here to trace a series leading up from the
+Poduras, in which the segments are like those of spiders, to the
+wonderful complexity of the parts in the thoracic segments of the
+Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera.</p>
+
+<p>In his remarks "On the Origin of Insects,"<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Sir John Lubbock says, "I
+feel great difficulty in conceiving by what natural process an insect
+with a suctorial mouth like that of a gnat or butterfly could be
+developed from a powerfully mandibulate type like the Orthoptera, or
+even from the Neuroptera." Is it not more difficult to account for the
+origin of the mouth-parts at all? They are developed as tubercles or
+folds in the tegument, and are homologous with the legs. Figure 186
+shows that the two sorts of limbs are at one time identical in form and
+relative position. The thought suggests itself that these long, soft,
+finger-like appendages may have been derived from the tentacles of the
+higher worms, but the grounds for this opinion are uncertain. At any
+rate, the earliest form of limb must have been that of a soft tubercle
+armed with one, or two, or many terminal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> claws, as seen in aquatic
+larv&aelig;, such as Chironomus (Fig. 202), Ephydra (Fig. 203 <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>,
+pupa) and many others. As the Protoleptus assumed a terrestrial life and
+needed to walk, the rudimentary feet would tend to elongate, and in
+consequence need the presence of chitine to harden the integument, until
+the habit of walking becoming fixed, the necessity of a jointed
+structure arose. After this the different needs of the offspring of such
+an insect, with their different modes of taking food, vegetable or
+animal, would induce the diverse forms of simple, or raptorial, or
+leaping or digging limbs. A peculiar use of the anterior members, as
+seen in grasping the food and conveying it to the mouth (perhaps
+originally a simple orifice with soft lips, as in Peripatus), would tend
+to cause such limbs to be grouped together, to concentrate around the
+mouth-opening, and to be directed constantly forwards. With use, as in
+the case of legs, these originally soft mouth-feet would gradually
+harden at the extremities, until serviceable in biting, when they would
+become jaws and palpi. Given a mouth and limbs surrounding it, and we at
+once have a rude head set off from the rest of the body. And in fact
+such is the history of the development of these parts in the embryo. At
+first the head is indicated by the buds forming the rudiments of limbs;
+the segments to which they are attached do not form a true head until
+after the mouth-parts have attained their jaw-like characters, and it is
+not until the insect is about to be hatched, that the head is definitely
+walled in.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f202.jpg" width="150" height="117" alt="202. Foot of Chironomus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">202. Foot of Chironomus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f203.jpg" width="200" height="172" alt="203. Ephydra." title="" />
+<span class="caption">203. Ephydra.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have arrived, then, at our Leptus, with a head bearing two pairs of
+jaws. The spiders and mites do not advance beyond this stage. But in the
+true insects and Myriopods, we have the addition of special sense
+organs, the antenn&aelig;, and another pair of appendages, the labial palpi.
+It is evident that in the ancestor of these two groups the first pair of
+appendages became early adapted for purely sensory purposes, and were
+naturally projected far in advance of the mouth, forming the antenn&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Before considering the changes from the mandibulate form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> of insects to
+those with mouth parts adapted for piercing and sucking, we must
+endeavor to learn how far it was possible for the caterpillar or maggot
+to become evolved from the Leptus-like larv&aelig; of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera, Hemiptera and most Coleoptera. I may quote from a previous
+article<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> a few words in relation to two kinds of larv&aelig; most prevalent
+among insects. "There are two forms of insectean larv&aelig; which are pretty
+constant. One we call <i>leptiform</i>, from its general resemblance to the
+larv&aelig; of the mites (Leptus). The larv&aelig; of all the Neuroptera, except
+those of the Phryganeid&aelig; and Panorpid&aelig; (which are cylindrical and
+resemble caterpillars), are more or less leptiform, <i>i. e.</i>, have a
+flattened or oval body, with large thoracic legs. Such are the larv&aelig; of
+the Orthoptera and Hemiptera, and the Coleoptera (except the
+Curculionid&aelig;; possibly the Cerambycid&aelig; and Buprestid&aelig;, which approach
+the maggot-like form of the larv&aelig; of weevils). On the other hand, taking
+the caterpillar or bee larva, with their cylindrical, fleshy bodies, in
+most respects typical of larval forms of the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera
+and Diptera, as the type of the <i>cruciform</i> larva, etc. * * * The larv&aelig;
+of the earliest insects were probably leptiform, and the cruciform
+condition is consequently an acquired one, as suggested by Fritz
+M&uuml;ller."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> It seems that these two sorts of larv&aelig; had also been
+distinguished by Dr. Brauer in the article already referred to, with
+which, however, the writer was unacquainted at the time of writing the
+above quoted article. The similar views presented may seem to indicate
+that they are founded in nature. Dr. Brauer, after remarking that the
+Podurids seemed to fulfil H&aelig;ckel's idea of what were the most primitive
+insects, and noticing how closely they resemble the larv&aelig; of Myriopods,
+says, "specially interesting are those forms among the Podurid&aelig; which
+are described as Campodea and Japyx, since the larv&aelig; of a great number
+of insects may be traced back to them"; but he adds, and with this view
+we are unable to agree, "while others, the caterpillar-like forms
+(Raupenform), resulted from them by a retrograde process, and also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+the still lower maggot-like forms. While on the one hand Campodea, with
+its abdominal feet, and the larva of Lithobius are related, so on the
+other the Lepismatid&aelig;, which are very near the Blattari&aelig;, are nearly
+related to the Myriopods, since their abdominal segments often bear
+appendages (Machilis). The Campodea-form appears in most of the
+Pseudoneuroptera [Libellulids, Ephemerids, Perlids, Psocids and Termes],
+Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, perhaps modified in the Strepsiptera
+[Stylops and Xenos] and Coccid&aelig; in their first stage of development, and
+indeed in many of these at their first moult." Farther on he says, "A
+larger part of the most highly developed insects assume another
+larva-form, which appears not only as a later acquisition, through
+accommodation with certain definite relations, but also arises as such
+before our eyes. The larv&aelig; of butterflies and moths, of saw flies and
+Panorp&aelig;, show the form most distinctly, and I call this the caterpillar
+form (Raupenform). That this is not the primitive form, but one later
+acquired, we see in the beetles. The larv&aelig; of Melo&euml; and Sitaris in their
+fully grown condition possess the caterpillar form, but the new born
+larv&aelig; of these genera show the Campodea form. The last form is lost as
+soon as the larva begins its parasitic mode of life. * * * The larger
+part of the beetles, the Neuroptera in part, the bees and flies (the
+last with the most degraded maggot form) possess larv&aelig; of this second
+form." He considers that the caterpillar form is a degraded Campodea
+form, the result of its stationary life in plants or in wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
+<img src="images/plate_002.jpg" width="445" height="700" alt="Pl 2. EXAMPLES OF LEPTIFORM LARV&AElig;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Pl 2. EXAMPLES OF LEPTIFORM LARV&AElig;.</span>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Explanation of Plate 2.</span> Figure 1, different forms of Leptus; 2, Diplax;
+3, Coccinella larva; 4, Cicada larva; 5, Cicindela larva; 6, Ant Lion;
+7, Calligrapha larva; 8, Aphis larva; 9, Hemerobius larva; 10, Glyrinua
+larva; 11, Carabid larva; 12, Melo&euml; larva.</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;">
+<img src="images/plate_003.jpg" width="427" height="700" alt="Pl 3. EXAMPLES OF ERUCIFORM LARV&AElig;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Pl 3. EXAMPLES OF ERUCIFORM LARV&AElig;.</span>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Explanation of Plate 3.</span> Figure 1. Panorpa larva; 2, Phryganea larva; 3,
+Weevil larva; 4, third larva of Melo&euml;; 5, Chionea larva; 6, Carpet Worm;
+7, Phora larva; 8, Wheat Caterpillar; 9, Sphinx Caterpillar; 10,
+Acronycta? larva; 11, Saw Fly larva; 12, Abia Saw Fly larva; 13,
+Halictus larva; 14, Andrena larva.</h4>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 39px;">
+<img src="images/f204.jpg" width="39" height="180" alt="204. Tipula Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">204. Tipula Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For reasons which we will not pause here to discuss, we have always
+regarded the eruciform type of larva as the highest. That it is the
+result of degradation from the Leptus or Campodea form, we should be
+unwilling to admit, though the maggots of flies have perhaps retrograded
+from such forms as the larv&aelig; of the mosquitoes and crane flies
+(Tipulids, Fig. 204).</p>
+
+<p>That the cylindrical form of the bee grub and caterpillar is the result
+of modification through descent is evident in the caterpillar-like form
+of the immature Caddis fly (Pl. 3, fig. 2). Here the fundamental
+characters of the larva are those of the Corydalus and Sialis and
+Panorpa, types of closely allied groups. The features that remind us of
+caterpillars are superadded, evidently the result of the peculiar
+tube-inhabiting habits of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> the young Caddis fly. In like manner the
+caterpillar-form is probably the result of the leaf-eating life of a
+primitive Leptiform larva. In like manner the soft-bodied maggot of the
+weevil is evidently the result of its living habitually in cavities in
+nuts and fruits. Did the soft, baggy female Stylops live exposed, like
+its allies in other families, to an out-of-doors life, its skin would
+inevitably become hard and chitinous. In these and multitudes of other
+cases the adaptation of the form of the insect to its mode of life is
+one of cause and effect, and not a bit less wonderful after we know what
+induced the change of form.</p>
+
+<p>Having endeavored to show that the caterpillar is a later production
+than the young, wingless cockroach, with which geological facts
+harmonize, we have next to account for the origin of a metamorphosis in
+insects. Here it is necessary to disabuse the reader's mind of the
+prevalent belief that the terms larva, pupa and imago are fixed and
+absolute. If we examine at a certain season the nest of a humble bee, we
+shall find the occupants in every stage of growth from the egg to the
+pupa, and even to the perfectly formed bee ready to break out of its
+larval cell. So slight are the differences between the different stages
+that it is difficult to say where the larval stage ends and the pupa
+begins, so also where the pupal state ends and the imago begins. The
+following figures (205-208) will show four of the most characteristic
+stages of growth, but it should be remembered that there are
+intermediate stages between. Now we have noticed similar stages in the
+growth of a moth, though a portion of them are concealed beneath the
+hard, dense chrysalis skin. The external differences between the larval
+and pupal states are fixed for a large part of the year in most
+butterflies and moths, though even in this respect there is every
+possible variation, some moths or butterflies passing through their
+transformations in a few weeks, others requiring several months, while
+still others take a year, the majority of the moths living under ground
+in the pupa state for eight or nine months. The stages of metamorphosis
+in the Diptera are no more suddenly acquired than in the bee or
+butterfly. In all these insects the rudiments of the wings, legs, and
+even of the ovipositor of the adult exist in the young larva. We have
+found somewhat similar intermediate stages in the metamorphoses of the
+beetles. The insects we have mentioned are those with a "complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+metamorphosis." We have seen that even in them the term "complete" is a
+relative and not absolute expression, and that the terms larva and pupa
+are convenient designations for states varying in duration, and assumed
+to fulfil certain ends of existence, and even then dependent on length
+of seasons, variation in climate, and even on the locality. When we
+descend to the insects with an "incomplete" metamorphosis, as in the May
+fly, we find that, as in the case of Chlo&euml;on, Sir John Lubbock has
+described twenty-one stages of existence, and let him who can say where
+the larval ends and the pupal or imaginal stages begin. So in a stronger
+sense with the grasshopper and cockroach. The adult state in these
+insects is attained after a number of moults of the skin, during each of
+which the insect gradually draws nearer to the final winged form. But
+even the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> so-called pup&aelig;, or half winged individuals known not to be
+adult, in some cases feel the sexual impulse, while a number of species
+in each of the families represented by these two insects never acquire
+wings.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 468px;">
+<img src="images/f205-8.jpg" width="468" height="550" alt="205. Larva. 206. Semi-pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">205. Larva. 206. Semi-pupa.<br />207. Advanced Semi-pupa. 208. Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>EARLY STAGES OF THE HUMBLE BEE.</h4>
+
+
+<p>Still how did the perfect metamorphosis arise? We can only answer this
+indirectly by pointing to the Panorpa and Caddis flies, with their
+nearly perfect metamorphosis, though more nearly allied otherwise to
+those Neuroptera with an incomplete metamorphosis, as the lace-winged
+fly, than the insects of any other suborder. If, among a group of
+insects such as the Neuroptera, we find different families with all
+grades of perfection in metamorphosis, it is possible that larger and
+higher groups may exist in which these modes of metamorphosis may be
+fixed and characteristic of each. Had we more space for the exposition
+of many known facts, the sceptic might perceive that by observing how
+arbitrary and dependent on the habits of the insects are the
+metamorphoses of some groups, the fixed modes of other and more general
+groups may be seen to be probably due to biological causes, or in other
+words have been acquired through changes of habits or of the temperature
+of the seasons and of climates. Many facts crowd upon us, which might
+serve as illustrations and proofs of the position we have taken. For
+instance, though we have in tropics rainy and dry seasons when, in the
+latter, insects remain quiescent in the chrysalis state as in the
+temperate and frigid zones, yet did not the change from the earlier ages
+of the globe, when the temperature of the earth was nearly the same the
+world over, to the times of the present distribution of heat and cold in
+zones, possibly have its influence on the metamorphoses of insects and
+other animals? It is a fact that the remains of those insects with a
+complete metamorphosis (the bees, butterflies and moths, flies and
+beetles) abound most in the later deposits, while those with an
+incomplete metamorphosis are fewer in number and the earliest to appear.
+Again, certain groups of insects are not found in the polar regions.
+Their absence is evidently due to the adverse climatic conditions of
+those regions. The development of the same groups is striking in the
+tropics, where the sum of environing conditions all tend to favor the
+multiplication of insect forms.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f209.jpg" width="150" height="90" alt="209. Jaws of Ant Lion." title="" />
+<span class="caption">209. Jaws of Ant Lion.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It should be observed that some insects, as the grasshopper, for
+example, as M&uuml;ller says, "quit the egg in a form which is dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>tinguished
+from that of the adult insect almost solely by the want of wings," while
+the freshly hatched young of the bee, we may add, is farthest from the
+form of the adult. It is evident that in the young grasshoppers, the
+metamorphoses have been passed through, so to speak, in the egg, while
+the bee larva is almost embryonic in its build. The helpless young
+maggot of the wasp, which is fed solely by the parent, may be compared
+to the human infant, while the lusty young grasshopper, which
+immediately on hatching takes to the grass or clover field with all the
+enthusiasm of a duckling to its native pond, may be likened to that
+young feathered mariner. The lowest animals, as a rule, are at birth
+most like the adult. So with the earliest known crustacea. The king
+crabs, and in all probability the primeval trilobites, passed through
+their metamorphoses chiefly in the egg. So in the ancient Nebaliads
+(Peltocaris, Discinocaris and Ceratiocaris), if we may follow the
+analogy of the recent Nebalia, the young probably closely resembled the
+adult, while the living crabs and shrimps usually pass through the most
+marked metamorphoses. Among the worms, the highest, and perhaps the most
+recent forms, pass through the most remarkable metamorphoses.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;">
+<img src="images/f210.jpg" width="153" height="200" alt="210. Mouth-parts of the House fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">210. Mouth-parts of the House fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;">
+<img src="images/f211.jpg" width="163" height="200" alt="211. Mouth-parts of Horse fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">211. Mouth-parts of Horse fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another puzzle for the evolutionist to solve is how to account for the
+change from the caterpillar with its powerful jaws, to the butterfly
+with its sucking or haustellate mouth-parts. We shall best approach the
+solution of this difficult problem by a study of a wide range of facts,
+but a few of which can be here noticed. The older entomologists divided
+insects into haustellate or suctorial, and mandibulate or biting
+insects, the butterfly being an example of one, and the beetle serving
+to illustrate the other category. But we shall find in studying the
+different groups that these are relative and not absolute terms. We find
+mandibulate insects with enormous jaws, like the Dytiscus, or Chrysopa
+larva or ant lion, perforated, as in the former, or enclosing, as in the
+latter two insects, the maxill&aelig; (<i>b</i>), which slide backward and forward
+within the hollowed mandibles (<i>a</i>, Fig. 209, jaws of the ant lion),
+along which the blood of their victims flows. They suck the blood, and
+do not tear the flesh of their prey. The enormous mandibles of the adult
+Corydalus are too large for use and, as Walsh observed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> are converted
+in the male into simple clasping organs. And to omit a number of
+instances, in the suctorial Hemiptera or bugs we have different grades
+of structure in the mouth-parts. In the biting lice (Mallophaga) the
+mouth is mandibulate; in the Thrips it is mandibulate, the jaws being
+free, and the maxill&aelig; bearing palpi, while the Pediculi are suctorial,
+and the true bugs are eminently so. But in the bed bug it is easy to see
+that the beak is made up of the two pairs of jaws, which are simply
+elongated and adapted for piercing and sucking. Among the so-called
+haustellate insects the mouth-parts vary so much in different groups,
+and such different organs separately or combined perform the function of
+sucking, that the term haustellate loses its significance and even
+misleads the student. For example, in the house fly the tongue (Fig. 210
+<i>l</i>, the mandibles, <i>m</i>, and maxill&aelig;, <i>mp</i>, are useless), a fleshy
+prolongation of the labium or second maxill&aelig;, is the sucker, while the
+mandibles and maxill&aelig; are used as lancets by the horse fly (Fig. 211,
+<i>m</i>, mandibles, <i>mx</i>, maxill&aelig;). The maxill&aelig; in the butterfly are united
+to form the sucking tube, while in the bee the end of the labium (Fig.
+212) is specially adapted for lapping, not sucking, the nectar of
+flowers. But even in the butterfly, or more especially the moth, there
+is a good deal of misapprehension about the structure of the so-called
+"tongue." The mouth-parts of the caterpillar exist in the moth. The
+mandibles of the caterpillar occur in the head of the moth as two small
+tubercles (Fig. 213, <i>m</i>). They are aborted in the adult. While the
+maxill&aelig; are as a rule greatly developed in the moth, in the caterpillar
+they are minute and almost useless. The labium or second maxill&aelig;, so
+large in the moth, serves simply as a spinneret in the caterpillar. But
+we find a great amount of variation in the tongue or sucker of moths,
+and in the silk moths the maxill&aelig;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> are rudimentary, and there is no
+tongue, these organs being but little more developed than in the
+caterpillar. Figure 213, B, shows the minute blade-like maxilla of the
+magnificent Luna moth, an approximation to the originally blade-like
+form in beetles and Neuroptera. The maxill&aelig; in this insect are minute,
+rudimentary, and of no service to the creature, which does not take
+food. In other moths of the same family we have found the maxill&aelig;
+longer, and touching at their tips, though too widely separate at base
+to form a sucking tube, while in others the maxill&aelig; are curved, and meet
+to form a true tube.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;">
+<img src="images/f212.jpg" width="402" height="450" alt="212. Head of Humble bee." title="" />
+<span class="caption">212. Head of Humble bee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Cecropia moth it is difficult to trace the rudiments of the
+maxill&aelig; at all, and thus we have in the whole range of the moths, every
+gradation from the wholly aborted maxill&aelig; of the Platysamia Cecropia, to
+those of Macrosila cluentius of Madagascar, which form a tongue,
+according to Mr. Wallace, nine and a quarter inches in length, probably
+to enable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> their owner to probe the deep nectaries of certain orchids.
+These changes in form and size are certainly correlated with important
+differences in habits, and the evolutionist can as rightly say that the
+structural changes were induced by use and disuse and change of habits
+and the environment of the animal, as on the other hand the advocate of
+special creation claims that the two are simply correlated, and that is
+all we know about it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f213.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="213. Mouth-parts of Moths." title="" />
+<span class="caption">213. Mouth-parts of Moths.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<img src="images/f214.jpg" width="192" height="200" alt="214. Ichneumon Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">214. Ichneumon Fly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another set of organs, placed on quite another region of the body, unite
+to form the sting of the bee, or its equivalent the ovipositor of other
+hymenopterous insects, such as the Ichneumon fly (Fig. 214), the "saw"
+of the saw fly, and the augur of the Cicada. These are all formed on the
+same plan, arising early in the larval stage as three pairs of little
+tubercles, which ultimately form long blades, the innermost constituting
+the true ovipositor. We have found that one pair of these organs forms
+the "spring" of the Podura, and that in these insects it is three
+jointed, and thus is morphologically a pair of legs soldered together at
+their base. We would venture to regard the ovipositor of insects as
+probably representing three pairs of abdominal legs, comparable with
+those of the Myriopods, and even, as we have suggested in another place,
+the three pairs of jointed spinnerets of spiders. Thus the ovipositor of
+the bee has a history, and is not apparently a special creation, but a
+structure gradually developed to subserve the use of a defensive organ.</p>
+
+<p>So the organs of special sense in insects are in most cases simply
+altered hairs. The hairs themselves are modified epithelial cells. The
+eyes of insects, simple and compound, are at first simply epithelial
+cells, modified for a special purpose, and even the egg is but a
+modified epithelial cell attached to the walls of the ovary, which in
+turn is morphologically but a gland. Thus Nature deals in simples, and
+with her units of structure elaborates as her crowning work a temple in
+which the mind of man, formed in the image of God, may dwell. Her
+results are not the less marvellous because we are beginning to dimly
+trace the process by which they arise. It should not lessen our awe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> and
+reverence for Deity, if with minds made to adore, we also essay to trace
+the movements of His hand in the origin of the forms of life.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers of the evolution school are strenuous in the belief that
+the evolution hypothesis overthrows the idea of archetypes, and plans of
+structure. But a true genealogy of animals and plants represents a
+natural system, and the types of animals, be they four, as Cuvier
+taught, or five, or more, are recognized by naturalists through the
+study of dry, hard, anatomical facts. Accepting, then, the type of
+articulates as founded in nature from the similar modes of development
+and points of structure perceived between the worms and the crustacea on
+the one hand, and the worms and insects on the other, have we not a
+strong genetic bond uniting these three great groups into one grand
+subkingdom, and can we not in imagination perceive the successive steps
+by which the Creator, acting through the laws of evolution, has built up
+the great articulate division of the animal kingdom?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>INSECT CALENDAR.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In this calendar I propose to especially notice the injurious insects.
+References to the times of their appearance must be necessarily vague,
+and apply only, in a very general way, to the Northern States. Insects
+appear in Texas about six weeks earlier than in Virginia, in the Middle
+States six weeks earlier than in northern New England and the
+North-western States, and in New England about six weeks earlier than in
+Labrador. The time of the appearance of insects corresponds to the time
+of the flowering or leafing out of certain trees and herbs; for
+instance, the larv&aelig; of the American Tent caterpillar and of the Canker
+worm hatch just as the apple tree begins to leaf out; a little later the
+Plant lice appear, to feast on the tender leaves; and when, during the
+first week in June, our forests and orchards are fully leafed out, hosts
+of insects are marshalled to ravage and devour their foliage.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Insects of Early Spring.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f215.jpg" width="200" height="148" alt="215. Pea Weevil and Maggot." title="" />
+<span class="caption">215. Pea Weevil and Maggot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In April the gardener should scrape and wash thoroughly all his fruit
+trees, so as to rub off the eggs of the bark lice which hatch out early
+in May. Many injurious caterpillars and insects of all kinds winter
+under loose pieces of bark, or under matting and straw at the base of
+the trees. Search should also be made for the eggs of the Canker worm
+and the American Tent caterpillar, which last are laid in bunches half
+an inch long on the terminal shoots of many of our fruit trees. A little
+labor spent in this way will save many dollars' worth of fruit. The
+"castings" of the Apple Tree Borer (Saperda bivittata) should be looked
+for at the base of the tree, and its ravages be promptly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> arrested. Its
+presence can also be detected, it is said, by the dark appearance of the
+bark, where the grub is at work: cut in and pull out the young grub. It
+is the best time of the year to catch and kill this pest. Cylindrical
+bark borers, which are little round, black, weevil-like beetles, often
+causing "fire-blight" in pears, etc., are now flying about fruit trees
+to lay their eggs; and many other weevils and boring beetles, especially
+the Pea weevil (Bruchus pisi, Fig. 215), the Pine weevil (Pissodes
+strobi, Fig. 216), and Hylobius pales and Hylurgus terebrans, also
+infesting the pine, now abound, and the collector can obtain many
+specimens not met with at other times.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f216.jpg" width="220" height="133" alt="216 Pine Weevil and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">216 Pine Weevil and Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The housewife must now guard against the intrusion of Clothes moths
+(Tinea), while many other species of minute moths (Tineids) and of
+Leaf-rollers (Tortricid&aelig;) will be flying about orchards and gardens just
+as the buds are beginning to unfold; especially the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella). On warm days myriads of these and other insects
+may be seen filling the air; it is the busiest time of their lives, as
+all are on errands of love to their kind, but of mischief to the
+agriculturist.</p>
+
+<p>When the May Flower&mdash;"O commendable flowre and most in minde"&mdash;blooms,
+and the willows hang out their golden catkins, we shall hear the hum of
+the wild bee, and the insect hunter will reap a rich harvest of
+rarities. Seek now on the abdomen of various wild bees, such as Andrena,
+for that most eccentric of all our insects, the Stylops Childreni. The
+curious larv&aelig; of the Oil beetle may be found abundantly on the bodies of
+various species of Bombus, Andrena and Halictus, with their heads
+plunged in between the segments of the bee's body.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/f217.jpg" width="450" height="295" alt="217. The Comma Butterfly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">217. The Comma Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f218.jpg" width="250" height="212" alt="218. Tachina." title="" />
+<span class="caption">218. Tachina.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The beautiful moth, Adela, with its immensely long antenn&aelig;, may be seen,
+with other smaller moths, feeding on the blossoms of the willow. The
+Ants wake from their winter's sleep and throw up their hillocks, and the
+"thriving pismire" issues from his vaulted galleries constructed in some
+decaying log or stump, while the Angle worms emulate late their
+six-footed neighbors. During the mild days of March, ere the snow has
+melted away&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"The dandy Butterfly,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">All exquisitely drest,"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>will visit our gardens. Such are various kinds of Vanessa and Grapta
+(Fig. 217, G. c-argenteum<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>). The beautiful Brephos infans flies
+before the snow disappears.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"The Gnat, old back-bent fellow,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">In frugal frieze coat drest,"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>will celebrate the coming of Spring, with his choral dance. Such is
+Trichocera hyemalis, which may be seen in multitudes towards twilight on
+mild evenings. Many flies are now on the wing, such as Tachina (Fig.
+218) and its allies; the four spotted Mosquito, Anopheles
+quadrimaculatus, and the delicate species of Chironomus, whose males
+have such beautifully feathered antenn&aelig;, assemble in swarms. Now is the
+time for the collector to turn up stones and sticks by the river's side
+and in grassy damp pastures, for Ground beetles (Carabid&aelig;), and to
+frequent sunny paths for the gay Cicindela and the Bom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>bylius fly, or
+fish in brooks and pools for water beetles and various larv&aelig; of
+Neuroptera and Diptera; while many flies and beetles are attracted to
+freshly cut maples or birches running with sap; indeed, many insects,
+rarely found elsewhere, assemble in quantities about the stumps of these
+trees, from which the sap oozes in March and April.</p>
+
+<p>In April the injurious insects in the Northern States have scarcely
+begun their work of destruction, as the buds do not unfold before the
+first of May. We give an account, however, of some of the beneficial
+insects which are now to be found in grass-lands and in gardens. The
+farmer should know his true insect friends as well as his insect foes.
+We introduce to our readers a large family of ground-beetles (Carabid&aelig;,
+from Carabus, the name of the typical genus) which prey on those insects
+largely injurious to crops. A study of the figures will familiarize our
+readers with the principal forms. They are dark-colored, brown or black,
+with metallic hues, and are seen in spring and throughout the summer,
+running in grass, or lurking under stones and sticks in damp places,
+whence they sally forth to hunt by night, when many vegetable-eating
+insects are most active.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 329px;">
+<img src="images/f219.jpg" width="329" height="350" alt="219. Calosoma scrutator." title="" />
+<span class="caption">219. Calosoma scrutator.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 292px;">
+<img src="images/f220.jpg" width="292" height="300" style="margin-top: 3em;" alt="220. Calosoma calidum and Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">220. Calosoma calidum and Larva.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The larv&aelig; are found in much the same situations as the mature beetles.
+They are, elongate, oblong, and rather broad, the terminal ring of the
+body being armed with two horny hooks, and having a single fleshy leg
+beneath; and are usually black in color. The larva of Calosoma (C.
+calidum, Fig. 220; <i>a</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> the beetle; and Fig. 219, C. scrutator) ascends
+trees to feed on caterpillars, such as the Canker worm. When about to
+transform to the pupa state, it forms a rude cocoon in the earth. The
+beetle lies in wait for its prey in shallow pits excavated in pastures.
+We once saw it fiercely attack a May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) nearly
+twice its size; it tore open the hard sides of its clumsy and helpless
+victim with tiger-like ferocity. Carabus (Fig. 221, C. serratus Say, and
+pupa of Carabus auronitens of Europe, after Westwood) is a closely
+allied form, with very similar habits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f222-3.jpg" width="220" height="208" alt="222. Brachinus. 223. Casnonia." title="" />
+<span class="caption">222. Brachinus. 223. Casnonia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;">
+<img src="images/f226.jpg" width="70" height="250" alt="226. Carabid Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">226. Carabid Larva.</span>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/f221.jpg" width="190" height="200" alt="221. Carabus and Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">221. Carabus and Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;">
+<img src="images/f224-5.jpg" width="240" height="202" alt="224. Pangus. 225. Agonum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">224. Pangus. 225. Agonum.</span>
+</div>
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;">A much smaller form is the curious Bombardier beetle, Brachinus (Fig.
+222, B. fumans), with its narrow head and heart-shaped prothorax. It is
+remarkable for discharging with quite an explosion from the end of its
+body a pungent fluid, probably as a protection against its enemies. An
+allied genus is Casnonia (Fig. 223, C. Pensylvanica), which has a long
+neck and spotted wing covers. Figure 224, Pangus caliginosus, and figure
+225, Agonum cupripenne, represent two common forms. The former is black,
+while the latter is a pretty insect, greenish, with purplish-red
+wing-covers, and black legs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Figure 226, enlarged about three times, represents a singular larva
+found by Mr. J. H. Emerton under a stone early in spring. Dr. LeConte,
+to whom we sent a figure, supposes that it may possibly be a larva of
+Harpalus, or Pangus caliginosus. It is evidently a young Carabid. The
+under side is represented.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Insects of May.</i></p>
+
+<p>During this month there is great activity among the insects. As the
+flowers bloom and the leaves appear, multitudes wake from their long
+winter sleep, and during this month pass through the remainder of their
+transformations, and prepare for the summer campaign. Most insects
+hibernate in the chrysalis or pupa state, while many winter in the
+caterpillar or larva state, such as the larv&aelig; of several Noctuid&aelig; and
+the "yellow-bear," and other caterpillars of Arctia and its allies.
+Other insects hibernate in the adult or imago form, either as beetles,
+butterflies or certain species of bees.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that the Queen Humble bee winters under the moss, or in
+her old nest. During the present month her rovings seem to have a more
+definite object, and she seeks some deserted mouse's nest, or hollow in
+a tree or stump, and there stows away her pellets of pollen, containing
+two or three eggs apiece, which, late in the summer, are to form the
+nucleus of a well-appointed colony. The Carpenter bees (Ceratina and
+Xylocopa, the latter of which is found in abundance south of New
+England) are busy in refitting and tunnelling the hollows of the grape;
+while the Ceratina hollows out the stem of the elder, or blackberry.
+This little upholsterer bee carpets her honey-tight apartment, storing
+it with food for her young, and later in the season, in June, several of
+these cartridge-like cells, whose silken walls resemble the finest and
+most delicate parchment, may be found in the hollow stems of these
+plants. The Mason bee (Osmia) places her nest in a more exposed site,
+building her earthen cells of pellets of moistened mud, either situated
+under a stone, or in some more sheltered place; for instance, in a
+deserted oak-gall, ranging half a dozen of them side by side along the
+vault of this strange domicile. Meanwhile their more lowly relatives,
+the Andrena and Halictus bees, are engaged in tunnelling the side of
+some sunny bank or path, running long galleries underground, sometimes
+for a foot or more, at the farthest end of which are to be found, in
+summer, little earthen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> urn-like cells, in which the grubs live upon the
+pollen stored up for them in little balls of the size of a pea. Later in
+the month, the Gall flies (Cynips), those physiological puzzles, sting
+the leaves of our oaks of different species, giving rise to the strange
+excrescences and manifold deformities which deface the stems and leaves
+of our most beautiful forest trees.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/f228.jpg" width="450" height="294" alt="228. Argynnis Aphrodite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">228. Argynnis Aphrodite.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f227.jpg" width="200" height="129" alt="227. Chrysophanus Thoe." title="" />
+<span class="caption">227. Chrysophanus Thoe.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f229.jpg" width="250" height="138" alt="229. Melit&aelig;a Phaeton." title="" />
+<span class="caption">229. Melit&aelig;a Phaeton.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the Kalmia, Rhodora, and wild cherries are in bloom, many of our
+most beautiful butterflies appear; such are the different species of
+Chrysophanus (Fig. 227), Lyc&aelig;na, Thecla and Argynnis (Fig. 228). At this
+time we have found the rare larva of Melit&aelig;a Phaeton (Fig. 229) clothed
+in the richest red and velvety black, feeding daintily upon the hazel
+nut, and tender leaves of the golden rod. In June, it changes to the
+chrysalis state, and early in July the butterfly rises from the cold,
+damp bogs, where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> we have oftenest found it, clad in its rich dress of
+velvety black and red.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<img src="images/f230-1.jpg" width="180" height="98" alt="230. D. 12-punctata." title="" />
+<span class="caption">230. D. 12-punctata.<br />231. Diabrotica vittata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2.5em;">Later still, when the lilac blooms, and farther south the broad-leaved
+Kalmia, the gaily-colored Humming Bird moth (Sesia) visits the flowers
+in company with the Swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio Turnus). At
+twilight, the Hawk moth (Sphinx) darts noiselessly through our gardens,
+as soon as the honeysuckles, pinks and lilies are in blossom.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Among the flies, mosquitoes now appear, though they have not yet,
+perhaps, strayed far from their native swamps and fens; and their
+mammoth allies, the Daddy-long-legs (Tipula), rise from the fields and
+mould of our gardens in great numbers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f232.jpg" width="250" height="232" alt="Fig. 232. Plum Weevil and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 232. Plum Weevil and Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<img src="images/f233.jpg" width="171" height="200" style="margin-top: 2em;" alt="233. May Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">233. May Fly.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Of the beetles, those which feed on leaves now become specially active.
+The Squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fig. 231, and Fig. 230, D.
+12-punctata) now attacks the squash plants before they are fairly up;
+and the Plum weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 232) will sting the
+newly formed fruit, late in the month, or early in June. Many other
+weevils now abound, stinging the seeds and fruit, and depositing their
+eggs just under the skin. So immense are the numbers of insects which
+fill the air and enliven the fields and woodlands just as summer comes
+in, that a bare enumeration of them would overcrowd our pages, and tire
+the reader.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A word, however, about our water insects. Late in the month the May fly
+(Ephemera, Fig. 233) appears, often rising in immense numbers, from the
+surface of pools and sluggish brooks. In Europe, whole clouds of these
+delicate forms, with their thin white wings, have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> known to fall
+like snow upon the ground, when the peasants gather them up in heaps to
+enrich their gardens and farms.</p>
+
+<p>The Case worms, or Caddis flies (Fig. 234), begin now to leave their
+portable houses, formed of pieces of leaves, or sticks and fine gravel,
+or even of shells, as in an European species, and fly over the water,
+resting on the overhanging trees.</p>
+
+<p>A few busy Mosquito Hawks, or Dragon flies (Libellula), herald the
+coming of the summer brood of these indefatigable friends of the
+agriculturist. During their whole life below the waters, these
+entomological Herods have slain and sucked the blood of myriads of
+infant mosquitoes and other insects; and now in their new world above
+the waters, with still more intensified powers of doing mischief,
+happily, however, to flies mostly obnoxious to man, they riot in
+bloodshed and carnage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f234.jpg" width="500" height="194" alt="234. Different Forms of Case Worms." title="" />
+<span class="caption">234. Different Forms of Case Worms.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is the season to stock the fresh-water aquarium. Go to the nearest
+brook, gather a sprig or two of the water cress, which spreads so
+rapidly, a root of the eel grass, and plant them in a glass dish or deep
+jar. Pour in your water, let the sand and sediment settle, and then put
+in a few Tadpoles, a Newt (Salamander), Snails (Limn&aelig;a, Planorbis and
+Valvata), Caddis flies and Water beetles, together with the gatherings
+from a thicket of eel grass, or other submerged plants, being rich in
+the young of various flies, Ephemeras, Dragon flies and Water fleas
+(Entomostraca, Fig. 235), which last are beautiful objects for the
+microscope, and in a few days the occupants will feel at home, and the
+aquarium will be swarming with life, affording amusement and occupation
+for many a dull hour, by day or at night, in watching the marvels of
+insect transformations, and plant-growth.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/f235.jpg" width="75" height="220" alt="235. Water Flea." title="" />
+<span class="caption">235. Water Flea.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 74px;">
+<img src="images/f236.jpg" width="74" height="220" alt="236. Selandria ros&aelig;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">236. Selandria ros&aelig;.</span>
+</div>
+<p>Among the injurious hymenoptera, which abound late in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> month, is
+the Rose Saw fly (Selandria ros&aelig;, Fig. 236) and S. cerasi. The eggs are
+then laid, and the last of June, or early in July, the slug-like larv&aelig;
+mature, and the perfect insects fly in July. Various Gall flies now lay
+their eggs in the buds, leaves and stems of various kinds of oaks,
+blackberries, blueberries and other plants.</p>
+
+
+<p>Dipterous Gall flies are now laying their eggs in cereals. The Hessian
+fly (Cecidomyia destructor) has two broods, the fly appearing both in
+spring and autumn. The fly lays twenty or thirty eggs in a crease in the
+leaf of the young plant. In about four days, in warm weather, they
+hatch, and the pale-red larv&aelig; crawl down the leaf, working their way in
+between it and the main stalk, passing downward till they come to a
+joint, just above which they remain, a little below the surface of the
+ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here they imbibe
+the sap by suction alone, and, by the simple pressure of their bodies
+become imbedded in the side of the stem. Two or three larv&aelig; thus
+imbedded serve to weaken the plant and cause it to wither and die. The
+second brood of larv&aelig; remains through the winter in the flax-seed, or
+puparium. By turning the stubble with the plough in the autumn and early
+spring, its imago may be destroyed, and thus its ravages may be checked.
+(Figure 237 represents the female, which is about one-third as large as
+a mosquito: <i>a</i>, the larva; <i>b</i>, the pupa; and <i>c</i> represents the joint
+near the ground where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> the maggots live.) The same may be said of the
+Wheat midge (Cecidomyia tritici), which attacks the wheat in the ear,
+and which transforms an inch deep beneath the surface.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f237.jpg" width="220" height="171" alt="237. Hessian Fly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">237. Hessian Fly.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f238.jpg" width="220" height="179" alt="238. Turnip Butterfly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">238. Turnip Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the butterflies which appear this month are the Turnip butterfly
+(Pontia oleracea, Fig. 238,) which lays its eggs the last of the month.
+The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and in about two weeks the larva
+changes to a chrysalis. Thanaos junevalis and T. Brizo fly late in May.
+The caterpillars live on the pea and other papilionaceous plants. Thecla
+Auburniana, T. Niphon, and other species fly in dry, sunny fields, some
+in April. Argynnis Myrina flies from the last of May through June, and a
+second brood appears in August and September. Vanessa J-album and V.
+interrogationis appear in May, and again in August and September. The
+caterpillars of the latter species live on the elm, lime and hop-vine.
+Grapta comma also feeds on the hop. Alypia 8-maculata (Fig. 49) flies at
+this time, and in August its larva feeds on the grape. Sphinx gordius,
+S. 5-maculata (Fig. 239) and other Sphinges and Sesia (the Clear-winged
+moth), appear the last of May. Arctia Arge, A. virgo, A. phalerata and
+other species fly from the last of May through the summer. Hyphantria
+textor, the Fall-weaver, is found in May or June. The moth of the
+Salt-marsh caterpillar appears at this time, and various Cut worms
+(Agrotis, Fig. 240) abound, hiding in the daytime under stones and
+sticks, etc., while various Tineids and Tortrices, or Leaf-rolling
+caterpillars, begin to devour ten<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>der leaves and buds and opening
+blossoms of flowers and fruit trees.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f239.jpg" width="550" height="341" alt="239. Sphinx 5-maculata, Larva and Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">239. Sphinx 5-maculata, Larva and Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 236px;">
+<img src="images/f240.jpg" width="236" height="250" alt="240. Cut Worm and Moth." title="" />
+<span class="caption">240. Cut Worm and Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;">
+<img src="images/f241.jpg" width="121" height="180" alt="241. Garden Weevil." title="" />
+<span class="caption">241. Garden Weevil.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The White-pine weevil flies about in warm days. We have found its
+burrows winding irregularly over the inner surface of the bark and
+leading into the sap-wood. Each cell, in which it hibernates, in the
+middle of March, contains the yellowish white footless grub. Early in
+April it changes to a pupa, and a month after the beetle appears, and in
+a few days deposits its egg under the bark of old pine trees. It also
+oviposits in the terminal shoots of pine saplings, dwarfing and
+permanently deforming the tree. Associated with this weevil we have
+found the smaller, rounder, more cylindrical, whitish grubs of the
+Hylurgus terebrans, which mines the inner layers of the bark, slightly
+grooving the sap-wood. Later in April it pupates, and its habits accord
+in general with those of Pissodes strobi. Another Pine weevil also
+abounds at this time, as well as Otiorhynchus picipes (Fig. 241), which
+injures beans, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Cylindrical bark-borers, which are little, round, weevil-like beetles,
+are now flying about fruit trees, to lay their eggs in the bark.
+Associated with the Pissodes, we may find in April the galleries of
+Tomicus pini, branching out from a common centre. They are filled up
+with fine sawdust, and, according to Dr. Fitch, are notched in the sides
+"in which the eggs have been placed, where they would remain undisturbed
+by the beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the gallery."
+These little beetles have not the long snouts of the weevils, hence they
+cannot bore through the outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the
+preceding year, and distribute the eggs along the sides (Fitch). Another
+Tomicus, more dangerous than the preceding, feeds exclusively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> in the
+sap-wood, running solitary galleries for a distance of two inches
+towards the centre of the tree. We figure Tomicus xylographus Say (Fig.
+242, enlarged). It is the most formidable enemy to the white pine in the
+North, and the yellow pine in the South that we have. It also flies in
+May. Ptinus fur (Fig. 243, much enlarged) is now found in out-houses,
+and is destructive to cloth, furs, etc., resembling the Larder-beetle
+(Dermestes) in its habits. It is fourteen hundredths of an inch in
+length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 125px;">
+<img src="images/f242.jpg" width="125" height="200" style="margin-top: 3.5em;" alt="242. Pine Weevil." title="" />
+<span class="caption">242. Pine Weevil.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/f243.jpg" width="350" height="266" alt="243. Ptinus and Larva." title="" />
+<span class="caption">243. Ptinus and Larva.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;"><i>The Insects of June.</i></p>
+
+<p>Early in the month the Parsnip butterfly (Papilio Asterias) may be seen
+flying about, preparatory to laying its eggs for the brood of
+caterpillars which appear in August. At the time of the flowering of the
+raspberry and blackberry, the young larva of Vanessa Antiopa, one of our
+most abundant butterflies, may be found living socially on the leaves of
+the willow; while the mature larva of another much smaller butterfly,
+the little Copper skipper (Chrysophanus Americans), so abundant at this
+time, may sometimes be found on the clover. It is a short, oval,
+greenish worm, with very short legs. The dun-colored skippers (Hesperia)
+abound towards the middle of the month, darting over the flowers of the
+blueberry and blackberry, in sunny openings in the forests.</p>
+
+<p>The family of Hawk moths (Sphinges) now appear in greater abundance,
+hovering at twilight over flower-beds, and, during this time, deposit
+their eggs on the leaves of various fruit-trees. The American Tent
+caterpillar makes its cocoon, and assumes the pupa state. The
+caterpillar passes several days within the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> cocoon, in what may be
+called the semi-pupa states during which period the chrysalis skin is
+forming beneath the contracted and loosened larva skin. We once
+experimented on a larva which had just completed its cocoon, to learn
+how much silk it could produce. On removing its cocoon it made another
+of the same thickness; but on destroying this second one it spun a third
+but frail web, scarcely concealing its form. A minute Ichneumon
+parasite, allied to Platygaster, lays its eggs within those of this
+moth, as we once detected one under a bunch of eggs, and afterwards
+reared a few from the same lot of eggs. A still more minute egg-parasite
+(Fig. 244) we have seen ovipositing in the early spring, in the eggs of
+the Canker-worm.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f244.jpg" width="130" height="93" alt="244. Canker worm Egg-parasite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">244. Canker worm<br />Egg-parasite.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among that beautiful family of moths, the Phal&aelig;nid&aelig;, comprising the
+Geometers, Loopers, or Span-worms, are two formidable foes to fruit
+growers. The habits of the Canker worm should be well known. With proper
+care and well-directed energy, we believe their attacks can be in a
+great measure prevented. The English sparrow, doves and other
+insectivorous birds, if there are any others that eat them, should be
+domesticated in order to reduce the number of these pests. More care
+than has yet been taken should be devoted to destroying the eggs laid in
+the autumn, and also the wingless females, as they crawl up the trees in
+the spring and autumn to lay their eggs. The evil is usually done before
+the farmer is well aware that the calamity has fallen upon him. As soon
+as, and even before the trees have fairly leafed out, they should be
+visited morning, noon and night, shaken and thoroughly examined and
+cleared of the caterpillars. By well-concerted action among
+agriculturists, who should form a Board of Destruction, numbering every
+man, woman and child on the farm, this fearful scourge may be abated by
+the simplest means, as the cholera or any epidemic disease can in a
+great measure be averted by taking proper sanitary precautions. The
+Canker worms hatch out during the early part of May, from eggs laid in
+the fall and spring, on the branches of various fruit-trees. Just as the
+buds unfold, the young caterpillars make little holes through the tender
+leaves, eating the pulpy portions, not touching the veins and midribs.
+When four weeks old they creep to the ground, or let themselves down by
+spinning a silken thread, and burrow from two to six inches in the soil,
+where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> they change to chrysalids in a day or two, and in this state live
+till late in the fall, or until the early spring, when they assume the
+imago or moth form. The sexes then unite, and the eggs are deposited for
+the next generation.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Canker worm is widely distributed, though its ravages used to be
+confined mostly to the immediate vicinity of Boston. We have seen
+specimens of the moth from Illinois. Riley has found it in Missouri.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 240px;">
+<img src="images/f245.jpg" width="240" height="155" alt="245. Abraxas ribearia." title="" />
+<span class="caption">245. Abraxas ribearia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Abraxas ribearia of Fitch (Fig. 245, moth), the well-known Currant
+worm, defoliates whole rows of currant bushes. This pretty caterpillar
+may be easily known by its body being of a deep golden color, spotted
+with black. The bushes should be visited morning, noon and night, and
+thoroughly shaken (killing the caterpillars) and sprinkled with ashes.</p>
+
+<p>Among multitudes of beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to the crops, are the
+May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca, Fig. 246), whose larva, a large white
+grub, is injurious to the roots of grass and to strawberry vines. The
+Rose beetle appears about the time of the blossoming of the rose. The
+Fire-flies now show their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> light during mild evenings, and on hot sultry
+days the shrill rasping song of the male Cicada, for "they all have
+voiceless wives," cuts the air: The Chinch-bug, that fell destroyer of
+our wheat crops, appears, according to Harris, in the middle of the
+month, and "may be seen in their various stages of growth on all kinds
+of grain, on corn and herds-grass during the whole summer." So widely
+spread is this insect at present, that we have even detected it in
+August on the summit of Mount Washington.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f246.jpg" width="500" height="436" alt="246. May Beetle and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">246. May Beetle and Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f247.jpg" width="200" height="88" alt="247. Pemphigus." title="" />
+<span class="caption">247. Pemphigus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 52px;">
+<img src="images/f248.jpg" width="52" height="200" alt="248. Apple Bark Louse." title="" />
+<span class="caption">248. Apple Bark Louse.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Diptera, or two-winged flies, contain hosts of noxious insects, such
+as the various Cecidomyians, or two-winged Gall flies, which now sting
+the culms of the wheat and grasses, and various grains, and leaves of
+trees, producing gall-like excrescences of varying form. Legions of
+these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over
+wheat fields and shrubbery. A strong north west wind, at such times, is
+of incalculable value to the farmer. Moreover, minute flies, allied to
+the house fly, such as Tephritis, Oscinis, etc., now attack the young
+cereals, doing immense injury to grain.</p>
+
+<p>Millions of Aphides, or Plant lice, now infest our shade and fruit
+trees, crowding every green leaf, into which they insert their tiny
+beaks, sucking in the sap, causing the leaves to curl up and wither.
+They also attack the stems and even the roots of plants, though these
+latter (Pemphigus, Fig. 247) differ generically from the true Plant
+lice. Fruit trees should be again washed and rubbed to kill off the
+young Bark lice, of which the common apple Bark louse (Aspidiotus
+conchiformis, Fig. 248), whose oyster-shaped scales may be found in
+myriads on neglected trees, is a too familiar example. Another pest of
+apple trees is the woolly Blight (Eriosoma lanigera). These insects
+secrete from the surface of the body a downy, cottony substance which
+conceals the animal, and when they are, as usual, grouped together on
+the trees, makes them look like patches of mould. The natural insect
+enemies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> of the Plant lice now abound; such are the Lady bugs
+(Coccinella, Fig. 249); the larva of the Syrphus fly (Fig. 76), which
+devours immense quantities, and the larva of the Golden-eyed,
+Lace-winged fly (Chrysopa, Fig. 256).</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f249.jpg" width="160" height="105" alt="249. Coccinella and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">249. Coccinella and Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;">
+<img src="images/f250.jpg" width="129" height="180" alt="250. Squash Bug." title="" />
+<span class="caption">250. Squash Bug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The last days of June are literally the heyday and jubilee of insect
+life. The entomological world holds high carnival, though in this
+country they are, perhaps, more given to mass-meetings and caucuses. The
+earth, the air, and the water teem with insect life. The insects of
+mid-summer, now appear. Among the butterflies, the Wood Satyrus
+(Neonympha Eurythris) skips in its low flight through the pines. The
+larva of Grapta Progne appears on the currants, and feeds beneath the
+leaves on hot sunny days. The larva of Cynthia cardui may be found on
+the hollyhocks; the pupa state lasts twelve days, the butterfly
+appearing in the middle or last of July. The Hyphantria textor now lays
+its smooth, spherical eggs in broad patches on the under side of the
+leaves of the apple, which the caterpillar will ravage in August; and
+its ally, the Halesidota cary&aelig;, we have found ovipositing the last week
+in the month on the leaves of the butternut. The Squash bug, Coreus
+(Gonocerus) tristis (Fig. 250) is now very abundant, gathering about the
+roots of the squash vines, often in immense numbers, blackening the
+stems with their dark, blackish-brown bodies. This insect is easily
+distinguished from the yellow striped Squash beetle previously
+mentioned, by its much greater size, and its entirely different
+structure and habits. It is a true bug (Hemipter, of which the bed-bug
+is an example), piercing the leaves and stalks, and drawing out the sap
+with its long sucker.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In June, also, we have found that beautiful butterfly, Milit&aelig;a Phaeton
+rising from the low, cold swamps. Its larva transforms early in June or
+the last week in May, into a beautiful chrysalis. The larva hibernates
+through the winter, and may be found early in spring feeding on the
+leaves of the aster, the Viburnum dentatum and hazel. It is black and
+deep orange-red, with long, thick-set, black spines.</p>
+
+<p>The Currant borer, Trochilium tipuliforme (Fig. 251), a beau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>tiful,
+slender, agile, deep blue moth, with transparent wings, flies the last
+of the month about currant bushes, and its chrysalids may be found in
+May in the stems. Among moths, that of the American Tent caterpillar
+flies during the last of June and July, and its white cocoons can be
+detected under bark, and in sheltered parts of fences and out-houses.</p>
+
+<p>Among others of the interesting group of Silk worms (Bombycid&aelig;) are
+Lithosa, Crocota and allies, which fly in the daytime, and the different
+species of Arctia, and the white Arctians, Spilosoma, and Leucarctia,
+the parent of the Salt-marsh Caterpillar.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f251.jpg" width="150" height="143" alt="251. Currant Moth." title="" />
+<span class="caption">251. Currant Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many Leaf rollers, Tortrices, are rolling up leaves in various ways for
+their habitations, and to conceal them from too prying birds; and hosts
+of young Tineans are now mining leaves, and excavating the interior of
+seeds and various fruits. Grape-growers should guard against the attacks
+of a species of Tortrix (Penthina vitivorana) which rolls the leaves of
+the grape, and, according to Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, "in
+mid-summer deposits its eggs in the grape; a single egg in a grape. Its
+presence is soon indicated by a reddish color on that side of the yet
+green grape, and on opening it, the winding channel opened by the larva
+in the pulp is seen, and the minute worm, which is white, with a dark
+head, is found at the end of the channel. It continues to feed upon the
+pulp of the fruit, and when it reaches the seeds, eats out their
+interior; and if the supply from one grape is extinguished before its
+growth is completed, it fastens this to an adjoining grape with a web,
+and burrows into it. It finally grows to about one-half of an inch in
+length, becomes brown, almost black, the head retaining its cinnamon
+color. When it leaves the grape it is very active, and has the power of
+letting itself down by a thread of silk. All my efforts to obtain the
+cocoons failed until I placed fresh grape leaves in the jar containing
+the grapes. The larv&aelig; immediately betook themselves to these, and,
+cutting a curved line through the leaf thus), sometimes two lines thus
+(), folded the edge or edges over, and in the fold assumed the chrysalis
+form. From specimens saved, I shall hope to obtain the perfect insect
+this season, and perhaps obtain information which will aid in checking
+its increase. Already it is so abundant that it is necessary to examine
+every branch of ripe grapes, and clip<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> out the infested berries before
+sending them to the table. A rapid increase in its numbers would
+interfere seriously with the cultivation of the grape in this locality."</p>
+
+<p>The Rose beetle (Macrodactyla subspinosa) appears in great abundance.
+The various species of Buprestis are abundant; among them are the
+Peach-borer (Dicerca divaricata), which may be now found flying about
+peach and cherry trees; and Chrysobothris fulvogutta, and C. Harrisii,
+about white pines. A large weevil (Arrhenodes septentrionalis), which
+lives under the bark of the white oak, appears in June and July. The
+Chinch bug begins its terrible ravages in the wheat fields. The various
+species of Chrysopa or Lace-winged flies, appear during this month.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Insects of July.</i></p>
+
+<p>During mid-summer the bees and wasps are very busy building their nests
+and rearing their young. The Humble bees, late in June and the first of
+this month, send out their first broods of workers, and about the middle
+of the month the second lot of eggs are laid, which produce the
+smaller-sized females and males, while eggs laid late in the month and
+early in August, produce the larger-sized queens, which soon hatch.
+These hibernate. The habits of their peculiar parasite, Apathus, an
+insect which closely resembles the Humble bee, are still unknown.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f252.jpg" width="200" height="140" alt="252. White-faced Wasp." title="" />
+<span class="caption">252. White-faced Wasp.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Leaf-cutter bee (Megachile) may be seen flying about with pieces of
+rose-leaf, with which she builds, for a period of twenty days, her
+cells, often thirty in number, using for this purpose, according to Mr.
+F. W. Putnam's estimate,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> at least one thousand pieces! The bees
+referred to "worked so diligently that they ruined five or six
+rose-bushes, not leaving a single unblighted leaf uncut, and were then
+forced to take the leaves of a locust tree as a substitute."</p>
+
+<p>The Paper-making wasps, of which Vespa maculata (Fig. 252),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> the
+"White-faced wasp," is our largest species, are now completing their
+nests, and feeding their young with flies. The Solitary wasp (Odynerus
+albophaleratus) fills its earthen cells with minute caterpillars, which
+it paralyzes with its poisonous sting. A group of mud-cells, each stored
+with food for the single larva within, we once found concealed in a
+deserted nest of the American Tent caterpillar. Numerous species of Wood
+wasps (Crabronid&aelig;) are engaged in tunnelling the stems of the
+blackberry, the elder, and syringa, and enlarging and refitting old nail
+holes, and burrowing in rotten wood, storing their cells with flies,
+caterpillars, aphides and spiders, according to the habit of each
+species. Eumenes fraterna, which attaches its single, large, thin-walled
+cell of mud to the stems of plants, is, according to Dr. T. W. Harris,
+known to store it with Canker worms. Pelop&aelig;us, the Mud-dauber, is now
+building its earthen cells, plastering them on old rafters and stone
+walls.</p>
+
+<p>The Saw flies (Tenthredo), etc., abound in our gardens this month. The
+Selandria vitis attacks the vine, while Selandria ros&aelig;, the Rose slug,
+injures the rose. The disgusting Pear slug-worm (S. cerasi), often live
+twenty to thirty on a leaf, eating the parenchyma, or softer tissues,
+leaving the blighted leaf. The leaves should be sprinkled with a mixture
+of whale-oil soap and water, in the proportion of two pounds of soap to
+fifteen gallons of water.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f253.jpg" width="250" height="159" alt="253. Imported Cabbage Butterfly." title="" />
+<span class="caption">253. Imported Cabbage Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Among the butterflies, Melit&aelig;a Ismeria, in the south, and M. Harrisii,
+in the north, are sometimes seen. A second brood of Colias Philodice,
+the common sulphur-yellow butterfly, appears, and Pieris oleracea visits
+turnip-patches. It lays its eggs in June on the leaves, and the
+full-grown, dark-green, hairy larva may be found in August. The Pieria
+rap&aelig;, or imported cabbage butterfly (Fig. 253, male) is now also
+abundant. Its green hairy larva is fearfully prevalent about Boston and
+New York. The last of the month a new brood of Grapta comma appears, and
+a second brood of the larva of Chrysophanus Americanus may be found on
+the sorrel.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of Pyrrarctia Isabella hatch out the first week in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> July, and
+the snuff-colored moth enters our windows at night, in company with a
+host of night-flying moths. These large moths, many of which are
+injurious to crops, are commonly thought to feed on clothes and carpets.
+The true carpet and clothes moths are minute species, which flutter
+noiselessly about our apartments. Their narrow, feathery wings are edged
+with long silken fringes, and almost the slightest touch kills them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f254.jpg" width="550" height="245" alt="254. Apple Borer, Larva and Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">254. Apple Borer, Larva and Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 144px;">
+<img src="images/f255.jpg" width="144" height="160" alt="255. Lady Bug and Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">255. Lady Bug and Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 4em;">Among beetles, the various borers, such as the Saperda, or apple tree
+borer (Fig. 254) are now pairing, and fly in the hot sun about trees.
+Nearly each tree has its peculiar enemy, which drives its galleries into
+the trunk and branches of the tree. Among the Tiger beetles, frequenting
+sandy places, the large Cicindela generosa and the Cicindela hirticollis
+are most common. The grotesque larv&aelig; live in deep holes in sand-banks.</p>
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f256.jpg" width="200" height="53" style="margin-top: 4.5em;" alt="256. Lace-winged Fly and Eggs." title="" />
+<span class="caption">256. Lace-winged Fly and Eggs.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 230px;">
+<img src="images/f257.jpg" width="230" height="154" alt="257. Forceps-tail." title="" />
+<span class="caption">257. Forceps-tail.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The nine-spotted Lady Bug, Coccinella novemnotata (Fig. 255, with pupa)
+is one of a large group of beetles, most beneficial from their habit of
+feeding on the plant lice. We figure another enemy of the Aphides,
+Chrysopa, and its eggs (Fig. 256), mounted each on a long silken stalk,
+thus placed above the reach of harm.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among other beneficial insects belonging to the Neuroptera, is the
+immense family of Libellulid&aelig;, or Dragon flies. The Forceps-tail, or
+Panorpa, P. rufescens (Fig. 257), is found in bushy fields and
+shrubbery. They prey on smaller insects, and the males are armed at the
+extremity of the body with an enormous forceps-like apparatus.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Insects of August.</i></p>
+
+<p>During this month great multitudes of bugs (Hemiptera) are found in our
+fields and gardens; and to this group of insects the present chapter
+will be devoted. They are nearly all injurious to crops, as they live on
+the sap of plants, stinging them with their long suckers. Their
+continued attacks cause the leaves to wither and blight.</p>
+
+<p>The grain Aphis, in certain years, desolates our wheat fields. We have
+seen the heads black with these terrible pests. They pierce the grain,
+extract the sap, causing it to shrink and lose the greater part of its
+bulk. It is a most insidious and difficult foe to overcome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f258.jpg" width="500" height="249" alt="258. Leaf-hopper of the Vine." title="" />
+<span class="caption">258. Leaf-hopper of the Vine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The various leaf-hoppers, Tettigonia (Fig. 258) and Ceresa, abound on
+the leaves of plants, sadly blighting them; and the Tettigonias frequent
+damp, wet, swampy places. A very abundant species on grass produces what
+is called "frog's spittle." It can easily be traced through all its
+changes by frequently examining the mass of froth which surrounds it.
+Tettigonia Vitis blights the leaf of the grape-vine. It is a tenth of an
+inch long, and is straw-yellow, striped with red. Tettigonia ros&aelig;, a
+still smaller species, infests the rose, often to an alarming extent.</p>
+
+<p>The Notonecta, or water boatman, is much like a Tettigonia, but its
+wings are transparent on the outer half, and its legs are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> fringed with
+long hairs, being formed for swimming. It rows over the surface in
+pursuit of insects. Notonecta undulata Say (Fig. 259) is a common form
+in New England.</p>
+
+<p>Another insect hunter is the singular Ranatra fusca (Fig. 260). It is
+light brown in color, with a long respiratory tube which it raises above
+the surface of the water when it wishes to breathe. This species
+connects the Water-boatman with the Water-skaters, or Gerris, a familiar
+insect, of which Gerris paludum (Fig. 261) is commonly seen running over
+the surface of streams and pools.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;">
+<img src="images/f259-2.jpg" width="517" height="600" alt="" title="259. Notonecta. 260. Ranatra. 261. Water Skater.  262. Pirates." />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Reduvius and its allies belong to a large family of very useful insects,
+as they prey largely on caterpillars and noxious insects. Such is
+Pirates picipes (Fig. 262), a common species. It is an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> ally of Reduvius
+personates, a valued friend to man, as in Europe it destroys the
+bed-bug. Its specific name is derived from its habit while immature, of
+concealing itself in a case of dust, the better to approach its prey.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;">
+<img src="images/f263.jpg" width="103" height="150" alt="263. Phymata." title="" />
+<span class="caption">263. Phymata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another friend of the agriculturist is the Phymata erosa (Fig. 263). Mr.
+F. G. Sanborn states that "these insects have been taken in great
+numbers upon the linden trees in the city of Boston, and were seen in
+the act of devouring the Aphides, which have infested the shade trees of
+that city for several years past. They are described by a gentleman who
+watched their operations with great interest, as 'stealing up to a
+louse, coolly seizing and tucking it under the arm, then inserting the
+beak and sucking it dry.' They are supposed to feed also on other
+vegetable-eating insects as well as the plant louse."</p>
+
+<p>Phytocoris lineolaris swarms in our gardens during this month. It is
+described and figured in "Harris's Treatise on Insects." Closely allied,
+though generally wingless, is that enemy of our peace, the bed-bug. It
+has a small somewhat triangular head, orbicular thorax, and large,
+round, flattened abdomen. It is generally wingless, having only two
+small wing-pads instead. The eggs are oval, white; the young escape by
+pushing off a lid at one end of the shell. They are white, transparent,
+differing from the perfect insect in having a broad, triangular head,
+and short, thick antenn&aelig;. Indeed, this is the general form of lice
+(Pediculus Vestimenti, and P. capitis), to which the larva of Cimex has
+the closest affinity. Some Cimices are parasites, infesting pigeons,
+swallows, etc., in this way also showing their near relation to lice.
+Besides the Reduvius, the cockroach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug,
+and destroys large numbers. Houses have been cleared of bugs after being
+thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.</p>
+
+<p>During this month the ravages of grasshoppers are, in the West, very
+wide-spread. We have received from Major F. Hawn, of Leavenworth,
+Kansas, a most interesting account of the Red-legged locust (Caloptenus
+femur-rubrum). "They commence depositing their eggs in the latter part
+of August. They are fusiform, slightly gibbous, and of a buff-color.
+They are placed about three-fourths of an inch beneath the surface, in a
+compact mass around a vertical axis, pointing obliquely up and outwards,
+and are partially cemented together, the whole pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>senting a cylindrical
+structure, not unlike a small cartridge. They commence hatching in
+March, but it requires a range of temperature above 60&ordm; F. to bring them
+to maturity, and under such conditions they become fledged in
+thirty-three days, and in from three to five days after they enter upon
+their migratory flight.</p>
+
+<p>"Their instincts are very strong. When food becomes scarce at one point,
+a portion of them migrate to new localities, and this movement takes
+place simultaneously over large areas. In their progress they stop at no
+obstacle they can surmount. In these excursions they often meet with
+other trains from an opposite direction, when both join in one.</p>
+
+<p>"The insects are voracious, but discriminating in their choice of food,
+yet I know of no plant they reject if pressed by hunger; not even the
+foliage of shrubs and trees, including pine and cedar."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/f264.jpg" width="550" height="470" alt="264. Seventeen Year Locust, Eggs and Pupa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">264. Seventeen Year Locust, Eggs and Pupa.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>During this month the Seventeen-year locust (Cicada septendecim of
+Linn&aelig;us, Fig. 264) has disappeared, and only a few Harvest flies, as the
+two other species we have are called, raise their shrill cry during the
+dog-days. But as certain years are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> marked by the appearance of vast
+swarms in the Middle States, we cannot do better than to give a brief
+summary of its history, which we condense in part from Dr. Harris' work.</p>
+
+<p>The Seventeen-year locust ranges from South-eastern and Western
+Massachusetts to Louisiana. Of its distribution west of the Mississippi
+Valley, we have no accurate knowledge. In Southern Massachusetts, they
+appear in oak forests about the middle of June. After pairing, the
+female, by means of her powerful ovipositor, bores a hole obliquely to
+the pith, and lays therein from ten to twenty slender white eggs, which
+are arranged in pairs, somewhat like the grains on an ear of wheat, and
+implanted in the limb. She thus oviposits several times in a twig, and
+passes from one to another, until she has laid four or five hundred
+eggs. After this she soon dies. The eggs hatch in about two weeks,
+though some observers state that they do not hatch for from forty to
+over fifty days after being laid. The active grubs are provided with
+three pairs of legs. After leaving the egg they fall to the ground,
+burrow into it, and seek the roots of plants whose juices they suck by
+means of their long beaks. They sometimes attack the roots of fruit
+trees, such as the pear and apple. They live nearly seventeen years in
+the larva state, and then in the spring change to the pupa, which
+chiefly differs from the larva by having rudimentary wings. The damage
+done by the larv&aelig; and pup&aelig;, then, consists in their sucking the sap from
+the roots of forest, and occasionally fruit trees.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding its appearance, Mr. L. B. Case writes us (June 15) from
+Richmond, Indiana: "Just now we are having a tremendous quantity of
+locusts in our forests and adjoining fields, and people are greatly
+alarmed about them; some say they are Egyptian locusts, etc. This
+morning they made a noise, in the woods about half a mile east of us,
+very much like the continuous sound of frogs in the early spring, or
+just before a storm at evening. It lasted from early in the morning
+until evening." Mr. V. T. Chambers writes us that it is abounding in the
+vicinity of Covington, Kentucky, "in common with a large portion of the
+Western country." He points out some variations in color from those
+described by Dr. Fitch, from New York, and states that those occurring
+in Kentucky are smaller than those of which the measurements are given
+by Dr. Fitch, and states that "these differences indicate that the
+groups,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> appearing in different parts of the country at intervals of
+seventeen years, are of different varieties." A careful comparison of
+large numbers collected from different broods, in different localities,
+and different years, would alone give the facts to decide this
+interesting point. Mr. Riley has shown that in the Southern States a
+variety appears every thirteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the question raised by Mr. Chambers, whether the sting of this
+insect is poisonous, and which he is inclined to believe to be in part
+true, we might say that naturalists generally believe it to be harmless.
+No hemiptera are known to be poisonous, that is, to have a poison-gland
+connected with the sting, like that of the bee, and careful dissections
+by the eminent French naturalist, Lacaze-Duthiers, of three European
+species of Cicada, have not revealed any poison apparatus at the base of
+the sting. Another proof that it does not pour poison into the wound
+made by the ovipositor is, that the twig thus pierced and wounded does
+not swell, as in the case of plants wounded by Gall flies, which,
+perhaps, secrete an irritating poison, giving rise to tumors of various
+shapes. Many insects sting without poisoning the wound; the bite of the
+mosquito, black fly, flea, the bed bug, and other hemipterous insects,
+are simply punctured wounds, the saliva introduced being slightly
+irritant, and to a perfectly healthy constitution they are not
+poisonous, though they may grievously afflict some persons, causing the
+adjacent parts to swell, and in some weak constitutions induce severe
+sickness. Regarding this point, Mr. Chambers writes: "I have heard&mdash;not
+through the papers&mdash;within a few days past of a child, within some
+twenty miles of this place, dying from the sting of a Cicada, but have
+not had an opportunity to inquire into the truth of the story, but the
+following you may rely on. A negro woman in the employment of A. V.
+Winston, Esq., at Burlington, Boone County, Ky., fifteen miles distant
+from here, went barefooted into his garden a few days since, and while
+there was stung or bitten in the foot by a Cicada. The foot immediately
+swelled to huge proportions, but by various applications the
+inflammation was allayed, and the woman recovered. Mr. Winston, who
+relates this, stands as high for intelligence and veracity as any one in
+this vicinity. I thought, on first hearing the story, that probably the
+sting was by some other insect, but Mr. Winston says that he saw the
+Cicada. But perhaps this proves that the sting is <i>not</i> fatal; that
+depends on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> subject. Some persons suffer terribly from the bite of a
+mosquito, while others scarcely feel them. The cuticle of a negro's foot
+is nearly impenetrable, and perhaps the sting would have been more
+dangerous in a more tender part." It is not improbable that the sting
+was made by a wasp (Stizus) which preys on the Cicada. Dr. Le Baron and
+Mr Riley believe the wound to be made by the beak, which is the more
+probable solution of the problem.</p>
+
+<p>A word more about the Seventeen-year Cicada. Professor Orton writes us
+from Yellow Springs, Ohio, that this insect has done great damage to the
+apple, peach, and quince trees, and is shortening the fruit crop very
+materially. By boring into twigs bearing fruit, the branches break and
+the fruit goes with them. "Many orchards have lost full two years'
+growth. Though the plum and cherry trees seemed exempt, they attacked
+the grape, blackberry, raspberry, elm (white and slippery), maple, white
+ash, willow, catalpa, honey-locust and wild rose. We have traces of the
+Cicada this year from Columbus, Ohio, to St. Louis. Washington and
+Philadelphia have also had a visitation."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/f265.jpg" width="500" height="147" alt="265. Hop Vine Moth and Young." title="" />
+<span class="caption">265. Hop Vine Moth and Young.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f266.jpg" width="220" height="101" alt="266. Humble Bee Parasite." title="" />
+<span class="caption">266. Humble Bee Parasite.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>We figure the Hop-vine moth and the larva (Fig. 265) which abound on
+hops the last of summer. Also, the Ilythia colonella (Fig. 266, a,
+pupa), known in England to be a parasite of the Humble bee. We have
+frequently met with it here, though not in Humble bees' nests. The larv&aelig;
+feed directly upon the young bees, according to Curtis (Farm Insects).
+The Spindle-worm moth (Gortyna ze&aelig;), whose caterpillar lives in the
+stalks of Indian corn, and also in dahlias, flies this month.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> The
+withering of the leaves when the corn is young, shows the presence of
+this pest. The beetles of various cylindrical Bark borers and Blight
+beetles (Tomicus and Scolytus) appear again this month. During this
+month the Tree cricket (&OElig;canthus niveus, Fig. 267) lays its eggs in
+the branches of peach trees. It will also eat tobacco leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/f267.jpg" width="200" height="191" alt="267. Tree Cricket." title="" />
+<span class="caption">267. Tree Cricket.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 230px;">
+<img src="images/f268.jpg" width="230" height="176" alt="268. Ennomos subsignaria." title="" />
+<span class="caption">268. Ennomos subsignaria.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">We figure (268) the moth of Ennomos subsignaria, the larva of which is
+so injurious to shade trees in New York City. It is a widely diffused
+species, occurring probably throughout the Northern States. We have
+taken the moth in Northern Maine. We have received from Mr. W. V.
+Andrews the supposed larv&aelig; of this moth. They are "loopers," that is,
+they walk with a looping gait, as if measuring off the ground they walk
+over, whence the name "Geometers," more usually applied to them. They
+are rather stout, brown, and roughened like a twig of the tree they
+inhabit, with an unusually large rust-red head, and red prop-legs, while
+the tip of the body is also red. They are a little over an inch long.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Insects of September.</i></p>
+
+<p>Few new insects make their first appearance for the season during this
+month. Most of the species which abound in the early part of the month
+are the August forms, which live until they are killed by the frosts
+late in the month. From this cause there is towards the end of the month
+a very sensible diminution of the number of insects.</p>
+
+<p>The early frosts warn these delicate creatures of approaching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> cold.
+Hence the whole insect population is busied late in the month in looking
+out snug winter quarters, or providing for the continuance of the
+species. Warned by the cool and frosty nights, multitudes of
+caterpillars prepare to spin their dense silken cocoons, which guard
+them against frost and cold. Such are the "Spinners," as the Germans
+call them, the Silk moths, of which the American Silk worm is a fair
+example. The last of September it spins its dense cocoon, in which it
+hibernates in the chrysalis state.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of those moths, such as the Sphinges, or Hawk moths, which
+spin no cocoon, descend deep into the earth, where they transform into
+chrysalids and lie in deep earthen cocoons.</p>
+
+<p>The wild bees may now be found frequenting flowers in considerable
+numbers. Both sexes of the Humble bee, the Leaf-cutter bee, and other
+smaller genera abound during the warm days.</p>
+
+<p>One's attention during an unusually warm and pleasant day in this month
+is attracted by clouds of insects filling the air, especially towards
+sunset, when the slanting rays of the sun shine through the winged
+hosts. On careful investigation these insects will prove to be nearly
+all ants, and, perhaps, to belong to a single species. Looking about on
+the ground, an unusual activity will be noticed in the ant-hills. This
+is the swarming of the ants. The autumnal brood of females has appeared,
+and this is their marriage day.</p>
+
+<p>The history of a <i>formicarium</i>, or ant's nest, is as follows: The
+workers, only, hibernate, and are found early in the spring, taking care
+of the eggs and larv&aelig; produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
+course of the summer these eggs and larva&aelig; arrive at maturity, and swarm
+on a hot sultry day, usually early in September. The females, after
+their marriage flight, for the small diminutive males seek their company
+at this time, descend and enter the ground to lay their eggs for new
+colonies, or, as Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers
+and retained in the old colonies. Having no more inclination to fly,
+they pluck off their wings and may be seen running about wingless.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. C. C. Abbot gives us the following account of the swarming of a
+species in New Jersey: "On the afternoon of Oct. 6th, at about 4 P. M.,
+we were attracted to a part of the large yard surrounding our home, by a
+multitude of large sized insects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> that filled the air, and appeared to
+be of some unusual form of insect life, judging of them from a distance.
+On closer inspection these creatures proved to be a brood of red ants
+(Formica) that had just emerged from their underground home and were now
+for the first time using their delicate wings. The sky, at the time, was
+wholly overcast; the wind strong, southeast; thermometer 66&ordm; Fahr.
+Taking a favorable position near the mass, as they slowly crawled from
+the ground, up the blades of grass and stems of clover and small weeds,
+we noted, first, that they seemed dazed, without any method in their
+movements, save an ill-defined impression that they must go somewhere.
+Again, they were pushed forward, usually by those coming after them,
+which seemed to add to their confusion. As a brood or colony of insects,
+their every movement indicated that they were wholly ill at ease.</p>
+
+<p>"Once at the end of a blade of grass, they seemed even more puzzled as
+to what to do. If not followed by a fellow ant, as was usually the case,
+they would invariably fall down again to the earth, and sometimes repeat
+this movement until a new comer joined in the ascent, when the
+<i>uncertain</i> individual would be forced to use his wings. This flight
+would be inaugurated by a very rapid buzzing of the wings, as though to
+dry them, or prove their owner's power over them, but which it is
+difficult to say. After a short rest, the violent movement of the wings
+would recommence, and finally losing fear, as it were, the ant would let
+go his hold upon the blade of grass and rise slowly upwards. It could,
+in fact, scarcely be called flight. The steady vibration of the wings
+simply bore them upwards, ten, twenty or thirty feet, until they were
+caught by a breeze, or by the steadier wind that was moving at an
+elevation equal to the height of the surrounding pine and spruce trees.
+So far as we were able to discover, their wings were of the same use to
+them, in transporting them from their former home, that the 'wings' of
+many seeds are, in scattering them; both are wholly at the mercy of the
+winds.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Bates, in describing the habits of the Sa&uuml;ba ants (&OElig;codoma
+cephalotes) says,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> 'The successful <i>d&eacute;but</i> of the winged males and
+females depends likewise on the workers. It is amusing to see the
+activity and excitement which reign in an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> ant's nest when the exodus of
+the winged individuals is taking place. The workers clear the roads of
+exit, and show the most lively interest in their departure, although it
+is highly improbable that any of them will return to the same colony.
+The swarming or exodus of the winged males and females of the Sa&uuml;ba ant
+takes place in January and February, that is, at the commencement of the
+rainy season. They come out in the evening in vast numbers, causing
+quite a commotion in the streets and lanes.' We have quoted this passage
+from Mr. Bates' fascinating book, because of the great similarity and
+dissimilarity in the movements of the two species at this period of
+their existence. Remembering, at the time the above remarks concerning
+the South American species, we looked carefully for the workers, in this
+instance, and failed to discover above half a dozen wingless ants above
+ground, and these were plodding about, very indifferent, as it appeared
+to us, to the fate or welfare of their winged brothers. And on digging
+down a few inches, we could find but comparatively few individuals in
+the nest, and could detect no movements on their parts that referred to
+the exodus of winged individuals, then going on.</p>
+
+<p>"On the other hand, the time of day agrees with the remarks of Mr.
+Bates. When we first noticed them, about 4 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, they had probably just
+commenced their flight. It continued until nearly 7 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, or a
+considerable time after sundown. The next morning, there was not an
+individual, winged or wingless, to be seen above ground; the nest itself
+was comparatively empty; and what few occupants there were seemed to be
+in a semi-torpid condition. Were they simply resting after the fatigue
+and excitement of yesterday?</p>
+
+<p>"It was not possible for us to calculate what proportion of these winged
+ants were carried by the wind too far to return to their old home; but
+certainly a large proportion were caught by the surrounding trees; and
+we found, on search, some of these crawling down the trunks of the
+trees, with their wings in a damaged condition. How near the trees must
+be for them to reach their old home, we should like to learn; and what
+tells them, 'which road to take?' Dr. Duncan states,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> 'It was
+formerly supposed that the females which alighted at a great distance
+from their old nests returned again, but Huber, having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> great doubts
+upon this subject, found that some of them, after having left the males,
+fell on to the ground in out-of-the-way places, whence they could not
+possibly return to the original nest!' We unfortunately did not note the
+sex of those individuals that we intercepted in their return (?) trip;
+but we can not help expressing our belief that, at least in this case,
+there was scarcely an appreciable amount of 'returning' on the part of
+those whose exodus we have just described; although so many were caught
+by the nearer trees and shrubbery. Is it probable that these insects
+could find their way to a small underground nest, where there was no
+'travel' in the vicinity, other than the steady departure of
+individuals, who, like themselves, were terribly bothered with the wings
+they were carrying about with them?" (<i>American Naturalist.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>We have noticed that those females that do not return to the old nest
+found new ones. In Maine and Massachusetts we have for several
+successive years noticed the swarming of certain species of ants during
+an unusually warm and sultry day early in September.</p>
+
+<p>The autumnal brood of Plant lice now occur in great numbers on various
+plants. The last brood, however, does not consist exclusively of males
+and females, for of some of the wingless individuals previously supposed
+to be perfect insects of both sexes, Dr. W. I. Burnett found that many
+were in reality of the ordinary gemmiparous form, such as those
+composing the early summer broods.</p>
+
+<p>The White Pine Plant lice (Lachnus strobi) may be seen laying their long
+string of black oval eggs on the needles of the pine. They are
+accompanied by hosts of two-winged flies, Ichneumons, and in the night
+by many moths which feed on the Aphis-honey they secrete, and which
+drops upon the leaves beneath.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<ul class="none"><li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abraxas ribearia, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acarus, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acceleration, theory of evolution by, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Achorutes, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adela, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agrion, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agrion, egg-parasite of, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agrotis, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alternation of generations, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alypia, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">American tent caterpillar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amnion, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ancestral forms, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andrena, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angle worms, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Annelida, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anopheles, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ant, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antenna, origin of, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antherophagus, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ant lion, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a>, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ants, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anura, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>, <a href='#Page_147'><b>147</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anurida, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apathus, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aphis, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aphis eater, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aphis of grain, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apple borer, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apple insects, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apple tree borer, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">April, insects of, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agonum, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aquarium, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arachnida, ancestry of, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archetype, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archetypes in Insects, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arctia, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argas, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argynnis, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Army worm, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arrhenodes, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arthropoda, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aspidiotus, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assmus, Edward, on parasites of honey bee, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Astoma, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">August, insects of, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Band, primitive, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bark borer, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bark louse, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barnacle, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bed bug, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bees, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bee louse, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beneficial insects, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Billings on Eophyton, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bird tick, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black fly, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blight insect, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bombardier beetle, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borer, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bot fly, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botrytis, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brachinus, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brauer, F., on ancestry of insects, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">On two larval forms, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Braula, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Breeze fly, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brephos, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bristle tail, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bruchus, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buprestis, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabbage butterfly, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddis fly, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddis fly larva, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddis worm, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Calendar, Insect, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caloptenus, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Calosoma, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Campodea, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Campodea-stage of insects, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canker worm, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carabid&aelig;, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carabus, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carboniferous insects, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Myriopods, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scorpion, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carpenter bee, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carpet fly, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Case worms, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Casnonia, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caterpillar, origin of, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cecidomyia, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cecidomyia tritici, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Centipede, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceratina, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceresa, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cestodes, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheese maggot, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheese mite, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheyletus, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chigoe, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinch bug, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chionea, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chironomus, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chlo&euml;on, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chrysobothris, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chrysopa, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chrysophanus, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cicada, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cicindela, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clothes moth, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coccinella, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coddling moth, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coleopterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collembola, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comprehensive type, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Compsidea, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conotrachelus, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Copepoda, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corydalus, mandibles of, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crab, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crustacea, differences of from insects, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Currant borer, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Currant worm, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cut worm, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cyclops-like stage, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cynips, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daddy-long-legs, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dawson's discovery of fossil myriopods, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dawson on fossil land plants of Upper Silurian, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Degeeria, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Demodex, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Devil's darning-needle, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Devonian formation, insects in, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diabrotica, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dicerca, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dicyrtoma, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diplax, <a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dipterous gall fly, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dipterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dohrn, Anton, on ancestry of insects, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dragon fly, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dujardinia, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dytiscus, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ear wig, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Echinoderes, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egg parasites, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egg parasite of Agrion, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eggs of canker worm, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elm tree insects, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Embryology, comparative. <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Embryology of Podura, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ennomos, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ephemera, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ephydra, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eruciform larva, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Euphorberia, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evolution theory, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eyes of insects, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabre on hyper-metamorphosis, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fall weaver, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fire fly, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flea, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forceps Tail, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forficula, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fossil insects, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Myriopods, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scorpion, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foul brood, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gad fly, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Galley worm, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gall flies, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gall fly, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gall fly, two-winged, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gamasus, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ganin on embryology of insects, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gegenbaur on trache&aelig;, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Generalized types, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Generation, alternate, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gerris, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gerris, egg-parasite of, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gills of insects, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gnat, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gonocerus, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gordius, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gortyna, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grain Aphis, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grape insects, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grape leaf roller, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grape saw fly, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grapta, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grasshopper, <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a>, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Green head, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grimm on parthenogenesis, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><br /></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">H&aelig;ckel, Ernst, on ancestry of insects, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hairs of insects, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hair worm, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Halictus, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Handily, A. H., on Thysanura, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hartt's discovery of fossil insects in New Brunswick, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harvest bugs, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haustellate insects, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawk moth, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Head of insects, mode of formation of, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heart, iv.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hemiptera, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hemipterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hessian fly, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heteropus, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hibernation of insects, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hirudo, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Histolysis, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Histriobdella, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Histriobdella stage of Polynema, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hop vine moth, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Horse tick, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">House fly, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humble bee parasite, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humming bird moth, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunt on organic life in the Laurentian period, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hylobius pales, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hylurgus terebrans, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hymenopterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hyper-metamorphosis of insects, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hyphantria, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hypodermis, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ichneumon, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illinois, fossil insects of, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ilythia, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Injurious insects, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, ancestry of, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, archetypes of, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, beneficial, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insect calendar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, embryology of, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, flight of, ix.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects in the Devonian formation, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, metamorphosis of, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, origin of, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, reason in, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, respiration of, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, senses of, xiii.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, sexes in, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, transformations of, xiv, <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, wingless, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intestinal worms, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isotoma, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Itch mite, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ixodes, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japyx, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jaws of insects, origin of, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jelly fishes, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joint worm, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julus, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julus, embryology of, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">July, insects of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">June, insects of, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kowaleusky's researches on embryology of worms, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Labium, vi, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lachnosterna fusca, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lachnus, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lady bird, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Larva, ernciform, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leptiform, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Two kinds of, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Larval skin of crustacea, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leaf cutter bee, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leaf roller, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leeches, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legs of insects, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leidy, J., on internal parasites of insects, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lepidocyrtus, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lepidopterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lepisma, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leptiform larva, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leptus, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lesp&egrave;s, on sense of hearing in insects, xiv.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leucania, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leuckart on embryology of Hirudo, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parthenogenesis, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Libellula, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Linden tree insects, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Linguatula, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lipura, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lithobius, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Locust tree insects, <a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louse, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lubbock's discovery of Pauropus, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lubbock, Sir John, on Thysanura, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">on the origin of insects, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Machilis, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macrodactylus, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macrosila cluentius, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maggot, origin of, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandible, vi.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandibles of moths, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandibulate insects, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mange mite, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marey on the flight of insects, ix.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mason bee, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maxill&aelig;, vi.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maxilla of moths, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">May beetle, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">May fly, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">May, insects of, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazonia, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meat fly, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meek's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Megachile, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melipona, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melit&aelig;a, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melit&aelig;a Phaeton, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melo&euml;, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metamorphosis of insects, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">origin of, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miastor, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Microgaster, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mites, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mosquito, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mosquito hawk, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mouth-parts of insects, origin of, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mucor, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mud dauber, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">M&uuml;ller, Fritz, on ancestry of insects, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">M&uuml;ller, J., on sight in insects, xiii.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Murray's discovery of Eophyton in America, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musca, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muscardine, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mycetobia, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Myobia, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Myriopoda, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ancestry of, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nannophya, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nauplius, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nebalia, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nephelis, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nephopteryx, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Neuropterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Brunswick, fossil insects of, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Newport, on embryology of Julus, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicoletia, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nomada, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Notonecta, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nova Scotia, fossil insects of, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ocypete, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Odynerus, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">&OElig;canthus, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oil beetle, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Onion fly, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ophioneurus, embryology of, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orchesella, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ornithomyia, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orthopterous larv&aelig;, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Osmia, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Otiorhynchus, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ovipositor of Cicada, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palpus, vi.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Origin of, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pangus, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panorpa, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paper wasp, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Papilio Asterias, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Papirins, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parasite of insect eggs, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parsnip butterfly, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parthenogenesis, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pasteur on the silk worm disease, <a href='#Page_63'><b>63</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pauropus, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peach borer, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pear slug, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pea weevil, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peck, W. D., on the habits of Stylops and Xenos, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pelop&aelig;us, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pentastoma, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peripatus, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perla, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phora, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phymata, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phytocoris, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pickle worm, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pieris, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pieris brassic&aelig;, egg parasite of, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pine plant louse, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pine weevil, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piophila, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pirates, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pissodes strobi, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plan of structure, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plant louse, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platygaster, embryology of, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plum weevil, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Podura, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Catch of, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spring of, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Podurids, the ancestors of the true insects, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poisonous insects, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Polynema, embryology of, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poplar tree insects, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potato insects, <a href='#Page_63'><b>63</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prelarval stage of ichneumons, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primitive band, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primitive insects, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prionus, <a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Procris, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protoleptus, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pseudoneuroptera, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ptinus fur, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Putnam, F. W., on habits of the bees, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pyrrharctia, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranatra, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rat-tailed fly, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reduvius, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reproduction, virgin, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Respiration of insects, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retardation, theory of evolution by, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rose beetle, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rose saw fly, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rose slug, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotatoria, ancestors of crustacea, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salpa, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saperda, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sarcoptes, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saw fly, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saw of saw fly, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Schi&ouml;dte on the mouth-parts of the louse, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scolopocryptops, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scorpion, fossil, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scudder on fossil insects of New Brunswick and Illinois, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seira, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Selandria, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Selandria ros&aelig;, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">September, insects of, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sesia, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seventeen year locust, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexes, origin of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sheep tick, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shrimp, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siebold, T. von, on the ears of grasshoppers, xiv.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siebold on parthenogenesis, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Silk worm, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Silver witches, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Simulium, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sitaris, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smith, F., on stingless bees, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a>.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">On parasitic bees, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smynthurus, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Species, origin of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sphinx, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spider, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spider fly, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spindle worm, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spinneret of caterpillars, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">of spiders, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spring, insects of, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spring of Podura, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spring tail, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Squash beetle, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Squash bug, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sting of bee, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sting, origin of, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stylops, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sucker of insects, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sugar mite, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swarming of ants, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syllis, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syrphus, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tabanus, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tachina, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tailor bee, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tardigrade, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teleas, embryology of, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Templetonia, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tent caterpillar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tenthredo, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tettigonia, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thanaos, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thecla, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thorax of insects, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thysanura, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ticks, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tinea, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tipula, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomicus, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomocerus, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tongue of insects, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torell's discovery of Eophyton in Sweden, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tortrices, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tortricid&aelig;, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trachea, iv.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trache&aelig;, absence of in Polynema, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trache&aelig;, origin of, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tree cricket, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trichocera hyemalis, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trichodes, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trigona, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trochilium tipuliforme, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trombidium, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trouvelot, L., on amount eaten by silk worms, vii, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turnip butterfly, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uhler, P. R., on habits of the dragon fly, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verrill, A. E., on the parasites of man and the domestic animals, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vine dresser, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virgin reproduction, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wasp, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water bear, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water boatman, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waterhouse, G. R., on habits of Osmia, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weevil, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weismann on growth of insects, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">West, Tuffen, on the foot of the fly, viii.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat midge, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wine fly, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wingless insects, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wings of insects as respiratory organs, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wings, origin of, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Worthen's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Worms, the ancestors of insects, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wyman, Jeffries, on the cells of the honey bee, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Xenos, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Xylobius, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Xylocopa, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><br /></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zaddach on development of worms, insects and crustaceans, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zo&euml;a, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The cells are not perfectly hexagonal. See the studies on
+the formation of the cells of the bee, by Professor J. Wyman, in the
+Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, 1866;
+and the author's Guide to the Study of Insects, p 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Notes on the Habits of the Humble Bee (Proceedings of the
+Essex Institute, vol. iv, 1864, p. 101).
+</p><p>
+Mr. Angus also writes us as follows concerning the habits of the
+Wandering Humble bee (Bombus vagans): "I have found the males plentiful
+near our garden fence, within a hole such as would be made by a mouse.
+They seem to be quite numerous. I was attracted to it by the noise they
+were making in fanning at the opening. I counted at one time as many as
+seven thus employed, and the sound could be heard several yards off.
+Several males were at rest, but mostly on the wing, when they would make
+a dash among the fanners, and all would scatter and play about. The
+workers seem to be of a uniform size, and full as large as the males. I
+think the object of the fanning was to introduce air into the nest, as
+is done by the Honey bees."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes
+of Xylocopa, which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a
+pine slat used in the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as
+follows:&mdash;Opening fully 3-8 wide; depth 7-16; whole length of tunnel 6
+5-16 inches. The tunnel branched both ways from the hole. One end, from
+opening, was 2 5-8, containing three cells, two with larva and pollen,
+the third empty. The other side of the opening, or the rest of the
+tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at work.
+I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about
+twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch.
+</p><p>
+"I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order
+to ascertain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any
+others in them, I sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one
+side, at a depth of five and one half inches; the other side was four
+inches deep without bees. The morning was cool, so that the object in
+bobbing could not have been to introduce fresh currents of air, but must
+have had some relation to those inside. Their legs on such occasions
+are, as I have noticed, loaded with pollen."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The External and Internal Parasites of Man and Domestic
+Animals. By Prof. A. E. Verrill, 1870. We are indebted to the author for
+the use of this and the figures of the Bot fly of the horse, the turkey,
+duck and hog louse, the Cattle tick, the itch insect and mange insect of
+the horse.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+</p><p><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ha! whare ye gaun, ye crowlin ferlie!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Your impudence protects you sairly:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I canna say but ye struift rarely,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Owre gauze and lace;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tho' faith, I fear ye dine but sparely</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">On sic a place.</span><br />
+</p><p><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ye ugly, creepin, blastic wormer,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Detested, shunn'd by saunt and sinner,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">How dare ye set your fit upon her</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sae fine a lady!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gae somewhere else and seek your dinner</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">On some poor body.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">(To a Louse.&mdash;Burns.)</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> We notice while preparing this article that a journal of
+Parasitology has for some time been issued in Germany&mdash;that favored land
+of specialists. It is the "Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde," edited by
+Dr. E. Hallier and F A. Zurn. 8vo, Jena.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Figure 111 represents the parts of the mouth in a large
+specimen of <i>Pediculus</i> vestimenti, entirely protruding, and seen from
+above, magnified one hundred and sixty times; aa, the summit of the head
+with four bristles on each side; <i>bb</i>, the chitinous band, and <i>c</i>, the
+hind part of the lower lip, such as they appear through the skin by
+strong transmitted light; <i>dd</i>, the foremost protruding part of the
+lower lip (the haustellum); <i>ee</i>, the hooks turned outwards; <i>f</i>, the
+inner tube of suction, slightly bent and twisted; the two pairs of jaws
+are perceived on the outside as thin lines; a few blood globules are
+seen in the interior of the tube.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The figure at the bottom on the left represents the adult,
+fully-gorged tick.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Nicolet, in the "Annales de la Societe Entomologique de
+France" (tome v, 1847), has given us the most comprehensive essay on the
+group, though Latreille had previously published an important essay, "De
+l'Organization Exterieure des Thysanoures" in the "Nouvelles Annales du
+Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1832," which I have not seen.
+Gervais has also given a useful account of them in the third volume of
+"Apteres" of Roret's Suite a Buffion,
+published in 1844.
+</p><p>
+The Abbe Bourlet, Templeton, Westwood, and Haliday have published
+important papers on the Thysanura; and Meinert, a Danish naturalist, and
+Olfers, a German anatomist, have published important papers on the
+anatomy of the group. In this country Say and Fitch have described less
+than a dozen species, and the writer has described two American species
+of Campodea, C. Americana, our common form, and C. Cookei, discovered by
+Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, while Humbert has described in a French
+scientific journal a species of Jupyx (J. Saussurii) from Mexico.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The direct homology of these parts of the head (the
+occiput and the epicranium) with Perla, Forficula, etc., seems to me the
+best evidence we could have that the Podur&aelig; are not an independent
+group. In these most fundamental characters they differ widely from the
+Myriopods. I am not aware that this important relation has been
+appreciated by observers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> As we descend to the soft, tube-like, suctorial (?) mouth
+of Anura, which is said not to have hard mouth-parts, we see the final
+point of degradation to which the mouth of the Thysanura is carried. I
+think that this gradual degradation of the mouth-parts in this group
+indicates that the appendages in these animals are not formed on an
+independent type, intermediate, so to speak, between the mandibulate and
+haustellate types, but are simply a modification (through disuse) of the
+mandibulate type as seen in Neuropterous insects.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Lubbock considers that Papirius should be placed in a
+distinct family from Smynthurus, because it wants trache&aelig;. Their
+presence or absence scarcely seems to us to be a family character, as
+they are wanting in the Podurid&aelig;, and are not essential to the life of
+these animals, while in other respects Papirius seems to differ but
+slightly from Smynthurus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Dr. Laboulb&egrave;ne has recently, and we think with good
+reason, separated Anura maritima from the genus Anura, under the name of
+Anurida maritima.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science, II.
+Embryological Studies on Diplax, Perithemis, and the Thysanurus genus
+Isotoma. Salem, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Translated in 1859 by Mr. Dallas under the title "Facts
+for Darwin."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "Whether that common stem-form of all the Tracheata
+[Insects, Myriopods and Spiders] which I have called Protracheata in my
+'General Morphology' has developed directly from the true Annelides
+(C&oelig;lminthes), or, the next thing to this (<i>zunachst</i>), out of
+Zoea-form Crustacea (Zoepoda), will be hereafter established only
+through a sufficient knowledge and comparison of the structure and mode
+of growth of the Tracheata, Crustacea and Annelides. In either case is
+the root of the Tracheata, as also of the Crustacea, to be sought in the
+group of the true jointed worms (Annelides, Gephyrea and Rotatoria." He
+considers the first insect to have appeared after the Silurian period,
+viz., in the Devonian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The Zo&euml;a is born with eight pairs of jointed appendages
+belonging to the head, and with no thoracic limbs, while in insects
+there are but four pairs of cephalic appendages and three pairs of legs.
+Correlated with this difference is the entirely different mode of
+grouping the body segments, the head and thorax being united into one
+region in the crab, but separate in the insects, the body being as a
+rule divided into a head, thorax and abdomen, while these regions are
+much less distinctly marked in the crabs, and liable in the different
+orders to great variations. The great differences between the Crustacea
+and insects are noticeable at an early period in the egg.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Considerations on the Transmutation of Insects in the
+Sense of the Theory of Descent. Read before the Imperial
+Zoological-botanical Society in Vienna, April 3, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> American Naturalist, vol. 3, p. 45, March, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See Prof. Torell's discovery of Eophyton Linn&aelig;anum, a
+supposed land plant allied to the rushes and grasses of our day, in
+certain Swedish rocks of Lower Cambrian age. The writer has, through the
+kindness of Prof. Torell, seen specimens of these plants in the Museum
+of the Geological Survey at Stockholm. Mr. Murray, of the Canadian
+Geological Survey, was the first to discover in America (Labrador,
+Straits of Belle Isle) this same genus of plants. They are described and
+figured by Mr. Billings, who speaks of them as "slender, cylindrical,
+straight, reed-like plants," in the "Canadian Naturalist" for August,
+1872.
+</p><p>
+Should the terrestrial nature of these plants be established on farther
+evidence, then we are warranted in supposing that there were isolated
+patches of land in the Cambrian or Primordial period, and if there was
+land there must have been bodies of fresh water, hence there may have
+been both terrestrial and aquatic insects, possibly of forms like the
+Podurids, May flies, Perl&aelig;, mites and Pauropus of the present day. There
+was at any rate land in the Upper Silurian period, as Dr. J. W. Dawson
+describes land plants (Psilophyton) from the Lower Heiderberg Rocks of
+Gaspe, New Brunswick, corresponding in age with the Ludlow rocks of
+England.
+</p><p>
+We might also state in this connection that Dr. Dawson, the eminent
+fossil botanist of Montreal, concludes from the immense masses of carbon
+in the form of graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, that "the
+Laurentian period was probably an age of most prolific vegetable growth.
+* * * Whether the vegetation of the Laurentian was wholly aquatic or in
+part terrestrial we have no means of knowing." In 1855, Dr. T. Sterry
+Hunt asserted "that the presence of iron ores, not less than that of
+graphite, points to the existence of organic life even during the
+Laurentian or so-called Azoic period." In 1861 he went farther and
+stated his belief in "the existence of an abundant vegetation during the
+Laurentian period." The Eophyton in Labrador occurs above the Trilobite
+(Paradoxides) beds, while in Sweden they occur below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> In a communication made to the Boston Society of Natural
+History, Oct. 17, 1870 (see also "American Naturalist" for Feb. and
+Sept., 1871).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> On the Origin of Insects, a paper read before the Linn&aelig;an
+Society of London Nov. 2, 1871, and reported in abstract in "Nature,"
+Nov. 9, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This reminds us (though Ganin does not mention it) of the
+development of the embryo of Julus, the Thousand legs, which, according
+to Newport, hatches the 25th day after the egg is laid. At this period
+the embryo is partially organized, having faint traces of segments, and
+is still enveloped in its embryonal membranes and retains its connection
+with the shell. In this condition it remains for seventeen days, when it
+throws off its embryonal membrane, and becomes detached from the shell.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> It is a suggestive fact that these deciduous forms give
+way through histolysis to true larval forms, just as in some flies
+(Musca vomitoria) the true larval form goes under, and the adult form is
+built up from the imaginal disks of the larva. In an analogous manner
+the deciduous, pluteus-condition of the young Echinoderm perishes and is
+absorbed by the growing body of the permanent adult stage. This
+deciduous stage of the ichneumon may accordingly be termed the prelarval
+stage. Now as we find insects with and without this prelarval stage, and
+in the radiates quite different degrees of metamorphoses, the inquiry
+arises how far these differences are correlated with, and consequently
+dependent upon, the physical surroundings of these animals in the free
+swimming condition. Merely to point out the differences in the mode of
+development of animals is an interesting matter, and one could do worse
+things, but the philosophical naturalist cannot rest here. He must seek
+how these differences were brought about.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Leuckart, in his great work, "Die Menschlichen Parasiten,"
+p. 700, after the analogy of Hirudo, which develops a primitive streak
+late in larval life, ventures to consider the first indications of the
+germ of Nemertes in its larval, Pilidium form as a primitive streak. He
+also suggests that the development of the later larval forms of the
+Echinoderms is the same in kind.
+</p><p>
+Moreover, nearly twenty years ago (1854) Zaddach, a German naturalist,
+contended that the worms are closely allied in their mode of development
+to the insects and crustaceans. He compares the mode of development of a
+leech (Clepsine) and certain bristle-bearing worms (S&aelig;nuris, Lumbricatus
+and Uaxes); and we may now from Kowalensky's researches (1871) add the
+common earth worm (Lumbricus), in which there is no such metamorphosis
+as in the sea Nereids, to that of insects; the mode of formation of the
+primitive band in the leeches and earth worms being much like that of
+insects. This confirms the view of Leuckart and Ganin, who both seem to
+have overlooked Zaddach's remarks. Moreover, the rings of the harder
+bodied worms, as Zaddach says, contain chitine, as in the insects.
+Zaddach also enters into farther details, which in his opinion ally the
+worms nearer to the insects than many naturalists at his time were
+disposed to allow. The singular Echinoderes has some remarkable
+Arthropod characters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Vergleichende Anatomie, 2te Auflage, 1870, p. 437. I
+should, however, here add that I am told by Mr. Putnam that some fishes
+which have no swim-bladder, are surface-swimmers, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Reported In "Nature" for Nov. 9, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The Embryology of Chrysopa, and its bearings on the
+Classification of the Neuroptera, "American Naturalist," vol. v. Sept.,
+1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> "It is my opinion that the 'incomplete metamorphosis' of
+the Orthoptera is the primitive one, <i>inherited</i> from the original
+parents of all insects, and the 'complete metamorphosis' of the
+Coleoptera, Diptera, etc., a subsequently acquired one." <i>Fuer Darwin</i>,
+English Trans., p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The right side represents the under side of the wings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>The lower side of the wings is figured on the right side of this
+and figures 228. and 229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv, p.
+105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Naturalist on the River Amazons, vol. 1, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Transformations of Insects, p. 205.</p></div>
+
+
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+on Injurious and Beneficial Insects, with descriptions and accounts of
+the habits of Insects, their transformations, development and
+classification.</p>
+
+<p class="center">By A. S. PACKARD, Jr., M. D.,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Curator of Articulata at the <i>Peabody Academy of Science</i>, Lecturer on
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+
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+embracing 1260 figures of <span class="smcap">American Insects</span>. In a large octavo volume,
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+
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+with Harris's "Treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegetation," to which it
+is, as it were, the Key, to be introduced in all our Agricultural
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+letter of Prof. L. Agassiz.</i></p>
+
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+
+<p>Too often do we meet with a manual in which there is little more than a
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+
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+of allied forms, comprising notes upon their Structure, Development and
+Habits; with remarks upon subterranean life in general.</p>
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+
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+
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+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Our Common Insects, by Alpheus Spring  Packard
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Our Common Insects, by Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Our Common Insects
+       A Popular Account of the Insects of Our Fields, Forests,
+       Gardens and Houses
+
+Author: Alpheus Spring  Packard
+
+Release Date: January 23, 2008 [EBook #24409]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR COMMON INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Janet Blenkinship and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+  [Illustration: AMERICAN SILK WORM (MALE).]
+
+
+
+
+  OUR
+
+  COMMON INSECTS.
+
+  A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE INSECTS
+
+  OF OUR
+
+  Fields, Forests, Gardens and Houses.
+
+
+  Illustrated with 4 Plates and 268 Woodcuts.
+
+  BY
+
+  A. S. PACKARD, JR.,
+
+  Author of "A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS."
+
+  SALEM.
+  NATURALISTS' AGENCY.
+  BOSTON: Estes & Lauriat. NEW YORK: Dodd & Mead.
+  1873.
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
+  F. W. PUTNAM & CO.,
+  in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
+
+  PRINTED AT
+  THE SALEM PRESS,
+  F. W. PUTNAM & CO.,
+  Proprietors.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+TO SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.
+
+
+MY DEAR SCUDDER:--You and I were drawn together many years ago by a
+common love for insects and their ways.
+
+I dedicate this little volume of ephemeral essays to you in recognition
+of your worth as a man and a scientist, and as a token of warm
+friendship.
+
+  Yours sincerely,
+
+  A. S. PACKARD, JR.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little volume mainly consists of a reprint of a series of essays
+which appeared in the "American Naturalist" (Vols. i-v, 1867-71). It is
+hoped that their perusal may lead to a better acquaintance with the
+habits and forms of our more common insects. The introduction was
+written expressly for this book, as well as Chapter XIII, "Hints on the
+Ancestry of Insects." The scientific reader may be drawn with greater
+interest to this chapter than to any other portion of the book. In this
+discussion of a perhaps abstruse and difficult theme, his indulgence is
+sought for whatever imperfections or deficiencies may appear. Our
+systems of classification may at least be tested by the application of
+the theory of evolution. The natural system, if we mistake not, is the
+genealogy of organized forms; when we can trace the latter, we establish
+the former. Considering how much naturalists differ in their views as to
+what is a natural classification, it is not strange that a genealogy of
+animals or plants seems absurd to many. To another generation of
+naturalists it must, perhaps, be left to decide whether to attempt the
+one is more unphilosophical than to attempt the other.
+
+Most of the cuts have already appeared in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects" and the "American Naturalist," where their original sources are
+given, while a few have been kindly contributed by Prof. A. E. Verrill,
+the Boston Society of Natural History, and Prof. C. V. Riley, and three
+are original.
+
+SALEM, June, 1873.
+
+
+
+
+OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+_What is an Insect?_ When we remember that the insects alone comprise
+four-fifths of the animal kingdom, and that there are upwards of 200,000
+living species, it would seem a hopeless task to define what an insect
+is. But a common plan pervades the structure of them all. The bodies of
+all insects consist of a succession of rings, or segments, more or less
+hardened by the deposition of a chemical substance called chitine; these
+rings are arranged in three groups: the head, the thorax, or middle
+body, and the abdomen or hind body. In the six-footed insects, such as
+the bee, moth, beetle or dragon fly, four of these rings unite early in
+embryonic life to form the head; the thorax consists of three, as may be
+readily seen on slight examination, and the abdomen is composed either
+of ten or eleven rings. The body, then, seems divided or _insected_ into
+three regions, whence the name _insect_.
+
+The head is furnished with a pair of antennae, a pair of jaws
+(mandibles), and two pairs of maxillae, the second and basal pair being
+united at their base to form the so-called labium, or under lip. These
+four pairs of appendages represent the four rings of the head, to which
+they are appended in the order stated above.
+
+A pair of legs is appended to each of the three rings of the thorax;
+while the first and second rings each usually carry a pair of wings.
+
+The abdomen contains the ovipositor; sometimes, as in the bees and
+wasps, forming a sting. In the spiders (Fig. 1), however, there are no
+antennae, and the second maxillae, or labium, is wanting. Moreover, there
+are four pairs of legs. The centipedes (Fig. 2, a Myriopod) also differ
+from the rest of the insects in having an indefinite number of abdominal
+rings, each bearing a pair of legs.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Spider (Tegenaria).]
+
+On examining the arrangement of the parts within, we find the nervous
+cord, consisting of two chains of swellings, or nerve-knots, resting
+upon the floor or under side of the body; and the heart, or dorsal
+vessel, situated just under the skin of the back; and in looking at
+living caterpillars, such as the cut-worm, and many thin-skinned aquatic
+larvae, we can see this long tubular heart pulsating about as often as
+our own heart, and when the insect is held against its will, or is
+agitated, the rapidity of the pulsations increases just as with us.
+
+[Illustration: 2. Centipede.]
+
+Insects do not breathe as in the higher animals by taking the air into
+the mouth and filling the lungs, but there are a series of holes or
+pores along the side of the body, as seen in the grub of the humble bee,
+through which the air enters and is conveyed to every part of the body
+by an immense number of air tubes. (Fig. 3, air tubes, or tracheae, in
+the caudal appendage of the larva of a dragon fly). These air tubes are
+everywhere bathed by the blood, by which the latter becomes oxygenated.
+
+[Illustration: 3. Caudal appendage of larva of Agrion.]
+
+Indeed the structure of an insect is entirely different from that of man
+or the quadrupeds, or any other vertebrate animal, and what we call
+head, thorax, abdomen, gills, stomach, skin, or lungs, or jaws, are
+called so simply for convenience, and not that they are made in the same
+way as those parts in the higher animals.
+
+An insect differs from a horse, for example, as much as a modern
+printing press differs from the press Franklin used. Both machines are
+made of iron, steel, wood, etc., and both print; but the plan of their
+structure differs throughout, and some parts are wanting in the simpler
+press which are present and absolutely essential in the other. So with
+the two sorts of animals; they are built up originally out of
+protoplasm, or the original jelly-like germinal matter, which fills the
+cells composing their tissues, and nearly the same chemical elements
+occur in both, but the mode in which these are combined, the arrangement
+of their products: the muscular, nervous and skin tissues, differ in the
+two animals. The plan of structure, namely, the form and arrangement of
+the body walls, the situation of the appendages to the body, and of the
+anatomical systems within, i.e., the nervous, digestive, circulatory,
+and respiratory systems, differ in their position in relation to the
+walls of the body. Thus while the two sorts of animals reproduce their
+kind, eat, drink and sleep, see, hear and smell, they perform these acts
+by different kinds of organs, situated sometimes on the most opposite
+parts of the body, so that there is no comparison save in the results
+which they accomplish; they only agree in being animals, and in having a
+common animal nature.
+
+[Illustration: 4. Different forms of jaws.]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Mouth parts of the Larva of a Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 6. Maxilla of a Beetle.]
+
+_How Insects Eat._ The jaws of insects (Fig. 4) are horny processes
+situated on each side of the mouth. They are variously toothed, so as to
+tear the food, and move horizontally instead of up and down as in the
+horse. The act of taking the food, especially if the insect be
+carnivorous in its habits, is quite complex, as not only the true jaws,
+but the accessory jaws (maxillae, Fig. 5, _a_, upper, b, under side of
+the head of a young beetle; _at_, antennae, _md_, mandible, _mx_,
+maxillae, _mx_[1], labium) and the feelers (palpi) attached to the
+maxillae, and the under lip (labium) are of great service in enabling the
+insect to detect its food both by the senses of touch and smell. The
+maxillae are in the fully grown beetle (Fig. 6) divided into three lobes,
+the outermost forming the palpus, and the two others forming sharp
+teeth, often provided with hairs and minute brushes for cleansing the
+adjoining parts; these strong curved teeth are used in seizing the food
+and placing it between the grinders, where it is crushed, prepared for
+digestion and swallowed. Fig. 7 represents the mouth parts of the humble
+bee. (_b_, upper lip; _d_, mandible; _e_, maxilla; _f_, maxillary
+palpus; _g_, tongue; _ih_, labium and tabial palpi; _k_, eye.)
+
+[Illustration: 7. Mouth parts of a Humble Bee.]
+
+The alimentary canal passes through the middle of the body, the stomach
+forming usually a simple enlargement. Just before the stomach in certain
+insects, as the grasshopper, is a gizzard armed with rows of powerful
+horny teeth for finely crushing grass.
+
+Insects eat almost incredible quantities of food when young and growing
+rapidly. Mr. Trouvelot tells us in the "American Naturalist" that the
+food taken by a single American Silk-worm in fifty-six days is equal to
+eighty-six thousand times its primitive weight! On the other hand, after
+the insect has finished its transformations, it either takes no food at
+all, as in the May fly, or merely sips the honey of flowers, as in the
+butterfly, while the June beetle and many others like it eat the leaves
+of trees, and the tiger and ground beetles feed voraciously on other
+insects.
+
+_How Insects Walk._ In man and his allies, the vertebrates, the process
+of walking is a most difficult and apparently dangerous feat. To
+describe the mechanics of walking, the wonderful adaptation of the
+muscles and bones for the performance of this most ordinary action of
+life, would require a volume. The process is scarcely less complex in
+insects. Lyonnet found 3,993 muscles in a caterpillar, and while a large
+proportion belong to the internal organs, over a thousand assist in
+locomotion. Hence the muscular power of insects is enormous. A flea will
+leap two hundred times its own height, and certain large, solid beetles
+will move enormous weights as compared to the bulk of their bodies.
+
+[Illustration: 8. Larva of a beetle (Photuris).]
+
+In walking, as seen in the accompanying figure (Fig. 8), three legs are
+thrown forward at a time, two on one side and one on the other.
+
+Flies and many other insects can walk upside down, or on glass, as
+easily as on a level surface. A fly's foot, as in most other insects,
+consists of five joints (tarsal joints), to the last one of which is
+appended a pair of stout claws, beneath which is a flat, soft, fleshy
+cushion or pad, split into two (sometimes three) flaps, beset on the
+under surface with fine hairs. A part of these hairs are swollen at the
+end, which is covered with "an elastic membranous expansion, capable of
+close contact with a highly polished surface, from which a minute
+quantity of a clear, transparent fluid is emitted when the fly is
+actively moving." (T. West.) These hairs are hence called holding, or
+tenent, hairs. With the aid of these, but mainly, as Mr. West insists,
+by the pressure of the atmosphere, a fly is enabled to adhere to
+perfectly smooth surfaces. His studies show the following curious facts.
+"That atmospheric pressure, if the area of the flaps be alone
+considered, is equal to just one-half the weight of a fly. If the area
+covered by the tenent hairs be added, an increase of pressure is gained,
+equal to about one-fourth the weight of a fly. This leaves one-fourth to
+be accounted for by slight viscidity of the fluid, by the action I have
+so often alluded to, which may be called 'grasping,' by molecular
+attraction, and, doubtless, by other agents still more subtle, with
+which we have at present scarcely any acquaintance."
+
+_How Insects Fly._ Who of us, as remarked by an eminent ornithologist,
+can even now explain the long sustained, peculiar flight of the hawk, or
+turkey buzzard, as it sails in the air without changing the position of
+its wings? and, we would add, the somewhat similar flight of a
+butterfly? It is the poetry of motion, and a marvellous exhibition of
+grace and ease, combined with a wonderful underlying strength and
+lightness of the parts concerned in flight.
+
+Before we give a partial account of the results obtained by the delicate
+experiments of Professor Marey on the flight of birds and insects, our
+readers should be reminded of the great differences between an insect
+and a bird, remembering that the former, is, in brief, a chitinous sac,
+so to speak, or rather a series of three such spherical or elliptical
+sacs (the head, thorax and abdomen); the outer walls of the body forming
+a solid but light crust, to which are attached broad, membranous wings,
+the wing being a sort of membranous bag stretched over a framework of
+hollow tubes (the tracheae), so disposed as to give the greatest
+lightness and strength to the wing. The wings are moved by powerful
+muscles of flight, filling up the cavity of the thorax, just as the
+muscles are the largest about the thorax of a bird. Moreover in the
+bodies of insects that fly (such as the bee, cockchafer, and dragon
+fly), as distinguished from those that creep exclusively, the air tubes
+(tracheae) which ramify into every part of the body, are dilated here and
+there, especially in the base of the abdomen, into large sacs, which are
+filled with air when the insect is about to take flight, so that the
+specific gravity of the body is greatly diminished. Indeed, these air
+sacs, dilatable at will by the insect, may be compared to the swimming
+bladder of fishes, which enables them to rise and fall at will to
+different levels in the sea, thus effecting an immense saving of the
+labor of swimming. In the birds, as every body knows who has eaten a
+chicken, or attended the dissection of a Thanksgiving turkey, the soft
+parts are external, attached to the bony framework comprising the
+skeleton, the wing bones being directly connected with the central back
+bone; so that while these two sorts of animated flying machines are so
+different in structure, they yet act in much the same manner when on the
+wing. The difference between them is clearly stated by Marey, some of
+whose conclusions we now give almost word for word.
+
+The flight of butterflies and moths differs from that of birds in the
+almost vertical direction of the stroke of their wings, and in their
+faculty of sailing in the air without making any movements; though
+sometimes in the course they pursue they seem to resemble birds in their
+flight.
+
+The flight of insects and birds moreover differs in the form of the
+trajectory in space; in the inclination of the plane in which the wings
+beat; in the role of each of the two alternating (and in an inverse
+sense) movements that the wings execute; as also in the facility with
+which the air is decomposed during these different movements. As the
+wings of a fly are adorned with a brilliant array of colors, we can
+follow the trajectory or figure that each wing writes in the air. It is
+of the form of a figure of eight (Fig. 9), first discovered by Professor
+J. Bell Pettigrew of Edinburgh.
+
+[Illustration: 9. Figure cut by an insect's wing.]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Figure cut by a bird's wing.]
+
+By an ingenious machine, specially devised for the purpose, Professor
+Marey found that a bird's wing moves in an ellipse, with a pointed
+summit (Fig. 10). The insect beats the air in a distinctly horizontal
+plane, but the bird in a vertical plane. The wing of an insect is
+impervious to the air; while the bird's wing resists the air only on
+its under side. Hence, there are two sorts of effects; in the insect
+the up and down strokes are active; in the bird, the lowering of the
+wing is the only active period, though the return stroke seems to
+sustain the bird, the air acting on the wing. The bird's body is
+horizontal when the wing gives a downward stroke; but when the beat is
+upward, the bird is placed in an inclined plane like a winged
+projectile, and mounts up on the air by means of the inclined surfaces
+that it passively offers to the resistance of this fluid.
+
+[Illustration: 11. Trajectory of an insect's wing.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Trajectory of a bird's wing.]
+
+In an insect, an energetic movement is equally necessary to strike the
+air at both beats up and down. In the bird, on the contrary, one active
+beat only is necessary, the down beat. It creates at that time all the
+motive force that will be dispensed during the entire revolution of the
+wing. This difference is due to the difference in form of the wing. The
+difference between the two forms of flight is shown by an inspection of
+the two accompanying figures (11, 12). An insect's wing is small at the
+base and broad at the end. This breadth would be useless near the body,
+because at this point the wing does not move swiftly enough to strike
+the air effectively. The type of the insectean wing is designed, then,
+simply to strike the air. But in the bird the wing plays also a passive
+role, _i. e._, it receives the pressure of the air on its under side
+when the bird is projected rapidly onward by its acquired swiftness. In
+these conditions the whole animal is carried onward in space; all the
+points of its wing have the same velocity. The neighboring regions of
+the body are useful to press upon the air, which acts as on a paper
+kite. The base of the wing also, in the bird, is broad, and provided
+with feathers, which form a broad surface, on which the air presses with
+a force and method very efficacious in supporting the bird. Fig. 12
+gives an idea of this disposition of the wing at the active and passive
+time in a bird.
+
+The inner half of the wing is the passive part of the organ, while the
+external half, that which strikes the air, is the active part. A fly's
+wing makes 330 revolutions in a second, executing consequently 660
+simple oscillations; it ought at each time to impress a lateral
+deviation of the body of the insect, and destroy the velocity that the
+preceding oscillation has given it in a contrary direction. So that by
+this hypothesis the insect in its flight only utilizes fifty to one
+hundred parts (or one-half) of the resistance that the air furnishes it.
+
+[Illustration: 13. A bird on the wing.]
+
+In the bird (Fig. 13), at the time of lowering the wings, the oblique
+plane which strikes the air, in decomposing the resistance, produces a
+vertical component which resists the weight of the body, and a
+horizontal component which imparts swiftness. The horizontal component
+is not lost, but is utilized during the rise of the wing, as in a paper
+kite when held in the air against the wind. Thus the bird utilizes
+seventy-five out of one hundred parts of the resistance that the air
+furnishes. The style of flight of birds is, therefore, theoretically
+superior to that of insects. As to the division of the muscular force
+between the resistance of the air and the mass of the body of the bird,
+we should compare the exertion made in walking on sand, for example, as
+compared with walking on marble. This is easy to measure. When a fish
+strikes the water with its tail to propel itself forward, it performs a
+double task; one part consists in pushing backwards a certain mass of
+water with a certain swiftness, and the other in pushing on the body in
+spite of the resistance of the surrounding fluid. This last portion of
+the task only is utilized. It would be greater if the tail of the fish
+encountered a solid object. Almost all the propelling agencies employed
+in navigation undergo this loss of labor, which depends on the mobility
+of the _point d' appui_. The bird is placed among conditions especially
+unfavorable.
+
+_The Senses of Insects._ The eyes of insects are sometimes so large as
+to envelop the head like an Elizabethan ruffle, and the creature's head,
+as in the common house fly, seems all eyes. And this is almost literally
+the case, as the two great staring eyes that almost meet on the top of
+the head to form one, are made up of myriads of simple eyes. Each facet
+or simple eye is provided with a nerve filament which branches off from
+the main optic nerve, so that but one impression of the object perceived
+is conveyed to the brain; though it is taught by some that objects
+appear not only double but a thousand times multiplied. But we should
+remember that with our two eyes we see double only when the brain is
+diseased. Besides the large ordinary compound eyes, many insects possess
+small, simple eyes, like those of the spider. The great German
+anatomist, Johannes Mueller, believed that the compound eyes were adapted
+for the perception of distant objects, while those nearer are seen by
+the simple eyes. But it may be objected to this view that the spiders,
+which have only simple eyes, apparently see both near and remote objects
+as well as insects.
+
+The sense of touch is diffused all over the body. As in the hairs of the
+head and face of man, those of insects are delicate tactile organs; and
+on the antennae and legs (insects depending on this sense rather than
+that of sight) these appendages are covered with exquisitely fine
+hairs. It is thought by some that the senses of hearing and smell are
+lodged in the antennae, these organs thus combining the sense of feeling
+with those of hearing and smelling. And the researches of anatomists
+lend much probability to the assertion, since little pits just under the
+skin are found, and even sometimes provided with grains of sand in the
+so-called ear of the lobster, etc., corresponding to the ear bones of
+the higher animals, the pits being connected with nerves leading to the
+brain. We have detected similar pits in the under side of the palpi of
+the Perla. It seems not improbable that these are organs of smell, and
+placed in that part of the appendage nearest the mouth, so as to enable
+the insect to select its proper food by its odor. Similar organs exist
+on the caudal appendages of a kind of fly (Chrysopila), while the long,
+many-jointed caudal filaments of the cockroach are each provided with
+nearly a hundred of these little pits, which seem to be so many noses.
+Thus Lespes, a Swiss anatomist, in his remarks on the auditory sacs,
+which he says are found in the antennae of nearly all insects, declares
+that as we have in insects compound eyes, so we have compound ears. We
+might add that in the abdominal appendage of the cockroach we have a
+compound nose, while in the feelers of the Perla, and the caudal
+appendage of the Chrysopila, the "nose" is simple. We might also refer
+here to Siebold's discovery of ears at the base of the abdomen of some,
+and in the forelegs of other kinds, of grasshoppers. Thus we need not be
+surprised at finding ears and noses scattered, as it were, sometimes
+almost wantonly over the bodies of insects (in many worms the eyes are
+found all over the body), while in man and his allies, from the monkey
+down to the fish, the ears and nose invariably retain the same relative
+place in the head.
+
+_How Insects Grow._ When beginning our entomological studies no fact
+seemed more astonishing to our boyish mind than the thought that the
+little flies and midges were not the sons and daughters of the big
+ones. If every farmer and gardener knew this single fact it would be
+worth their while. The words _larva_ and _pupa_ will frequently occur in
+subsequent pages, and they should be explained. The caterpillar (Fig.
+14, _a_) represents the earliest stage or babyhood of the butterfly, and
+it is called _larva_, from the Latin, meaning a mask, because it was
+thought by the ancients to mask the form of the adult butterfly.
+
+[Illustration: 14. _a_ Larva, _b_ chrysalis of a butterfly.]
+
+When the caterpillar has ended its riotous life, for its appetite almost
+transforms its being into the very incarnation of gluttony, it suddenly,
+as if repenting of its former life as a _bon vivant_, seeks a solitary
+cell or hole where like a hermit it sits and leads apparently about as
+useless an existence. But meanwhile strange processes are going on
+beneath the skin; and after a few convulsive struggles the back splits
+open, and out wriggles the chrysalis, a gorgeous, mummy-like form, its
+body adorned with golden and silvery spots. Hence the word chrysalis
+(Fig. 14, _b_), from the Greek, meaning golden, while the Latin word
+_pupa_, meaning a baby or doll, is indicative of its youth. In this
+state it hangs suspended to a twig or other object; while the silk worm,
+and others of its kind, previous to moulting, or casting their skins,
+spin a silken cocoon, which envelops and protects the chrysalis.
+
+[Illustration: 15. Imago or adult Butterfly.]
+
+At the given time, and after the body of the adult has fully formed
+beneath the chrysalis skin, there is another moult, and the butterfly,
+with baggy, wet wings, creeps out. The body dries, the skin hardens, the
+wings expand, and in a few moments, sometimes an hour, the butterfly
+(Fig. 15) proudly sails aloft, the glory and pride of the insect world.
+
+We shall see in the ensuing chapters how varied are the larvae and pupae
+of insects, and under what different guises insects live in their early
+stages.
+
+[Illustration: Larva, pupa, and adult of a Leaf Beetle (Galeruca).]
+
+
+
+
+OUR COMMON INSECTS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE HOME OF THE BEES.
+
+
+The history of the Honey bee, its wonderful instincts, its elaborate
+cells and complex economy, have engrossed the attention of the best
+observers, even from the time of Virgil, who sang of the Ligurian bee.
+The literature of the art of bee-keeping is already very extensive.
+Numerous bee journals and manuals of bee-keeping testify to the
+importance of this art, while able mathematicians have studied the mode
+of formation of the hexagonal cells,[1] and physiologists have
+investigated the intricate problems of the mode of generation and
+development of the bee itself.
+
+In discussing these difficult questions, we must rise from the study of
+the simple to the complex, remembering that--
+
+  "All nature widens upward. Evermore
+  The simpler essence lower lies:
+  More complex is more perfect--owning more
+  Discourse, more widely wise."
+
+and not forget to study the humbler allies of the Honey bee. We shall,
+in observing the habits and homes of the wild bees, gain a clearer
+insight into the mysteries of the hive.
+
+The great family of bees is divided into social and solitary species.
+The social kinds live in nests composed of numerous cells in which the
+young brood are reared. These cells vary in form from those which are
+quite regularly hexagonal, like those of the Hive bee, to those which
+are less regularly six-sided, as in the stingless bee of the tropics
+(Melipona), until in the Humble bee the cells are isolated and
+cylindrical in form.
+
+Before speaking of the wild bees, let us briefly review the life of the
+Honey bee. The queen bee having wintered over with many workers, lays
+her eggs in the spring, first in the worker, and, at a later period, in
+the drone-cells. Early in the summer the workers construct the large,
+flask-shaped queen-cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and
+in these the queen larvae are fed with rich and choice food. The old
+queen deserts the nest, forming a new colony. The new-born queen takes
+her marriage flight high in the air with a drone, and on her return
+undertakes the management of the hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When
+the supply of queens is exhausted, the workers destroy the drones. The
+first brood of workers live about six weeks in summer, and then give way
+to a new brood. The queens, according to Von Berlepsch, are known to
+live five years, and during their whole life lay more than a million
+eggs.
+
+In the tropics, the Honey bee is replaced by the Meliponas and Trigonas.
+They are minute, stingless bees, which store up honey and live in
+colonies often of immense extent. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal,
+nearly approaching in regularity those of the Hive bee, while the honey
+cells are irregular, being much larger cavities, which hold about
+one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble bee. "Gardner, in his
+travels, states that many species of Melipona build in the hollow trunks
+of trees, others in banks; some suspend their nests from the branches of
+trees, whilst one species constructs its nest of clay, it being of large
+size." (F. Smith.)
+
+In a nest of the coal-black Trigona (Trigona carbonaria), from eastern
+Australia, Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum, found from four hundred
+to five hundred dead workers, but no females. The combs were arranged
+precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of honey-pots
+which were placed at the foot of the nest was two hundred and fifty. Mr.
+Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona contains several
+prolific females, as the great number of workers can only be thus
+explained, and M. Guerin found six females in a nest of the Tawny-footed
+Melipona (M. fulvipes).
+
+At home, our nearest ally of the true Honey bee, is the Humble bee
+(Bombus), of which over forty species are known to inhabit North
+America.
+
+The economy of the Humble bee is thus: the queen awakens in early spring
+from her winter's sleep under leaves or moss, or in the last year's
+nest, and selects a nesting place, generally in an abandoned nest of a
+field-mouse, or beneath a stump or sod, and "immediately," according to
+Mr. F. W. Putnam,[2] "collects" a small amount of pollen mixed with
+honey, and in this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually
+adding to the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not
+wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the eggs of
+another, but, as soon as food enough has been collected, she lays the
+eggs for a second. The eggs are laid, in contact with each other, in one
+cavity of the mass of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly
+covered. They are very soon developed; in fact, the lines are nowhere
+distinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and pupa, and
+again between the latter and the imago; a perfect series, showing this
+gradual transformation of the young to the imago can be found in almost
+every nest.
+
+[Illustration: 15. Cell and Eggs of Bombus.]
+
+"As soon as the larvae are capable of motion and commence feeding, they
+eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, gradually separating,
+push their way in various directions. Eating as they move, and
+increasing in size quite rapidly, they soon make large cavities in the
+pollen mass. When they have attained their full size, they spin a silken
+wall about them, which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with
+a thin layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus forming a
+cell (Fig. 15, 1, cell containing a larva, on top of which (2) is a
+pollen mass containing three eggs). The larvae now gradually attain the
+pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full development. They then
+cut their way out, and are ready to assume their duties as workers,
+small females, males or queens.
+
+"It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is due to
+their being constructed so peculiarly by the larvae. After the first
+brood, composed of workers, has come forth, the queen bee devotes her
+time principally to her duties at home, the workers supplying the colony
+with honey and pollen. As the queen continues prolific, more workers are
+added, and the nest is rapidly enlarged.
+
+"About the middle of summer, eggs are deposited, which produce both
+small females and males." ... "All eggs laid after the last of July
+produce the large females, or queens, and, the males being still in the
+nest, it is presumed that the queens are impregnated at this time, as on
+the approach of cold weather all except the queens, of which there are
+several in each nest, die."
+
+While the Humble bee in some respects shows much less instinct than the
+solitary bees mentioned below, it stands higher in the series, however,
+from having workers, as well as males and females, who provide food for
+the young. The labors of the Mason bees, and their allies, terminate
+after the cell is once constructed and filled with pollen. The eggs are
+then left to hatch, and the young care for themselves, though the adult
+bee shows greater skill in architecture than the Humble bee. It is thus
+throughout nature. Many forms, comparatively low in the scale of life,
+astonish us with certain characters or traits, reminding us of beings
+much superior, physically and intellectually. The lower forms constantly
+reach up and in some way ally themselves with creatures far more highly
+organized. Thus the fish-like seal reminds us strikingly of the dog,
+both in the form of the head, in its docility and great intelligence
+when tamed, and even in its bark and the movements of the head.
+
+[Illustration: 16. Meloe.]
+
+The parasites of the Humble bee are numerous. Such are the species of
+Apathus, which so closely resembles the Humble bee itself, that it
+requires long study to distinguish it readily. Its habits are not known,
+other than that it is found in the nests of its host. It differs from
+the Humble bee in having no pollen-basket, showing that its larvae must
+feed on the food stored up by their host, as it does not itself collect
+it. The mandibles also are not, like those of Bombus, trowel-shaped for
+architectural purposes, but acutely triangular, and are probably not
+used in building.
+
+The caterpillars of various moths consume the honey and waxen cells; the
+two-winged flies, Volucella and Conops, and the larvae of what is either
+an Anthomyia or Tachina-like fly, and several species of another genus
+of flies, Anthrax, together with several beetles, such as the Meloe
+(Fig. 16), Stylops (Fig. 17, male; 18_b_, female; _a_, position in the
+body of its host), and Antherophagus prey upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 17. Male Stylops.]
+
+The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid wood reaches
+its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter bee (Xylocopa Virginica,
+Fig. 19). This bee is as large as, and some allied exotic species are
+often considerably larger than, the Humble bee, but not clothed with
+such dense hairs. We have received from Mr. James Angus, of West Farms,
+N. Y., a piece of trellis from a grape vine, made of pine wood,
+containing the cells and young in various stages of growth, together
+with the larvae and chrysalids of Anthrax sinuosa (Fig. 20), a species of
+fly parasitic on the larva. The maggot buries its head in the soft body
+of the young bee and feeds on its juices.
+
+Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of July 19: "I
+asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yesterday, if he knew how
+long it took the Xylocopa to bore her tunnel. He said he thought she
+bored about one-quarter of an inch a day. I don't think myself she
+bores more than one-half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it
+takes her about two days to make her own length at the first start; but
+this being across the grain of the wood, may not be so easily done as
+the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always follows the grain
+of the wood, with the exception of the entrance, which is about her own
+length. The tunnels run from one to one and a half feet in length. They
+generally run in opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes
+other galleries are run, one directly above the other, using the same
+opening. I think they only make new tunnels when old ones are not to be
+found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. Some of the
+old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of them about an inch in
+diameter. I think this is caused by rasping off the sides to procure the
+necessary material for constructing their cells. The partitions are
+composed of wood raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to
+make them adhere.
+
+[Illustration: 18. Female Stylops.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. Carpenter Bee.]
+
+"The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other bees and wasps.
+I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa prefers making a new cell,
+to cleaning out the dirt and rubbish of the other species. I frequently
+find these bees remaining for a long time on the wing close to the
+opening, and bobbing their heads against the side, as if fanning air
+into the opening. I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes.
+Whether one bee or more makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take
+turns in boring, I cannot at present say. In opening the cells (Fig.
+21), more than one are generally found, even at this season. About two
+weeks ago; I found as many as seven, I think, in one."[3]
+
+The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths of an
+inch long. These partitions are constructed of the coarse dust or
+chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for our active little
+carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, moved by powerful
+muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes of hair for cleaning out the
+tunnel as she descends into the heart of the solid wood. She must throw
+out the chips she bites off with her powerful mandibles from the sides
+of the burrow, by means of her hind legs, passing the load of chips
+backwards out of the cell with her fore limbs, which she uses as hands.
+
+[Illustration: 20. Larva and Pupa of Anthrax.]
+
+The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened band of
+chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. One side,
+forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being beaten down and
+smoothed off by the bee. The other side of the partition, forming the
+top of the cell, is flat and rough.
+
+[Illustration: 21. Nest of Carpenter Bee.]
+
+At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells contained nearly
+full-grown larvae, with some half developed. They were feeding on the
+masses of pollen, which were as large as a thick kidney bean, and
+occupied nearly half the cell. The larvae (Fig. 21) resemble those of the
+Humble bee, but are slenderer, tapering more rapidly towards each end of
+the body.
+
+The habits and structure of the little green Ceratina ally it closely
+with Xylocopa. This pretty bee, named Ceratina dupla by Mr. Say, tunnels
+out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any pithy shrub,
+excavating them often to a depth of six or seven inches. She makes the
+walls just wide enough to admit her body, and of a depth capable of
+holding three or four, often five or six cells (Fig. 22). The finely
+built cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and
+nearly square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is
+rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long, and a
+little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at nearly equal
+distances apart, the slight interval between them being filled in with
+dirt.
+
+[Illustration: 22. Nest of Ceratina.]
+
+Dr. T. W. Harris states that May 15, 1832, one female laid its eggs in
+the hollow of an aster stalk. Three perfect insects were disclosed from
+it July 28th. The observations of Mr. Angus, who saw some bees making
+their cells May 18th, also confirm this account. The history of our
+little upholsterer is thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her
+cells, fills them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each mass.
+Thus in about two months the insect completes its transformations;
+within this period passing through the egg, the larva and chrysalid
+states, and then, as a bee, living a few days more, if a male; or if a
+female, living through the winter. Her life thus spans one year.
+
+The larva (Fig. 23) is longer than that of Megachile, and compared with
+that of Xylocopa, the different segments are much more convex, giving a
+serrate outline to the back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have
+found in the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an
+inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having four
+spines on the end of the body.
+
+[Illustration: 23. Larva of Ceratina.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. Nest of Tailor Bee.]
+
+In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more nicety than
+those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with her jaws a long deep
+well just the size of her body, and then stretches a thin, delicate
+cloth of silk drawn tight as a drum-head across each end of her
+chambers, which she then fills with a mixture of pollen and honey.
+
+[Illustration: 25. Tailor Bee.]
+
+Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free from danger.
+The most invidious foes enter and attack the brood. Three species of
+Ichneumon flies, two of which belong to the Chalcid family, lay their
+eggs within the body of the larva, and emerge from the dried larva and
+pupa skins of the bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite,
+belonging to the genus Anthophorabia, so called from being first known
+as a parasite on another bee (Anthophora), is a minute species found
+also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee.
+
+The interesting habits of the Leaf-cutting, or Tailor bee (Megachile),
+have always attracted attention. This bee is a stout, thick-bodied
+insect, with a large, square head, stout, sharp, scissors-like jaws, and
+with a thick mass of stout, dense hairs on the under side of the tail
+for carrying pollen, as she is not provided with the pollen-basket of
+the Honey and Humble bees.
+
+The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the elder (Fig.
+24), which we have received from Mr. James Angus; we have also found
+them in the hollows of the locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of
+the economy of M. centuncularis, our most common species. "My attention
+was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily engaged in
+bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was building under a
+board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under my window. Nearly the
+whole morning was occupied by the bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a
+rose bush growing about ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals
+of a half minute to a minute with the pieces, which she carried in such
+a manner as not to impede her steps when she alighted near her hole."
+When the Leaf-cutter bee wishes to cut out a piece of a leaf (Fig. 25)
+she alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her
+scissors-like jaws around through it, bearing off the piece in her hind
+legs. "About noon she had probably completed the cell, upon which she
+had been engaged, as, during the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing
+pollen, preparatory to laying her single egg in the cell. For about
+twenty days the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying
+them with pollen.... On the 28th of July, upon removing the board, it
+was found that the bee had made thirty cells, arranged in nine rows of
+unequal length, some being slightly curved to adapt them to the space
+under the board. The longest row contained six cells, and was two and,
+three-quarters inches in length; the whole leaf structure being equal to
+a length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the pieces of
+leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there must have been at
+least a thousand pieces used. In addition to the labor of making the
+cells, this bee, unassisted in all her duties, had to collect the
+requisite amount of pollen (and honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs
+therein, when completed. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of
+the cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight
+silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite hard and
+smooth on the inside, probably owing to the movements of the larva, and
+the consequent pressing of the sticky particles to the walls. In a short
+time the opening made was closed over by a very thin silken web. The
+cells, measured on the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in
+length, and .15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is
+somewhat curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the
+inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female bees came
+out, having cut their way through the sides of their cells." In three
+other cells "several hundred minute Ichneumons (Anthophorabia
+megachilis) were seen, which came forth as soon as the cells were
+opened."
+
+The habits of the little blue or green Mason bees (Osmia) are quite
+varied. They construct their cells in the stems of plants, and in rotten
+posts and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. A
+European species selects snail shells for its nest, wherein it builds
+its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under stones. Curtis
+found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a British species (Osmia
+paretina), placed on the under side of a flat stone, of which one-third
+were empty. Of the remainder, the most appeared between March and June,
+males appearing first; thirty-five more bees were developed the
+following spring. Thus there were three successive broods, for three
+succeeding years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving
+at maturity. This may partly account for _insect years_, which are like
+"apple years," seasons when bees and wasps, as well as other insects,
+abound in unusual numbers.
+
+[Illustration: 26. Nest of Osmia.]
+
+Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society
+of London, for 1864, states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana "are
+formed of mud, and each cell is built separately. The female bee,
+having deposited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some
+tufts of grass, immediately begins to excavate a small cavity in its
+upper surface, scraping the mud away from the centre towards the margin
+by means of her jaws. A small, shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is
+rough and uneven on the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the
+inner. On witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with
+three points: first, the rapidity with which the insect worked;
+secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position whilst
+excavating; and thirdly, her constantly going over work which had
+apparently been completed.... The lid is excavated and rendered concave
+on its outer or upper surface, and is convex and rough on its inner
+surface; and, in fact, is a simple repetition of the first-formed
+portion of the cell, a part of a hollow sphere."
+
+The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue species (O.
+lignivora). We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees with
+their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a maple tree
+several inches from the bark. The bee had industriously tunnelled out
+this elaborate burrow (Fig. 26), and, in this respect, resembled the
+habits of the Carpenter bee more closely than any other species of its
+genus.
+
+The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three-tenths of an inch
+wide. It contracted a little in width between the cell, showing that the
+bee worked intelligently, and wasted no more of her energies than was
+absolutely necessary. The burrow contained five cells, each half an inch
+long, being rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while
+the opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely. The
+cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing to a slight constriction just behind
+the mouth. The material of which the cell is composed is stout, silken,
+parchment-like, and very smooth within. The interstices between the
+cells are filled in with rather coarse chippings made by the bee.
+
+The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for a month
+afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly lapped up the drops
+of water supplied by its keeper, to whom it soon grew accustomed, and
+seemed to recognize.
+
+Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green Osmia
+simillima. It builds its little oval, somewhat urn-shaped cells against
+the roof of the large deserted galls of the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis
+confluentus), placing them, in this instance eleven in number, in two
+irregular rows, from which the mature bees issue through a hole in the
+gall (Fig. 27, with two separate cells). The earthen cells, containing
+the tough dense cocoons, were arranged irregularly so as to fit the
+concave vault of the larger gall, which was about two inches in
+diameter. On emerging from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful
+jaws an ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell.
+
+[Illustration: 27. Nest of Osmia in a gall.]
+
+In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia pacifica,
+the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the manuscript notes of Dr.
+Harris, is found in the perfect state in earthen cells beneath stones.
+The cell is oval cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of
+all the species of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is
+half an inch long, and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the
+cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long. We are
+not acquainted with the habits of the larva and pupa in this country,
+but Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species hatches in
+eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve days, when it
+becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken covering, and remains in an
+inactive state until the following spring, when it completes its
+transformations.
+
+In the economy of our wild bees we see the manifestation of a wonderful
+instinct, as well as the exhibition of a _limited reason_. We can
+scarcely deny to animals a kind of reason which apparently differs _only
+in degree_ from that of man. Each species works in a sphere limited by
+physical laws, but within that sphere it is a free agent. They have
+enough of instinct and reason to direct their lives, and to enable them
+to act their part in carrying out the plan of creation.
+
+[Illustration: Paper Wasp.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: The cells are not perfectly hexagonal. See the studies on
+the formation of the cells of the bee, by Professor J. Wyman, in the
+Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, 1866;
+and the author's Guide to the Study of Insects, p 123.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Notes on the Habits of the Humble Bee (Proceedings of the
+Essex Institute, vol. iv, 1864, p. 101).
+
+Mr. Angus also writes us as follows concerning the habits of the
+Wandering Humble bee (Bombus vagans): "I have found the males plentiful
+near our garden fence, within a hole such as would be made by a mouse.
+They seem to be quite numerous. I was attracted to it by the noise they
+were making in fanning at the opening. I counted at one time as many as
+seven thus employed, and the sound could be heard several yards off.
+Several males were at rest, but mostly on the wing, when they would make
+a dash among the fanners, and all would scatter and play about. The
+workers seem to be of a uniform size, and full as large as the males. I
+think the object of the fanning was to introduce air into the nest, as
+is done by the Honey bees."]
+
+[Footnote 3: "Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes
+of Xylocopa, which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a
+pine slat used in the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as
+follows:--Opening fully 3-8 wide; depth 7-16; whole length of tunnel 6
+5-16 inches. The tunnel branched both ways from the hole. One end, from
+opening, was 2 5-8, containing three cells, two with larva and pollen,
+the third empty. The other side of the opening, or the rest of the
+tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at work.
+I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about
+twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch.
+
+"I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order
+to ascertain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any
+others in them, I sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one
+side, at a depth of five and one half inches; the other side was four
+inches deep without bees. The morning was cool, so that the object in
+bobbing could not have been to introduce fresh currents of air, but must
+have had some relation to those inside. Their legs on such occasions
+are, as I have noticed, loaded with pollen."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HOME OF THE BEES.
+
+[_Concluded._]
+
+
+While the Andrena and Halictus bees, whose habits we now describe, are
+closely allied in form to the Hive bee, socially they are the
+"mud-sills" of bee society, ranking among the lowest forms of the family
+of bees. Their burrowing habits ally them with the ants, from whose
+nests their own burrows can scarcely be distinguished. Their economy
+does not seem to demand the exercise of so much of a true reasoning
+power and pliable instinct as characterizes bees, such as the Honey and
+Humble bee, which possess a high architectural skill. Moreover they are
+not social; they have no part in rearing and caring for their young, a
+fact that lends so much interest to the history of the Hive and Humble
+bee. In this respect they are far below the wasps, a family belonging
+next below in the system of Nature.
+
+A glance at the drawing (Fig. 28), of a burrow, with its side galleries,
+of the Andrena vicina, reveals the economy of one of our most common
+forms. Quite early in spring, when the sun and vernal breezes have dried
+up the soil, and the fields exchange their rusty hues for the rich green
+verdure of May, our Andrena, tired of its idle life among the blossoms
+of the willow, the wild cherry, and garden flowers, suddenly becomes
+remarkably industrious, and wields its spade-like jaws and busy feet
+with a strange and unwonted energy. Choosing some sunny, warm, grassy
+bank (these nests were observed in the "great pasture" of Salem), not
+always with a southern exposure however, the female sinks her deep well
+through the sod from six inches to a foot into the sandy soil beneath.
+She goes to work literally tooth and nail. Reasoning from observations
+made on several species of wasps, and also from studying the structure
+of her jaws and legs, it is evident that she digs in and loosens the
+soil with her powerful jaws, and then throws out the dirt with her legs.
+She uses her fore legs like hands, to pass the load of dirt to her hind
+legs, and then runs backward out of her hole to dump it down behind her.
+Mr. Emerton tells me that he never saw a bee in the act of digging but
+once, and then she left off after a few strokes. He also says, "they are
+harmless and inoffensive. On several occasions I have lain on the grass
+near their holes for hours, but not one attempted to sting me; and when
+taken between the fingers, they make but feeble resistance."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.
+
+Nest (natural size) of Andrena vicina, showing the main burrow, and the
+cells leading from it; the oldest cell containing the pupa (_a_) is
+situated nearest the surface, while those containing the larva (_b_) lie
+between the pupa and the cell (_e_) containing the pollen mass and egg
+resting upon it. The most recent cell (_f_) is the deepest down, and
+contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At _c_ is the beginning of a
+cell; _g_, level of the ground.]
+
+To enter somewhat into detail, we gather from the observations of Mr.
+Emerton (who has carefully watched the habits of these bees through
+several seasons) the following account of the economy of this bee: On
+the 4th of May the bees were seen digging their holes, most of which
+were already two inches deep, and one, six inches. The mounds of earth
+were so small as to be hardly noticed. At this time an Oil beetle was
+seen prowling about the holes. The presence of this dire foe of Andrena
+at this time, it will be seen in a succeeding chapter on the enemies of
+the bees, is quite significant. By the 15th of May, hundreds of Andrena
+holes were found in various parts of the pasture, and at one place, in a
+previous season, there were about two hundred found placed within a
+small area. One cell was dug up, but it contained no pollen. Four days
+later, several Andrenas were noticed resting from their toil at the
+opening of their burrows. On the 28th of May, in unearthing six holes,
+eight cells were found to contain pollen, and in two of them a small
+larva. The pellets of pollen are about the size of a small pea. They are
+hard and round at first, before the young has hatched, but as the larva
+grows, the mass becomes softer and more pasty, so that the larva buries
+its head in the mass, and greedily sucks it in. When is the pollen
+gathered by the bee and kneaded into the pellet-like mass? On July 4th,
+a cell was opened in which was a bee busily engaged preparing the
+pollen, which was loosely and irregularly piled up, while there was a
+larva in an adjoining cell nearly half an inch long. It would seem,
+then, that the bee comes in from the fields laden with her stores of
+pollen, which she elaborates into bee bread within her cell.
+
+When the bee returns to her cell she does not directly fly towards the
+entrance, since, as was noticed in a particular instance, she flew about
+for a long time in all directions without any apparent aim, until she
+finally settled near the hole, and walked into her subterranean retreat.
+On a rainy day, May 24th, our friend visited the colony, but found no
+bees flying about the holes. The little hillocks had been beaten down by
+the pitiless raindrops, and all traces of their industry effaced. On
+digging down, several bees were found, indicating that on rainy days
+they seek the shelter of their holes, and do not take refuge under
+leaves of the plants they frequent.
+
+On the 29th of June, six full-grown larvae were exhumed, and one, about
+half grown. On the 20th of July, the colony seemed well organized, as,
+on laying open a burrow at the depth of six inches, he began to find
+cells. The upper ones, to the number of a dozen, were deserted and
+filled with earth and grass roots, and had evidently been built and used
+during the previous year. Below these were eight cells placed around the
+main vertical gallery, reaching down to the depth of thirteen inches,
+and all containing nearly full-grown larvae of the bees, or else those of
+some parasitic bee (Nomada) which had devoured the food prepared for the
+young Andrena.
+
+About the first of August the larva transforms to a pupa or chrysalis,
+as at this time two pupae were found in cells a foot beneath the surface.
+As shown in the cut, those cells situated lowest down seem to be the
+last to have been made, while the eggs laid in the highest are the first
+to hatch, and the larvae disclosed from them, the first to change to
+pupae. Four days later the pupae of Cuckoo bees (Nomada) were found in the
+cells. No Andrenas were seen flying about at this time.
+
+On the 24th of August, to be still very circumstantial in our narrative
+though at the risk of being tedious, three burrows were unearthed, and
+in them three fully formed bees were found nearly ready to leave their
+cells, and in addition several pupae. In some other cells there were
+three of the parasitic Nomada also nearly ready to come out, which
+seemed to be identical with some bees noticed playing very innocently
+about the holes early in the summer.
+
+On the last day of August, very few of the holes were open. A number of
+Oil beetles were strolling suspiciously about in the neighborhood, and
+some little black Ichneumon flies were seen running about among the
+holes.
+
+During mid-summer the holes were found closed night and day by clods of
+earth.
+
+The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short passages leading to the
+cells, which are slightly inclined downwards and outwards from the main
+gallery. The walls of the gallery are rough, but the cells are lined
+with a mucous-like secretion, which, on hardening, looks like the
+glazing of earthenware. This glazing is quite hard, and breaks up into
+angular pieces. It is evidently the work of the bee herself, and is not
+secreted and laid on by the larva. The diameter of the interior of the
+cell is about one-quarter of an inch, contracting a little at the mouth.
+When the cell is taken out, the dirt adheres for a line in thickness, so
+that it is of the size and form of an acorn.
+
+The larva of Andrena (Fig. 29) is soft and fleshy, like that of the
+Honey bee. Its body is flattened, bulging out prominently at the sides,
+and tapering more rapidly than usual towards each end of the body. The
+skin is very thin, so that along the back the heart or dorsal vessel may
+be distinctly seen, pulsating about sixty times a minute.
+
+Our cut (Fig. 28, _a_) also represents the pupa, or chrysalis, as seen
+lying in its cell. The limbs are folded close to the body in the most
+compact way possible. On the head of the semi-pupa, _i.e._, a transition
+state between the larva and pupa, there are two prominent tubercles
+situated behind the simple eyes, or ocelli; these are deciduous organs,
+apparently aiding the insect in moving about its cell. They disappear in
+the mature pupa.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31.
+
+Fig. 31. Larva of Halictus parallelus.
+
+Fig. 29. Larva of Andrena vicina.
+
+Fig. 30. Pupa of Halictus parallelus seen from beneath.]
+
+To those accustomed to rearing butterflies, and seeing the chrysalis at
+once assuming its perfected shape, after the caterpillar skin is thrown
+off, it may seem strange to hear one speak of a "half-pupa," and of
+stages intermediate between the larva and pupa. But the external changes
+of form, though rapidly passed through, consisting apparently of a mere
+sloughing off of the outer skin, are yet preceded by slow and very
+gradual alterations of tissues, resulting from the growth of cells. An
+inner layer of the larva-skin separates from the outer, and, by changes
+in the form of the muscles, is drawn into different positions, such as
+is assumed by the pupa, which thus lies concealed beneath the
+larva-skin. But a slight alteration is made in the general form of the
+larva, consisting mostly of an enlargement of the thoracic segments,
+which is often overlooked, even by the special student, though of great
+interest to the philosophic naturalist.
+
+From Mr. Emerton's observations we should judge that the pupa state
+lasted from three to four weeks, as the larvae began to transform the
+first of August, and appeared during the last week of the same month as
+perfect bees.
+
+The Andrena is seen as late as the first week in September, and again
+early in April, about the flowers of the willow. It is one of the
+largest of its genus and a common species.
+
+Having, in a very fragmentary way, sketched the life history of our
+Andrena and had some glimpses of its subterranean life, let us now
+compare with it another genus of solitary bee (Halictus), quite closely
+allied in all respects, though a little lower in the scale.
+
+The Halictus parallelus excavates cells almost exactly like those of
+Andrena; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are smaller, though as
+deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest in a path a foot in depth. Another
+nest, discovered September 9th, was about six inches deep. The cells are
+in form like those of Andrena, and like them, are glazed within. The egg
+is rather slenderer and much curved; in form it is long, cylindrical,
+obtuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva (Fig. 31) is
+longer and slenderer, being quite different from the rather broad and
+flattened larva of Andrena. The body is rather thick behind, but in
+front tapers slowly towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its
+body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercle aiding the grub in moving
+about its cell. Its length is nearly one-half (.40) of an inch. On the
+pupa are four quite distinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line
+just in front of the ocelli; and there are also two larger, longer
+tubercles, on the outer side of each of which, an ocellus is situated.
+Figure 30 represents the pupa seen from beneath.
+
+Search was made on July 16th, where the ground was hard as stone for six
+inches in depth, below which the soil was soft and fine, and over twenty
+cells were dug out. "The upper cells contained nearly mature pupae, and
+the lower ones, larvae of various sizes, the smallest being hardly
+distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these small larvae was in a
+cell by itself, and situated upon a lump of pollen, which was the size
+and shape of a pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew
+larger. These young were probably the offspring of several females, as
+four mature bees were found in the hole." The larva of an English
+species hatches in ten days after the eggs are laid.
+
+Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September, as on the ninth
+of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found several holes of the same species
+of bee, made in a hard gravel road near the turnpike. When opened, they
+were found to contain several bees with their young. September 2nd, of
+this year, the same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to
+leave the cell. It is probable that these bees winter over.
+
+We have incidentally noticed the presence in the nests of Andrena and
+Halictus of a stranger bee, clad in gay, fantastic hues, which lives a
+parasitic life on its hosts. This parasitism does not go far enough to
+cause the death of the host, since we find the young of the parasitic
+Cuckoo bee, in cells containing the young of the former.
+
+Mr. F. Smith, in his "Catalogue of British Bees," says of this genus:
+"No one appears to know anything beyond the mere fact of their entering
+the burrows of Andrenidae and Apidae, except that they are found in the
+cells of the working bees in their perfect condition: it is most
+probable that they deposit their eggs on the provision laid up by the
+working bee, that they close up the cell, and that the working bee,
+finding an egg deposited, commences a fresh cell for her own progeny."
+
+He has, however, found two specimens of Nomada, sexfasciata in the cells
+of the long-horned bee, Eucera longicornis. He also states, that while
+some species are constant in their attacks on certain Halicti and
+Andrenae, others attack different species of these genera
+indiscriminately. In like manner another Cuckoo bee (Coelioxys) is
+parasitic on Megachile and Saropoda; Stelis is a parasite on Osmia, the
+Mason bee: and Melecta infests the cells of Anthophora.
+
+The observations of Mr. Emerton enable us still further to clear up the
+history of this obscure visitor. He found both the larva and pupa, as
+well as the perfect bee, in the cells of both genera; so that either
+both kinds of bee, when hatched from eggs laid in the same cell, feed on
+the same pollen mass, which therefore barely suffices for the
+nourishment of both; or the hostess, discovering the strange egg laid,
+cuckoo-like, in her own nest, has the forethought to deposit another
+ball of pollen to secure the safety of her young.
+
+Is such an act the operation of a blind instinct? Does it not rather
+ally our little bee with those higher animals which undoubtedly possess
+a reasoning power? Its _instinct_ teaches it to build cells, and prepare
+its pollen mass, and lay an egg thereon. Its _reason_ enables it, in
+such an instance as this, when the life of the brood is threatened, to
+guard against any such danger by means to which it does not habitually
+resort. This instance is paralleled by the case of our common summer
+Yellow bird, which, on finding an egg of the Cow bunting in its nest,
+often builds a new nest above it, to the certain destruction of the
+unwelcome egg in the nest beneath.
+
+In the structure of the bee, and in all its stages of growth, our
+parasite seems lower in the zooelogical scale than its host. It is
+structurally a degraded form of Working-bee, and its position socially
+is unenviable. It is lazy, not having the provident habits of the
+Working-bees; it aids not in the least, so far as we know, the
+cross-fertilization of plants--one great office in the economy of nature
+which most bees perform,--since it is not a pollen-gatherer, but on the
+contrary is seemingly a drag and hinderance to the course of nature. But
+yet nature kindly, and as if by a special interposition, provides for
+its maintenance, and the humble naturalist can only exclaim, "God is
+great, and his ways mysterious," and go on studying and collecting
+facts, leaving to his successors the more difficult task, but greater
+joy of discovering the cause and reason of things that are but a puzzle
+to the philosophers of this day.
+
+The larva of Nomada may be known from those of its host, by its
+slenderer body and smaller head, while the body is smoother and more
+cylindrical. Both sexes of Nomada imbricata and N. pulchella were found
+by Mr. Emerton, the former in both the Andrena and Halictus nests, and
+both were found in a single Andrena nest.
+
+[Illustration: Wood Wasp.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE.
+
+
+Very few bee-keepers are probably aware how many insect parasites infest
+the Honey bee. In our own literature we hear almost nothing of this
+subject, but in Europe much has been written on bee parasites. From Dr.
+Edward Assmuss' little work on the "Parasites of the Honey Bee," we
+glean some of the facts now presented, and which cannot fail to interest
+the general reader as well as the owner of bees.
+
+The study of the habits of animal parasites has of late gained much
+attention among naturalists, and both the honey and wild bees afford
+good examples of the singular relation between the host and the
+parasites which live upon it. Among insects generally, there are certain
+species which devour the contents of the egg of the victim. Others, and
+this is the most common mode of parasitism, attack the insect in its
+larva state; others, in the pupa state, and still others in the perfect,
+or imago state. Dr. Leidy has shown that the wood-devouring species of
+beetle, Passalus cornutus, and some Myriopods, or "thousand legs," are,
+in some cases, tenanted by myriads of microscopic plants and worms which
+luxuriate in the alimentary canal, while the "caterpillar-fungus"
+attacks sickly caterpillars, filling out their bodies, and sending out
+shoots into the air, so that the insect looks as if transformed into a
+vegetable.
+
+The Ichneumon flies, of which there are undoubtedly several thousand
+species in this country, are the most common insect parasites. Next to
+these are the different species of Tachina and its allied genera. These,
+like Ichneumons, live in the bodies of their hosts, consuming the fatty
+parts, and finishing their transformations just as the exhausted host
+is ready to die, issue from their bodies as flies, closely resembling
+the common housefly.
+
+A small fly has been found in Europe to be the most formidable foe of
+the hive bee, sometimes producing the well-known disease called
+"foul-brood," which is analogous to the typhus fever of man.
+
+[Illustration: 32. Phora and its Young.]
+
+This fly, belonging to the genus Phora (Fig. 32, Phora incrassata; _a_,
+larva; _b_, puparium; _c_, another species from Mammoth Cave), is a
+small insect about a line and a half long, and found in Europe during
+the summer and autumn flying slowly about flowers and windows, and in
+the vicinity of beehives. Its white, transparent larva is cylindrical, a
+little pointed before, but broader behind. The head is small and
+rounded, with short, three-jointed antennae, and at the posterior end of
+the body are several slender spines. The puparium, or pupa case,
+inclosing the delicate chrysalis, is oval, consisting of eight segments,
+flattened above, with two large spines near the head, and four on the
+extremity of the body.
+
+When impelled by instinct to provide for the continuance of its species,
+the Phora enters the beehive and gains admission to a cell, when it
+bores with its ovipositor through the skin of the bee larva, laying its
+long oval egg in a horizontal position just under the skin. The embryo
+of the Phora is already well developed, so that in three hours after the
+egg is inserted in the body of its unsuspecting and helpless host, the
+embryo is nearly ready to hatch. In about two hours more it actually
+breaks off the larger end of the egg-shell and at once begins to eat the
+fatty tissues of its victim, its posterior half still remaining in the
+shell. In an hour more, it leaves the egg entirely and buries itself
+completely in the fatty portion of the young bee.
+
+The maggot moults three times. In twelve hours after the last moult it
+turns around with its head towards the posterior end of the body of its
+host, and in another twelve hours, having become full-fed, it bores
+through the skin of the young, eats its way through the brood-covering
+of the cell and falls to the bottom of the hive, where it changes to a
+pupa in the dust and dirt, or else creeps out of the door and transforms
+in the earth. Twelve days after, the fly appears.
+
+The young bee, emaciated and enfeebled by the attacks of its ravenous
+parasite, dies, and its decaying body fills the bottom of the cell with
+a slimy, foul-smelling mass, called "foul-brood." This gives rise to a
+miasma which poisons the neighboring brood, until the contagion (for the
+disease is analogous to typhus, jail or ship-fever) spreads through the
+whole hive, unless promptly checked by removing the cause and thoroughly
+cleansing the hive.
+
+Foul-brood sometimes attacks our American hives, and, though the cause
+may not be known, yet from the hints given above we hope to have the
+history of our species of Phora cleared up, should our disease be found
+to be sometimes due to the attacks of such a parasitic fly.
+
+[Illustration: 33. Bee Louse and Larva.]
+
+We figure the Bee louse of Europe (Fig. 33 b, Braula caeca), which is a
+singular wingless spider-like fly, allied to the wingless Sheep tick
+(Melophagus), the wingless Bat tick (Nycteribia) and the winged Horse
+fly (Hippobosca). The head is very large, without eyes or ocelli (simple
+eyes), while the ovate hind-body consists of five segments, and is
+covered with stiff hairs. It is one-half to two-thirds of a line long.
+This spider fly is "pupiparous," that is, the young, of which only a
+very few are produced, is not born until it has assumed the pupa state
+or is just about to do so. The larva (Fig. 33 _a_) is oval,
+eleven-jointed, and white in color. The very day it is hatched, it sheds
+its skin and changes to an oval puparium of a dark brown color.
+
+Its habits resemble those of the flea. Indeed, should we compress its
+body strongly, it would bear a striking resemblance to that insect. It
+is evidently a connecting link between the flea, and the two winged
+flies. Like the former it lives on the body of its host, and obtains its
+food by plunging its stout beak into the bee and sucking its blood.
+
+It has not been noticed in this country, but is liable to be imported on
+the bodies of Italian bees. Generally, one or two of the Braulas may, on
+close examination, be detected on the body of the bee; sometimes the
+poor bees are loaded down by as many as a hundred of these hungry
+blood-suckers. Assmuss recommends rubbing them off with a feather, as
+the bee goes in and out of the door of its hive.
+
+[Illustration: 34. Hive Trichodes.]
+
+Among the beetles are a few forms occasionally found in bees' nests and
+also parasitic on the body of the bee. Trichodes apiarius (Fig. 34, _a_,
+larva; _b_, pupa, front view) has long been known in Europe to attack
+the young bees. In its perfect, or beetle state it is found on flowers,
+like our Trichodes Nuttallii, which is commonly found on the Spiraea in
+August, and which may yet prove to enter our beehives. The larva devours
+the brood, but with the modern hive its ravages may be readily detected.
+
+[Illustration: 35. Meloe.]
+
+The Oil beetle, Meloe angusticollis (Fig. 35, male, differing from the
+female by having the antennae as if twisted into a knot; Fig. 36, the
+active larva found on the body of the bee), is a large dark blue insect
+found crawling in the grass in the vicinity of the nests of Andrena,
+Halictus, and other wild bees in May, and again in August and
+September. The eggs are laid in a mass covered with earth at the root
+of some plant. During April and early in May, when the willows are in
+blossom, we have found the young recently hatched larvae in considerable
+abundance creeping briskly over the bees, or with their heads plunged
+between the segments of the body, greedily sucking in the juices of
+their host. Those that we saw occurred on the Humble and other wild
+bees, and on various flies (Syrphus and Muscidae), and there is no reason
+why they should not infest the Honey bee, which frequents similar
+flowers, as they are actually known to do in Europe. These larvae are
+probably hatched out near where the bees hibernate, so as to creep into
+their bodies before they fly in the spring, as it would be impossible
+for them to crawl up a willow tree ten feet high or more, their feet
+being solely adapted for climbing over the hairy body of the bee, which
+they do not leave until about to undergo their strange and unusual
+transformations.
+
+[Illustration: Early Stages of Meloe.]
+
+In Europe, Assmuss states that on being brought into the nest by the
+bee, they leave the bee and devour the eggs in the bee cells, and then
+attack the bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their
+transformations to attain the beetle state, instead of at once assuming
+the pupa and imago forms, as in the Trichodes represented in fig. 34,
+they pass through a _hyper-metamorphosis_, as Fabre, a French
+naturalist, calls it. In other words, the changes in form which are
+preparatory to assuming the pupa and imago states are more marked and
+almost coequal with the larva and pupa states, so that the Meloe,
+instead of passing through three states (the egg, larva and pupa), in
+realty passes through these and two others in addition, which are
+intermediate. The whole subject of the metamorphosis of this beetle
+needs revision, but Fabre states that the larva, soon after entering the
+nest of its host, changes its skin and assumes a second larva form.
+Newport, who with Siebold has carefully described the metamorphoses of
+Meloe, does not mention this stage in its development, which Fabre calls
+"pseudo-chrysalis." It is motionless, the head is mask-like, without
+movable appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles. This
+is more properly speaking the semi-pupa, and the mature pupa grows
+beneath its mask-like form, which is finally moulted. This form,
+however, according to Fabre, changes its skin and turns into a third
+larva form (Fig. 37). After some time it assumes its true pupa form
+(Fig. 38), and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle.
+
+Fabre has also, in a lively and well-written account, given a history of
+Sitaris, a European beetle, somewhat resembling Meloe. He states that
+Sitaris lays its eggs near the entrance of bees' nests, and at the very
+moment that the bee lays her egg in the honey cell, the flattened, ovate
+Sitaris larva drops from the body of the bee upon which it has been
+living, and feasts upon the contents of the freshly laid egg. After
+eating this delicate morsel it devours the honey in the cells of the bee
+and changes into a white, cylindrical, nearly footless grub, and after
+it is full-fed, and has assumed a supposed "pupa" state, the skin,
+without bursting, incloses a kind of hard "pupa" skin, which is very
+similar in outline to the former larva, within whose skin is found a
+whitish larva which directly changes into the true pupa. In a succeeding
+state this pupa in the ordinary way changes to a beetle which belongs to
+the same group of Coleoptera as Meloe. We cannot but think, from
+observations made on the humble bee, the wasp, two species of moths and
+several other insects, that this "hyper-metamorphosis" is not so
+abnormal a mode of insect metamorphosis as has been supposed, and that
+the changes of these insects, made beneath the skin of the mature larva
+before assuming the pupa state, are almost as remarkable as those of
+Meloe and Sitaris, though less easily observed than they. Several other
+beetles allied to Meloe are known to be parasitic on wild bees, though
+the accounts of them are fragmentary.
+
+
+THE STYLOPS PARASITE.
+
+The history of Stylops, a beetle allied to Meloe, is no less strange
+than that of Meloe, and is in some respects still more interesting. On
+June 18th I captured an Andrena vicina which had been "stylopized." On
+looking at my capture I saw a pale reddish-brown triangular mark on the
+bee's abdomen; this was the flattened head and thorax of a female
+Stylops (Fig. 39_a_, position of the female of Stylops, seen in profile
+in the abdomen of the bee; Fig. 39_b_, the female seen from above. The
+head and thorax are soldered into a single flattened mass, the baggy
+hind-body being greatly enlarged like that of the gravid female of the
+white ant, and consisting of nine segments).
+
+[Illustration: 39. Female Stylops.]
+
+On carefully drawing out the whole body (Pl. 1, Fig. 6, as seen from
+above, and showing the alimentary canal ending in a blind sac; Fig.
+6_a_, side view), which is very extensible, soft and baggy, and
+examining it under a high power of the microscope, we saw multitudes, at
+least several hundred, of very minute larvae, like particles of dust to
+the naked eye, issuing in every direction from the body of the parent
+now torn open in places, though most of them made their exit through an
+opening on the under side of the head-thorax. The Stylops, being hatched
+while still in the body of the parent, is, therefore viviparous. She
+probably never lays eggs.
+
+On the last of April, when the Mezereon was in blossom, I caught the
+singular looking male (Stylops Childreni, Fig. 40; a, side view; it is
+about one-fourth of an inch long), which was as unlike its partner as
+possible. I laid it under a tumbler, when the delicate insect flew and
+tumbled about till it died of exhaustion in a few hours.
+
+It appears, then, that the larvae are hatched during the middle or last
+of June from eggs fertilized in April. The larvae then crawl out upon the
+body of the bee, on which they are transported to the nest, where they
+enter, according to Peck's observations, the body of the larva, on whose
+fatty parts they feed. Previous to changing to a pupa the larva lives
+with its head turned towards that of its host, but before assuming the
+perfect state (which they do in the late summer or autumn) it must
+reverse its position. The female protrudes the front part of her body
+between the segments of the abdomen of her host, as represented in our
+figure. This change, Newport thinks, takes place after the bee-host has
+undergone its metamorphoses, though the bee does not leave her earthen
+cells until the following spring. Though the male Stylops deserts his
+host, his wingless partner is imprisoned during her whole life within
+her host, and dies immediately after giving birth to her myriad (for
+Newport thinks she produces over two thousand) offspring.
+
+[Illustration: 40. Male Stylops.]
+
+Xenos Peckii, an allied insect, was discovered by Dr. Peck to be
+parasitic in the body of wasps, and there are now known to be several
+species of this small but curious family, Stylopidae, which are known to
+live parasitically on the bodies of our wild bees and wasps. The
+presence of these parasites finally exhausts the host, so that the
+sterile female bee dies prematurely.
+
+As in the higher animals, bees are afflicted with parasitic worms which
+induce disease and sometimes death. The well-known hair worm, Gordius,
+is an insect parasite. The adult form is about the size of a slender
+knitting needle, and is seen in moist soil and in pools. It lays,
+according to Dr. Leidy, "millions of eggs connected together in long
+cords." The microscopical, tadpole-shaped young penetrate into the
+bodies of insects frequenting damp localities. Fairly ensconced within
+the body of their unsuspecting host, they luxuriate on its fatty
+tissues, and pass through their metamorphoses into the adult form, when
+they desert their living house and take to the water to lay their eggs.
+In Europe, Siebold has described Gordius subbifurcus, which infests the
+drones of the Honey bee, and also other insects. Professor Siebold has
+also described Mermis albicans, which is a similar kind of hair worm,
+from two to five inches long, and whitish in color. This worm is also
+found, strangely enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers
+which frequent watery places to appease their thirst.
+
+[Illustration: 41. Bee fungus.]
+
+Thousands of insects are carried off yearly by parasitic fungi. The
+ravages of the Muscardine, caused by a minute fungus (Botrytris
+Bassiana), have threatened the extinction of silk culture in Europe, and
+the still more formidable disease called _pebrine_ is thought to be of
+vegetable origin. Dr. Leidy mentions a fungus which must annually carry
+off myriads of the Seventeen Year Locust. A somewhat similar fungus,
+Mucor mellitophorus (Fig. 41), infests bees, filling the stomach with
+microscopical colorless spores, so as greatly to weaken the insect.
+
+As there is a probability that many insects, parasites on the wild bees,
+may sooner or later afflict the Honey bee, and also to illustrate
+farther the complex nature of insect parasitism, we will for a moment
+look at some other bee parasites.
+
+[Illustration: Pl. 1
+
+PARASITES OF BEES.]
+
+Among the numerous insects preying in some way upon the Humble bee are
+to be found other species of bees and moths, flies and beetles. Insect
+parasites often imitate their host: Apathus (Plate I, Fig. 1, A.
+Ashtoni) can scarcely be distinguished from its host, and yet it lives
+cuckoo-like in the cells of the Humble bee, though we know not yet how
+injurious it really is. Then there are Conops and Volucella, the
+former of which lives like Tachina and Phora within the bee's body,
+while the latter devours the brood. The young (Plate I, Figs. 5, 5_a_)
+of another fly allied to Anthomyia, of which the Onion fly (Fig. 42) is
+an example, is also not unfrequently met with. A small beetle (Plate 1.
+Fig. 4, Antherophagus ochraceus) is a common inmate of Humble bees'
+nests, and probably feeds upon the wax and pollen. We have also found
+several larvae (Fig. 43) of a beetle of which we do not know the adult
+form. Of similar habits is probably a small moth (Nephopteryx Edmandsii,
+Plate I, Figs. 2; 2_a_, larva; Fig. 2_b_, chrysalis, or pupa) which
+undoubtedly feeds upon the waxen walls of the bee cells, and thus, like
+the attacks of the common bee moth (Galleria cereana, whose habits are
+so well known as not to detain us, must prove very prejudicial to the
+well being of the colony. This moth is in turn infested by an Ichneumon
+fly (Microgaster nephoptericis, Plate I, Figs. 3, 3_a_) which must prove
+quite destructive.
+
+[Illustration: 42. Onion Fly and Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 43. Larva of Beetle.]
+
+The figures of the early stages of a minute ichneumon represented on the
+same plate (Fig. 7, larva, and 7_a_, pupa, of Anthophorabia megachilis)
+which is parasitic on Megachile, the Leaf-cutter bee, illustrates the
+transformations of the Ichneumon flies, the smallest species of which
+yet known (and we believe the smallest insect known at all) is the
+Pteratomus Putnami (Pl. I, Fig. 8, wanting the hind leg), or "winged
+atom," which is only one-ninetieth of an inch in length, and is
+parasitic on Anthophorabia, itself a parasite. A species of mite (Plate
+I, Figs. 9; 9_a_, the same seen from beneath) is always to be found In
+humble bees' nests, but it is not thought to be specially obnoxious to
+the bees themselves, though several species of mites (Gamasus, etc.) are
+known to be parasitic on insects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS.
+
+
+The butterflies and moths from their beauty and grace, have always been
+the favorites among amateur entomologists, and rare and costly works
+have been published in which their forms and gorgeous colors are
+represented in the best style of natural history art. We need only
+mention the folio volume of Madam Merian of the last century, Harris's
+Aurelian, the works of Cramer, Stoll, Drury, Huebner, Horsfield,
+Doubleday and Westwood, and Hewitson, as comprising the most luxurious
+and costly entomological works.
+
+Near the close of the last century, John Abbot went from London and
+spent several years in Georgia, rearing the larger and more showy
+butterflies and moths, and painting them in the larva, chrysalis and
+adult, or imago stage. These drawings he sent to London to be sold. Many
+of them were collected by Sir James Edward Smith, and published under
+the title of "The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous Insects of
+Georgia, collected from the Observations of John Abbot, with the Plants
+on which they Feed." (London, 1797. 2 vols., fol.) Besides these two
+rare volumes there are sixteen folio volumes of drawings by Abbot in the
+Library of the British Museum. This work is of especial interest to the
+American student as it illustrates the early stages of many of our
+butterflies and moths.
+
+Indeed the study of insects possesses most of its interest when we
+observe their habits and transformations. Caterpillars are always to be
+found, and with a little practice are easy to raise; we would therefore
+advise any one desirous of beginning the study of insects to take up the
+butterflies and moths. They are perhaps easier to study than any other
+group of insects, and are more ornamental in the cabinet. As a
+scientific study we would recommend it to ladies as next to botany in
+interest and in the ease in which specimens may be collected and
+examined. The example of Madam Merian, and several ladies in this
+country who have greatly aided science by their well filled cabinets,
+and critical knowledge of the various species and their transformations,
+is an earnest of what may be expected from their followers. Though the
+moths are easy to study compared with the bees, flies, beetles and bugs,
+and dragon flies, yet many questions of great interest in philosophical
+entomology have been answered by our knowledge of their structure and
+mode of growth. The great works of Herold on the evolution of a
+caterpillar; of Lyonet on the anatomy of the Cossus; of Newport on that
+of the Sphinx; and of Siebold on the parthenogenesis of insects, are
+proofs that the moths have engaged the attention of some of the master
+minds in science.
+
+The study of the transformations of the moths is also of great
+importance to one who would acquaint himself with the questions
+concerning the growth and metamorphoses and origin of animals. We should
+remember that the very words "metamorphosis" and "transformation," now
+so generally applied to other groups of animals and used in
+philosophical botany, were first suggested by those who observed that
+the moth and butterfly attain their maturity only by passing through
+wonderful changes of form and modes of life.
+
+The knowledge of the fact that all animals pass through some sort of a
+metamorphosis is very recent in physiology. Moreover the fact that these
+morphological eras in the life of an individual animal accord most
+unerringly with the gradation of forms in the type of which it is a
+member, was the discovery of the eminent physiologist Von Baer. Up to
+this time the true significance of the luxuriance and diversity of
+larval forms had never seriously engaged the attention of systematists
+in entomology.
+
+What can possibly be the meaning of all this putting on and taking off
+of caterpillar habiliments, or in other words, the process of moulting,
+with the frequent changes in ornamentation, and the seeming
+fastidiousness and queer fancies and strange conceits of these young and
+giddy insects seems hidden and mysterious to human observation. Indeed,
+few care to spend the time and trouble necessary to observe the insect
+through its transformations; and that done, if only the larva of the
+perfect insect can be identified and its form sketched how much was
+gained! A truthful and circumstantial biography, in all its relations,
+of a single insect has yet to be written!
+
+We should also apply our knowledge of the larval forms of insects to the
+details of their classification into families and genera, constantly
+collating our knowledge of the early stages with the structural
+relations that accompany them in the perfect state.
+
+The simple form of the caterpillar seems to be a concentration of the
+characters of the perfect insect, and presents easy characters by which
+to distinguish the minor groups; and the relative rank of the higher
+divisions will only be definitely settled when their forms and methods
+of transformation are thoroughly known. Thus, for example, in two groups
+of the large Attacus-like moths, which are so amply illustrated in Dr.
+Harris's "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation"; if we take the
+different forms of the caterpillars of the Tau moth of Europe, which are
+figured by Duponchel and Godard, we find that the very young larva has
+four horn-like processes on the front, and four on the back part of the
+body. The full grown larva of the Regalis moth, of the Southern and
+Middle states, is very similarly ornamented. It is an embryonic form,
+and therefore inferior in rank to the Tau moth. Multiply these horns
+over the surface of the body, lessen their size, and crown them with
+hairs, and we have our Io moth, so destructive to corn. Now take off the
+hairs, elongating and thinning out the tubercles, and make up the loss
+by the increased size of the worm, and we have the caterpillar of our
+common Cecropia moth. Again, remove the naked tubercles almost wholly,
+smooth off the surface of the body, and contract its length, thus giving
+a greater convexity and angularity to the rings, and we have before us
+the larva of the stately Luna moth that tops this royal family. Here are
+certain criteria for placing these insects before our minds in the order
+that nature has placed them. We have certain facts for determining which
+of these three insects is highest and which lowest in the scale, when we
+see the larva of the Luna moth throwing off successively the Io and
+Cecropia forms to take on its own higher features. So that there is a
+meaning in all this shifting of insect toggery.
+
+This is but an example of the many ways in which both pleasure and
+mental profit may be realized from the thoughtful study of caterpillar
+life.
+
+In collecting butterflies and moths for cabinet specimens, one needs a
+gauze net a foot and a half deep, with the wire frame a foot in
+diameter; a wide-mouthed bottle containing a parcel of cyanide of
+potassium gummed on the side, in which to kill the moths, which should,
+as soon as life is extinct, be pinned in a cork-lined collecting box
+carried in the coat pocket. The captures should then be spread and dried
+on a grooved setting board, and a cabinet formed of cork-lined boxes or
+drawers; as a substitute for cork, frames with paper tightly stretched
+over them may be used, or the pith of corn-stalks or palm wood.
+Caterpillars should be preserved in spirits, or in glycerine with a
+little alcohol added.
+
+Some persons ingeniously empty the skins and inflate them over a flame
+so that they may be pinned by the side of the adult.
+
+Some of the most troublesome and noxious insects are found among the
+moths. I need only mention the canker worm and American tent
+caterpillar, and the various kinds of cut worms, as instances.
+
+[Illustration: 43. Parasite of the American Silk Worm.]
+
+We must not, however, forget the good done by insects. They undoubtedly
+tend by their attacks to prevent an undue growth of vegetation. The
+pruning done to a tree or herb by certain insects undoubtedly causes a
+more healthy growth of the branches and leaves, and ultimately a greater
+production fruit. Again, as pollen-bearers, insects are a most powerful
+agency in nature. It is undoubtedly the fact that the presence, of bees
+in orchards increases the fruit crop, and thus the thousands of moths
+(though injurious as caterpillars), wild bees and other insects, that
+seem to live without purpose, are really, though few realize it, among
+the best friends and allies of man.
+
+Moreover, insects are of great use as scavengers; such are the young or
+maggots of the house fly, the mosquitoes, and numerous other forms, that
+seem created only to vex us when in the winged state. Still a larger
+proportion of insects are directly beneficial from their habit of
+attacking injurious species, such as the ichneumons (Fig. 43, the
+ichneumon of the American silk worm) and certain flies (Fig. 44,
+Tachina); also many carnivorous species of wasps beetles and flies,
+dragon flies and Aphis lions (Fig. 45, the lace-winged fly; adult, larva
+and eggs).
+
+[Illustration: 44. Tachina, parasite of Colorado Potato Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 45. The Lace-winged Fly, Its Larva and Eggs.]
+
+But few, however, suspect how enormous are the losses to crops in this
+country entailed by the attacks of the injurious species. In Europe, the
+subject of applied entomology has always attracted a great deal of
+attention. Most sumptuous works, elegant quartos prepared by naturalists
+known the world over, and published at government expense, together with
+smaller treatises, have frequently appeared; while the subject is taught
+in the numerous agricultural colleges and schools, especially of
+Germany.
+
+In the densely populated countries of Europe, the losses occasioned by
+injurious insects are most severely felt, though from many causes, such
+as the greater abundance of their insect parasites, and the far greater
+care taken by the people to exterminate their insect enemies, they have
+not proved so destructive as in our own land.
+
+In this connection I may quote from one of Dr. Asa Fitch's reports on
+the noxious insects of New York, where he says: "I find that in our
+wheat-fields here, the midge formed 59 per cent. of all the insects on
+this grain the past summer; whilst in France, the preceding summer, only
+7 per cent. of the insects on wheat were of this species. In France the
+parasitic destroyers amounted to 85 per cent.; while in this country our
+parasites form only 10 per cent."
+
+"A true knowledge of practical entomology may well be said to be in its
+infancy in our own country, when, as is well-known to agriculturists,
+the cultivation of wheat has almost been given up in New England, New
+York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia, from the attacks of the wheat
+midge, Hessian fly, joint worm, and chinch bug. According to Dr.
+Shimer's estimate, says Mr. Riley, in his Second Annual Report on the
+Injurious Insects of Missouri, which may be considered a reasonable
+one, in the year 1864 three-fourths of the wheat, and one-half of the
+corn crop were destroyed by the chinch bug throughout many extensive
+districts, comprising almost the entire North-West. At the annual rate
+of increase, according to the United States Census, in the State of
+Illinois, the wheat crop ought to have been about thirty millions of
+bushels, and the corn crop about one hundred and thirty-eight million
+bushels. Putting the cash value of wheat at $1.25, and that of corn at
+50 cents, the cash value of the corn and wheat destroyed by this
+insignificant little bug, no bigger than a grain of rice, in one single
+State and one single year, will therefore, according to the above
+figures, foot up to the astounding total of _over seventy-three millions
+of dollars_!"
+
+The imported cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae), recently introduced from
+Europe, is estimated by the Abbe Provatncher, a Canadian entomologist,
+to destroy annually two hundred and forty thousand dollars' worth of
+cabbages around Quebec. The Hessian fly, according to Dr. Fitch,
+destroyed fifteen million dollars' worth of wheat in New York State in
+one year (1854). The army worm of the North (Leucania unipuncta), which
+was so abundant in 1861, from New England to Kansas, was reported to
+have done damage that year in Eastern Massachusetts exceeding half a
+million of dollars. The joint worm (Isosoma hordei) alone sometimes cuts
+off whole fields of grain in Virginia and northward. The Colorado potato
+beetle is steadily moving eastward, now ravaging the fields in Indiana
+and Ohio, and only the forethought and ingenuity in devising means of
+checking its attacks, resulting from a thorough study of its habits,
+will deliver our wasted fields from its direful assaults.
+
+These are the injuries done by the more abundant kinds of insects
+injurious to crops. We should not forget that each fruit or shade tree,
+garden shrub or vegetable, has a host of insects peculiar to it, and
+which, year after year, renew their attacks. I could enumerate upwards
+of fifty species of insects which prey upon cereals and grass, and as
+many which infest our field crops. Some thirty well known species ravage
+our garden vegetables. There are nearly fifty species which attack the
+grape vine, and their number is rapidly increasing. About seventy-five
+species make their annual onset upon the apple tree, and nearly an equal
+number may be found upon the plum, pear, peach and cherry. Among our
+shade trees, over fifty species infest the oak; twenty-five the elm;
+seventy-five the walnut, and over one hundred species of insects prey
+upon the pine.
+
+Indeed, we may reasonably calculate the annual loss in our country
+alone, from noxious animals and the lower forms of plants, such as rust,
+smut and mildew, as (at a low estimate) not far from five hundred
+million dollars annually. Of this amount, at least one-tenth, or fifty
+million dollars, could probably be saved by human exertions.
+
+To save a portion of this annual loss of food stuffs, fruits and lumber,
+should be the first object of farmers and gardeners. When this saving is
+made, farming will become a profitable and safe profession. But while a
+few are well informed as to the losses sustained by injurious insects,
+and use means to ward off their attacks, their efforts are constantly
+foiled by the negligence of their neighbors. As illustrated so well by
+the history of the incursions of the army worm and canker worm, it is
+only by a combination between farmers and orchardists that these and
+other pests can be kept under. The matter can be best reached by
+legislation. We have fish and game laws; why should we not have an
+insect law? Why should we not frame a law providing that farmers, and
+all owning a garden or orchard, should cooperate in taking preventive
+measures against injurious insects, such as early or late planting of
+cereals, to avert the attacks of the wheat midge and Hessian fly; the
+burning of stubble in the autumn and spring to destroy the joint worm;
+the combined use of proper remedies against the canker worm, the
+various cut worms, and other noxious caterpillars? A law carried out by
+a proper State entomological constabulary, if it may be so designated,
+would compel the idle and shiftless to clear their farms and gardens of
+noxious animals.
+
+[Illustration: 46. Pickle Worm and its Moth.]
+
+Among some of the injurious insects reported on by Mr. Riley, the State
+Entomologist of Missouri, is a new pest to the cucumber in the West, the
+Pickle worm (Phacellura nitidalis, Fig. 46). This is a caterpillar which
+bores into the cucumbers when large enough to pickle, and which is
+occasionally found in pickles. Three or four worms sometimes occur in a
+cucumber, and in the garden a single one will cause it to rot. One of
+the most troublesome intruders in our graperies is the Vine dresser
+(Choerocampa pampinatrix, Fig. 47, larva and pupa; Fig. 48, adult), a
+single caterpillar of which will sometimes "strip a small vine of its
+leaves in a few nights," and occasionally nips off bunches of half-grown
+grapes.
+
+[Illustration: 48. Vine Dresser Moth.
+
+47. Vine Dresser and Chrysalis.]
+
+Another caterpillar, which is sometimes so abundant as nearly to
+defoliate the grape vine, is the eight spotted Alypia (Fig. 49; _a_,
+larva; _b_, side view of a segment). This must not be confounded with
+the bluish larva of the Wood Nymph, Eudryas grata (Fig. 50), which
+differs from the Alypia caterpillar in being bluish, and in wanting the
+white patches on the side of the body, and the more prominent hump on
+the end of the body. Another moth (Psychomorpha epimenis, Fig. 51,
+_a_, larva; _b_, side view of a segment; _c_, top view of the hump),
+also feeds on the grape, eating the terminal buds. It is also bluish,
+and wants the orange bands on the side of the body. Another moth of this
+family is the American Procris (Acoloithus Americana, Fig. 52_a_, larva;
+_b_, pupa; _c_, cocoon; _d_, _e_, imago); a dark blue moth, with a deep
+orange collar, whose black and yellow caterpillar is gregarious (Fig.
+53), living in companies of a dozen or more and eating the softer parts
+of the leaves. It is quite common in the Western and Southern States.
+The figure represents two separate broods of caterpillars feeding on
+either side of the midrib of the leaf. But if the moths are, as a rule,
+the enemies of our crops, there are the silk worms of the East and
+Southern Europe and California, which afford the means of support to
+multitudes of the poorer classes, and supply one of the most valuable
+articles of clothing. Blot out the silk worm, and we should remove one
+of the most important sources of national wealth, the annual revenue
+from the silk trade of the world amounting to $254,500,000.
+
+[Illustration: 49. Eight-spotted Alypia and Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 50. Eudryas grata.]
+
+[Illustration: 51. Larva of Psychomorpha.]
+
+[Illustration: 52. American Procris and Young.]
+
+[Illustration: 53. Larvae of American Procris.]
+
+Silk culture is rapidly assuming importance in California, and though
+the Chinese silk worm has not been successfully cultivated in the
+Eastern States, yet the American silk worm, Teleas Polyphemus (see
+frontispiece, male; Fig. 54, larva; 55, pupa; 56, cocoon), can, we are
+assured by Mr. Trouvelot, be made a source of profit.
+
+This is a splendid member of the group of which the gigantic Attacus
+Atlas of China is a type. It is a large, fawn colored moth with a tawny
+tinge; the caterpillar is pale green, and is of the size indicated in
+the cut. Mr. Trouvelot says that of the several kinds of silk worms, the
+larva of the present species alone deserves attention. The cocoons of
+Platysamia Cecropia may be rendered of some commercial value, as the
+silk can be carded, but the chief objection is the difficulty of raising
+the larva.
+
+"The Polyphemus worm spins a strong, dense, oval cocoon, which is closed
+at each end, while the silk has a very strong and glossy fibre." Mr.
+Trouvelot, from whose interesting account in the first volume of the
+"American Naturalist" we quote, says that in 1865 "not less than a
+million could be seen feeding in the open air upon bushes covered with a
+net; five acres of woodland were swarming with caterpillar life." The
+bushes were scrub oaks, the worms being protected by a net. After
+meeting with such great success Mr. Trouvelot lost all his worms by
+pebrine, the germs being imported in eggs received from Japan through M.
+Guerin-Meneville of Paris. Enough, however, was done to prove that silk
+raising can be carried on profitably, when due precautions are taken, as
+far north as Boston. As this moth extends to the tropics, it can be
+reared with greater facility southwards. The cocoon is strong and dense,
+and closed at each end, so that the thread is continuous, while the silk
+has a very strong and glossy fibre.
+
+[Illustration: 54. American Silk Worm.]
+
+Next in value to the American silk worm, is the Ailanthus silk worm
+(Samia Cynthia) a species allied to our Callosamia Promethea. It
+originated from China, where it is cultivated, and was introduced into
+Italy in 1858, and thence spread into France, where it was introduced by
+M. Guerin-Meneville. Its silk is said to be much stronger than the fibre
+of cotton, and is a mean between fine wool and ordinary silk. The worm
+is very hardy, and can be reared in the open air both in this country
+and in Europe. The main drawback to its culture is the difficulty in
+unreeling the tough cocoon, and the shortness of the thread, the cocoon
+being open at one end.
+
+The Yama-mai moth (Antheraea Yama-mai) was introduced into France from
+Japan in 1861. It is closely allied to the Polyphemus moth, and its
+caterpillar also feeds on the oak. Its silk is said to be quite
+brilliant, but a little coarser and not so strong as that of the Bombyx
+mori. The Perny silk worm is extensively cultivated by the Chinese in
+Manchouria, where it feeds on the oak. Its silk is coarser than that of
+the common silk worm, but is yet fine, strong and glossy. Bengal has
+furnished the Tussah moth, which lives in India on the oak and a variety
+of other trees. It is largely raised in French and English India,
+according to Nogues, and is used in the manufacture of stuffs called
+corahs.
+
+[Illustration: 55. Chrysalis of American Silk Worm.]
+
+[Illustration: 56. Cocoon of American Silk Worm.]
+
+The last kind of importance is the Arrhindy silk worm, from India. It
+has been naturalized in France and Algeria by M. Guerin-Meneville, who
+has done so much in the application of entomology to practical life. It
+is closely allied to the Cynthia or Ailanthus worm, with the same kind
+of silk and a similar cocoon, and feeds on the castor oil plant.
+
+The diseases of silk worms naturally receive much attention. Like those
+afflicting mankind, they arise from bad air, resulting from too close
+confinement, bad food, and other adverse causes. The most fatal and
+wide-spread disease, and one which since 1854 has threatened the
+extermination of silk worms in Europe, is the _pebrine_. It is due to
+the presence of minute vegetable corpuscles, which attack both the worms
+and the eggs. It was this disease which swept off thousands of Mr.
+Trouvelot's Polyphemus worms, and put a sudden termination to his
+important experiments, the germs having been implanted in eggs of the
+Yama-mai moth imported from Japan by M. Guerin-Meneville, and which were
+probably infected as they passed through Paris. Though the disaster
+happened several years since, he tells us that it will be useless for
+him to attempt the raising of silk worms in the town where his
+establishment is situated, as the germs of the disease are most
+difficult to eradicate.
+
+So direful in France were the ravages of this disease that two of the
+most advanced naturalists in France, Quatrefages and Pasteur, were
+commissioned by the French government to investigate the disease.
+Pasteur found that the infected eggs differed in appearance from the
+sound ones, and could thus be sorted out by aid of the microscope and
+destroyed. Thus these investigations, carried on year after year, and
+seeming to the ignorant to tend to no practical end, resulted in saving
+to France her silk culture. During the past year (1871) so successful
+has his method proved that a French scientific journal expresses the
+hope of the complete reestablishment and prosperity of this great
+industry. A single person who obtained in 1871 in his nurseries 30,000
+ounces of eggs, hopes the next year to obtain 100,000 ounces, from which
+he expects to realize about one million dollars.
+
+[Illustration: The Potato Caterpillar.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE CLOTHES MOTH.
+
+
+For over a fortnight we once enjoyed the company of the caterpillar of a
+common clothes moth. It is a little pale, delicate worm (Fig. 57,
+magnified), about the size of a darning needle, and rather less than
+half an inch in length, with a pale horn-colored head, the ring next the
+head being of the same color. It has sixteen feet, the first six of them
+well developed and constantly in use to draw the slender body in and out
+of its case. Its head is armed with a formidable pair of jaws, with
+which, like a scythe, it mows its way through thick and thin.
+
+But the case is the most remarkable feature in the history of this
+caterpillar. Hardly has the helpless, tiny worm broken out of the egg,
+previously laid in some old garment of fur or wool, or perhaps in the
+haircloth of a sofa, when it begins to make a shelter by cutting the
+woolly fibres or soft hairs into bits, which it places at each end in
+successive layers, and, joining them together by silken threads,
+constructs a cylindrical tube (Fig. 58) of thick, warm felt, lined
+within with the finest silk the tiny worm can spin. The case is not
+perfectly cylindrical, being flattened slightly in the middle, and
+contracted a little just before each end, both of which are always kept
+open. The case before us is of a stone-gray color, with a black stripe
+along the middle, and with rings of the same color round each opening.
+Had the caterpillar fed on blue or yellow cloth, the case would, of
+course, have been of those colors. Other cases, made by larvae which had
+been eating loose cotton, were quite irregular in form, and covered
+loosely with bits of cotton thread, which the little tailor had not
+trimmed off.
+
+Days go by. A vigorous course of dieting on its feast of wool has given
+stature to our hero. His case has grown uncomfortably small. Shall he
+leave it and make another? No housewife is more prudent and saving. Out
+come those scissor-jaws, and, lo! a fearful rent along each side of one
+end of the case. Two wedge-shaped patches mend the breach; the
+caterpillar retires for a moment and reappears at the other end; the
+scissors are once more pulled out; two rents appear, to be filled up by
+two more patches or gores, and our caterpillar once again breathes more
+freely, laughs and grows fat upon horse hair and lambs' wool. In this
+way he enlarges his case till he stops growing.
+
+[Illustration: 59. 58. 57.
+
+Early Stages of the Clothes Moth.]
+
+Our caterpillar seeming to be full-grown, and apparently out of
+employment, we cut the end of his case half off. Two or three days
+after, he had mended it from the inside, drawing the two edges together
+by silken threads, and, though he had not touched the outside, yet so
+neatly were the two parts joined together that we had to search for some
+time, with a lens, to find the scar.
+
+To keep our friend busy during the cold, cheerless weather, for it was
+mid-winter, we next cut a third of the case entirely off. Nothing
+daunted, the little fellow bustled about, drew in a mass of the woolly
+fibres, filling up the whole mouth of his den, and began to build on
+afresh, and from the inside, so that the new-made portion was smaller
+than the rest of the case. The creature worked very slowly, and the
+addition was left in a rough, unfinished state.
+
+We could easily spare these voracious little worms hairs enough to serve
+as food, and to afford material for the construction of their paltry
+cases; but that restless spirit that ever urges on all beings endowed
+with life and the power of motion, never forsakes the young clothes moth
+for a moment. He will not be forced to drag his heavy case over rough
+hairs and furzy wool, hence with his keen jaws he cuts his way through.
+Thus, the more he travels, the more mischief he does.
+
+After taking his fill of this sort of life he changes to a chrysalid
+(Fig. 59), and soon appears as one of those delicate, tiny, demure
+moths that fly in such numbers from early in the spring until the
+autumn.
+
+Very many do not recognize these moths in their perfect stage, so small
+are they, and vent their wrath on those great millers that fly around
+lamps in warm summer evenings. It need scarcely be said that these large
+millers are utterly guiltless of any attempts upon our wardrobes; they
+make their attacks in a more open form on our gardens and orchards.
+
+We will give a more careful description of the clothes moth, which was
+found in its different stages June 12th in a mass of loose cotton. The
+larva is white, with a tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly
+towards the tail, while the head is much of the color of gum-copal. The
+rings of the body are thickened above, especially on the thoracic ones,
+by two transverse thickened folds. It is one-fifth of an inch long.
+
+The body of the chrysalis, or pupa, is considerably curved, with the
+head smooth and rounded. The long antennae, together with the hind legs,
+which are folded along the breast, reach to the tip of the hind body, on
+the upper surface of each ring of which is a short transverse row of
+minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving towards the mouth of
+its case, just before the moth appears. At first the chrysalis is
+whitish, but just before the exclusion of the moth becomes the color of
+varnish.
+
+When about to cast its pupa skin, the skin splits open on the back, and
+the perfect insect glides out. The act is so quickly over with, that the
+observer has to look sharp to observe the different steps in the
+operation.
+
+[Illustration: 60. Clothes Moth.]
+
+Our common clothes moth (Tinea flavifrontella, Fig. 60) is of a uniform
+light-buff color, with a silky iridescent lustre, the hind wings and
+abdomen being a little paler. The head is thickly tufted with hairs and
+is a little tawny, and the upper side of the densely hirsute feelers
+(palpi) is dusky. The wings are long and narrow, with the most beautiful
+and delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards the
+base of the wing.
+
+They begin to fly in May, and last all through the season, fluttering
+with a noiseless, stealthy flight in our apartments, and laying their
+eggs in our woollens.
+
+Successive broods of the clothes moth appear through the summer. In the
+autumn they cease eating, retire within their cases, and early in spring
+assume the chrysalis state.
+
+There are several allied species which have much the same habits, except
+that they do not all construct cases, but eat carpets, clothing,
+articles of food, grain, etc., and objects of natural history.
+
+Careful housewives are not much afflicted with these pests. The slovenly
+and thriftless are overrun with them. Early in June woollens and furs
+should be carefully dusted, shaken and beaten. Dr. T. W. Harris states
+that "powdered black pepper, strewed under the edge of carpets, is said
+to repel moths. Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine,
+camphor in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russia
+leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid aside for
+the summer; and furs and other small articles can be kept by being sewed
+in bags with bits of camphor wood, red cedar, or of Spanish cedar; while
+the cloth lining of carriages can be secured forever from the attacks of
+moths by being washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the
+corrosive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough not
+to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths can be most
+readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though its use must be
+much restricted from the disagreeable odor which remains. The recent
+experiments made with carbolic acid, however, convince us that this will
+soon take the place of other substances as a preventive and destroyer of
+noxious insects.
+
+[Illustration: The Juniper Sickle-wing.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE MOSQUITO AND ITS FRIENDS.
+
+
+The subject of flies becomes of vast moment to a Pharaoh, whose ears are
+dinned with the buzz of myriad winged plagues, mingled with angry cries
+from malcontent and fly-pestered subjects; or to the summer traveller in
+northern lands, where they oppose a stronger barrier to his explorations
+than the loftiest mountains or the broadest streams; or to the African
+pioneer, whose cattle, his main dependence, are stung to death by the
+Tsetze fly; or the fariner whose eyes on the evening of a warm spring
+day, after a placid contemplation of his growing acres of wheat blades,
+suddenly detects in dismay clouds of the Wheat midge and Hessian fly
+hovering over their swaying tops. The subject, indeed, has in such cases
+a national importance, and a few words regarding the main points in the
+habits of flies--how they grow, how they do not grow (after assuming the
+winged state), and how they bite; for who has not endured the smart and
+sting of these dipterous Shylocks, that almost torment us out of our
+existence while taking their drop of our heart's blood--may be welcome to
+our readers.
+
+[Illustration: 61. Head of the Mosquito.]
+
+The Mosquito will be our first choice. As she leaps off from her light
+bark, the cast chrysalis skin of her early life beneath the waters, and
+sails away in the sunlight, her velvety wings fringed with silken hairs,
+and her neatly bodiced trim figure (though her nose is rather salient,
+considering that it is half as long as her entire body), present a
+beauty and grace of form and movement quite unsurpassed by her dipterous
+allies. She draws near and softly alights upon the hand of the charmed
+beholder, subdues her trumpeting notes, folds her wings noiselessly upon
+her back, daintily sets down one foot after the other, and with an
+eagerness chastened by the most refined delicacy for the feelings of her
+victim, and with the air of Velpeau redivivus, drives through crushed
+and bleeding capillaries, shrinking nerves and injured tissues, a
+many-bladed lancet of marvellous fineness, of wonderful complexity and
+fitness. While engorging herself with our blood, we will examine under
+the microscope the mosquito's mouth. The head (Fig. 61) is rounded, with
+the two eyes occupying a large part of the surface, and nearly meeting
+on the top of the head. Out of the forehead, so to speak, grow the long,
+delicate, hairy antennm (_a_), and just below arises the long beak which
+consists of the bristle-like maxillae (_mx_, with their palpi, _mp_) and
+mandibles (_m_), and the single hair-like labrum, these five
+bristle-like organs being laid in the hollowed labium (_l_). Thus massed
+into a single awl-like beak, the mosquito, without any apparent effort,
+thrusts them all except the labium into the flesh. Her hind body may be
+seen tilling with the red blood, until it cries quits, and the insect
+withdraws its sting and flies sluggishly away. In a moment the wounded
+parts itch slightly, though a very robust person may not notice the
+irritation, or a more delicate individual if asleep; though if weakened
+by disease, or if stung in a highly vascular and sensitive part, such as
+the eyelid, the bite becomes really a serious matter. Multiply the
+mosquito a thousand fold, and one flees their attacks and avoids their
+haunts as he would a nest of hornets. Early in spring the larva (Fig.
+62, A) of the mosquito may be found in pools and ditches. It remains at
+the bottom feeding upon decaying matter (thus acting as a scavenger, and
+in this state doing great benefit in clearing swamps of miasms), until
+it rises to the surface for air, which it inhales through a single
+respiratory tube (_c_) situated near the tail. When about to transform
+into the pupa state, it contracts and enlarges anteriorly near the
+middle, the larval skin is thrown off, and the insect appears in quite a
+different form (Fig. 62, a). The head and thorax are massed together,
+the rudiments of the mouth parts and of the wings and legs being folded
+upon the breast, while there are two breathing tubes (_d_) situated upon
+the back instead of the tail, which ends in two broad paddles (_a_); so
+that it comes to the surface, head foremost instead of tail first, a
+position according better with its increased age and experience in pond
+life. In a few days the pupa skin is cast; the insect, availing itself
+of its old habiliments as a raft upon which to float while its body is
+drying, grows lighter, and its wings expand for its marriage flight. The
+males are beautiful, both physically and morally, as they do not bite;
+their manners are more retiring than those of their stronger minded
+partners, as they rarely enter our dwellings, and live unnoticed in the
+woods. They may be easily distinguished from the females by their long
+maxillary palpi, and their thick, bushy, feathered antennae. The female
+lays her elongated, oval eggs in a boat-shaped mass, which floats on the
+water. A mosquito lives three or four weeks in the water before changing
+to the adult or winged stage. How many days they live in the latter
+state we do not know.
+
+[Illustration: 62. Larva and Pupa of the Mosquito.]
+
+Our readers will understand, then, that all flies, like our mosquito for
+example, grow while in the larva and pupa state, _and after they acquire
+wings do not grow_, so that the small midges are not young mosquitoes,
+but the adult winged forms of an entirely different species and genus of
+fly; and the myriads of small flies, commonly supposed to be the young
+of larger flies, are adult forms belonging to different species of
+different genera, and perhaps of different families of the suborder of
+Diptera. The typical species of the genus Culex, to which the mosquito
+belongs, is Culex pipiens, described by Linnaeus, and there are already
+over thirty North American species of this genus described in various
+works. Few insects live in the sea, but along the coast of New England
+a small, slender white larva (Fig. 63a, magnified, and head greatly
+enlarged; Fig. 64, pupa and fore foot of larva, showing the hooks),
+whose body is no thicker than a knitting needle, lives between tides,
+and has even been dredged at a depth of over a hundred feet, which
+transforms into a yellow mosquito-like fly (Fig. 65, with head of the
+female, magnified) which swarms in summer in immense numbers. I have
+called it provisionally Chironomus oceanicus, or Ocean gnat. The larvae
+of other species have been found by Mr. S. I. Smith living at great
+depths in our Northern lakes. These kinds of gnats are usually seen
+early in spring hovering in swarms in mid air.
+
+[Illustration: 65. Ocean Gnat.]
+
+[Illustration: 63. Larva of Ocean Gnat.]
+
+[Illustration: 64. Pupa of Ocean Gnat.]
+
+The strange fact has been discovered by Grimm, a Russian naturalist,
+that the pupa of a feathered gnat is capable of laying eggs which
+produce young during the summer time. Previous to this it had been
+discovered that a larva of a gnat (Fig. 66 _a_, eggs from which the
+young are produced) which lives under the bark of trees in Europe, also
+produced young born alive.
+
+The Hessian fly (Fig. 67, _a_, larva; _b_ pupa; _c_, stalk of wheat
+injured by larvae) and Wheat midge, which are allied to the mosquito, are
+briefly referred to in the calendar, so that we pass over these to
+consider another pest of our forests and prairies.
+
+[Illustration: 66. Viviparous gall larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 67. Hessian Fly and its Young.]
+
+The Black fly is even a more formidable pest than the mosquito. In the
+northern, subarctic regions, it opposes a barrier against travel. The
+Labrador fisherman spends his summer on the sea shore, scarcely daring
+to penetrate the interior on account of the swarms of these flies.
+During a summer residence on this coast, we sailed up the Esquimaux
+river for six or eight miles, spending a few hours at a house situated
+on the bank. The day was warm and but little wind blowing, and the
+swarms of black flies were absolutely terrific. In vain we frantically
+waved our net among them, allured by some rare moth; after making a few
+desperate charges in the face of the thronging pests, we had to retire
+to the house, where the windows actually swarmed with them; but here
+they would fly in our faces, crawl under one's clothes, where they even
+remain and bite in the night. The children in the house were sickly and
+worn by their unceasing torments; and the shaggy Newfoundland dogs whose
+thick coats would seem to be proof against their bites ran from their
+shelter beneath the bench and dashed into the river, their only retreat.
+In cloudy weather, unlike the mosquito, the black fly disappears, only
+flying when the sun shines. The bite of the black fly is often severe,
+the creature leaving a large clot of blood to mark the scene of its
+surgical triumphs. Prof. E. T. Cox, State Geologist of Indiana, has sent
+us specimens of a much larger fly, which Baron Osten Sacken refers to
+this genus, which is called on the prairies, where it is said to bite
+horses to death, the Buffalo Gnat. Westwood states that an allied fly
+(Rhagio Columbaschensis) is one of the greatest scourges of man and
+beast in Hungary, where it has been known to kill cattle.
+
+[Illustration: 68. Black fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 69. Black Fly Larva.]
+
+The Simulium molestum (Fig. 68, enlarged), as the black fly is called,
+lives during the larva state in the water. The larva of a Labrador
+species (Fig. 69, enlarged) which we found, is about a quarter of an
+inch long, and of the appearance here indicated. The pupa is also
+aquatic, having long respiratory filaments attached to each side of the
+front of the thorax. According to Westwood, "the posterior part of its
+body is enclosed in a semioval membranous cocoon, which is at first
+formed by the larva, the anterior part of which is eaten away before
+changing to a pupa, so as to be open in front. The imago is produced
+beneath the surface of the water, its fine silky covering serving to
+repel the action of the water."
+
+[Illustration: 70. Mycetobia.]
+
+Multitudes of a long, slender, white worm may often be found living in
+the dirt, and sour sap running from wounds in the elm tree. Two summers
+ago we discovered some of these larvae, and on rearing them found that
+they were a species of Mycetobia (Fig. 70; _a_, larva; _b_, pupa). The
+larva is remarkable for having the abdominal segments divided into two
+portions, the hinder much smaller than the anterior division. Its whole
+length is a little over a third of an inch. The pupae were found sticking
+out in considerable numbers from the tree, being anchored by the little
+spines at the tail. The head is square, ending in two horns, and the
+body is straight and covered with spines, especially towards the end of
+the tail. They were a fifth of an inch in length. The last of June the
+flies appeared, somewhat resembling gnats, and about a line long. The
+worms continued to infest the tree for six weeks, the flies remaining
+either upon or near it.
+
+[Illustration: 71. Mouth Parts of Tabanus.]
+
+We now come to that terror of our equine friends, the Horse fly, Gad, or
+Breeze fly. In its larval state, some species live in water, and in damp
+places under stones and pieces of wood, and others in the earth away
+from water, where they feed on animal, and, probably, on decaying
+matter. Mr. B. D. Walsh found an aquatic larva of this genus, which,
+within a short time, devoured eleven water snails. Thus at this stage of
+existence, this fly, often so destructive, even at times killing our
+horses, is beneficial. During the hotter parts of summer, and when the
+sun is shining brightly, thousands of these Horse flies appear on our
+marshes and inland prairies. There are many different kinds, over one
+hundred species of the genus Tabanus alone, living in North America. Our
+most common species is the "Green head," or Tabanus lineola. When about
+to bite, it settles quietly down upon the hand, face or foot, it matters
+not which, and thrusts its formidable lancet-like jaws deep into the
+flesh. Its bite is very painful, as we can testify from personal
+experience. We were told during the last summer that a horse, which
+stood fastened to a tree in a field near the marshes at Rowley, Mass.,
+was bitten to death by these Green heads; and it is known that horses
+and cattle are occasionally killed by their repeated harassing bites. In
+cloudy weather they do not fly, and they perish on the cool frosty
+nights of September. The Timb, or Tsetze fly, is a species of this group
+of flies, and while it does not attack man, plagues to death, and is
+said to poison by its bite, the cattle in certain districts of the
+interior of Africa, thus almost barring out explorers. On comparing the
+mouth-parts of the Horse fly (Fig. 71, mouth of T. lineola), we have all
+the parts seen in the mosquito, but greatly modified. Like the mosquito,
+the females alone bite, the male Horse fly being harmless, and
+frequenting flowers, living upon their sweets. The labrum (_lb_),
+mandibles (_m_) and maxillae (_mx_), are short, stiff and lancet-like,
+and the maxillary palpi (_mp_; _a_, the five terminal joints of the
+antennae) are large, stout, and two-jointed. While the jaws (both maxillae
+and mandibles) are thrust into the flesh, the tongue (_l_) spreads
+around the tube thus formed by the lancets, and pumps up the blood
+flowing from the wound, by aid of the sucking stomach, or crop, being a
+sac appended to the throat. Other Gad flies, but much smaller, though as
+annoying to us in woods and fields, are the species of Golden eyed
+flies, Chrysops, which fly and buzz interminably about our ears, often
+taking a sudden nip. They plague cattle, settling upon them and drawing
+their blood at their leisure.
+
+[Illustration: 72. Carpet Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 73. Carpet Worm.]
+
+We turn to a comparatively unknown insect, which has occasionally
+excited some distrust in the minds of housekeepers. It is the carpet
+fly, Scenopinus pallipes (Fig. 72), which, in the larva state, is found
+under carpets, on which it is said to feed. The worm (Fig. 73) has a
+long, white, cylindrical body, divided into twelve segments, exclusive
+of the head, while the first eight abdominal segments are divided by a
+transverse suture, so that there appear to be seventeen abdominal
+segments, the sutures appearing too distinct in the cut. Mr. F. G.
+Sanborn has reared the fly, here figured, from the worm. The larva also
+lives in rotten wood; it is too scarce ever to prove very destructive in
+houses. Either this or a similar fly was once found, we are told by a
+scientific friend, in great numbers in a "rat" used in dressing a young
+lady's hair; the worms were living upon the hair stuffing.
+
+One of the most puzzling objects to the collector of shells or insects,
+is the almost spherical larva of Microdon globosus (Fig. 74). It is
+flattened and smooth beneath and seems to adhere to the under side of
+stones, where it might be mistaken for a snail.
+
+The Syrphus fly, or Aphis eater, deserves more than the passing notice
+which we bestow upon it. The maggot (Fig. 75, in the act of devouring an
+Aphis) is to be sought for established in a group of plant lice (Aphis),
+which it seizes by means of the long extensible front part of the body.
+The adult fly (Fig. 76) is gayly spotted and banded with yellow,
+resembling closely a wasp. It frequents flowers.
+
+[Illustration: 74. Microdon.]
+
+[Illustration: 75. Syrphus Larva.] 76. Syrphus Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 77. Larva of Rat-tailed Fly. 78. Rat-tailed Fly and its
+Pupa.]
+
+The singular rat-tailed pupa-case of Eristalis (Fig. 77) lives in water,
+and when in want of air, protrudes its long respiratory tube out into
+the air. We present the figure of an allied fly, Merodon Bardus (Fig.
+78; _a_, puparium, natural size). We will not describe at length the
+fly, as the admirable drawings of Mr. Emerton cannot fail to render it
+easily recognizable. The larva is much like the puparium or pupa case,
+here figured, which closely resembles that of Eristalis, in possessing
+along respiratory filament, showing that the maggot undoubtedly lives in
+the water, and when desirous of breathing, protrudes the tube out of the
+water, thus drawing in air enough to fill its internal respiratory tubes
+(tracheae). The Merodon Narcissa probably lives in the soil, or in rotten
+wood, as the pupa-case has no respiratory tube, having instead a very
+short, sessile, truncated tube, scarcely as long as it is thick. The
+case itself is cylindrical, and rounded alike at each end.
+
+[Illustration: 79. Human Bot Worm.]
+
+We now come to the Bot flies, which are among the most extraordinary, in
+their habits, of all insects. The history of the Bot flies is in brief
+thus. The adult two-winged fly lays its eggs on the exterior of the
+animal to be infested. They are conveyed into the interior of the host,
+where they hatch, and the worm or maggot lives by sucking in the
+purulent matter, caused by the irritation set up by its presence in its
+host; or else the worm itself, after hatching, bores under the skin.
+When fully grown, it quits the body and finishes its transformations to
+the fly-state under ground. Many quadrupeds, from mice, squirrels, and
+rabbits, up to the ox, horse, and even the rhinoceros, suffer from their
+attacks, while man himself is not exempt. The body of the adult fly is
+stout and hairy, and it is easily recognized by having the opening of
+the mouth very small, the mouth-parts being very rudimentary. The larvae
+are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, consisting of eleven
+segments, exclusive of the head, which are covered with rows of spines
+and tubercles, by which they move about within the body, thus irritating
+the animals in which they take up their abode. The breathing pores
+(stigmata) open in a scaly plate at the posterior end of the body. The
+mouth-parts (mandibles, etc.) of the subcutaneous larvae consist of
+fleshy tubercles, while in those species which live in the stomachs and
+frontal sinuses of their host, they are armed with horny hooks.
+
+[Illustration: 80. Horse Bot Fly.]
+
+The larvae attain their full size after moulting twice. Just before
+assuming the pupa state, the maggot leaves its peculiar dwelling place,
+descends into the ground and there becomes a pupa, though retaining its
+larval skin, which serves as a protection to it, whence it is called a
+"puparium."
+
+Several well-authenticated instances are on record of a species of bot
+fly inhabiting the body of man, in Central and South America, producing
+painful tumors under the skin of the arm, legs and abdomen. It is still
+under dispute whether this human bot fly is a true or accidental
+parasite, the more probable opinion being that its proper host is the
+monkey or dog. In Cayenne, this revolting grub is called the Ver macaque
+(Fig. 79); in Para, Ura; in Costa Rica, Torcel; and in New Granada,
+Gusano peludo, or Nuche. The Dermatobia noxialis, supposed to be the Ver
+moyocuil of the inhabitants of Mexico and New Granada, lives beneath the
+skin of the dog.
+
+[Illustration: 81. Bot Fly of Ox, and Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 82. Sheep Bot.]
+
+[Illustration: 83. Skin Bot Fly.]
+
+The Bot fly of the horse, (Gastrophilus equi, Fig. 80 and larva), is
+pale yellowish, spotted with red, with short, grayish, yellow hairs, and
+the wings are banded with reddish. She lays her eggs upon the knees of
+the horse. They are conveyed into the stomach, where the larva lives
+from May until October, and when full grown are found hanging by their
+mouth hooks on the edge of the rectum of the horse, whence they are
+carried out in the excrement. The pupa state lasts for thirty or forty
+days, and the perfect fly appears the next season, from June until
+October.
+
+The Bot fly of the ox (Hypoderma bovis, Fig. 81, and larva), is black
+and densely hairy, and the thorax is banded with yellow and white. The
+larva is found during the month of May, and also in summer, living in
+tumors on the backs of cattle. When fully grown, which is generally in
+July, they make their way out and fall to the ground, and live in the
+pupa-case from twenty-six to thirty days, the fly appearing from May
+until September. It is found all over the world. The Oestrus ovis, or
+sheep Bot fly (Fig. 82, larva), is of a dirty ash color. The abdomen is
+marbled with yellowish and white flecks, and is hairy at the end. This
+species of Bot fly is larviparous, i.e., the eggs are hatched within the
+body of the mother, the larvae being produced alive. M. F. Brauer, of
+Vienna, the author of the most thorough work we have on these flies,
+tells me that he knows of but one other Bot fly (a species of
+Cephanomyia) which produces living larvae instead of eggs. The eggs of
+certain other species of Bot flies do not hatch until three or four days
+after they are laid. The larvae of the sheep Bot fly live, during April,
+May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also in the nasal
+cavity, whence they fall to the ground when fully grown. In twenty-four
+hours they change to pupae, and the flies appear during the summer.
+
+We also figure the Cuterebra buccata (Fig. 83; _a_, side view,) which
+resembles in the larval state the ox Bot fly. Its habits are not known,
+though the young of other species infest the opossum, squirrel, hare,
+etc., living in subcutaneous tumors.
+
+[Illustration: The banded Lithacodes.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE HOUSE FLY AND ITS ALLIES.
+
+
+[Illustration: 84. Mouth-parts of the House fly.]
+
+The common House fly, Musca domestica, scarcely needs an introduction to
+any one of our readers, and its countenance is so well known that we
+need not present a portrait here. But a study of the proboscis of the
+fly reveals a wonderful adaptability of the mouth-parts of this insect
+to their uses. We have already noticed the most perfect condition of
+these parts as seen in the horse fly. In the proboscis of the house fly
+the hard parts are obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue like
+organ (Fig. 84), bent up beneath the head when at rest. The maxillae are
+minute, their palpi (_mp_) being single-jointed, and the mandibles (_m_)
+are comparatively useless, being very short and small, compared with the
+lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or horse fly. But the structure of the
+tongue itself (labium, l) is most curious. When the fly settles upon a
+lump of sugar or other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it,
+and the broad knob-like end divides into two broad, flat, muscular
+leaves (_l_), which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the
+fly laps up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a
+framework of tracheal tubes. In the cut given above, Mr. Emerton has
+faithfully represented these modified trachae, which end in hairs
+projecting externally. Thus the inside of this broad fleshy expansion
+is rough like a rasp, and as Newport states, "is easily employed by the
+insect in scraping or tearing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this
+curious structure that the busy house fly occasions much mischief to the
+covers of our books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving
+tracings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted appearance which
+it occasions on them. It is by means of these also that it teases us in
+the heat of summer, when it alights on the hand or face to sip the
+perspiration as it exudes from, and is condensed upon, the skin."
+
+[Illustration: 85. Larva; _a_, Pupa-case of House fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 86. Larva of Flesh fly.]
+
+Every one notices that house flies are most abundant around barns in
+August and September, and it is in the ordure of stables that the early
+stages of this insect are passed. No one has traced the transformations
+of this fly in our country, but we copy from Bouche's work on the
+transformations of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig.
+85), and pupa-case (_a_) of the Musca domestica of Europe, which is
+supposed to be our species. Bouche states that the larva is cylindrical,
+rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy, and yellowish white,
+and four lines long. The pupa-case, or puparium, is dark reddish-brown,
+and three lines in length. It remains in the pupa state from eight to
+fourteen days. In Europe it is preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies
+(Chalcids). The flesh fly, Musca Caesar, or the Blue-bottle fly, feeds
+upon decaying animal matter. Its larva (Fig. 86) is long, cylindrical,
+the head being pointed, and the body conical, the posterior end being
+squarely docked. The larva of a Sargus-like form which feeds on offal,
+transforms into a flattened pupa-case (Fig. 87), provided with long,
+scattered hairs. The House fly disappears in autumn, at the approach of
+cold weather, though a few individuals pass through the winter,
+hibernating in houses, and when the rooms are heated may often be seen
+flying on the windows. Other species fly early in March, on warm days,
+having hibernated under leaves, and the bark of trees, moss, etc. An
+allied species, the M. vomitoria, is the Meat fly. Closely allied are
+the parasitic species of Tachina, which live within the bodies of
+caterpillars and other insects, and are among the most beneficial of
+insects, as they prey on thousands of injurious caterpillars. Another
+fly of this Muscid group, the Idia Bigoti, according to Coquerel and
+Mondiere, produces in the natives of Senegal, hard, red, fluctuating
+tumors, in which the larva resides.
+
+[Illustration: 87. Larva of a Sargus-like fly.]
+
+Many of the smaller Muscids mine leaves, running galleries within the
+leaf, or burrowing in seeds or under the bark of plants. We have often
+noticed blister-like swellings on the bark of the willow, which are
+occasioned by a cylindrical, short, fleshy larva (Fig. 88_a_, much
+enlarged), about a line in length, which changes to a pupa within the
+old larval skin, assuming the form here represented (Fig. 88_b_), and
+about the last of June changes to a small black fly (Fig. 88), which
+Baron Osten Sacken refers doubtfully to the genus Lonchaea.
+
+[Illustration: 86. Willow Blister fly.]
+
+The Apple midge frequently does great mischief to apples after they are
+gathered. Mr. F. G. Sanborn states that nine-tenths of the apple crop in
+Wrentham, Mass., were destroyed by a fly supposed to be the Molobrus
+mali, or Apple midge, described by Dr. Fitch. "The eggs were supposed to
+have been laid in fresh apples, in the holes made by the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella), whence the larvae penetrated into all parts of
+the apple, working small cylindrical burrows about one-sixteenth of an
+inch in diameter." Mr. W. C. Fish has also sent me, from Sandwich,
+Mass., specimens of another kind of apple worm, which he writes has been
+very common in Barnstable county. "It attacks mostly the earlier
+varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for the old fashioned
+Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larvae (Fig. 89 _a_) enter the fruit
+usually where it has been bored by the Apple worm (Carpocapsa), not
+uncommonly through the crescent-like puncture of the curculio, and
+sometimes through the calyx, when it has not been troubled by other
+insects. Many of them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon
+appears, successive generations of the maggots following until cold
+weather. I have frequently found the pupae in the bottom of barrels in a
+cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the spring. In the early
+apples, the larvae work about in every direction. If there be several in
+an apple, they make it unfit for use. Apples that appear perfectly sound
+when taken from the tree, will sometimes, if kept, be all alive with
+them in a few weeks." Baron Osten Sacken informs me that it is a
+Drosophila, "the species of which live in putrescent vegetable matter,
+especially fruits."
+
+[Illustration: 89. Apple Worm and its Larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 90. Parent of the Cheese Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 91. Pupa case of Wine-fly.]
+
+An allied fly is the parent of the cheese maggot. The fly itself
+(Piophila casei, Fig. 90) is black, with metallic green reflections, and
+the legs are dark and paler at the knee-joints, the middle and hind pair
+of tarsi being dark honey yellow. The Wine fly is also a Piophila, and
+lives the life of a perpetual toper in old wine casks, and partially
+emptied beer, cider and wine bottles, where, with its pupa-case (Fig.
+91), it may be found floating dead in its favorite beverage.
+
+[Illustration: 92. Bird Tick.]
+
+We now come to the more degraded forms of flies which live parasitically
+on various animals. We figure, from a specimen in the Museum of the
+Peabody Academy of Science, the Bird tick (Ornithomyia, Fig. 92), which
+lives upon the Great Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened, adapted for
+its life under the feathers, where it gorges itself with the blood of
+its host.
+
+[Illustration: 93. The Horse Tick.]
+
+Here belongs also the Horse tick (Hippobosca equina, Fig. 93). It is
+about the size of the house fly, being black, with yellow spots on the
+thorax. Verrill[4] says that "it attacks by preference those parts where
+the hair is thinnest and the skin softest, especially under the belly
+and between the hind legs. Its bite causes severe pain, and will
+irritate the gentlest horses, often rendering them almost unmanageable,
+and causing them to kick dangerously. When found, they cling so firmly
+as to be removed with some difficulty, and they are so tough as not to
+be readily crushed. If one escapes when captured, it will instantly
+return to the horse, or, perchance, to the head of its captor, where it
+is an undesirable guest. Another species sometimes infests the ox."
+
+[Illustration: 94. Sheep Tick.]
+
+[Illustration: 95. Bat Tick.]
+
+In the wingless Sheep tick (Melophagus ovinus, Fig. 94, with the
+pupa-case on the left), the body is wingless and very hairy, and the
+proboscis is very long. The young are developed within the body of the
+parent, until they attain the pupa state, when she deposits the pupa
+case, which is nearly half as large as her abdomen. Other genera are
+parasitic on bats; among them are the singular spider-like Bat ticks
+(Nycteribia, Fig. 95), which have small bodies and enormous legs, and
+are either blind, or provided with four simple eyes. They are of small
+size, being only a line or two in length. Such degraded forms of Diptera
+have a remarkable resemblance to the spiders, mites, ticks, etc. The
+reader should compare the Nycteribia with the young six-footed moose
+tick figured farther on. Another spider-like fly is the Chionea valga
+(Fig. 96; and 97, larva of the European species), which is a degraded
+Tipula, The latter genus standing near the head of the Diptera. The
+Chionea, according to Harris, lives in its early, stages in the ground
+like many other gnats, and is found early in the spring, sometimes
+crawling over the snow. We have also figured and mentioned previously
+(page 41) the Bee louse, Braula, another wingless spider-like fly.
+
+[Illustration: 96. Spider fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 97. Larva of Spider fly.]
+
+The Flea is also a wingless fly, and is probably, as has been suggested
+by an eminent entomologist, as Baron Osten Sacken informs us, a degraded
+genus of the family to which Mycetobia belongs. Its transformations are
+very unlike those of the fly ticks, and agree closely with the early
+stages of Mycetophila, one of the Tipulid family. In its adult condition
+the flea combines the characters of the Diptera, with certain features
+of the grasshoppers and cockroaches, and the bugs. The body of the flea
+(Fig. 98, greatly magnified; _a_, antennae; _b_, maxillae, and their
+palpi, _c_; _d_, mandibles; the latter, with the labium, which is not
+shown in the figure, forming the acute beak) is much compressed, and
+there are minute wing-pads, instead of wings, present in some species.
+
+[Illustration: 98. Flea, magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: 99. Larva of Flea.]
+
+Dr. G. A. Perkins, of Salem, has succeeded in rearing in considerable
+numbers from the eggs, the larvae of this flea. The larvae (Fig. 99, much
+enlarged; _a_, antenna; _b_, the terminal segments of the abdomen), when
+hatched, are half a line in length. The body is long, cylindrical, and
+pure white, with thirteen segments exclusive of the head, and provided
+with rather long hairs. It is very active in its movements, and lives on
+blood clots, remaining on unswept floors of out-houses, or in the straw
+or bed of the animals they infest. In six days after the eggs are laid
+the larvae appear, and in a few days after leaving the egg they mature,
+spin a rude cocoon, and change to pupae, and the perfect insects appear
+in about ten days. A good authority states that the human flea does not
+exist in America. We never saw a specimen in this country.
+
+A practical point is how to rid dogs of fleas. As a preventive measure,
+we would suggest the frequent sweeping and cleansing of the floors of
+their kennels, and renewing the straw or chips composing their
+beds,--chips being the best material for them to sleep upon. Flea
+afflicted dogs should be washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or
+weak tobacco or petroleum water.
+
+A writer in "Science-Gossip" recommends the "use of the Persian Insect
+Destroyer, one package of which suffices for a good sized dog. The
+powder should be well rubbed in all over the skin, or the dog, if small,
+can be put into a bag previously dusted with the powder; in either case
+the dog should be washed soon after."
+
+[Illustration: 100. Chique.]
+
+One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of America is the
+Sarcopsylla penetrans, called by the natives the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho,
+Chique, or Pique (Fig. 100, enlarged; a, gravid female, natural size).
+The female, during the dry season, bores into the feet of the natives,
+the operation requiring but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating
+under the nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with
+eggs, the hind-body swelling out to the size of a pea; her presence
+often causes distressing sores. The Chigoe lays about sixty eggs,
+depositing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening of
+the oviduct. The young develop and feed upon the swollen body of the
+parent flea until they mature, when they leave the body of their host
+and escape to the ground. The best preventive is cleanliness and the
+constant wearing of shoes or slippers when in the house, and of boots
+when out of doors.
+
+[Illustration: The Willow Gall Fly.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE BORERS OF OUR SHADE TREES.
+
+
+In no way can the good taste and public spirit of our citizens be better
+shown than in the planting of shade trees. Regarded simply from a
+commercial point of view one cannot make a more paying investment than
+setting out an oak, elm, maple or other shade tree about his premises.
+To a second generation it becomes a precious heirloom, and the planter
+is duly held in remembrance for those finer qualities of heart and head,
+and the wise forethought which prompted a deed simple and natural, but a
+deed too often undone. What an increased value does a fine avenue of
+shade trees give to real estate in a city? And in the country the single
+stately elm rising gracefully and benignantly over the wayside cottage,
+year after year like a guardian angel sending down its blessings of
+shade, moisture and coolness in times of drought, and shelter from the
+pitiless storm, recalls the tenderest associations of generation after
+generation that go from the old homestead.
+
+Occasionally the tree, or a number of them, sicken and die, or linger
+out a miserable existence, and we naturally after failing to ascribe the
+cause to bad soil, want of moisture or adverse atmospheric agencies,
+conclude that the tree is infested with insects, especially if the bark
+in certain places seems diseased. Often the disease is in streets
+lighted by gas, attributed to the leakage of the gas. Such a case has
+come up recently at Morristown, New Jersey. An elm was killed by the Elm
+borer (Compsidea tridentata), and the owner was on the point of suing
+the Gas Company for the loss of the tree from the supposed leakage of a
+gas pipe. While the matter was in dispute, a gentleman of that city took
+the pains to peel off a piece of the bark and found, as he wrote me,
+"great numbers of the larvae of this beetle in the bark and between the
+bark and the wood, while the latter is 'tattooed' with sinuous grooves
+in every direction and the tree is completely girdled by them in some
+places. There are three different sizes of the larvae, evidently one, two
+and three years old, or more properly six, eighteen and thirty months
+old." The tree had to be cut down.
+
+Dr. Harris, in his "Treatise on Injurious Insects," gives an account of
+the ravages of this insect, which we quote: "On the 19th of June, 1846,
+Theophilus Parsons, Esq., sent me some fragments of bark and insects
+which were taken by Mr. J. Richardson from the decaying elms on Boston
+Common, and among the insects I recognized a pair of these beetles in a
+living state. The trees were found to have suffered terribly from the
+ravages of these insects. Several of them had already been cut down, as
+past recovery; others were in a dying state, and nearly all of them were
+more or less affected with disease or premature decay. Their bark was
+perforated, to the height of thirty feet from the ground, with numerous
+holes, through which insects had escaped; and large pieces had become so
+loose, by the undermining of the grubs, as to yield to slight efforts,
+and come off in flakes. The inner bark was filled with burrows of the
+grubs, great numbers of which, in various stages of growth, together
+with some in the pupa state, were found therein; and even the surface of
+the wood, in many cases, was furrowed with their irregular tracks. Very
+rarely did they seem to have penetrated far into the wood itself; but
+their operations were mostly confined to the inner layers of the bark,
+which thereby became loosened from the wood beneath. The grubs rarely
+exceed three-quarters of an inch in length. They have no feet, and they
+resemble the larvae of other species of Saperda, except in being rather
+more flattened. They appear to complete their transformations in the
+third year of their existence.
+
+"The beetles probably leave their holes in the bark during the month of
+June and in the beginning of July, for, in the course of thirty years, I
+have repeatedly taken them at various dates, from the fifth of June to
+the tenth of July. It is evident, from the nature and extent of their
+depredations, that these insects have alarmingly hastened the decay of
+the elm trees on Boston Mall and Common, and that they now threaten
+their entire destruction. Other causes, however, have probably
+contributed to the same end. It will be remembered that these trees
+have greatly suffered, in past times, from the ravages of canker-worms.
+Moreover, the impenetrable state of the surface soil, the exhausted
+condition of the subsoil, and the deprivation of all benefit from the
+decomposition of accumulated leaves, which, in a state of nature, the
+trees would have enjoyed, but which a regard for neatness has
+industriously removed, have doubtless had no small influence in
+diminishing the vigor of the trees, and thus made them fall
+unresistingly a prey to insect devourers. The plan of this work
+precludes a more full consideration of these and other topics connected
+with the growth and decay of these trees; and I can only add, that it
+may be prudent to cut down and burn all that are much infested by the
+borers."
+
+[Illustration: 101. Elm Tree Beetle.]
+
+The Three-toothed Compsidea (Fig. 101), is a rather flat-bodied, dark
+brown beetle, with a rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes
+on the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of each wing
+cover. It is about one-half an inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: 102. Elm Tree Borer.]
+
+The larva (Fig. 102) is white, subcylindrical, a little flattened, with
+the lateral fold of the body rather prominent; the end of the body is
+flattened, obtuse, and nearly as wide at the end as at the first
+abdominal ring. The head is one-half as wide as the prothoracic ring,
+being rather large. The prothoracic ring, or segment just behind the
+head, is transversely oblong, being twice as broad as long; there is a
+pale dorsal corneous transversely oblong shield, being about two-thirds
+as long as wide, and nearly as long as the four succeeding segments;
+this plate is smooth, except on the posterior half, which is rough, with
+the front edge irregular and not extending far down the sides. Fine
+hairs arise from the front edge and side of the plate, and similar hairs
+are scattered over the body and especially around the end. On the upper
+side of each segment is a transversely oblong ovate roughened area, with
+the front edge slightly convex, and the hinder slightly arcuate. On the
+under side of each segment are similar rough horny plates, but arcuate
+in front, with the hinder edge straight.
+
+It differs from the larva of the Linden tree borer (Saperda vestita) in
+the body being shorter, broader, more hairy, with the tip of the abdomen
+flatter and more hairy. The prothoracic segment is broader and flatter,
+and the rough portion of the dorsal plates is larger and less
+tranversely ovate. The structure of the head shows that its generic
+distinctness from Saperda is well founded, as the head is smaller and
+flatter, the clypeus being twice as large, and the labrum broad and
+short, while in S. vestita it is longer than broad. The mandibles are
+much longer and slenderer, and the antennae are much smaller than in S.
+vestita.
+
+[Illustration: 103. Linden Tree Beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: 104. Linden Tree Borer.]
+
+The Linden tree borer (Fig. 103) is a greenish snuff-yellow beetle, with
+six black spots near the middle of the back; and it is about
+eight-tenths of an inch in length, though often smaller. The beetles,
+according to Dr. Paul Swift, as quoted by Dr. Harris, were found (in
+Philadelphia) upon the small branches and leaves on the 28th day of May,
+and it is said that they come out as early as the first of the month,
+and continue to make their way through the back of the trunk and large
+branches during the whole of the warm season. They immediately fly into
+the top of the tree, and there feed upon the epidermis of the tender
+twigs, and the petioles of the leaves, often wholly denuding the latter,
+and causing the leaves to fall. They deposit their eggs, two or three in
+a place, upon the trunk or branches especially about the forks, making
+slight incisions or punctures for their reception with their strong
+jaws. As many as ninety eggs have been taken from a single beetle. The
+grubs (Fig. 104, _e_; _a_, enlarged view of the head seen from above;
+_b_, the under view of the same: _c_, side view, and _d_, two rings of
+the body enlarged), hatched from these eggs, undermine the bark to the
+extent of six or eight inches, in sinuous channels, or penetrate the
+solid wood an equal distance. It is supposed that three years are
+required to mature the insect. Various expedients have been tried to
+arrest their course, but without effect. A stream, thrown into the tops
+of trees from the hydrant, is often used with good success to dislodge
+other insects; but the borer-beetles, when thus disturbed, take wing and
+hover over the trees till all is quiet, and then alight and go to work
+again. The trunks and branches of some of the trees have been washed
+over with various preparations without benefit. Boring the trunk near
+the ground and putting in sulphur and other drugs, and plugging, have
+been tried with as little effect.
+
+[Illustration: 105. Poplar Tree Borer.]
+
+The city of Philadelphia has suffered grievously from this borer.
+
+[Illustration: 106. Broad-necked Prionus.]
+
+Dr. Swift remarks, in 1844, that "the trees in Washington and
+Independence Squares were first observed to have been attacked about
+seven years ago. Within two years it has been found necessary to cut
+down forty-seven European lindens in the former square alone, where
+there now remain only a few American lindens, and these a good deal
+eaten." In New England this beetle should be looked for during the first
+half of June.
+
+[Illustration: 107. Larva of the Plain Saperda.]
+
+The Poplar tree is infested by an other species of Saperda (S.
+calcarata). This is a much larger beetle than those above mentioned,
+being an inch or a little more in length. It is grey, irregularly
+striped, with ochre, and the wing-covers end in a sharp point. The grub
+(Fig. 105 _a_; _b_, top view of the head; _e_, under side) is about two
+inches long and whitish yellow. It has, with that of the Broad-necked
+Prionus (P. laticollis of Drury, Fig. 106, adult and pupa), as Harris
+states, "almost entirely destroyed the Lombardy poplar in this vicinity"
+(Boston). It bores in the trunks, and the beetle flies by night in
+August and September. We also figure the larva of another borer (Fig.
+107 _c_; _a_, top view of the head; _b_, under side; _e_, dorsal view of
+an abdominal segment; _d_, end of the body, showing its peculiar form),
+the Saperda inornata of Say, the beetle of which is black, with ash gray
+hairs, and without spines on the wing-covers. It is much smaller than
+any of the foregoing species, being nine-twentieths of an inch in
+length. Its habits are not known. We also figure the Locust and Hickory
+borer (Fig. 108; _a_, larva; _b_, pupa), which has swept off the locust
+tree from New England. The beautiful yellow banded beetles are very
+abundant on the flowers of the golden rod in September.
+
+[Illustration: 108. Locust Borer.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: The External and Internal Parasites of Man and Domestic
+Animals. By Prof. A. E. Verrill, 1870. We are indebted to the author for
+the use of this and the figures of the Bot fly of the horse, the turkey,
+duck and hog louse, the Cattle tick, the itch insect and mange insect of
+the horse.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS.
+
+
+The subject of our discourse is not only a disagreeable but too often a
+painful one. Not only is the mere mention of the creature's name of
+which we are to speak tabooed and avoided by the refined and polite, but
+the creature itself has become extinct and banished from the society of
+the good and respectable. Indeed under such happy auspices do a large
+proportion of the civilized world now live that their knowledge of the
+habits and form of a louse may be represented by a blank. Not so with
+some of their great-great-grandfathers and grandmothers, if history,
+sacred and profane, poetry,[5] and the annals of literature testify
+aright; for it is comparatively a recent fact in history that the louse
+has awakened to find himself an outcast and an alien. Among savage
+nations of all climes, some of which have been dignified with the apt,
+though high sounding name of Phthiriophagi, and among the Chinese and
+other semi-civilized peoples, these lords of the soil still flourish
+with a luxuriance and rankness of growth that never diminishes, so that
+we may say without exaggeration that certain mental traits and fleshly
+appetites induced by their consumption as an article of food may have
+been created, while a separate niche in our anthropological museums is
+reserved for the instruments of warfare, both offensive and defensive,
+used by their phthiriophagous hunters. Then have we not in the very
+centres of civilization the poor and degraded, which are most faithfully
+attended lay these revolting satellites!
+
+But bantering aside, there is no more engaging subject to the naturalist
+than that of animal parasites. Consider the great proportion of animals
+that gain their livelihood by stealing that of others. While a large
+proportion of plants are more or less parasitic, they gain, thereby in
+interest to the botanist, and many of them are eagerly sought as the
+choicest ornaments of our conservatories. Not so with their zooelogical
+confreres. All that is repulsive and uncanny is associated with them,
+and those who study them, though perhaps among the keenest intellects
+and most industrious observers, speak of them without the limits of
+their own circle in subdued whispers or under a protest, and their works
+fall under the eyes of the scantiest few. But the study of animal
+parasites has opened up new fields of research, all bearing most
+intimately on those two questions that ever incite the naturalist to the
+most laborious and untiring diligence--what is life and its origin? The
+subjects of the alternation of generations, or parthenogenesis, of
+embryology and biology, owe their great advance, in large degree, to the
+study of such animals as are parasitic, and the question whether the
+origin of species be due to creation by the action of secondary laws or
+not, will be largely met and answered by the study of the varied
+metamorphoses and modes of growth, the peculiar modification of organs
+that adapt them to their strange modes of life, and the consequent
+variation in specific characters so remarkably characteristic of those
+animals living parasitically upon others.[6]
+
+With these considerations in view surely a serious, thoughtful, and
+thorough study of the louse, in all its varieties and species, is
+neither belittling nor degrading, nor a waste of time. We venture to
+say, moreover, that more light will be thrown on the classification and
+morphology of insects by the study of the parasitic species, and other
+degraded, wingless forms that do not always live parasitically,
+especially of their embryology and changes after leaving the egg, than
+by years of study of the more highly developed insects alone. Among
+Hymenoptera the study of the minute Ichueumons, such as the
+Proctotrupids and Chalcids, especially the egg-parasites; among moths
+the study of the wingless canker-worm moth and Orgyla; among Diptera the
+flea, bee louse, sheep tick, bat tick, and other wingless flies; among
+Coleoptera, the Meloe, and singular Stylops and Xenos; among Neuroptera,
+the snow insect, Boreus, the Podura (Fig. 109) and Lepisma, and
+especially the hemipterous lice, will throw a flood of light on these
+prime subjects in philosophical entomology.
+
+[Illustration: 109. Podura.]
+
+Without farther apology, then, and very dependent on the labors of
+others for our information, we will say a few words on some interesting
+points in the natural history of lice. In the first place, how does the
+louse bite? It is the general opinion among physicians, supported by
+able entomologists, that the louse has jaws, and bites. But while the
+bird lice (Mallophaga) do have biting jaws, whence the Germans call them
+skin-eaters (_pelzfresser_), the mouth parts of the genus Pediculus, or
+true louse, resemble in their structure those of the bed-bug (Fig. 110),
+and other Hemiptera. In its form the louse closely resembles the
+bed-bug, and the two groups of lice, the Pediculi and Mallophaga, should
+be considered as families of Hemiptera, though degraded and at the base
+of the hemipterous series. The resemblance is carried out in the form of
+the egg, the mode of growth of the embryo, and the metamorphosis of the
+insect after leaving its egg.
+
+[Illustration: 110. Bed-bug.]
+
+Schioedte, a Danish entomologist, has, it seems to us, forever settled
+the question as to whether the louse bites the flesh or sucks blood, and
+decides a point interesting to physicians, _i.e._, that the loathsome
+disease called phthiriasis is a nonentity. From this source not only
+many living in poverty and squalor are said to have died, but also men
+of renown, among whom Denny in his work on the Anoplura, or lice, of
+Great Britain, mentions the name of "Pheretima, as recorded by
+Herodotus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the Dictator Sylla, the two Herods, the
+Emperor Maximian, and Phillip the Second." Schioedte, in his essay "On
+Phthirius, and on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus" (Annals and
+Magazine of Natural History, 1866, page 213), says that these statements
+will not bear examination, and that this disease should be placed on the
+"retired list," for such a malady is impossible to be produced by simply
+blood-sucking animals, and that they are only the disgusting attendants
+on other diseases. Our author thus describes the mouth parts of the
+louse.
+
+"Lice are no doubt to be regarded as bugs, simplified in structure and
+lowered in animal life in accordance with their mode of living as
+parasites, being small, flattened, apterous, myopic, crawling and
+climbing, with a conical head, moulded as it were to suit the rugosities
+of the surface they inhabit, provided with a soft, transversely furrowed
+skin, probably endowed with an acute sense of feeling, which can guide
+them in that twilight in which their mode of life places them. The
+peculiar attenuation of the head in front of the antennae at once
+suggests to the practised eye the existence of a mouth adapted for
+suction. This mouth differs from that of the Hemiptera (bed-bug, etc.)
+generally, in the circumstance that the labium is capable of being
+retracted into the upper part of the head, which therefore presents a
+little fold, which is extended when the labium is protruded. In order to
+strengthen this part, a flat band of chitine is placed on the under
+surface, just as the shoemaker puts a small piece of gutta-percha into
+the back of an India-rubber shoe; as, however, the chitine is not very
+elastic, this band is rather thinner in the middle, in order that it may
+bend and fold a little when the skin is not extended by the lower lip.
+The latter consists, as usual, of two hard lateral pieces, of which the
+fore ends are united by a membrane so that they form a tube, of which
+the interior covering is a continuation of the elastic membrane in the
+top of the head; inside its orifice there are a number of small hooks,
+which assume different positions according to the degree of protrusion;
+if this is at its highest point the orifice is turned inside out, like a
+collar, whereby the small hooks are directed backwards, so that they can
+serve as barbs. These are the movements which the animal executes after
+having first inserted the labium through a sweat-pore. When the hooks
+have got a firm hold, the first pair of setae (the real mandibles
+transformed) are protruded; these are, towards their points, united by a
+membrane so as to form a closed tube, from which, again, is inserted the
+second pair of setae, or maxillae, which in the same manner are
+transformed into a tube ending in four small lobes placed crosswise. It
+follows that when the whole instrument is exserted, we perceive a long
+membranous flexible tube hanging down from the labium, and along the
+walls of this tube the setiform mandibles and maxillae in the shape of
+long narrow bands of chitine. In this way the tube of suction can be
+made longer or shorter as required, and easily adjusted to the thickness
+of the skin in the particular place where the animal is sucking, whereby
+access to the capillary system is secured at any part of the body. It is
+apparent, from the whole structure of the instrument, that it is by no
+means calculated on being used as a sting, but is rather to be compared
+to a delicate elastic probe, in the use of which the terminal lobes
+probably serve as feelers. As soon as the capillary system is reached,
+the blood will at once ascend into the narrow tube, after which the
+current is continued with increasing rapidity by means of the pulsation
+of the pumping ventricle and the powerful peristaltic movement of the
+digestive tube."
+
+[Illustration:[7]111. Mouth of the Louse.]
+
+If we compare the form of the louse (Fig. 112, Pediculus capitis, the
+head louse; Fig. 113, P. vestimenti, the body louse) with the young
+bed-bug as figured by Westwood (Modern Classification of Insects, ii,.p.
+475) we shall see a very close resemblance, the head of the young Cimex
+being proportionally larger than in the adult, while the thorax is
+smaller, and the abdomen is more ovate, less rounded; moreover the body
+is white and partially transparent.
+
+[Illustration: 113. Body Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 112. Head Louse.]
+
+Under a high power of the microscope specimens treated with diluted
+potash show that the mandibles and maxillae arise near each other in the
+middle of the head opposite the eyes, their bases slightly diverging.
+Thence they converge to the mouth, over which they meet, and beyond are
+free, being hollow, thin bands of chitine, meeting like the maxillae, or
+tongue, of butterflies to form a hollow tube for suction. The mandibles
+each suddenly end in a curved, slender filament, which is probably used
+as a tactile organ to explore the best sites in the flesh of their
+victim for drawing blood. On the other hand the maxillae, which are much
+narrower than the mandibles, become rounded towards the end, bristle
+like, and tipped with numerous exceedingly fine barbs, by which the bug
+anchors itself in the flesh, while the blood is pumped through the
+mandibles. The base of the large, tubular labium, or beak, which
+ensheathes the mandibles and maxillae, is opposite the end of the clypeus
+or front edge of the upper side of the head, and at a distance beyond
+the mouth equal to the breadth of the labium itself. The labium, which
+is divided into three joints, becomes flattened towards the tip, which
+is square, and ends in two thin membranous lobes, probably endowed with
+a slight sense of touch. On comparing these parts with those of the
+louse, it will be seen how much alike they are with the exception of the
+labium, a very variable organ in the Hemiptera. From the long sucker of
+the Pediculus, to the stout chitinous jaws of the Mallophaga, or bird
+lice, is a sudden transition, but on comparing the rest of the head and
+body it will be seen that the distinction only amounts to a family one,
+though Burmeister placed the Mallophaga among the Orthoptera
+(grasshoppers and crickets) on account of the mandibles being adapted
+for biting. It has been a common source of error to depend too much upon
+one or a single set of organs. Insects have been classified on
+characters drawn from the wings, or the number of the joints of the
+tarsi, or the form of the mouth parts. We must take into account in
+endeavoring to ascertain the limits of natural groups, as the internal
+anatomy and the embryology and metamorphosis of insects, before we can
+hope to obtain a natural classification.
+
+The family of bird lice is a very extensive one, embracing many genera,
+and several hundred species. One or more species infest the skin of all
+our domestic and wild mammals and birds, some birds sheltering beneath
+their feathers four or five species of lice. Before giving a hasty
+account of some of our more common species; we will give a sketch of the
+embryological history of the lice, with special reference to the
+structure of the mouth parts.
+
+[Illustration: 114. Embryo of the Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 115. Mouth Parts of the Louse.]
+
+The eggs (Fig. 114, egg of the head louse) are long, oval, somewhat
+pear-shaped, with the hinder end somewhat pointed, while the anterior
+end is flattened, and bears little conical micropyles (_m_, minute
+orifices for the passage of the spermatozoa into the egg), which vary in
+form in the different species and genera; the opposite end of the egg is
+provided with a few bristles. The female attaches her eggs to the hairs
+or feathers of her host.
+
+[Illustration: 116. Mouth Parts of the Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 118. Mouth Parts of Louse.]
+
+[Illustration: 117. Mouth Parts of Louse.]
+
+After the egg has been fertilized by the male, the blastoderm, or
+primitive skin, forms, and subsequently two layers, or embryonal
+membranes, appear; the outer is called the amnion (Fig. 114, _am_),
+while the inner visceral membrane (_db_) partially wraps the rude form
+of the embryo in its folds. The head (_vk_) of the embryo is now
+directed towards the end of the egg on which the hairs are situated;
+afterwards the embryo revolves on its axis and the head lies next to the
+opposite end of the egg. Eight tubercles bud out from the under side of
+the head, of which the foremost and longest are the antennae (_as_),
+those succeeding are the mandibles, maxillae, and second maxillae, or
+labium. Behind them arise six long, slender tubercles forming the legs,
+and the primitive streak rudely marks the lower wall of the thorax and
+abdomen not yet formed. Figure 115 represents the head and mouth parts
+of the embryo of the same louse; _vk_ is the forehead, or clypeus;
+_ant_, the antennae; _mad_, the mandibles; _max_1, the
+first pair of maxillae, and _max_^2, the second pair
+of maxillae, or labium. Figure 116 represents the mouth parts of the
+same insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium
+elongated and closely folded together. Figure 117 represents the same
+still farther advanced; the mandibles (_mad_) are sharp, and resemble
+the jaws of the Mallophaga; and the maxillae (_max_^1) and labium
+(_max_^2) are still large, while afterwards the labium becomes nearly
+obsolete. Figure 118 represents a front view of the mouth parts of a
+bird louse, Goniodes; _lb_, is the upper lip, or labrum, lying under the
+clypeus; _mad_, the mandibles; max, the maxillae; _l_, the lyre-formed
+piece; and _pl_, the "plate."
+
+[Illustration: 119. Louse of Cow.]
+
+We will now describe some of the common species of lice found on a few
+of our domestic animals, and the mallophagous parasites occurring on
+certain mammals and birds. The family Pediculina, or true lice, is
+higher than the bird lice, their mouth parts, as well as the structure
+of the head, resembling the true Hemiptera, especially the bed bug. The
+clypeus, or front of the head, is much smaller than in the bird lice,
+the latter retaining the enlarged forehead of the embryo, it being in
+some species half as large as the rest of the head.
+
+All of our domestic mammals and birds are plagued by one or more species
+of lice. Figure 119 represents the Haematopinus vituli, which is brownish
+in color. As the specimen figured came from the Burnett collection of
+the Boston Society of Natural History, together with those of the goat
+louse, the louse of the common fowl, and of the cat, they are
+undoubtedly naturalized here. Quite a different species is the louse of
+the hog (H. suis, Fig. 120).
+
+[Illustration: 120. Louse of Hog.]
+
+The remaining parasites belong to the skin-biting lice, or Mallophaga,
+and I will speak of the several genera referred to in their natural
+order, beginning with the highest form and that which is nearest allied
+to Pediculus.
+
+[Illustration: 121. Louse of Domestic Fowl.]
+
+The common barn-yard fowl is infested by a louse that we have called
+Goniocotes Burnettii (Fig. 121), in honor of the late Dr. W. I. Burnett,
+a young and talented naturalist and physiologist, who paid more
+attention than any one else in this country to the study of these
+parasites, and made a large collection of them, now in the museum of the
+Boston Society of Natural History. It differs from the G. hologaster of
+Europe, which lives on the same bird, in the short second joint of the
+antennae, which are also stouter; and in the long head, the clypeus being
+much longer and more acutely rounded; while the head is less hollowed
+out at the insertion of the antennae. The abdomen is oval, and one-half
+as wide as long, with transverse, broad, irregular bands along the edges
+of the segments. The mandibles are short and straight, two toothed. The
+body is slightly yellowish, and variously streaked and banded with
+pitchy black. The duck is infested by a remarkably slender form (Fig.
+122, Philopterus squalidus). Figure 123 represents the louse of the cat,
+and another species (Fig. 124) of the same genus (Trichodes) lives upon
+the goat.
+
+The most degraded genus is Gyropus. Mr. C. Cook has found Gyropus ovalis
+of Europe abundant on the Guinea pig. A species is also found on the
+porpoise; an interesting fact, as this is the only insect we know of
+that lives parasitically on any marine animal.
+
+[Illustration: 122. Duck Louse.]
+
+The genus Goniodes (Fig. 125, G. stylifer, the turkey louse) is of great
+interest from a morphological and developmental point of view, as the
+antennae are described and figured by Denny as being "in the males
+cheliform (Fig. 126, _a_, male; _b_, female); the first joint being very
+large and thick, the third considerably smaller, recurved towards the
+first, and forming a claw, the fourth and fifth very small, arising
+from the back of the third." He farther remarks, that "the males of this
+[which lives on the turkey] and all the other species of Goniodes, use
+the first and third joints of the antennae with great facility, acting
+the part of a finger and thumb." The antennae of the females are of the
+ordinary form. This hand-like structure, is, so far as we know, without
+a parallel among insects, the antennae of the Hemiptera being almost
+uniformly filiform, and from two to nine-jointed. The design of this
+structure is probably to enable the male to grasp its consort and also
+perhaps to cling to the feathers, and thus give it a superiority over
+the weaker sex in its advances towards courtship. Why is this advantage
+possessed by the males of this genus alone? The world of insects, and of
+animals generally abounds in such instances, though existing in other
+organs, and the developmentist dimly perceives in such departures from a
+normal type of structure, the origin of new generic forms, whether due
+at first to a seemingly accidental variation, or, as in this instance,
+perhaps, to long use as prehensile organs through successive generations
+of lice having the antennae slightly diverging from the typical
+condition, until the present form has been developed. Another generation
+of naturalists will perhaps unanimously agree that the Creator has thus
+worked through secondary laws, which many of the naturalists of the
+present day are endeavoring, in a truly scientific and honest spirit of
+inquiry, to discover.
+
+[Illustration: 124. Louse of the Goat.]
+
+[Illustration: 123. Louse of the Cat.]
+
+In their claw or leg-like form these male antennae also repeat in the
+head, the general form of the legs, whose prehensile and grasping
+functions they assume. We have seen above that the appendages of the
+head and thorax are alike in the embryo, and the present case is an
+interesting example of the unity of type of the jointed appendages of
+insects, and articulates generally.
+
+[Illustration: 120. Antennae of Goniodes.]
+
+Another point of interest in these degraded insects is, that the process
+of degradation begins either late in the life of the embryo or during
+the changes from the larval to the adult, or winged state. An instance
+of the latter may be observed in the wingless female of the canker worm,
+so different from the winged male; this difference is created after the
+larval stage, for the caterpillars of both sexes are the same, so far as
+we know. So with numerous other examples among the moths. In the louse,
+the embryo, late in its life, resembles the embryos of other insects,
+even Corixa, a member of a not remotely allied family. But just before
+hatching the insect assumes its degraded louse physiognomy. The
+developmentist would say that this process of degradation points to
+causes acting upon the insect just before or immediately after birth,
+inducing the retrogression and retardation of development, and would
+consider it as an argument for the evolution of specific forms by causes
+acting on the animal while battling with its fellows in the struggle for
+existence, and perhaps consider that the metamorphoses of the animal
+within the egg are due to a reflex action of the modes of life of the
+ancestors of the animal on the embryos of its descendants.
+
+[Illustration: 125. The Turkey Louse.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 5:
+
+  Ha! whare ye gaun, ye crowlin ferlie!
+  Your impudence protects you sairly:
+  I canna say but ye struift rarely,
+      Owre gauze and lace;
+  Tho' faith, I fear ye dine but sparely
+      On sic a place.
+
+  Ye ugly, creepin, blastic wormer,
+  Detested, shunn'd by saunt and sinner,
+  How dare ye set your fit upon her
+      Sae fine a lady!
+  Gae somewhere else and seek your dinner
+      On some poor body.
+
+(To a Louse.--Burns.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: We notice while preparing this article that a journal of
+Parasitology has for some time been issued in Germany--that favored land
+of specialists. It is the "Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde," edited by
+Dr. E. Hallier and F A. Zurn. 8vo, Jena.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Figure 111 represents the parts of the mouth in a large
+specimen of _Pediculus_ vestimenti, entirely protruding, and seen from
+above, magnified one hundred and sixty times; aa, the summit of the head
+with four bristles on each side; _bb_, the chitinous band, and _c_, the
+hind part of the lower lip, such as they appear through the skin by
+strong transmitted light; _dd_, the foremost protruding part of the
+lower lip (the haustellum); _ee_, the hooks turned outwards; _f_, the
+inner tube of suction, slightly bent and twisted; the two pairs of jaws
+are perceived on the outside as thin lines; a few blood globules are
+seen in the interior of the tube.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE DRAGON FLY.
+
+
+Were we to select from among the insects a type of all that is savage,
+relentless, and bloodthirsty, the Dragon fly would be our choice. From
+the moment of its birth until its death, usually a twelve-month, it
+riots in bloodshed and carnage. Living beneath the waters perhaps eleven
+months of its life, in the larva and pupa states, it is literally a
+walking pitfall for luckless aquatic insects; but when transformed into
+a fly, ever on the wing in pursuit of its prey, it throws off all
+concealment, and reveals the more unblushingly its rapacious character.
+
+Not only do its horrid visage and ferocious bearing frighten children,
+who call it the "Devil's Darning-needle," but it even distresses older
+persons, so that its name has become a byword. Could we understand the
+language of insects, what tales of horror would be revealed! What
+traditions, sagas, fables, and myths must adorn the annals of animal
+life regarding this Dragon among insects!
+
+To man, however, aside from its bad name and its repulsive aspect, which
+its gay trappings do not conceal, its whole life is beneficent. It is a
+scavenger, being like that class ugly and repulsive, and holding
+literally, among insects, the lowest rank in society. In the water, it
+preys upon young mosquitoes and the larvae of other noxious insects. It
+thus aids in maintaining the balance of life, and cleanses the swamps of
+miasmata, thus purifying the air we breathe. During its existence of
+three or four weeks above the waters, its whole life is a continued good
+to man. It hawks over pools and fields and through gardens, decimating
+swarms of mosquitoes, flies, gnats, and other baneful insects. It is a
+true Malthus' delight, and, following that sanguinary philosopher, we
+may believe that our Dragon fly is an entomological Tamerlane or
+Napoleon sent into the world by a kind Providence to prevent too close a
+jostling among the myriads of insect life.
+
+We will, then, conquer our repugnance to its ugly looks and savage mien,
+and contemplate the hideous monstrosity,--as it is useless to deny that
+it combines the graces of the Hunchback of Notre Dame and Dickens'
+Quilp, with certain features of its own,--for the good it does in
+Nature.
+
+Even among insects, a class replete with forms the very incarnation of
+ugliness and the perfection of all that is hideous in nature, our Dragon
+fly is most conspicuous. Look at its enormous head, with its beetling
+brows, retreating face, and heavy under jaws,--all eyes and teeth,--and
+hung so loosely on its short, weak neck, sunk beneath its enormous
+hunchback,--for it is wofully round-shouldered,--while its long, thin
+legs, shrunken as if from disease, are drawn up beneath its breast, and
+what a hobgoblin it is!
+
+Its gleaming wings are, however, beautiful objects. They form a broad
+expanse of delicate parchment-like membrane drawn over an intricate
+network of veins. Though the body is bulky, it is yet light, and easily
+sustained by the wings. The long tail undoubtedly acts as a rudder to
+steady its flight.
+
+These insects are almost universally dressed in the gayest colors. The
+body is variously banded with rich shades of blue, green, and yellow,
+and the wings give off the most beautiful iridescent and metallic
+reflections.
+
+During July and August the various species of Libellula and its allies
+most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in bunches to the stems of
+rushes and other water-plants. In laying them, the Dragon fly, according
+to Mr. P. R. Uhler's observations, "alights upon water-plants, and,
+pushing the end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a
+bunch of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf. Libellula auripennis I have
+often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived in my observation
+that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the open ditch while balancing
+herself just a little way above the surface of the water. I have, also,
+seen her settled upon the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen
+submerged in part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty
+sure that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her eggs at
+one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not more than a dozen
+small yellow eggs. There must be more than one hundred eggs in one of
+the large bunches. The eggs of some of the Agrions are bright
+apple-green, but I cannot be sure that I have ever seen them in the very
+act of oviposition. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and
+grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to fall below
+the surface of the water; sometimes they fly against the surface, but I
+never saw what I could assert to be the projecting of the eggs from the
+body upon plants or into the water. The English entomologists assert
+that the female Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several
+inches to deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants." The Agrions,
+however, according to Lucaze Duthiers, a French anatomist, make, with
+the ovipositor, a little notch in the plant upon which they lay their
+eggs.
+
+[Illustration: 127. Under side of head of Diplax, with the labium or
+mask fully extended. _x_, _x_', _x_''the three subdivisions of the
+labium. _y_, the maxillae or second pair of jaws.]
+
+These eggs soon hatch, probably during the heat of summer. The larva is
+very active in its habits, being provided with six legs, attached to the
+thorax, on the back of which are the little wing-pads, or rudimentary
+wings. The large head is provided with enormous eyes, while a pair of
+simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are placed near the origin of the small
+bristle-like feelers, or antennae. Seen from beneath, instead of the
+formidable array of jaws and accessory organs commonly observed in most
+carnivorous larvae, we see nothing but a broad, smooth mask covering the
+lower part of the face; as if from sheer modesty our young Dragon fly
+was endeavoring to conceal a gape. But wait a moment. Some unwary insect
+comes within striking distance. The battery of jaws is unmasked, and
+opens upon the victim. This mask (Fig. 127) is peculiar to the young,
+or larva and pupa of the Dragon fly. It is the labium, or under lip
+greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped extremity (Fig.
+127, _x_) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and retaining its
+prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up as to conceal the face,
+and thus the creature crawls about, to all appearance, the most innocent
+and lamb-like of insects.
+
+[Illustration: 128. Abdominal valves; _a_, side view.]
+
+Not only does the immature Dragon fly walk over the bottom of the pool
+or stream it inhabits, but it can also leap for a considerable distance,
+and by a most curious contrivance. By a syringe-like apparatus lodged in
+the end of the body, it discharges a stream of water for a distance of
+two or three inches behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards. This
+apparatus combines the functions of locomotion and respiration. There
+are, as usual, two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of the
+thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly carried on in
+the tail. The tracheae are here collected in a large mass, sending their
+branches into folds of membrane lining the end of the alimentary canal,
+and which act like a piston to force out the water. The entrance to the
+canal is protected by three to five triangular horny valves (Fig. 128,
+9, 10, 128 _a_, side view), which open and shut at will. When open, the
+water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs, which extract the
+air from the water, which is then suddenly expelled by a strong muscular
+effort.
+
+[Illustration: 129. Agrion; _b_, False Gill of Larva.]
+
+In the smaller forms, such as Agrion (A. saucium, Fig. 129; Fig. 129
+_b_, side view of false gill, showing but one leaf), the respiratory
+leaves, called the tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within
+the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated by tracheae, or
+air-vessels. They are not true gills, however, as the blood is not
+aerated in them. They only absorb air to supply the tracheae, which
+aerate the blood only within the general cavity of the body. These false
+gills also act as a rudder to aid the insect in swimming.
+
+It is interesting to watch the Dragon flies through their
+transformations, as they can easily be kept in aquaria. Little, almost
+nothing, is known regarding their habits, and any one who can spend the
+necessary time and patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the
+different stages from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and
+figure them accurately, will do good service to science.
+
+[Illustration: 130. Pupa of Cordulia.]
+
+Mr. Uhler states that at present we know but little of the young stages
+of our species, but the larva and pupa of the Libellulas may be always
+known from the AEschnas by the shorter, deeper and more robust form, and
+generally by their thick clothing of hair. Figure 130 represents the
+pupa of Cordulia lateralis, and figure 131 that of a Dragon fly referred
+doubtfully to the genus Didymops. For descriptions and figures of other
+forms the reader may turn to Mr. Louis Cabot's essay "On the Immature
+State of the Odonata," published by the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: 131. Pupa of Didymops?]
+
+The pupa scarcely differs from the larva, except in having larger
+wing-pads (Fig. 132). It is still active, and as much of a gourmand as
+ever. When the insect is about to assume the pupa state, it moults its
+skin. The body having outgrown the larva skin, by a strong muscular
+effort a rent opens along the back of the thorax, and the insect having
+fastened its claws into some object at the bottom of the pool, the pupa
+gradually works its way out of the larva-skin. It is now considerably
+larger than before. Immediately after this tedious operation, its body
+is soft, but the crust soon hardens. This change, with most species,
+probably occurs early in summer.
+
+[Illustration: 132. Pupa of AEschna.]
+
+When about to change into the adult fly, the pupa climbs up some plant
+near the surface of the water. Again its back yawns wide open, and from
+the rent our Dragon fly slowly emerges. For an hour or more, it remains
+torpid and listless, with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless.
+The fluids leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and
+varied tints appear, and our Dragon fly rises into its new world of
+light and sunshine a gorgeous, but repulsive being. Tennyson thus
+describes these changes in "The Two Voices":--
+
+  To-day I saw the Dragon fly
+  Come from the wells where he did lie.
+  An inner impulse rent the veil
+  Of his old husk: from head to tail
+  Came out clear plates of sapphire mail.
+
+  He dried his wings; like gauze they grew;
+  Through crofts and pastures wet with dew
+  A living flash of light he flew.
+
+Of our more common, typical forms of Dragon flies, we figure a few,
+commonly observed during the summer. The three-spotted Dragon fly
+(Libellula trimaculata), of which figure 133 represents the male, is so
+called from the three dark clouds on the wings of the female. But the
+opposite sex differs in having a dark patch at the front edge of the
+wings, and a single broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing.
+
+Libellula quadrimaculata, the four-spotted Dragon fly (Fig. 134), is
+seen on the wing in June, flying through dry pine woods far from any
+standing water.
+
+[Illustration: 133. Libellula trimaculata, male.]
+
+[Illustration: 134. Libellula quadrimaculata.]
+
+The largest of our Dragon flies are the "Devil's Darning-needles,"
+Eschna heros and grandis, seen hawking about our gardens till dusk. They
+frequently enter houses, carrying dismay and terror among the children.
+The hind-body is long and cylindrical, and gaily colored with bright
+green and bluish bands and spots.
+
+[Illustration: 135. Diplax Berenice, male.]
+
+[Illustration: 136. Diplax Berenice, female.]
+
+[Illustration: 137. Larva of Diplax.]
+
+One of our most common Dragon flies is the ruby Dragon fly, Diplax
+rubicundula, which is yellowish-red. It is seen everywhere flying over
+pools, and also frequents dry sunny woods and glades. Another common
+form is Diplax Berenice (Fig. 135 male, Fig. 136 female. The
+accompanying cut (137) represents the larva, probably of this species,
+according to Mr. Uhler.) It is black, the head blue in front, spotted
+with yellow, while the thorax and abdomen are striped with yellow. There
+are fewer stripes on the body of the male, which has only four large
+yellow spots on each side of the abdomen. Still another pretty species
+is Diplax Elisa (Fig. 138). It is black, with the head yellowish and
+with greenish-yellow spots on the sides of the thorax and base of the
+abdomen. There are three dusky spots on the front edge of each wing, and
+a large cloud at the base of the hind pair towards the hind angles of
+the wing.
+
+Rather a rare form, and of much smaller stature is the Nannophya bella
+(Fig. 138, female). It was first detected in Baltimore, and we
+afterwards found it not unfrequently by a pond in Maine. Its abdomen is
+unusually short, and the reticulations of the wings are large and
+simple. The female is black, while the male is frosted over with a
+whitish powder. Many more species of this family are found in this
+country, and for descriptions of them we would refer the reader to Dr.
+Hagen's "Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America," published by the
+Smithsonian Institution.
+
+[Illustration: 138. Diplax Elisa.]
+
+[Illustration: 139. Nannophya bella.]
+
+[Illustration: 140. May Fly.]
+
+The Libellulidae, or family of Dragon flies, and the Ephemeridae, or May
+flies (Fig. 140), are the most characteristic of the Neuroptera, or
+veiny-winged insects. This group is a most interesting one to the
+systematist, as it is composed of so many heterogeneous forms which it
+is almost impossible to classify in our rigid and at present necessarily
+artificial systems. We divide them into families and sub-families,
+genera and sub-genera, species and varieties, but there is an endless
+shifting of characters in these groups. The different groups would seem
+well limited after studying certain forms, when to the systematist's
+sorrow, here comes a creature, perhaps mimicking an ant, or aphis, or
+other sort of bug, or even a butterfly, and for which they would be
+readily mistaken by the uninitiated. Bibliographers have gone mad over
+books that could not be classified. Imagine the despair of an
+insect-hunter and entomophile, as he sits down to his box of dried
+neuroptera. He seeks for a true neuropter in the white ant before him,
+but its very form and habits summon up a swarm of true ants; and then
+the little wingless book louse (Atropos, Fig. 141) scampering
+irreverently over the musty pages of his Systema Naturae, reminds him of
+that closest friend of man--Pediculus vestimenti. Again, his studies
+lead him to that gorgeous inhabitant of the South, the butterfly-like
+Ascalaphus, with its resplendent wings, and slender, knobbed antennae so
+much like those of butterflies, and visions of these beautiful insects
+fill his mind's eye; or sundry dun-colored caddis flies, modest,
+delicate neuroptera, with finely fringed wings and slender feelers,
+create doubts as to whether they are not really allies of the clothes
+moth, so close is the resemblance.
+
+[Illustration: 141. Death Tick.]
+
+Thus the student is constantly led astray by the wanton freaks Nature
+plays, and becomes sceptical as regards the truth of a natural system,
+though there is one to be discovered; and at last disgusted with the
+stiff and arbitrary systems of our books,--a disgust we confess most
+wholesome, if it only leads him into a closer communion with nature. The
+sooner one leaves those maternal apron-strings,--books,--and learns to
+identify himself with nature, and thus goes out of himself to affiliate
+with the spirit of the scene or object before him,--or, in other words,
+cultivates habits of the closest observation and most patient
+reflection,--be he painter or poet, philosopher or insect-hunter of low
+degree, he will gain an intellectual strength and power of interpreting
+nature, that is the gift of true genius.
+
+[Illustration: The Ant Lion and adult.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MITES AND TICKS.
+
+
+But few naturalists have busied themselves with the study of mites. The
+honored names of Hermann, Von Heyden, Duges, Dujardin and Pagenstecher,
+Nicolet, Koch and Robin, and the lamented Claparede of Geneva, lead the
+small number who have published papers in scientific journals. After
+these, and except an occasional note by an amateur microscopist who
+occasionally pauses from his "diatomaniacal" studies, and looks upon a
+mite simply as a "microscopic object," to be classed in his micrographic
+Vade Mecum with mounted specimens of sheep's wool, and the hairs of
+other quadrupeds, a distorted proboscis of a fly, and podura scales, we
+read but little of mites and their habits. But few readers of our
+natural history text-books learn from their pages any definite facts
+regarding the affinities of these humble creatures, their organization
+and the singular metamorphosis a few have been known to pass through. We
+shall only attempt in the present article to indicate a few of the
+typical forms of mites, and sketch, with too slight a knowledge to speak
+with much authority, an imperfect picture of their appearance and modes
+of living.
+
+Mites are lowly organized Arachnids. This order of insects is divided
+into the Spiders, the Scorpions, the Harvestmen and the Mites (Acarina).
+They have a rounded oval body, without the usual division between the
+head-thorax and abdomen observable in spiders, the head-thorax and
+abdomen being merged in a single mass. There are four pairs of legs, and
+the mouth parts consist, as seen in the adjoining figure of a young tick
+(Fig. 142, young Ixodes albipictus), of a pair of maxillae (_c_), which
+in the adult terminates in a two or three-jointed palpus, or feeler; a
+pair of mandibles (_b_), often covered with several rows of fine teeth,
+and ending in three or four larger hooks and a serrated labium (_a_).
+These parts form a beak which the mite or tick insinuates into the flesh
+of its host, upon the blood of which it subsists. While many of the
+mites are parasitic on animals, some are known to devour the eggs of
+insects and other mites, thrusting their beaks into the egg, and sucking
+the contents. We have seen a mite (Nothrus ovivorus, Fig. 143) busily
+engaged in destroying the eggs of a moth like that of the Canker worm,
+and Dr. Shimer has observed the Acarus? malus sucking the eggs of the
+Chinch bug. I have also observed another mite devouring the Aphides on
+the rose leaves in my garden, so that a few mites may be set down as
+beneficial to vegetation. While a few species are injurious to man, the
+larger part are beneficial, being either parasitic and baneful to other
+noxious animals, or more directly useful as scavengers, removing
+decaying animal and vegetable substances.
+
+[Illustration: 142, Ixodes albipictus and young.[8]]
+
+The transformations of the mites are interesting to the philosophic
+zoologist, since the young of certain forms are remarkably different
+from the adults, and in reaching the perfect state the mite passes
+through a metamorphosis more striking than that of many insects. The
+young on leaving the egg have six legs, as we have seen in the case of
+the Ixodes. Sometimes, however, as, for example, in the larva, as we may
+call it, of a European mite, Typhlodromus pyri, the adult of which,
+according to A. Scheuten, is allied to Acarus, and lives under the
+epidermis of the leaves of the pear in Europe (while Mr. T. Taylor, of
+the Department of Agriculture at Washington, has found a species in the
+pear leaves about Washington, and still another form in peach leaves),
+there are but two pairs of legs present, and the body is long,
+cylindrical and in a degree worm-like.
+
+I have had the good fortune to observe the different stages of a bird
+mite, intermediate in its form between the Acarus and Sarcoptes, or Itch
+mite. On March 6th, Mr. C. Cooke called my attention to certain little
+mites which were situated on the narrow groove between the main stem of
+the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of the feathers of the Downy
+Woodpecker, and subsequently we found the other forms in the down under
+the feathers. These long worm-like mites were evidently the young of a
+singular Sarcoptes-like mite, as they were found on the same specimen of
+Woodpecker at about the same date, and it is known that the growth of
+mites is rapid, the metamorphoses, judging by the information which we
+now possess, occupying usually but a few days.
+
+[Illustration: 143. Egg-eating Mite.]
+
+The young (though there is, probably, a still earlier hexapodous stage)
+of this Sarcoptid has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with four
+short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and ending in a
+stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to walk over smooth,
+hard surfaces. The body is square at the end, with a slight median
+indentation, and four long bristles of equal length. They remained
+motionless in the groove on the barb of the feather, and when removed
+seemed very inert and sluggish. A succeeding stage of this mite, which
+may be called the pupal, is considerably smaller than the larva and
+looks somewhat like the adult, the body having become shorter and
+broader. The adult is a most singular form, its body being rudely ovate,
+with the head sunken between the fore legs, which are considerably
+smaller than the second pair, while the third pair are twice as large as
+the second pair, and directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very
+small, not reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft and
+supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other
+bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature,
+originally ill-shapen, a haggard, unkempt appearance. The two stigmata
+or breathing pores open near the cleft in the end of the body, and the
+external opening of the oviduct is situated between the largest and
+third pair of legs. No males were observed. In a species of Acarus
+(Tyroglyphus), somewhat like the Cheese mite, which we have alive at
+the time of writing, in a box containing the remains of a Lucanus larva,
+which they seem to have consumed, as both young and old are swarming
+there by myriads, the young are oval and like the adults, except that
+they are six-legged, the fourth pair growing out after a succeeding
+moult.
+
+Such is a brief summary of what has been generally known regarding the
+metamorphoses of a few species of mites. In a few kinds no males have
+been found; the females have been isolated after being hatched, and yet
+have been known to lay eggs, which produced young without the
+interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has been noticed in
+several species.
+
+[Illustration: 144. Cheyletus.]
+
+These insects often suddenly appear in vast numbers on various articles
+of food and about houses, so as to be very annoying. Mr. J. J. H.
+Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass., has found a mite allied to the European
+species here figured (Fig. 144) very injurious to the seeds of the
+cabbage, which it sucked dry. This is an interesting form, and we have
+called it Cheyletus seminivorus It is of medium size, and especially
+noticeable from the tripartite palpi, which are divided into an outer,
+long, curved, claw-like lobe, with two rounded teeth at the base, and
+two inner, slender lobes pectinated on the inner side, the third
+innermost lobe being minute. The beak terminates in a sharp blade-like
+point.
+
+We have received a Cheyletus-like mite, said to have been "extracted
+from the human face" in New Orleans. The body is oblong, square behind;
+the head is long and pointed, while the maxillae end in a long, curved,
+toothed, sickle-like blade. That this creature has the habits of the
+itch mite is suggested by the curious, large, hair-like spines with
+which the body and legs are sparsely armed, some being nearly half as
+long as the body. These hairs are covered with very fine spinules. Those
+on the end of the body are regularly spoon-shaped. These strange hairs,
+which are thickest on the legs, probably assisted the mite in anchoring
+itself in the skin of its host. We have read no account of this strange
+and interesting form. It is allied to the Acaropsis Mericourti which
+lives in the human face.
+
+A species, "apparently of the genus Gamasus," according to Dr. Leidy,
+has been found living in the ear (at the bottom of the external auditory
+meatus, and attached to the membrana tympani) of steers. "Whether this
+mite is a true parasite of the ear of the living ox, or whether it
+obtained access to the position in which it was found after the death of
+the ox in the slaughter house, has not yet been determined."
+
+We will now give a hasty glance at the different groups of mites,
+pausing to note those most interesting from their habits or relation to
+man.
+
+The most highly organized mite (and by its structure most closely allied
+to the spider) is the little red garden mite, belonging to the genus
+Trombidium, to which the genus Tetranychus is also nearly related. Our
+own species of the former genus have not been "worked up," or in other
+words identified and described, so that whether the European T.
+holosericeum Linn. is our species or not, we cannot tell. The larvae of
+this and similar species are known to live parasitically upon Harvestmen
+(Phalangium), often called Daddy-long-legs; and upon Aphides,
+grasshoppers and other insects. Mr. Riley has made known to us through
+the "American Naturalist" (and from his account our information is
+taken), the habits of certain young of the garden mite (Trombidium)
+which are excessively annoying in the Southwestern States. The first is
+the Leptus? Americanus (Fig. 145), or American Harvest mite. It is only
+known as yet in the larval or Leptus state, when it is of the form
+indicated in the cut, and brick red in color. "This species is barely
+visible with the naked eye, moves readily and is found more frequently
+upon children than upon adults. It lives mostly on the scalp and under
+the arm pits, but is frequently found on the other parts of the body. It
+does not bury itself in the flesh, but simply insinuates the anterior
+part of the body just under the skin, thereby causing intense
+irritation, followed by a little red pimple. As with our common ticks,
+the irritation lasts only while the animal is securing itself, and its
+presence would afterwards scarcely be noticed but for the pimple which
+results."
+
+[Illustration: 145 _a._ American Harvest Mite; _b._ Irritating Harvest
+Mite; the dots underneath indicating the natural size.]
+
+The second species (Fig. 145 _b_, Leptus? irritans) is also only known
+in the Leptus stage. It is evidently the larva of a distinct genus from
+the other form, having enormous maxillae and a broad body; it is also
+brick red. Mr. Riley says that "this is the most troublesome and,
+perhaps, best known of the two, causing intense irritation and swelling
+on all parts of the body, but more especially on the legs and around the
+ankles. Woe betide the person who, after bathing in the Mississippi
+anywhere in this latitude, is lured to some green dressing-spot of weeds
+or grass! He may, for the time, consider himself fortunate in getting
+rid of mud and dirt, but he will afterwards find to his sorrow that he
+exchanged them for something far more tenacious in these microscopic
+Harvest-mites. If he has obtained a good supply of them, he will in a
+few hours begin to suffer from severe itching, and for the next two or
+three days will be likely to scratch until his limbs are sore.
+
+"With the strong mandibles and the elbowed maxillae which act like arms,
+this mite is able to bury itself completely in the flesh, thereby
+causing a red swelling with a pale pustulous centre containing watery
+matter. If, in scratching, he is fortunate enough to remove the mite
+before it enters, the part soon heals. But otherwise the irritation
+lasts for two, three or four days, the pustulous centre reappearing as
+often as it is broken.
+
+"The animal itself, on account of its minute size, is seldom seen, and
+the uninitiated, when first troubled with it, are often alarmed at the
+symptoms and at a loss to account for them. Fortunately these little
+plagues never attach themselves to persons in such immense numbers as do
+sometimes young or so-called 'seed' ticks; but I have known cases where,
+from the irritation and consequent scratching, the flesh had the
+appearance of being covered with ulcers; and in some localities, where
+these pests most abound, sulphur is often sprinkled during 'jigger'
+season in the boots or shoes as a protection.
+
+"Sulphur ointment is the best remedy against the effects of either of
+these mites, though when that cannot be obtained, saleratus water and
+salt water will partially allay the irritation.
+
+"The normal food of either must, apparently, consist of the juices of
+plants, and the love of blood proves ruinous to those individuals who
+get a chance to indulge it. For unlike the true Jigger, the female of
+which deposits eggs in the wound she makes, these Harvest-mites have no
+object of the kind, and when not killed by the hands of those they
+torment, they soon die victims to their sanguinary appetite."
+
+[Illustration: 146. Astoma of the Fly.]
+
+Another Leptus-like form is the parasite of the fly, described by Mr.
+Riley under the name of Astoma? muscarum (Fig. 146). How nearly allied
+it is to the European Astoma parasiticum we have not the means of
+judging.
+
+The European Tetranychus telarius Linn., or web-making mite, spins large
+webs on the leaves of the linden tree. Then succeed in the natural order
+the water mites (Hydrachna), which may be seen running over submerged
+sticks and on plants, mostly in fresh water, and rarely on the borders
+of the sea. The young after leaving the egg differ remarkably from the
+adults, so as to have been referred to a distinct genus (Achlysia) by
+the great French naturalist, Audouin. They live as parasites on various
+water insects, such as Dytiscus, Nepa and Hydrometra, and when mature
+live free in the water, though Von Baer observed an adult Hydrachna
+concharum living parasitically on the gills of the fresh-water mussel,
+Anodon. The species are of minute size. Collectors of beetles often meet
+with a species of Uropoda attached firmly to their specimens of
+dung-inhabiting or carrion beetles. It is a smoothly polished, round,
+flattened mite, with short, thick legs, scarcely reaching beyond the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: 147. Cattle Tick.]
+
+We now come to the Ticks, which comprise the largest mites. The genus
+Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker states that the Argas
+Persicus is very annoying to travellers in Persia. The habits of the
+wood ticks (Ixodes) are well known. Travellers in the tropics speak of
+the intolerable torment occasioned by these pests which, occurring
+ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to all sorts of
+reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself as he passes by within
+their reach. Sometimes cases fall within the practice of the physician,
+who is called to remove the tick, which is found sometimes literally
+buried beneath the skin. Mr. J. Stauffer writes me, that "on June 23d
+the daughter of Abraham Jackson (colored), playing among the leaves in a
+wood, near Springville, Lancaster County, Penn., on her return home
+complained of pain in the arm. No attention was paid to it till the next
+day, when a raised tumor was noticed, a small portion protruding through
+the skin, apparently like a splinter of wood. The child was taken to Dr.
+Morency, who applied the forceps, and after considerable pain to the
+child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes, nearly
+one-quarter of an inch long, and of an oval form and brown mahogany
+color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, centrally on the dorsal
+region." This tick proved, from Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be, without
+doubt, Ixodes unipunctata. It has also been found in Massachusetts by
+Mr. F. G. Sanborn.
+
+Another species is the Ixodes bovis (Fig. 147), the common cattle tick
+of the Western States and Central America. It is very annoying to horned
+cattle, gorging itself with their blood, but is by no means confined to
+them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the rattlesnake, the iguana,
+small mammals and undoubtedly any other animal that brushes by its
+lurking-place in the forest. It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened,
+seed-like creature, with the body oblong oval, and contracted just
+behind the middle. When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half
+an inch in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands of
+Mr. Riley, and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abundantly on horned
+cattle on the western coast of Nicaragua.
+
+We now come to the genus Acarus (Tyroglyphus), of which the cheese and
+sugar mites are examples. Some species of Acarian mites have been found
+in the lungs and blood-vessels, and even the intestinal canal of certain
+vertebrates, while the too familiar itch insect lurks under the skin of
+the hand and other parts of the body of certain uncleanly human bipeds.
+
+[Illustration: 148. Sugar Mite.]
+
+Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers and more
+authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of mites (Acarus
+sacchari, Fig. 148) found in unrefined or raw sugar. According to Prof.
+Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted in the "Journal of the Franklin
+Institute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel (who was the first to notice
+their general occurrence in the raw sugar sold at London) found them in
+a living state in no fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two samples.
+He did not detect them in a single specimen of refined sugar. In an
+inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr. Cameron, he
+reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains of sugar, so that in a
+pound's weight occurred one hundred thousand of these little creatures,
+which seem to have devoted themselves with a martyr-like zeal to the
+adulteration of sugar. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The
+disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the presence of
+this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works its way under the
+skin of the hand, in this case, however, of cleanly persons. Mr. Cameron
+states that "the kind of sugar which is both healthful and economical,
+is the dry, large-grained and light-colored variety."
+
+Closely allied to the preceding, is the Cheese mite (Acarus siro Linn.),
+which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonet states that during
+summer this mite is viviparous. Acarus farinae DeGeer, as its name
+indicates, is found in flour. Other species have been known to occur in
+ulcers.
+
+[Illustration: 149. Mange Mite.]
+
+We should also mention the Mange insect of the horse (Psoroptes equi,
+Fig. 149, much enlarged; _a_, head more magnified). According to Prof.
+Verrill it is readily visible to the naked eye and swarms on horses
+afflicted with the mange, which is a disease analogous to the itch in
+man. It has a soft, depressed body, spiny beneath at the base of the
+legs and on the thorax. One or both of the two posterior pairs of feet
+bear suckers, and all are more or less covered with long, slender hairs.
+This insect may be destroyed by the same remedies as are used for lice
+and for the human itch. The best remedy is probably a solution of
+sulphuret of potassium.
+
+[Illustration: 150. Itch Mite.]
+
+[Illustration: 151. Nose Mite.]
+
+The itch insect (Sarcoptes scabiei, Fig. 150) was first recognized by an
+Arabian author of the twelfth century, as the cause of the disease which
+results from its attacks. The body of the insect is rounded, with the
+two hind pair of feet rudimentary and bearing long hairs. It buries
+itself in the skin on the more protected parts of the body, and by its
+punctures maintains a constant irritation. Other species are known to
+infest the sheep and dog. Another singular mite is the Demodex
+folliculorum (Fig. 151), which was discovered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin,
+buried in the diseased follicles of the wings of the nose in man. It is
+a long, slender, worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the
+larva state has six legs. This singular form is one of the lowest and
+most degraded of the order of Arachnids. A most singular mite was
+discovered by Newport on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and
+described by him under the name of Heteropus ventricosus. The body of
+the fully formed female is long and slender. After attaining this form,
+its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globular form,
+and the mass of mites look like little beads. Mr. Newport was unable to
+discover the male, and thought that this mite was parthenogenous. It
+will be seen that the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like
+appearance of the larva of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus. This
+is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a relationship to the
+Tardigrades and the Pentastoma, the latter being a degraded mite, and
+the lowest of its order, living parasitically within the bodies of other
+animals.
+
+[Illustration: Harvestman.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: The figure at the bottom on the left represents the adult,
+fully-gorged tick.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRISTLE-TAILS AND SPRING-TAILS.
+
+
+The Thysanura, as the Poduras and their allies, the Lepismas, are
+called, have been generally neglected by entomologists, and but few
+naturalists have paid special attention to them.[9] Of all those
+microscopists who have examined Podura scales as test objects, we wonder
+how many really know what a Podura is?
+
+In preparing the following account I have been under constant
+indebtedness to the admirable and exhaustive papers of Sir John Lubbock,
+in the London "Linnaean Transactions" (vols. 23, 26 and 27).
+Entomologists will be glad to learn that he is shortly going to press
+with a volume on the Poduras, which, in distinction from the Lepismas,
+to which he restricts the term Thysanura, he calls Collembola, in
+allusion to the sucker-like tubercle situated on the under side of the
+body, which no other insects are known to possess.
+
+The group of Bristle-tails, as we would dub the Lepismas in distinction
+from the Spring-tails, we will first consider. They are abundant in the
+Middle States under stones and leaves in forests, and northward are
+common in damp houses, while one beautiful species that we have never
+noticed elsewhere, is our "cricket on the hearth," abounding in the
+chinks and crannies of the range of our house, and also in closets,
+where it feeds on sugar, etc., and comes out like cockroaches, at night,
+shunning the light. Like the cockroaches, which it vaguely resembles in
+form, this species loves hot and dry localities, in distinction from the
+others which seek moisture as well as darkness. By some they are called
+"silver witches," and as they dart off, when disturbed, like a streak of
+light, their bodies being coated in a suit of shining mail, which the
+arrangement of the scales resembles, they have really a weird and
+ghostly look.
+
+The most complicated genus, and the one which stands at the head of the
+family, is Machilis, one species of which lives in the Northern and
+Middle States, and another in Oregon. They affect damp places, living
+under leaves and stones. They all have rounded, highly arched bodies,
+and large compound eyes, the two being united together. The maxillary
+palpi are greatly developed, but the chief characteristics are the
+two-jointed stylets arranged in nine pairs along each side of the
+abdomen, reminding us of the abdominal legs of Myriopods. The body ends
+in three long bristles, as in Lepisma.
+
+The Lepisma saccharina of Linnaeus, if, as is probable, that is the name
+of our common species, is not uncommon in old damp houses, where it has
+the habits of the cockroach, eating cloths, tapestry, silken trimmings
+of furniture, and doing occasional damage to libraries by devouring the
+paste, and eating holes in the leaves and covers of books.
+
+In general form Lepisma may be compared to the larva of Perla, a
+net-veined Neuropterous insect, and also to the narrow-bodied species of
+cockroaches, minus the wings. The body is long and narrow, covered with
+rather coarse scales, and ends in three many jointed anal stylets, or
+bristles, which closely resemble the many jointed antennae, which are
+remarkably long and slender. The thermophilous species already alluded
+to may be described as perhaps the type of the genus, the L. saccharina
+being simpler in its structure. The body is narrow and flattened; the
+basal joints of the legs being broad, flat and almost triangular, like
+the same joints in the cockroaches. The legs consist of six joints, the
+tarsal joints being large and two in number, and bearing a pair of
+terminal curved claws. The three thoracic segments are of nearly equal
+size, and the eight abdominal segments are also of similar size. The
+tracheae are well developed, and may be readily seen in the legs. The end
+of the rather long and weak abdomen is propped up by two or three pairs
+of bristles, which are simple, not jointed, but moving freely at their
+insertion; thus they take the place of legs, and remind one of the
+abdominal legs of the Myriopods; and we shall see in certain other
+genera (Machilis and Campodea) of the Bristle-tails that there are
+actually two-jointed bristles arranged in pairs along the abdomen. They
+may probably be directly compared with the abdominal legs of Myriopods.
+Further study, however, of the homologies of these peculiar appendages,
+and especially a knowledge of the embryological development of Lepisma
+and Machilis, is needed before this interesting point can be definitely
+settled. The three many jointed anal stylets may, however, be directly
+compared with the similar appendages of Perla and Ephemera. The mode of
+insertion of the antennae of this family is much like that of the
+Myriopods, the front of the head being flattened, and concealing the
+base of the antennae, as in the Centipedes and Pauropus. Indeed, the head
+of any Thysanurous insect seen from above, bears a general resemblance
+in some of its features to that of the Centipede and its allies. So in a
+less degree does the head of the larvae of certain Neuroptera and
+Coleoptera. The eyes are compound, the single facets forming a sort of
+heap. The clypeus and labrum, or upper lip, is, in all the Thysanura,
+carried far down on the under side of the head, the clypeus being almost
+obsolete in the Poduridae, this being one of the most essential
+characters of that family. Indeed, it is somewhat singular that these
+and other important characteristics of this group have been almost
+entirely passed over by authors, who have consequently separated these
+insects from other groups on what appear to the writer as comparatively
+slight and inconsiderable characters. The mouth-parts of the Lepismatidae
+(especially the thermophilous Lepisma, which we now describe) are most
+readily compared with those of the larva of Perla. The rather large,
+stout mandibles are concealed at their tips, under the upper lip, which
+moves freely up and down when the creature opens its mouth. The mandible
+is about one-third as broad as long, armed with three sharp teeth on the
+outer edge, and with a broad cutting edge within, and still further
+inwards a lot of straggling spinules. In all these particulars, the
+mandible of Lepisma is comparable with that of certain Coleoptera and
+Neuroptera. So also are the maxillae and labium, though we are not aware
+that any one has indicated how close the homology is. The accompanying
+figure (152) of the maxilla of a beetle may serve as an example of the
+maxilla of the Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In these insects
+it consists almost invariably of three lobes, the outer being the
+palpus, the middle lobe the galea, and the innermost the lacinia; the
+latter undergoing the greatest modifications, forming a comb composed of
+spines and hairs varying greatly in relative size and length. How much
+the palpi vary in these groups of insects is well known. The galea
+sometimes forms a palpus-like appendage. Now these three lobes may be
+easily distinguished in the maxilla of Lepisma. The palpus instead of
+being directed forward, as in the insects mentioned above (in the pupa
+of Ephemera the maxilla is much like that of Lepisma), is inserted
+nearer the base than usual and thrown off at right angles to the
+maxilla, so that it is stretched out like a leg, and in moving about the
+insect uses its maxillae partly as supports for its head. They are very
+long and large, and five or six-jointed. The galea, or middle division,
+forms a simple lobe, while the lacinia has two large chitinous teeth on
+the inner edge, and internally four or five hairs arising from a thin
+edge.
+
+[Illustration: 152. Maxilla.]
+
+The labium is much as in that of Perla, being broad and short, with a
+distinct median suture, indicating its former separation in embryonic
+life into a pair of appendages. The labial palpi are three-jointed, the
+joints being broad, and in life directed backwards instead of forwards
+as in the higher insects.
+
+There are five American species of the genus Lepisma in the Museum of
+the Peabody Academy. Besides the common L. saccharina? there are four
+undescribed species; one found about out-houses and cellars, and the
+heat-loving form, perhaps an imported, species, found in a kitchen in
+Salem, and apparently allied to the L. thermophila Lucas, of houses in
+Brest, France; and lastly two allied forms, one from Key West, and
+another from Polvon, Western Nicaragua, collected by Mr. McNiel. The
+last three species are beautifully ornamented with finely spinulated
+hairs arranged in tufts on the head; while the sides of the body, and
+edges of the basal joints of the legs are fringed with them.
+
+The interesting genus Nicoletia stands at the bottom of the group. It
+has the long, linear, scaleless body of Campodea, in the family below,
+but the head and its appendages are like Lepisma, the maxillary palpi
+being five-jointed, and the labial palpi four-jointed. The eyes are
+simple, arranged in a row of seven on each side of the head. The abdomen
+ends in three long and many jointed stylets, and there are the usual
+"false branchial feet" along each side of the abdomen. There are two
+European species which occur in greenhouses. No species have yet been
+found in America.
+
+[Illustration: 153. Japyx solifugus.]
+
+The next family of Thysanura is the Campodeae, comprising the two genera
+Campodea and Japyx. These insects are much smaller than the Lepismidae,
+and in some respects are intermediate between that family and the
+Poduridae (including the Smynthuridae).
+
+In this family the body is long and slender, and the segments much alike
+in size. There is a pair of spiracles on each thoracic ring. The
+mandibles are long and slender, ending in three or four teeth, and with
+the other appendages of the mouth are concealed within the head, "only
+the tips of the palpi (and of the maxillae when these are opened)
+projecting a very little beyond the rounded entire margin of the
+epistoma," according to Haliday. The maxillae are comb-shaped, due to the
+four slender, minutely ciliated spines placed within the outer tooth.
+The labium in Japyx is four-lobed and bears a small two-jointed palpus.
+The legs are five-jointed, the tarsi consisting of a single joint,
+ending in two large claws. The abdomen consists of ten segments, and in
+Campodea along each side is a series of minute, two-jointed appendages
+such as have been described in Machilis. These are wanting in Japyx.
+None of the species in this family have the body covered with scales.
+They are white, with a yellowish tinge.
+
+
+The more complicated genus of the two is Japyx (Fig. 153, Japyx
+solifugus, found under stones in Southern Europe; _a_, the mouth from
+beneath, with the maxillae open; _b_, maxilla; _d_, mandible; _c_,
+outline of front of head seen from beneath, with the labial palpi in
+position) which, as remarked by the late Mr. Haliday (who has published
+an elaborate essay on this genus in the Linnaean Transactions, vol. 24,
+1864), resembles Forficula in the large forceps attached to its tail. An
+American species (J. Saussurii) lives in Mexico, and we look for its
+discovery in Texas.
+
+[Illustration: 154. Campodea staphylinus.]
+
+Campodea (C. staphylinus Westw., Fig. 154, enlarged; _a_, mandible; _b_,
+maxilla), otherwise closely related, has more rudimentary mouth-parts,
+and the abdomen ends in two many jointed appendages.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155. Larva of Perla.]
+
+Our common American species of Campodea (C. Americana) lives under
+stones in damp places. It is yellowish, about a sixth of an inch in
+length, is very agile in its movements, and would easily be mistaken for
+a very young Lithobius. A larger species and differing in having longer
+antennae, has been found by Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, and has been
+described in the "American Naturalist" under the name of Campodea
+Cookei. Haliday has remarked that this family bears much resemblance to
+the Neuropterous larva of Perla (Fig. 155), as previously remarked by
+Gervais; and the many points of resemblance of this family and the
+Lepismidae to the larval forms of some Neuroptera that are active in the
+pupa state (the Pseudoneuroptera of Erichson and other authors) are very
+striking. Campodea resembles the earliest larval form of Chloeon, as
+figured by Sir John Lubbock, even to the single jointed tarsus; and why
+these two Thysanurous families should be removed from the Neuroptera we
+are unable, at present, to understand, as to our mind they scarcely
+diverge from the Neuropterous type more than the Mallophaga, or biting
+lice, from the type of Hemiptera.
+
+Haliday, remarking on the opinion of Linnaeus and Schrank, who referred
+Campodea to the old genus Podura, says with much truth, "it may be
+perhaps no unfair inference to draw, that the insect in question is in
+some measure intermediate between both," _i. e._, Podura and Lepisma.
+This is seen especially in the mouth-parts which are withdrawn into the
+head, and become very rudimentary, affording a gradual passage into the
+mouth-parts of the Poduridae, which we now describe.
+
+The next group, the Podurelles of Nicolet, and Collembola of Lubbock,
+are considered by the latter, who has studied them with far more care
+than any one else, as "less closely allied" to the Lepismidae "than has
+hitherto been supposed." He says "the presence of tracheae, the structure
+of the mouth and the abdominal appendage; all indicate a wide
+distinction between the Lepismidae and the Poduridae. We must, indeed, in
+my opinion, separate them entirely from one another; and I would
+venture to propose for the group comprised in the old genus Podura, the
+term Collembola, as indicating the existence of a projection, or
+mammilla, enabling the creature to attach or glue itself to the body on
+which it stands." Then without expressing his views as to the position
+and affinities of the Lepismidae, he remarks "as the upshot of all this,
+then, while the Collembola are clearly more nearly allied to the Insecta
+than to the Crustacea or Arachnida, we cannot, I think, regard them as
+Orthoptera or Neuroptera, or even as true insects. That is to say, the
+Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, etc., are in my
+opinion, more nearly allied to one another than they are to the Poduridae
+or Smynthuridae. On the other hand, we certainly cannot regard the
+Collembola as a group equivalent in value to the Insecta. If, then, we
+attempt to map out the Articulata, we must, I think, regard the
+Crustacea and Insecta as continents, the Myriopoda and Collembola as
+islands--of less importance, but still detached. Or, if we represent the
+divisions of the Articulata like the branching of a tree, we must
+picture the Collembola as a separate branch, though a small one, and
+much more closely connected with the Insecta than with the Crustacea or
+the Arachnida." Lamarck regarded them as more nearly allied to the
+Crustacea than Insecta. Gervais, also, in the "Histoire Naturelle des
+Insectes: Apteres," indicates a considerable diversity existing between
+the Lepismidae and Poduridae, though they are placed next to each other.
+Somewhat similar views have been expressed by so high an authority as
+Professor Dana, who, in the "American Journal of Science" (vol. 37,
+Jan., 1864), proposed a classification of insects based on the principle
+of cephalization, and divided the Hexapodous insects into three groups:
+the first (Ptero-prosthenics, or Ctenopters) comprising the Hymenoptera,
+Diptera, Aphaniptera (fleas), Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Trichoptera and
+Neuroptera; the second group (Ptero-metasthenics, or Elytropters)
+comprising the Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera; while the Thysanura
+compose the third group. Lubbock has given us a convenient historical
+view of the opinions of different authors regarding the classification
+of these insects, which we find useful. Nicolet, the naturalist who,
+previous to Lubbock, has given us the most correct and complete account
+of the Thysanura, regarded them as an order, equivalent to the
+Coleoptera or Diptera, for example. In this he followed Latreille, who
+established the order in 1796. The Abbe Bourlet adopted the same view.
+On the other hand Burmeister placed the Thysanura as a separate tribe
+between the Mallophaga (Bird Lice) and Orthoptera, and Gerstaecker
+placed them among the Orthoptera. Fabricius and Blainville put them with
+the Neuroptera, and the writer, in his "Guide to the Study of Insects,"
+and previously in 1863, ignorant of the views of the two last named
+authors, considered the Thysanura as degraded Neuroptera, and noticed
+their resemblance to the larvae of Perla, Ephemera, and other Neuroptera,
+such as Rhaphidia and Panorpa, regarding them as standing "in the same
+relation to the rest of the Neuroptera [in the Linnaean sense], as the
+flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the lice and Thrips to the
+higher Hemiptera."
+
+After having studied the Thysanura enough to recognize the great
+difficulty of deciding as to their affinities and rank, the writer does
+not feel prepared to go so far as Dana and Lubbock, for reasons that
+will be suggested in the following brief account of the more general
+points in their structure, reserving for another occasion a final
+expression of his views as to their classification.
+
+The Poduridae, so well known by name, as affording the scales used by
+microscopists as test objects, are common under stones and wet chips, or
+in damp places, cellars, mushrooms and about manure heaps. They need
+moisture, and consequently shade. They abound most in spring and autumn,
+laying their eggs at both seasons, though most commonly in the spring.
+During a mild December, they may be found in abundance under sticks and
+stones, even in situations so far north as Salem, Mass.
+
+[Illustration: 156. Smynthurus.]
+
+The body of the Poduras is rather short and thick, most so in Smynthurus
+(Fig. 156), and becoming long and slender in Tomocerus and Isotoma. The
+segments are inclined to be of unequal size, the prothoracic ring
+sometimes becoming almost obsolete, and some of the abdominal rings are
+much smaller than others; while in Lipura and Anura, the lowest forms of
+the group, the segments are all much alike in size.
+
+The head is in form much like that of certain larvae of Neuroptera and of
+Forficula, an Orthopterous insect. The basal half of the head is marked
+off from the eye-bearing piece (epicranium) by a V-shaped suture[10]
+(Fig. 157, head of Degeeria; compare also the head of the larva of
+Forficula, Fig. 158, in which the suture is the same), and the insertion
+of the antennae is removed far down the front, near the mouth, the
+clypeus being very short; this piece, so large and prominent in the
+higher insects, is not distinctly separated by suture from the
+surrounding parts of the head, thus affording one of the best
+distinctive characters of the Poduridae. The eyes are situated on top of
+the head just behind the antennae, and are simple, consisting of a group
+of from five to eight or ten united into a mass in Smynthurus, but
+separated in the Poduridae (see Fig. 176, _e_, eye of Anurida). The
+antennae are usually four-jointed, and vary in length in the different
+genera.
+
+[Illustration: 157. Head of Degeeria.]
+
+[Illustration: 158. Larva of Forficula.]
+
+The mouth-parts are very difficult to make out, but by soaking the
+insect in potash for twenty-four hours, thus rendering the body
+transparent, they can be satisfactorily observed. They are constructed
+on the same general type as the mouth-parts of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera and Coleoptera, and except in being degraded, and with
+certain parts obsolete, they do not essentially differ.[11] On observing
+the living Podura, the mouth seems a simple ring, with a minute labrum
+and groups of hairs and spinules, which the observer, partly by
+guess-work, can identify as jaws and maxillae, and labium. But in
+studying the parts rendered transparent, we can identify the different
+appendages. Figure 159 shows the common Tomocerus plumbeus greatly
+enlarged (Fig. 160, seen from above), and as the mouth-parts of the
+whole group of Poduras are remarkably constant, a description of one
+genus will suffice for all. The labrum, or upper lip, is separated by a
+deep suture from the clypeus, and is trapezoidal in form. The mandibles
+and maxillae are long and slender, and buried in the head, with the tips
+capable of being extended out from the ring surrounding the mouth for a
+very short distance. The mandibles (_md_, Fig. 159) are like those of
+the Neuroptera, Orthoptera and Coleoptera in their general form, the tip
+ending in from three to six teeth (three on one mandible and six on the
+other), while below, is a rough, denticulated molar surface, where the
+food seized by the terminal teeth is triturated and prepared to be
+swallowed. Just behind the mandibles are the maxillae, which are
+trilobate at the end, as in the three orders of insects above named. The
+outer lobe, or palpus, is a minute membranous tubercle ending in a hair
+(Fig. 161, _mp_), while the middle lobe, or galea, is nearly obsolete,
+though I think I have seen it in Smynthurus, where it forms a lobe on
+the outside of the lacinia. The lacinia, or inner lobe (Fig. 161, _lc_;
+162, the same enlarged), in Tomocerus consists of two bundles of
+spinules, one broad like a ruffle, and the other slender, pencil-like,
+ending in an inner row of spines, like the spinules on the lacinia of
+the Japyx and Campodea and, more remotely, the laciniae of the three
+sub-orders of insects above referred to. There is also a horny,
+prominent, three-toothed portion (Fig. 161, _g_). These homologies have
+never been made before, so far as the writer is aware, but they seem
+natural, and suggested by a careful examination and comparison with the
+above-mentioned mandibulate insects.
+
+[Illustration: 159. 161. 160. 162.
+
+Tomocerus plumbeus and mouth-parts, greatly enlarged.]
+
+The spring consists of a pair of three-jointed appendages, with the
+basal joints soldered together early in embryonic life, while the other
+two joints are free, forming a fork. It is longest in Smynthurus and
+Degeeria, and shortest in Achorutes (Fig. 172, _b_), where it forms a
+simple, forked tubercle; and is obsolete in Lipura and Anura, its place
+being indicated by an oval scar. The third joint varies in form, being
+hairy, serrate and knife-like in form, as in Tomocerus (Fig. 159, _a_),
+or minute, with a supplementary tooth, as in Achorutes (Fig. 172,
+_c_). This spring is in part homologous with the ovipositor of the
+higher insects, which originally consists of three pairs of tubercles,
+each pair arising apparently from the seventh, eighth, and ninth (the
+latter the penultimate) segments of the abdomen in the Hymenoptera. The
+spring of the Podura seems to be the homologue of the third pair of
+these tubercles, and is inserted on the penultimate segment. This
+comparison I have been able to make from a study of the embryology of
+Isotoma.
+
+[Illustration: 163. Catch holding spring of Achorutes.]
+
+Another organ, and one which, so far as I am aware, has been overlooked
+by previous observers, I am disposed to consider as possibly an
+ovipositor. In the genus Achorutes, it may be found in the segment just
+before the spring-bearing segment, and situated on the median line of
+the body. It consists (Fig. 163) of two squarish valves, from between
+which projects a pair of minute tubercles, or blades, with four rounded
+teeth on the under side. This pair of infinitesimal saws reminds one of
+the blades of the saw-fly, and I am at a loss what their use can be
+unless to cut and pierce so as to scoop out a shallow place in which to
+deposit an egg. It is homologous in situation with the middle pair of
+blades which composes the ovipositor of higher insects, and if it should
+prove to be used by the creature in laying its eggs, we should then
+have, with the spring, an additional point of resemblance to the
+Neuroptera and higher insects, and instead of this spring being an
+important differential character, separating the Thysanura from other
+insects, it binds them still closer, though still differing greatly in
+representing only a part of the ovipositor of the higher insects. (This
+is a catch for holding the spring in place.)
+
+But all the Poduras differ from other insects in possessing a remarkable
+organ situated on the basal segment of the abdomen. It is a small
+tubercle, with chitinous walls, forming two valves from between which is
+forced out a fleshy sucker, or, as in Smynthurus, a pair of long tubes,
+which are capable of being darted out on each side of the body, enabling
+the insect to attach itself to smooth surfaces, and rest in an inverted
+position.
+
+The eggs are laid few in number, either singly or several together, on
+the under side of stones, chips or, as in the case of Isotoma Walkerii,
+under the bark of trees. They are round, transparent. The development of
+the embryo of Isotoma in general accords with that of the Phryganeidae
+and suggests on embryological grounds the near relationship of the
+Thysanura to the Neuroptera.
+
+[Illustration: 164. 165. 166. 167.
+
+Development of a Poduran.]
+
+The earliest stage observed was at the time of the appearance of the
+primitive band (Fig. 164, _a_, _b_, folding of the primitive band; _c_,
+the dotted line crosses the primitive band, and terminates in a large
+yolk granule) which surrounds the egg as in the Caddis flies. Soon
+after, the primitive segments appear (Fig. 165; 1, antennae; 2,
+mandibles; 3, maxillae; the labium was not seen; 5-7, legs; _c_, yolk
+surrounded by the primitive band) and seem to originate just as in the
+Caddis flies. Figure 166 is a front view of the embryo shortly before
+it is hatched; figure 167, side view of the same, the figures as in Fig.
+165; _sp_, spring; _l_, labrum. The labrum or upper lip, and the clypeus
+are large and as distinct as in the embryos of other insects, a fact to
+which we shall allude again. The large three-jointed spring is now well
+developed, and the inference is drawn that it represents a pair of true
+abdominal legs. The embryo when about to hatch throws off the egg-shell
+and amnion in a few seconds. The larva is perfectly white and is very
+active in its movements, running over the damp, inner surface of the
+bark. It is a little over a hundredth of an inch in length, and differs
+from the adult in being shorter and thicker, with the spring very short
+and stout. In fact the larva assumes the form of the lower genera of the
+family, such as Achorutes and Lipura, the adult more closely resembling
+Degeeria. The larva after its first moult retains its early clumsy form,
+and is still white. After a second moult it becomes purplish, and much
+more slender, as in the adult. The eggs are laid and the young hatched
+apparently within a period of from six to ten days.
+
+Returning to the stage indicated by figures 166 and 167, I am induced to
+quote some remarks published in the Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of
+Science, No. 2, p. 18, which seem to support the view that these insects
+are offshoots from the Neuroptera.
+
+"The front of the head is so entirely different from what it is in the
+adult, that certain points demand our attention. It is evident that at
+this period the development of the insect has gone on in all important
+particulars much as in other insects, especially the Neuropterous
+Mystacides as described by Zaddach. The head is longer vertically than
+horizontally, the frontal, or clypeal region is broad, and greater in
+extent than the epicranio-occipital region. The antennae are inserted
+high up on the head, next the ocelli, falling down over the clypeal
+region. The clypeus, however, is merged with the epicranium, and the
+usual suture between them does not appear distinctly in after life,
+though its place is seen in figure 167 to be indicated by a slight
+indentation. The labrum is distinctly defined by a well marked suture,
+and forms a squarish, knob-like protuberance, and in size is quite large
+compared to the clypeus. From this time begins the process of
+degradation, when the insect assumes its Thysanurous characters, which
+consist in an approach to the form of the Myriopodous head, the front,
+or clypeal region being reduced to a minimum, and the antennae and eyes
+brought in closer proximity to the mouth than in any other insects."
+
+Sir John Lubbock has given us an admirable account of the internal
+anatomy of these little creatures, his elaborate and patient dissections
+filling a great gap in our knowledge of their internal structure. The
+space at our disposal only permits us to speak briefly of the
+respiratory system. Lubbock found a simple system of tracheae in
+Smynthurus which opens by "two spiracles in the head, opposite the
+insertion of the antennae," _i. e._, on the back of the head. (Von Olfers
+says that they open on the prothorax.) Nicolet and Olfers claim to have
+found tracheae in several lower genera (Orchesella, Tomocerus, and
+Achorutes and allied genera), but Lubbock was unable to detect them, and
+I may add that I have not yet been able after careful search to find
+them either in living specimens, or those rendered transparent by
+potash.
+
+Having given a hasty sketch of the external aspect of the Poduras, I
+extract from Lubbock's work a synopsis of the families and genera for
+the convenience of the student, adding the names of known American
+species, or indications of undescribed native forms.
+
+SMYNTHURIDAE.--Body globular or ovoid; thorax and abdomen forming one
+mass; head vertical or inclined; antennae of four or eight segments. Eyes
+eight on each side, on the top of the head. Legs long and slender.
+Saltatory appendage with a supplementary segment.
+
+Smynthurus. Antennae four-jointed, bent at the insertion of the fourth,
+which is nearly as long as the other three, and appears to consist of
+many small segments. No conspicuous dorsal tubercles. (In this country
+Fitch has described five species: S. arvalis, elegans, hortensis,
+Novaeboracensis, and signifer. Figure 156 represents a species found in
+Maine.)
+
+Dicyrtoma. Antennae eight-jointed, five before, three after the bend. Two
+dorsal tubercles on the abdomen.
+
+Papirius.[12] Antennae four-jointed, without a well-marked elbow, and
+with a short terminal segment offering the appearance of being
+many-jointed.
+
+PODURIDAE.--This family comprises those species of the old genus Podura,
+in which the mouth has mandibles [also maxillae and a labium], and the
+body is elongated, with a more or less developed saltatory appendage at
+the posterior extremity.
+
+Orchesella. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed with clubbed hairs. Antennae long, six-jointed. Eyes six in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (One or two beautiful
+species live about Salem.)
+
+[Illustration: 168. Degeeria.]
+
+Degeeria. Segments of the body unequal in size, more or less thickly
+clothed by clubbed hairs. Antennae longer than the head and thorax,
+filiform, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side of the head.
+(Two species, Degeeria decem-fasciata, Pl. 10, Figs. 2, 3, and D.
+purpurascens, Figs. 4, 5, are figured in the "Guide to the Study of
+Insects." Figure 168 represents a species found in Salem, Mass., closely
+allied to the European D. nivalis. Five species are already known in New
+England.)
+
+Seira. Body covered with scales. Antennae four-jointed; terminal segment
+not ringed. Eyes on a dark patch. Thorax not projecting over the head.
+Abdominal segments unequal.
+
+Templetonia. Segments of the body subequal, clothed by clubbed hairs,
+and provided with scales. Antennae longer than the head and thorax,
+five-jointed, with a small basal segment, and with the terminal portion
+ringed.
+
+Isotoma. Four anterior abdominal segments subequal, two posterior ones
+small; body clothed with simple hairs and without scales. Antennae
+four-jointed, longer than the head; segments subequal. Eyes seven in
+number on each side, arranged in the form of an S. (Three species are
+found in Massachusetts, one of which (I. plumbea) is figured on Pl. 10,
+Figs. 6, 7, of the "Guide to the Study of Insects," third edition.)
+
+Tomocerus. Abdominal segments unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antennae very long, four-jointed, the two terminal segments ringed. Eyes
+seven in number on each side. (The European T. plumbea, Podura plumbea
+of authors, is our species, and is common. Fig. 160, greatly enlarged,
+copied from Templeton; Fig. 159, side view, see also Fig. 161, where the
+mouth-parts are greatly enlarged, the lettering being the same, _md_,
+mandibles; _mx_, maxillae; _mp_, maxillary palpus; _lb_, labium; _lp_,
+labial palpus; _lc_, lacinia; _g_, portion ending in three teeth; _l_,
+lobe of labium; _sp_, ventral sucking disk; the dotted line's passing
+through the body represent the course of the intestine; _b_, end of
+tibia, showing the tarsus, with the claw, and two accessory spines; _a_,
+third joint of the spring. Fig. 162, lacinia of maxilla greatly
+enlarged. Fig. 169, different forms of scales, showing the great
+variation in size and form, the narrow ones running into a linear form,
+becoming hairs. The markings are also seen to vary, showing, their
+unreliable character as test objects, unless a single scale is kept for
+use.)
+
+[Illustration: 169. Scales of Tomocerus.]
+
+[Illustration: 170. Lepidocyrtus.]
+
+[Illustration: 171. Scale of Lepidocyrtus.]
+
+Lepidocyrtus. Abdominal segment unequal, with simple hairs and scales.
+Antennae long, four-jointed. Eyes eight in number on each side. (Fig.
+170, L. albinos, an European species, from Hardwicke's "Science Gossip."
+Fig. 171, a scale. Two species live in New England.)
+
+Podura. Abdominal segments subequal. Hairs simple, no scales. Antennae
+four-jointed, shorter than the head. Eyes eight in number on each side.
+Saltatory appendage of moderate length.
+
+[Illustration: 172. Achorutes.]
+
+Achorutes. Abdominal segments subequal. Antennae short, four-jointed.
+Eyes eight in number on each side. Saltatory appendage quite short.
+
+Figure 172 represents a species of this genus very abundant under the
+bark of trees, etc., in New England. It is of a blackish lead color;
+_a_, end of tibia bearing a tenant hair, with the tarsal joint and large
+claw; _b_, spring; _c_, the third joint of the spring, with the little
+spine at the base; figure 163, the supposed ovipositor; _a_, the two
+blades spread apart; _b_, side view. The mouth-parts in this genus are
+much as in Tomocerus, the maxillae ending in a lacinia and palpus.
+
+[Illustration: 173. Lipura fimetaria.]
+
+The three remaining genera, Lipura, Anurida and Anura, are placed in the
+"family" Lipuridae, which have no spring. Lubbock remarks that "this
+family contains as yet only two[13] genera, Lipura (Burmeister), in
+which the mouth is composed of the same parts as those in the preceding
+genera, and Anura (Gervais), in which the mandibles and maxillae
+disappear." Our common white Lipura is the European L. fimetaria Linn.
+(Fig. 173, copied from Lubbock). The site of the spring is indicated by
+an oval scar.
+
+[Illustration: 174. 176. 175.
+
+Anurida maritima.]
+
+Figure 174 represents Anurida maritima found under stones between tide
+marks at Nantucket. It is regarded the same as the European species by
+Lubbock, to whom I had sent specimens for comparison. This genus differs
+in the form of the head from Lipura and also wants the terminal upcurved
+spines, while the antennae are much more pointed. The legs (Fig. 175) end
+in a large, long, curved claw. On examining specimens soaked in potash,
+I have found that the mouth-parts of this species (Fig. 176,) _md_,
+mandibles; _mx_, maxillae; _e_, eyes, and a singular accessory group of
+small cells, are like those of Achorutes, as previously noticed by
+Laboulbene. The mandibles, like those of other Poduras, end in from
+three to six teeth, and have a broad, many-toothed molar surface below.
+The maxillae; end in a tridentate lacinia as usual, though the palpi and
+galea I have not yet studied.
+
+The genus Anura may be readily recognized by the mouth ending in an
+acutely conical beak, with its end quite free from the head and hanging
+down beneath it. The body is short and broad, much tuberculated, while
+the antennae are short and pointed, and the legs are much shorter than in
+Lipura, not reaching more than a third of their length beyond the body.
+Our common form occurs under the bark of trees.
+
+For the reason that I can find no valid characters for separating these
+three genera as a family from the other Poduras, I am inclined to think
+that they form, by the absence of the spring, only a subdivision
+(perhaps a subfamily) of the Poduridae.
+
+The best way to collect Poduras is, on turning up the stick or stone on
+the under side of which they live, to place a vial over them, allowing
+them to leap into it; they may be incited to leap by pushing a needle
+under the vial. They may also be collected by a bottle with a sponge
+saturated with ether or chloroform. They may be kept alive for weeks by
+keeping moist slips of blotting paper in the vial. In this way I have
+kept specimens of Degeeria, Tomocerus and Orchesella, from the middle of
+December till late in January. During this time they occasionally
+moulted, and Tomocerus plumbeus, after shedding its skin, ate it within
+a few hours. Poduras feed ordinarily on vegetable matter, such as dead
+leaves and growing cryptogamic vegetation. These little creatures can be
+easily preserved in a mixture of alcohol and glycerine, or pure alcohol,
+though without the glycerine the colors fade.
+
+We have entered more fully in this chapter into the details of structure
+than heretofore, too much so, perhaps, for the patience of our readers.
+But the study of the Poduras possesses the liveliest interest, since
+these lowest of all the six-footed insects may have been among the
+earliest land animals, and hence to them we may look with more or less
+success for the primitive, ancestral forms of insect life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 9: Nicolet, in the "Annales de la Societe Entomologique de
+France" (tome v, 1847), has given us the most comprehensive essay on the
+group, though Latreille had previously published an important essay, "De
+l'Organization Exterieure des Thysanoures" in the "Nouvelles Annales du
+Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1832," which I have not seen.
+Gervais has also given a useful account of them in the third volume of
+"Apteres" of Roret's Suite a Buffion,
+published in 1844.
+
+The Abbe Bourlet, Templeton, Westwood, and Haliday have published
+important papers on the Thysanura; and Meinert, a Danish naturalist, and
+Olfers, a German anatomist, have published important papers on the
+anatomy of the group. In this country Say and Fitch have described less
+than a dozen species, and the writer has described two American species
+of Campodea, C. Americana, our common form, and C. Cookei, discovered by
+Mr. C. Cooke in Mammoth Cave, while Humbert has described in a French
+scientific journal a species of Jupyx (J. Saussurii) from Mexico.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The direct homology of these parts of the head (the
+occiput and the epicranium) with Perla, Forficula, etc., seems to me the
+best evidence we could have that the Podurae are not an independent
+group. In these most fundamental characters they differ widely from the
+Myriopods. I am not aware that this important relation has been
+appreciated by observers.]
+
+[Footnote 11: As we descend to the soft, tube-like, suctorial (?) mouth
+of Anura, which is said not to have hard mouth-parts, we see the final
+point of degradation to which the mouth of the Thysanura is carried. I
+think that this gradual degradation of the mouth-parts in this group
+indicates that the appendages in these animals are not formed on an
+independent type, intermediate, so to speak, between the mandibulate and
+haustellate types, but are simply a modification (through disuse) of the
+mandibulate type as seen in Neuropterous insects.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Lubbock considers that Papirius should be placed in a
+distinct family from Smynthurus, because it wants tracheae. Their
+presence or absence scarcely seems to us to be a family character, as
+they are wanting in the Poduridae, and are not essential to the life of
+these animals, while in other respects Papirius seems to differ but
+slightly from Smynthurus.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Dr. Laboulbene has recently, and we think with good
+reason, separated Anura maritima from the genus Anura, under the name of
+Anurida maritima.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HINTS ON THE ANCESTRY OF INSECTS.
+
+
+[Illustration: 177. Pentastoma.]
+
+[Illustration: 178. Centipede.]
+
+Though our course through the different groups of insects may have
+seemed rambling and desultory enough, and pursued with slight reference
+to a natural classification of the insects of which we have spoken, yet
+beginning with the Hive bee, the highest intelligence in the vast world
+of insects, we have gradually, though with many a sudden step, descended
+to perhaps the most lowly organized forms among all the insects, the
+parasitic mites. While the Demodex is probably the humblest in its
+organization of any of the insects we have treated of, there is still
+another mite, which, some eminent naturalists continue to regard as a
+worm, which is yet lower in the scale. This is the Pentastoma (Fig. 177,
+P. taenioides), which lives in the manner of the tape worm a parasitic
+life in the higher animals, though instead of inhabiting the alimentary
+canal, the worm-like mite takes up its abode in the nostrils and frontal
+sinus of dogs and sheep, and sometimes of the horse. At first, however,
+it is found in the liver or lungs of various animals, sometimes in man.
+It is then in the earliest or larval state, and assumes its true mite
+form, being oval in shape, with minute horny jaws adapted for boring,
+and with two pairs of legs armed with sharp retractile claws. Such an
+animal as this is little higher than some worms, and indeed is lower
+than many of them.
+
+We should also not pass over in silence the Centipedes (Fig. 178,
+Scolopocryptops sexspinosa) and Galley worms, or Thousand legs and their
+allies (Myriopods), which by their long slender bodies, and great number
+of segments and feet, vaguely recall the worms. But they, with the
+mites, are true insects, as they are born with only three pairs of feet,
+as are the mites and ticks, and breathe by tracheae; and thus a common
+plan of structure underlies the entire class of insects.
+
+[Illustration: 179. Young Pauropus.]
+
+[Illustration: 180. Spring-tail.]
+
+[Illustration: 181. Young Julus.]
+
+A very strange Myriopod has been discovered by Sir John Lubbock in
+Europe, and we have been fortunate enough to find a species in this
+country. It is the Pauropus. It consists, when fully grown, of nine
+segments, exclusive of the head, bearing nine pairs of feet. The young
+of Pauropus (Fig. 179) is born with three pairs of feet, and in its
+general appearance reminds us of a spring-tail (Fig. 180) as may be seen
+by a glance at the cut. This six-legged form of Pauropus may also be
+compared with the young galley worm (Fig. 181).
+
+[Illustration: 182. Leptus.]
+
+[Illustration: 183. Tardigrade.]
+
+Passing to the group of spiders and mites, we find that the young mites
+when first hatched have but three pairs of feet, while their parents
+have four, like the spiders. Figure 182 represents the larva (Leptus)
+of the red garden mites; while a figure of the "water bear," or
+Tardigrade (Fig. 183), is introduced to compare with it, as it bears a
+resemblance to the young of the mites, though their young are born with
+their full complement of legs, an exception to their nearest allies, the
+true mites. Now if we compare these early stages of mites and myriopods
+with those of the true six-footed insects, as in the larval Meloe,
+Cicada, Thrips and Dragon fly, we shall see quite plainly that they all
+share a common form. What does this mean? To the systematist who
+concerns himself with the classification of the myriads of different
+insects now living, it is a relief to find that all can be reduced to
+the comparatively simple forms sketched above. It is to him a proof of
+the unity of organization pervading the world of insects. He sees how
+nature, seizing upon this archetypal form has, by simple modifications
+of parts here and there, by the addition of wings and other organs
+wanting in these simple creatures, rung numberless changes in this
+elemental form. And starting from the simplest kinds, such as the
+Poduras, Spiders, Grasshoppers and May flies, allied creatures which we
+now know were the first to appear in the earlier geologic ages, we rise
+to the highest, the bees with their complex forms, their diversified
+economy and wonderful instincts. In ascending this scale of being, while
+there is a progress upwards, the beetles, for instance, being higher
+than the bugs and grasshoppers; and the butterflies and moths, on the
+whole, being more highly organized than the flies; and while we see the
+hymenopterous saw-flies, with their larvae mimicking so closely the
+caterpillars of the butterflies, in the progress from the saw-flies up
+to the bees we behold a gradual loss of the lower saw-fly characters in
+the Cynips and Chalcid flies, and see in the sand-wasps and true wasps
+a constant and accelerating likeness to the bee form. Yet this
+continuity of improving organizations is often broken, and we often see
+insects which recall the earlier and more elementary forms.
+
+[Illustration: 184. Male Stylops.]
+
+Again, going back of the larval period, and studying the insect in the
+egg, we find that nearly all the insects yet observed agree most
+strikingly in their mode of growth, so that, for instance, the earlier
+stages of the germ of a bee, fly or beetle, bear a remarkable
+resemblance to each other, and suggest again, more forcibly than when we
+examine the larval condition, that a common design or pattern at first
+pervades all. In the light of the studies of Von Baer, of Lamarck and
+Darwin, should we be content to stop here, or does this ideal archetype
+become endowed with life and have a definite existence, becoming the
+ancestral form of all insects, the prototype which gave birth to the
+hundreds of thousands of insect forms which are now spread over our
+globe, just as we see daily happens where a single aphis may become the
+progenitor of a million offspring clustering on the same tree? Is there
+not something more than analogy in the two things, and is not the same
+life-giving force that evolves a million young Aphides from the germ
+stock of a single Aphis in a single season, the same in kind with the
+production of the living races of insects from a primeval ancestor? When
+we see the Aphis giving origin in one season to successive generations,
+the individuals of which may be counted by the million, it is no less
+mysterious than that other succession of forms of insect life which has
+peopled the globe during the successive chapters of its history. While
+we see in one case the origin of individual forms, and cannot explain
+what it is that starts the life in the germ and so unerringly guides the
+course of the growing embryo, it is illogical to deny that the same
+life-giving force is concerned in the production of specific and generic
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: 185. Female Stylops.]
+
+Who can explain the origin of the sexes? What is the cause that
+determines that one individual in a brood of Stylops, for example (Fig.
+184, male; Fig. 185, grub-like female in the body of its host), shall be
+but a grub, living as a parasite in the body of its host, while its
+fellow shall be winged and as free in its actions as the most highly
+organized insect? It is no less mysterious, because it daily occurs
+before our eyes. So perhaps none the less mysterious, and no more
+discordant with known natural laws may the law that governs the origin
+of species seem to those who come after us. Certainly the present
+attempts to discover that law, however fatuitous they may seem to many,
+are neither illogical, nor, judging by the impetus already given to
+biology, or the science of life, labor altogether spent in vain. The
+theory of evolution is a powerful tool, when judiciously used, that must
+eventually wrest many a secret from the grasp of nature.
+
+But whether true or unproved, the theory of evolution in some shape has
+actually been adopted by the large proportion of naturalists, who find
+it indispensable in their researches, and it will be used until found
+inadequate to explain facts. Notwithstanding the present distrust, and
+even fear, with which it is received by many, we doubt not but that in
+comparatively few years all will acknowledge that the theory of
+evolution will be to biology what the nebular hypothesis is to geology,
+or the atomic theory is to chemistry. While the evolution theory is as
+yet imperfect, and many objections, some seemingly insuperable, can be
+raised against it, it should be borne in mind that the nebular
+hypothesis is still comparatively crude and unsatisfactory, though
+indispensable as a working theory to the geologist; and in chemistry,
+though the atomic theory may not be satisfactorily demonstrated to some
+minds until an atom is actually brought to sight, it is yet invaluable
+in research.
+
+Many short sighted persons complain that such a theory sets in the
+back-ground the idea of a personal Creator; but minds no less devout,
+and perhaps a trifle more thoughtful, see the hand of a Creator not less
+in the evolution of plants and animals from preexistent forms, through
+natural laws, than in the evolution of a summer's shower, through the
+laws discovered by the meteorologist, who looks back through myriads of
+ages to the causes that led to the distribution of mountain chains,
+ocean currents and trade winds, which combine to produce the necessary
+conditions resulting in that shower.
+
+Indeed, to the student of nature, the evolution theory in biology, with
+the nebular hypothesis, and the grand law in physics of the correlation
+of forces, all interdependent, and revealing to us the mode in which the
+Creator of the Universe works in the world of matter, together form an
+immeasurably grander conception of the order of creation and its
+Ordainer, than was possible for us to form before these laws were
+discovered and put to practical use. We may be allowed, then, in a
+reverent spirit of inquiry, to attempt to trace the ancestry of the
+insects, and without arriving, perhaps, at any certain result, for it is
+largely a matter of speculation, point out certain facts, the thoughtful
+consideration of which may throw light on this difficult and
+embarrassing question.
+
+Without much doubt the Poduras are the lowest of the six-footed insects.
+They are more embryonic in their appearance than others, as seen in the
+large size of the head compared with the rest of the body, the large,
+clumsy legs, and the equality in the size of the several segments
+composing the body. In other characters, such as the want of compound
+eyes, the absence of wings, the absence of a complete ovipositor, and
+the occasional want of tracheae, they stand at the base of the insect
+series. That they are true insects, however, we endeavored to show in
+the previous chapter, and that they are neuropterous, we think is most
+probable, since not only in the structure of the insect after birth do
+they agree with the larvae of certain neuropters, but, as we have shown
+in another place[14] in comparing the development of Isotoma, a Poduran,
+with that of a species of Caddis fly, the correspondence throughout the
+different embryological stages, nearly up to the time of hatching, is
+very striking. And it is a remarkable fact, as we have previously
+noticed, that when it begins to differ from the Caddis fly embryo, it
+begins to assume the Poduran characters, and its development
+consequently in some degree retrogrades, just as in the lice previous to
+hatching, as we have shown in a previous chapter, so that I think we are
+warranted at present in regarding the Thysanura, and especially the
+family of Podarids as degraded neuropters. Consequently the Poduras did
+not have an independent origin and do not, perhaps, represent a distinct
+branch of the genealogical tree of articulates. While the Poduras may be
+said to form a specialized type, the Bristle-tails (Lepisma, Machilis,
+Nicoletia and Campodea) are, as we have seen, much more highly
+organized, and form a generalized or comprehensive type. They resemble
+in their general form the larva of Ephemerids, and perhaps more closely
+the immature Perla, and also the wingless cockroaches.
+
+[Illustration: 186. Embryo of Diplax.]
+
+[Illustration: 187. Embryo of Louse.]
+
+Now such forms as these Thysanura, together with the mites and the
+singular Pauropus, we cannot avoid suspecting to have been among the
+earliest to appear upon the earth, and putting together the facts,
+first, of their low organization; secondly, of their comprehensive
+structure, resembling the larvae of other insects; and thirdly, of their
+probable great antiquity, we naturally look to them as being related in
+form to what we may conceive to have been the ancestor of the class of
+insects. Not that the animals mentioned above were the actual ancestors,
+but that certain insects bearing a greater resemblance to them than any
+others with which we are acquainted, and belonging possibly to families
+and orders now extinct, were the prototypes and progenitors of the
+insects now known.
+
+[Illustration: 188. Embryo of Spider.]
+
+[Illustration: 189. Embryo of Podura.]
+
+Though the study of the embryology of insects is as yet in its infancy,
+still with the facts now in our possession we can state with tolerable
+certainty that at first the embryos of all insects are remarkably alike,
+and the process of development is much the same in all, as seen in the
+figure of Diplax (Fig. 186), the louse (Fig. 187), the spider (Fig. 188)
+and the Podura (Fig. 189), and we could give others bearing the same
+likeness. We notice that at a certain period in the life of the embryo
+all agree in having the head large, and bearing from two to four pairs
+of mouth organs, resembling the legs; the thorax is merged in with the
+abdomen, and the general form of the embryo is ovate. Now this general
+embryonic form characterizes the larva of the mites, of the myriopods
+and of the true insects. To such a generalized embryonic form to which
+the insects may be referred as the descendants, we would give the name
+of _Leptus_, as among Crustacea the ancestral form is referred to
+Nauplius, a larval form of the lower Crustacea, and through which the
+greater part of the Crabs, Shrimps, Barnacles, water fleas, etc., pass
+to attain their definite adult condition. A little water flea was
+described as a separate genus, Nauplius, before it was known to be the
+larva of a higher water flea, and so also Leptus was thought to be a
+mature mite. Accordingly, we follow the usage of certain naturalists in
+dealing with the Crustacea, and propose for this common primitive larval
+condition of insects the term Leptus.
+
+[Illustration: 190. Zoea.]
+
+The first to discuss this subject of the ancestry of insects was Fritz
+Mueller, who in his "Fuer Darwin,"[15] published in 1863, says, at the end
+of his work, "Having reached the Nauplius, the extreme outpost of the
+class, retiring farthest into the gray mist of primitive time, we
+naturally look round us to see whether ways may not be descried thence
+towards other bordering regions. * * * But I can see nothing certain.
+Even towards the nearer provinces of the Myriopoda and Arachnida I can
+find no bridge. For the Insecta alone, the development of the
+Malacostraca [Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, etc.] may perhaps present a
+point of union. Like many Zoeae, the Insecta possess three pairs of limbs
+serving for the reception of nourishment, and three pairs serving for
+locomotion; like the Zoeae they have an abdomen without appendages; as in
+all Zoeae the mandibles in Insecta are destitute of palpi. Certainly but
+little in common, compared with the much which distinguishes these two
+animal forms. Nevertheless, the supposition that the Insecta had for
+their common ancestor a Zoea which raised itself into a life on land,
+may be recommended for further examination" (p. 140).
+
+Afterwards Haeckel in his "Generelle Morphologie" (1866) and "History of
+Creation," published in 1868, reiterates the notion that the insects are
+derived from the larva (Zoea, Fig. 190) of the crabs, though he is
+doubtful whether they did not originate directly from the worms.[16]
+
+It may be said in opposition to the view that the insects came
+originally from the same early crustacean resembling the larva of a crab
+or shrimp, that the differences between the two types are too great, or,
+in other words, the homologies of the two classes too remote,[17] and
+the two types are each too specialized to lead us to suppose that one
+was derived from the other. Moreover, we find through the researches of
+Messrs. Hartt and Scudder that there were highly developed insects, such
+as May flies, grasshoppers, etc., in the Devonian rocks of New
+Brunswick, leading us to expect the discovery of low insects even in the
+Upper Silurian rocks. At any rate this discovery pushes back the origin
+of insects beyond a time when there were true Zoeae, as the shrimps and
+their allies are not actually known to exist so far back as the
+Silurian, not having as yet been found below the coal measures.
+
+
+The view that the insects were derived from a Zoea was also sustained by
+Friedrich Brauer, the distinguished entomologist of Vienna, in a
+paper[18] read in March, 1869. Following the suggestion of Fritz Mueller
+and Haeckel, he derives the ancestry of insects from the Zoea of crabs
+and shrimps. However, he regards the Podurids as the more immediate
+ancestors of the true insects, selecting Campodea as the type of such an
+ancestral form, remarking that the "Campodea-stage has for the Insects
+and Myriopods the same value as the Zoea for the Crustacea." He says
+nothing regarding the spiders and mites.
+
+At the same time[19] the writer, in criticising Haeckel's views of the
+derivation of insects from the Crustacea (ignorant of the fact that he
+had also suggested that the insects were possibly derived directly from
+the worms, and also independently of Brauer's opinions) declared his
+belief that though it seemed premature, after the discovery of highly
+organized winged insects in rocks so ancient as the Devonian, and with
+the late discovery of a land plant in the Lower Silurian rocks of
+Sweden,[20] to even guess as to the ancestry of insects, yet he would
+suggest that, instead of being derived from some Zoea, "the ancestors of
+the insects (including the six-footed insects, spiders and myriopods)
+must have been worm-like and aquatic, and when the type became
+terrestrial we would imagine a form somewhat like the young Pauropus,
+which combines in a remarkable degree the characters of the myriopods
+and the degraded wingless insects, such as the Smynthurus, Podura, etc.
+Some such forms may have been introduced late in the Silurian period,
+for the interesting discoveries of fossil insects in the Devonian of New
+Brunswick, by Messrs. Hartt and Scudder, and those discovered by Messrs.
+Meek and Worthen in the lower part of the Coal Measures at Morris,
+Illinois, and described by Mr. Scudder, reveal carboniferous myriopods
+(two species of Euphorberia) more highly organized than Pauropus, and a
+carboniferous scorpion (Buthus?) closely resembling a species now living
+in California, together with another scorpion-like animal, Mazonia
+Woodiana, while the Devonian insects described from St. John by Mr.
+Scudder, are nearly as highly organized as our grasshoppers and May
+flies. Dr. Dawson has also discovered a well developed milleped
+(Xylobius) in the Lower Coal Measures of Nova Scotia; so that we must go
+back to the Silurian period in our search for the earliest ancestor, or
+(if not of Darwinian proclivities) prototype, of insects."
+
+Afterwards[21] the writer, carrying out the idea suggested above,
+"referred the ancestry of the Myriopods, Arachnids, and Hexapodous
+insects to a Leptus-like terrestrial animal, bearing a vague resemblance
+to the Nauplius form among Crustacea, inasmuch as the body is not
+differentiated into a head, thorax and abdomen [though the head may be
+free from the rest of the body] and there are three pairs of temporary
+locomotive appendages. Like Nauplius, which was first supposed to be an
+adult Entomostracan, the larval form of Trombidium had been described as
+a genus of mites under the name of Leptus (also Ocypete and Astoma) and
+was supposed to be adult."
+
+In the same year Sir John Lubbock[22] agrees with Brauer that the groups
+represented by Podura and Campodea may have been the ancestors of the
+insects, remarking that "the genus Campodea must be regarded as a form
+of remarkable interest, since it is the living representative of a
+primaeval type from which not only the Collembola (Podura, etc.) and
+Thysanura, but the other great orders of insects, have all derived their
+origin."
+
+The comparison of the Leptus with the Nauplius, or pre-Zoeal stage of
+Crustacea, is much more natural. But here we are met with apparently
+insuperable difficulties. While the Nauplius (Fig. 191) has but three
+pairs of appendages, which become the two pairs of antennae and
+succeeding pair of limbs of the adult, in the Leptus as the least number
+we have five pairs, two of which belong to the head (the maxillae and
+mandibles) and three to the thorax; besides these is a true heed,
+distinct from the hinder region of the body. It is evident that the
+Leptus fundamentally differs from the Nauplius and begins life on a
+higher plane. We reject, therefore, the Crustacean origin of the
+insects. Our only refuge is in the worms, and how to account for the
+transmutation of any worm with which we are at present acquainted into a
+form like the Leptus, with its mandibulated mouth and jointed legs,
+seems at first well nigh impossible. We have the faintest possible
+indication in the structure of some mites, and of the Tardigrades and
+Pentastoma, where there is a striking recurrence, as we may term it, to
+a worm-like form, readily noticed by every observer, whatever his
+opinion may be on the developmental theory. In the Demodex we see a
+tendency of the mite to assume under peculiar circumstances an
+elongated, worm-like form. The mouth-parts are aborted (though from what
+we know of the embryology of other mites, they probably are indicated
+early in embryonic life), while the eight legs are not jointed, and form
+simple tubercles. In the Tardigrades, a long step lower, we have
+unjointed fleshy legs armed with from two to four claws, but the
+mouth-parts are essentially mite in character. A decided worm feature is
+the fact that they are hermaphrodites, each individual having ovaries
+and spermaries, as is the case with many worms.
+
+[Illustration: 191. Nauplius.]
+
+When we come to the singular creatures of which Pentastoma and
+Linguatula are the type, we have the most striking approximation to the
+worms in external form, but these are induced evidently by their
+parasitic mode of life. They lose the rudimentary jointed limbs which
+some (Linguatula especially) have well marked in the embryo, and from
+being oval, rudely mite-like in form, they elongate, and only the claws
+or simple curved hooks, like those of young tape worms, remain to
+indicate the original presence of true jointed legs.
+
+In seeking for the ancestry of our hypothetical Leptus among the worms,
+we are at best groping in the dark. We know of no ancestral form among
+the true Annelides, nor is it probable that it was derived from the
+intestinal worms. The only worm below the true Annelides that suggests
+any remote analogy to the insects is the singular and rare Peripatus,
+which lives on land in warm climates. Its body, not divided into rings,
+is provided with about thirty pairs of fleshy tubercles, each ending in
+two strong claws, and the head is adorned with a pair of fleshy
+tubercles. It is remotely possible that some Silurian land worm, if any
+such existed, allied to our living Peripatus, may have been the ancestor
+of a series of types now lost which resulted in an animal resembling the
+Leptus.
+
+[Illustration: 192. Platygaster error.]
+
+We may, however, as bearing upon this difficult question, cite some
+remarkable discoveries of Professor Ganin, a Russian naturalist, on the
+early stages of certain ichneumon parasites, which show some worm
+features in their embryonic development. In a species of Platygaster
+(Fig. 192, P. error of Fitch), which is a parasite on a two-winged gall
+fly, the earliest stage observed after the egg is laid is that in which
+the egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucleolus. Out of this
+cell (Fig. 193 _A_, _a_) arise two other cells. The central cell (_a_)
+gives origin to the embryo. The two outer ones multiply by subdivision
+and form the embryonal membrane, or "amnion," which is a provisional
+envelope and does not assist in building up the body of the germ. The
+central single cell, however, multiplies by the subdivision of its
+nucleus, thus building up the body of the germ. Figure 193 _B_, _g_,
+shows the yolk or germ just forming out of the nuclei (_a_) and _b_, the
+peripheral cells of the blastoderm skin, or "amnion." Figure 193 _C_
+shows the yolk transformed into the embryo (_g_), with the outer layer
+of blastodermic cells (_b_). The body of the germ is infolded, so that
+the embryo appears bent on itself. Figure 193 _D_ shows the embryo much
+farther advanced, with the two pairs of lobes (_md_, rudimentary
+mandibles; _d_, rudimentary pad-like organs, seen in a more advanced
+stage in _E_), and the bilobate tail (_st_). Figure 194 (_m_, mouth;
+_at_, rudimentary antennae; _md_, mandibles; _d_, tongue-like appendages;
+_st_, anal stylets; the subject of this figure is of a different species
+from the insect previously figured, which, however, it closely
+resembles) shows the first larva stage after leaving the egg. This
+strange form, the author remarks, would scarcely be thought an insect,
+were not its origin and farther development known, but rather a
+parasitic Copepodous crustacean, whence he calls this the Cyclops-like
+stage. In this condition it clings to the inside of its
+host by means of its hook-like jaws (_md_), moving about like a Cestodes
+embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and down, and is
+of but little assistance in its efforts to change its place. Singularly
+enough, the nervous, vascular, and respiratory systems (tracheae) are
+wanting, and the alimentary canal is a blind sac, remaining in an
+indifferent, or unorganized state. How long it remains in this state
+could not be ascertained.
+
+[Illustration: 193. Development of Platygaster.]
+
+[Illustration: 194. First Larva of Platygaster.]
+
+[Illustration: 195. Second Larva of Platygaster.]
+
+The second larval stage (Fig. 195; _oe_, oesophagus; _ng_,
+supra-oesophageal ganglion; _n_, nervous cord; _ga_, and _g_, genital
+organs; _ms_, band of muscles) is attained by means of a moult, as usual
+in the metamorphoses of insects. With the change of skin the larva
+entirely changes its form. So-called hypodermic cells are developed. The
+singular tail is dropped, the segments of the body disappear, and the
+body grows oval, while within begins a series of remarkable changes,
+like the ordinary development of the embryo of most other insects within
+the egg. The cells of the hypodermis multiply greatly, and lie one above
+the other in numerous layers. They give rise to a special primitive
+organ closely resembling the "primitive band" of all insect embryos. The
+alimentary canal is made anew, and the nervous and vascular systems now
+appear, but the tracheae are not yet formed. It remains in this state for
+a much longer period than in the previous stage.
+
+[Illustration: 196. Third Larva of Polynema.]
+
+The third larval form only a few live to reach. This is of the usual
+long, oval form of the larvae of the ichneumons, and the body has
+thirteen segments exclusive of the head. The muscular system has greatly
+developed and the larva is much more lively in its motions than before.
+The new organs that develop are the air tubes and fat bodies. The
+"imaginal disks" or rudimentary portions destined to develop and form
+the skin of the adult, or imago, arise in the pupa state, which
+resembles that of other ichneumons. These disks are only engaged, in
+Platygaster, in building up the rudimentary appendages, while in the
+flies (Muscidae and Corethra) they build up the whole body, according to
+the remarkable discovery of Weismann.
+
+Not less interesting is the history of the development of a species of
+Polynema, another egg-parasite, which lays its eggs (one, seldom two) in
+the eggs of a small dragon fly, Agrion virgo, which oviposits in the
+parenchyma of the leaves of waterlilies. The eggs develop as in
+Platygaster. The earliest stage of the embryo is very remarkable. It
+leaves the egg when very small and immovable, and with scarcely a trace
+of organization, being a mere flask-shaped sac of cells.[23] It remains
+in this state five or six days.
+
+In the second stage, or Histriobdella-like form, the larva is, in its
+general appearance, like the low worm to which Ganin compares it. It may
+be described as bearing a general resemblance to the third and fully
+developed larval form (Fig. 196, _tg_, three pairs of abdominal
+tubercles destined to form the sting; _l_, rudiments of the legs; _fk_,
+portion of the fatty body; _at_, rudiments of the antennae; _fl_,
+imaginal disks, or rudiments of the wings). No tracheae are developed in
+the larva, nor do any exist in the imago. (Ganin thinks, that as these
+insects are somewhat aquatic, the adult insects flying over the surface
+of the water, the wings may act as respiratory organs, like gills.) It
+lives six to seven days before pupating, and remains from ten to twelve
+days in the pupa state.
+
+The origin of the sting is clearly ascertained. Ganin shows that it
+consists of three pairs of tubercles, situated respectively on the
+seventh, eighth, and ninth segments of the abdomen (Fig. 196, _tg_). The
+labium is not developed from a pair of tubercles, as is usual, but at
+once appears as an unpaired, or single organ. The pupa state lasts for
+five or six days, and when the imago appears it eats its way through a
+small round opening in the end of the skin of its host, the Agrion
+larva.
+
+[Illustration: 197. Development of Egg-parasites.]
+
+The development of Ophloneurus, another egg-parasite, agrees with that
+of Platygaster and Polynema. This egg-parasite passes its early life in
+the eggs of Pieris brassicae, and two or three live to reach the imago
+state, though about six eggs are deposited by the female. The eggs are
+oval, and not stalked. The larva is at first of the form indicated by
+figure 197 _E_, and when fully grown becomes of a broad oval form, the
+body not being divided into segments. It differs from the genera already
+mentioned, in remaining within its egg membrane, and not assuming their
+strange forms. From the non-segmented, sac-like larva, it passes
+directly into the pupa state.
+
+The last egg-parasite noticed by Ganin, is Teleas, whose development
+resembles that of Platygaster. It is a parasite in the eggs of Gerris,
+the Water Boatman. Figure 197 _A_ represents the egg; _B_, _C_, and _D_,
+the first stage of the larva, the abdomen (or posterior division of the
+body) being furnished with a series of bristles on each side. (_B_
+represents the ventral, _C_ the dorsal, and _D_ the profile view; _at_,
+antennae; _md_, hook-like mandibles; _mo_, mouth; _b_, bristles; _m_,
+intestine; _sw_, the tail; _ul_, under lip or labium.) In the second
+larval stage, which is oval in form, and not segmented, the primitive
+band is formed.
+
+In concluding the account of his remarkable discoveries, Ganin draws
+attention to the great differences in the formation of the eggs and the
+germs of these parasites from what occurs in other insects. The egg has
+no nutritive cells; the formation of the primitive band, usually the
+first indication of the germ, is retarded till the second larval stage
+is attained; and the embryonal membrane is not homologous with the
+so-called "amnion" of other insects, but may possibly be compared with
+the skin developed on the upper side of the low, worm-like acarian,
+Pentastomum, and the "larval skin" of the embryos of many low Crustacea.
+He says, also, that we cannot, perhaps, find the homologues of the
+provisional organs of the larvae, such as the singularly shaped antennae,
+the claw-like mandibles, the tongue-or ear-like appendages, in other
+Arthropoda (insects and Crustacea); but that they may be found in the
+parasitic Lernaean crustaceans, and in the leeches, such as Histriobella.
+He is also struck by the similarity in the development of these
+egg-parasites to that of a kind of leech (Nephelis), the embryo of which
+is provided with ciliae, recalling the larva of Teleas (Fig. 197 _B_,
+_C_), while in the true leeches (Hirudo) the primitive band is not
+developed until after they have passed through a provisional larval
+stage.
+
+This complicated metamorphosis of the egg-parasites, Ganin also compares
+to the so-called "hyper-metamorphosis" of certain insects (Meloe,
+Sitaris, and the Stylopidae) made known by Siebold, Newport and Fabre,
+and he considers it to be of the same nature.
+
+He also, in closing, compares such early larval forms as those given in
+figures 193 _E_ and 194, to the free swimming Copepoda. Finally, he says
+a few words on the theory of evolution, and remarks "there is no doubt
+that, if a solution of the questions arising concerning the genealogical
+relations of different animals among themselves is possible, comparative
+embryology will afford the first and truest principles." He modestly
+suggests that the facts presented in his paper will widen our views on
+the genetic relations of the insects to other animals, and refers to the
+opinion first expressed by Fritz Mueller (Fuer Darwin, p. 91), and
+endorsed by Haeckel in his "Generelle Morphologie," that we must seek for
+the ancestors of insects and Arachnida in the Zoea form of Crustacea. He
+cautiously remarks, however, that "the embryos and larvae observed by me
+in the egg-parasites open up a new and wide field for a whole series of
+such considerations; but I will suppress them, since I am firmly
+convinced that a theory, which I build up to-day, can easily be
+destroyed with some few facts which I learn to-morrow. Since comparative
+embryology as a science does not yet exist, so do I think that all
+genetic theories are too premature, and without a strong scientific
+foundation."
+
+The writer is perhaps less cautious, but he cannot refrain from making
+some reflections suggested by the remarkable discoveries of Ganin. In
+the first place, these facts bear strongly on the theory of evolution by
+"acceleration and retardation." In the history of these early larval
+stages we see a remarkable acceleration in the growth of the embryo. A
+simple sac of unorganized cells, with a half-made intestine, so to
+speak, is hatched, and made to perform the duty of an ordinary, quite
+highly organized larva. Even the formation of the "primitive band,"
+usually the first indication of the organization of the germ, is
+postponed to a comparatively late period in larval life. The different
+anatomical systems, _i.e._, the heart with its vessels, the nervous
+system and the respiratory system (tracheae), appear at longer or shorter
+intervals, while in one genus the tracheae are not developed at all. Thus
+some portions of the animal are accelerated in their development more
+than others, while others are retarded, and in some species certain
+organs are not developed at all. Meanwhile all live in a fluid medium,
+with much the same habits, and surrounded with quite similar physical
+conditions.
+
+The highest degree of acceleration is seen in the reproductive organs
+of the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor, which produces a summer brood of
+young, alive, and living free in the body of the child-parent; and in
+the pupa of Chironomus, which has been recently shown by Von Grimm, a
+fellow countryman of Ganin, to produce young in the spring, while the
+adult fly lays eggs in the autumn in the usual manner. This is in fact a
+true virgin reproduction, and directly comparable to the alternation of
+generations observed in the jelly fishes, in Salpa, and certain
+intestinal worms. We can now, in the light of the researches of Siebold,
+Leuckart, Ganin and others, trace more closely than ever the connection
+between simple growth and metamorphosis, and metamorphosis and
+parthenogenesis, and perceive that they are but the terms of a single
+series. By the acceleration in the development of a single set of organs
+(the reproductive), no more wonderful than the acceleration and
+retardation of the other systems of organs, so clearly pointed out in
+the embryos of Platygaster and its allies, we see how parthenogenesis
+under certain conditions may result. The barren Platygaster larva, the
+fertile Cecidomyia larva, the fertile Aphis larva, the fertile
+Chironomus pupa, the fertile hydroid polype, and the fertile adult queen
+bee are simply animals in different degrees of organization, and with
+reproductive systems differing not in quality, but in the greater or
+less rapidity of their development as compared with the rest of the
+body.
+
+Another interesting point is, that while the larvae vary so remarkably in
+form, the adult ichneumon flies are remarkably similar to one another.
+Do the differences in their larval history seem to point back to certain
+still more divergent ancestral forms?
+
+These remarkable hyper-metamorphoses remind us of the metamorphosis of
+the embryo of Echinoderms into the Pluteus-and Bipinnaria-forms of the
+starfish, sea urchins and Holothurians;[24] of the Actinotrocha-form
+larva of the Sipunculoid worms; of the Tornaria into Balanoglossus, the
+worm; of the Cercaria-form larva of Distoma; of the Pilidium-form larva
+of Nemertes; and the larval forms of the leeches;[25] as well as the
+mite Pentastomum, and certain other aberrant mites, such as Myobia.
+
+While Fritz Mueller and Dohrn have considered the insects as having
+descended from the Crustacea (some primitive zoea-form), and Dohrn has
+adduced the supposed zoea-form larva of these egg-parasites as a proof,
+we cannot but think, in a subject so purely speculative as the ancestry
+of animals, that the facts brought out by Ganin tend to confirm our
+theory, that the ancestry of all the insects (including the Arachnids
+and Myriopods) should be traced directly to the worms. The development
+of the degraded, aberrant Arachnidan Pentastomum accords, in some
+important respects, with that of the intestinal worms. The Leptus-form
+larva of Julus, with its strange embryological development, in some
+respects so like that of some worms, points in that direction, as
+certainly as does the embryological development of the egg-parasite
+Ophioneurus. The Nauplius form of the embryo or larva of nearly all
+Crustacea, also points back to the worms as their ancestors, the
+divergence having perhaps originated, as we have suggested, in the
+Rotatoria.
+
+While the Crustacea may have resulted from a series of prototypes
+leading up from the Rotifers (Fig. 198), it is barely possible that one
+of these creatures may have given rise to a form resulting in two series
+of beings, one leading to the Leptus form, the other to the Nauplius.
+For the true Annelides (Chaetopods) are too circumscribed and homogeneous
+a group to allow us to look to them for the ancestral forms of insects.
+But that the insects may have descended from some low worms is not
+improbable when we reflect that the Syllis and allied genera of
+Annelides bear appendages consisting of numerous joints; indeed, the
+strange Dujardinia rotifers, figured by Quatrefages, in its general form
+is remarkably like the larva of Chloeon. It has a quite distinct head,
+bearing five long, slender, jointed antennae, and but eight or nine rings
+to the body, which ends in two long, many jointed appendages exactly
+like the tentacles. Quatrefages adds, that its movements are usually
+slow, but "when it wishes to move more rapidly, it moves its body
+alternately up and down with much vivacity, and shoots forwards by
+bounds, so to speak, a little after the manner of the larvae of the
+mosquito" (Histoire Naturelle des Anneles, Tome 2, p. 69). The gills of
+aquatic insects only differ from those of worms in possessing tracheae,
+though the gills of the Crustacea may be directly compared with those of
+insects.
+
+[Illustration: 198. A Rotifer.]
+
+But when once inside the circle of the class of insects the ground is
+firmer, as our knowledge is surer. Granting now that the Leptus-like
+ancestor of the six-footed insects has become established, it is not so
+difficult to see how the Podurae and finally a form like Campodea
+appeared. Aquatic forms resembling the larva of the Ephemerae, Perlae and,
+more remotely, the Forficulae and white ants of to-day were probably
+evolved with comparative suddenness. Given the evolution of forms like
+the earwigs (Forficula), cockroaches and white ants (Termes), the latter
+of which abounded in the coal period, and it was not a great step
+forward to the evolution of the Dragonflies, the Psocus, the Chrysopa,
+the lice or parasitic Hemiptera, together with Thrips, thus forming the
+establishment of lines of development leading up to those Neuroptera
+with a complete metamorphosis, and finally to the grasshoppers and other
+forms of Orthoptera, together with the Hemiptera.
+
+[Illustration: 199. Chrysopa.]
+
+[Illustration: 200. Panorpa.]
+
+We have thus advanced from wingless to winged forms, _i. e._, from
+insects without a metamorphosis to those with a partial metamorphosis
+like the Perlas; to the May flies and Dragon flies, in which the adult
+is still more unlike the larva; to the Chrysopa (Fig. 199) and Forceps
+Tails (Panorpa, Fig. 200) and Caddis flies, in which, especially the
+latter, the metamorphosis is complete, the pupa being inactive and
+enclosed in a cocoon.
+
+[Illustration: 201. Embryo of Diplax.]
+
+Having assumed the creation of our Leptus by evolutional laws, we must
+now account for the appearance of tracheae and those organs so dependent
+on them, the wings, which, by their presence and consequent changes in
+the structure of the crust of the body, afford such distinctive
+characters to the flying insects, and raise them so far above the
+creeping spiders and centipedes. Our Leptus at first undoubtedly
+breathed through the skin, as do most of the Poduras, since we have been
+unable to find tracheae in them, nor even in the prolarva of a genus of
+minute ichneumon egg parasites, nor in the Linguatulae and Tardigrades,
+and some mites, such as the Itch insect and the Demodex, and other
+Acari. In the Myriopod, Pauropus, Lubbock was unable to find any traces
+of tracheae. If we examine the embryo of an insect shortly before birth,
+as in the young Dragon fly (figure 201, the dotted line _t_ crosses the
+rudimentary tracheae), we find it to consist of two simple tubes with
+few branches, while there are no stigmata, or breathing holes, to be
+seen in the sides of the body. This fact sustains the view of
+Gegenbaur[26] that at first the tracheae formed two simple tubes in the
+body-cavity, and that the primary office of these tubes was for
+lightening the body, and that their function as respiratory tubes was a
+secondary one. The aquatic Protoleptus, as we may term the ancestor of
+Leptus, may have had such tubes as these, which acted like the swimming
+bladder of fishes for lightening the body, as suggested by Gegenbaur. It
+is known that the swimming bladder of fishes becomes developed into the
+lungs of air-breathing vertebrates and man himself. As our Leptus
+adopted a terrestrial life and needed more air, a connection was
+probably formed by a minute branch on each side of the body with some
+minute pore (for such exist, whose uses are as yet unknown) through the
+skin, which finally became specialized into a stigma, or breathing pore;
+and from the tracheal system being closed, we now have the open tracheal
+system of land insects.
+
+The next inquiry is as to the origin of the wings. Here the question
+arises if wingless forms are exceptional among the winged insects, and
+the loss of wings is obviously dependent on the habits (as in the lice),
+and environment of the species (as in beetles living on islands, which
+are apt to lose the hinder pair of wings), why may not their acquisition
+in the first place have been due to external agencies; and, as they are
+suddenly discarded, why may they not have suddenly appeared in the first
+place? In aquatic larvae there are often external gill-like organs, being
+simple sacs permeated by tracheae (as in Agrion, Fig. 129, or the May
+flies). These organs are virtually aquatic wings, aiding the insect in
+progression as well as in aerating the blood, as in the true wings. They
+are very variable in position, some being developed at the extremity of
+the abdomen, as in Agrion, or along the sides, as in the May flies, or
+filiform and arranged in tufts on the under side of the body, as in
+Perla; and the naturalist is not surprised to find them absent or
+present in accordance with the varying habits of the animal. For
+example, in the larvae of the larger Dragon flies (Libellula, etc.) they
+are wanting, while in Agrion and its allies they are present.
+
+Now we conceive that wings formed in much the same way, and with no more
+disturbance, so to speak, to the insect's organization, appeared during
+a certain critical period in the metamorphosis of some early insect. As
+soon as this novel mode of locomotion became established we can easily
+see how surrounding circumstances would favor their farther development
+until the presence of wings became universal. If space permitted us to
+pursue this interesting subject farther, we could show how invariably
+correlated in form and structure are the wings of insects to the varied
+conditions by which they are surrounded, and which we are forced to
+believe stand in the relation of cause to effect. Again, why should the
+wings always appear on the thorax and on the upper instead of the under
+side? As this is the seat of the centre of gravity, it is evident that
+cosmical laws as well as the more immediate laws of biology determine
+the position and nature of the wings of an insect.
+
+Correlated with the presence of wings is the wonderful differentiation
+of the crust, especially of the thorax, where each segment consists of a
+number of distinct pieces; while in the spiders and Myriopods the
+segments are as simple as in the abdominal segments of the winged
+insect. It is not difficult here to trace a series leading up from the
+Poduras, in which the segments are like those of spiders, to the
+wonderful complexity of the parts in the thoracic segments of the
+Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera.
+
+In his remarks "On the Origin of Insects,"[27] Sir John Lubbock says, "I
+feel great difficulty in conceiving by what natural process an insect
+with a suctorial mouth like that of a gnat or butterfly could be
+developed from a powerfully mandibulate type like the Orthoptera, or
+even from the Neuroptera." Is it not more difficult to account for the
+origin of the mouth-parts at all? They are developed as tubercles or
+folds in the tegument, and are homologous with the legs. Figure 186
+shows that the two sorts of limbs are at one time identical in form and
+relative position. The thought suggests itself that these long, soft,
+finger-like appendages may have been derived from the tentacles of the
+higher worms, but the grounds for this opinion are uncertain. At any
+rate, the earliest form of limb must have been that of a soft tubercle
+armed with one, or two, or many terminal claws, as seen in aquatic
+larvae, such as Chironomus (Fig. 202), Ephydra (Fig. 203 _a_, _b_, _c_,
+pupa) and many others. As the Protoleptus assumed a terrestrial life and
+needed to walk, the rudimentary feet would tend to elongate, and in
+consequence need the presence of chitine to harden the integument, until
+the habit of walking becoming fixed, the necessity of a jointed
+structure arose. After this the different needs of the offspring of such
+an insect, with their different modes of taking food, vegetable or
+animal, would induce the diverse forms of simple, or raptorial, or
+leaping or digging limbs. A peculiar use of the anterior members, as
+seen in grasping the food and conveying it to the mouth (perhaps
+originally a simple orifice with soft lips, as in Peripatus), would tend
+to cause such limbs to be grouped together, to concentrate around the
+mouth-opening, and to be directed constantly forwards. With use, as in
+the case of legs, these originally soft mouth-feet would gradually
+harden at the extremities, until serviceable in biting, when they would
+become jaws and palpi. Given a mouth and limbs surrounding it, and we at
+once have a rude head set off from the rest of the body. And in fact
+such is the history of the development of these parts in the embryo. At
+first the head is indicated by the buds forming the rudiments of limbs;
+the segments to which they are attached do not form a true head until
+after the mouth-parts have attained their jaw-like characters, and it is
+not until the insect is about to be hatched, that the head is definitely
+walled in.
+
+[Illustration: 202. Foot of Chironomus.]
+
+[Illustration: 203. Ephydra.]
+
+We have arrived, then, at our Leptus, with a head bearing two pairs of
+jaws. The spiders and mites do not advance beyond this stage. But in the
+true insects and Myriopods, we have the addition of special sense
+organs, the antennae, and another pair of appendages, the labial palpi.
+It is evident that in the ancestor of these two groups the first pair of
+appendages became early adapted for purely sensory purposes, and were
+naturally projected far in advance of the mouth, forming the antennae.
+
+Before considering the changes from the mandibulate form of insects to
+those with mouth parts adapted for piercing and sucking, we must
+endeavor to learn how far it was possible for the caterpillar or maggot
+to become evolved from the Leptus-like larvae of the Neuroptera,
+Orthoptera, Hemiptera and most Coleoptera. I may quote from a previous
+article[28] a few words in relation to two kinds of larvae most prevalent
+among insects. "There are two forms of insectean larvae which are pretty
+constant. One we call _leptiform_, from its general resemblance to the
+larvae of the mites (Leptus). The larvae of all the Neuroptera, except
+those of the Phryganeidae and Panorpidae (which are cylindrical and
+resemble caterpillars), are more or less leptiform, _i. e._, have a
+flattened or oval body, with large thoracic legs. Such are the larvae of
+the Orthoptera and Hemiptera, and the Coleoptera (except the
+Curculionidae; possibly the Cerambycidae and Buprestidae, which approach
+the maggot-like form of the larvae of weevils). On the other hand, taking
+the caterpillar or bee larva, with their cylindrical, fleshy bodies, in
+most respects typical of larval forms of the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera
+and Diptera, as the type of the _cruciform_ larva, etc. * * * The larvae
+of the earliest insects were probably leptiform, and the cruciform
+condition is consequently an acquired one, as suggested by Fritz
+Mueller."[29] It seems that these two sorts of larvae had also been
+distinguished by Dr. Brauer in the article already referred to, with
+which, however, the writer was unacquainted at the time of writing the
+above quoted article. The similar views presented may seem to indicate
+that they are founded in nature. Dr. Brauer, after remarking that the
+Podurids seemed to fulfil Haeckel's idea of what were the most primitive
+insects, and noticing how closely they resemble the larvae of Myriopods,
+says, "specially interesting are those forms among the Poduridae which
+are described as Campodea and Japyx, since the larvae of a great number
+of insects may be traced back to them"; but he adds, and with this view
+we are unable to agree, "while others, the caterpillar-like forms
+(Raupenform), resulted from them by a retrograde process, and also
+the still lower maggot-like forms. While on the one hand Campodea, with
+its abdominal feet, and the larva of Lithobius are related, so on the
+other the Lepismatidae, which are very near the Blattariae, are nearly
+related to the Myriopods, since their abdominal segments often bear
+appendages (Machilis). The Campodea-form appears in most of the
+Pseudoneuroptera [Libellulids, Ephemerids, Perlids, Psocids and Termes],
+Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, perhaps modified in the Strepsiptera
+[Stylops and Xenos] and Coccidae in their first stage of development, and
+indeed in many of these at their first moult." Farther on he says, "A
+larger part of the most highly developed insects assume another
+larva-form, which appears not only as a later acquisition, through
+accommodation with certain definite relations, but also arises as such
+before our eyes. The larvae of butterflies and moths, of saw flies and
+Panorpae, show the form most distinctly, and I call this the caterpillar
+form (Raupenform). That this is not the primitive form, but one later
+acquired, we see in the beetles. The larvae of Meloe and Sitaris in their
+fully grown condition possess the caterpillar form, but the new born
+larvae of these genera show the Campodea form. The last form is lost as
+soon as the larva begins its parasitic mode of life. * * * The larger
+part of the beetles, the Neuroptera in part, the bees and flies (the
+last with the most degraded maggot form) possess larvae of this second
+form." He considers that the caterpillar form is a degraded Campodea
+form, the result of its stationary life in plants or in wood.
+
+[Illustration: Pl 2. EXAMPLES OF LEPTIFORM LARVAE.
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Figure 1, different forms of Leptus; 2, Diplax;
+3, Coccinella larva; 4, Cicada larva; 5, Cicindela larva; 6, Ant Lion;
+7, Calligrapha larva; 8, Aphis larva; 9, Hemerobius larva; 10, Glyrinua
+larva; 11, Carabid larva; 12, Meloe larva.]
+
+[Illustration: Pl 3. EXAMPLES OF ERUCIFORM LARVAE.
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. Figure 1. Panorpa larva; 2, Phryganea larva; 3,
+Weevil larva; 4, third larva of Meloe; 5, Chionea larva; 6, Carpet Worm;
+7, Phora larva; 8, Wheat Caterpillar; 9, Sphinx Caterpillar; 10,
+Acronycta? larva; 11, Saw Fly larva; 12, Abia Saw Fly larva; 13,
+Halictus larva; 14, Andrena larva.]
+
+[Illustration: 204. Tipula Larva.]
+
+For reasons which we will not pause here to discuss, we have always
+regarded the eruciform type of larva as the highest. That it is the
+result of degradation from the Leptus or Campodea form, we should be
+unwilling to admit, though the maggots of flies have perhaps retrograded
+from such forms as the larvae of the mosquitoes and crane flies
+(Tipulids, Fig. 204).
+
+That the cylindrical form of the bee grub and caterpillar is the result
+of modification through descent is evident in the caterpillar-like form
+of the immature Caddis fly (Pl. 3, fig. 2). Here the fundamental
+characters of the larva are those of the Corydalus and Sialis and
+Panorpa, types of closely allied groups. The features that remind us of
+caterpillars are superadded, evidently the result of the peculiar
+tube-inhabiting habits of the young Caddis fly. In like manner the
+caterpillar-form is probably the result of the leaf-eating life of a
+primitive Leptiform larva. In like manner the soft-bodied maggot of the
+weevil is evidently the result of its living habitually in cavities in
+nuts and fruits. Did the soft, baggy female Stylops live exposed, like
+its allies in other families, to an out-of-doors life, its skin would
+inevitably become hard and chitinous. In these and multitudes of other
+cases the adaptation of the form of the insect to its mode of life is
+one of cause and effect, and not a bit less wonderful after we know what
+induced the change of form.
+
+Having endeavored to show that the caterpillar is a later production
+than the young, wingless cockroach, with which geological facts
+harmonize, we have next to account for the origin of a metamorphosis in
+insects. Here it is necessary to disabuse the reader's mind of the
+prevalent belief that the terms larva, pupa and imago are fixed and
+absolute. If we examine at a certain season the nest of a humble bee, we
+shall find the occupants in every stage of growth from the egg to the
+pupa, and even to the perfectly formed bee ready to break out of its
+larval cell. So slight are the differences between the different stages
+that it is difficult to say where the larval stage ends and the pupa
+begins, so also where the pupal state ends and the imago begins. The
+following figures (205-208) will show four of the most characteristic
+stages of growth, but it should be remembered that there are
+intermediate stages between. Now we have noticed similar stages in the
+growth of a moth, though a portion of them are concealed beneath the
+hard, dense chrysalis skin. The external differences between the larval
+and pupal states are fixed for a large part of the year in most
+butterflies and moths, though even in this respect there is every
+possible variation, some moths or butterflies passing through their
+transformations in a few weeks, others requiring several months, while
+still others take a year, the majority of the moths living under ground
+in the pupa state for eight or nine months. The stages of metamorphosis
+in the Diptera are no more suddenly acquired than in the bee or
+butterfly. In all these insects the rudiments of the wings, legs, and
+even of the ovipositor of the adult exist in the young larva. We have
+found somewhat similar intermediate stages in the metamorphoses of the
+beetles. The insects we have mentioned are those with a "complete
+metamorphosis." We have seen that even in them the term "complete" is a
+relative and not absolute expression, and that the terms larva and pupa
+are convenient designations for states varying in duration, and assumed
+to fulfil certain ends of existence, and even then dependent on length
+of seasons, variation in climate, and even on the locality. When we
+descend to the insects with an "incomplete" metamorphosis, as in the May
+fly, we find that, as in the case of Chloeon, Sir John Lubbock has
+described twenty-one stages of existence, and let him who can say where
+the larval ends and the pupal or imaginal stages begin. So in a stronger
+sense with the grasshopper and cockroach. The adult state in these
+insects is attained after a number of moults of the skin, during each of
+which the insect gradually draws nearer to the final winged form. But
+even the so-called pupae, or half winged individuals known not to be
+adult, in some cases feel the sexual impulse, while a number of species
+in each of the families represented by these two insects never acquire
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: 205. Larva. 206. Semi-pupa.
+
+207. Advanced Semi-pupa. 208. Pupa.
+
+EARLY STAGES OF THE HUMBLE BEE.]
+
+
+Still how did the perfect metamorphosis arise? We can only answer this
+indirectly by pointing to the Panorpa and Caddis flies, with their
+nearly perfect metamorphosis, though more nearly allied otherwise to
+those Neuroptera with an incomplete metamorphosis, as the lace-winged
+fly, than the insects of any other suborder. If, among a group of
+insects such as the Neuroptera, we find different families with all
+grades of perfection in metamorphosis, it is possible that larger and
+higher groups may exist in which these modes of metamorphosis may be
+fixed and characteristic of each. Had we more space for the exposition
+of many known facts, the sceptic might perceive that by observing how
+arbitrary and dependent on the habits of the insects are the
+metamorphoses of some groups, the fixed modes of other and more general
+groups may be seen to be probably due to biological causes, or in other
+words have been acquired through changes of habits or of the temperature
+of the seasons and of climates. Many facts crowd upon us, which might
+serve as illustrations and proofs of the position we have taken. For
+instance, though we have in tropics rainy and dry seasons when, in the
+latter, insects remain quiescent in the chrysalis state as in the
+temperate and frigid zones, yet did not the change from the earlier ages
+of the globe, when the temperature of the earth was nearly the same the
+world over, to the times of the present distribution of heat and cold in
+zones, possibly have its influence on the metamorphoses of insects and
+other animals? It is a fact that the remains of those insects with a
+complete metamorphosis (the bees, butterflies and moths, flies and
+beetles) abound most in the later deposits, while those with an
+incomplete metamorphosis are fewer in number and the earliest to appear.
+Again, certain groups of insects are not found in the polar regions.
+Their absence is evidently due to the adverse climatic conditions of
+those regions. The development of the same groups is striking in the
+tropics, where the sum of environing conditions all tend to favor the
+multiplication of insect forms.
+
+It should be observed that some insects, as the grasshopper, for
+example, as Mueller says, "quit the egg in a form which is distinguished
+from that of the adult insect almost solely by the want of wings," while
+the freshly hatched young of the bee, we may add, is farthest from the
+form of the adult. It is evident that in the young grasshoppers, the
+metamorphoses have been passed through, so to speak, in the egg, while
+the bee larva is almost embryonic in its build. The helpless young
+maggot of the wasp, which is fed solely by the parent, may be compared
+to the human infant, while the lusty young grasshopper, which
+immediately on hatching takes to the grass or clover field with all the
+enthusiasm of a duckling to its native pond, may be likened to that
+young feathered mariner. The lowest animals, as a rule, are at birth
+most like the adult. So with the earliest known crustacea. The king
+crabs, and in all probability the primeval trilobites, passed through
+their metamorphoses chiefly in the egg. So in the ancient Nebaliads
+(Peltocaris, Discinocaris and Ceratiocaris), if we may follow the
+analogy of the recent Nebalia, the young probably closely resembled the
+adult, while the living crabs and shrimps usually pass through the most
+marked metamorphoses. Among the worms, the highest, and perhaps the most
+recent forms, pass through the most remarkable metamorphoses.
+
+[Illustration: 209. Jaws of Ant Lion.]
+
+Another puzzle for the evolutionist to solve is how to account for the
+change from the caterpillar with its powerful jaws, to the butterfly
+with its sucking or haustellate mouth-parts. We shall best approach the
+solution of this difficult problem by a study of a wide range of facts,
+but a few of which can be here noticed. The older entomologists divided
+insects into haustellate or suctorial, and mandibulate or biting
+insects, the butterfly being an example of one, and the beetle serving
+to illustrate the other category. But we shall find in studying the
+different groups that these are relative and not absolute terms. We find
+mandibulate insects with enormous jaws, like the Dytiscus, or Chrysopa
+larva or ant lion, perforated, as in the former, or enclosing, as in the
+latter two insects, the maxillae (_b_), which slide backward and forward
+within the hollowed mandibles (_a_, Fig. 209, jaws of the ant lion),
+along which the blood of their victims flows. They suck the blood, and
+do not tear the flesh of their prey. The enormous mandibles of the adult
+Corydalus are too large for use and, as Walsh observed, are converted
+in the male into simple clasping organs. And to omit a number of
+instances, in the suctorial Hemiptera or bugs we have different grades
+of structure in the mouth-parts. In the biting lice (Mallophaga) the
+mouth is mandibulate; in the Thrips it is mandibulate, the jaws being
+free, and the maxillae bearing palpi, while the Pediculi are suctorial,
+and the true bugs are eminently so. But in the bed bug it is easy to see
+that the beak is made up of the two pairs of jaws, which are simply
+elongated and adapted for piercing and sucking. Among the so-called
+haustellate insects the mouth-parts vary so much in different groups,
+and such different organs separately or combined perform the function of
+sucking, that the term haustellate loses its significance and even
+misleads the student. For example, in the house fly the tongue (Fig. 210
+_l_, the mandibles, _m_, and maxillae, _mp_, are useless), a fleshy
+prolongation of the labium or second maxillae, is the sucker, while the
+mandibles and maxillae are used as lancets by the horse fly (Fig. 211,
+_m_, mandibles, _mx_, maxillae). The maxillae in the butterfly are united
+to form the sucking tube, while in the bee the end of the labium (Fig.
+212) is specially adapted for lapping, not sucking, the nectar of
+flowers. But even in the butterfly, or more especially the moth, there
+is a good deal of misapprehension about the structure of the so-called
+"tongue." The mouth-parts of the caterpillar exist in the moth. The
+mandibles of the caterpillar occur in the head of the moth as two small
+tubercles (Fig. 213, _m_). They are aborted in the adult. While the
+maxillae are as a rule greatly developed in the moth, in the caterpillar
+they are minute and almost useless. The labium or second maxillae, so
+large in the moth, serves simply as a spinneret in the caterpillar. But
+we find a great amount of variation in the tongue or sucker of moths,
+and in the silk moths the maxillae are rudimentary, and there is no
+tongue, these organs being but little more developed than in the
+caterpillar. Figure 213, B, shows the minute blade-like maxilla of the
+magnificent Luna moth, an approximation to the originally blade-like
+form in beetles and Neuroptera. The maxillae in this insect are minute,
+rudimentary, and of no service to the creature, which does not take
+food. In other moths of the same family we have found the maxillae
+longer, and touching at their tips, though too widely separate at base
+to form a sucking tube, while in others the maxillae are curved, and meet
+to form a true tube.
+
+[Illustration: 210. Mouth-parts of the House fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 211. Mouth-parts of Horse fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 212. Head of Humble bee.]
+
+[Illustration: 213. Mouth-parts of Moths.]
+
+In the Cecropia moth it is difficult to trace the rudiments of the
+maxillae at all, and thus we have in the whole range of the moths, every
+gradation from the wholly aborted maxillae of the Platysamia Cecropia, to
+those of Macrosila cluentius of Madagascar, which form a tongue,
+according to Mr. Wallace, nine and a quarter inches in length, probably
+to enable their owner to probe the deep nectaries of certain orchids.
+These changes in form and size are certainly correlated with important
+differences in habits, and the evolutionist can as rightly say that the
+structural changes were induced by use and disuse and change of habits
+and the environment of the animal, as on the other hand the advocate of
+special creation claims that the two are simply correlated, and that is
+all we know about it.
+
+[Illustration: 214. Ichneumon Fly.]
+
+Another set of organs, placed on quite another region of the body, unite
+to form the sting of the bee, or its equivalent the ovipositor of other
+hymenopterous insects, such as the Ichneumon fly (Fig. 214), the "saw"
+of the saw fly, and the augur of the Cicada. These are all formed on the
+same plan, arising early in the larval stage as three pairs of little
+tubercles, which ultimately form long blades, the innermost constituting
+the true ovipositor. We have found that one pair of these organs forms
+the "spring" of the Podura, and that in these insects it is three
+jointed, and thus is morphologically a pair of legs soldered together at
+their base. We would venture to regard the ovipositor of insects as
+probably representing three pairs of abdominal legs, comparable with
+those of the Myriopods, and even, as we have suggested in another place,
+the three pairs of jointed spinnerets of spiders. Thus the ovipositor of
+the bee has a history, and is not apparently a special creation, but a
+structure gradually developed to subserve the use of a defensive organ.
+
+So the organs of special sense in insects are in most cases simply
+altered hairs. The hairs themselves are modified epithelial cells. The
+eyes of insects, simple and compound, are at first simply epithelial
+cells, modified for a special purpose, and even the egg is but a
+modified epithelial cell attached to the walls of the ovary, which in
+turn is morphologically but a gland. Thus Nature deals in simples, and
+with her units of structure elaborates as her crowning work a temple in
+which the mind of man, formed in the image of God, may dwell. Her
+results are not the less marvellous because we are beginning to dimly
+trace the process by which they arise. It should not lessen our awe and
+reverence for Deity, if with minds made to adore, we also essay to trace
+the movements of His hand in the origin of the forms of life.
+
+Some writers of the evolution school are strenuous in the belief that
+the evolution hypothesis overthrows the idea of archetypes, and plans of
+structure. But a true genealogy of animals and plants represents a
+natural system, and the types of animals, be they four, as Cuvier
+taught, or five, or more, are recognized by naturalists through the
+study of dry, hard, anatomical facts. Accepting, then, the type of
+articulates as founded in nature from the similar modes of development
+and points of structure perceived between the worms and the crustacea on
+the one hand, and the worms and insects on the other, have we not a
+strong genetic bond uniting these three great groups into one grand
+subkingdom, and can we not in imagination perceive the successive steps
+by which the Creator, acting through the laws of evolution, has built up
+the great articulate division of the animal kingdom?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 14: Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science, II.
+Embryological Studies on Diplax, Perithemis, and the Thysanurus genus
+Isotoma. Salem, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Translated in 1859 by Mr. Dallas under the title "Facts
+for Darwin."]
+
+[Footnote 16: "Whether that common stem-form of all the Tracheata
+[Insects, Myriopods and Spiders] which I have called Protracheata in my
+'General Morphology' has developed directly from the true Annelides
+(Coelminthes), or, the next thing to this (_zunachst_), out of
+Zoea-form Crustacea (Zoepoda), will be hereafter established only
+through a sufficient knowledge and comparison of the structure and mode
+of growth of the Tracheata, Crustacea and Annelides. In either case is
+the root of the Tracheata, as also of the Crustacea, to be sought in the
+group of the true jointed worms (Annelides, Gephyrea and Rotatoria." He
+considers the first insect to have appeared after the Silurian period,
+viz., in the Devonian.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The Zoea is born with eight pairs of jointed appendages
+belonging to the head, and with no thoracic limbs, while in insects
+there are but four pairs of cephalic appendages and three pairs of legs.
+Correlated with this difference is the entirely different mode of
+grouping the body segments, the head and thorax being united into one
+region in the crab, but separate in the insects, the body being as a
+rule divided into a head, thorax and abdomen, while these regions are
+much less distinctly marked in the crabs, and liable in the different
+orders to great variations. The great differences between the Crustacea
+and insects are noticeable at an early period in the egg.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Considerations on the Transmutation of Insects in the
+Sense of the Theory of Descent. Read before the Imperial
+Zoological-botanical Society in Vienna, April 3, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 19: American Naturalist, vol. 3, p. 45, March, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See Prof. Torell's discovery of Eophyton Linnaeanum, a
+supposed land plant allied to the rushes and grasses of our day, in
+certain Swedish rocks of Lower Cambrian age. The writer has, through the
+kindness of Prof. Torell, seen specimens of these plants in the Museum
+of the Geological Survey at Stockholm. Mr. Murray, of the Canadian
+Geological Survey, was the first to discover in America (Labrador,
+Straits of Belle Isle) this same genus of plants. They are described and
+figured by Mr. Billings, who speaks of them as "slender, cylindrical,
+straight, reed-like plants," in the "Canadian Naturalist" for August,
+1872.
+
+Should the terrestrial nature of these plants be established on farther
+evidence, then we are warranted in supposing that there were isolated
+patches of land in the Cambrian or Primordial period, and if there was
+land there must have been bodies of fresh water, hence there may have
+been both terrestrial and aquatic insects, possibly of forms like the
+Podurids, May flies, Perlae, mites and Pauropus of the present day. There
+was at any rate land in the Upper Silurian period, as Dr. J. W. Dawson
+describes land plants (Psilophyton) from the Lower Heiderberg Rocks of
+Gaspe, New Brunswick, corresponding in age with the Ludlow rocks of
+England.
+
+We might also state in this connection that Dr. Dawson, the eminent
+fossil botanist of Montreal, concludes from the immense masses of carbon
+in the form of graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, that "the
+Laurentian period was probably an age of most prolific vegetable growth.
+* * * Whether the vegetation of the Laurentian was wholly aquatic or in
+part terrestrial we have no means of knowing." In 1855, Dr. T. Sterry
+Hunt asserted "that the presence of iron ores, not less than that of
+graphite, points to the existence of organic life even during the
+Laurentian or so-called Azoic period." In 1861 he went farther and
+stated his belief in "the existence of an abundant vegetation during the
+Laurentian period." The Eophyton in Labrador occurs above the Trilobite
+(Paradoxides) beds, while in Sweden they occur below.]
+
+[Footnote 21: In a communication made to the Boston Society of Natural
+History, Oct. 17, 1870 (see also "American Naturalist" for Feb. and
+Sept., 1871).]
+
+[Footnote 22: On the Origin of Insects, a paper read before the Linnaean
+Society of London Nov. 2, 1871, and reported in abstract in "Nature,"
+Nov. 9, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 23: This reminds us (though Ganin does not mention it) of the
+development of the embryo of Julus, the Thousand legs, which, according
+to Newport, hatches the 25th day after the egg is laid. At this period
+the embryo is partially organized, having faint traces of segments, and
+is still enveloped in its embryonal membranes and retains its connection
+with the shell. In this condition it remains for seventeen days, when it
+throws off its embryonal membrane, and becomes detached from the shell.]
+
+[Footnote 24: It is a suggestive fact that these deciduous forms give
+way through histolysis to true larval forms, just as in some flies
+(Musca vomitoria) the true larval form goes under, and the adult form is
+built up from the imaginal disks of the larva. In an analogous manner
+the deciduous, pluteus-condition of the young Echinoderm perishes and is
+absorbed by the growing body of the permanent adult stage. This
+deciduous stage of the ichneumon may accordingly be termed the prelarval
+stage. Now as we find insects with and without this prelarval stage, and
+in the radiates quite different degrees of metamorphoses, the inquiry
+arises how far these differences are correlated with, and consequently
+dependent upon, the physical surroundings of these animals in the free
+swimming condition. Merely to point out the differences in the mode of
+development of animals is an interesting matter, and one could do worse
+things, but the philosophical naturalist cannot rest here. He must seek
+how these differences were brought about.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Leuckart, in his great work, "Die Menschlichen Parasiten,"
+p. 700, after the analogy of Hirudo, which develops a primitive streak
+late in larval life, ventures to consider the first indications of the
+germ of Nemertes in its larval, Pilidium form as a primitive streak. He
+also suggests that the development of the later larval forms of the
+Echinoderms is the same in kind.
+
+Moreover, nearly twenty years ago (1854) Zaddach, a German naturalist,
+contended that the worms are closely allied in their mode of development
+to the insects and crustaceans. He compares the mode of development of a
+leech (Clepsine) and certain bristle-bearing worms (Saenuris, Lumbricatus
+and Uaxes); and we may now from Kowalensky's researches (1871) add the
+common earth worm (Lumbricus), in which there is no such metamorphosis
+as in the sea Nereids, to that of insects; the mode of formation of the
+primitive band in the leeches and earth worms being much like that of
+insects. This confirms the view of Leuckart and Ganin, who both seem to
+have overlooked Zaddach's remarks. Moreover, the rings of the harder
+bodied worms, as Zaddach says, contain chitine, as in the insects.
+Zaddach also enters into farther details, which in his opinion ally the
+worms nearer to the insects than many naturalists at his time were
+disposed to allow. The singular Echinoderes has some remarkable
+Arthropod characters.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Vergleichende Anatomie, 2te Auflage, 1870, p. 437. I
+should, however, here add that I am told by Mr. Putnam that some fishes
+which have no swim-bladder, are surface-swimmers, and _vice versa_.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Reported In "Nature" for Nov. 9, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The Embryology of Chrysopa, and its bearings on the
+Classification of the Neuroptera, "American Naturalist," vol. v. Sept.,
+1871.]
+
+[Footnote 29: "It is my opinion that the 'incomplete metamorphosis' of
+the Orthoptera is the primitive one, _inherited_ from the original
+parents of all insects, and the 'complete metamorphosis' of the
+Coleoptera, Diptera, etc., a subsequently acquired one." _Fuer Darwin_,
+English Trans., p. 121.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+INSECT CALENDAR.
+
+
+In this calendar I propose to especially notice the injurious insects.
+References to the times of their appearance must be necessarily vague,
+and apply only, in a very general way, to the Northern States. Insects
+appear in Texas about six weeks earlier than in Virginia, in the Middle
+States six weeks earlier than in northern New England and the
+North-western States, and in New England about six weeks earlier than in
+Labrador. The time of the appearance of insects corresponds to the time
+of the flowering or leafing out of certain trees and herbs; for
+instance, the larvae of the American Tent caterpillar and of the Canker
+worm hatch just as the apple tree begins to leaf out; a little later the
+Plant lice appear, to feast on the tender leaves; and when, during the
+first week in June, our forests and orchards are fully leafed out, hosts
+of insects are marshalled to ravage and devour their foliage.
+
+
+_The Insects of Early Spring._
+
+In April the gardener should scrape and wash thoroughly all his fruit
+trees, so as to rub off the eggs of the bark lice which hatch out early
+in May. Many injurious caterpillars and insects of all kinds winter
+under loose pieces of bark, or under matting and straw at the base of
+the trees. Search should also be made for the eggs of the Canker worm
+and the American Tent caterpillar, which last are laid in bunches half
+an inch long on the terminal shoots of many of our fruit trees. A little
+labor spent in this way will save many dollars' worth of fruit. The
+"castings" of the Apple Tree Borer (Saperda bivittata) should be looked
+for at the base of the tree, and its ravages be promptly arrested. Its
+presence can also be detected, it is said, by the dark appearance of the
+bark, where the grub is at work: cut in and pull out the young grub. It
+is the best time of the year to catch and kill this pest. Cylindrical
+bark borers, which are little round, black, weevil-like beetles, often
+causing "fire-blight" in pears, etc., are now flying about fruit trees
+to lay their eggs; and many other weevils and boring beetles, especially
+the Pea weevil (Bruchus pisi, Fig. 215), the Pine weevil (Pissodes
+strobi, Fig. 216), and Hylobius pales and Hylurgus terebrans, also
+infesting the pine, now abound, and the collector can obtain many
+specimens not met with at other times.
+
+[Illustration: 215. Pea Weevil and Maggot.]
+
+[Illustration: 216 Pine Weevil and Young.]
+
+The housewife must now guard against the intrusion of Clothes moths
+(Tinea), while many other species of minute moths (Tineids) and of
+Leaf-rollers (Tortricidae) will be flying about orchards and gardens just
+as the buds are beginning to unfold; especially the Coddling moth
+(Carpocapsa pomonella). On warm days myriads of these and other insects
+may be seen filling the air; it is the busiest time of their lives, as
+all are on errands of love to their kind, but of mischief to the
+agriculturist.
+
+When the May Flower--"O commendable flowre and most in minde"--blooms,
+and the willows hang out their golden catkins, we shall hear the hum of
+the wild bee, and the insect hunter will reap a rich harvest of
+rarities. Seek now on the abdomen of various wild bees, such as Andrena,
+for that most eccentric of all our insects, the Stylops Childreni. The
+curious larvae of the Oil beetle may be found abundantly on the bodies of
+various species of Bombus, Andrena and Halictus, with their heads
+plunged in between the segments of the bee's body.
+
+[Illustration: 217. The Comma Butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: 218. Tachina.]
+
+The beautiful moth, Adela, with its immensely long antennae, may be seen,
+with other smaller moths, feeding on the blossoms of the willow. The
+Ants wake from their winter's sleep and throw up their hillocks, and the
+"thriving pismire" issues from his vaulted galleries constructed in some
+decaying log or stump, while the Angle worms emulate late their
+six-footed neighbors. During the mild days of March, ere the snow has
+melted away--
+
+  "The dandy Butterfly,
+  All exquisitely drest,"
+
+will visit our gardens. Such are various kinds of Vanessa and Grapta
+(Fig. 217, G. c-argenteum[30]). The beautiful Brephos infans flies
+before the snow disappears.
+
+  "The Gnat, old back-bent fellow,
+  In frugal frieze coat drest,"
+
+will celebrate the coming of Spring, with his choral dance. Such is
+Trichocera hyemalis, which may be seen in multitudes towards twilight on
+mild evenings. Many flies are now on the wing, such as Tachina (Fig.
+218) and its allies; the four spotted Mosquito, Anopheles
+quadrimaculatus, and the delicate species of Chironomus, whose males
+have such beautifully feathered antennae, assemble in swarms. Now is the
+time for the collector to turn up stones and sticks by the river's side
+and in grassy damp pastures, for Ground beetles (Carabidae), and to
+frequent sunny paths for the gay Cicindela and the Bombylius fly, or
+fish in brooks and pools for water beetles and various larvae of
+Neuroptera and Diptera; while many flies and beetles are attracted to
+freshly cut maples or birches running with sap; indeed, many insects,
+rarely found elsewhere, assemble in quantities about the stumps of these
+trees, from which the sap oozes in March and April.
+
+In April the injurious insects in the Northern States have scarcely
+begun their work of destruction, as the buds do not unfold before the
+first of May. We give an account, however, of some of the beneficial
+insects which are now to be found in grass-lands and in gardens. The
+farmer should know his true insect friends as well as his insect foes.
+We introduce to our readers a large family of ground-beetles (Carabidae,
+from Carabus, the name of the typical genus) which prey on those insects
+largely injurious to crops. A study of the figures will familiarize our
+readers with the principal forms. They are dark-colored, brown or black,
+with metallic hues, and are seen in spring and throughout the summer,
+running in grass, or lurking under stones and sticks in damp places,
+whence they sally forth to hunt by night, when many vegetable-eating
+insects are most active.
+
+[Illustration: 219. Calosoma scrutator.]
+
+[Illustration: 220. Calosoma calidum and Larva.]
+
+The larvae are found in much the same situations as the mature beetles.
+They are, elongate, oblong, and rather broad, the terminal ring of the
+body being armed with two horny hooks, and having a single fleshy leg
+beneath; and are usually black in color. The larva of Calosoma (C.
+calidum, Fig. 220; _a_, the beetle; and Fig. 219, C. scrutator) ascends
+trees to feed on caterpillars, such as the Canker worm. When about to
+transform to the pupa state, it forms a rude cocoon in the earth. The
+beetle lies in wait for its prey in shallow pits excavated in pastures.
+We once saw it fiercely attack a May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) nearly
+twice its size; it tore open the hard sides of its clumsy and helpless
+victim with tiger-like ferocity. Carabus (Fig. 221, C. serratus Say, and
+pupa of Carabus auronitens of Europe, after Westwood) is a closely
+allied form, with very similar habits.
+
+[Illustration: 221. Carabus and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 222. Brachinus.]
+
+[Illustration: 223. Casnonia.]
+
+[Illustration: 224. Pangus.]
+
+[Illustration: 225. Agonum.]
+
+[Illustration: 226. Carabid Larva.]
+
+A much smaller form is the curious Bombardier beetle, Brachinus (Fig.
+222, B. fumans), with its narrow head and heart-shaped prothorax. It is
+remarkable for discharging with quite an explosion from the end of its
+body a pungent fluid, probably as a protection against its enemies. An
+allied genus is Casnonia (Fig. 223, C. Pensylvanica), which has a long
+neck and spotted wing covers. Figure 224, Pangus caliginosus, and figure
+225, Agonum cupripenne, represent two common forms. The former is black,
+while the latter is a pretty insect, greenish, with purplish-red
+wing-covers, and black legs.
+
+Figure 226, enlarged about three times, represents a singular larva
+found by Mr. J. H. Emerton under a stone early in spring. Dr. LeConte,
+to whom we sent a figure, supposes that it may possibly be a larva of
+Harpalus, or Pangus caliginosus. It is evidently a young Carabid. The
+under side is represented.
+
+
+_The Insects of May._
+
+During this month there is great activity among the insects. As the
+flowers bloom and the leaves appear, multitudes wake from their long
+winter sleep, and during this month pass through the remainder of their
+transformations, and prepare for the summer campaign. Most insects
+hibernate in the chrysalis or pupa state, while many winter in the
+caterpillar or larva state, such as the larvae of several Noctuidae and
+the "yellow-bear," and other caterpillars of Arctia and its allies.
+Other insects hibernate in the adult or imago form, either as beetles,
+butterflies or certain species of bees.
+
+It is well known that the Queen Humble bee winters under the moss, or in
+her old nest. During the present month her rovings seem to have a more
+definite object, and she seeks some deserted mouse's nest, or hollow in
+a tree or stump, and there stows away her pellets of pollen, containing
+two or three eggs apiece, which, late in the summer, are to form the
+nucleus of a well-appointed colony. The Carpenter bees (Ceratina and
+Xylocopa, the latter of which is found in abundance south of New
+England) are busy in refitting and tunnelling the hollows of the grape;
+while the Ceratina hollows out the stem of the elder, or blackberry.
+This little upholsterer bee carpets her honey-tight apartment, storing
+it with food for her young, and later in the season, in June, several of
+these cartridge-like cells, whose silken walls resemble the finest and
+most delicate parchment, may be found in the hollow stems of these
+plants. The Mason bee (Osmia) places her nest in a more exposed site,
+building her earthen cells of pellets of moistened mud, either situated
+under a stone, or in some more sheltered place; for instance, in a
+deserted oak-gall, ranging half a dozen of them side by side along the
+vault of this strange domicile. Meanwhile their more lowly relatives,
+the Andrena and Halictus bees, are engaged in tunnelling the side of
+some sunny bank or path, running long galleries underground, sometimes
+for a foot or more, at the farthest end of which are to be found, in
+summer, little earthen urn-like cells, in which the grubs live upon the
+pollen stored up for them in little balls of the size of a pea. Later in
+the month, the Gall flies (Cynips), those physiological puzzles, sting
+the leaves of our oaks of different species, giving rise to the strange
+excrescences and manifold deformities which deface the stems and leaves
+of our most beautiful forest trees.
+
+[Illustration: 227. Chrysophanus Thoe.[31]] 31 A: The lower side of the
+wings is figured on the right side of this and Figs. 228 and 229.
+
+[Illustration: 228. Argynnis Aphrodite.]
+
+[Illustration: 229. Melitaea Phaeton.]
+
+When the Kalmia, Rhodora, and wild cherries are in bloom, many of our
+most beautiful butterflies appear; such are the different species of
+Chrysophanus (Fig. 227), Lycaena, Thecla and Argynnis (Fig. 228). At this
+time we have found the rare larva of Melitaea Phaeton (Fig. 229) clothed
+in the richest red and velvety black, feeding daintily upon the hazel
+nut, and tender leaves of the golden rod. In June, it changes to the
+chrysalis state, and early in July the butterfly rises from the cold,
+damp bogs, where we have oftenest found it, clad in its rich dress of
+velvety black and red.
+
+Later still, when the lilac blooms, and farther south the broad-leaved
+Kalmia, the gaily-colored Humming Bird moth (Sesia) visits the flowers
+in company with the Swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio Turnus). At
+twilight, the Hawk moth (Sphinx) darts noiselessly through our gardens,
+as soon as the honeysuckles, pinks and lilies are in blossom.
+
+[Illustration: 230. D. 12-punctata.]
+
+[Illustration: 231. Diabrotica vittata.]
+
+Among the flies, mosquitoes now appear, though they have not yet,
+perhaps, strayed far from their native swamps and fens; and their
+mammoth allies, the Daddy-long-legs (Tipula), rise from the fields and
+mould of our gardens in great numbers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232. Plum Weevil and Young.]
+
+Of the beetles, those which feed on leaves now become specially active.
+The Squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fig. 231, and Fig. 230, D.
+12-punctata) now attacks the squash plants before they are fairly up;
+and the Plum weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 232) will sting the
+newly formed fruit, late in the month, or early in June. Many other
+weevils now abound, stinging the seeds and fruit, and depositing their
+eggs just under the skin. So immense are the numbers of insects which
+fill the air and enliven the fields and woodlands just as summer comes
+in, that a bare enumeration of them would overcrowd our pages, and tire
+the reader.
+
+[Illustration: 233. May Fly.]
+
+A word, however, about our water insects. Late in the month the May fly
+(Ephemera, Fig. 233) appears, often rising in immense numbers, from the
+surface of pools and sluggish brooks. In Europe, whole clouds of these
+delicate forms, with their thin white wings, have been known to fall
+like snow upon the ground, when the peasants gather them up in heaps to
+enrich their gardens and farms.
+
+The Case worms, or Caddis flies (Fig. 234), begin now to leave their
+portable houses, formed of pieces of leaves, or sticks and fine gravel,
+or even of shells, as in an European species, and fly over the water,
+resting on the overhanging trees.
+
+A few busy Mosquito Hawks, or Dragon flies (Libellula), herald the
+coming of the summer brood of these indefatigable friends of the
+agriculturist. During their whole life below the waters, these
+entomological Herods have slain and sucked the blood of myriads of
+infant mosquitoes and other insects; and now in their new world above
+the waters, with still more intensified powers of doing mischief,
+happily, however, to flies mostly obnoxious to man, they riot in
+bloodshed and carnage.
+
+[Illustration: 234. Different Forms of Case Worms.]
+
+This is the season to stock the fresh-water aquarium. Go to the nearest
+brook, gather a sprig or two of the water cress, which spreads so
+rapidly, a root of the eel grass, and plant them in a glass dish or deep
+jar. Pour in your water, let the sand and sediment settle, and then put
+in a few Tadpoles, a Newt (Salamander), Snails (Limnaea, Planorbis and
+Valvata), Caddis flies and Water beetles, together with the gatherings
+from a thicket of eel grass, or other submerged plants, being rich in
+the young of various flies, Ephemeras, Dragon flies and Water fleas
+(Entomostraca, Fig. 235), which last are beautiful objects for the
+microscope, and in a few days the occupants will feel at home, and the
+aquarium will be swarming with life, affording amusement and occupation
+for many a dull hour, by day or at night, in watching the marvels of
+insect transformations, and plant-growth.
+
+Among the injurious hymenoptera, which abound late in this month, is
+the Rose Saw fly (Selandria rosae, Fig. 236) and S. cerasi. The eggs are
+then laid, and the last of June, or early in July, the slug-like larvae
+mature, and the perfect insects fly in July. Various Gall flies now lay
+their eggs in the buds, leaves and stems of various kinds of oaks,
+blackberries, blueberries and other plants.
+
+[Illustration: 235. Water Flea.]
+
+[Illustration: 236. Selandria rosae.]
+
+Dipterous Gall flies are now laying their eggs in cereals. The Hessian
+fly (Cecidomyia destructor) has two broods, the fly appearing both in
+spring and autumn. The fly lays twenty or thirty eggs in a crease in the
+leaf of the young plant. In about four days, in warm weather, they
+hatch, and the pale-red larvae crawl down the leaf, working their way in
+between it and the main stalk, passing downward till they come to a
+joint, just above which they remain, a little below the surface of the
+ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here they imbibe
+the sap by suction alone, and, by the simple pressure of their bodies
+become imbedded in the side of the stem. Two or three larvae thus
+imbedded serve to weaken the plant and cause it to wither and die. The
+second brood of larvae remains through the winter in the flax-seed, or
+puparium. By turning the stubble with the plough in the autumn and early
+spring, its imago may be destroyed, and thus its ravages may be checked.
+(Figure 237 represents the female, which is about one-third as large as
+a mosquito: _a_, the larva; _b_, the pupa; and _c_ represents the joint
+near the ground where the maggots live.) The same may be said of the
+Wheat midge (Cecidomyia tritici), which attacks the wheat in the ear,
+and which transforms an inch deep beneath the surface.
+
+[Illustration: 237. Hessian Fly.]
+
+[Illustration: 238. Turnip Butterfly.]
+
+Among the butterflies which appear this month are the Turnip butterfly
+(Pontia oleracea, Fig. 238,) which lays its eggs the last of the month.
+The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and in about two weeks the larva
+changes to a chrysalis. Thanaos junevalis and T. Brizo fly late in May.
+The caterpillars live on the pea and other papilionaceous plants. Thecla
+Auburniana, T. Niphon, and other species fly in dry, sunny fields, some
+in April. Argynnis Myrina flies from the last of May through June, and a
+second brood appears in August and September. Vanessa J-album and V.
+interrogationis appear in May, and again in August and September. The
+caterpillars of the latter species live on the elm, lime and hop-vine.
+Grapta comma also feeds on the hop. Alypia 8-maculata (Fig. 49) flies at
+this time, and in August its larva feeds on the grape. Sphinx gordius,
+S. 5-maculata (Fig. 239) and other Sphinges and Sesia (the Clear-winged
+moth), appear the last of May. Arctia Arge, A. virgo, A. phalerata and
+other species fly from the last of May through the summer. Hyphantria
+textor, the Fall-weaver, is found in May or June. The moth of the
+Salt-marsh caterpillar appears at this time, and various Cut worms
+(Agrotis, Fig. 240) abound, hiding in the daytime under stones and
+sticks, etc., while various Tineids and Tortrices, or Leaf-rolling
+caterpillars, begin to devour tender leaves and buds and opening
+blossoms of flowers and fruit trees.
+
+[Illustration: 239. Sphinx 5-maculata, Larva and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 240. Cut Worm and Moth.]
+
+The White-pine weevil flies about in warm days. We have found its
+burrows winding irregularly over the inner surface of the bark and
+leading into the sap-wood. Each cell, in which it hibernates, in the
+middle of March, contains the yellowish white footless grub. Early in
+April it changes to a pupa, and a month after the beetle appears, and in
+a few days deposits its egg under the bark of old pine trees. It also
+oviposits in the terminal shoots of pine saplings, dwarfing and
+permanently deforming the tree. Associated with this weevil we have
+found the smaller, rounder, more cylindrical, whitish grubs of the
+Hylurgus terebrans, which mines the inner layers of the bark, slightly
+grooving the sap-wood. Later in April it pupates, and its habits accord
+in general with those of Pissodes strobi. Another Pine weevil also
+abounds at this time, as well as Otiorhynchus picipes (Fig. 241), which
+injures beans, etc.
+
+[Illustration: 241. Garden Weevil.]
+
+Cylindrical bark-borers, which are little, round, weevil-like beetles,
+are now flying about fruit trees, to lay their eggs in the bark.
+Associated with the Pissodes, we may find in April the galleries of
+Tomicus pini, branching out from a common centre. They are filled up
+with fine sawdust, and, according to Dr. Fitch, are notched in the sides
+"in which the eggs have been placed, where they would remain undisturbed
+by the beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the gallery."
+These little beetles have not the long snouts of the weevils, hence they
+cannot bore through the outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the
+preceding year, and distribute the eggs along the sides (Fitch). Another
+Tomicus, more dangerous than the preceding, feeds exclusively in the
+sap-wood, running solitary galleries for a distance of two inches
+towards the centre of the tree. We figure Tomicus xylographus Say (Fig.
+242, enlarged). It is the most formidable enemy to the white pine in the
+North, and the yellow pine in the South that we have. It also flies in
+May. Ptinus fur (Fig. 243, much enlarged) is now found in out-houses,
+and is destructive to cloth, furs, etc., resembling the Larder-beetle
+(Dermestes) in its habits. It is fourteen hundredths of an inch in
+length.
+
+[Illustration: 242. Pine Weevil.]
+
+[Illustration: 243. Ptinus and Larva.]
+
+
+_The Insects of June._
+
+Early in the month the Parsnip butterfly (Papilio Asterias) may be seen
+flying about, preparatory to laying its eggs for the brood of
+caterpillars which appear in August. At the time of the flowering of the
+raspberry and blackberry, the young larva of Vanessa Antiopa, one of our
+most abundant butterflies, may be found living socially on the leaves of
+the willow; while the mature larva of another much smaller butterfly,
+the little Copper skipper (Chrysophanus Americans), so abundant at this
+time, may sometimes be found on the clover. It is a short, oval,
+greenish worm, with very short legs. The dun-colored skippers (Hesperia)
+abound towards the middle of the month, darting over the flowers of the
+blueberry and blackberry, in sunny openings in the forests.
+
+The family of Hawk moths (Sphinges) now appear in greater abundance,
+hovering at twilight over flower-beds, and, during this time, deposit
+their eggs on the leaves of various fruit-trees. The American Tent
+caterpillar makes its cocoon, and assumes the pupa state. The
+caterpillar passes several days within the cocoon, in what may be
+called the semi-pupa states during which period the chrysalis skin is
+forming beneath the contracted and loosened larva skin. We once
+experimented on a larva which had just completed its cocoon, to learn
+how much silk it could produce. On removing its cocoon it made another
+of the same thickness; but on destroying this second one it spun a third
+but frail web, scarcely concealing its form. A minute Ichneumon
+parasite, allied to Platygaster, lays its eggs within those of this
+moth, as we once detected one under a bunch of eggs, and afterwards
+reared a few from the same lot of eggs. A still more minute egg-parasite
+(Fig. 244) we have seen ovipositing in the early spring, in the eggs of
+the Canker-worm.
+
+[Illustration: 244. Canker worm Egg-parasite.]
+
+Among that beautiful family of moths, the Phalaenidae, comprising the
+Geometers, Loopers, or Span-worms, are two formidable foes to fruit
+growers. The habits of the Canker worm should be well known. With proper
+care and well-directed energy, we believe their attacks can be in a
+great measure prevented. The English sparrow, doves and other
+insectivorous birds, if there are any others that eat them, should be
+domesticated in order to reduce the number of these pests. More care
+than has yet been taken should be devoted to destroying the eggs laid in
+the autumn, and also the wingless females, as they crawl up the trees in
+the spring and autumn to lay their eggs. The evil is usually done before
+the farmer is well aware that the calamity has fallen upon him. As soon
+as, and even before the trees have fairly leafed out, they should be
+visited morning, noon and night, shaken and thoroughly examined and
+cleared of the caterpillars. By well-concerted action among
+agriculturists, who should form a Board of Destruction, numbering every
+man, woman and child on the farm, this fearful scourge may be abated by
+the simplest means, as the cholera or any epidemic disease can in a
+great measure be averted by taking proper sanitary precautions. The
+Canker worms hatch out during the early part of May, from eggs laid in
+the fall and spring, on the branches of various fruit-trees. Just as the
+buds unfold, the young caterpillars make little holes through the tender
+leaves, eating the pulpy portions, not touching the veins and midribs.
+When four weeks old they creep to the ground, or let themselves down by
+spinning a silken thread, and burrow from two to six inches in the soil,
+where they change to chrysalids in a day or two, and in this state live
+till late in the fall, or until the early spring, when they assume the
+imago or moth form. The sexes then unite, and the eggs are deposited for
+the next generation.
+
+The Canker worm is widely distributed, though its ravages used to be
+confined mostly to the immediate vicinity of Boston. We have seen
+specimens of the moth from Illinois. Riley has found it in Missouri.
+
+[Illustration: 245. Abraxas ribearia.]
+
+The Abraxas ribearia of Fitch (Fig. 245, moth), the well-known Currant
+worm, defoliates whole rows of currant bushes. This pretty caterpillar
+may be easily known by its body being of a deep golden color, spotted
+with black. The bushes should be visited morning, noon and night, and
+thoroughly shaken (killing the caterpillars) and sprinkled with ashes.
+
+[Illustration: 246. May Beetle and Young.]
+
+Among multitudes of beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to the crops, are the
+May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca, Fig. 246), whose larva, a large white
+grub, is injurious to the roots of grass and to strawberry vines. The
+Rose beetle appears about the time of the blossoming of the rose. The
+Fire-flies now show their light during mild evenings, and on hot sultry
+days the shrill rasping song of the male Cicada, for "they all have
+voiceless wives," cuts the air: The Chinch-bug, that fell destroyer of
+our wheat crops, appears, according to Harris, in the middle of the
+month, and "may be seen in their various stages of growth on all kinds
+of grain, on corn and herds-grass during the whole summer." So widely
+spread is this insect at present, that we have even detected it in
+August on the summit of Mount Washington.
+
+[Illustration: 247. Pemphigus.]
+
+The Diptera, or two-winged flies, contain hosts of noxious insects, such
+as the various Cecidomyians, or two-winged Gall flies, which now sting
+the culms of the wheat and grasses, and various grains, and leaves of
+trees, producing gall-like excrescences of varying form. Legions of
+these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over
+wheat fields and shrubbery. A strong north west wind, at such times, is
+of incalculable value to the farmer. Moreover, minute flies, allied to
+the house fly, such as Tephritis, Oscinis, etc., now attack the young
+cereals, doing immense injury to grain.
+
+[Illustration: 248. Apple Bark Louse.]
+
+Millions of Aphides, or Plant lice, now infest our shade and fruit
+trees, crowding every green leaf, into which they insert their tiny
+beaks, sucking in the sap, causing the leaves to curl up and wither.
+They also attack the stems and even the roots of plants, though these
+latter (Pemphigus, Fig. 247) differ generically from the true Plant
+lice. Fruit trees should be again washed and rubbed to kill off the
+young Bark lice, of which the common apple Bark louse (Aspidiotus
+conchiformis, Fig. 248), whose oyster-shaped scales may be found in
+myriads on neglected trees, is a too familiar example. Another pest of
+apple trees is the woolly Blight (Eriosoma lanigera). These insects
+secrete from the surface of the body a downy, cottony substance which
+conceals the animal, and when they are, as usual, grouped together on
+the trees, makes them look like patches of mould. The natural insect
+enemies of the Plant lice now abound; such are the Lady bugs
+(Coccinella, Fig. 249); the larva of the Syrphus fly (Fig. 76), which
+devours immense quantities, and the larva of the Golden-eyed,
+Lace-winged fly (Chrysopa, Fig. 256).
+
+[Illustration: 249. Coccinella and Young.]
+
+The last days of June are literally the heyday and jubilee of insect
+life. The entomological world holds high carnival, though in this
+country they are, perhaps, more given to mass-meetings and caucuses. The
+earth, the air, and the water teem with insect life. The insects of
+mid-summer, now appear. Among the butterflies, the Wood Satyrus
+(Neonympha Eurythris) skips in its low flight through the pines. The
+larva of Grapta Progne appears on the currants, and feeds beneath the
+leaves on hot sunny days. The larva of Cynthia cardui may be found on
+the hollyhocks; the pupa state lasts twelve days, the butterfly
+appearing in the middle or last of July. The Hyphantria textor now lays
+its smooth, spherical eggs in broad patches on the under side of the
+leaves of the apple, which the caterpillar will ravage in August; and
+its ally, the Halesidota caryae, we have found ovipositing the last week
+in the month on the leaves of the butternut. The Squash bug, Coreus
+(Gonocerus) tristis (Fig. 250) is now very abundant, gathering about the
+roots of the squash vines, often in immense numbers, blackening the
+stems with their dark, blackish-brown bodies. This insect is easily
+distinguished from the yellow striped Squash beetle previously
+mentioned, by its much greater size, and its entirely different
+structure and habits. It is a true bug (Hemipter, of which the bed-bug
+is an example), piercing the leaves and stalks, and drawing out the sap
+with its long sucker.
+
+[Illustration: 250. Squash Bug.]
+
+In June, also, we have found that beautiful butterfly, Militaea Phaeton
+rising from the low, cold swamps. Its larva transforms early in June or
+the last week in May, into a beautiful chrysalis. The larva hibernates
+through the winter, and may be found early in spring feeding on the
+leaves of the aster, the Viburnum dentatum and hazel. It is black and
+deep orange-red, with long, thick-set, black spines.
+
+The Currant borer, Trochilium tipuliforme (Fig. 251), a beautiful,
+slender, agile, deep blue moth, with transparent wings, flies the last
+of the month about currant bushes, and its chrysalids may be found in
+May in the stems. Among moths, that of the American Tent caterpillar
+flies during the last of June and July, and its white cocoons can be
+detected under bark, and in sheltered parts of fences and out-houses.
+
+Among others of the interesting group of Silk worms (Bombycidae) are
+Lithosa, Crocota and allies, which fly in the daytime, and the different
+species of Arctia, and the white Arctians, Spilosoma, and Leucarctia,
+the parent of the Salt-marsh Caterpillar.
+
+[Illustration: 251. Currant Moth.]
+
+Many Leaf rollers, Tortrices, are rolling up leaves in various ways for
+their habitations, and to conceal them from too prying birds; and hosts
+of young Tineans are now mining leaves, and excavating the interior of
+seeds and various fruits. Grape-growers should guard against the attacks
+of a species of Tortrix (Penthina vitivorana) which rolls the leaves of
+the grape, and, according to Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, "in
+mid-summer deposits its eggs in the grape; a single egg in a grape. Its
+presence is soon indicated by a reddish color on that side of the yet
+green grape, and on opening it, the winding channel opened by the larva
+in the pulp is seen, and the minute worm, which is white, with a dark
+head, is found at the end of the channel. It continues to feed upon the
+pulp of the fruit, and when it reaches the seeds, eats out their
+interior; and if the supply from one grape is extinguished before its
+growth is completed, it fastens this to an adjoining grape with a web,
+and burrows into it. It finally grows to about one-half of an inch in
+length, becomes brown, almost black, the head retaining its cinnamon
+color. When it leaves the grape it is very active, and has the power of
+letting itself down by a thread of silk. All my efforts to obtain the
+cocoons failed until I placed fresh grape leaves in the jar containing
+the grapes. The larvae immediately betook themselves to these, and,
+cutting a curved line through the leaf thus), sometimes two lines thus
+(), folded the edge or edges over, and in the fold assumed the chrysalis
+form. From specimens saved, I shall hope to obtain the perfect insect
+this season, and perhaps obtain information which will aid in checking
+its increase. Already it is so abundant that it is necessary to examine
+every branch of ripe grapes, and clip out the infested berries before
+sending them to the table. A rapid increase in its numbers would
+interfere seriously with the cultivation of the grape in this locality."
+
+The Rose beetle (Macrodactyla subspinosa) appears in great abundance.
+The various species of Buprestis are abundant; among them are the
+Peach-borer (Dicerca divaricata), which may be now found flying about
+peach and cherry trees; and Chrysobothris fulvogutta, and C. Harrisii,
+about white pines. A large weevil (Arrhenodes septentrionalis), which
+lives under the bark of the white oak, appears in June and July. The
+Chinch bug begins its terrible ravages in the wheat fields. The various
+species of Chrysopa or Lace-winged flies, appear during this month.
+
+
+_The Insects of July._
+
+During mid-summer the bees and wasps are very busy building their nests
+and rearing their young. The Humble bees, late in June and the first of
+this month, send out their first broods of workers, and about the middle
+of the month the second lot of eggs are laid, which produce the
+smaller-sized females and males, while eggs laid late in the month and
+early in August, produce the larger-sized queens, which soon hatch.
+These hibernate. The habits of their peculiar parasite, Apathus, an
+insect which closely resembles the Humble bee, are still unknown.
+
+[Illustration: 252. White-faced Wasp.]
+
+The Leaf-cutter bee (Megachile) may be seen flying about with pieces of
+rose-leaf, with which she builds, for a period of twenty days, her
+cells, often thirty in number, using for this purpose, according to Mr.
+F. W. Putnam's estimate,[32] at least one thousand pieces! The bees
+referred to "worked so diligently that they ruined five or six
+rose-bushes, not leaving a single unblighted leaf uncut, and were then
+forced to take the leaves of a locust tree as a substitute."
+
+The Paper-making wasps, of which Vespa maculata (Fig. 252), the
+"White-faced wasp," is our largest species, are now completing their
+nests, and feeding their young with flies. The Solitary wasp (Odynerus
+albophaleratus) fills its earthen cells with minute caterpillars, which
+it paralyzes with its poisonous sting. A group of mud-cells, each stored
+with food for the single larva within, we once found concealed in a
+deserted nest of the American Tent caterpillar. Numerous species of Wood
+wasps (Crabronidae) are engaged in tunnelling the stems of the
+blackberry, the elder, and syringa, and enlarging and refitting old nail
+holes, and burrowing in rotten wood, storing their cells with flies,
+caterpillars, aphides and spiders, according to the habit of each
+species. Eumenes fraterna, which attaches its single, large, thin-walled
+cell of mud to the stems of plants, is, according to Dr. T. W. Harris,
+known to store it with Canker worms. Pelopaeus, the Mud-dauber, is now
+building its earthen cells, plastering them on old rafters and stone
+walls.
+
+The Saw flies (Tenthredo), etc., abound in our gardens this month. The
+Selandria vitis attacks the vine, while Selandria rosae, the Rose slug,
+injures the rose. The disgusting Pear slug-worm (S. cerasi), often live
+twenty to thirty on a leaf, eating the parenchyma, or softer tissues,
+leaving the blighted leaf. The leaves should be sprinkled with a mixture
+of whale-oil soap and water, in the proportion of two pounds of soap to
+fifteen gallons of water.
+
+[Illustration: 253. Imported Cabbage Butterfly.]
+
+Among the butterflies, Melitaea Ismeria, in the south, and M. Harrisii,
+in the north, are sometimes seen. A second brood of Colias Philodice,
+the common sulphur-yellow butterfly, appears, and Pieris oleracea visits
+turnip-patches. It lays its eggs in June on the leaves, and the
+full-grown, dark-green, hairy larva may be found in August. The Pieria
+rapae, or imported cabbage butterfly (Fig. 253, male) is now also
+abundant. Its green hairy larva is fearfully prevalent about Boston and
+New York. The last of the month a new brood of Grapta comma appears, and
+a second brood of the larva of Chrysophanus Americanus may be found on
+the sorrel.
+
+The larvae of Pyrrarctia Isabella hatch out the first week in July, and
+the snuff-colored moth enters our windows at night, in company with a
+host of night-flying moths. These large moths, many of which are
+injurious to crops, are commonly thought to feed on clothes and carpets.
+The true carpet and clothes moths are minute species, which flutter
+noiselessly about our apartments. Their narrow, feathery wings are edged
+with long silken fringes, and almost the slightest touch kills them.
+
+[Illustration: 254. Apple Borer, Larva and Pupa.]
+
+[Illustration: 255. Lady Bug and Pupa.]
+
+Among beetles, the various borers, such as the Saperda, or apple tree
+borer (Fig. 254) are now pairing, and fly in the hot sun about trees.
+Nearly each tree has its peculiar enemy, which drives its galleries into
+the trunk and branches of the tree. Among the Tiger beetles, frequenting
+sandy places, the large Cicindela generosa and the Cicindela hirticollis
+are most common. The grotesque larvae live in deep holes in sand-banks.
+
+[Illustration: 256. Lace-winged Fly and Eggs.]
+
+[Illustration: 257. Forceps-tail.]
+
+The nine-spotted Lady Bug, Coccinella novemnotata (Fig. 255, with pupa)
+is one of a large group of beetles, most beneficial from their habit of
+feeding on the plant lice. We figure another enemy of the Aphides,
+Chrysopa, and its eggs (Fig. 256), mounted each on a long silken stalk,
+thus placed above the reach of harm.
+
+Among other beneficial insects belonging to the Neuroptera, is the
+immense family of Libellulidae, or Dragon flies. The Forceps-tail, or
+Panorpa, P. rufescens (Fig. 257), is found in bushy fields and
+shrubbery. They prey on smaller insects, and the males are armed at the
+extremity of the body with an enormous forceps-like apparatus.
+
+
+_The Insects of August._
+
+During this month great multitudes of bugs (Hemiptera) are found in our
+fields and gardens; and to this group of insects the present chapter
+will be devoted. They are nearly all injurious to crops, as they live on
+the sap of plants, stinging them with their long suckers. Their
+continued attacks cause the leaves to wither and blight.
+
+The grain Aphis, in certain years, desolates our wheat fields. We have
+seen the heads black with these terrible pests. They pierce the grain,
+extract the sap, causing it to shrink and lose the greater part of its
+bulk. It is a most insidious and difficult foe to overcome.
+
+[Illustration: 258. Leaf-hopper of the Vine.]
+
+The various leaf-hoppers, Tettigonia (Fig. 258) and Ceresa, abound on
+the leaves of plants, sadly blighting them; and the Tettigonias frequent
+damp, wet, swampy places. A very abundant species on grass produces what
+is called "frog's spittle." It can easily be traced through all its
+changes by frequently examining the mass of froth which surrounds it.
+Tettigonia Vitis blights the leaf of the grape-vine. It is a tenth of an
+inch long, and is straw-yellow, striped with red. Tettigonia rosae, a
+still smaller species, infests the rose, often to an alarming extent.
+
+The Notonecta, or water boatman, is much like a Tettigonia, but its
+wings are transparent on the outer half, and its legs are fringed with
+long hairs, being formed for swimming. It rows over the surface in
+pursuit of insects. Notonecta undulata Say (Fig. 259) is a common form
+in New England.
+
+Another insect hunter is the singular Ranatra fusca (Fig. 260). It is
+light brown in color, with a long respiratory tube which it raises above
+the surface of the water when it wishes to breathe. This species
+connects the Water-boatman with the Water-skaters, or Gerris, a familiar
+insect, of which Gerris paludum (Fig. 261) is commonly seen running over
+the surface of streams and pools.
+
+[Illustration: 259. Notonecta.]
+
+[Illustration: 260. Ranatra.]
+
+[Illustration: 261. Water Skater.]
+
+[Illustration: 262. Pirates.]
+
+Reduvius and its allies belong to a large family of very useful insects,
+as they prey largely on caterpillars and noxious insects. Such is
+Pirates picipes (Fig. 262), a common species. It is an ally of Reduvius
+personates, a valued friend to man, as in Europe it destroys the
+bed-bug. Its specific name is derived from its habit while immature, of
+concealing itself in a case of dust, the better to approach its prey.
+
+[Illustration: 263. Phymata.]
+
+Another friend of the agriculturist is the Phymata erosa (Fig. 263). Mr.
+F. G. Sanborn states that "these insects have been taken in great
+numbers upon the linden trees in the city of Boston, and were seen in
+the act of devouring the Aphides, which have infested the shade trees of
+that city for several years past. They are described by a gentleman who
+watched their operations with great interest, as 'stealing up to a
+louse, coolly seizing and tucking it under the arm, then inserting the
+beak and sucking it dry.' They are supposed to feed also on other
+vegetable-eating insects as well as the plant louse."
+
+Phytocoris lineolaris swarms in our gardens during this month. It is
+described and figured in "Harris's Treatise on Insects." Closely allied,
+though generally wingless, is that enemy of our peace, the bed-bug. It
+has a small somewhat triangular head, orbicular thorax, and large,
+round, flattened abdomen. It is generally wingless, having only two
+small wing-pads instead. The eggs are oval, white; the young escape by
+pushing off a lid at one end of the shell. They are white, transparent,
+differing from the perfect insect in having a broad, triangular head,
+and short, thick antennae. Indeed, this is the general form of lice
+(Pediculus Vestimenti, and P. capitis), to which the larva of Cimex has
+the closest affinity. Some Cimices are parasites, infesting pigeons,
+swallows, etc., in this way also showing their near relation to lice.
+Besides the Reduvius, the cockroach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug,
+and destroys large numbers. Houses have been cleared of bugs after being
+thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.
+
+During this month the ravages of grasshoppers are, in the West, very
+wide-spread. We have received from Major F. Hawn, of Leavenworth,
+Kansas, a most interesting account of the Red-legged locust (Caloptenus
+femur-rubrum). "They commence depositing their eggs in the latter part
+of August. They are fusiform, slightly gibbous, and of a buff-color.
+They are placed about three-fourths of an inch beneath the surface, in a
+compact mass around a vertical axis, pointing obliquely up and outwards,
+and are partially cemented together, the whole presenting a cylindrical
+structure, not unlike a small cartridge. They commence hatching in
+March, but it requires a range of temperature above 60º F. to bring them
+to maturity, and under such conditions they become fledged in
+thirty-three days, and in from three to five days after they enter upon
+their migratory flight.
+
+"Their instincts are very strong. When food becomes scarce at one point,
+a portion of them migrate to new localities, and this movement takes
+place simultaneously over large areas. In their progress they stop at no
+obstacle they can surmount. In these excursions they often meet with
+other trains from an opposite direction, when both join in one.
+
+"The insects are voracious, but discriminating in their choice of food,
+yet I know of no plant they reject if pressed by hunger; not even the
+foliage of shrubs and trees, including pine and cedar."
+
+[Illustration: 264. Seventeen Year Locust, Eggs and Pupa.]
+
+During this month the Seventeen-year locust (Cicada septendecim of
+Linnaeus, Fig. 264) has disappeared, and only a few Harvest flies, as the
+two other species we have are called, raise their shrill cry during the
+dog-days. But as certain years are marked by the appearance of vast
+swarms in the Middle States, we cannot do better than to give a brief
+summary of its history, which we condense in part from Dr. Harris' work.
+
+The Seventeen-year locust ranges from South-eastern and Western
+Massachusetts to Louisiana. Of its distribution west of the Mississippi
+Valley, we have no accurate knowledge. In Southern Massachusetts, they
+appear in oak forests about the middle of June. After pairing, the
+female, by means of her powerful ovipositor, bores a hole obliquely to
+the pith, and lays therein from ten to twenty slender white eggs, which
+are arranged in pairs, somewhat like the grains on an ear of wheat, and
+implanted in the limb. She thus oviposits several times in a twig, and
+passes from one to another, until she has laid four or five hundred
+eggs. After this she soon dies. The eggs hatch in about two weeks,
+though some observers state that they do not hatch for from forty to
+over fifty days after being laid. The active grubs are provided with
+three pairs of legs. After leaving the egg they fall to the ground,
+burrow into it, and seek the roots of plants whose juices they suck by
+means of their long beaks. They sometimes attack the roots of fruit
+trees, such as the pear and apple. They live nearly seventeen years in
+the larva state, and then in the spring change to the pupa, which
+chiefly differs from the larva by having rudimentary wings. The damage
+done by the larvae and pupae, then, consists in their sucking the sap from
+the roots of forest, and occasionally fruit trees.
+
+Regarding its appearance, Mr. L. B. Case writes us (June 15) from
+Richmond, Indiana: "Just now we are having a tremendous quantity of
+locusts in our forests and adjoining fields, and people are greatly
+alarmed about them; some say they are Egyptian locusts, etc. This
+morning they made a noise, in the woods about half a mile east of us,
+very much like the continuous sound of frogs in the early spring, or
+just before a storm at evening. It lasted from early in the morning
+until evening." Mr. V. T. Chambers writes us that it is abounding in the
+vicinity of Covington, Kentucky, "in common with a large portion of the
+Western country." He points out some variations in color from those
+described by Dr. Fitch, from New York, and states that those occurring
+in Kentucky are smaller than those of which the measurements are given
+by Dr. Fitch, and states that "these differences indicate that the
+groups, appearing in different parts of the country at intervals of
+seventeen years, are of different varieties." A careful comparison of
+large numbers collected from different broods, in different localities,
+and different years, would alone give the facts to decide this
+interesting point. Mr. Riley has shown that in the Southern States a
+variety appears every thirteen years.
+
+Regarding the question raised by Mr. Chambers, whether the sting of this
+insect is poisonous, and which he is inclined to believe to be in part
+true, we might say that naturalists generally believe it to be harmless.
+No hemiptera are known to be poisonous, that is, to have a poison-gland
+connected with the sting, like that of the bee, and careful dissections
+by the eminent French naturalist, Lacaze-Duthiers, of three European
+species of Cicada, have not revealed any poison apparatus at the base of
+the sting. Another proof that it does not pour poison into the wound
+made by the ovipositor is, that the twig thus pierced and wounded does
+not swell, as in the case of plants wounded by Gall flies, which,
+perhaps, secrete an irritating poison, giving rise to tumors of various
+shapes. Many insects sting without poisoning the wound; the bite of the
+mosquito, black fly, flea, the bed bug, and other hemipterous insects,
+are simply punctured wounds, the saliva introduced being slightly
+irritant, and to a perfectly healthy constitution they are not
+poisonous, though they may grievously afflict some persons, causing the
+adjacent parts to swell, and in some weak constitutions induce severe
+sickness. Regarding this point, Mr. Chambers writes: "I have heard--not
+through the papers--within a few days past of a child, within some
+twenty miles of this place, dying from the sting of a Cicada, but have
+not had an opportunity to inquire into the truth of the story, but the
+following you may rely on. A negro woman in the employment of A. V.
+Winston, Esq., at Burlington, Boone County, Ky., fifteen miles distant
+from here, went barefooted into his garden a few days since, and while
+there was stung or bitten in the foot by a Cicada. The foot immediately
+swelled to huge proportions, but by various applications the
+inflammation was allayed, and the woman recovered. Mr. Winston, who
+relates this, stands as high for intelligence and veracity as any one in
+this vicinity. I thought, on first hearing the story, that probably the
+sting was by some other insect, but Mr. Winston says that he saw the
+Cicada. But perhaps this proves that the sting is _not_ fatal; that
+depends on the subject. Some persons suffer terribly from the bite of a
+mosquito, while others scarcely feel them. The cuticle of a negro's foot
+is nearly impenetrable, and perhaps the sting would have been more
+dangerous in a more tender part." It is not improbable that the sting
+was made by a wasp (Stizus) which preys on the Cicada. Dr. Le Baron and
+Mr Riley believe the wound to be made by the beak, which is the more
+probable solution of the problem.
+
+A word more about the Seventeen-year Cicada. Professor Orton writes us
+from Yellow Springs, Ohio, that this insect has done great damage to the
+apple, peach, and quince trees, and is shortening the fruit crop very
+materially. By boring into twigs bearing fruit, the branches break and
+the fruit goes with them. "Many orchards have lost full two years'
+growth. Though the plum and cherry trees seemed exempt, they attacked
+the grape, blackberry, raspberry, elm (white and slippery), maple, white
+ash, willow, catalpa, honey-locust and wild rose. We have traces of the
+Cicada this year from Columbus, Ohio, to St. Louis. Washington and
+Philadelphia have also had a visitation."
+
+[Illustration: 265. Hop Vine Moth and Young.]
+
+[Illustration: 266. Humble Bee Parasite.]
+
+We figure the Hop-vine moth and the larva (Fig. 265) which abound on
+hops the last of summer. Also, the Ilythia colonella (Fig. 266, a,
+pupa), known in England to be a parasite of the Humble bee. We have
+frequently met with it here, though not in Humble bees' nests. The larvae
+feed directly upon the young bees, according to Curtis (Farm Insects).
+The Spindle-worm moth (Gortyna zeae), whose caterpillar lives in the
+stalks of Indian corn, and also in dahlias, flies this month. The
+withering of the leaves when the corn is young, shows the presence of
+this pest. The beetles of various cylindrical Bark borers and Blight
+beetles (Tomicus and Scolytus) appear again this month. During this
+month the Tree cricket (Oecanthus niveus, Fig. 267) lays its eggs in
+the branches of peach trees. It will also eat tobacco leaves.
+
+[Illustration: 267. Tree Cricket.]
+
+We figure (268) the moth of Ennomos subsignaria, the larva of which is
+so injurious to shade trees in New York City. It is a widely diffused
+species, occurring probably throughout the Northern States. We have
+taken the moth in Northern Maine. We have received from Mr. W. V.
+Andrews the supposed larvae of this moth. They are "loopers," that is,
+they walk with a looping gait, as if measuring off the ground they walk
+over, whence the name "Geometers," more usually applied to them. They
+are rather stout, brown, and roughened like a twig of the tree they
+inhabit, with an unusually large rust-red head, and red prop-legs, while
+the tip of the body is also red. They are a little over an inch long.
+
+[Illustration: 268. Ennomos subsignaria.]
+
+
+_The Insects of September._
+
+Few new insects make their first appearance for the season during this
+month. Most of the species which abound in the early part of the month
+are the August forms, which live until they are killed by the frosts
+late in the month. From this cause there is towards the end of the month
+a very sensible diminution of the number of insects.
+
+The early frosts warn these delicate creatures of approaching cold.
+Hence the whole insect population is busied late in the month in looking
+out snug winter quarters, or providing for the continuance of the
+species. Warned by the cool and frosty nights, multitudes of
+caterpillars prepare to spin their dense silken cocoons, which guard
+them against frost and cold. Such are the "Spinners," as the Germans
+call them, the Silk moths, of which the American Silk worm is a fair
+example. The last of September it spins its dense cocoon, in which it
+hibernates in the chrysalis state.
+
+The larvae of those moths, such as the Sphinges, or Hawk moths, which
+spin no cocoon, descend deep into the earth, where they transform into
+chrysalids and lie in deep earthen cocoons.
+
+The wild bees may now be found frequenting flowers in considerable
+numbers. Both sexes of the Humble bee, the Leaf-cutter bee, and other
+smaller genera abound during the warm days.
+
+One's attention during an unusually warm and pleasant day in this month
+is attracted by clouds of insects filling the air, especially towards
+sunset, when the slanting rays of the sun shine through the winged
+hosts. On careful investigation these insects will prove to be nearly
+all ants, and, perhaps, to belong to a single species. Looking about on
+the ground, an unusual activity will be noticed in the ant-hills. This
+is the swarming of the ants. The autumnal brood of females has appeared,
+and this is their marriage day.
+
+The history of a _formicarium_, or ant's nest, is as follows: The
+workers, only, hibernate, and are found early in the spring, taking care
+of the eggs and larvae produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
+course of the summer these eggs and larvaae arrive at maturity, and swarm
+on a hot sultry day, usually early in September. The females, after
+their marriage flight, for the small diminutive males seek their company
+at this time, descend and enter the ground to lay their eggs for new
+colonies, or, as Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers
+and retained in the old colonies. Having no more inclination to fly,
+they pluck off their wings and may be seen running about wingless.
+
+Dr. C. C. Abbot gives us the following account of the swarming of a
+species in New Jersey: "On the afternoon of Oct. 6th, at about 4 P. M.,
+we were attracted to a part of the large yard surrounding our home, by a
+multitude of large sized insects that filled the air, and appeared to
+be of some unusual form of insect life, judging of them from a distance.
+On closer inspection these creatures proved to be a brood of red ants
+(Formica) that had just emerged from their underground home and were now
+for the first time using their delicate wings. The sky, at the time, was
+wholly overcast; the wind strong, southeast; thermometer 66º Fahr.
+Taking a favorable position near the mass, as they slowly crawled from
+the ground, up the blades of grass and stems of clover and small weeds,
+we noted, first, that they seemed dazed, without any method in their
+movements, save an ill-defined impression that they must go somewhere.
+Again, they were pushed forward, usually by those coming after them,
+which seemed to add to their confusion. As a brood or colony of insects,
+their every movement indicated that they were wholly ill at ease.
+
+"Once at the end of a blade of grass, they seemed even more puzzled as
+to what to do. If not followed by a fellow ant, as was usually the case,
+they would invariably fall down again to the earth, and sometimes repeat
+this movement until a new comer joined in the ascent, when the
+_uncertain_ individual would be forced to use his wings. This flight
+would be inaugurated by a very rapid buzzing of the wings, as though to
+dry them, or prove their owner's power over them, but which it is
+difficult to say. After a short rest, the violent movement of the wings
+would recommence, and finally losing fear, as it were, the ant would let
+go his hold upon the blade of grass and rise slowly upwards. It could,
+in fact, scarcely be called flight. The steady vibration of the wings
+simply bore them upwards, ten, twenty or thirty feet, until they were
+caught by a breeze, or by the steadier wind that was moving at an
+elevation equal to the height of the surrounding pine and spruce trees.
+So far as we were able to discover, their wings were of the same use to
+them, in transporting them from their former home, that the 'wings' of
+many seeds are, in scattering them; both are wholly at the mercy of the
+winds.
+
+"Mr. Bates, in describing the habits of the Saueba ants (Oecodoma
+cephalotes) says,[33] 'The successful _debut_ of the winged males and
+females depends likewise on the workers. It is amusing to see the
+activity and excitement which reign in an ant's nest when the exodus of
+the winged individuals is taking place. The workers clear the roads of
+exit, and show the most lively interest in their departure, although it
+is highly improbable that any of them will return to the same colony.
+The swarming or exodus of the winged males and females of the Saueba ant
+takes place in January and February, that is, at the commencement of the
+rainy season. They come out in the evening in vast numbers, causing
+quite a commotion in the streets and lanes.' We have quoted this passage
+from Mr. Bates' fascinating book, because of the great similarity and
+dissimilarity in the movements of the two species at this period of
+their existence. Remembering, at the time the above remarks concerning
+the South American species, we looked carefully for the workers, in this
+instance, and failed to discover above half a dozen wingless ants above
+ground, and these were plodding about, very indifferent, as it appeared
+to us, to the fate or welfare of their winged brothers. And on digging
+down a few inches, we could find but comparatively few individuals in
+the nest, and could detect no movements on their parts that referred to
+the exodus of winged individuals, then going on.
+
+"On the other hand, the time of day agrees with the remarks of Mr.
+Bates. When we first noticed them, about 4 P. M., they had probably just
+commenced their flight. It continued until nearly 7 P. M., or a
+considerable time after sundown. The next morning, there was not an
+individual, winged or wingless, to be seen above ground; the nest itself
+was comparatively empty; and what few occupants there were seemed to be
+in a semi-torpid condition. Were they simply resting after the fatigue
+and excitement of yesterday?
+
+"It was not possible for us to calculate what proportion of these winged
+ants were carried by the wind too far to return to their old home; but
+certainly a large proportion were caught by the surrounding trees; and
+we found, on search, some of these crawling down the trunks of the
+trees, with their wings in a damaged condition. How near the trees must
+be for them to reach their old home, we should like to learn; and what
+tells them, 'which road to take?' Dr. Duncan states,[34] 'It was
+formerly supposed that the females which alighted at a great distance
+from their old nests returned again, but Huber, having great doubts
+upon this subject, found that some of them, after having left the males,
+fell on to the ground in out-of-the-way places, whence they could not
+possibly return to the original nest!' We unfortunately did not note the
+sex of those individuals that we intercepted in their return (?) trip;
+but we can not help expressing our belief that, at least in this case,
+there was scarcely an appreciable amount of 'returning' on the part of
+those whose exodus we have just described; although so many were caught
+by the nearer trees and shrubbery. Is it probable that these insects
+could find their way to a small underground nest, where there was no
+'travel' in the vicinity, other than the steady departure of
+individuals, who, like themselves, were terribly bothered with the wings
+they were carrying about with them?" (_American Naturalist._)
+
+We have noticed that those females that do not return to the old nest
+found new ones. In Maine and Massachusetts we have for several
+successive years noticed the swarming of certain species of ants during
+an unusually warm and sultry day early in September.
+
+The autumnal brood of Plant lice now occur in great numbers on various
+plants. The last brood, however, does not consist exclusively of males
+and females, for of some of the wingless individuals previously supposed
+to be perfect insects of both sexes, Dr. W. I. Burnett found that many
+were in reality of the ordinary gemmiparous form, such as those
+composing the early summer broods.
+
+The White Pine Plant lice (Lachnus strobi) may be seen laying their long
+string of black oval eggs on the needles of the pine. They are
+accompanied by hosts of two-winged flies, Ichneumons, and in the night
+by many moths which feed on the Aphis-honey they secrete, and which
+drops upon the leaves beneath.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 30: The right side represents the under side of the wings.]
+
+[Footnote
+
+[Footnote 32: See "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv, p.
+105.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Naturalist on the River Amazons, vol. 1, p. 32.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Transformations of Insects, p. 205.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abraxas ribearia, 202.
+
+  Acarus, 124.
+
+  Acceleration, theory of evolution by, 167.
+
+  Achorutes, 145.
+
+  Adela, 189.
+
+  Agrion, 109.
+
+  Agrion, egg-parasite of, 164.
+
+  Agrotis, 197.
+
+  Alternation of generations, 168.
+
+  Alypia, 57, 197.
+
+  American tent caterpillar, 187.
+
+  Amnion, 166.
+
+  Ancestral forms, 151.
+
+  Andrena, 31, 45, 192.
+
+  Angle worms, 189.
+
+  Annelida, 161, 170.
+
+  Anopheles, 189.
+
+  Ant, 217.
+
+  Antenna, origin of, 174.
+
+  Antherophagus, 49.
+
+  Ant lion, 115, 182.
+
+  Ants, 189.
+
+  Anura, 136, 145, 147.
+
+  Anurida, 146.
+
+  Apathus, 47.
+
+  Aphis, 151, 203.
+
+  Aphis eater, 75.
+
+  Aphis of grain, 209.
+
+  Apple borer, 208.
+
+  Apple insects, 83.
+
+  Apple tree borer, 187.
+
+  April, insects of, 187.
+
+  Agonum, 191.
+
+  Aquarium, 195.
+
+  Arachnida, ancestry of, 189.
+
+  Archetype, 186.
+
+  Archetypes in Insects, 150.
+
+  Arctia, 197.
+
+  Argas, 123.
+
+  Argynnis, 193, 197.
+
+  Army worm, 55.
+
+  Arrhenodes, 206.
+
+  Arthropoda, 166.
+
+  Aspidiotus, 203.
+
+  Assmus, Edward, on parasites of honey bee, 39.
+
+  Astoma, 122, 159.
+
+  August, insects of, 209.
+
+
+  Band, primitive, 163, 167.
+
+  Bark borer, 188, 216.
+
+  Bark louse, 203.
+
+  Barnacle, 155.
+
+  Bed bug, 96, 183.
+
+  Bees, 17, 168, 206.
+
+  Bee louse, 41.
+
+  Beneficial insects, 190.
+
+  Billings on Eophyton, 158.
+
+  Bird tick, 84.
+
+  Black fly, 73.
+
+  Blight insect, 203.
+
+  Bombardier beetle, 191.
+
+  Borer, 187.
+
+  Bot fly, 77.
+
+  Botrytis, 47.
+
+  Brachinus, 191.
+
+  Brauer, F., on ancestry of insects, 157.
+    On two larval forms, 175.
+
+  Braula, 41.
+
+  Breeze fly, 74.
+
+  Brephos, 189.
+
+  Bristle tail, 127.
+
+  Bruchus, 188.
+
+  Buprestis, 206.
+
+
+  Cabbage butterfly, 55, 207.
+
+  Caddis fly, 153.
+
+  Caddis fly larva, 178.
+
+  Caddis worm, 195.
+
+  Calendar, Insect, 187.
+
+  Caloptenus, 211.
+
+  Calosoma, 190.
+
+  Campodea, 133, 159, 170, 178.
+
+  Campodea-stage of insects, 157.
+
+  Canker worm, 187, 201.
+
+  Carabidae, 189, 190.
+
+  Carabus, 191.
+
+  Carboniferous insects, 158.
+    Myriopods, 158.
+    Scorpion, 158.
+
+  Carpenter bee, 192.
+
+  Carpet fly, 75.
+
+  Case worms, 195.
+
+  Casnonia, 191.
+
+  Caterpillar, origin of, 175, 179.
+
+  Cecidomyia, 168, 196, 203.
+
+  Cecidomyia tritici, 197.
+
+  Centipede, 149.
+
+  Ceratina, 24, 192.
+
+  Ceresa, 209.
+
+  Cestodes, 162.
+
+  Cheese maggot, 83.
+
+  Cheese mite, 124.
+
+  Cheyletus, 119.
+
+  Chigoe, 86.
+
+  Chinch bug, 55, 203.
+
+  Chionea, 85.
+
+  Chironomus, 168, 189.
+
+  Chloeon, 170, 180.
+
+  Chrysobothris, 206.
+
+  Chrysopa, 171, 182, 208.
+
+  Chrysophanus, 193, 207.
+
+  Cicada, 212.
+
+  Cicindela, 189.
+
+  Clothes moth, 64, 188.
+
+  Coccinella, 204.
+
+  Coddling moth, 188.
+
+  Coleopterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Collembola, 133, 159.
+
+  Comprehensive type, 154.
+
+  Compsidea, 90.
+
+  Conotrachelus, 194.
+
+  Copepoda, 167.
+
+  Corydalus, mandibles of, 182.
+
+  Crab, 155, 156.
+
+  Crustacea, differences of from insects, 157.
+
+  Currant borer, 204.
+
+  Currant worm, 202.
+
+  Cut worm, 197.
+
+  Cyclops-like stage, 162.
+
+  Cynips, 193.
+
+
+  Daddy-long-legs, 194.
+
+  Dawson's discovery of fossil myriopods, 159.
+
+  Dawson on fossil land plants of Upper Silurian, 158.
+
+  Degeeria, 143.
+
+  Demodex, 125, 148, 160.
+
+  Devil's darning-needle, 106.
+
+  Devonian formation, insects in, 158.
+
+  Diabrotica, 194.
+
+  Dicerca, 206.
+
+  Dicyrtoma, 142.
+
+  Diplax, 113, 154.
+
+  Dipterous gall fly, 196.
+
+  Dipterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Dohrn, Anton, on ancestry of insects, 169.
+
+  Dragon fly, 106, 171, 195.
+
+  Dujardinia, 170.
+
+  Dytiscus, 182.
+
+
+  Ear wig, 136.
+
+  Echinoderes, 169.
+
+  Egg parasites, 201.
+
+  Egg parasite of Agrion, 164.
+
+  Eggs of canker worm, 187.
+
+  Elm tree insects, 90.
+
+  Embryology, comparative. 167.
+
+  Embryology of Podura, 140.
+
+  Ennomos, 216.
+
+  Ephemera, 154, 194.
+
+  Ephydra, 174.
+
+  Eruciform larva, 175.
+
+  Euphorberia, 158.
+
+  Evolution theory, 152.
+
+  Eyes of insects, 185.
+
+
+  Fabre on hyper-metamorphosis, 43.
+
+  Fall weaver, 197.
+
+  Fire fly, 202.
+
+  Flea, 86.
+
+  Forceps Tail, 171.
+
+  Forficula, 136.
+
+  Fossil insects, 158.
+    Myriopods, 158.
+    Scorpion, 158.
+
+  Foul brood, 40.
+
+
+  Gad fly, 74.
+
+  Galley worm, 149.
+
+  Gall flies, 193.
+
+  Gall fly, 72, 203.
+
+  Gall fly, two-winged, 196.
+
+  Gamasus, 120.
+
+  Ganin on embryology of insects, 161.
+
+  Gegenbaur on tracheae, 172.
+
+  Generalized types, 154.
+
+  Generation, alternate, 168.
+
+  Gerris, 210.
+
+  Gerris, egg-parasite of, 166.
+
+  Gills of insects, 172.
+
+  Gnat, 71, 189.
+
+  Gonocerus, 204.
+
+  Gordius, 46.
+
+  Gortyna, 215.
+
+  Grain Aphis, 209.
+
+  Grape insects, 57.
+
+  Grape leaf roller, 205.
+
+  Grape saw fly, 207.
+
+  Grapta, 189, 204, 207.
+
+  Grasshopper, 181, 211.
+
+  Green head, 74.
+
+  Grimm on parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+
+  Haeckel, Ernst, on ancestry of insects, 156.
+
+  Hairs of insects, 185.
+
+  Hair worm, 46.
+
+  Halictus, 31, 192.
+
+  Handily, A. H., on Thysanura, 133.
+
+  Hartt's discovery of fossil insects in New Brunswick, 158.
+
+  Harvest bugs, 122.
+
+  Haustellate insects, 183.
+
+  Hawk moth, 194, 200.
+
+  Head of insects, mode of formation of, 174.
+
+  Heart, iv.
+
+  Hemiptera, 209.
+
+  Hemipterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Hessian fly, 72, 196.
+
+  Heteropus, 126.
+
+  Hibernation of insects, 192.
+
+  Hirudo, 166.
+
+  Histolysis, 168.
+
+  Histriobdella, 166.
+
+  Histriobdella stage of Polynema, 164.
+
+  Hop vine moth, 215.
+
+  Horse tick, 84.
+
+  House fly, 80.
+
+  Humble bee parasite, 215.
+
+  Humming bird moth, 194.
+
+  Hunt on organic life in the Laurentian period, 158.
+
+  Hylobius pales, 188.
+
+  Hylurgus terebrans, 188.
+
+  Hymenopterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Hyper-metamorphosis of insects, 166.
+
+  Hyphantria, 204.
+
+  Hypodermis, 163.
+
+
+  Ichneumon, 161, 201.
+
+  Illinois, fossil insects of, 159.
+
+  Ilythia, 215.
+
+  Injurious insects, 190.
+
+  Insects, ancestry of, 150.
+
+  Insects, archetypes of, 150.
+
+  Insects, beneficial, 190.
+
+  Insect calendar, 187.
+
+  Insects, embryology of, 154, 155.
+
+  Insects, flight of, ix.
+
+  Insects in the Devonian formation, 158.
+
+  Insects, metamorphosis of, 166.
+
+  Insects, origin of, 156.
+
+  Insects, reason in, 30, 37.
+
+  Insects, respiration of, 171.
+
+  Insects, senses of, xiii.
+
+  Insects, sexes in, 52.
+
+  Insects, transformations of, xiv, 50.
+
+  Insects, wingless, 171.
+
+  Intestinal worms, 161.
+
+  Isotoma, 140, 143.
+
+  Itch mite, 125.
+
+  Ixodes, 117, 123.
+
+
+  Japyx, 132.
+
+  Jaws of insects, origin of, 174.
+
+  Jelly fishes, 168.
+
+  Joint worm, 55.
+
+  Julus, 149, 169.
+
+  Julus, embryology of, 164.
+
+  July, insects of, 206.
+
+  June, insects of, 200.
+
+
+  Kowaleusky's researches on embryology of worms, 169.
+
+
+  Labium, vi, 165.
+
+  Lachnosterna fusca, 202.
+
+  Lachnus, 220.
+
+  Lady bird, 208.
+
+  Larva, ernciform, 175.
+    Leptiform, 175.
+    Two kinds of, 175.
+
+  Larval skin of crustacea, 166.
+
+  Leaf cutter bee, 26, 206.
+
+  Leaf roller, 188, 197, 205.
+
+  Leeches, 166.
+
+  Legs of insects, 173.
+
+  Leidy, J., on internal parasites of insects, 39, 46.
+
+  Lepidocyrtus, 144.
+
+  Lepidopterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Lepisma, 128.
+
+  Leptiform larva, 175.
+
+  Leptus, 120, 155, 159.
+
+  Lespes, on sense of hearing in insects, xiv.
+
+  Leucania, 55.
+
+  Leuckart on embryology of Hirudo, 168.
+    Parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Libellula, 107, 195.
+
+  Linden tree insects, 90.
+
+  Linguatula, 160.
+
+  Lipura, 145.
+
+  Lithobius, 178.
+
+  Locust tree insects, 93.
+
+  Louse, 96, 154.
+
+  Lubbock's discovery of Pauropus, 149.
+
+  Lubbock, Sir John, on Thysanura, 133;
+    on the origin of insects, 159, 173.
+
+  Machilis, 128.
+
+  Macrodactylus, 206.
+
+  Macrosila cluentius, 184.
+
+  Maggot, origin of, 175, 178.
+
+  Mandible, vi.
+
+  Mandibles of moths, 183.
+
+  Mandibulate insects, 183.
+
+  Mange mite, 125.
+
+  Marey on the flight of insects, ix.
+
+  Mason bee, 192.
+
+  Maxillae, vi.
+
+  Maxilla of moths, 184.
+
+  May beetle, 202.
+
+  May fly, 194.
+
+  May, insects of, 192.
+
+  Mazonia, 158.
+
+  Meat fly, 82.
+
+  Meek's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
+
+  Megachile, 26.
+
+  Melipona, 18.
+
+  Melitaea, 193, 207.
+
+  Melitaea Phaeton, 204.
+
+  Meloe, 21, 42.
+
+  Metamorphosis of insects, 166, 175;
+    origin of, 179.
+
+  Miastor, 168.
+
+  Microgaster, 49.
+
+  Mites, 116, 149.
+
+  Mosquito, 68.
+
+  Mosquito hawk, 195.
+
+  Mouth-parts of insects, origin of, 173.
+
+  Mucor, 47.
+
+  Mud dauber, 207.
+
+  Mueller, Fritz, on ancestry of insects, 156, 169.
+
+  Mueller, J., on sight in insects, xiii.
+
+  Murray's discovery of Eophyton in America, 158.
+
+  Musca, 80, 168.
+
+  Muscardine, 47.
+
+  Mycetobia, 73.
+
+  Myobia, 169.
+
+  Myriopoda, 149.
+    Ancestry of, 159.
+
+
+  Nannophya, 114.
+
+  Nauplius, 155, 160.
+
+  Nebalia, 182.
+
+  Nephelis, 166.
+
+  Nephopteryx, 49.
+
+  Neuropterous larvae, 175.
+
+  New Brunswick, fossil insects of, 158.
+
+  Newport, on embryology of Julus, 164.
+
+  Nicoletia, 131.
+
+  Nomada, 38.
+
+  Notonecta, 209.
+
+  Nova Scotia, fossil insects of, 159.
+
+
+  Ocypete, 159.
+
+  Odynerus, 207.
+
+  Oecanthus, 216.
+
+  Oil beetle, 188.
+
+  Onion fly, 49.
+
+  Ophioneurus, embryology of, 165.
+
+  Orchesella, 143.
+
+  Ornithomyia, 84.
+
+  Orthopterous larvae, 175.
+
+  Osmia, 27.
+
+  Otiorhynchus, 199.
+
+  Ovipositor of Cicada, 185.
+
+
+  Palpus, vi.
+    Origin of, 174.
+
+  Pangus, 191.
+
+  Panorpa, 171, 209.
+
+  Paper wasp, 207.
+
+  Papilio Asterias, 200.
+
+  Papirins, 142.
+
+  Parasite of insect eggs, 164.
+
+  Parsnip butterfly, 200.
+
+  Parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Pasteur on the silk worm disease, 63.
+
+  Pauropus, 149, 154, 158, 171.
+
+  Peach borer, 206.
+
+  Pear slug, 207.
+
+  Pea weevil, 188.
+
+  Peck, W. D., on the habits of Stylops and Xenos, 45, 46.
+
+  Pelopaeus, 207.
+
+  Pentastoma, 148, 160.
+
+  Peripatus, 161.
+
+  Perla, 154.
+
+  Phora, 40.
+
+  Phymata, 211.
+
+  Phytocoris, 211.
+
+  Pickle worm, 57.
+
+  Pieris, 55, 197, 207.
+
+  Pieris brassicae, egg parasite of, 165.
+
+  Pine plant louse, 220.
+
+  Pine weevil, 188, 199.
+
+  Piophila, 83.
+
+  Pirates, 210.
+
+  Pissodes strobi, 188.
+
+  Plan of structure, 186.
+
+  Plant louse, 220.
+
+  Platygaster, embryology of, 161.
+
+  Plum weevil, 194.
+
+  Podura, 133, 135, 144, 153, 154, 159, 170.
+    Catch of, 139.
+    Spring of, 137.
+
+  Podurids, the ancestors of the true insects, 157.
+
+  Poisonous insects, 214.
+
+  Polynema, embryology of, 164.
+
+  Poplar tree insects, 92.
+
+  Potato insects, 63.
+
+  Prelarval stage of ichneumons, 168.
+
+  Primitive band, 163, 166.
+
+  Primitive insects, 175.
+
+  Prionus, 93.
+
+  Procris, 60.
+
+  Protoleptus, 172, 174.
+
+  Pseudoneuroptera, 178.
+
+  Ptinus fur, 200.
+
+  Putnam, F. W., on habits of the bees, 19, 26.
+
+  Pyrrharctia, 207.
+
+
+  Ranatra, 210.
+
+  Rat-tailed fly, 76.
+
+  Reduvius, 210.
+
+  Reproduction, virgin, 168.
+
+  Respiration of insects, 171.
+
+  Retardation, theory of evolution by, 167.
+
+  Rose beetle, 206.
+
+  Rose saw fly, 196.
+
+  Rose slug, 207.
+
+  Rotatoria, ancestors of crustacea, 169.
+
+
+  Salpa, 168.
+
+  Saperda, 91, 208.
+
+  Sarcoptes, 125.
+
+  Saw fly, 196, 207.
+
+  Saw of saw fly, 185.
+
+  Schioedte on the mouth-parts of the louse, 96.
+
+  Scolopocryptops, 149.
+
+  Scorpion, fossil, 158.
+
+  Scudder on fossil insects of New Brunswick and Illinois, 158.
+
+  Seira, 143.
+
+  Selandria, 207.
+
+  Selandria rosae, 196.
+
+  September, insects of, 216.
+
+  Sesia, 194.
+
+  Seventeen year locust, 212.
+
+  Sexes, origin of, 152.
+
+  Sheep tick, 85.
+
+  Shrimp, 155.
+
+  Siebold, T. von, on the ears of grasshoppers, xiv.
+
+  Siebold on parthenogenesis, 168.
+
+  Silk worm, 51.
+
+  Silver witches, 128.
+
+  Simulium, 73.
+
+  Sitaris, 44.
+
+  Smith, F., on stingless bees, 18.
+    On parasitic bees, 37.
+
+  Smynthurus, 142.
+
+  Species, origin of, 152.
+
+  Sphinx, 194, 197, 200, 207.
+
+  Spider, 155.
+
+  Spider fly, 85.
+
+  Spindle worm, 215.
+
+  Spinneret of caterpillars, 183;
+    of spiders, 185.
+
+  Spring, insects of, 187.
+
+  Spring of Podura, 185.
+
+  Spring tail, 127.
+
+  Squash beetle, 194.
+
+  Squash bug, 204.
+
+  Sting of bee, 185.
+
+  Sting, origin of, 165.
+
+  Stylops, 21, 45, 152, 179, 188.
+
+  Sucker of insects, 183.
+
+  Sugar mite, 124.
+
+  Swarming of ants, 217.
+
+  Syllis, 170.
+
+  Syrphus, 75.
+
+
+  Tabanus, 74.
+
+  Tachina, 39, 189.
+
+  Tailor bee, 26.
+
+  Tardigrade, 150, 160.
+
+  Teleas, embryology of, 166.
+
+  Templetonia, 143.
+
+  Tent caterpillar, 187.
+
+  Tenthredo, 207.
+
+  Tettigonia, 209.
+
+  Thanaos, 197.
+
+  Thecla, 197.
+
+  Thorax of insects, 173.
+
+  Thysanura, 127, 154.
+
+  Ticks, 116.
+
+  Tinea, 64, 188.
+
+  Tipula, 194.
+
+  Tomicus, 199.
+
+  Tomocerus, 137, 143.
+
+  Tongue of insects, 183.
+
+  Torell's discovery of Eophyton in Sweden, 158.
+
+  Tortrices, 205.
+
+  Tortricidae, 188.
+
+  Trachea, iv.
+
+  Tracheae, absence of in Polynema, 165.
+
+  Tracheae, origin of, 171.
+
+  Tree cricket, 216.
+
+  Trichocera hyemalis, 189.
+
+  Trichodes, 42.
+
+  Trigona, 18.
+
+  Trochilium tipuliforme, 205.
+
+  Trombidium, 120, 159.
+
+  Trouvelot, L., on amount eaten by silk worms, vii, 60.
+
+  Turnip butterfly, 197.
+
+
+  Uhler, P. R., on habits of the dragon fly, 107, 110.
+
+
+  Verrill, A. E., on the parasites of man and the domestic animals, 84.
+
+  Vine dresser, 59.
+
+  Virgin reproduction, 168.
+
+
+  Wasp, 206.
+
+  Water bear, 150.
+
+  Water boatman, 166, 209.
+
+  Waterhouse, G. R., on habits of Osmia, 27.
+
+  Weevil, 179, 188, 194.
+
+  Weismann on growth of insects, 164.
+
+  West, Tuffen, on the foot of the fly, viii.
+
+  Wheat midge, 197.
+
+  Wine fly, 83.
+
+  Wingless insects, 171.
+
+  Wings of insects as respiratory organs, 165.
+
+  Wings, origin of, 172.
+
+  Worthen's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
+
+  Worms, the ancestors of insects, 160, 169.
+
+  Wyman, Jeffries, on the cells of the honey bee, 17.
+
+
+  Xenos, 46.
+
+  Xylobius, 159.
+
+  Xylocopa, 21.
+
+
+  Zaddach on development of worms, insects and crustaceans, 169.
+
+  Zoea, 156.
+
+
+_The only American Text Book of Entomology._
+
+A Guide to the Study of Insects,
+
+Being a popular introduction to the study of Entomology, and a treatise
+on Injurious and Beneficial Insects, with descriptions and accounts of
+the habits of Insects, their transformations, development and
+classification.
+
+By A. S. PACKARD, Jr., M. D.,
+
+Curator of Articulata at the _Peabody Academy of Science_, Lecturer on
+Entomology at _Bowdoin College_, and Entomologist to the _Mass. State
+Board of Agriculture_.
+
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+
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+character of this work._
+
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+with Harris's "Treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegetation," to which it
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+
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+
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+fact.--_Scientific Opinion_, London.
+
+Too often do we meet with a manual in which there is little more than a
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+THE MAMMOTH CAVE AND ITS INHABITANTS,
+
+_Or Descriptions of the Fishes, Insects and Crustaceans_
+
+found in the Cave; with figures of the various species, and an account
+of allied forms, comprising notes upon their Structure, Development and
+Habits; with remarks upon subterranean life in general.
+
+By A. S. PACKARD, Jr., and F. W. PUTNAM.
+
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+_Edited by A. S. PACKARD, Jr._
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+FLOWER OBJECT LESSONS;
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+A FAMILIAR Description of a Few Flowers. From the French of M. EMM. LE
+MAOUT, Translated by Miss A. L. PAGE. This little work of 55 pages,
+illustrated by 47 woodcuts, has been translated for the purpose of
+placing within the reach of those interested in object teaching a manual
+that is most admirably adapted for the purpose, and is offered to
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+End of Project Gutenberg's Our Common Insects, by Alpheus Spring  Packard
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