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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Moral Principles in Education + +Author: John Dewey + +Release Date: April 25, 2008 [EBook #25172] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + <div id="frontmatter"> + <div id="title_page"> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="pagei" title="i"> </a> --> + <p class="fancy">Riverside Educational Monographs</p> + + <p class="editor">EDITED BY HENRY SUZZALLO<br /> + + <span class="editor_affiliation">SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION + TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AND + PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON</span></p> + + <h1>MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION</h1> + + <p class="stopword">BY</p> + + <p class="author">JOHN DEWEY<br /> + + <span class="author_affiliation">PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY + IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</span></p> + + <p><img style="margin:2em auto;" src="images/pub_device.png" width="130" height="162" alt="Pub Device" /></p> + + <p class="publisher_name">HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</p> + + <p class="publisher_cities">BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br /> + SAN FRANCISCO</p> + + <p class="fancy">The Riverside Press Cambridge</p> + </div> + <div id="copyright_page"> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="pageii" title="ii"> </a> --> + <p>COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY JOHN DEWEY</p> + + <p>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p> + + <p class="sources">The author has drawn freely upon his essay on <cite>Ethical + Principles Underlying Education</cite>, published in the Third + Year-Book of The National Herbart Society for the Study of + Education. He is indebted to the Society for permission to + use this material.</p> + + <p class="fancy">The Riverside Press</p> + <p>CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS</p> + <p>PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div id="contents" class="section"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="pageiii" title="iii"> </a> --> + <h2 class="section_title">CONTENTS</h2> + <ul class="no_number"> + <li><a href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li> + </ul> + <ol> + <li><a href="#chapter_1">The Moral Purpose of the School</a></li> + <li><a href="#chapter_2">The Moral Training Given by the School Community</a></li> + <li><a href="#chapter_3">The Moral Training from Methods of Instruction</a></li> + <li><a href="#chapter_4">The Social Nature of the Course of Study</a></li> + <li><a href="#chapter_5">The Psychological Aspect of Moral Education</a></li> + </ol> + <ul class="no_number"> + <li><a href="#outline">Outline</a></li> + </ul> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="pageiv" title="iv"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + </div> + <div id="introduction" class="section"><a class="pagenum" id="pagev" title="v"> </a> + <h2 class="section_title">INTRODUCTION</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <h3 class="subsection_title">Education as a public business</h3> + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">It</span> is one of the complaints of the schoolmaster + that the public does not defer to his professional + opinion as completely as it does to that of practitioners + in other professions. At first sight it + might seem as though this indicated a defect + either in the public or in the profession; and yet + a wider view of the situation would suggest that + such a conclusion is not a necessary one. The + relations of education to the public are different + from those of any other professional work. Education + is a public business with us, in a sense that + the protection and restoration of personal health + or legal rights are not. To an extent characteristic + of no other institution, save that of the state + itself, the school has power to modify the social + order. And under our political system, it is the + right of each individual to have a voice in the + making of social policies as, indeed, he has a vote + in the determination of political affairs. If this + <a class="pagenum" id="pagevi" title="vi"> </a>be true, education is primarily a public business, + and only secondarily a specialized vocation. The + layman, then, will always have his right to some + utterance on the operation of the public schools.</p> + + <h3 class="subsection_title">Education as expert service</h3> + <p>I have said “some utterance,” but not “all”; + for school-mastering has its own special mysteries, + its own knowledge and skill into which the + untrained layman cannot penetrate. We are just + beginning to recognize that the school and the + government have a common problem in this respect. + Education and politics are two functions + fundamentally controlled by public opinion. Yet + the conspicuous lack of efficiency and economy + in the school and in the state has quickened our + recognition of a larger need for expert service. + But just where shall public opinion justly express + itself, and what shall properly be left to + expert judgment?</p> + + <h3 class="subsection_title">The relations of expert opinion and public opinion</h3> + <p>In so far as broad policies and ultimate ends + affecting the welfare of all are to be determined, + <a class="pagenum" id="pagevii" title="vii"> </a>the public may well claim its right to settle issues + by the vote or voice of majorities. But the selection + and prosecution of the detailed ways and + means by which the public will is to be executed + efficiently must remain largely a matter of specialized + and expert service. To the superior + knowledge and technique required here, the public + may well defer.</p> + + <p>In the conduct of the schools, it is well for the + citizens to determine the ends proper to them, + and it is their privilege to judge of the efficacy + of results. Upon questions that concern all the + manifold details by which children are to be converted + into desirable types of men and women, + the expert schoolmaster should be authoritative, + at least to a degree commensurate with his superior + knowledge of this very complex problem. + The administration of the schools, the making + of the course of study, the selection of texts, + the prescription of methods of teaching, these + are matters with which the people, or their representatives + upon boards of education, cannot + deal save with danger of becoming mere meddlers.</p> + + <h3 class="subsection_title"><a class="pagenum" id="pageviii" title="viii"> </a>The discussion of moral education an illustration of mistaken views of laymen</h3> + <p>Nowhere is the validity of this distinction between + education as a public business and education + as an expert professional service brought + out more clearly than in an analysis of the public + discussion of the moral work of the school. How + frequently of late have those unacquainted with + the special nature of the school proclaimed the + moral ends of education and at the same time + demanded direct ethical instruction as the particular + method by which they were to be realized! + This, too, in spite of the fact that those who + know best the powers and limitations of instruction + as an instrument have repeatedly pointed out + the futility of assuming that knowledge of right + constitutes a guarantee of right doing. How + common it is for those who assert that education + is for social efficiency to assume that the + school should return to the barren discipline of + the traditional formal subjects, reading, writing, + and the rest! This, too, regardless of the fact + that it has taken a century of educational evolution + <a class="pagenum" id="pageix" title="ix"> </a>to make the course of study varied and rich + enough to call for those impulses and activities + of social life which need training in the child. + And how many who speak glowingly of the large + services of the public schools to a democracy of + free and self-reliant men affect a cynical and + even vehement opposition to the “self-government + of schools”! These would not have the + children learn to govern themselves and one + another, but would have the masters rule them, + ignoring the fact that this common practice in + childhood may be a foundation for that evil condition + in adult society where the citizens are arbitrarily + ruled by political bosses.</p> + + <p>One need not cite further cases of the incompetence + of the lay public to deal with technical + questions of school methods. Instances are plentiful + to show that well-meaning people, competent + enough to judge of the aims and results of + school work, make a mistake in insisting upon + the prerogative of directing the technical aspects + of education with a dogmatism that would + not characterize their statements regarding any + other special field of knowledge or action.</p> + + <h3 class="subsection_title"><a class="pagenum" id="pagex" title="x"> </a>A fundamental understanding of moral principles in education</h3> + <p>Nothing can be more useful than for the public + and the teaching profession to understand + their respective functions. The teacher needs to + understand public opinion and the social order, + as much as the public needs to comprehend the + nature of expert educational service. It will take + time to draw the boundary lines that will be conducive + to respect, restraint, and efficiency in + those concerned; but a beginning can be made + upon fundamental matters, and nothing so touches + the foundations of our educational thought as a + discussion of the moral principles in education.</p> + + <p>It is our pleasure to present a treatment of them + by a thinker whose vital influence upon the reform + of school methods is greater than that of + any of his contemporaries. In his discussion of + the social and psychological factors in moral education, + there is much that will suggest what social + opinion should determine, and much that will + indicate what must be left to the trained teacher + and school official.</p> + + </div> + <div id="chapter_1" class="chapter"> + <p class="internal_title">THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL</p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> + <h2 class="chapter_title"><a class="pagenum" id="page1" title="1"> </a><span class="chapter_number">I</span><br /> + THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">An</span> English contemporary philosopher has called + attention to the difference between moral ideas + and ideas about morality. “Moral ideas” are ideas + of any sort whatsoever which take effect in conduct + and improve it, make it better than it otherwise + would be. Similarly, one may say, immoral + ideas are ideas of whatever sort (whether arithmetical + or geographical or physiological) which + show themselves in making behavior worse than + it would otherwise be; and non-moral ideas, one + may say, are such ideas and pieces of information + as leave conduct uninfluenced for either the + better or the worse. Now “ideas about morality” + may be morally indifferent or immoral or moral. + There is nothing in the nature of ideas <em>about</em> + morality, of information <em>about</em> honesty or purity + or kindness which automatically transmutes such + ideas into good character or good conduct.</p> + + <p><a class="pagenum" id="page2" title="2"> </a>This distinction between moral ideas, ideas + of any sort whatsoever that have become a part + of character and hence a part of the working motives + of behavior, and ideas <em>about</em> moral action + that may remain as inert and ineffective as if + they were so much knowledge about Egyptian + archæology, is fundamental to the discussion of + moral education. The business of the educator—whether + parent or teacher—is to see to it that + the greatest possible number of ideas acquired + by children and youth are acquired in such a + vital way that they become <em>moving</em> ideas, motive-forces + in the guidance of conduct. This + demand and this opportunity make the moral + purpose universal and dominant in all instruction—whatsoever + the topic. Were it not for this + possibility, the familiar statement that the ultimate + purpose of all education is character-forming + would be hypocritical pretense; for as + every one knows, the direct and immediate attention + of teachers and pupils must be, for the + greater part of the time, upon intellectual matters. + It is out of the question to keep direct moral considerations + constantly uppermost. But it is not + <a class="pagenum" id="page3" title="3"> </a>out of the question to aim at making the methods + of learning, of acquiring intellectual power, and + of assimilating subject-matter, such that they will + render behavior more enlightened, more consistent, + more vigorous than it otherwise would be.</p> + + <p>The same distinction between “moral ideas” + and “ideas about morality” explains for us a + source of continual misunderstanding between + teachers in the schools and critics of education + outside of the schools. The latter look through the + school programmes, the school courses of study, + and do not find any place set apart for instruction + in ethics or for “moral teaching.” Then + they assert that the schools are doing nothing, + or next to nothing, for character-training; they + become emphatic, even vehement, about the + moral deficiencies of public education. The schoolteachers, + on the other hand, resent these criticisms + as an injustice, and hold not only that they + do “teach morals,” but that they teach them + every moment of the day, five days in the week. + In this contention the teachers <em>in principle</em> are + in the right; if they are in the wrong, it is not + because special periods are not set aside for what + <a class="pagenum" id="page4" title="4"> </a>after all can only be teaching <em>about</em> morals, but + because their own characters, or their school atmosphere + and ideals, or their methods of teaching, + or the subject-matter which they teach, are + not such <em>in detail</em> as to bring intellectual results + into vital union with character so that they become + working forces in behavior. Without discussing, + therefore, the limits or the value of so-called + direct moral instruction (or, better, instruction + <em>about</em> morals), it may be laid down as fundamental + that the influence of direct moral instruction, + even at its very best, is <em>comparatively</em> small in + amount and slight in influence, when the whole + field of moral growth through education is taken + into account. This larger field of indirect and vital + moral education, the development of character + through all the agencies, instrumentalities, and + materials of school life is, therefore, the subject + of our present discussion.</p> + </div> + <div id="chapter_2" class="chapter"> + <h2 class="internal_title"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page5" title="5"> </a> -->THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY</h2> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page6" title="6"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + <h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number"><a class="pagenum" id="page7" title="7"> </a>II</span><br /> + THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">There</span> cannot be two sets of ethical principles, + one for life in the school, and the other for life + outside of the school. As conduct is one, so also + the principles of conduct are one. The tendency + to discuss the morals of the school as if the school + were an institution by itself is highly unfortunate. + The moral responsibility of the school, and of + those who conduct it, is to society. The school is + fundamentally an institution erected by society to + do a certain specific work,—to exercise a certain + specific function in maintaining the life and advancing + the welfare of society. The educational + system which does not recognize that this fact entails + upon it an ethical responsibility is derelict + and a defaulter. It is not doing what it was called + into existence to do, and what it pretends to do. + Hence the entire structure of the school in general + and its concrete workings in particular need + <a class="pagenum" id="page8" title="8"> </a>to be considered from time to time with reference + to the social position and function of the + school.</p> + + <p>The idea that the moral work and worth of the + public school system as a whole are to be measured + by its social value is, indeed, a familiar notion. + However, it is frequently taken in too limited and + rigid a way. The social work of the school is often + limited to training for citizenship, and citizenship + is then interpreted in a narrow sense as meaning + capacity to vote intelligently, disposition to obey + laws, etc. But it is futile to contract and cramp the + ethical responsibility of the school in this way. + The child is one, and he must either live his social + life as an integral unified being, or suffer loss and + create friction. To pick out one of the many social + relations which the child bears, and to define the + work of the school by that alone, is like instituting + a vast and complicated system of physical exercise + which would have for its object simply the development + of the lungs and the power of breathing, + independent of other organs and functions. The + child is an organic whole, intellectually, socially, + and morally, as well as physically. We must take + <a class="pagenum" id="page9" title="9"> </a>the child as a member of society in the broadest + sense, and demand for and from the schools whatever + is necessary to enable the child intelligently + to recognize all his social relations and take his + part in sustaining them.</p> + + <p>To isolate the formal relationship of citizenship + from the whole system of relations with which it + is actually interwoven; to suppose that there is + some one particular study or mode of treatment + which can make the child a good citizen; to suppose, + in other words, that a good citizen is anything + more than a thoroughly efficient and serviceable + member of society, one with all his powers of + body and mind under control, is a hampering superstition + which it is hoped may soon disappear + from educational discussion.</p> + + <p>The child is to be not only a voter and a subject + of law; he is also to be a member of a family, himself + in turn responsible, in all probability, for + rearing and training of future children, thereby + maintaining the continuity of society. He is to be + a worker, engaged in some occupation which will + be of use to society, and which will maintain his + own independence and self-respect. He is to be + <a class="pagenum" id="page10" name="page10" title="10"> </a>a member of some particular neighborhood and + community, and must contribute to the values of + life, add to the decencies and graces of civilization + wherever he is. These are bare and formal + statements, but if we let our imagination translate + them into their concrete details, we have a wide and + varied scene. For the child properly to take his + place in reference to these various functions means + training in science, in art, in history; means command + of the fundamental methods of inquiry and + the fundamental tools of intercourse and communication; + means a trained and sound body, + skillful eye and hand; means habits of industry, + perseverance; in short, habits of serviceableness.</p> + + <p>Moreover, the society of which the child is to + be a member is, in the United States, a democratic + and progressive society. The child must + be educated for leadership as well as for obedience. + He must have power of self-direction and + power of directing others, power of administration, + ability to assume positions of responsibility. + This necessity of educating for leadership is as + great on the industrial as on the political side.</p> + + <p>New inventions, new machines, new methods of + <a class="pagenum" id="page11" title="11"> </a>transportation and intercourse are making over + the whole scene of action year by year. It is an + absolute impossibility to educate the child for any + fixed station in life. So far as education is conducted + unconsciously or consciously on this basis, + it results in fitting the future citizen for no station + in life, but makes him a drone, a hanger-on, + or an actual retarding influence in the onward + movement. Instead of caring for himself and for + others, he becomes one who has himself to be + cared for. Here, too, the ethical responsibility of + the school on the social side must be interpreted + in the broadest and freest spirit; it is equivalent + to that training of the child which will give him + such possession of himself that he may take charge + of himself; may not only adapt himself to the + changes that are going on, but have power to + shape and direct them.</p> + + <p>Apart from participation in social life, the + school has no moral end nor aim. As long as we + confine ourselves to the school as an isolated institution, + we have no directing principles, because + we have no object. For example, the end of education + is said to be the harmonious development + <a class="pagenum" id="page12" title="12"> </a>of all the powers of the individual. Here no reference + to social life or membership is apparent, and + yet many think we have in it an adequate and + thoroughgoing definition of the goal of education. + But if this definition be taken independently + of social relationship we have no way of + telling what is meant by any one of the terms + employed. We do not know what a power is; + we do not know what development is; we do not + know what harmony is. A power is a power only + with reference to the use to which it is put, the + function it has to serve. If we leave out the uses + supplied by social life we have nothing but the + old “faculty psychology” to tell what is meant + by power and what the specific powers are. The + principle reduces itself to enumerating a lot of + faculties like perception, memory, reasoning, etc., + and then stating that each one of these powers + needs to be developed.</p> + + <p>Education then becomes a gymnastic exercise. + Acute powers of observation and memory might + be developed by studying Chinese characters; + acuteness in reasoning might be got by discussing + the scholastic subtleties of the Middle + <a class="pagenum" id="page13" title="13"> </a>Ages. The simple fact is that there is no isolated + faculty of observation, or memory, or reasoning + any more than there is an original faculty of blacksmithing, + carpentering, or steam engineering. + Faculties mean simply that particular impulses + and habits have been coördinated or framed with + reference to accomplishing certain definite kinds + of work. We need to know the social situations + in which the individual will have to use ability to + observe, recollect, imagine, and reason, in order + to have any way of telling what a training of mental + powers actually means.</p> + + <p>What holds in the illustration of this particular + definition of education holds good from whatever + point of view we approach the matter. Only + as we interpret school activities with reference to + the larger circle of social activities to which they + relate do we find any standard for judging their + moral significance.</p> + + <p>The school itself must be a vital social institution + to a much greater extent than obtains at + present. I am told that there is a swimming + school in a certain city where youth are taught + to swim without going into the water, being repeatedly + <a class="pagenum" id="page14" title="14"> </a>drilled in the various movements which + are necessary for swimming. When one of the + young men so trained was asked what he did when + he got into the water, he laconically replied, + “Sunk.” The story happens to be true; were + it not, it would seem to be a fable made expressly + for the purpose of typifying the ethical relationship + of school to society. The school cannot be + a preparation for social life excepting as it reproduces, + within itself, typical conditions of social + life. At present it is largely engaged in the futile + task of Sisyphus. It is endeavoring to form habits + in children for use in a social life which, it would + almost seem, is carefully and purposely kept + away from vital contact with the child undergoing + training. The only way to prepare for + social life is to engage in social life. To form + habits of social usefulness and serviceableness + apart from any direct social need and motive, + apart from any existing social situation, is, to the + letter, teaching the child to swim by going through + motions outside of the water. The most indispensable + condition is left out of account, and the + results are correspondingly partial.</p> + + <p><a class="pagenum" id="page15" title="15"> </a>The much lamented separation in the schools + of intellectual and moral training, of acquiring + information and growing in character, is simply + one expression of the failure to conceive and construct + the school as a social institution, having + social life and value within itself. Except so far + as the school is an embryonic typical community + life, moral training must be partly pathological + and partly formal. Training is pathological when + stress is laid upon correcting wrong-doing instead + of upon forming habits of positive service. Too + often the teacher’s concern with the moral life + of pupils takes the form of alertness for failures + to conform to school rules and routine. These + regulations, judged from the standpoint of the + development of the child at the time, are more + or less conventional and arbitrary. They are rules + which have to be made in order that the existing + modes of school work may go on; but the lack of + inherent necessity in these school modes reflects + itself in a feeling, on the part of the child, that + the moral discipline of the school is arbitrary. + Any conditions that compel the teacher to take + note of failures rather than of healthy growth + <a class="pagenum" id="page16" title="16"> </a>give false standards and result in distortion and + perversion. Attending to wrong-doing ought to + be an incident rather than a principle. The child + ought to have a positive consciousness of what + he is about, so as to judge his acts from the standpoint + of reference to the work which he has + to do. Only in this way does he have a vital + standard, one that enables him to turn failures to + account for the future.</p> + + <p>By saying that the moral training of the school + is formal, I mean that the moral habits currently + emphasized by the school are habits which are + created, as it were, <em lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad hoc</em>. Even the habits of + promptness, regularity, industry, non-interference + with the work of others, faithfulness to + tasks imposed, which are specially inculcated in + the school, are habits that are necessary simply + because the school system is what it is, and must + be preserved intact. If we grant the inviolability + of the school system as it is, these habits represent + permanent and necessary moral ideas; but + just in so far as the school system is itself + isolated and mechanical, insistence upon these + moral habits is more or less unreal, because the + <a class="pagenum" id="page17" title="17"> </a>ideal to which they relate is not itself necessary. + The duties, in other words, are distinctly school + duties, not life duties. If we compare this condition + with that of the well-ordered home, we find + that the duties and responsibilities that the child + has there to recognize do not belong to the + family as a specialized and isolated institution, + but flow from the very nature of the social life in + which the family participates and to which it contributes. + The child ought to have the same motives + for right doing and to be judged by the same + standards in the school, as the adult in the wider + social life to which he belongs. Interest in community + welfare, an interest that is intellectual + and practical, as well as emotional—an interest, + that is to say, in perceiving whatever makes for + social order and progress, and in carrying these + principles into execution—is the moral habit to + which all the special school habits must be related + if they are to be animated by the breath of life.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page18" title="18"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + </div> + <div id="chapter_3" class="chapter"> + <p class="internal_title"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page19" title="19"> </a> -->THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION</p> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page20" title="20"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + + <h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number"><a class="pagenum" id="page21" title="21"> </a>III</span><br /> + THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">The</span> principle of the social character of the school + as the basic factor in the moral education given + may be also applied to the question of methods + of instruction,—not in their details, but their + general spirit. The emphasis then falls upon + construction and giving out, rather than upon + absorption and mere learning. We fail to recognize + how essentially individualistic the latter + methods are, and how unconsciously, yet certainly + and effectively, they react into the child’s ways + of judging and of acting. Imagine forty children + all engaged in reading the same books, and in + preparing and reciting the same lessons day after + day. Suppose this process constitutes by far the + larger part of their work, and that they are continually + judged from the standpoint of what they + are able to take in in a study hour and reproduce + in a recitation hour. There is next to no + <a class="pagenum" id="page22" title="22"> </a>opportunity for any social division of labor. + There is no opportunity for each child to work + out something specifically his own, which he may + contribute to the common stock, while he, in turn, + participates in the productions of others. All are + set to do exactly the same work and turn out the + same products. The social spirit is not cultivated,—in + fact, in so far as the purely individualistic + method gets in its work, it atrophies for lack of + use. One reason why reading aloud in school is + poor is that the real motive for the use of language—the + desire to communicate and to learn—is + not utilized. The child knows perfectly well + that the teacher and all his fellow pupils have + exactly the same facts and ideas before them that + he has; he is not <em>giving</em> them anything at all. + And it may be questioned whether the moral + lack is not as great as the intellectual. The child + is born with a natural desire to give out, to do, to + serve. When this tendency is not used, when + conditions are such that other motives are substituted, + the accumulation of an influence working + against the social spirit is much larger than we + have any idea of,—especially when the burden + <a class="pagenum" id="page23" title="23"> </a>of work, week after week, and year after year, + falls upon this side.</p> + + <p>But lack of cultivation of the social spirit is + not all. Positively individualistic motives and + standards are inculcated. Some stimulus must + be found to keep the child at his studies. At the + best this will be his affection for his teacher, together + with a feeling that he is not violating + school rules, and thus negatively, if not positively, + is contributing to the good of the school. I have + nothing to say against these motives so far as + they go, but they are inadequate. The relation + between the piece of work to be done and affection + for a third person is external, not intrinsic. It + is therefore liable to break down whenever the + external conditions are changed. Moreover, this + attachment to a particular person, while in a way + social, may become so isolated and exclusive as + to be selfish in quality. In any case, the child + should gradually grow out of this relatively external + motive into an appreciation, for its own + sake, of the social value of what he has to do, + because of its larger relations to life, not pinned + down to two or three persons.</p> + + <p><a class="pagenum" id="page24" title="24"> </a>But, unfortunately, the motive is not always + at this relative best, but mixed with lower motives + which are distinctly egoistic. Fear is a motive + which is almost sure to enter in,—not necessarily + physical fear, or fear of punishment, but + fear of losing the approbation of others; or fear of + failure, so extreme as to be morbid and paralyzing. + On the other side, emulation and rivalry enter + in. Just because all are doing the same work, + and are judged (either in recitation or examination + with reference to grading and to promotion) + not from the standpoint of their personal contribution, + but from that of <em>comparative</em> success, + the feeling of superiority over others is unduly + appealed to, while timid children are depressed. + Children are judged with reference to their capacity + to realize the same external standard. The + weaker gradually lose their sense of power, and + accept a position of continuous and persistent + inferiority. The effect upon both self-respect and + respect for work need not be dwelt upon. The + strong learn to glory, not in their strength, but + in the fact that they are stronger. The child + is prematurely launched into the region of individualistic + <a class="pagenum" id="page25" title="25"> </a>competition, and this in a direction + where competition is least applicable, namely, in + intellectual and artistic matters, whose law is coöperation + and participation.</p> + + <p>Next, perhaps, to the evils of passive absorption + and of competition for external standing + come, perhaps, those which result from the eternal + emphasis upon preparation for a remote future. + I do not refer here to the waste of energy + and vitality that accrues when children, who live so + largely in the immediate present, are appealed to + in the name of a dim and uncertain future which + means little or nothing to them. I have in mind + rather the habitual procrastination that develops + when the motive for work is future, not present; + and the false standards of judgment that are created + when work is estimated, not on the basis of + present need and present responsibility, but by + reference to an external result, like passing an + examination, getting promoted, entering high + school, getting into college, etc. Who can reckon + up the loss of moral power that arises from the + constant impression that nothing is worth doing + in itself, but only as a preparation for something + <a class="pagenum" id="page26" title="26"> </a>else, which in turn is only a getting ready for some + genuinely serious end beyond? Moreover, as a + rule, it will be found that remote success is an + end which appeals most to those in whom egoistic + desire to get ahead—to get ahead of others—is + already only too strong a motive. Those in + whom personal ambition is already so strong that + it paints glowing pictures of future victories may + be touched; others of a more generous nature do + not respond.</p> + + <p>I cannot stop to paint the other side. I can + only say that the introduction of every method + that appeals to the child’s active powers, to his + capacities in construction, production, and creation, + marks an opportunity to shift the centre of + ethical gravity from an absorption which is selfish + to a service which is social. Manual training is + more than manual; it is more than intellectual; + in the hands of any good teacher it lends itself + easily, and almost as a matter of course, to development + of social habits. Ever since the philosophy + of Kant, it has been a commonplace of + æsthetic theory, that art is universal; that it is + not the product of purely personal desire or appetite, + <a class="pagenum" id="page27" title="27"> </a>or capable of merely individual appropriation, + but has a value participated in by all who + perceive it. Even in the schools where most conscious + attention is paid to moral considerations, + the methods of study and recitation may be + such as to emphasize appreciation rather than + power, an emotional readiness to assimilate the + experiences of others, rather than enlightened + and trained capacity to carry forward those values + which in other conditions and past times made + those experiences worth having. At all events, + separation between instruction and character + continues in our schools (in spite of the efforts of + individual teachers) as a result of divorce between + learning and doing. The attempt to attach genuine + moral effectiveness to the mere processes of + learning, and to the habits which go along with + learning, can result only in a training infected with + formality, arbitrariness, and an undue emphasis + upon failure to conform. That there is as much + accomplished as there is shows the possibilities + involved in methods of school activity which + afford opportunity for reciprocity, coöperation, + and positive personal achievement.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page28" title="28"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + </div> + <div id="chapter_4" class="chapter"> + <p class="internal_title"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page29" title="29"> </a> -->THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY</p> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page30" title="30"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + + <h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number"><a class="pagenum" id="page31" title="31"> </a>IV</span><br /> + THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">In</span> many respects, it is the subject-matter used + in school life which decides both the general + atmosphere of the school and the methods of instruction + and discipline which rule. A barren + “course of study,” that is to say, a meagre and + narrow field of school activities, cannot possibly + lend itself to the development of a vital social + spirit or to methods that appeal to sympathy and + coöperation instead of to absorption, exclusiveness, + and competition. Hence it becomes an all + important matter to know how we shall apply + our social standard of moral value to the subject-matter + of school work, to what we call, traditionally, + the “studies” that occupy pupils.</p> + + <p><em>A study is to be considered as a means of bringing + the child to realize the social scene of action.</em> + Thus considered it gives a criterion for selection + of material and for judgment of values. We have + <a class="pagenum" id="page32" title="32"> </a>at present three independent values set up: one + of culture, another of information, and another + of discipline. In reality, these refer only to three + phases of social interpretation. Information is + genuine or educative only in so far as it presents + definite images and conceptions of materials + placed in a context of social life. Discipline is + genuinely educative only as it represents a reaction + of information into the individual’s own + powers so that he brings them under control for + social ends. Culture, if it is to be genuinely educative + and not an external polish or factitious + varnish, represents the vital union of information + and discipline. It marks the socialization of the + individual in his outlook upon life.</p> + + <p>This point may be illustrated by brief reference + to a few of the school studies. In the first place, + there is no line of demarkation within facts + themselves which classifies them as belonging to + science, history, or geography, respectively. The + pigeon-hole classification which is so prevalent at + present (fostered by introducing the pupil at the + outset into a number of different studies contained + in different text-books) gives an utterly erroneous + <a class="pagenum" id="page33" title="33"> </a>idea of the relations of studies to one another + and to the intellectual whole to which all belong. + In fact, these subjects have to do with the + same ultimate reality, namely, the conscious experience + of man. It is only because we have + different interests, or different ends, that we sort + out the material and label part of it science, part + of it history, part geography, and so on. Each + “sorting” represents materials arranged with + reference to some one dominant typical aim or + process of the social life.</p> + + <p>This social criterion is necessary, not only + to mark off studies from one another, but also + to grasp the reasons for each study,—the motives + in connection with which it shall be presented. + How, for example, should we define + geography? What is the unity in the different + so-called divisions of geography,—mathematical + geography, physical geography, political geography, + commercial geography? Are they purely + empirical classifications dependent upon the brute + fact that we run across a lot of different facts? Or + is there some intrinsic principle through which + the material is distributed under these various + <a class="pagenum" id="page34" title="34"> </a>heads,—something in the interest and attitude + of the human mind towards them? I should say + that geography has to do with all those aspects of + social life which are concerned with the interaction + of the life of man and nature; or, that it has + to do with the world considered as the scene of + social interaction. Any fact, then, will be geographical + in so far as it has to do with the dependence + of man upon his natural environment, + or with changes introduced in this environment + through the life of man.</p> + + <p>The four forms of geography referred to above + represent, then, four increasing stages of abstraction + in discussing the mutual relation of human + life and nature. The beginning must be social + geography, the frank recognition of the earth as + the home of men acting in relations to one another. + I mean by this that the essence of any geographical + fact is the consciousness of two persons, or two + groups of persons, who are at once separated and + connected by their physical environment, and that + the interest is in seeing how these people are at once + kept apart and brought together in their actions by + the instrumentality of the physical environment. + <a class="pagenum" id="page35" title="35"> </a>The ultimate significance of lake, river, mountain, + and plain is not physical but social; it is the + part which it plays in modifying and directing + human relationships. This evidently involves an + extension of the term commercial. It has to + do not simply with business, in the narrow sense, + but with whatever relates to human intercourse + and intercommunication as affected by natural + forms and properties. Political geography represents + this same social interaction taken in a static + instead of in a dynamic way; taken, that is, as + temporarily crystallized and fixed in certain forms. + Physical geography (including under this not + simply physiography, but also the study of flora + and fauna) represents a further analysis or abstraction. + It studies the conditions which determine + human action, leaving out of account, temporarily, + the ways in which they concretely do + this. Mathematical geography carries the analysis + back to more ultimate and remote conditions, + showing that the physical conditions of the earth + are not ultimate, but depend upon the place which + the world occupies in a larger system. Here, in + other words, are traced, step by step, the links + <a class="pagenum" id="page36" title="36"> </a>which connect the immediate social occupations + and groupings of men with the whole natural system + which ultimately conditions them. Step by + step the scene is enlarged and the image of what + enters into the make-up of social action is widened + and broadened; at no time is the chain of connection + to be broken.</p> + + <p>It is out of the question to take up the studies + one by one and show that their meaning is similarly + controlled by social considerations. But I + cannot forbear saying a word or two upon history. + History is vital or dead to the child according as + it is, or is not, presented from the sociological + standpoint. When treated simply as a record of + what has passed and gone, it must be mechanical, + because the past, as the past, is remote. Simply + as the past there is no motive for attending to + it. The ethical value of history teaching will be + measured by the extent to which past events are + made the means of understanding the present,—affording + insight into what makes up the structure + and working of society to-day. Existing social + structure is exceedingly complex. It is practically + impossible for the child to attack it <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en + <a class="pagenum" id="page37" title="37"> </a>masse</em> and get any definite mental image of it. + But type phases of historical development may be + selected which will exhibit, as through a telescope, + the essential constituents of the existing order. + Greece, for example, represents what art and growing + power of individual expression stand for; + Rome exhibits the elements and forces of political + life on a tremendous scale. Or, as these civilizations + are themselves relatively complex, a study + of still simpler forms of hunting, nomadic, and + agricultural life in the beginnings of civilization, + a study of the effects of the introduction of iron, + and iron tools, reduces the complexity to simpler + elements.</p> + + <p>One reason historical teaching is usually not + more effective is that the student is set to acquire + information in such a way that no epochs or factors + stand out in his mind as typical; everything + is reduced to the same dead level. The way to + secure the necessary perspective is to treat the + past as if it were a projected present with some + of its elements enlarged.</p> + + <p>The principle of contrast is as important as + that of similarity. Because the present life is so + <a class="pagenum" id="page38" title="38"> </a>close to us, touching us at every point, we cannot + get away from it to see it as it really is. Nothing + stands out clearly or sharply as characteristic. In + the study of past periods, attention necessarily + attaches itself to striking differences. Thus the + child gets a locus of imagination, through which + he can remove himself from the pressure of present + surrounding circumstances and define them.</p> + + <p>History is equally available in teaching the + <em>methods</em> of social progress. It is commonly stated + that history must be studied from the standpoint + of cause and effect. The truth of this statement + depends upon its interpretation. Social life is so + complex and the various parts of it are so organically + related to one another and to the natural + environment, that it is impossible to say that this + or that thing is the cause of some other particular + thing. But the study of history can reveal the + main instruments in the discoveries, inventions, + new modes of life, etc., which have initiated the + great epochs of social advance; and it can present + to the child types of the main lines of social progress, + and can set before him what have been the + chief difficulties and obstructions in the way of + <a class="pagenum" id="page39" title="39"> </a>progress. Once more this can be done only in so + far as it is recognized that social forces in themselves + are always the same,—that the same kind + of influences were at work one hundred and one + thousand years ago that are now working,—and + that particular historical epochs afford illustration + of the way in which the fundamental forces + work.</p> + + <p>Everything depends, then, upon history being + treated from a social standpoint; as manifesting + the agencies which have influenced social development + and as presenting the typical institutions + in which social life has expressed itself. The + culture-epoch theory, while working in the right + direction, has failed to recognize the importance + of treating past periods with relation to the present,—as + affording insight into the representative + factors of its structure; it has treated these + periods too much as if they had some meaning + or value in themselves. The way in which the + biographical method is handled illustrates the + same point. It is often treated in such a way as + to exclude from the child’s consciousness (or at + least not sufficiently to emphasize) the social + <a class="pagenum" id="page40" title="40"> </a>forces and principles involved in the association + of the masses of men. It is quite true that the + child is easily interested in history from the biographical + standpoint; but unless “the hero” is + treated in relation to the community life behind + him that he sums up and directs, there is danger + that history will reduce itself to a mere exciting + story. Then moral instruction reduces itself to + drawing certain lessons from the life of the particular + personalities concerned, instead of widening + and deepening the child’s imagination of social + relations, ideals, and means.</p> + + <p>It will be remembered that I am not making + these points for their own sake, but with reference + to the general principle that when a study is + taught as a mode of understanding social life it + has positive ethical import. What the normal child + continuously needs is not so much isolated moral + lessons upon the importance of truthfulness and + honesty, or the beneficent results that follow from + a particular act of patriotism, as the formation + of habits of social imagination and conception.</p> + + <p>I take one more illustration, namely, mathematics. + This does, or does not, accomplish its + <a class="pagenum" id="page41" title="41"> </a>full purpose according as it is, or is not, presented + as a social tool. The prevailing divorce between + information and character, between knowledge + and social action, stalks upon the scene here. + The moment mathematical study is severed from + the place which it occupies with reference to use + in social life, it becomes unduly abstract, even + upon the purely intellectual side. It is presented + as a matter of technical relations and formulæ + apart from any end or use. What the study of + number suffers from in elementary education is + lack of motivation. Back of this and that and the + other particular bad method is the radical mistake + of treating number as if it were an end in itself, + instead of the means of accomplishing some end. + Let the child get a consciousness of what is the + use of number, of what it really is for, and half the + battle is won. Now this consciousness of the use + of reason implies some end which is implicitly + social.</p> + + <p>One of the absurd things in the more advanced + study of arithmetic is the extent to which the + child is introduced to numerical operations which + have no distinctive mathematical principles characterizing + <a class="pagenum" id="page42" title="42"> </a>them, but which represent certain general + principles found in business relationships. + To train the child in these operations, while paying + no attention to the business realities in which + they are of use, or to the conditions of social + life which make these business activities necessary, + is neither arithmetic nor common sense. + The child is called upon to do examples in interest, + partnership, banking, brokerage, and so on + through a long string, and no pains are taken to + see that, in connection with the arithmetic, he + has any sense of the social realities involved. + This part of arithmetic is essentially sociological + in its nature. It ought either to be omitted entirely, + or else be taught in connection with a study + of the relevant social realities. As we now manage + the study, it is the old case of learning to swim + apart from the water over again, with correspondingly + bad results on the practical side.</p> + + <p>In concluding this portion of the discussion, + we may say that our conceptions of moral education + have been too narrow, too formal, and too + pathological. We have associated the term ethical + with certain special acts which are labeled virtues + <a class="pagenum" id="page43" title="43"> </a>and are set off from the mass of other acts, and are + still more divorced from the habitual images and + motives of the children performing them. Moral + instruction is thus associated with teaching about + these particular virtues, or with instilling certain + sentiments in regard to them. The moral has been + conceived in too goody-goody a way. Ultimate + moral motives and forces are nothing more or + less than social intelligence—the power of observing + and comprehending social situations,—and + social power—trained capacities of control—at + work in the service of social interest and + aims. There is no fact which throws light upon + the constitution of society, there is no power + whose training adds to social resourcefulness + that is not moral.</p> + + <p>I sum up, then, this part of the discussion by + asking your attention to the moral trinity of the + school. The demand is for social intelligence, + social power, and social interests. Our resources + are (1) the life of the school as a social institution + in itself; (2) methods of learning and of doing + work; and (3) the school studies or curriculum. + In so far as the school represents, in its own + <a class="pagenum" id="page44" title="44"> </a>spirit, a genuine community life; in so far as + what are called school discipline, government, + order, etc., are the expressions of this inherent + social spirit; in so far as the methods used are + those that appeal to the active and constructive + powers, permitting the child to give out and thus + to serve; in so far as the curriculum is so selected + and organized as to provide the material + for affording the child a consciousness of the + world in which he has to play a part, and the demands + he has to meet; so far as these ends + are met, the school is organized on an ethical + basis. So far as general principles are concerned, + all the basic ethical requirements are met. The + rest remains between the individual teacher and + the individual child.</p> + + </div> + <div id="chapter_5" class="chapter"> + <p class="internal_title"><a class="pagenum" id="page45" title="45"> </a>THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION</p> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page46" title="46"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + + <h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number"><a class="pagenum" id="page47" title="47"> </a>V</span><br /> + THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">So</span> far we have been considering the make-up of + purposes and results that constitute conduct—its + “what.” But conduct has a certain method + and spirit also—its “how.” Conduct may be + looked upon as expressing the attitudes and dispositions + of an <em>individual</em>, as well as realizing social + results and maintaining the social fabric. A consideration + of conduct as a mode of individual performance, + personal doing, takes us from the social + to the psychological side of morals. In the first + place, all conduct springs ultimately and radically + out of native instincts and impulses. We must + know what these instincts and impulses are, and + what they are at each particular stage of the + child’s development, in order to know what to appeal + to and what to build upon. Neglect of this + principle may give a mechanical imitation of + moral conduct, but the imitation will be ethically + <a class="pagenum" id="page48" title="48"> </a>dead, because it is external and has its centre + without, not within, the individual. We must + study the child, in other words, to get our indications, + our symptoms, our suggestions. The more + or less spontaneous acts of the child are not to + be thought of as setting moral forms to which the + efforts of the educator must conform—this would + result simply in spoiling the child; but they are + symptoms which require to be interpreted: stimuli + which need to be responded to in directed ways; + material which, in however transformed a shape, + is the only ultimate constituent of future moral + conduct and character.</p> + + <p>Then, secondly, our ethical principles need to + be stated in psychological terms because the + child supplies us with the only means or instruments + by which to realize moral ideals. The subject-matter + of the curriculum, however important, + however judiciously selected, is empty of conclusive + moral content until it is made over into terms + of the individual’s own activities, habits, and desires. + We must know what history, geography, and + mathematics mean in psychological terms, that + is, as modes of personal experiencing, before + <a class="pagenum" id="page49" title="49"> </a>we can get out of them their moral potentialities.</p> + + <p>The psychological side of education sums itself + up, of course, in a consideration of character. + It is a commonplace to say that the development + of character is the end of all school work. + The difficulty lies in the execution of the idea. + And an underlying difficulty in this execution is + the lack of a clear conception of what character + means. This may seem an extreme statement. + If so, the idea may be conveyed by saying that + we generally conceive of character simply in + terms of results; we have no clear conception of + it in psychological terms—that is, as a process, + as working or dynamic. We know what character + means in terms of the actions which proceed from + it, but we have not a definite conception of it on + its inner side, as a system of working forces.</p> + + <p>(1) Force, efficiency in execution, or overt action, + is one necessary constituent of character. + In our moral books and lectures we may lay the + stress upon good intentions, etc. But we know + practically that the kind of character we hope to + build up through our education is one that not + <a class="pagenum" id="page50" title="50"> </a>only has good intentions, but that insists upon + carrying them out. Any other character is wishy-washy; + it is goody, not good. The individual + must have the power to stand up and count for + something in the actual conflicts of life. He must + have initiative, insistence, persistence, courage, + and industry. He must, in a word, have all that + goes under the name “<em>force</em> of character.” Undoubtedly, + individuals differ greatly in their native + endowment in this respect. None the less, each + has a certain primary equipment of impulse, of + tendency forward, of innate urgency to do. The + problem of education on this side is that of discovering + what this native fund of power is, and + then of utilizing it in such a way (affording conditions + which both stimulate and control) as to + organize it into definite conserved modes of action—habits.</p> + + <p>(2) But something more is required than sheer + force. Sheer force may be brutal; it may override + the interests of others. Even when aiming + at right ends it may go at them in such a way as + to violate the rights of others. More than this, + in sheer force there is no guarantee for the right + <a class="pagenum" id="page51" title="51"> </a>end. Efficiency may be directed towards mistaken + ends and result in positive mischief and destruction. + Power, as already suggested, must be directed. + It must be organized along social channels; + it must be attached to valuable ends.</p> + + <p>This involves training on both the intellectual + and emotional side. On the intellectual side we + must have judgment—what is ordinarily called + good sense. The difference between mere knowledge, + or information, and judgment is that the + former is simply held, not used; judgment is + knowledge directed with reference to the accomplishment + of ends. Good judgment is a sense of + respective or proportionate values. The one who + has judgment is the one who has ability to size + up a situation. He is the one who can grasp the + scene or situation before him, ignoring what is + irrelevant, or what for the time being is unimportant, + who can seize upon the factors which demand + attention, and grade them according to their respective + claims. Mere knowledge of what the + right is, in the abstract, mere intentions of following + the right in general, however praiseworthy + in themselves, are never a substitute for this + <a class="pagenum" id="page52" title="52"> </a>power of trained judgment. Action is always in + the concrete. It is definite and individualized. + Except, therefore, as it is backed and controlled + by a knowledge of the actual concrete factors in + the situation in which it occurs, it must be relatively + futile and waste.</p> + + <p>(3) But the consciousness of ends must be more + than merely intellectual. We can imagine a person + with most excellent judgment, who yet does not + act upon his judgment. There must not only be + force to ensure effort in execution against obstacles, + but there must also be a delicate personal + responsiveness,—there must be an emotional reaction. + Indeed, good judgment is impossible without + this susceptibility. Unless there is a prompt + and almost instinctive sensitiveness to conditions, + to the ends and interests of others, the intellectual + side of judgment will not have proper + material to work upon. Just as the material of + knowledge is supplied through the senses, so + the material of ethical knowledge is supplied by + emotional responsiveness. It is difficult to put + this quality into words, but we all know the difference + between the character which is hard and + <a class="pagenum" id="page53" title="53"> </a>formal, and one which is sympathetic, flexible, + and open. In the abstract the former may be as + sincerely devoted to moral ideas as is the latter, + but as a practical matter we prefer to live with + the latter. We count upon it to accomplish + more by tact, by instinctive recognition of the + claims of others, by skill in adjusting, than the + former can accomplish by mere attachment to + rules.</p> + + <p>Here, then, is the moral standard, by which + to test the work of the school upon the side of + what it does directly for individuals. (<em>a</em>) Does + the school as a system, at present, attach sufficient + importance to the spontaneous instincts + and impulses? Does it afford sufficient opportunity + for these to assert themselves and work out + their own results? Can we even say that the + school in principle attaches itself, at present, to + the active constructive powers rather than to processes + of absorption and learning? Does not our + talk about self-activity largely render itself meaningless + because the self-activity we have in mind + is purely “intellectual,” out of relation to those + impulses which work through hand and eye?</p> + + <p><a class="pagenum" id="page54" title="54"> </a>Just in so far as the present school methods + fail to meet the test of such questions moral results + must be unsatisfactory. We cannot secure + the development of positive force of character + unless we are willing to pay its price. We cannot + smother and repress the child’s powers, or gradually + abort them (from failure of opportunity for + exercise), and then expect a character with initiative + and consecutive industry. I am aware of the + importance attaching to inhibition, but mere inhibition + is valueless. The only restraint, the only + holding-in, that is of any worth is that which + comes through holding powers concentrated + upon a positive end. An end cannot be attained + excepting as instincts and impulses are kept from + discharging at random and from running off on + side tracks. In keeping powers at work upon their + relevant ends, there is sufficient opportunity for + genuine inhibition. To say that inhibition is + higher than power, is like saying that death is + more than life, negation more than affirmation, + sacrifice more than service.</p> + + <p>(<em>b</em>) We must also test our school work by finding + whether it affords the conditions necessary + <a class="pagenum" id="page55" title="55"> </a>for the formation of good judgment. Judgment + as the sense of relative values involves ability to + select, to discriminate. Acquiring information + can never develop the power of judgment. Development + of judgment is in spite of, not because + of, methods of instruction that emphasize simple + learning. The test comes only when the information + acquired has to be put to use. Will it + do what we expect of it? I have heard an educator + of large experience say that in her judgment the + greatest defect of instruction to-day, on the intellectual + side, is found in the fact that children + leave school without a mental perspective. Facts + seem to them all of the same importance. There + is no foreground or background. There is no instinctive + habit of sorting out facts upon a scale + of worth and of grading them.</p> + + <p>The child cannot get power of judgment excepting + as he is continually exercised in forming + and testing judgments. He must have an opportunity + to select for himself, and to attempt to put + his selections into execution, that he may submit + them to the final test, that of action. Only thus + can he learn to discriminate that which promises + <a class="pagenum" id="page56" title="56"> </a>success from that which promises failure; only + thus can he form the habit of relating his purposes + and notions to the conditions that determine + their value. Does the school, as a system, + afford at present sufficient opportunity for this + sort of experimentation? Except so far as the + emphasis of the school work is upon intelligent + doing, upon active investigation, it does not furnish + the conditions necessary for that exercise + of judgment which is an integral factor in good + character.</p> + + <p>(<em>c</em>) I shall be brief with respect to the other + point, the need of susceptibility and responsiveness. + The informally social side of education, the + æsthetic environment and influences, are all-important. + In so far as the work is laid out in + regular and formulated ways, so far as there are + lacking opportunities for casual and free social + intercourse between pupils and between the pupils + and the teacher, this side of the child’s nature + is either starved, or else left to find haphazard + expression along more or less secret channels. + When the school system, under plea of the practical + (meaning by the practical the narrowly utilitarian), + <a class="pagenum" id="page57" title="57"> </a>confines the child to the three R’s and + the formal studies connected with them, shuts + him out from the vital in literature and history, + and deprives him of his right to contact with + what is best in architecture, music, sculpture, and + picture, it is hopeless to expect definite results + in the training of sympathetic openness and responsiveness.</p> + + <p class="post_thoughtbreak">What we need in education is a genuine faith + in the existence of moral principles which are + capable of effective application. We believe, so + far as the mass of children are concerned, that if + we keep at them long enough we can teach reading + and writing and figuring. We are practically, + even if unconsciously, skeptical as to the possibility + of anything like the same assurance in + morals. We believe in moral laws and rules, to + be sure, but they are in the air. They are something + set off by themselves. They are so <i>very</i> + “moral” that they have no working contact with + the average affairs of every-day life. These moral + principles need to be brought down to the ground + through their statement in social and in psychological + <a class="pagenum" id="page58" title="58"> </a>terms. We need to see that moral + principles are not arbitrary, that they are not + “transcendental”; that the term “moral” does + not designate a special region or portion of life. + We need to translate the moral into the conditions + and forces of our community life, and into + the impulses and habits of the individual.</p> + + <p>All the rest is mint, anise, and cummin. The + one thing needful is that we recognize that + moral principles are real in the same sense in + which other forces are real; that they are inherent + in community life, and in the working structure + of the individual. If we can secure a genuine faith + in this fact, we shall have secured the condition + which alone is necessary to get from our educational + system all the effectiveness there is in + it. The teacher who operates in this faith will + find every subject, every method of instruction, + every incident of school life pregnant with moral + possibility.</p> + + </div> + <div id="outline" class="section"> + <h2><a class="pagenum" id="page59" title="59"> </a>OUTLINE</h2> + <p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p> + + <ol> + <li>THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL + <ol> + <li>Moral ideas and ideas about morality <a href="#page1" class="pagelink">1</a></li> + <li>Moral education and direct moral instruction <a href="#page3" class="pagelink">3</a></li> + </ol> + </li> + <li>THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY + <ol> + <li>The unity of social ethics and school ethics <a href="#page7" class="pagelink">7</a></li> + <li>A narrow and formal training for citizenship <a href="#page8" class="pagelink">8</a></li> + <li>School life should train for many social relations <a href="#page9" class="pagelink">9</a></li> + <li>It should train for self-direction and leadership <a href="#page10" class="pagelink">10</a></li> + <li>There is no harmonious development of powers apart from social situations <a href="#page11" class="pagelink">11</a></li> + <li>School activities should be typical of social life <a href="#page13" class="pagelink">13</a></li> + <li>Moral training in the schools tends to be pathological and formal <a href="#page15" class="pagelink">15</a></li> + </ol> + </li> + <li>THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION + <ol> + <li>Active social service as opposed to passive individual absorption <a href="#page21" class="pagelink">21</a></li> + <li>The positive inculcation of individualistic motives and standards <a href="#page23" class="pagelink">23</a></li> + <li>The evils of competition for external standing <a href="#page24" class="pagelink">24</a></li> + <li>The moral waste of remote success as an end <a href="#page25" class="pagelink">25</a></li> + <li>The worth of active and social modes of learning <a href="#page26" class="pagelink">26</a></li> + </ol> + </li> + <li><a class="pagenum" id="page60" title="60"> </a>THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY + <ol> + <li>The nature of the course of study influences the conduct of the school <a href="#page31" class="pagelink">31</a></li> + <li>School studies as means of realizing social situations <a href="#page31" class="pagelink">31</a></li> + <li>School subjects are merely phases of a unified social life <a href="#page32" class="pagelink">32</a></li> + <li>The meaning of subjects is controlled by social considerations <a href="#page33" class="pagelink">33</a></li> + <li>Geography deals with the scenes of social interaction <a href="#page33" class="pagelink">33</a></li> + <li>Its various forms represent increasing stages of abstraction <a href="#page34" class="pagelink">34</a></li> + <li>History is a means for interpreting existing social relations <a href="#page36" class="pagelink">36</a></li> + <li>It presents type phases of social development <a href="#page37" class="pagelink">37</a></li> + <li>It offers contrasts, and consequently perspective <a href="#page37" class="pagelink">37</a></li> + <li>It teaches the methods of social progress <a href="#page38" class="pagelink">38</a></li> + <li>The failure of certain methods of teaching history <a href="#page39" class="pagelink">39</a></li> + <li>Mathematics is a means to social ends <a href="#page40" class="pagelink">40</a></li> + <li>The sociological nature of business arithmetic <a href="#page41" class="pagelink">41</a></li> + <li>Summary: The moral trinity of the school <a href="#page42" class="pagelink">42</a></li> + </ol> + </li> + <li>THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION + <ol> + <li>Conduct as a mode of individual performance <a href="#page47" class="pagelink">47</a></li> + <li>Native instincts and impulses are the sources of conduct <a href="#page47" class="pagelink">47</a></li> + <li>Moral ideals must be realized in persons <a href="#page48" class="pagelink">48</a></li> + <li><a class="pagenum" id="page61" title="61"> </a>Character as a system of working forces <a href="#page49" class="pagelink">49</a></li> + <li>Force as a necessary constituent of character <a href="#page49" class="pagelink">49</a></li> + <li>The importance of intellectual judgment or good sense <a href="#page50" class="pagelink">50</a></li> + <li>The capacity for delicate emotional responsiveness <a href="#page52" class="pagelink">52</a></li> + <li>Summary: The ethical standards for testing the school <a href="#page53" class="pagelink">53</a></li> + <li>Conclusion: The practicality of moral principles <a href="#page57" class="pagelink">57</a></li> + </ol> + </li> + </ol> + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page62" title="62"> </a>[Blank Page] --> + </div> + <div id="ads" class="section"> + <h2><a class="pagenum" id="page63" title="63"> </a>RIVERSIDE EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS</h2> + + <ul> + <li>General Educational Theory + <ul> + <li><span class="special_name">Coolidge’s</span> America’s Need for Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Dewey’s</span> Interest and Effort in Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Dewey’s</span> Moral Principles in Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Eliot’s</span> Education for Efficiency.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Eliot’s</span> The Tendency to the Concrete and Practical in Modern Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Emerson’s</span> Education and other Selections.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Fiske’s</span> The Meaning of Infancy.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Horne’s</span> The Teacher as Artist.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Hyde’s</span> The Teacher’s Philosophy in and out of School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Judd’s</span> The Evolution of a Democratic School System.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Meredith’s</span> The Educational Bearings of Modern Psychology.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Palmer’s</span> The Ideal Teacher.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Palmer’s</span> Trades and Professions.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Palmer’s</span> Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Prosser’s</span> The Teacher and Old Age.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Stockton’s</span> Project Work in Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Stratton’s</span> Developing Mental Power.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Terman’s</span> The Teacher’s Health.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Thorndike’s</span> Individuality.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Trow’s</span> Scientific Method in Education.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Administration and Supervision + <ul> + <li><span class="special_name">Bett’s</span> New Ideals in Rural Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Bloomfield’s</span> The Vocational Guidance of Youth.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Cabot’s</span> Volunteer Help to the Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Cole’s</span> Industrial Education in the Elementary School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Cubberley’s</span> Changing Conceptions of Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Cubberley’s</span> The Improvement of Rural Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Dooley’s</span> The Education of the Ne’er-Do-Well.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Gates’s</span> The Management of Smaller Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Hines’s</span> Measuring Intelligence.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Koos’s</span> The High-School Principal.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Lewis’s</span> Democracy’s High School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Maxwell’s</span> The Observation of Teaching.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Maxwell’s</span> The Selection of Textbooks.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Miller</span> and <span class="special_name">Charles’s</span> Publicity and the Public School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Perry’s</span> The Status of the Teacher.</li> + <li><a class="pagenum" id="page64" title="64"> </a><span class="special_name">Russell’s</span> Economy in Secondary Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Smith’s</span> Establishing Industrial Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Snedden’s</span> The Problem of Vocational Guidance.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Weeks’s</span> The People’s School.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Method + <ul> + <li><span class="special_name">Andress’s</span> The Teaching of Hygiene in the Grades.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Atwood’s</span> The Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Bailey’s</span> Art Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Betts’s</span> The Recitation.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Cooley’s</span> Language Teaching in the Grades.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Dougherty’s</span> How to Teach Phonics.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Earhart’s</span> Teaching Children to Study.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Evans’s</span> The Teaching of High School Mathematics.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Fairchild’s</span> The Teaching of Poetry in the High School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Freeman’s</span> The Teaching of Handwriting.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Haliburton</span> and <span class="special_name">Smith’s</span> Teaching Poetry in the Grades.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Hartwell’s</span> The Teaching of History.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Hawley’s</span> Teaching English in Junior High Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Haynes’s</span> Economics in the Secondary School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Hill’s</span> The Teaching of Civics.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Jenkins’s</span> Reading in the Primary Grades.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Kendall</span> and <span class="special_name">Stryker’s</span> History in the Elementary School.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Kilpatrick’s</span> The Montessori System Examined.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Leonard’s</span> English Composition as a Social Problem.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Losh</span> and <span class="special_name">Weeks’s</span> Primary Number Projects.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Palmer’s</span> Self-Cultivation in English.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Ridgley’s</span> Geographic Principles.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Ruediger’s</span> Vitalized Teaching.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Sharp’s</span> Teaching English in High Schools.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Stockton’s</span> Project Work in Education.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Suzzallo’s</span> The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Suzzallo’s</span> The Teaching of Spelling.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Swift’s</span> Speech Defects in School Children.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Tuell’s</span> The Study of Nations.</li> + <li><span class="special_name">Wilson’</span>s What Arithmetic Shall We Teach?</li> + </ul></li> + </ul> + + <p>HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</p> + + </div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Moral Principles in Education, by John Dewey + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION *** + +***** This file should be named 25172-h.htm or 25172-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/1/7/25172/ + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the 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