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diff --git a/25172.txt b/25172.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e7f437 --- /dev/null +++ b/25172.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1604 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Moral Principles in Education, by John Dewey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Moral Principles in Education + +Author: John Dewey + +Release Date: April 25, 2008 [EBook #25172] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Riverside Educational Monographs + +EDITED BY HENRY SUZZALLO + +SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TEACHERS COLLEGE, +COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AND PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON + + + + +MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION + +BY + +JOHN DEWEY + + +PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY + + +HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + +BOSTON . NEW YORK . CHICAGO . DALLAS . SAN FRANCISCO + +The Riverside Press Cambridge + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY JOHN DEWEY + +ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + +The author has drawn freely upon his essay on _Ethical Principles +Underlying Education_, published in the Third Year-Book of The National +Herbart Society for the Study of Education. He is indebted to the +Society for permission to use this material. + +The Riverside Press +CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS +PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + INTRODUCTION + I. THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL + II. THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY + III. THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION + IV. THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY + V. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION + OUTLINE + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +_Education as a public business_ + +It is one of the complaints of the schoolmaster that the public does not +defer to his professional opinion as completely as it does to that of +practitioners in other professions. At first sight it might seem as +though this indicated a defect either in the public or in the +profession; and yet a wider view of the situation would suggest that +such a conclusion is not a necessary one. The relations of education to +the public are different from those of any other professional work. +Education is a public business with us, in a sense that the protection +and restoration of personal health or legal rights are not. To an extent +characteristic of no other institution, save that of the state itself, +the school has power to modify the social order. And under our political +system, it is the right of each individual to have a voice in the making +of social policies as, indeed, he has a vote in the determination of +political affairs. If this be true, education is primarily a public +business, and only secondarily a specialized vocation. The layman, then, +will always have his right to some utterance on the operation of the +public schools. + + +_Education as expert service_ + +I have said "some utterance," but not "all"; for school-mastering has +its own special mysteries, its own knowledge and skill into which the +untrained layman cannot penetrate. We are just beginning to recognize +that the school and the government have a common problem in this +respect. Education and politics are two functions fundamentally +controlled by public opinion. Yet the conspicuous lack of efficiency and +economy in the school and in the state has quickened our recognition of +a larger need for expert service. But just where shall public opinion +justly express itself, and what shall properly be left to expert +judgment? + + +_The relations of expert opinion and public opinion_ + +In so far as broad policies and ultimate ends affecting the welfare of +all are to be determined, the public may well claim its right to settle +issues by the vote or voice of majorities. But the selection and +prosecution of the detailed ways and means by which the public will is +to be executed efficiently must remain largely a matter of specialized +and expert service. To the superior knowledge and technique required +here, the public may well defer. + +In the conduct of the schools, it is well for the citizens to determine +the ends proper to them, and it is their privilege to judge of the +efficacy of results. Upon questions that concern all the manifold +details by which children are to be converted into desirable types of +men and women, the expert schoolmaster should be authoritative, at least +to a degree commensurate with his superior knowledge of this very +complex problem. The administration of the schools, the making of the +course of study, the selection of texts, the prescription of methods of +teaching, these are matters with which the people, or their +representatives upon boards of education, cannot deal save with danger +of becoming mere meddlers. + + +_The discussion of moral education an illustration of mistaken views of +laymen_ + +Nowhere is the validity of this distinction between education as a +public business and education as an expert professional service brought +out more clearly than in an analysis of the public discussion of the +moral work of the school. How frequently of late have those unacquainted +with the special nature of the school proclaimed the moral ends of +education and at the same time demanded direct ethical instruction as +the particular method by which they were to be realized! This, too, in +spite of the fact that those who know best the powers and limitations of +instruction as an instrument have repeatedly pointed out the futility of +assuming that knowledge of right constitutes a guarantee of right doing. +How common it is for those who assert that education is for social +efficiency to assume that the school should return to the barren +discipline of the traditional formal subjects, reading, writing, and the +rest! This, too, regardless of the fact that it has taken a century of +educational evolution to make the course of study varied and rich enough +to call for those impulses and activities of social life which need +training in the child. And how many who speak glowingly of the large +services of the public schools to a democracy of free and self-reliant +men affect a cynical and even vehement opposition to the +"self-government of schools"! These would not have the children learn to +govern themselves and one another, but would have the masters rule them, +ignoring the fact that this common practice in childhood may be a +foundation for that evil condition in adult society where the citizens +are arbitrarily ruled by political bosses. + +One need not cite further cases of the incompetence of the lay public to +deal with technical questions of school methods. Instances are plentiful +to show that well-meaning people, competent enough to judge of the aims +and results of school work, make a mistake in insisting upon the +prerogative of directing the technical aspects of education with a +dogmatism that would not characterize their statements regarding any +other special field of knowledge or action. + + +_A fundamental understanding of moral principles in education_ + +Nothing can be more useful than for the public and the teaching +profession to understand their respective functions. The teacher needs +to understand public opinion and the social order, as much as the public +needs to comprehend the nature of expert educational service. It will +take time to draw the boundary lines that will be conducive to respect, +restraint, and efficiency in those concerned; but a beginning can be +made upon fundamental matters, and nothing so touches the foundations of +our educational thought as a discussion of the moral principles in +education. + +It is our pleasure to present a treatment of them by a thinker whose +vital influence upon the reform of school methods is greater than that +of any of his contemporaries. In his discussion of the social and +psychological factors in moral education, there is much that will +suggest what social opinion should determine, and much that will +indicate what must be left to the trained teacher and school official. + + + + +THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL + + + + +I + +THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL + + +An English contemporary philosopher has called attention to the +difference between moral ideas and ideas about morality. "Moral ideas" +are ideas of any sort whatsoever which take effect in conduct and +improve it, make it better than it otherwise would be. Similarly, one +may say, immoral ideas are ideas of whatever sort (whether arithmetical +or geographical or physiological) which show themselves in making +behavior worse than it would otherwise be; and non-moral ideas, one may +say, are such ideas and pieces of information as leave conduct +uninfluenced for either the better or the worse. Now "ideas about +morality" may be morally indifferent or immoral or moral. There is +nothing in the nature of ideas _about_ morality, of information _about_ +honesty or purity or kindness which automatically transmutes such ideas +into good character or good conduct. + +This distinction between moral ideas, ideas of any sort whatsoever that +have become a part of character and hence a part of the working motives +of behavior, and ideas _about_ moral action that may remain as inert and +ineffective as if they were so much knowledge about Egyptian archaeology, +is fundamental to the discussion of moral education. The business of the +educator--whether parent or teacher--is to see to it that the greatest +possible number of ideas acquired by children and youth are acquired in +such a vital way that they become _moving_ ideas, motive-forces in the +guidance of conduct. This demand and this opportunity make the moral +purpose universal and dominant in all instruction--whatsoever the topic. +Were it not for this possibility, the familiar statement that the +ultimate purpose of all education is character-forming would be +hypocritical pretense; for as every one knows, the direct and immediate +attention of teachers and pupils must be, for the greater part of the +time, upon intellectual matters. It is out of the question to keep +direct moral considerations constantly uppermost. But it is not out of +the question to aim at making the methods of learning, of acquiring +intellectual power, and of assimilating subject-matter, such that they +will render behavior more enlightened, more consistent, more vigorous +than it otherwise would be. + +The same distinction between "moral ideas" and "ideas about morality" +explains for us a source of continual misunderstanding between teachers +in the schools and critics of education outside of the schools. The +latter look through the school programmes, the school courses of study, +and do not find any place set apart for instruction in ethics or for +"moral teaching." Then they assert that the schools are doing nothing, +or next to nothing, for character-training; they become emphatic, even +vehement, about the moral deficiencies of public education. The +schoolteachers, on the other hand, resent these criticisms as an +injustice, and hold not only that they do "teach morals," but that they +teach them every moment of the day, five days in the week. In this +contention the teachers _in principle_ are in the right; if they are in +the wrong, it is not because special periods are not set aside for what +after all can only be teaching _about_ morals, but because their own +characters, or their school atmosphere and ideals, or their methods of +teaching, or the subject-matter which they teach, are not such _in +detail_ as to bring intellectual results into vital union with character +so that they become working forces in behavior. Without discussing, +therefore, the limits or the value of so-called direct moral instruction +(or, better, instruction _about_ morals), it may be laid down as +fundamental that the influence of direct moral instruction, even at its +very best, is _comparatively_ small in amount and slight in influence, +when the whole field of moral growth through education is taken into +account. This larger field of indirect and vital moral education, the +development of character through all the agencies, instrumentalities, +and materials of school life is, therefore, the subject of our present +discussion. + + + + +THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY + + + + +II + +THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY + + +There cannot be two sets of ethical principles, one for life in the +school, and the other for life outside of the school. As conduct is one, +so also the principles of conduct are one. The tendency to discuss the +morals of the school as if the school were an institution by itself is +highly unfortunate. The moral responsibility of the school, and of those +who conduct it, is to society. The school is fundamentally an +institution erected by society to do a certain specific work,--to +exercise a certain specific function in maintaining the life and +advancing the welfare of society. The educational system which does not +recognize that this fact entails upon it an ethical responsibility is +derelict and a defaulter. It is not doing what it was called into +existence to do, and what it pretends to do. Hence the entire structure +of the school in general and its concrete workings in particular need to +be considered from time to time with reference to the social position +and function of the school. + +The idea that the moral work and worth of the public school system as a +whole are to be measured by its social value is, indeed, a familiar +notion. However, it is frequently taken in too limited and rigid a way. +The social work of the school is often limited to training for +citizenship, and citizenship is then interpreted in a narrow sense as +meaning capacity to vote intelligently, disposition to obey laws, etc. +But it is futile to contract and cramp the ethical responsibility of the +school in this way. The child is one, and he must either live his social +life as an integral unified being, or suffer loss and create friction. +To pick out one of the many social relations which the child bears, and +to define the work of the school by that alone, is like instituting a +vast and complicated system of physical exercise which would have for +its object simply the development of the lungs and the power of +breathing, independent of other organs and functions. The child is an +organic whole, intellectually, socially, and morally, as well as +physically. We must take the child as a member of society in the +broadest sense, and demand for and from the schools whatever is +necessary to enable the child intelligently to recognize all his social +relations and take his part in sustaining them. + +To isolate the formal relationship of citizenship from the whole system +of relations with which it is actually interwoven; to suppose that there +is some one particular study or mode of treatment which can make the +child a good citizen; to suppose, in other words, that a good citizen is +anything more than a thoroughly efficient and serviceable member of +society, one with all his powers of body and mind under control, is a +hampering superstition which it is hoped may soon disappear from +educational discussion. + +The child is to be not only a voter and a subject of law; he is also to +be a member of a family, himself in turn responsible, in all +probability, for rearing and training of future children, thereby +maintaining the continuity of society. He is to be a worker, engaged in +some occupation which will be of use to society, and which will maintain +his own independence and self-respect. He is to be a member of some +particular neighborhood and community, and must contribute to the values +of life, add to the decencies and graces of civilization wherever he is. +These are bare and formal statements, but if we let our imagination +translate them into their concrete details, we have a wide and varied +scene. For the child properly to take his place in reference to these +various functions means training in science, in art, in history; means +command of the fundamental methods of inquiry and the fundamental tools +of intercourse and communication; means a trained and sound body, +skillful eye and hand; means habits of industry, perseverance; in short, +habits of serviceableness. + +Moreover, the society of which the child is to be a member is, in the +United States, a democratic and progressive society. The child must be +educated for leadership as well as for obedience. He must have power of +self-direction and power of directing others, power of administration, +ability to assume positions of responsibility. This necessity of +educating for leadership is as great on the industrial as on the +political side. + +New inventions, new machines, new methods of transportation and +intercourse are making over the whole scene of action year by year. It +is an absolute impossibility to educate the child for any fixed station +in life. So far as education is conducted unconsciously or consciously +on this basis, it results in fitting the future citizen for no station +in life, but makes him a drone, a hanger-on, or an actual retarding +influence in the onward movement. Instead of caring for himself and for +others, he becomes one who has himself to be cared for. Here, too, the +ethical responsibility of the school on the social side must be +interpreted in the broadest and freest spirit; it is equivalent to that +training of the child which will give him such possession of himself +that he may take charge of himself; may not only adapt himself to the +changes that are going on, but have power to shape and direct them. + +Apart from participation in social life, the school has no moral end nor +aim. As long as we confine ourselves to the school as an isolated +institution, we have no directing principles, because we have no object. +For example, the end of education is said to be the harmonious +development of all the powers of the individual. Here no reference to +social life or membership is apparent, and yet many think we have in it +an adequate and thoroughgoing definition of the goal of education. But +if this definition be taken independently of social relationship we have +no way of telling what is meant by any one of the terms employed. We do +not know what a power is; we do not know what development is; we do not +know what harmony is. A power is a power only with reference to the use +to which it is put, the function it has to serve. If we leave out the +uses supplied by social life we have nothing but the old "faculty +psychology" to tell what is meant by power and what the specific powers +are. The principle reduces itself to enumerating a lot of faculties like +perception, memory, reasoning, etc., and then stating that each one of +these powers needs to be developed. + +Education then becomes a gymnastic exercise. Acute powers of observation +and memory might be developed by studying Chinese characters; acuteness +in reasoning might be got by discussing the scholastic subtleties of the +Middle Ages. The simple fact is that there is no isolated faculty of +observation, or memory, or reasoning any more than there is an original +faculty of blacksmithing, carpentering, or steam engineering. Faculties +mean simply that particular impulses and habits have been coordinated or +framed with reference to accomplishing certain definite kinds of work. +We need to know the social situations in which the individual will have +to use ability to observe, recollect, imagine, and reason, in order to +have any way of telling what a training of mental powers actually means. + +What holds in the illustration of this particular definition of +education holds good from whatever point of view we approach the matter. +Only as we interpret school activities with reference to the larger +circle of social activities to which they relate do we find any standard +for judging their moral significance. + +The school itself must be a vital social institution to a much greater +extent than obtains at present. I am told that there is a swimming +school in a certain city where youth are taught to swim without going +into the water, being repeatedly drilled in the various movements which +are necessary for swimming. When one of the young men so trained was +asked what he did when he got into the water, he laconically replied, +"Sunk." The story happens to be true; were it not, it would seem to be a +fable made expressly for the purpose of typifying the ethical +relationship of school to society. The school cannot be a preparation +for social life excepting as it reproduces, within itself, typical +conditions of social life. At present it is largely engaged in the +futile task of Sisyphus. It is endeavoring to form habits in children +for use in a social life which, it would almost seem, is carefully and +purposely kept away from vital contact with the child undergoing +training. The only way to prepare for social life is to engage in social +life. To form habits of social usefulness and serviceableness apart from +any direct social need and motive, apart from any existing social +situation, is, to the letter, teaching the child to swim by going +through motions outside of the water. The most indispensable condition +is left out of account, and the results are correspondingly partial. + +The much lamented separation in the schools of intellectual and moral +training, of acquiring information and growing in character, is simply +one expression of the failure to conceive and construct the school as a +social institution, having social life and value within itself. Except +so far as the school is an embryonic typical community life, moral +training must be partly pathological and partly formal. Training is +pathological when stress is laid upon correcting wrong-doing instead of +upon forming habits of positive service. Too often the teacher's concern +with the moral life of pupils takes the form of alertness for failures +to conform to school rules and routine. These regulations, judged from +the standpoint of the development of the child at the time, are more or +less conventional and arbitrary. They are rules which have to be made in +order that the existing modes of school work may go on; but the lack of +inherent necessity in these school modes reflects itself in a feeling, +on the part of the child, that the moral discipline of the school is +arbitrary. Any conditions that compel the teacher to take note of +failures rather than of healthy growth give false standards and result +in distortion and perversion. Attending to wrong-doing ought to be an +incident rather than a principle. The child ought to have a positive +consciousness of what he is about, so as to judge his acts from the +standpoint of reference to the work which he has to do. Only in this way +does he have a vital standard, one that enables him to turn failures to +account for the future. + +By saying that the moral training of the school is formal, I mean that +the moral habits currently emphasized by the school are habits which are +created, as it were, _ad hoc_. Even the habits of promptness, +regularity, industry, non-interference with the work of others, +faithfulness to tasks imposed, which are specially inculcated in the +school, are habits that are necessary simply because the school system +is what it is, and must be preserved intact. If we grant the +inviolability of the school system as it is, these habits represent +permanent and necessary moral ideas; but just in so far as the school +system is itself isolated and mechanical, insistence upon these moral +habits is more or less unreal, because the ideal to which they relate is +not itself necessary. The duties, in other words, are distinctly school +duties, not life duties. If we compare this condition with that of the +well-ordered home, we find that the duties and responsibilities that the +child has there to recognize do not belong to the family as a +specialized and isolated institution, but flow from the very nature of +the social life in which the family participates and to which it +contributes. The child ought to have the same motives for right doing +and to be judged by the same standards in the school, as the adult in +the wider social life to which he belongs. Interest in community +welfare, an interest that is intellectual and practical, as well as +emotional--an interest, that is to say, in perceiving whatever makes for +social order and progress, and in carrying these principles into +execution--is the moral habit to which all the special school habits +must be related if they are to be animated by the breath of life. + + + + +THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION + + + + +III + +THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION + + +The principle of the social character of the school as the basic factor +in the moral education given may be also applied to the question of +methods of instruction,--not in their details, but their general spirit. +The emphasis then falls upon construction and giving out, rather than +upon absorption and mere learning. We fail to recognize how essentially +individualistic the latter methods are, and how unconsciously, yet +certainly and effectively, they react into the child's ways of judging +and of acting. Imagine forty children all engaged in reading the same +books, and in preparing and reciting the same lessons day after day. +Suppose this process constitutes by far the larger part of their work, +and that they are continually judged from the standpoint of what they +are able to take in in a study hour and reproduce in a recitation hour. +There is next to no opportunity for any social division of labor. There +is no opportunity for each child to work out something specifically his +own, which he may contribute to the common stock, while he, in turn, +participates in the productions of others. All are set to do exactly the +same work and turn out the same products. The social spirit is not +cultivated,--in fact, in so far as the purely individualistic method +gets in its work, it atrophies for lack of use. One reason why reading +aloud in school is poor is that the real motive for the use of +language--the desire to communicate and to learn--is not utilized. The +child knows perfectly well that the teacher and all his fellow pupils +have exactly the same facts and ideas before them that he has; he is not +_giving_ them anything at all. And it may be questioned whether the +moral lack is not as great as the intellectual. The child is born with a +natural desire to give out, to do, to serve. When this tendency is not +used, when conditions are such that other motives are substituted, the +accumulation of an influence working against the social spirit is much +larger than we have any idea of,--especially when the burden of work, +week after week, and year after year, falls upon this side. + +But lack of cultivation of the social spirit is not all. Positively +individualistic motives and standards are inculcated. Some stimulus must +be found to keep the child at his studies. At the best this will be his +affection for his teacher, together with a feeling that he is not +violating school rules, and thus negatively, if not positively, is +contributing to the good of the school. I have nothing to say against +these motives so far as they go, but they are inadequate. The relation +between the piece of work to be done and affection for a third person is +external, not intrinsic. It is therefore liable to break down whenever +the external conditions are changed. Moreover, this attachment to a +particular person, while in a way social, may become so isolated and +exclusive as to be selfish in quality. In any case, the child should +gradually grow out of this relatively external motive into an +appreciation, for its own sake, of the social value of what he has to +do, because of its larger relations to life, not pinned down to two or +three persons. + +But, unfortunately, the motive is not always at this relative best, but +mixed with lower motives which are distinctly egoistic. Fear is a motive +which is almost sure to enter in,--not necessarily physical fear, or +fear of punishment, but fear of losing the approbation of others; or +fear of failure, so extreme as to be morbid and paralyzing. On the other +side, emulation and rivalry enter in. Just because all are doing the +same work, and are judged (either in recitation or examination with +reference to grading and to promotion) not from the standpoint of their +personal contribution, but from that of _comparative_ success, the +feeling of superiority over others is unduly appealed to, while timid +children are depressed. Children are judged with reference to their +capacity to realize the same external standard. The weaker gradually +lose their sense of power, and accept a position of continuous and +persistent inferiority. The effect upon both self-respect and respect +for work need not be dwelt upon. The strong learn to glory, not in their +strength, but in the fact that they are stronger. The child is +prematurely launched into the region of individualistic competition, and +this in a direction where competition is least applicable, namely, in +intellectual and artistic matters, whose law is cooperation and +participation. + +Next, perhaps, to the evils of passive absorption and of competition for +external standing come, perhaps, those which result from the eternal +emphasis upon preparation for a remote future. I do not refer here to +the waste of energy and vitality that accrues when children, who live so +largely in the immediate present, are appealed to in the name of a dim +and uncertain future which means little or nothing to them. I have in +mind rather the habitual procrastination that develops when the motive +for work is future, not present; and the false standards of judgment +that are created when work is estimated, not on the basis of present +need and present responsibility, but by reference to an external result, +like passing an examination, getting promoted, entering high school, +getting into college, etc. Who can reckon up the loss of moral power +that arises from the constant impression that nothing is worth doing in +itself, but only as a preparation for something else, which in turn is +only a getting ready for some genuinely serious end beyond? Moreover, as +a rule, it will be found that remote success is an end which appeals +most to those in whom egoistic desire to get ahead--to get ahead of +others--is already only too strong a motive. Those in whom personal +ambition is already so strong that it paints glowing pictures of future +victories may be touched; others of a more generous nature do not +respond. + +I cannot stop to paint the other side. I can only say that the +introduction of every method that appeals to the child's active powers, +to his capacities in construction, production, and creation, marks an +opportunity to shift the centre of ethical gravity from an absorption +which is selfish to a service which is social. Manual training is more +than manual; it is more than intellectual; in the hands of any good +teacher it lends itself easily, and almost as a matter of course, to +development of social habits. Ever since the philosophy of Kant, it has +been a commonplace of aesthetic theory, that art is universal; that it is +not the product of purely personal desire or appetite, or capable of +merely individual appropriation, but has a value participated in by all +who perceive it. Even in the schools where most conscious attention is +paid to moral considerations, the methods of study and recitation may be +such as to emphasize appreciation rather than power, an emotional +readiness to assimilate the experiences of others, rather than +enlightened and trained capacity to carry forward those values which in +other conditions and past times made those experiences worth having. At +all events, separation between instruction and character continues in +our schools (in spite of the efforts of individual teachers) as a result +of divorce between learning and doing. The attempt to attach genuine +moral effectiveness to the mere processes of learning, and to the habits +which go along with learning, can result only in a training infected +with formality, arbitrariness, and an undue emphasis upon failure to +conform. That there is as much accomplished as there is shows the +possibilities involved in methods of school activity which afford +opportunity for reciprocity, cooperation, and positive personal +achievement. + + + + +THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY + + + + +IV + +THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY + + +In many respects, it is the subject-matter used in school life which +decides both the general atmosphere of the school and the methods of +instruction and discipline which rule. A barren "course of study," that +is to say, a meagre and narrow field of school activities, cannot +possibly lend itself to the development of a vital social spirit or to +methods that appeal to sympathy and cooperation instead of to +absorption, exclusiveness, and competition. Hence it becomes an all +important matter to know how we shall apply our social standard of moral +value to the subject-matter of school work, to what we call, +traditionally, the "studies" that occupy pupils. + +_A study is to be considered as a means of bringing the child to realize +the social scene of action._ Thus considered it gives a criterion for +selection of material and for judgment of values. We have at present +three independent values set up: one of culture, another of information, +and another of discipline. In reality, these refer only to three phases +of social interpretation. Information is genuine or educative only in so +far as it presents definite images and conceptions of materials placed +in a context of social life. Discipline is genuinely educative only as +it represents a reaction of information into the individual's own powers +so that he brings them under control for social ends. Culture, if it is +to be genuinely educative and not an external polish or factitious +varnish, represents the vital union of information and discipline. It +marks the socialization of the individual in his outlook upon life. + +This point may be illustrated by brief reference to a few of the school +studies. In the first place, there is no line of demarkation within +facts themselves which classifies them as belonging to science, history, +or geography, respectively. The pigeon-hole classification which is so +prevalent at present (fostered by introducing the pupil at the outset +into a number of different studies contained in different text-books) +gives an utterly erroneous idea of the relations of studies to one +another and to the intellectual whole to which all belong. In fact, +these subjects have to do with the same ultimate reality, namely, the +conscious experience of man. It is only because we have different +interests, or different ends, that we sort out the material and label +part of it science, part of it history, part geography, and so on. Each +"sorting" represents materials arranged with reference to some one +dominant typical aim or process of the social life. + +This social criterion is necessary, not only to mark off studies from +one another, but also to grasp the reasons for each study,--the motives +in connection with which it shall be presented. How, for example, should +we define geography? What is the unity in the different so-called +divisions of geography,--mathematical geography, physical geography, +political geography, commercial geography? Are they purely empirical +classifications dependent upon the brute fact that we run across a lot +of different facts? Or is there some intrinsic principle through which +the material is distributed under these various heads,--something in the +interest and attitude of the human mind towards them? I should say that +geography has to do with all those aspects of social life which are +concerned with the interaction of the life of man and nature; or, that +it has to do with the world considered as the scene of social +interaction. Any fact, then, will be geographical in so far as it has to +do with the dependence of man upon his natural environment, or with +changes introduced in this environment through the life of man. + +The four forms of geography referred to above represent, then, four +increasing stages of abstraction in discussing the mutual relation of +human life and nature. The beginning must be social geography, the frank +recognition of the earth as the home of men acting in relations to one +another. I mean by this that the essence of any geographical fact is the +consciousness of two persons, or two groups of persons, who are at once +separated and connected by their physical environment, and that the +interest is in seeing how these people are at once kept apart and +brought together in their actions by the instrumentality of the physical +environment. The ultimate significance of lake, river, mountain, and +plain is not physical but social; it is the part which it plays in +modifying and directing human relationships. This evidently involves an +extension of the term commercial. It has to do not simply with business, +in the narrow sense, but with whatever relates to human intercourse and +intercommunication as affected by natural forms and properties. +Political geography represents this same social interaction taken in a +static instead of in a dynamic way; taken, that is, as temporarily +crystallized and fixed in certain forms. Physical geography (including +under this not simply physiography, but also the study of flora and +fauna) represents a further analysis or abstraction. It studies the +conditions which determine human action, leaving out of account, +temporarily, the ways in which they concretely do this. Mathematical +geography carries the analysis back to more ultimate and remote +conditions, showing that the physical conditions of the earth are not +ultimate, but depend upon the place which the world occupies in a larger +system. Here, in other words, are traced, step by step, the links which +connect the immediate social occupations and groupings of men with the +whole natural system which ultimately conditions them. Step by step the +scene is enlarged and the image of what enters into the make-up of +social action is widened and broadened; at no time is the chain of +connection to be broken. + +It is out of the question to take up the studies one by one and show +that their meaning is similarly controlled by social considerations. But +I cannot forbear saying a word or two upon history. History is vital or +dead to the child according as it is, or is not, presented from the +sociological standpoint. When treated simply as a record of what has +passed and gone, it must be mechanical, because the past, as the past, +is remote. Simply as the past there is no motive for attending to it. +The ethical value of history teaching will be measured by the extent to +which past events are made the means of understanding the +present,--affording insight into what makes up the structure and working +of society to-day. Existing social structure is exceedingly complex. It +is practically impossible for the child to attack it _en masse_ and get +any definite mental image of it. But type phases of historical +development may be selected which will exhibit, as through a telescope, +the essential constituents of the existing order. Greece, for example, +represents what art and growing power of individual expression stand +for; Rome exhibits the elements and forces of political life on a +tremendous scale. Or, as these civilizations are themselves relatively +complex, a study of still simpler forms of hunting, nomadic, and +agricultural life in the beginnings of civilization, a study of the +effects of the introduction of iron, and iron tools, reduces the +complexity to simpler elements. + +One reason historical teaching is usually not more effective is that the +student is set to acquire information in such a way that no epochs or +factors stand out in his mind as typical; everything is reduced to the +same dead level. The way to secure the necessary perspective is to treat +the past as if it were a projected present with some of its elements +enlarged. + +The principle of contrast is as important as that of similarity. Because +the present life is so close to us, touching us at every point, we +cannot get away from it to see it as it really is. Nothing stands out +clearly or sharply as characteristic. In the study of past periods, +attention necessarily attaches itself to striking differences. Thus the +child gets a locus of imagination, through which he can remove himself +from the pressure of present surrounding circumstances and define them. + +History is equally available in teaching the _methods_ of social +progress. It is commonly stated that history must be studied from the +standpoint of cause and effect. The truth of this statement depends upon +its interpretation. Social life is so complex and the various parts of +it are so organically related to one another and to the natural +environment, that it is impossible to say that this or that thing is the +cause of some other particular thing. But the study of history can +reveal the main instruments in the discoveries, inventions, new modes of +life, etc., which have initiated the great epochs of social advance; and +it can present to the child types of the main lines of social progress, +and can set before him what have been the chief difficulties and +obstructions in the way of progress. Once more this can be done only in +so far as it is recognized that social forces in themselves are always +the same,--that the same kind of influences were at work one hundred and +one thousand years ago that are now working,--and that particular +historical epochs afford illustration of the way in which the +fundamental forces work. + +Everything depends, then, upon history being treated from a social +standpoint; as manifesting the agencies which have influenced social +development and as presenting the typical institutions in which social +life has expressed itself. The culture-epoch theory, while working in +the right direction, has failed to recognize the importance of treating +past periods with relation to the present,--as affording insight into +the representative factors of its structure; it has treated these +periods too much as if they had some meaning or value in themselves. The +way in which the biographical method is handled illustrates the same +point. It is often treated in such a way as to exclude from the child's +consciousness (or at least not sufficiently to emphasize) the social +forces and principles involved in the association of the masses of men. +It is quite true that the child is easily interested in history from the +biographical standpoint; but unless "the hero" is treated in relation to +the community life behind him that he sums up and directs, there is +danger that history will reduce itself to a mere exciting story. Then +moral instruction reduces itself to drawing certain lessons from the +life of the particular personalities concerned, instead of widening and +deepening the child's imagination of social relations, ideals, and +means. + +It will be remembered that I am not making these points for their own +sake, but with reference to the general principle that when a study is +taught as a mode of understanding social life it has positive ethical +import. What the normal child continuously needs is not so much isolated +moral lessons upon the importance of truthfulness and honesty, or the +beneficent results that follow from a particular act of patriotism, as +the formation of habits of social imagination and conception. + +I take one more illustration, namely, mathematics. This does, or does +not, accomplish its full purpose according as it is, or is not, +presented as a social tool. The prevailing divorce between information +and character, between knowledge and social action, stalks upon the +scene here. The moment mathematical study is severed from the place +which it occupies with reference to use in social life, it becomes +unduly abstract, even upon the purely intellectual side. It is presented +as a matter of technical relations and formulae apart from any end or +use. What the study of number suffers from in elementary education is +lack of motivation. Back of this and that and the other particular bad +method is the radical mistake of treating number as if it were an end in +itself, instead of the means of accomplishing some end. Let the child +get a consciousness of what is the use of number, of what it really is +for, and half the battle is won. Now this consciousness of the use of +reason implies some end which is implicitly social. + +One of the absurd things in the more advanced study of arithmetic is the +extent to which the child is introduced to numerical operations which +have no distinctive mathematical principles characterizing them, but +which represent certain general principles found in business +relationships. To train the child in these operations, while paying no +attention to the business realities in which they are of use, or to the +conditions of social life which make these business activities +necessary, is neither arithmetic nor common sense. The child is called +upon to do examples in interest, partnership, banking, brokerage, and so +on through a long string, and no pains are taken to see that, in +connection with the arithmetic, he has any sense of the social realities +involved. This part of arithmetic is essentially sociological in its +nature. It ought either to be omitted entirely, or else be taught in +connection with a study of the relevant social realities. As we now +manage the study, it is the old case of learning to swim apart from the +water over again, with correspondingly bad results on the practical +side. + +In concluding this portion of the discussion, we may say that our +conceptions of moral education have been too narrow, too formal, and too +pathological. We have associated the term ethical with certain special +acts which are labeled virtues and are set off from the mass of other +acts, and are still more divorced from the habitual images and motives +of the children performing them. Moral instruction is thus associated +with teaching about these particular virtues, or with instilling certain +sentiments in regard to them. The moral has been conceived in too +goody-goody a way. Ultimate moral motives and forces are nothing more or +less than social intelligence--the power of observing and comprehending +social situations,--and social power--trained capacities of control--at +work in the service of social interest and aims. There is no fact which +throws light upon the constitution of society, there is no power whose +training adds to social resourcefulness that is not moral. + +I sum up, then, this part of the discussion by asking your attention to +the moral trinity of the school. The demand is for social intelligence, +social power, and social interests. Our resources are (1) the life of +the school as a social institution in itself; (2) methods of learning +and of doing work; and (3) the school studies or curriculum. In so far +as the school represents, in its own spirit, a genuine community life; +in so far as what are called school discipline, government, order, etc., +are the expressions of this inherent social spirit; in so far as the +methods used are those that appeal to the active and constructive +powers, permitting the child to give out and thus to serve; in so far as +the curriculum is so selected and organized as to provide the material +for affording the child a consciousness of the world in which he has to +play a part, and the demands he has to meet; so far as these ends are +met, the school is organized on an ethical basis. So far as general +principles are concerned, all the basic ethical requirements are met. +The rest remains between the individual teacher and the individual +child. + + + + +THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION + + + + +V + +THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION + + +So far we have been considering the make-up of purposes and results that +constitute conduct--its "what." But conduct has a certain method and +spirit also--its "how." Conduct may be looked upon as expressing the +attitudes and dispositions of an _individual_, as well as realizing +social results and maintaining the social fabric. A consideration of +conduct as a mode of individual performance, personal doing, takes us +from the social to the psychological side of morals. In the first place, +all conduct springs ultimately and radically out of native instincts and +impulses. We must know what these instincts and impulses are, and what +they are at each particular stage of the child's development, in order +to know what to appeal to and what to build upon. Neglect of this +principle may give a mechanical imitation of moral conduct, but the +imitation will be ethically dead, because it is external and has its +centre without, not within, the individual. We must study the child, in +other words, to get our indications, our symptoms, our suggestions. The +more or less spontaneous acts of the child are not to be thought of as +setting moral forms to which the efforts of the educator must +conform--this would result simply in spoiling the child; but they are +symptoms which require to be interpreted: stimuli which need to be +responded to in directed ways; material which, in however transformed a +shape, is the only ultimate constituent of future moral conduct and +character. + +Then, secondly, our ethical principles need to be stated in +psychological terms because the child supplies us with the only means or +instruments by which to realize moral ideals. The subject-matter of the +curriculum, however important, however judiciously selected, is empty of +conclusive moral content until it is made over into terms of the +individual's own activities, habits, and desires. We must know what +history, geography, and mathematics mean in psychological terms, that +is, as modes of personal experiencing, before we can get out of them +their moral potentialities. + +The psychological side of education sums itself up, of course, in a +consideration of character. It is a commonplace to say that the +development of character is the end of all school work. The difficulty +lies in the execution of the idea. And an underlying difficulty in this +execution is the lack of a clear conception of what character means. +This may seem an extreme statement. If so, the idea may be conveyed by +saying that we generally conceive of character simply in terms of +results; we have no clear conception of it in psychological terms--that +is, as a process, as working or dynamic. We know what character means in +terms of the actions which proceed from it, but we have not a definite +conception of it on its inner side, as a system of working forces. + +(1) Force, efficiency in execution, or overt action, is one necessary +constituent of character. In our moral books and lectures we may lay the +stress upon good intentions, etc. But we know practically that the kind +of character we hope to build up through our education is one that not +only has good intentions, but that insists upon carrying them out. Any +other character is wishy-washy; it is goody, not good. The individual +must have the power to stand up and count for something in the actual +conflicts of life. He must have initiative, insistence, persistence, +courage, and industry. He must, in a word, have all that goes under the +name "_force_ of character." Undoubtedly, individuals differ greatly in +their native endowment in this respect. None the less, each has a +certain primary equipment of impulse, of tendency forward, of innate +urgency to do. The problem of education on this side is that of +discovering what this native fund of power is, and then of utilizing it +in such a way (affording conditions which both stimulate and control) as +to organize it into definite conserved modes of action--habits. + +(2) But something more is required than sheer force. Sheer force may be +brutal; it may override the interests of others. Even when aiming at +right ends it may go at them in such a way as to violate the rights of +others. More than this, in sheer force there is no guarantee for the +right end. Efficiency may be directed towards mistaken ends and result +in positive mischief and destruction. Power, as already suggested, must +be directed. It must be organized along social channels; it must be +attached to valuable ends. + +This involves training on both the intellectual and emotional side. On +the intellectual side we must have judgment--what is ordinarily called +good sense. The difference between mere knowledge, or information, and +judgment is that the former is simply held, not used; judgment is +knowledge directed with reference to the accomplishment of ends. Good +judgment is a sense of respective or proportionate values. The one who +has judgment is the one who has ability to size up a situation. He is +the one who can grasp the scene or situation before him, ignoring what +is irrelevant, or what for the time being is unimportant, who can seize +upon the factors which demand attention, and grade them according to +their respective claims. Mere knowledge of what the right is, in the +abstract, mere intentions of following the right in general, however +praiseworthy in themselves, are never a substitute for this power of +trained judgment. Action is always in the concrete. It is definite and +individualized. Except, therefore, as it is backed and controlled by a +knowledge of the actual concrete factors in the situation in which it +occurs, it must be relatively futile and waste. + +(3) But the consciousness of ends must be more than merely intellectual. +We can imagine a person with most excellent judgment, who yet does not +act upon his judgment. There must not only be force to ensure effort in +execution against obstacles, but there must also be a delicate personal +responsiveness,--there must be an emotional reaction. Indeed, good +judgment is impossible without this susceptibility. Unless there is a +prompt and almost instinctive sensitiveness to conditions, to the ends +and interests of others, the intellectual side of judgment will not have +proper material to work upon. Just as the material of knowledge is +supplied through the senses, so the material of ethical knowledge is +supplied by emotional responsiveness. It is difficult to put this +quality into words, but we all know the difference between the character +which is hard and formal, and one which is sympathetic, flexible, and +open. In the abstract the former may be as sincerely devoted to moral +ideas as is the latter, but as a practical matter we prefer to live with +the latter. We count upon it to accomplish more by tact, by instinctive +recognition of the claims of others, by skill in adjusting, than the +former can accomplish by mere attachment to rules. + +Here, then, is the moral standard, by which to test the work of the +school upon the side of what it does directly for individuals. (_a_) +Does the school as a system, at present, attach sufficient importance to +the spontaneous instincts and impulses? Does it afford sufficient +opportunity for these to assert themselves and work out their own +results? Can we even say that the school in principle attaches itself, +at present, to the active constructive powers rather than to processes +of absorption and learning? Does not our talk about self-activity +largely render itself meaningless because the self-activity we have in +mind is purely "intellectual," out of relation to those impulses which +work through hand and eye? + +Just in so far as the present school methods fail to meet the test of +such questions moral results must be unsatisfactory. We cannot secure +the development of positive force of character unless we are willing to +pay its price. We cannot smother and repress the child's powers, or +gradually abort them (from failure of opportunity for exercise), and +then expect a character with initiative and consecutive industry. I am +aware of the importance attaching to inhibition, but mere inhibition is +valueless. The only restraint, the only holding-in, that is of any worth +is that which comes through holding powers concentrated upon a positive +end. An end cannot be attained excepting as instincts and impulses are +kept from discharging at random and from running off on side tracks. In +keeping powers at work upon their relevant ends, there is sufficient +opportunity for genuine inhibition. To say that inhibition is higher +than power, is like saying that death is more than life, negation more +than affirmation, sacrifice more than service. + +(_b_) We must also test our school work by finding whether it affords +the conditions necessary for the formation of good judgment. Judgment as +the sense of relative values involves ability to select, to +discriminate. Acquiring information can never develop the power of +judgment. Development of judgment is in spite of, not because of, +methods of instruction that emphasize simple learning. The test comes +only when the information acquired has to be put to use. Will it do what +we expect of it? I have heard an educator of large experience say that +in her judgment the greatest defect of instruction to-day, on the +intellectual side, is found in the fact that children leave school +without a mental perspective. Facts seem to them all of the same +importance. There is no foreground or background. There is no +instinctive habit of sorting out facts upon a scale of worth and of +grading them. + +The child cannot get power of judgment excepting as he is continually +exercised in forming and testing judgments. He must have an opportunity +to select for himself, and to attempt to put his selections into +execution, that he may submit them to the final test, that of action. +Only thus can he learn to discriminate that which promises success from +that which promises failure; only thus can he form the habit of relating +his purposes and notions to the conditions that determine their value. +Does the school, as a system, afford at present sufficient opportunity +for this sort of experimentation? Except so far as the emphasis of the +school work is upon intelligent doing, upon active investigation, it +does not furnish the conditions necessary for that exercise of judgment +which is an integral factor in good character. + +(_c_) I shall be brief with respect to the other point, the need of +susceptibility and responsiveness. The informally social side of +education, the aesthetic environment and influences, are all-important. +In so far as the work is laid out in regular and formulated ways, so far +as there are lacking opportunities for casual and free social +intercourse between pupils and between the pupils and the teacher, this +side of the child's nature is either starved, or else left to find +haphazard expression along more or less secret channels. When the school +system, under plea of the practical (meaning by the practical the +narrowly utilitarian), confines the child to the three R's and the +formal studies connected with them, shuts him out from the vital in +literature and history, and deprives him of his right to contact with +what is best in architecture, music, sculpture, and picture, it is +hopeless to expect definite results in the training of sympathetic +openness and responsiveness. + + * * * * * + +What we need in education is a genuine faith in the existence of moral +principles which are capable of effective application. We believe, so +far as the mass of children are concerned, that if we keep at them long +enough we can teach reading and writing and figuring. We are +practically, even if unconsciously, skeptical as to the possibility of +anything like the same assurance in morals. We believe in moral laws and +rules, to be sure, but they are in the air. They are something set off +by themselves. They are so _very_ "moral" that they have no working +contact with the average affairs of every-day life. These moral +principles need to be brought down to the ground through their statement +in social and in psychological terms. We need to see that moral +principles are not arbitrary, that they are not "transcendental"; that +the term "moral" does not designate a special region or portion of life. +We need to translate the moral into the conditions and forces of our +community life, and into the impulses and habits of the individual. + +All the rest is mint, anise, and cummin. The one thing needful is that +we recognize that moral principles are real in the same sense in which +other forces are real; that they are inherent in community life, and in +the working structure of the individual. If we can secure a genuine +faith in this fact, we shall have secured the condition which alone is +necessary to get from our educational system all the effectiveness there +is in it. The teacher who operates in this faith will find every +subject, every method of instruction, every incident of school life +pregnant with moral possibility. + + + + +OUTLINE + + + I. THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL + 1. Moral ideas and ideas about morality + 2. Moral education and direct moral instruction + + II. THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY + 1. The unity of social ethics and school ethics + 2. A narrow and formal training for citizenship + 3. School life should train for many social relations + 4. It should train for self-direction and leadership + 5. There is no harmonious development of powers apart from social + situations + 6. School activities should be typical of social life + 7. Moral training in the schools tends to be pathological and formal + + III. THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION + 1. Active social service as opposed to passive individual absorption + 2. The positive inculcation of individualistic motives and standards + 3. The evils of competition for external standing + 4. The moral waste of remote success as an end + 5. The worth of active and social modes of learning + + IV. THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY + 1. The nature of the course of study influences the conduct of the + school + 2. School studies as means of realizing social situations + 3. School subjects are merely phases of a unified social life + 4. The meaning of subjects is controlled by social considerations + 5. Geography deals with the scenes of social interaction + 6. Its various forms represent increasing stages of abstraction + 7. History is a means for interpreting existing social relations + 8. It presents type phases of social development + 9. It offers contrasts, and consequently perspective + 10. It teaches the methods of social progress + 11. The failure of certain methods of teaching history + 12. Mathematics is a means to social ends + 13. The sociological nature of business arithmetic + 14. Summary: The moral trinity of the school + + V. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION + 1. Conduct as a mode of individual performance + 2. Native instincts and impulses are the sources of conduct + 3. Moral ideals must be realized in persons + 4. Character as a system of working forces + 5. Force as a necessary constituent of character + 6. The importance of intellectual judgment or good sense + 7. The capacity for delicate emotional responsiveness + 8. Summary: The ethical standards for testing the school + 9. Conclusion: The practicality of moral principles + + + + +RIVERSIDE EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS + + +_General Educational Theory_ + + COOLIDGE'S America's Need for Education. + DEWEY'S Interest and Effort in Education. + DEWEY'S Moral Principles in Education. + ELIOT'S Education for Efficiency. + ELIOT'S The Tendency to the Concrete and Practical in Modern Education. + EMERSON'S Education and other Selections. + FISKE'S The Meaning of Infancy. + HORNE'S The Teacher as Artist. + HYDE'S The Teacher's Philosophy in and out of School. + JUDD'S The Evolution of a Democratic School System. + MEREDITH'S The Educational Bearings of Modern Psychology. + PALMER'S The Ideal Teacher. + PALMER'S Trades and Professions. + PALMER'S Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools. + PROSSER'S The Teacher and Old Age. + STOCKTON'S Project Work in Education. + STRATTON'S Developing Mental Power. + TERMAN'S The Teacher's Health. + THORNDIKE'S Individuality. + TROW'S Scientific Method in Education. + + +_Administration and Supervision_ + + BETT'S New Ideals in Rural Schools. + BLOOMFIELD'S The Vocational Guidance of Youth. + CABOT'S Volunteer Help to the Schools. + COLE'S Industrial Education in the Elementary School. + CUBBERLEY'S Changing Conceptions of Education. + CUBBERLEY'S The Improvement of Rural Schools. + DOOLEY'S The Education of the Ne'er-Do-Well. + GATES'S The Management of Smaller Schools. + HINES'S Measuring Intelligence. + KOOS'S The High-School Principal. + LEWIS'S Democracy's High School. + MAXWELL'S The Observation of Teaching. + MAXWELL'S The Selection of Textbooks. + MILLER and CHARLES'S Publicity and the Public School. + PERRY'S The Status of the Teacher. + RUSSELL'S Economy in Secondary Education. + SMITH'S Establishing Industrial Schools. + SNEDDEN'S The Problem of Vocational Guidance. + WEEKS'S The People's School. + + +_Method_ + + ANDRESS'S The Teaching of Hygiene in the Grades. + ATWOOD'S The Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten. + BAILEY'S Art Education. + BETTS'S The Recitation. + COOLEY'S Language Teaching in the Grades. + DOUGHERTY'S How to Teach Phonics. + EARHART'S Teaching Children to Study. + EVANS'S The Teaching of High School Mathematics. + FAIRCHILD'S The Teaching of Poetry in the High School. + FREEMAN'S The Teaching of Handwriting. + HALIBURTON and SMITH'S Teaching Poetry in the Grades. + HARTWELL'S The Teaching of History. + HAWLEY'S Teaching English in Junior High Schools. + HAYNES'S Economics in the Secondary School. + HILL'S The Teaching of Civics. + JENKINS'S Reading in the Primary Grades. + KENDALL and STRYKER'S History in the Elementary School. + KILPATRICK'S The Montessori System Examined. + LEONARD'S English Composition as a Social Problem. + LOSH and WEEKS'S Primary Number Projects. + PALMER'S Self-Cultivation in English. + RIDGLEY'S Geographic Principles. + RUEDIGER'S Vitalized Teaching. + SHARP'S Teaching English in High Schools. + STOCKTON'S Project Work in Education. + SUZZALLO'S The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. + SUZZALLO'S The Teaching of Spelling. + SWIFT'S Speech Defects in School Children. + TUELL'S The Study of Nations. + WILSON's What Arithmetic Shall We Teach? + + +HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Moral Principles in Education, by John Dewey + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION *** + +***** This file should be named 25172.txt or 25172.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/1/7/25172/ + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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