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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by 
+Clara Erskine Clement
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students
+       Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
+
+Author: Clara Erskine Clement
+
+Release Date: May 29, 2008 [EBook #25632]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE VENUS OF MILO. (_See page 87._)]
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+HISTORY OF ART
+
+FOR
+
+BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
+
+PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE
+
+WITH
+
+_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+BY
+
+CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
+
+AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS,
+SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE
+NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
+
+NEW YORK
+
+FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1887,
+
+BY FREDERICK A. STOKES,
+
+SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+   CHAPTER I.
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+   ANCIENT SCULPTURE:
+
+   EGYPT,                                                              1
+
+   ASSYRIA,                                                           10
+
+
+   CHAPTER II.
+
+   GREEK SCULPTURE,                                                   18
+
+
+   CHAPTER III.
+
+   ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE,                                         82
+
+
+   CHAPTER IV.
+
+   MEDIÆVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH
+   CENTURY,                                                          105
+
+
+   CHAPTER V.
+
+   ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY,                       136
+
+
+   CHAPTER VI.
+
+   SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN,
+   FROM 1450 TO 1550,                                                160
+
+
+   CHAPTER VII.
+
+   ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI,
+   MICHAEL ANGELO, AND OTHERS,                                       181
+
+
+   CHAPTER VIII.
+
+   EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA,                 213
+
+
+   CHAPTER IX.
+
+   CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS,                  235
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+   Venus of Milo,                                         _Frontispiece_
+
+   Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo,                           3
+
+   Various Kinds of Dogs,                                              5
+
+   Androsphinx,                                                        6
+
+   Kriosphinx,                                                         6
+
+   The Great Sphinx,                                                   7
+
+   Hieracosphinx,                                                      8
+
+   The Colossi at Thebes,                                              9
+
+   Polishing a Colossal Statue,                                       10
+
+   Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a
+    lithographic Drawing),                                            11
+
+   Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud),                           12
+
+   Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud),                                           13
+
+   Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel,                               15
+
+   Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad),                                   16
+
+   Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik),                                17
+
+   Lion Devouring Deer,                                               22
+
+   Heracles, Triton, and Nereids,                                     23
+
+   Heracles and the Cecrops,                                          23
+
+   Actæon and his Dogs,                                               24
+
+   From the Harpy Monument, London,                                   25
+
+   Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at Ægina,      27
+
+   Archaistic Artemis at Naples,                                      28
+
+   The Discobolus (Myron),                                            30
+
+   Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos,                         34
+
+   Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus,                               36
+
+   Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli,                                 37
+
+   Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?),                                  38
+
+   From the Frieze of the Parthenon,                                  43
+
+   The Five Central Figures,                                          44
+
+   Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade,                            45
+
+   Horsemen Starting,                                                 46
+
+   Procession of Cavalry,                                             46
+
+   Procession of Chariots,                                            47
+
+   Train of Musicians and Youths,                                     47
+
+   Cows for Sacrifice,                                                48
+
+   Train of Noble Maidens,                                            48
+
+   Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum),                         50
+
+   A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas),                                       52
+
+   Statue of Pericles (Cresilas),                                     52
+
+   Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus),                        56
+
+   Portrait of Mausolus,                                              57
+
+   From the Frieze of the Mausoleum,                                  58
+
+   The Eros of Centocelle,                                            60
+
+   Niobe and her Youngest Daughter,                                   62
+
+   Brother and Sister,                                                63
+
+   The Eldest Daughter,                                               64
+
+   A Niobid,                                                          65
+
+   Ganymede (after Leochares),                                        66
+
+   Monument of Lysicrates (Athens),                                   67
+
+   Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument),                   68
+
+   The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus,                                       69
+
+   The Laocoon Group,                                                 75
+
+   The Farnese Bull,                                                  77
+
+   Gallic Warrior (Venice),                                           78
+
+   The Dying Gaul,                                                    79
+
+   Boy and Goose,                                                     80
+
+   Spinario,                                                          81
+
+   Venus de' Medici,                                                  86
+
+   The Farnesian Hercules,                                            89
+
+   The Apollo Belvedere,                                              90
+
+   Head of Apollo Belvedere,                                          91
+
+   The Steinhäuser Head,                                              91
+
+   The Stroganoff Apollo,                                             92
+
+   _Diane à la Biche_,                                                95
+
+   Athena of the Capitol,                                             96
+
+   Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus,                           97
+
+   From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column,                               99
+
+   Portrait of Sophocles,                                            101
+
+   Statue of Augustus,                                               102
+
+   Agrippina the Elder,                                              103
+
+   Statue of St. Peter,                                              106
+
+   From the Cathedra of Maximianus,                                  109
+
+   Diptych (Zurich),                                                 110
+
+   From the Façade of Chartres Cathedral,                            113
+
+   From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral,                      118
+
+   From the West Façade of Strasburg Cathedral,                      120
+
+   Duke Robert of Normandy,                                          121
+
+   Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene),                                     124
+
+   Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca),                                  128
+
+   Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano),                   129
+
+   Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano),                            132
+
+   Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna),                         138
+
+   From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10),       141
+
+   The Annunciation (Donatello),                                     143
+
+   Statue of St. George (Donatello),                                 144
+
+   Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia),                                 147
+
+   Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio),                                     149
+
+   Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio),                                   150
+
+   Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan),                    156
+
+   Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar),                             169
+
+   Justice,                                                          170
+
+   The Three Wise Virgins,                                           170
+
+   Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg),                                   172
+
+   Peter Vischer's Statue,                                           173
+
+   St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer),                     174
+
+   Peter (Vischer),                                                  175
+
+   John (Vischer),                                                   175
+
+   Man and Geese (Labenwolf),                                        176
+
+   Pharisee, Levite (Rustici),                                       183
+
+   Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino),                                       185
+
+   Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini),                                      191
+
+   Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna),                                 197
+
+   Pietà (Michael Angelo),                                           199
+
+   Michael Angelo's David,                                           201
+
+   Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo),                             205
+
+   Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),                                 207
+
+   Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna),                                    215
+
+   Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid),                                217
+
+   Rape of Proserpine (Bernini),                                     225
+
+   Caryatide (Quellinus),                                            231
+
+   Heads of Dying Warriors (Schlüter),                               232
+
+   The Great Elector (Schlüter),                                     233
+
+   The Three Graces (Canova),                                        241
+
+   Hebe (Canova),                                                    246
+
+   Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker),                              249
+
+   Jason (Thorwaldsen),                                              256
+
+   Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen),                             260
+
+   The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen),                                   261
+
+   Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch),                                   270
+
+   Nymph (by Bosio),                                                 273
+
+
+
+
+SCULPTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ANCIENT SCULPTURE.
+
+EGYPT.
+
+
+No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first
+practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time
+ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates
+from 2466 B.C., sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as
+could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training
+and practice in this art.
+
+In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the
+memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that
+reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which
+Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke
+to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he
+lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer
+on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand
+art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He
+relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every
+position, according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward,
+as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly
+understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor
+washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that
+'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and
+the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen
+able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in
+masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to
+ivory and ebony.'"
+
+There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named
+Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its
+highest point.
+
+The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in
+the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and
+they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though
+more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The
+subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried
+in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus
+represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the
+stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of
+arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it
+should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their
+minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the
+contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure,
+and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the
+fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the
+whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as
+if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one
+sense really have no relation to each other.
+
+The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different
+parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors,
+and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to
+think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position
+of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed
+close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the
+legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery,
+and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great
+advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture.
+
+One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact
+that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures
+moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed:
+they were _statues_, and no one can forget this for a moment while
+looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if
+in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting
+statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees
+or held across the breast (Fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STATUE OF CEPHREN IN THE MUSEUM AT CAIRO.]
+
+There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had
+more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife
+sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their
+arms around one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal
+figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller
+and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few
+attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as
+if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of
+positions after which all sculptured figures were made.
+
+In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is
+remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by
+prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture
+and painting.
+
+The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were
+covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars
+and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The
+sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or
+even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor
+it required to make them are simply marvellous.
+
+I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the
+palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt
+and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct
+the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the
+back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
+foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer
+counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll;
+each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the
+returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one
+thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above,
+where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war
+was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or
+green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses
+give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of Assyria
+and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he
+places near the Caspian." ...
+
+The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The
+king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car,
+conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and
+before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend
+as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
+corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in
+regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany
+their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra
+and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the
+victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled
+beneath his feet."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--VARIOUS KINDS OF DOGS.]
+
+This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will
+give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors.
+
+The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful
+as any part of them. There being no intellectual expression required,
+they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging
+features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and
+the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the
+sculptures--No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7,
+greyhounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANDROSPHINX.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--KRIOSPHINX.]
+
+One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the
+Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the
+great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head.
+It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is _the_ Sphinx of the
+world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in
+Egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered
+by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express
+some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are
+very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and
+mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the
+great Sphinx is called the _androsphinx_ (Fig. 3). Another has the body
+of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the _kriosphinx_
+(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this
+is called the _hieracosphinx_ (Fig. 6). They all typified the king,
+without doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given
+to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the
+heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in
+place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but
+it is rare.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE GREAT SPHINX.]
+
+The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their
+vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west
+bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from
+a single block of stone such as is not found within several days'
+journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high,
+and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is
+still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was
+of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It
+was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and
+thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast
+weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also
+how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given
+(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one
+(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These
+representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly
+just what we wish to know about these things.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HIERACOSPHINX.]
+
+I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture,
+and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that
+in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of
+Egyptian architecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the
+decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while
+at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the
+nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true--though the
+reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are,
+as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The
+obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand
+buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we
+may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was
+essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for
+that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt
+that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the
+natural result of its earliest attainments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE COLOSSI AT THEBES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8--POLISHING A COLOSSAL STATUE.]
+
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs,
+statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller
+works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger
+works in sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MODE OF TRANSPORTING A COLOSSUS FROM THE
+QUARRIES. _From a Lithographic Drawing._
+
+In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh.
+
+1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private
+individual, not of a king, or a deity.
+
+2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of
+a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to
+throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala.
+
+4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase.
+
+5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs.
+
+6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue.
+
+10. Men carrying water, or grease.
+
+11. Some implements.
+
+12. Taskmasters.
+
+13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.]
+
+The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our
+idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian
+works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the
+weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which
+they were originally finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STATUE OF SARDANAPALUS I.
+_From Nimrud._]
+
+The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one
+given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of
+preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about
+forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic
+than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking,
+and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always
+of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They
+also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way
+than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are
+also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and
+ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most
+unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their
+greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can
+be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the
+Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It
+was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression
+to their religious feeling; they told the history of their nation, and
+glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now
+make the subjects of _genre_ pictures; and even imitated vegetables and
+fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these
+pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs
+that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures
+are even more important than when they are considered merely from an
+artistic view.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LION-HUNT. _From Nimrud._]
+
+The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of
+bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century B.C. One
+striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and
+animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of
+position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt
+given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you
+will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the
+human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In
+these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these
+are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are
+all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of
+this art was reached about 650 B.C. At this period the various forms
+seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The
+human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an
+air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far
+better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more
+beautiful than before.
+
+The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period.
+I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion,
+probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in
+Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his
+agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The
+drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares
+favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art,
+either classic or modern (Fig. 12).
+
+There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of
+color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color
+remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we
+know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs
+belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what
+extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the
+Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the
+ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria
+are white, black, red and blue.
+
+Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most
+important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole
+figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low
+bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but
+finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal
+forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of
+them have a ring fastened to the back, which indicates that they were
+used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but
+we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal
+castings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--WOUNDED LION BITING A CHARIOT-WHEEL. _From the
+North Palace, Koyunjik._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARM-CHAIR OR THRONE.
+_Khorsabad._]
+
+The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and
+perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small
+nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the
+contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls
+and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of
+sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other
+ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables,
+chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals.
+All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to
+have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are
+coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea
+of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various
+designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great
+many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and
+interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn
+by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were
+carried on, and what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were.
+Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits,
+food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is
+plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole
+history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one
+source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig.
+13).
+
+Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their
+arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians;
+but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians,
+though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing
+as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have
+considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of
+Greece.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--MODE OF DRAWING THE BOW. _Koyunjik._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GREEK SCULPTURE.
+
+
+We have seen that the Egyptians and Assyrians were skilful in sculpture,
+but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be
+moved by art; there is always something beyond them to be desired, and
+it remained for the Greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture
+which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of
+beauty and grace. In truth, in Greece alone has this perfection in
+plastic art existed, and since the time of its highest excellence there
+no other nation has equalled the examples of Greek sculpture which still
+exist, though we have reason to believe that its finest works have
+perished, and that those remaining are of the second grade.
+
+There are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the Greeks,
+and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an
+essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book; but I will
+speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect
+Greek art--that is, the unbounded love of beauty, which was an essential
+part of the Greek nature. To the Greek, in fact, beauty and good had the
+same meaning--_beauty was good_, and the good must be beautiful.
+
+Sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man, and the other
+features in it have some relation to the human element of the design;
+and it would have been impossible for a true Greek to represent the
+human form otherwise than beautiful. A writer on this point says: "The
+chief aim of the enlightened Greek, his highest ambition and his
+greatest joy, was to be a _man_ in the fullest sense of the word--man in
+the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty, in the
+active exercise of the keenest senses, in the greatest because tempered
+enjoyment of sensual pleasure, in the free and joyous play of an
+intellect strong by nature, graced and guided by the most exquisite
+taste, and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy." Thus, beauty was so
+important to the Greek that every parent prayed that his children might
+have this gift, and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon
+pillars set where all could read them; and at times there were
+competitions for the prize of beauty.
+
+The religion of the Greek, too, taught that the body was the beautiful
+and godlike temple of his soul; and the truth that human beings have
+something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great
+respect for humanity, and, in truth, he felt that if he could escape
+death he should be content and almost, if not quite, a god. For we must
+remember that the gods of the Greek were not all-wise, all-powerful, and
+all-good, as we believe our God to be. If you read their mythology you
+will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness
+were mingled. They did not believe that Zeus had been the greatest god
+from the beginning, but that there was a time when he had no power. He
+was not omniscient nor omnipresent, and was himself subject to the
+decrees of Fate, as when he could not save his loved Sarpedon from
+death. Not knowing all things, even the gods are sometimes represented
+as depending upon mortals for information, and all these religious views
+tended to make the human form far more noble to the Greek than it can be
+to the Christian, with his different views of the relations of God and
+man.
+
+Greek sculpture existed in very early days, and we have vague accounts
+of a person called DÆDALUS, who seems to have been a wood-carver. Many
+cities claimed to have been his birthplace, and no one can give any
+clear account of this ancient artist. He is called the inventor of the
+axe, saw, gimlet, plummet-line, and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass. He
+is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from
+the bodies of his statues, or made the feet to step out; he also opened
+their eyes, and there is a legend that the statues of Dædalus were so
+full of life that they were chained lest they should run away.
+
+We call the time to which Dædalus belonged the prehistoric period, and
+his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished. Two
+very ancient specimens of sculpture remain--the Lion Gate of Mycenæ and
+the Niobe of Mount Sipylus; but as their origin is not known, and they
+may not be the work of Greek artists, it is best for us to pass on to
+about 700 B.C., when the records of individual artists begin.
+
+Among the earliest of these was DIBUTADES, of whom Pliny said that he
+was the first who made likenesses in clay. This author also adds that
+Dibutades first mixed red earth with clay, and made the masks which were
+fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples.
+Pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in
+bas-relief.
+
+Dibutades lived in Sicyon, and had a daughter called sometimes Kora, and
+again Callirhoe. She could not aid her father very much in his work as a
+sculptor, but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home
+flowers, which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little
+shop. Kora was very beautiful, and many young Greeks visited her father
+for the sake of seeing the daughter. At length one of these youths asked
+Dibutades to take him as an apprentice; and when this request was
+granted the young man made one of the family of the sculptor. Their
+life was one of simple content. The young man could play upon the reed,
+and his education fitted him to be the instructor of Kora. After a time,
+for some reason that Pliny does not mention, it was best for the youth
+to go away from the artist's home, and he then asked Kora if she would
+be his wife. She consented, and vows of betrothal were exchanged, while
+they were sad at the thought of parting.
+
+The last evening of his stay, as they sat together, Kora seized a coal
+from the brazier, and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that
+was so dear to her; and she did this so correctly that when her father
+saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn. Then he
+wished to do his part, for he also loved the young man. So he brought
+his clay and filled in the outline which Kora had drawn, and so went on
+to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made. Thus did
+this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of Sicyon,
+about twenty-five hundred years ago.
+
+After this beginning Dibutades went on to perfect his art. He made
+medallions and busts, and decorated the beautiful Grecian structures
+with his work, and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful
+ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of Greece. He also
+founded a school for modelling at Sicyon, and became so famous an artist
+that several Greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace.
+
+The bas-relief made from Kora's outline was preserved in the Nymphæum at
+Corinth for almost two hundred years, but was then destroyed by fire.
+She married her lover, and he became a famous artist at Corinth.
+
+We have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about 700
+B.C.; but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in
+detail that I shall pass on about two hundred years, after saying a few
+words of the advance made in the arts of sculpture, and mentioning a
+few of the examples which remain from that early time, which is called
+the Archaic period. This expression not only means an ancient period of
+art, but carries also the idea of an obsolete art--of something that is
+not only ancient, but something that is no longer practised in the same
+manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time.
+During this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of
+plastic art. There were statues in metal and marble, bas-reliefs in
+various kinds of stone and marble, as well as some chryselephantine
+statues. This kind of work is often said to have been invented by
+Phidias, but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor, but
+carried it to great perfection. These chryselephantine statues were made
+of wood and then covered with ivory and gold; the ivory was used for the
+flesh parts of the statue, and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the
+figure, and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--LION DEVOURING DEER.]
+
+The principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic
+period were connected with the religion of the Greeks, which is known to
+us as mythology. Most statues were of the gods, but portrait statues
+were not unknown, and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in
+the Greek games dates back to this very early time. This was a custom
+which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in, and must have had
+a great influence to give life and progress to their art.
+
+Of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written,
+but I shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be
+given to aid you in understanding about them. Among the earliest reliefs
+that have been preserved are those now in the Museum of the Louvre, at
+Paris, which were found in the ruins of a Doric temple at Assos (Fig.
+15).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HERACLES, TRITON, AND NEREIDS.]
+
+The various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with
+each other, and are executed in a rude manner. The most interesting one
+represents Heracles, or Hercules, struggling with a Triton (Fig. 16).
+
+The female figures represent Nereids, who are terrified by seeing
+Heracles in contest with the sea-monster. There are many proofs that
+these reliefs belong to a very ancient day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--HERACLES AND THE CECROPS.]
+
+An interesting relief from the temple of Selinus represents Heracles
+striding off with a pole across his shoulders, to which are hung two
+Cecrops who had robbed and tormented him (Fig. 17).
+
+A very fine work is also from Selinus, and represents Actæon torn by his
+dogs. The mythological story was that Zeus, or Jupiter, was angry with
+Actæon because he wished to marry Semele, and the great god commanded
+Artemis, or Diana, to throw a stag's skin over Actæon, so that his own
+dogs would tear him. In the relief Artemis stands at the left (Fig. 18).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ACTÆON AND HIS DOGS.]
+
+There is in the British Museum a monument which was discovered at
+Xanthos in 1838. It is thought to have been made about 500 B.C., and is
+called "The Harpy Monument," It is a tower, round the four sides of
+which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the
+ground. The frieze is of white marble, and is let into the frieze which
+is of sandstone. The Lycians, in whose country it was found, were
+accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers.
+
+There is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics
+concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures; and as
+all their writing is speculation, and no one knows the truth about it, I
+shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of
+art, and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of
+the frieze, from which the whole work takes its name. The Harpies are
+very curious; they had wings, and arms like human arms, with claws for
+hands, and feathered tails. Their bodies are egg-shaped, which is a very
+strange feature in their formation. We cannot explain all these
+different things, but there is little doubt that, with the little forms
+which they have in their arms, they represent the messengers of death
+bearing away the souls of the deceased. In the Odyssey, Homer represents
+the Harpies as carrying off the daughters of King Pandareus and giving
+them to the cruel Erinnyes for servants. For this reason the Harpies
+were considered as robbers, and whenever a person suddenly disappeared
+it was said that they had been carried off by Harpies (Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_From the Harpy Monument, London._]
+
+Before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth
+century B.C., I will speak of the two groups which belonged to the
+temple of Minerva in Ægina, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The
+city of Ægina was the principal city of the island of Ægina, which was
+in the gulf of the same name, near the south-west coast of Greece. This
+city was at the height of its prosperity about 475 B.C., at which time a
+beautiful temple was built, of which many columns are still standing,
+though much of it has fallen down. In 1811 some English and German
+architects visited this place, and the marbles they obtained are the
+most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period.
+Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, restored these reliefs, and the King
+of Bavaria bought them.
+
+Upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an
+episode in the Trojan war; it was the struggle of Ajax, Ulysses, and
+other Greek warriors to obtain the dead body of Achilles, which was held
+by the Trojans. The story is that the goddess Thetis had dipped her son
+Achilles in the river Styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable,
+or safe from wounds by weapons. But as she held him by the ankles they
+were not wetted, and so he could be wounded in them. During the siege of
+Troy Apollo guided the arrow of Paris to this spot, and the great leader
+of the Greeks was killed. It is believed that the warrior in this
+picture who is about to send his arrow is Paris. In the central or
+highest part of the pediment the goddess Minerva stands and tries to
+cover the fallen body of Achilles with her shield. These figures are on
+the side where the space grows narrower. You can judge of what the
+action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have
+so much. We are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as
+must carry death to its victim, and the second warrior, who braces
+himself on his feet and knee, will thrust his lance with equal power
+(Fig. 20).
+
+There are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these Æginetan
+statues; the weapons, helmets, shields, and quivers were red or blue;
+the eyes, hair, and lips were painted, and there are marks upon the
+garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze
+ornaments. There was a famous sculptor of Ægina named Callon, who lived
+about the time that this temple was built; and though it is not known to
+be so, yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the
+sculptor of these works, because they resemble the written descriptions
+of his statues and reliefs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of
+Minerva, at Ægina._]
+
+There was a period which we call archaistic, and by this we indicate a
+time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as
+possible the works of the true archaic period. It has constantly
+happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same
+thing, though the objects of imitation have varied with the different
+ages and nations. This archaistic "craze" to imitate old sculptures was
+at its height in the times of the Roman emperors Augustus and Hadrian;
+but here in America we have seen the same passion manifested in the
+desire to have such furniture as Queen Anne and her people admired, or
+such as "came over in the Mayflower;" and when the true original
+articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way
+places, then manufacturers began to imitate the old in the new, and one
+can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just
+from the workmen's hands.
+
+But among the Greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works
+of the earlier artists, which was the fact that the images of the gods
+and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their
+earliest forms, and were venerated by the people. Thus it followed that
+the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the
+artists was more suited to other subjects, while the religious images
+were made as nearly as possible like the older ones. If it happened that
+a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and
+more beautiful statue of the same deity, the pious Greek would prefer
+the ugly one, while he could well admire the most lovely. You should
+remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship.
+
+Many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ARCHAISTIC ARTEMIS AT NAPLES.]
+
+This is a very beautiful temple image, and was discovered at Pompeii in
+1760. It was found in a small temple or chapel, of which it must have
+been the principal deity. It is in excellent preservation; the only
+parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object
+which it held. Like many of these statues, it is less than
+life-size--four feet and two inches in height. When it was first
+discovered there were many traces of color about it. The hair was gilded
+to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to Artemis
+(Diana). There was considerable red about the garments, and some flowers
+were upon the border of the drapery. There is an archaic stiffness
+about this statue, but the flowing hair, the form of the eyes, and the
+free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic
+period (Fig. 21).
+
+It would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the
+progress of Greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the
+Periclean age, or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of Ægina to
+the perfections of the reliefs of the Parthenon. This we cannot do; but
+we know some of the causes that led to this progress, and can give
+accounts of a few sculptors who, while they did not equal the great
+Phidias, were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his.
+
+The chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the
+artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects. So long as the
+subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in
+the manner of treating them. Each god or goddess had its own attributes,
+which must be rendered with exact care; and any new mode of portraying
+them was almost a sacrilege. But as time passed on and the Panhellenic
+games and the national Pantheon at Olympia grew into their great
+importance, new subjects were furnished for the artists, which allowed
+them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic
+imaginations to their fullest extent. The victors in the games were
+heroes, and regarded even as demi-gods, and statues were allowed to be
+erected to them, although this had hitherto been considered a divine
+honor and was accorded to the gods alone. When these heroes were
+represented, the artists, not being bound by any laws, could study their
+subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to
+do. This exaltation of the Olympian victors gave an opportunity for the
+development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its
+influence and results.
+
+Another characteristic of the art of the time we are now considering
+was the almost universal use of bronze. This metal is excellent for
+displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues, but it is
+not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving
+expression to the face. PYTHAGORAS OF RHEGIUM was a famous artist who
+worked entirely in bronze. The only copies from his works of which we
+know are on two gems, one of which is in the Berlin Museum. He made
+exact studies of the body in action, and gave new importance to the
+reproduction of the veins and muscles. It is also claimed that
+Pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or
+proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules.
+
+MYRON OF ELEUTHERÆ flourished about 500 to 440 B.C., and was reckoned
+among Athenian artists because, though not born at Athens, he did most
+of his works there, and his most famous work, the statue of a cow, stood
+on the Acropolis of that city. This cow was represented as in the act of
+lowing, and was elevated upon a marble base. It was carried from Athens
+to Rome, where it stood in the Forum of Peace. Many writers mentioned
+this work of Myron's, and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning
+it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE DISCOBOLUS.]
+
+Though the cow was so much talked of, the artistic fame of Myron rests
+more upon the "Discobolus," or quoit-thrower. The original statue does
+not exist, but there are several copies of it. That in the Massimi Villa
+is a very accurate one, and was found on the Esquiline Hill at Rome in
+A.D. 1782; our illustration is made from this statue. Myron's great
+skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown
+in the quoit-thrower. To make such a figure as this requires great power
+in a sculptor. No model could constantly repeat this action, and if he
+could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the
+position he reproduces. This figure, however, is so true to life that
+one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies (Fig.
+22). There are several other existing works attributed to Myron: they
+are a marble copy of his statue of Marsyas, in the Lateran at Rome; two
+torsi in the gallery at Florence; a figure called Diomed, and a bronze
+in the gallery at Munich.
+
+Myron made statues of gods and heroes, but he excelled in representing
+athletes. His works were very numerous, and a list of those which are
+only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of
+little value here. While Myron reproduced the form and action of the
+body with marvellous effect, he made no advance in representing the
+expression of the face, nor in the treatment of the hair. He was daring
+in his art, for he not only imitated what he saw in life, but he also
+represented grotesque imaginary creatures, and in many ways proved that
+he had a rich creative fancy.
+
+A third sculptor of this time was CALAMIS, who was in his prime about
+B.C. 450. He was not born in Athens, but he worked there. Calamis added
+to the exact representations of Pythagoras and Myron the element of
+grace beyond their powers in that direction. He made a greater variety
+of figures than they, for to gods and heroes he added heroines, boys and
+horses. His works were in bronze, gold and ivory, as well as marble. But
+what we know of Calamis is gathered from the writings of Greek authors
+rather than from works, or copies of works, by him still existing;
+indeed, no statue remains known to be his own, though there are some
+which critics fancy may be so. But we may be certain of his great
+excellence from the many praises sung and said of him, and Lucian, who
+knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of Greece, puts
+Calamis before them all for elegance and grace, and for the finer
+expression of faces; when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl
+he declares that he would go to Calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty
+and give it a sweet and unaffected smile.
+
+PHIDIAS is the most famous of all Greek sculptors, and as Greek
+sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge, it
+follows that Phidias was the first sculptor of the world. And yet, in
+spite of his fame, we do not know the time of his birth. We know that he
+was the son of Charmidas, but we know nothing of the father except that
+he had a brother who was a painter, and this makes it probable that the
+family of Phidias were artists.
+
+As nearly as can be told, Phidias was born about B.C. 500. This would
+have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of Marathon and
+twenty years old when Salamis was fought, while he came of age at the
+time of Platæa. He seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter,
+and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the
+administration of Cimon, about B.C. 471. But his finest works belong to
+the time of Pericles, who was his friend as well as patron, and made him
+the master over all the great public works at Athens during what we
+speak of as the Periclean age.
+
+It seems that the favor of Pericles was a dear privilege to Phidias, for
+it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred; and those who feared to attack
+Pericles himself avenged themselves upon Phidias, and accused him of
+dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of Minerva
+which he made for the Parthenon. He proved himself innocent of this,
+but he was accused of other crimes, and one account says that he was
+thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison. Another account
+relates that the great sculptor went into exile at Elis, where he made
+his most famous statue, the Olympian Zeus, and that he was there
+convicted of theft and put to death. With such contradictory stories we
+cannot know the exact truth; but we do know that he went to Elis
+accompanied by distinguished artists. He was received with honor, and
+for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to
+strangers. The Olympians also allowed him an honor which the Athenians
+never extended to him--that is, to inscribe his name upon the base of
+the statue of Zeus, which he was not permitted to do in the case of the
+Minerva (or Athena) of the Parthenon.
+
+It often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which
+have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in
+so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at
+any other time, and that he could not avoid being so, when everything
+had been shaped to his advantage. This was true of Phidias. When he came
+to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged Greece were over, and
+the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the
+rebuilding of Athens. Large quantities of "marble, bronze, ivory, gold,
+ebony and cypress wood" were there, and a great number of skilful
+workmen were at hand to work under his command. The Athenians were
+ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods, who,
+as they believed, had led them to their victories, and not only the
+public, but the private means were used to make Athens the grandest and
+most beautiful city of the world.
+
+The first great work with which the name of Phidias was connected was
+the building of the temple of Theseus, called also the Theseion. This
+was a very important temple, and was constructed in obedience to the
+command of an oracle in this wise: In B.C. 470 the island of Scyros had
+been taken by the Athenians, and upon this island Theseus had been
+buried. After the battle of Marathon, in which he had aided the
+Athenians, Theseus was much regarded by them, and in B.C. 476 they were
+directed to remove his bones to Athens and build over them a shrine
+worthy of so great a champion. Just then a gigantic skeleton was
+discovered at Scyros by Cimon, and was brought to Athens with great
+ceremony, and laid to rest with pompous respect, and the splendid temple
+dedicated to Theseus was begun, and Phidias was commissioned to make its
+plastic ornaments. The precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary
+where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ATHENIAN COINS WITH THE MINERVA PROMACHOS.]
+
+Phidias executed many works under the patronage of Cimon, the greatest
+of which was the colossal statue of Minerva, which stood on the
+Acropolis. It was called the "Minerva Promachos," and was so gigantic
+that "the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen
+by the mariner off the promontory of Sunium glittering in the sunlight
+as a welcome to her own chosen people, and an awful warning to her
+foes." The meaning of Promachos may be given as champion or guardian,
+and we know from existing descriptions that, with its pedestal, it must
+have been at least seventy feet in height. It was made from the spoils
+taken at Marathon; its pedestal was found, in 1840, standing between the
+Parthenon and the Erechtheium. It has been called the "Pallas with the
+golden spear," for this goddess was known as Athena, Minerva, and
+Pallas, and it is said that Alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect
+that he shrank from it in horror. The only representations of this
+statue now in existence are upon Athenian coins, and the position of the
+goddess differs in these, as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 23);
+there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests
+upon the ground is correct, one of which is that some years after the
+death of Phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of
+the battle of the Centaurs.
+
+Though Phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of
+Cimon, it was not until the time of Pericles that he reached the
+glorious height of his genius. Pericles and Phidias seem to have been
+two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic
+grandeur of Athens, and, indeed, of all Attica, for within a period of
+twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and
+completed. Plutarch writes of these wonders in these words: "Hence we
+have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by Pericles
+should be built in so short a time, and yet built for ages. For as each
+of them, as soon as it was finished, had the venerable air of antiquity,
+so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building. A
+bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by
+time, as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and
+unfading elegance."
+
+It is quite impossible that I should speak here of the works of Phidias
+in detail, and I have decided to speak only of the frieze of the
+Parthenon, because the Elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations
+from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great
+masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice. But,
+first, I will give a picture of a coin which shows the great Olympian
+Zeus, or Jupiter, which Phidias made at Elis, after he was an exile from
+Athens (Fig. 24). When Phidias was asked how he had found a model for
+this Jupiter, he quoted the lines from Homer:
+
+   "He said, and nodded with his shadowy brows,
+   Waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks,
+   And all Olympus trembled at the nod."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--COIN OF ELIS WITH THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS.]
+
+The writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this
+statue, and its praise is unending. It was colossal in size and made of
+ivory and gold, and one historian says that though the temple had great
+height, yet the Jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his
+throne he must have carried the roof away. It is related that when the
+work was completed Phidias prayed to Jupiter to give him a sign from
+heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god
+or not. This prayer was answered, and a flash of lightning came which
+struck the pavement in front of the statue. This statue was reckoned
+among the seven wonders of the world, and it is believed that the
+magnificent bust called the "Jupiter Otricoli" is a copy from the
+Olympian statue (Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--BUST OF JUPITER FOUND AT OTRICOLI.]
+
+I shall speak in another volume (upon Architecture) of the former glory
+and the present ruin of the Parthenon at Athens, and tell how upon its
+decoration Phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in
+beauty any other structure of which we have knowledge. Early in the
+present century Lord Elgin, the English Ambassador to the Porte,
+interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to
+England. In 1812 eighty chests containing these priceless works of the
+greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in Burlington House, and a
+few years later Parliament purchased them for £35,000, and they were
+placed in the British Museum, where they now are. There is a great
+number of them, and all are of great interest; but I shall pass over the
+metopes and the pediments, and shall pass to the frieze after speaking
+of this one figure of Theseus, which is from the sculptures of the
+eastern pediment. The sculptures upon this pediment represented the
+story of the birth of Athena, and it was proper that Theseus should be
+present, as he was king over Athens, of which city Athena, or Minerva,
+was the protecting goddess. Torso is a term used in sculpture to denote
+a mutilated figure, and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist
+which are so beautiful, even in their ruin, that they are the pride of
+the museums where they are, and serve as studies for the artists of all
+time. This figure of Theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of
+its attitude, for perfection of its anatomical accuracy, and for the
+appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one, even
+though made of marble. It really seems as if the skin could be moved
+upon it, so soft does its surface look to be. It is ranked as the
+greatest miracle of sculpture. Though it is called a Theseus, I ought to
+state that some critics take exceptions to this name, and believe it to
+be Hercules or Bacchus; but by almost general consent it is called a
+Theseus (Fig. 26).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--TORSO OF A STATUE OF THESEUS (?).]
+
+We may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must
+have been magnificent. Of course the chosen goddess of Athens would be
+made to appear with great glory. The myth relates that Athena was born
+in an instant, by springing forth from the head of Zeus, or Jupiter,
+fully armed. It is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a
+moment after birth when she appeared in full, colossal majesty, shouting
+her war-cry and waving her lance--something as these lines represent the
+scene:
+
+                 "Wonder strange possessed
+   The everlasting gods, that shape to see
+   Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously
+   Rush from the crest of ægis-bearing Jove.
+   Fearfully Heaven was shaken, and did move
+   Beneath the might of the Cærulean-eyed
+   Earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide,
+   And lifted from its depths; the sea swelled high
+   In purple billows."
+
+It is very important, when considering the sculpture at Athens, to know
+something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence
+was so great there. I shall give an extract from an English writer on
+Greek sculpture, Mr. Walter Copeland Perry:
+
+"It is a very remarkable fact, and one which gives us a deep insight
+into the character of the Athenians, that the central figure in their
+religion, the most perfect representative of their feelings, thoughts,
+and aspirations, was not Zeus or Hera (Juno), nor the most popular gods
+of all times and nations, Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus), but Athena,
+the virgin, the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed! She was
+enthroned in the very heart of their citadel; and she stood in colossal
+grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes, and to give the first
+welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and
+beautiful home, which reposed in safety under the protection of her
+lance and shield."
+
+The attributes of this goddess, as given in Greek literature and shown
+forth in Greek art, are very varied and hard to be understood as
+belonging to one person. She is the patroness of war, and in Homer's
+Iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise:
+
+   "The cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force
+   And stood accoutred for the bloody fray.
+   Her tasselled ægis round her shoulders next
+   She threw, with terror circled all around,
+   And on its face were figured deeds of arms
+   And Strife and Courage high, and panic Rout.
+   There too a Gorgon's head of monstrous size
+   Frown'd terrible, portent of angry Jove.
+   . . . . . . . In her hand
+   A spear she bore, long, weighty, tough, wherewith
+   The mighty daughter of a mighty sire
+   Sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues."
+
+But this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who
+restrains Achilles from rash action; and though she does not shrink from
+war and danger, yet the most precious gift to her people was not the
+war-horse, but the olive, the emblem of peace, and to her honor was this
+sacred tree planted. "She stands in full armor, with brandished lance,
+on the highest point of the Acropolis, and yet she is the patroness of
+all household and female work, in which she herself excels."
+
+It is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of
+Athena, while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in
+her right hand, she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle
+and the lamp of knowledge. In the later art of Phidias she is still
+stern and severe, but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of
+thought and character. Later still, her warlike attributes are made less
+prominent: the shield rests on the ground, and the lance is more like a
+sceptre, until, in the decline of art, she is represented as lovely and
+gentle, and all her grand power is lost, and she is not above a great
+number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft, lovely
+grace, but have no selfhood, no individuality to command our admiration
+or respect.
+
+We come now to speak of the Elgin marbles from the frieze of the
+Parthenon. It was about thirty-five feet above the floor, three feet
+three inches broad, and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long. It
+represented a continuous procession, and the subject is called the
+great Panathenaic Procession. About four hundred feet of this frieze
+remains, so that a good judgment can be formed of it. First I must tell
+you what this procession means. The festival of the Panathenæa was the
+most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at
+Athens. It is probable that this festival was held every year about the
+middle of August, but _the great Panathenaic_ occurred only in the third
+year of each olympiad; an olympiad was a period of four years, extending
+from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, which was an event
+of great importance in reckoning time with the Greeks; thus we see that
+the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every
+four years. This festival continued several days, and all were filled
+with horse-racing, cock-fighting, gymnastic and musical contests, and a
+great variety of games; poets also recited their verses, and
+philosophers held arguments in public places.[A] But the most important
+day was that on which a procession went up to the Parthenon and carried
+the peplos, or garment for the great goddess, which had been woven by
+the maidens of Athens. This peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff, on
+which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants
+appeared in beautiful, rich embroidery. In later years, after the
+Athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity, they
+sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they
+wished to flatter, as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a
+very great compliment.
+
+[Footnote A: In the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes, B.C. 480, that
+monarch was surprised to learn that the Olympic games were not suspended
+at the approach of his army.]
+
+The procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the Potters'
+Quarter of the city, and passed to the Dromos, then to the market-place,
+onward to the temple of Demeter, round the Acropolis along the Pelasgic
+wall, through the Propylæa to the temple of Athena Polias. The
+procession was as splendid as all the wealth, nobility, youth and beauty
+of Athens could make it. Of the vast multitude which joined it some were
+in chariots, others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot.
+After the most important officers of the government come the envoys of
+the Attic colonies with the noble Athenian maidens, the basket-bearers,
+the aliens who resided in Athens dressed in red instead of white, and a
+chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive.
+
+The peplos was not borne by hands, but was suspended from the mast of a
+ship, upon wheels, which some writers say was moved by machinery placed
+underground. When the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed
+upon the sacred statue, which was believed to have fallen from heaven.
+During the festival of the Panathenæa prisoners were permitted to enjoy
+their freedom, men whose services to the public merited recognition
+received gifts of gold crowns, and their names were announced by heralds
+in public places, and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time. We
+do not know the exact order in which all these things happened; but it
+is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of
+it all, and was celebrated on the final day.
+
+The plan of the Parthenon frieze which represented this great procession
+was as follows: On the eastern side above the main entrance to the
+temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the
+many gods of the Greek religion. Each of these groups had six gods and
+an attendant, so that there were seven figures in each of these groups,
+as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 27).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+There has been much study of these sculptures, and many scholars have
+written about them. There is still a difference of opinion as to which
+gods are here represented, but I shall give you the most generally
+accepted opinion, which calls _a_, Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of
+the gods; _b_, Apollo; _c_, Artemis, or Diana; _d_, Ares, or Mars; _e_,
+Iris, who is attending upon _f_, Hera, or Juno; _g_, Zeus, or Jupiter;
+h__, Athena, Minerva, or Pallas; _i_, Hephæstus, or Vulcan; _j_,
+Poseidon, or Neptune; _k_, Dionysus, or Bacchus; _l_, _m_, _n_ are more
+doubtful, but are probably Aphrodite, or Venus, Demeter, or Ceres, and
+Triptolemus, the boy who was a favorite with Ceres, who invented the
+plough and first sowed corn.
+
+Now, these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular
+group containing five figures (Fig. 28).
+
+There has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are
+doing. They seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to
+them on either side. The greater number of critics consider that the two
+maidens, _e_ and _d_, are of the number who have embroidered the
+peplos; the central figure, _c_, a priestess of Athena; _a_, the Archon
+Basileus; and _b_, a consecrated servant-boy, who is delivering up the
+peplos. Other critics believe, however, that these figures are all
+preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin, and that the priest
+is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off. Other
+theories may arise, and we can only listen to them all, and yet not know
+the truth; but the more we study the more we shall admire these
+exquisite figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE FIVE CENTRAL FIGURES.]
+
+Just here I will call your attention to one feature of these antique
+bas-reliefs which is called _Isocephalism_, and means that all the heads
+are at an equal height. You will see that all figures, whether standing
+or sitting, walking, in chariots, or on horseback, have the heads on the
+same level.
+
+These three groups, the five central figures and the two groups of gods,
+are approached on each side by long, continuous processions, and these
+processions each start out from the south-west corner of the Parthenon,
+so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side, and
+the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and
+north, and a portion of the east side. I shall give here a series of
+pictures which are all explained by their titles, and will give you an
+excellent idea of this magnificent frieze, and doubtless many of my
+readers have studied or will study and admire it in the British Museum
+(Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--YOUTHS PREPARING TO JOIN THE CAVALCADE.]
+
+Though all this frieze was the conception of the great Phidias, it must
+have been the work of many hands, and close examination shows that some
+portions of it are done much better than others. These sculptures have a
+double value; for while they are so priceless as treasures of art, they
+tell us much of that prosperous, glorious Athens of which we love to
+read and hear stories. These figures show us how the people dressed and
+moved, and we see in them the "stately" magistrates and venerable seers
+of Athens, the sacred envoys of dependent states, the victors in their
+chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but
+priceless garland, the full-armed warriors, the splendid cavalry, and
+the noble youths of 'horse-loving' Athens on their favorite steeds,
+in the flush and pride of their young life; and last, not least, the
+train of high-born Athenian maidens, marching with bowed heads and quiet
+gait, for they are engaged in holy work, with modest mien, and gentle
+dignity and grace. All that was sacred, powerful, and grand--all that
+was beautiful, graceful, and joyous in Athenian life, is represented
+there, in ideal form, of course, but in strict conformity with the
+realities of life.... It is by the study of such works as these that we
+get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical
+antiquity; and they help us better to understand all that we may read in
+history or poetry concerning the ancient, classic Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--HORSEMEN STARTING.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PROCESSION OF CAVALRY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--PROCESSION OF CHARIOTS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--TRAIN OF MUSICIANS AND YOUTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--COWS FOR SACRIFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--TRAIN OF NOBLE MAIDENS.]
+
+We must now leave Phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his
+contemporaries and pupils. Among the last ALCAMENES was the most
+celebrated. He was born in Lemnos, but was a citizen of Athens; so he is
+sometimes called an Athenian, and again a Lemnian. His statues were
+numerous, and most of them represented the gods. One of Hephæstus, or
+Vulcan, was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed
+so skilfully that no deformity appeared.
+
+His most famous statue was a Venus, or Aphrodite, concerning which it is
+related that Agoracritus, another celebrated pupil of Phidias, contended
+with Alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess. The preference was
+given to Alcamenes, and Agoracritus believed this to have been done on
+account of his being an Athenian citizen, and not solely for the merit
+of the statue. The Venus of Alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess
+in a garden beyond the eastern wall of Athens. This statue was very much
+praised for its beauty by ancient writers, who all mention with especial
+pride the _eurythmy_ of the action of the wrist. This is a term
+frequently used in regard to sculpture, and is somewhat difficult to
+explain. It means a harmony and proportion of action which corresponds
+to rhythm in music. When a statue has the effect it should have it
+appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment, and
+would be resumed immediately. That is what we mean when we say a statue
+has life; and, as in life, the motion of a statue may be awkward or it
+may be graceful; it may be harmonious to the eye, just as music is
+harmonious to the ear, or it may seem out of tune and time, just as
+inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound; so
+when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent
+motion is in accord with the laws of proportion, and is harmonious and
+graceful to the eye.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--HEAD OF ASCLEPIUS. _In the British Museum._]
+
+While Alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues, he
+also approached Phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness, which was the
+sweetness of great strength. In truth, he is recognized as the sculptor
+who most nearly approached the great Phidias. He represented also for
+the first time the god Asclepius, or Æsculapius, who was very important
+to the Greeks, who placed great value upon physical health. Alcamenes
+represented him as a sort of humanized Zeus or Jupiter. Of the Asclepius
+heads found at Melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of
+the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of
+medicine and health to be (Fig. 36).
+
+Alcamenes was also the principal assistant of Phidias in his decoration
+of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, and is said to have himself
+executed the relief upon the western pediment, in which the battle of
+the Centaurs and Lapithæ was represented with great spirit.
+
+AGORACRITUS of Paros, who has been mentioned as the rival of Alcamenes,
+is called the favorite pupil of Phidias, and it is said that the master
+even gave Agoracritus some of his works, and allowed the pupil to
+inscribe his name upon them. For this reason the ancient writers were
+often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names
+of these sculptors. It is said that when the Venus of Alcamenes was
+preferred before that of Agoracritus the latter changed his mark, and
+made it to represent a Nemesis, or the goddess who sent suffering to
+those who were blessed with too many gifts. It is said that this statue
+was cut from a block of marble which the Persians brought with them to
+Marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set
+up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining; in their
+flight and adversity it was left, and at last served a Greek sculptor in
+making a statue of an avenging goddess. This seems to be a striking
+illustration of "poetic justice."
+
+Agoracritus sold the Nemesis to the people of Rhamnus, who had a temple
+dedicated to that goddess, and made a condition that it should never be
+set up in Athens. In the museum of the Lateran at Rome there is a small
+but very beautiful antique statue of Nemesis, which is thought to be a
+copy of this famous work. As Nemesis was the goddess who meted out
+fortune according to her idea of right, a measure was her symbol, and
+the Greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand. The word
+cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist, and
+in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very
+prominent, and the measure itself is omitted.
+
+The sculptor Myron also had pupils and followers who executed many
+works, and of this school was CRESILAS of Cydonia, in Crete. We are
+interested in him because two copies from his works exist, of which I
+give pictures here. Pliny, in speaking of the portrait statue of
+Pericles, said it was a marvel of the art "which makes illustrious men
+still more illustrious." The cut given here is from a bust in the
+British Museum. There is reason to believe that Cresilas excelled Myron
+in the expression of his faces (Figs. 37, 38).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A WOUNDED AMAZON. _Cresilas._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--STATUE OF PERICLES. _Cresilas._]
+
+CALLIMACHUS is an artist of whom we know little, but that little is
+interesting. We do not know where he was born, but as he was employed to
+make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred
+statue of Athena Polias, we may suppose that he was an Athenian. Some
+writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without
+going out, and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the
+temple of Minerva. Callimachus lived between B.C. 550 and 396, and is
+credited with having invented the Corinthian capital in this wise: A
+young girl of Corinth died, and her nurse, according to custom, placed a
+basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life. It
+chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant, and
+the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when Callimachus
+saw it the design for the capital which we know as Corinthian was
+suggested to him, and was thus named from the city in which all this had
+occurred.
+
+While the plastic art of Athens, or the Attic school of sculpture,
+reached its greatest excellence in Phidias, there was in the
+Peloponnesus another school of much importance. Argos was the chief city
+of this school, and its best master was POLYCLEITUS of Sicyon, who was
+born about B.C. 482. He was thus about twelve years younger than
+Phidias. Polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient
+writers couple his name with that of Phidias. He was employed in the
+decoration of the Heraion, or temple of Hera, at Argos. But his greatest
+work was a statue of Hera, or Juno, for a temple on Mount Euboea,
+between Argos and Mycenæ. This statue was chryselephantine, and as Juno
+was the majestic, white-armed, ox-eyed goddess consort of Jupiter, it is
+a striking coincidence that Phidias at Olympia and Polycleitus on Mount
+Euboea should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this
+renowned pair, who reigned over the mythical world of the Greek
+religion. There are several copies of heads of Juno in various museums,
+and some of them have been ascribed to Polycleitus; but the proof of the
+truth of this is far from being satisfactory. This master made other
+statues of divinities, but he excelled in representing athletes; and
+however fine his other works may have been, it was in the reproduction
+of strong, youthful, manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors.
+Some of his statues of this sort, especially a Doryphorus, or
+spear-bearer, were considered as models from which all other artists
+could work.
+
+Polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact
+rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body. This was
+called "the canon" of Polycleitus, and there is good reason to believe
+that the Doryphorus was called by the same name, "the canon," because it
+was fashioned according to the rules laid down by Polycleitus in his
+treatise. His pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the Greek
+authors of his time, but I need not mention them here.
+
+The art of Phidias and Polycleitus was the art of Greece at its best
+period. After the close of the Persian wars the people of Greece were a
+religious and patriotic people. The Persian wars developed the best
+quality of character, for these wars were waged against a foreign foe,
+and the Greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization, and
+at the end of the struggle Pericles, who guided them to their greatest
+prosperity, was a statesman and a man of high aims; he was a gentleman
+as well as a strong ruler. The Peloponnesian war, on the contrary, was a
+civil war, and it divided the Greeks among themselves and roused the
+evil passions of friend against friend all over their country. It was
+the cause of selfishness, treachery, and immorality, and one of its
+worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people:
+their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone; every man
+thought only of himself, and the nation began to sink into the condition
+which at last made it an easy prey to the Macedonians. We have studied
+all these wars in our histories, but perhaps we have not thought how
+much they affected sculpture and the other arts, and brought them down
+from the lofty heights of the Periclean age.
+
+But there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and
+in intellect, and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on
+account of the decline they saw about them. Few countries in any age
+have had more splendid men than Socrates, Plato, Euripides,
+Aristophanes, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Demosthenes, Dion, and Timoleon,
+and these all lived between the Peloponnesian and the Macedonian wars.
+And while the arts were less grand than before, they did not fall into
+decline for some years, though they took on new features. The gods who
+had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the
+sculptor, and when they were so they were softened and made less awful
+in their effect. Other gods were more freely taken for models, such as
+came nearer to human life and thought, because less sublime in their
+attributes and characters. Among these were Venus as a lovely woman
+rather than as the great mother of all living creatures, and Eros, or
+Love; while Plutus, or Wealth, and satyrs, nymphs, and tritons were
+multiplied in great numbers.
+
+When the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their
+character, it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled
+men and women, and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed
+to grace, beauty, and mirth. Many people would prefer these works
+because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world; but
+earnest, thoughtful minds look for something more noble in
+art--something that will not come down to us as we are, but will help us
+to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things.
+
+CEPHISODOTUS was a sculptor who lived until about B.C. 385, or a little
+later, and stood between the old and the new schools of Greek art. The
+cut given here is from a group at Munich, which is believed to be a copy
+of a work by him, and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the
+art of Phidias (which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge
+of its folds) and the later Attic style (which is seen in the dreamy,
+gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god). (Fig. 39.) We
+know very little of the life of Cephisodotus, and as little is said of
+his works by ancient writers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EIRENE AND THE YOUNG PLUTUS. _Cephisodotus._]
+
+SCOPAS of Paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later Attic
+school. The island of Paros, where he was born, was the place where the
+finest Greek marble was found; but he worked so much at Athens that he
+is spoken of as an Athenian. He was an architect as well as a sculptor,
+and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures, which he
+also ornamented with his sculptures. I shall speak especially of the
+tomb of Mausolus, the King of Caria. Scopas executed the sculptures of
+the east side, and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed
+there, it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the
+work. This mausoleum was reckoned as one of the "seven wonders of the
+world," and has given a name to fine tombs the world over.
+
+The most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in
+the British Museum seems to me to be the statue of Mausolus himself. It
+is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king, and it is so
+designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as
+he was when alive, more than twenty-two hundred years ago (Fig. 40).
+
+A part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the Greeks
+and the Amazons, and this illustration from it gives an idea of the
+boldness of action and the correctness of the design (Fig. 41). This
+picture is from a slab in the possession of the Serra family in Genoa.
+On the right a warrior holds down an Amazon whom he has forced to her
+knees and is about to kill, while she stretches out her right hand in
+supplication. The figures to the left are full of spirit, and absolutely
+seem to be in motion. We do not know that any of these figures were
+executed by the hand of Scopas, but it is probable that they were, and
+they give us an idea of the art of his time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--PORTRAIT OF MAUSOLUS.]
+
+Scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of Diana at
+Ephesus, and did much architectural decoration, as well as to execute
+many statues and groups of figures. The ancient writers say very little
+of the art of Scopas, but when all that we can learn is brought
+together, it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own
+ideas, that his genius was creative and his works original. He
+represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their
+works in quite a new manner, and he was the first to show the goddess
+Venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her. His
+representations of nymphs of wood and sea, of monsters, and all sorts of
+strange, imaginary beings were numberless, and he made his sculptured
+figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt, from the
+tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--FROM THE FRIEZE OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
+
+His works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown
+by some superhuman beings; he never portrayed a hero, with the
+exception of Hercules, and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with
+realities about him. He worked in marble only, which is far more suited
+to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory.
+
+We are accustomed to call PRAXITELES the greatest sculptor of the second
+school of Greek art, just as we give that place to Phidias in the first.
+We have no fixed dates concerning Praxiteles. We know that he was the
+son of a Cephisodotus, who was a bronze worker, and was thought to be a
+son of Alcamenes, thus making Praxiteles a grandson of the latter.
+Praxiteles was first instructed by his father. Later he came under the
+influence of Scopas, who was much older than he; and by Scopas he was
+persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble.
+Perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by
+Pliny, who says that he was in his prime from B.C. 364-360.
+
+It is impossible to praise a sculptor more than Praxiteles was praised
+by the Greek authors; and, although Athens was the place where he lived
+and labored most, yet he was known to all Greece, and even to other
+countries, and the number of his works was marvellous. There are
+trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups, reliefs, and statues by his
+hand, and it is not probable that these are all that he executed.
+
+Praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most
+pleasing to popular taste. Thus it happened that his male figures were
+the young Apollo, Eros, and youthful satyrs, while a large proportion of
+his statues represented lovely women. Venus was frequently repeated by
+him, and there is a story that he made two statues of her, one being
+draped and the other nude. The people of Cos bought the first, and the
+last was purchased by the Cnidians, who placed it in the midst of an
+open temple, where it could be seen from all sides. It became so famous
+that many people went to Cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it, and
+the "Cnidian Venus" acquired a reputation wherever art was known. When
+the oppressor of the Cnidians, King Nicodemus of Bithynia, offered to
+release them from a debt of one hundred talents (about $100,000) if they
+would give him the Venus, they refused, and declared that it was the
+chief glory of their State.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--THE EROS OF CENTOCELLE.]
+
+Another story relates that Phryne, a friend of Praxiteles, had been told
+by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his
+workshop. She wished to have the one which the artist himself considered
+the best. In order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant
+to tell him that his workshop was on fire. He exclaimed, "All is lost if
+my Satyr and Cupid are not saved!" Then Phryne told him of her trick,
+and chose the Cupid, or Eros, for her gift. Phryne then offered the
+statue to the temple of Thespiæ, in Boeotia, where it was placed
+between a statue of Venus and one of Phryne herself. This Cupid was
+almost as celebrated as the Cnidian Venus, and was visited by many
+people. The head given here (Fig. 42), which was found in Centocelle by
+Gavin Hamilton, and is now in the Vatican, is thought by many to be a
+copy of a Cupid by Praxiteles, and even of the Thespian statue; but we
+have no proof of this. The Cupid, or Eros, of the art of Scopas and
+Praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later
+art; he is a youth just coming into manhood, with a dreamy, melancholy
+face, the tender beauty of which makes him one of the most attractive
+subjects in sculpture. Caligula carried the Thespian Cupid to Rome;
+Claudius restored it to its original place, but Nero again bore it to
+Rome, where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of Titus.
+
+I shall say no more of Praxiteles personally, because I wish to describe
+to you the largest and grandest group of Greek statues which exists, or,
+as I should say, of which we have any copies. We do not know whether
+Scopas or Praxiteles made these famous figures, since they are
+attributed to both these sculptors; perhaps we can never positively know
+to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work. The historian Pliny
+tells us that they stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome.
+Sosius was the legate of Antony in Syria and Cilicia; he erected this
+temple in his own honor, and brought many beautiful works from the East
+for its decoration. It is believed that he brought the Niobe group from
+Cilicia, and displayed it when celebrating his victory over Judea, B.C.
+35.
+
+In A.D. 1583 a large number of statues representing this subject were
+found in Rome, and were purchased by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who
+placed them in the Villa Medici. In 1775 they were removed to the Palace
+of the Uffizi, in Florence, where an apartment was assigned to them. The
+figures were restored, and each one placed on its own pedestal, which
+work was not completed until 1794.
+
+The group must have had originally seventeen figures--Niobe and fourteen
+children, a pedagogue and a female nurse. Now there are but
+twelve--Niobe, six sons, four daughters, and the pedagogue. At first it
+was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment, but it
+is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base, with a
+background at a little distance. Niobe is the central figure, in any
+case, and the children were fleeing toward her from either side; she is
+the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to
+the beholder (Fig. 43). But we shall better understand our subject if I
+recount as concisely as possible the story of Niobe, which, as you know,
+is a Grecian myth. Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, and was born on
+Mount Sipylus. When a child Niobe played with Lato, or Latona, who
+afterward married the great god Jupiter, or Zeus. Niobe became the wife
+of Amphion, and had a very happy life; she was the mother of seven sons
+and seven daughters, and all this prosperity made her forget that she
+was mortal, and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves.
+Lato had but two children, the beautiful Apollo and the archer-queen of
+heaven, called Diana, or Artemis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BROTHER AND SISTER.]
+
+Amphion and Niobe were the King and Queen of Thebes, and when the
+worship of Lato was established in that city Niobe was very angry. She
+thought of Lato as her playmate and not a goddess, and was so imprudent
+as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the Theban women
+not to join in this worship. Niobe also asserted that she was superior
+to this Lato, who had but two children, while she had fourteen lovely
+sons and daughters, any one of which was worthy of honor. All this so
+enraged Lato that she begged Apollo, who was the god of the silver bow,
+and Diana, her huntress daughter, to take revenge on Niobe. Obedient to
+her commands, Apollo and Artemis descended to earth, and in one day slew
+all the children of Niobe. Then this proud mother, left alone, could do
+nothing but weep, and this she did continually until Jupiter took pity
+on her and turned her into stone, and whirled her away from Thebes to
+Mount Sipylus, the scene of her happy childhood. In this picture of
+Niobe she clasps her youngest child, who has fled to her for
+protection.
+
+I cannot give pictures of all the figures, but one of the most
+interesting is this brother and sister. She is wounded, and he endeavors
+to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly
+arrows which pursue them (Fig. 44).
+
+This figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful. An arrow has
+pierced her neck, and the right hand is bent back to the wound. The face
+is noble and simple, and has been a favorite model to Guido Reni and
+other Italian masters (Fig. 45).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE ELDEST DAUGHTER.]
+
+Fig. 46 shows one of the older sons, who, though wounded and fallen on
+one knee, still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance. There
+is a world of interest connected with these statues, and they move us
+with a variety of emotions. The poor mother, so prosperous a moment
+before, and now seeing her children dying around her, slain by the sure
+arrows of the unseen gods--how can we pity her enough! and then the
+brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the
+suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for; the old
+pedagogue, to whom the youngest boy has run for protection--and,
+indeed, all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for
+their beauty, which is still theirs in spite of their woe.
+
+One of the young sculptors who was employed with Scopas in the work on
+the mausoleum was LEOCHARES. We read of several statues of Zeus and
+Apollo by this master, but his most celebrated work was the group of
+Ganymede borne upward by the eagle of Zeus. There are several copies of
+this sculpture, but that given here, from the Vatican figure, is the
+best of all, and is very beautiful. We know very few facts concerning
+Leochares, and cannot even say whether he was an Athenian or not (Fig.
+47).
+
+There is still standing at Athens, in its original place, the Choragic
+monument of Lysicrates; and though we do not know the names of the
+architects and sculptors who made it, there are traces upon it which
+indicate that it belonged to the school of Scopas (Fig. 48).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A NIOBID.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GANYMEDE. _After Leochares._]
+
+This monument was erected B.C. 334, when Lysicrates was _choragus_--that
+is, when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays
+represented at Athens. This was an expensive office, and one that
+demanded much labor and care. He had first to find the choristers, and
+then bring them together to be instructed, and provide them with proper
+food while they studied. The choragus who gave the best musical
+entertainment received a tripod as his reward, and it was the custom to
+build a monument upon which to place the tripod, so that it should be a
+lasting honor to the choragus and his family. The street in which these
+monuments were erected was called "the street of the Tripods."
+
+It was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity,
+and this of Lysicrates was dedicated to Bacchus, and had a frieze with
+sculptures telling the story of that god and the Tyrrhenian robbers who
+bore him off to their ship. In order to revenge himself he changed the
+oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion; music was heard,
+and ivy grew all over the vessel; the robbers went mad and leaped into
+the sea, and changed into dolphins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. _Athens._]
+
+In the frieze, however, it is represented that the god is on shore
+quietly amusing himself with the lion (Fig. 49), while satyrs and sileni
+punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with
+fury, while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into
+the sea. The design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one
+of the best sculptors; but the execution is careless, and this is not
+strange when we remember that it was all done at the expense of one
+man, and he a private citizen.
+
+We will return now to the Peloponnesian school, of which Polycleitus was
+the head in its earliest period. After his time the sculptors of his
+school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled, and
+represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the
+artists of Athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and
+beauty. The subjects of the Peloponnesian school were especially suited
+to the use of bronze, and the chief sculptor of his time, LYSIPPUS,
+whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred, worked entirely
+in bronze. In order to keep a record of the number of his works, he
+adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every
+statue, and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above
+number of these coins thus laid away. His home was at Sicyon, and his
+time of work is given as B.C. 372-316. This seems a long period for
+active employment as a sculptor; but the number of his works accords
+well with this estimate of his working years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BACCHUS AND LION. _From the Lysicrates
+Monument._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE APOXYOMENOS OF LYSIPPUS.]
+
+Lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school; he was original,
+and this trait made him prominent, for he was not bound by old customs,
+but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age, which came
+to Greece with the reign of Alexander. This sculptor made a great number
+of statues of Hercules; and as Alexander loved to regard himself as a
+modern Hercules, Lysippus also represented the monarch in many different
+ways, and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of
+the hero-god. For example, he made a statue of "Alexander with his
+Spear," "Alexander at a Lion Hunt," "Alexander as the Sun-God," and so
+on through many changes of expression and attributes, but all being
+likenesses of the great king. There is in the Capitol at Rome a head of
+Alexander called _Helios_, which is thought by many critics to be the
+best bust of him in existence. There are metal rays fastened to the
+head; it has a wild, Bacchus-like air, and the hair is thrown back, as
+if he had shaken his head furiously; and the defect of a wry neck, which
+the monarch had, is cleverly concealed by this motion. Alexander was a
+very handsome man, his faults being this twist in his neck and a
+peculiar shape of the eye.
+
+We cannot here give the long list of works by Lysippus, but will speak
+of that which interests us most, because we have a beautiful copy of it.
+I mean the Apoxyomenos, which is in the Vatican. It represents a youth
+scraping himself (as the name denotes) with the strigil after a contest
+in the arena (Fig. 50). The Vatican copy was found in the Trastevere at
+Rome in 1849, and is well preserved. Without doubt it is a faithful
+reproduction of the original, which was probably brought from Greece to
+Rome by Agrippa, who set it up in front of his public baths. Here it
+became such a favorite with the people that when Tiberius removed it to
+his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre, and so violent a
+demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not
+refuse. This statue may be called an example of a grand _genre_ style.
+It represents a scene from common life in Greece, but it is so simply
+natural, so graceful and free from restraint, that one could not weary
+of it. The expression of the face is that of quiet content--his task has
+been faithfully done, and the remembrance of it is pleasant. The hair is
+finely executed; this was a point in which Lysippus excelled; but the
+great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure. In his occupation
+of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly
+change his position, and this one, in which he can rest but a moment,
+seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make,
+while it is full of easy grace in itself. The art of Lysippus was not as
+elevated as that of Phidias, who tried to represent the highest ideal
+which a mortal may form of a god; but there was nothing mean or vulgar
+in the works of the former; on the contrary, it was with a pure and
+noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of
+youthful, manly beauty, and his naturalism was of a healthy and
+dignified sort.
+
+The most important pupil of Lysippus was CHARES OF LINDOS, who was
+prominent not only on account of his own works, but also because he
+introduced the art of Sicyon into his native island of Rhodes. This
+island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its
+broadest part, and yet its art became second only to that of Athens.
+
+At the city of Rhodes alone there were three thousand statues, besides
+many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects. Chares is best
+known for the sun-god which he erected here; it was called the "Colossus
+of Rhodes," and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world.
+One hundred statues of the sun were erected at Rhodes, and Pliny says
+that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous; but that
+of Chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest.
+
+It stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, but we have no
+reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that
+ships sailed between them, as has often been said, although its size was
+almost beyond our imagination. The statue was one hundred and five feet
+high, and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms,
+while each finger was as large as most statues. Twelve years were
+occupied in its erection, from B.C. 292 to 280, and it cost three
+hundred talents, or about $300,000 of our money, according to its usual
+estimate, though there are those who name its cost as more than four
+times that amount. The men of Rhodes obtained this great sum by selling
+the engines of war which Demetrius Poliorcetes left behind him when he
+abandoned the siege of Rhodes in B.C. 303. We have no copy of this
+statue, but there are coins of Rhodes which bear a face that is believed
+with good reason to be that of the Colossus.
+
+Fifty-six years after its completion, in B.C. 224, the Colossus was
+overthrown by an earthquake, and an oracle forbade the restoration of it
+by the Rhodians. In A.D. 672, nearly a thousand years after its fall,
+its fragments were sold to a Jew of Emesa by the command of the Caliph
+Othman IV. It is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds,
+and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away. When we
+consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in
+bronze, and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy
+the standard of art at Rhodes, we are not surprised that it should have
+been reckoned among the seven wonders, and that Chares should have
+become a famous master.
+
+Chares also founded a school of art which became very important, and,
+indeed, it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the
+Peloponnesus; for after the time of Lysippus the sculpture of Argos and
+Sicyon came to an end, and we may add that with Lysippus and his school
+the growth of art in Greece ceased; it had reached the highest point to
+which it ever attained, and all its later works were of its decline, and
+foreshadowed its death.
+
+The reign of Alexander the Great was so brilliant that it is difficult
+to realize that it was a time of decline to the Greeks; and during the
+life of Alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness; but at
+the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among
+his generals that everything in Greece suffered, and with the rest Greek
+art was degraded. In the time of Pericles it was thought to be a crime
+in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the
+Parthenon, and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a
+privilege which belonged to the gods alone. Alexander, on the contrary,
+claimed to be a god, and was represented by painters and sculptors until
+his portraits and statues were almost numberless.
+
+Soon after the death of Alexander the humiliation of Athens and its old
+Periclean spirit was complete. If you read the history of Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, who was even allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred
+part of the Parthenon--the temple of Minerva--you will see that Athens
+was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the
+arts of peace, as they were no longer the brave men who could stand
+first in war. In their degraded state the Athenians suffered three
+hundred and sixty statues to be erected to Demetrius Phalereus, and
+these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering
+freebooter Poliorcetes. This last was hailed by the debased people as a
+god and a saviour. His name and that of his father, Antigonus, were
+woven into the sacred peplos.
+
+At length, under the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander, order was
+restored, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus divided the
+kingdom of Alexander into four Græco-Oriental monarchies. The dynasty of
+the Ptolemies in Egypt was the most reputable of these, and gave much
+encouragement to art and letters. But the sacred fire seems to have died
+out, or did not burn clearly when transplanted from Athens to
+Alexandria. The Alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what
+had gone before, and there is nothing to be said of them that is of
+importance enough for us to linger over it. Very few works remain from
+this Diadochean period. The Metope of Ilium, which Dr. Schliemann has in
+his garden in Athens, the Barberini Faun, in the Glyptothek at Munich,
+and the Nile of the Vatican are the most important remnants of
+Alexandrine sculpture.
+
+Amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of Alexander
+the island of Rhodes remained undisturbed, and when the division of the
+monarchies was made the Rhodians still retained their independence. They
+were neutral, and so had a commerce with all the monarchies, and thus
+gained great wealth; and theirs was the only independent State of the
+old Hellenic world which was able to found and maintain a school of
+art. Among the great works of the Rhodian artists none is more familiar
+to us than the group of the Laocoon.
+
+In the time of Pliny this work stood in the palace of Titus, and the
+historian called it "preferable to all other works of pictorial or
+plastic art." There is a difference of opinion as to the period when it
+was made, and many date it in the time of Titus, who lived A.D. 40 to
+81. But the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who
+believe that it was made at Rhodes in the time of the Diadochi.
+
+The group in the Vatican is probably a copy, because Pliny says that the
+original was made of one block, and that of the Vatican is composed of
+six pieces. Pliny also tells us that the Laocoon was the work of three
+sculptors, AGESANDER, POLYDORUS, and ATHENODORUS. The Vatican group was
+found in 1506 in the excavation of the Baths of Titus, in Rome, and was
+placed in its present position by Pope Julius II. (Fig. 51). The right
+arm of Laocoon was missing, and Michael Angelo attempted to restore it,
+but left it incomplete; Montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for
+its restoration, and the arm as it now is was made by Cornacini, and
+more straight than it should be.
+
+The story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of
+the Æneid, and says that Laocoon was a priest of Apollo at Troy, who,
+when the Greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to
+sail away, warned the Trojans against taking the horse inside the walls;
+he also struck his spear into the side of the monster. But Sinon, who
+had been left behind by the Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse
+would prove a blessing to them, and they drew it into the city, and
+ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the
+occasion. Laocoon had much offended Pallas Athene by his words and acts,
+and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to Neptune that goddess sent two
+huge serpents up out of the sea to destroy him and his two sons, who
+were with him by the altar. When the three victims were dead the fearful
+creatures went to the Acropolis and disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE LAOCOON GROUP.]
+
+In the Laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself,
+and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the
+account of Virgil; but we see that it must be the same story that is
+illustrated, and we know that it was told with some variation by other
+poets. This group is a wonderful piece of sculpture, but it is not of
+the highest art, and it is far from pleasant to look at. The same is
+true of another famous group which is in Naples, and which is also from
+the Rhodian school.
+
+I mean the Farnesian Bull, or the Toro Farnese. This group was made by
+APOLLONIUS and TAURISCUS, who are believed to have been brothers. It was
+probably made at Tralles, in Caria, which was their native place, and
+sent by them to Rhodes, the great art-centre; from Rhodes it was sent to
+Rome, where it was in the possession of Asinius Pollio. This splendid
+group, which is probably the original work, was found in the Baths of
+Caracalla, in 1546, and was first placed in the Farnese Palace, from
+which it was removed to the National Museum in Naples, in 1786 (Fig.
+52).
+
+This group tells a part of the story of Dirce, who had incurred the
+hatred and displeasure of Antiope, the mother of Amphion, who was King
+of Thebes and the husband of Niobe. In order to appease the wrath of his
+mother, Amphion, with the aid of his twin-brother Zethus, bound Dirce to
+the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces. All this takes place on
+Mount Cithæron, and it is said that after Dirce had suffered horrible
+agonies the god Dionysus changed her into a fountain, which always
+remains upon this mountain.
+
+In this piece of sculpture, dreadful as the idea is, there is less of
+horror than in the Laocoon, for the reason that the moment chosen is
+that just before the climax of the catastrophe, while in the Laocoon it
+is in its midst. The latter group is made to be seen from but one side,
+and was probably intended for a niche; but the Farnese Bull is perfect,
+and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of
+view. There are numerous accessories and much attention to detail, while
+the rocky base represents Mount Cithæron and the wildness of the scene
+in a manner not before known in sculpture. The group has been much
+restored, but its excellences support the theory of its being the
+original work of the Greek artists, and the skill with which the various
+figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great
+praise and admiration; it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture
+tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--THE FARNESE BULL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--GALLIC WARRIOR. _Venice._]
+
+After the art of Rhodes that of Pergamon was important. When Attalus I.,
+King of Pergamon, gained his victory over the Gauls, in B.C. 229, the
+Greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the
+great deeds of Attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious
+heroes of their nation who had preceded him. It is recorded that the
+conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at Athens, and that
+they stood on the southern wall of the Acropolis. The subjects were:
+"The Battle of the Gods and Giants," "The Battle of Athenians and
+Amazons," "The Battle of Marathon," and "The Destruction of the Gauls in
+Mysia by Attalus." Thus the different epochs of Greek history were
+represented, and Attalus placed himself near the other great warriors
+who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation. These groups
+consisted of many figures, and are estimated to have been from sixty to
+eighty in number. It is believed that at least ten of them are now in
+European collections--that is, three in Venice, four in Naples, one in
+Paris, one in the Vatican, and the last in the Castellani collection in
+Rome. This picture of one of those in Venice seems to represent a
+warrior who has been suddenly thrown down; his weapons and shield--which
+last was probably held in the left hand--have been dropped in the
+violence of the shock which has prostrated him (Fig. 53). His face and
+hair are of the barbarian type, and the power and elasticity of his
+powerful frame are manifest even in this moment of his defeat. He is
+yet unwounded, but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes,
+and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE DYING GAUL.]
+
+It is now believed that the statue of the Dying Gaul, often called the
+Dying Gladiator, was the work of a sculptor of Pergamon, and represents
+a Gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his
+conquerors. The moment had come when he could not escape, and he chose
+death rather than humiliation. We learn from history that when these
+barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and
+children and then themselves, to avoid being taken as prisoners, which
+really meant being made slaves. This warrior has thrown himself upon his
+shield; his battle-horn is broken, and the sword which has given him the
+freedom of death has fallen from his hand. His eye is already dim, his
+right arm can scarce sustain him, his brow is contracted with pain, and
+it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips. He has not the noble form of the
+Greeks; we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death
+scenes of some of the Periclean statue heroes; here it is only a rude,
+barbarous Gaul, suffering death as a brute might; it is very realistic,
+and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the
+skin, the hardened soles of the feet, the coarse hand, and we are sure
+the artist must have made a true representation of this wild, savage
+man, who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be
+enslaved (Fig. 54).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BOY AND GOOSE.]
+
+These illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of
+Pergamon, and I shall now leave the subject of Greek sculpture after
+some account of BOETHUS OF CHALCEDON. His date is very uncertain, though
+we have accounts of his works by ancient writers. Some scholars believe
+that he lived about B.C. 275. Many works in chased silver made by
+Boethus were in the temple of Athena in Lindus in the time of the
+historian Pliny; there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold
+and one of the youthful Asclepius; but the Boy Strangling a Goose, in
+the gallery of the Louvre, is his most interesting work for us (Fig.
+55). You will remember that even the ancient Egyptians made caricatures
+and playful, mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day. This boy
+and goose are of the same spirit, and is intended as a parody on the
+representations of Hercules struggling with the Nemean lion, which had
+been represented many times by Greek artists. The boy seems to be
+working as hard as any giant could do. The execution of this work is
+fine. It was probably made for a fountain, the water coming through the
+beak of the goose. There are several works of ancient sculpture which
+are of the same spirit, and for this reason are attributed to Boethus.
+The Spinario, or Thorn-extractor, in the museum of the Capitol, at Rome,
+is one of the most charming pieces of _genre_ statuary in existence
+(Fig. 56).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--SPINARIO.]
+
+It represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot. His attitude is
+natural and graceful, and the purity and simplicity of its style places
+it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture. The
+expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is
+doing, and is given with great skill and truthfulness. The treatment of
+the hair is like that of the archaic period, and there will always be
+some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the
+sculpture of what we call the Alexandrian age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE.
+
+
+Ancient Italian sculpture was essentially Greek in its spirit, and
+originated with the Etruscans, a very ancient people in Italy. There are
+traces of an Oriental influence in the art of Etruria--a suggestion of
+the sculpture of Egypt and Assyria, just as there is in Greek archaic
+art; but the real feeling and spirit of it is Greek, and must have been
+borrowed from Greece in some way.
+
+The different theories and opinions about the Etruscans and their origin
+do not concern us here; we have to do only with their sculpture as it is
+seen in the remnants of it now in existence. In the beginning the
+Etruscans made their statues of clay; marble was very rarely used. Later
+on they learned the art of working in bronze, and carried it to great
+perfection. Their bronze works were so numerous that in B.C. 295 Fulvius
+Flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from Volsinii
+alone. Some of their figures were colossal, but the greater number were
+statuettes.
+
+There are some Etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of Europe. The
+Etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists; but they
+copied such excellent things, and did it so well, that their productions
+are by no means to be despised, and the skill which they acquired caused
+their bronze and metal work to be highly valued, even in Athens itself.
+
+The Etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the Greeks,
+as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs
+of Corneto and other places. They gave much attention to luxury of
+living, and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table
+furniture which they made may be seen in the Vatican and British Museum,
+while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is
+still much admired and copied diligently.
+
+The Romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists. They
+seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other
+nations; but of Romans themselves there were very few sculptors; their
+artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the
+lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius. At first, as we have
+said, they relied upon the Etruscans, who built their earliest temples
+and adorned them with sculptures, and the first record which we have of
+Greek artists working in Rome gives us the names of Damophilus and
+Gorgasus, who decorated the temple of Ceres with paintings and
+sculptures. This temple was consecrated in B.C. 493; if its adornment
+was of the same date, the knowledge of Greek art was brought to Rome at
+a very early period--at least fifty-six years before the completion of
+the Parthenon.
+
+But the means by which the whole Roman people were made familiar with
+the beauties of Greek art are to be found in another direction. It was
+not the building of their own temples, or any work done by Greek artists
+in Rome, that gave the Romans their love and appreciation for art; it
+was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought
+home to adorn and beautify every portion of the Eternal City. In B.C.
+212 Marcellus carried to Rome the spoils he had taken at Syracuse; he
+exhibited them in his triumphal procession, and afterward consecrated
+them in the temple of Honor and Valor which he built. From this time it
+was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that Roman
+conquerors could seize, and the number of beautiful objects thus gained
+for Rome was marvellous.
+
+When Flaminius defeated Philip of Macedon it required two days to gather
+up the spoils. After Fulvius Nobilior conquered the Ætolians he brought
+Greek artists to Rome to arrange his festivities, and he exhibited five
+hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from
+the defeated people. When Perseus of Macedon was overcome by Æmilius
+Paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures
+and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession; among
+these treasures there was a statue of Athena by Phidias himself. This
+work of spoiling the Grecian cities which came into their power was
+diligently carried on by Mummius, Sulla, and others, until at length the
+Emperor Augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to Rome. But the
+works which best pleased the Romans were those of the later school of
+Athens. The ruling gods at Rome were Mars, Bacchus, and Venus, and the
+statues of these deities were much valued.
+
+So far, to the time of Augustus, the statues and other objects removed
+had been the spoils of war; but Caligula and Nero did not hesitate to go
+in times of peace and act the part of robbers. The first sent a consul
+in A.D. 31 with orders to bring the best works of art from Greece to
+Rome to adorn his villas; Nero went so far as to send his agents to
+bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples,
+together with the offerings made to them, for the decoration of his
+Golden House; it is said that from Delphi alone he received five hundred
+statues of bronze.
+
+At first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be
+constantly seen by the whole Roman people, and there is no doubt that
+their influence was very great and went far to refine their ideas and
+to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the Augustan age. Very
+soon the individual desire for works of art was felt, and wealthy men
+began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues; and at last
+these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of
+life.
+
+From all these causes there came about a revival of Greek art under the
+Romans, and in it many beautiful works were produced. Indeed, the
+greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the
+collections all over Europe belong to this period. It cannot be said
+that the artists of this date originated much, but they followed the
+greatest masters that ever lived; and if they repeated their subjects
+they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave
+their works a certain effect of being something new, and threw their own
+individuality about them.
+
+The list of names which can be given as belonging to Greek sculptors who
+worked at Rome is long, and would have little interest here. Instead of
+speaking of the artists I shall speak of the most famous works of the
+time which remain; most of these are so placed that they are seen by
+travellers, and have become familiar to all the world.
+
+The beautiful statue which is known as the Venus de' Medici is so called
+because after its discovery it rested for a time in the Medici Palace in
+Rome. It was found in the seventeenth century in the Portico of Octavia
+at Rome, and was broken into eleven fragments. The arms from the elbows
+down are restored; when it was found it had traces of gilding on the
+hair; the ears are pierced, as if gold rings had sometimes been placed
+in them. In 1680 Duke Cosmo III. removed it to Florence, where it is the
+chief glory of the famous Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. Many persons
+believe this to have been a copy of the renowned Cnidian Venus by
+Praxiteles, of which I have told you. This Venus de' Medici was the
+work of an Athenian artist named Cleomenes. He was the son of
+Apollodorus, a sculptor who lived in Rome in the first or second century
+of the Christian era. (Fig. 57.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
+
+The aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess, and his work lacks
+the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of Venus.
+Cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her
+beauty. Some critics believe that this Venus is intended to represent
+the moment when that goddess stood before Paris for judgment. If this
+story is not well known I will tell how when Peleus and Thetis were
+married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess
+Discordia, and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into
+the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words, "To
+the fairest." Juno, Minerva, and Venus all claimed it, and Jupiter sent
+Mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to Paris, that he
+might decide to which it belonged. His decision gave the apple to Venus;
+and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long
+list of serious troubles arose until Paris was driven out of Greece,
+and, going to the house of Menelaus, he saw and loved Helen, carried her
+off to Troy, and thus brought on the Trojan war of which the world has
+heard so much ever since. If I were writing a Sunday-school book I could
+draw many lessons from this story; but as I am only writing about art, I
+will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old
+statues and to find out exactly what they mean; some such students say
+that the moment when Paris pronounced Venus to be the most lovely of the
+goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the Venus de'
+Medici.
+
+As Venus was the goddess of Love and Beauty, it was natural that statues
+of her should be multiplied. The Chigi Venus in the Vatican has much the
+same pose as the Venus de' Medici, but she holds the end of a fringed
+garment in her hand. The Venus of the Capitol, in Rome, is larger than
+these; the Venus Callipiga, which was found in the Golden House of Nero,
+and is now in the Museum of Naples, is also worthy of being mentioned in
+company with these other exquisite sculptures.
+
+However, there is yet another Venus more admirable and more praised than
+these. She is called the Venus of Milo, or Melos, and is in the gallery
+of the Louvre, at Paris. This statue is probably of a later date than
+those of which we have spoken, and is thought to be the work of
+Alexandros, the son of Menides of Antiocheia, or one of those sculptors
+who are called Asiatic Greeks. It is said that the base of this statue
+with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed, for the purpose of
+leading the King of France to believe it to be more ancient than it
+really is (Fig. 58, _frontispiece_).
+
+This magnificent statue was discovered in 1820 by a peasant of the town
+of Melos, or Milo, on the island of the same name. It was in a niche of
+a wall which had long been buried. The Marquis of Rivière, who was the
+French Ambassador at Constantinople, purchased it and presented it to
+King Louis XVIII., who placed it in the Louvre. It is made from two
+blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs. As
+the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which
+projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern
+artists.
+
+This is the only Venus which has come down to us from the past which
+represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman. The form has beauty
+of the highest type, but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above
+mere beauty. The pure, majestic expression of the head and face speak
+the calm dignity of a superior being. I shall quote from Perry, who
+says: "The Venus de Milo is justly admired, not only for the grandeur of
+its design, the perfection of its proportion, and the exquisite moulding
+of the superb and luxuriant form, but for the vivid freshness of the
+flesh and the velvet softness of the skin, in which it stands unrivalled
+in ancient and modern art. The extraordinary skill with which minute
+details, such as the folds of the skin in the neck, are harmonized with
+the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise.
+The life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced
+by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the
+beautiful warm, yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given
+to the marble."
+
+In the Museum at Naples is the Farnesian Hercules, which was found in
+the Baths of Caracalla, in Rome, in 1540. It was first placed in the
+Farnese Palace, and from that circumstance received the name by which it
+is known. It is the work of Glycon, an Athenian, and his name is
+inscribed upon it. There is little doubt that this is a copy of a more
+ancient statue by the great Lysippus; that master created
+representations of Hercules in all ages and forms. Glycon probably
+worked in the time of Hadrian; and though he copied the design and form
+of Lysippus, he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of
+the whole. For example, the head is small in proportion to the breadth
+of the breast and shoulders; and because Hercules was a swift runner the
+sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural. It is in such
+particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced, even in
+works that command admiration (Fig. 59).
+
+The moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately
+followed his securing the apples of the Hesperides, the wedding present
+of Ge to Juno. Of all the labors of Hercules, perhaps this was the most
+arduous. Juno had left these apples with the Hesperides for safekeeping.
+These goddesses lived on Mount Atlas, and the serpent Ladon helped them
+to guard their precious trust. Hercules did not know just where the
+apples were kept, and this made his task all the more difficult. When,
+therefore, he arrived at Mount Atlas he offered to hold up the world for
+Atlas if he would go and fetch the apples. This Atlas did, but refused
+to take the weight from Hercules again. However, Hercules took the
+apples and hastened to his master, Eurystheus, with them. While
+performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with Ladon, and some
+accounts say that he killed the monster.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FARNESIAN HERCULES.]
+
+Now, the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand,
+the world held on his back, while he leans heavily on his club covered
+with a lion's skin. All the muscles of his body are swollen from his
+struggle; his head droops, his whole expression of face and form is that
+of sadness and weariness. The youthfulness and strength with which the
+older sculptors invested him is not here. It is a splendid work, but it
+is not of the best; it belongs to an age when there was too much
+straining after effect, when the moderation of the best Greek masters
+did not satisfy the spirit of the time; and no sculptor lived whose
+power equalled that of Phidias or Lysippus.
+
+There are some reliefs and vases of this Roman period that are very
+interesting. I shall speak of but one relief--the Sacrifice of
+Iphigenia, which is in Florence. It is called the work of Cleomenes, and
+his name is inscribed upon it; but there is some doubt as to the
+genuineness of the inscription. This relief is very beautiful. It
+represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a
+preparation for her sacrifice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--THE APOLLO BELVEDERE.]
+
+The story runs that Iphigenia was the daughter of Agamemnon, who killed
+a hart sacred to Diana. To revenge this act the goddess becalmed the
+Greek fleet on its way to Aulis. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon to
+sacrifice his daughter to appease Diana; this he consented to do, but
+Diana put a hart in the place of the maiden, whom she bore to Tauris and
+made a priestess. In this relief the maiden has an air of resigned
+grief; her father stands by himself with his head covered. The sculptor
+of this relief was not the first who had represented Agamemnon thus, for
+a painter, Timanthes, had made a picture of this subject about B.C. 400,
+and in describing it Quintilian said that "when he had painted Calchas
+sad, Ulysses sadder, and had represented in the face of Menelaus the
+most poignant grief that art can express, having exhausted the deepest
+feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of
+_the father_, he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart
+to estimate his sufferings."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
+
+I come now to the Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of all
+the statues in the Vatican, and the best known and most universally
+admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us. It was found at
+about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of Antium,
+where it probably made one of the ornaments of the Imperial Palace. The
+authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the
+marble from which it is cut is a marble of Greece or of Italy (Fig. 60).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--THE STEINHÄUSER HEAD.]
+
+This statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world, and
+nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise; and yet all
+who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible. A few years ago
+another head of Apollo, of Greek marble, was found in a magazine in
+Rome, by Herr Steinhäuser, by whose name it is known; it is now in the
+museum at Basle (Figs. 61, 62).
+
+Though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet
+been satisfactorily explained, and there are several important questions
+about it which cannot be answered with certainty. Nothing is known of
+its age or of the name of its sculptor. It is not described by any
+ancient writer, neither can any one say whether it is an original or a
+copy; and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful
+young god is doing--what is the meaning of it?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE STROGANOFF APOLLO.]
+
+The answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here I
+shall only mention the theory which I love, and which is accepted by
+many. When the statue was found the left hand was missing, and a bow was
+believed to have been the article which it held; and it was said that
+Apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight, and was watching
+for its effect. This theory was the principal one until 1860, when a
+scholar, Stephani, called attention to the fact that in St. Petersburg
+there is a bronze statuette, less than two feet high, which is almost
+exactly the same as the Apollo Belvedere--too nearly the same to be an
+accidental likeness. Now, as this is an antique bronze, it seems to
+prove that both it and the marble of the Vatican are copies of an
+ancient work. The statuette is called the Stroganoff Apollo, because it
+belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name. It is believed to
+be one of a number of bronzes which were found near Janina in 1792, and
+given by the son of Ali Pasha to his physician, Dr. Frank (Fig. 63).
+
+The chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand
+was perfect, and did not hold a bow, but some soft, elastic substance
+which Stephani believes to be the ægis, or shield, of Jupiter, on which
+was the head of Medusa. The sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw
+it; and though it belonged to Jupiter and Minerva, Jupiter sometimes
+lent it to his son Apollo to aid him in his warfare; such instances are
+recorded by Homer. After Stephani had told his idea of it, the German
+scholar Ludwig Preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of
+it by suggesting that Apollo was extending this dreadful _ægis_ before
+the sight of the Gauls at Delphi, in B.C. 279. History relates that when
+the Gauls approached Delphi the people asked the oracle if they should
+carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple. The oracle replied,
+"I myself and the White Maidens (meaning Athena and Artemis) will take
+care of that." Then four thousand Greeks stood by ready to defend the
+sacred place; but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down
+through the roof of the temple, and the White Maidens left their own
+altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe. A great tempest
+arose, and rocks fell from Parnassus on the heads of the Gauls, and it
+seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain
+the Greeks against their enemies. It is also written that the spectres
+of Greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the
+battle dealing death upon the Gauls. But above all the fury of the
+tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of
+Athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of Artemis were
+heard, while the flash of the awful shield of Apollo was seen to be even
+more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves.
+
+It is recorded that after this victory two statues of Apollo and one
+each of Athena and Artemis were offered in the temple of Apollo as
+thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the Gauls. It
+is delightful to regard the Apollo Belvedere as a copy of one of these,
+and this view of it is most satisfying. Lübke, in speaking of this
+theory, says: "Not till now have we understood the Apollo Belvedere. In
+unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure, the left
+shoulder only being covered by the chlamys, which falls down over the
+arm, which, far outstretched, holds the ægis with its Medusa head. The
+right arm is slightly turned aside, but both hands have been unskilfully
+restored. The attitude of the god is full of pathos, and is conceived at
+a dramatic moment. Ardently excited and filled with divine anger, with
+which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn, the intellectual head is
+turned sideward, while the figure, with elastic step, is hastening
+forward. The eye seems to shoot forth lightning; there is an expression
+of contempt in the corners of the mouth, and the distended nostrils seem
+to breathe forth divine anger. It is a bold attitude thus transfixed in
+marble, full of life-like and excited action."
+
+In the Iliad Homer describes the scene when Jupiter gave the ægis to
+Apollo, that he might put the Achæans to flight with it. In connection
+with the Apollo Belvedere it is well to recall that description which is
+thus translated by Lord Derby
+
+   "While Phoebus motionless his ægis held,
+   Thick flew the shafts, and fast the people fell
+   On either side; but when he turned its flash
+   Full in the faces of the astonished Greeks,
+   And shouted loud, their spirits within them quailed,
+   Their fiery courage borne in mind no more."
+
+It is very interesting to know that many who believe that the Apollo
+Belvedere represents that god when terrifying the Gauls, believe also
+that the statues of the "White Maidens" rushing forth from their temples
+to aid him are in existence, the Artemis being the statue at the Louvre
+known as "_Diane à la Biche_" and the Minerva being the Athena with
+spear and shield in the museum of the Capitol at Rome.
+
+This statue of Artemis, or Diana, has been in France since the time of
+Henry IV. Formerly it was at Versailles, but is now one of the treasures
+of the Louvre. The left hand with the bow is restored. The effect of the
+figure is that of lightness combined with strength. She is going forward
+rapidly, with her eyes fixed on some distant object, and draws an arrow
+from her quiver even as she flies. This figure corresponds to the Apollo
+Belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose; it is of
+the same proportions, and in such details of treatment as the rich
+sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the
+Apollo--indeed, there is no reason why it might not have formed a part
+of a group in which the Apollo stood. (Fig. 64.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--DIANE À LA BICHE.]
+
+If we think of this Diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the
+chase the statue is very beautiful, and a remarkable example of such a
+subject; but when she is regarded as one of the "White Maidens" rushing
+forth to aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous
+enemy she is invested with a deeper interest; she becomes an important
+actor in a terrible drama, and those of us who could have no sympathy
+with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she
+will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the
+sacred hill of Pytho, and thus preserve its temple and its treasures.
+
+The statue of Athena, advancing with spear and shield, is supposed to be
+a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the
+Gauls. The position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were
+represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the Apollo
+Belvedere, the central figure of the whole. The whole bearing of this
+statue carries out the impression which Homer gives of the delight with
+which Athena led the Greeks to battle; she is full of eagerness, and
+rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of
+one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause (Fig. 65).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ATHENA OF THE CAPITOL.]
+
+
+Whether this "Gallic theory," as it is called, concerning the Apollo,
+Diana, and Athena be correct or no, it is the most satisfactory in
+sentiment of any that has been advanced, and certainly, when we consider
+the three statues in this connection, there is nothing inharmonious in
+the supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may
+have had many other figures of lesser importance in it.
+
+There are many other statues of the Roman period in various museums, but
+I shall leave this part of our subject here, and speak briefly of the
+historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the
+Eternal City. In an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man,
+and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest
+honors, it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place
+some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the
+eyes of the people, and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant
+deeds and their great successes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION FROM ARCH OF TITUS.]
+
+We read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were
+displayed in public places in Rome at a very early date. We cannot find
+records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors,
+but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly.
+The principal historical reliefs in Rome were upon the arches of
+Claudius, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus, and on
+the architrave of the temple of Minerva in the Forum.
+
+Of the arch of Claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture,
+now in the Villa Borghese. The arch of Titus was erected to celebrate
+the taking of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. It was restored in 1822. The frieze
+represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice. The picture
+we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace, who bear
+articles of booty taken from the conquered city. They have the
+candelabra with seven branches, the table of the shew-bread, the silver
+trumpets, etc. This will give you a good idea of these reliefs. (Fig.
+66.)
+
+The arch of Trajan no longer stands, and its reliefs are now on the arch
+of Constantine; but Trajan's Pillar is one of the best preserved of all
+the antique monuments of Rome, and with some account of this column and
+a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of Rome. The
+Senate and people of Rome decreed that this column should be erected to
+the memory of Trajan, and it was in the centre of the Forum which bore
+the same name--the Forum Trajani. The column is about one hundred and
+six feet high, and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of
+Trajan, which was replaced by one of St. Peter by Pope Sixtus V. A band
+of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form; this band is six
+hundred feet long, and the sculptures represent Trajan's campaign
+against the Dacians. Many of the figures lose their effect on account of
+the height at which they are placed. There are more than a hundred
+scenes upon it, in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures,
+besides many horses and other objects. The whole is executed with the
+greatest care.
+
+The real object of the whole work was to glorify the Emperor Trajan, and
+he is represented in many of the scenes; sometimes he is conducting
+engagements, storming a fort, or encouraging his troops; again he is
+holding an audience, protecting the women of a conquered city, or
+sitting in judgment on captives. Fig. 67 represents the Dacians
+assaulting a Roman fort. It is winter, and while some have crossed the
+ice in safety, others have broken through. Everything about it is
+represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner, and this
+shows distinctly the principal difference between the Greek and the
+Roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former. It is pure,
+realistic, historical sculpture, and this pillar shows this at its very
+best estate; it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art. In all these
+many scenes there are but two mythological figures: one is Selene, used
+to represent Night, and the other is _Jupiter tonans,_ who indicates
+Storm. But the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the
+Greek teaching did for the Romans; for it was to the Greeks that the
+latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render
+it properly in sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FROM THE RELIEFS OF TRAJAN'S COLUMN.]
+
+The last sort of ancient sculpture of which I shall speak is portrait
+sculpture, and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture, for it
+is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of
+many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of
+the world through all the centuries, because they were concerned in the
+events which make up what we call the history of the world. We have said
+that in Greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures;
+gradually they were introduced until, in the time of Alexander, portrait
+statues were almost numberless, and these and busts were used for the
+decoration of libraries and public buildings, as well as for the
+adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air.
+
+The finest life-size statue which remains from the Greeks is that of
+Sophocles, of which we give a picture (Fig. 68). It was not found until
+about 1839, and was presented to Pope Gregory XVI. by Cardinal
+Antonelli; it is in the museum of the Lateran. This engraving from it
+shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in
+detail. This statue is valuable not only as a portrait of Sophocles, but
+as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of
+Athenian civilization and culture; of an elegant, aristocratic man who
+was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his
+physical parts, as well as in science, philosophy, and music--in various
+deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and
+scholarly, and at the same time elegant and graceful. "The attitude,
+though simple, is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the
+figure; and the position of the arms--the one gracefully enveloped in
+the himation, and the other firmly planted on the hip--gives to the
+whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity. The face is handsome and
+full of winning grace, and bears the stamp not only of the creative
+genius of the poet, but of the experience of the active citizen; of one
+who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot, and
+preserved amid them the constitutional calmness, the gentle benevolence,
+the tranquil, meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by
+the people among whom he lived and sang."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--PORTRAIT STATUE OF SOPHOCLES.]
+
+Among the Romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance. This
+people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead,
+and from the earliest times had used different means of making them. In
+the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks
+of the faces of the dead in wax, and these masks were worn in the
+funeral procession by one of the mourners, who also wore the dress and
+insignia of the departed. The first aim in these masks was to have an
+exact resemblance to the dead; and this idea was carried on through all
+the eras of Roman art, and is a strong distinguishing feature between
+Greek and Roman sculpture; for while the Greeks wished to reproduce the
+face of one of whom they made a bust or statue, they did not hesitate to
+idealize that face; but the Romans labored to make an exact likeness of
+the man, leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be.
+This manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model, for
+the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation
+often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty; therefore the
+aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be
+imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--STATUE OF AUGUSTUS.]
+
+I can speak of but a few of the almost numberless Roman portrait
+sculptures.
+
+This statue of Augustus was found in 1863 in a villa built by his wife,
+Livia, about nine miles from Rome, at Porta Prima. It is a noble work,
+and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning
+that can be explained. At the same time the whole work is full of
+strength and dignity, which comes from the character of the man himself,
+and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power,
+with which the dress is loaded (Fig. 69). This statue is in the Vatican,
+and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the "Young
+Augustus" and with the statue of the emperor when aged, in which he is
+veiled as a priest. The study of these three sculptures, thus
+fortunately near each other, is most interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--AGRIPPINA THE ELDER.]
+
+The Roman women who held important positions were frequently honored
+with statues. Among those that remain none is more interesting than this
+of the elder Agrippina. She was a woman of great strength and equally
+great purity of character, and as we study this statue we can easily
+understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion
+demanded this service, and when that necessity was past could nurse the
+sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature. It is
+in every way a noble work of art, combining grace, dignity, and the
+aristocratic refinement of a high-born lady. The drapery of this and
+other similar statues is very beautiful, and fully satisfies all
+artistic demands. We have full proof that such garments were in actual
+use by the women of Greece and Rome (Fig. 70).
+
+It was not unusual for the great men and women of Rome to be represented
+in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses. Livia
+appears as Ceres, Julia as Flora, and so on; and during the best days of
+Roman art these statues were very beautiful. But at last they, like all
+other sculptures, grew less and less worthy, until they became
+positively absurd, and lacked any power to command our admiration.
+
+What is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all Roman art. Its
+decline kept step with the decline of the nation, and both fell at
+length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption. From this we
+are glad to turn to the study of Christian art, which, even in its
+primary struggles, when groping its way through ignorance and
+helplessness, was still a living thing, and held the promise of a new
+life--a _renaissance_ of that which had gradually died in Greece and
+Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MEDIÆVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be
+said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the
+Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and
+is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon
+it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries
+earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of
+Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence
+of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by
+side.
+
+After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced
+to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of
+their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with
+the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with
+horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed
+that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the
+commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
+image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in
+the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened
+that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they
+employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than
+sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early
+Christian art.
+
+The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St.
+Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there
+are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were
+found in the catacombs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--STATUE OF ST. PETER.]
+
+The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is
+held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they
+enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads
+against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some
+antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as
+to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from
+the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was
+made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century
+as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian
+Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This
+statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable
+excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).
+
+The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the
+decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in
+bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken
+from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such
+as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As
+time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the
+Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were
+crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the
+meaning of the whole more clear.
+
+The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the
+museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the
+finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who
+were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour
+before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses
+the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the
+shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of
+the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing
+of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses
+causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of
+Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the
+Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will
+show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the
+subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or
+apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of
+Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.
+
+In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by
+the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city
+with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the
+Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to
+decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a
+column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also
+erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and
+about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of
+himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of
+brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have
+of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called
+the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St.
+Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in
+pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the
+Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this
+purpose.
+
+But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of
+statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which
+long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into
+special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to
+making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these
+carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the
+episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and
+552 (Fig. 72).
+
+This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from
+the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these
+are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of
+framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds
+among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic
+manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater
+number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups
+and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of
+which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.
+
+Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for
+writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the
+ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul
+Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon
+it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where--the
+circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be
+slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from
+the life of Christ and other religious themes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROM THE CATHEDRA OF MAXIMIANUS.]
+
+About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for
+church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels
+used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for
+church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given
+to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to
+the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from
+Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it
+went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been
+practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--DIPTYCH. _Zurich._]
+
+During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the
+different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of
+this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which
+were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming
+antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth
+are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief,
+ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and
+even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also
+made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and
+smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the
+church--incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or
+caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches
+and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved,
+and are of great interest in the study of art.
+
+Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even
+grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the
+subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner.
+Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons,
+cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces
+represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case
+the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can
+understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that
+gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In
+truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in
+many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the
+industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to
+understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had
+attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of
+the world so completely, for in these mediæval days it existed nowhere
+on the face of the earth.
+
+About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold
+an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now
+received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze
+figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the
+decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the
+medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again
+brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the
+principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in
+various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind
+are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or
+wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.
+
+The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its
+uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every
+department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of
+zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the
+Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the
+nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had
+before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more
+individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had
+done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world
+seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with
+strength and activity.
+
+With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and
+sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be
+separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with
+the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention,
+and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with
+statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon
+extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the
+altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved
+stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly
+ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess
+the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and
+the period known as the _Romanesque_ was thus ushered in.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FROM THE FAÇADE OF CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.]
+
+We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the
+faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic
+sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which
+had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which
+followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in
+sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful,
+yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a
+hopeful and important change.
+
+Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic
+progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral
+of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals
+of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque.
+In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the
+head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the
+classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had
+degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)
+
+Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid
+examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took
+the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange
+that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first
+works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had
+come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or
+in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both
+the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great
+revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.
+
+However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any
+other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to
+have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than
+did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer;
+but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength
+by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from
+northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different
+spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering
+summits of the Alps.
+
+About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the
+northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language
+had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own
+tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the
+Provençal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it
+was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national
+feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it
+resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of
+Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle
+which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets
+and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram
+and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing
+centuries.
+
+At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in
+North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had
+the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the
+importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both
+architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so
+arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its
+turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.
+
+Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference
+to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were
+fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited
+to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as
+one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one
+side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the
+costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment
+fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the
+figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the
+classic robes of the Greeks.
+
+The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by
+the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and
+painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately
+tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the
+defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color
+was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown
+upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this
+polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.
+
+The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than
+formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central
+and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the
+saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to
+whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New
+symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and
+months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits
+of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous
+representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts
+were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with
+grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of
+this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For
+example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of
+sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers
+and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a
+charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.
+
+The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the
+first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development.
+Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff,
+perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions,
+had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief
+from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.
+
+The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of
+thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church
+building of its time, and its façade the most beautiful structure of the
+Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great
+portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various
+other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a
+forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the
+architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast
+amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the
+statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and
+awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant
+figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural
+folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite
+unknown before this time.
+
+In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ
+which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every
+portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember
+that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic
+times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in
+the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the
+fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.
+
+It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the
+statues of mediæval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if
+the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures
+were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last
+Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among
+the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the
+Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section
+of it is here given (Fig. 75).
+
+There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and
+the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions
+are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good
+proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and
+supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the
+Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of
+mediæval art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FROM THE NORTH TRANSEPT OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of
+the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two
+periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from
+the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work
+with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the
+union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of
+sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure.
+Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great
+variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian
+cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in
+the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to
+show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the
+supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.
+
+But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental
+sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues
+still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were
+many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the
+statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Coeur de Lion, who died in
+1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to
+the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue;
+the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the
+emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something
+about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been
+sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.
+
+But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis
+were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were
+sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French
+sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the
+Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the
+heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of
+Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who
+died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and
+they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all
+France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.
+
+In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which
+went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new
+Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France.
+Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about
+the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end
+of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in
+the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon
+France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In
+Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was
+one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that
+could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French
+manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are
+still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed
+architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig.
+76.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--FROM THE WEST FAÇADE, STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
+
+There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin,
+at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the
+architect of the west façade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and
+the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in
+antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.
+
+In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270,
+there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in
+spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues
+of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this
+cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of
+the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the
+progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.
+
+Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was
+the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic
+art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient
+in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--DUKE ROBERT OF NORMANDY.]
+
+The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century,
+when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new
+choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was
+erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry
+III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king
+summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and
+portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that
+day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries,
+it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble
+those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had
+done. The illustration given here, with its air of life--almost of
+motion--is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).
+
+The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the
+interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but
+in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of
+sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward
+the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.
+
+With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in
+the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer
+held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the
+imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects
+in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a
+development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an
+improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features
+which were attractive.
+
+In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper
+meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the
+citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to
+art along with others.
+
+This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they
+attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their
+works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated
+that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which
+the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had
+already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of
+Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism,
+more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of
+himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout
+feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that
+art was elevated in its tone.
+
+There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted
+details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from
+suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects.
+For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits
+or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and
+burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these
+powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with
+such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of
+eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century,
+that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the
+thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.
+
+In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at
+Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the
+Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the
+art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works
+of the Nuremberg sculptors.
+
+At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den
+Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the
+city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the
+dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the
+most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.
+
+We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time;
+Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Würzburg, Cologne, and many other
+German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its
+character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a
+tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.
+
+In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used
+for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and
+freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very
+attractive (Fig. 78).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--IVORY RELIEF. HUNTING SCENE.]
+
+In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of
+art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done
+in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older
+ones remodelled--is one reason for this change. In this direction there
+was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed
+by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However,
+there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already
+begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was
+accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet
+completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank
+and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased
+in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.
+
+During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in
+France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes
+of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.
+
+Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was CLAUX SLUTER, who was the
+favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that
+duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of
+the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other
+works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had
+a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have
+established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.
+
+In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century.
+Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine.
+Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the
+principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to
+the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been
+confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the
+monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to
+mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced;
+but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the
+monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The
+costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque
+air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline
+which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It
+compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and
+the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a
+monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.
+
+As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of
+the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was
+that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than
+in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle
+Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art
+as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget
+themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his
+works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and
+not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the
+northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in
+them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.
+
+In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches.
+Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the
+Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not
+give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings
+which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view,
+and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and
+sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of
+the merits of each art.
+
+So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the
+church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and
+tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered
+with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly
+sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for
+Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored;
+sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and
+sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.
+
+However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other
+lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were
+employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of
+the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important;
+but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of
+the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and
+other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the
+many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The
+council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great
+opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the
+sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones
+with great clearness.
+
+As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the
+progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of
+separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our
+attention is NICOLA PISANO, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207,
+and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and
+sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment
+as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served
+this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed
+as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.
+
+In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief
+representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its
+place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at
+Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist,
+and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian
+sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--RELIEF BY NICOLA PISANO. _Lucca._]
+
+During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly
+employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established
+his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the
+Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have
+given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca;
+and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied
+the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful
+advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of
+his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism
+when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its
+sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)
+
+Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains
+of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was
+completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art
+of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit
+for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to
+live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits
+to Pisa--four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was
+completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great
+influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had
+amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano
+had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the
+south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--RELIEF FROM THE PULPIT AT PISA. _Nicola
+Pisano._]
+
+In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La
+Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last
+work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that
+city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of
+the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the
+figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that
+laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most
+valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that
+it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has
+suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.
+
+In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an
+untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his
+associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty.
+Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were
+the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow
+to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles;
+founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the
+degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study;
+so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all
+profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an
+ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in
+selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an
+indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience
+to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now
+in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to
+design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace
+or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in
+both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his
+edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his
+bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models
+long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all
+classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man--one to
+whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in
+gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the
+same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."
+
+FRA GUGLIELMO D'AGNELLO (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of
+Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be
+said of his works after his master's death.
+
+GIOVANNI PISANO (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil
+of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under
+some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred
+the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic
+action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an
+architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when
+twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for
+the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace
+there.
+
+After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni
+in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in
+the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina,
+because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown
+of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of
+architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many
+shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to
+make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred
+earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with
+walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it
+could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most
+beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own
+hand. (Fig. 81.)
+
+This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making
+large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The
+city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her
+arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four
+statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a
+very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the
+originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of
+expression.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. _Giovanni Pisano._]
+
+From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Giovanni became famous,
+and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people
+of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by
+freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to
+Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After
+this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a
+variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In
+1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato.
+
+We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo
+has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its
+character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more
+than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an
+independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the
+feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in
+the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and
+dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any
+man who had not an uncommon genius.
+
+ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and
+though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an
+independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are
+some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are
+uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to
+discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico,
+a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and
+the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal,
+is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only
+well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the
+most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite
+sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor.
+
+ANDREA PISANO (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and
+his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of
+Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When
+these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to
+view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the
+Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most
+important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor
+of citizenship upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John
+the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity,
+while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the
+execution of the whole almost perfect.
+
+NINO PISANO was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not
+known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially
+excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches
+of Pisa.
+
+But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the
+most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was
+ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE, commonly called ANDREA ORCAGNA (1329-1376?).
+This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence.
+Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and
+poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he
+executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we
+shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the
+tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold
+the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle
+is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up
+toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief,
+statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her
+birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios,
+enamels, gilded glass, _pietra dura_, and all of these arranged in a
+whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of
+architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and
+whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who
+conceived and executed so difficult a task.
+
+During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many
+sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names.
+They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of
+which is still to be seen. One of these, of whom few personal facts are
+known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his
+industry were almost marvellous. He was called PIETRO DI GIOVANNI and
+PIETRO TEDESCO, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not
+known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence
+from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work
+and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of
+leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He
+also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of
+different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions,
+bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies,
+and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches,
+while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works
+is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music
+hall or a theatre as they are for a church.
+
+The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be
+taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but
+NICCOLÒ OF ARREZZO, the MASSEGNE, and the BON or BUONI family, and many
+others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the
+stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic
+and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of
+the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting
+its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days
+of sculpture in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+There was no one great influence or circumstance which led up to the
+revival of art and letters which took place in the fifteenth century,
+and which is known under the general name of the Renaissance. Its causes
+were many, and may be traced in every department of the life of the
+Middle Ages--in religion, politics, learning, and the habits of the
+people. This is far too great a topic for us to enter on here, and we
+must keep to the one matter which we have in hand.
+
+In Italy, heretofore, as we have shown, sculpture had been almost
+entirely separated from other arts, and stood by itself. Its works had
+been the smaller objects of which we have spoken; and though these were
+oftentimes splendid in their design and execution, they did not afford
+the sculptor the same broad field for his work as he has when his
+productions are combined with architecture. Now all this was changed.
+The French and German artists had brought out a style of architecture of
+their own, the Italians pursued another course, and went back to classic
+art for their teaching, and now every opportunity was given for
+sculpture to assume its utmost importance; and the art of ancient Greece
+was studied with all the enthusiasm of the Italian nature.
+
+The masters of Florence, or, rather, of Tuscany, were of great
+importance in the beginning of the new movement, and I shall speak
+first of them. FRANCESCO SQUARCIONE, who lived from 1396 to 1474, was a
+painter, and travelled into Greece to collect antique objects, and made
+many drawings from the monuments which he saw. He established a school
+in Padua, and his museum was of advantage to sculptors as well as to
+painters. Other Tuscan artists who were in love with classic art
+wandered among its remains in Rome and other parts of Italy, and brought
+back to their homes a greater knowledge of sculpture, as well as the
+drawings which they had made; and in this part of Italy the Renaissance
+early made itself a living, active power.
+
+Among the very first of these sculptors was JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA
+(1374-1438), who was so called from the little market town of Quercia,
+near Siena, in which he was born. His father was a goldsmith, and
+instructed his son in his art; but the boy loved sculpture, and studied
+it under one Luca di Giovanni. When but nineteen years old he made an
+equestrian statue of wood, and covered it with cloth, and painted it to
+represent marble in a manner which proved him to be an artist. About
+this time he left his home, and the next that we know of him was about
+ten years later, when his design for the gates of the Baptistery of
+Florence was pronounced to be next in merit to those of Ghiberti and
+Brunelleschi.
+
+In 1408 Quercia went to Ferrara, where he did several works. While there
+he was called by the Signory of Siena to make a new fountain in the
+Piazza del Campo. This was a beautiful work, and even in this century,
+though much injured, its remaining sculptures prove that it must have
+been a wonder in its day. It has been restored after the original model
+by Quercia, who was often called Jacopo della Fonte on account of this
+work. He executed some sculptures in Lucca, but his masterpiece was the
+decoration of the great portal of the Basilica of San Petronio, at
+Bologna. (Fig. 82.)
+
+The fifteen reliefs here represent the history of Adam and Eve, and
+other stories from the creation to the deluge. They show the full
+freedom and power of Quercia's style, and are among the most attractive
+of all the Tuscan sculptures of this period. Duringd the last years of
+his life this artist was employed as superintendent of the works upon
+the Cathedral of Siena, in which city he died.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--RELIEF BY JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA. _Bologna._]
+
+We come now to speak of the famous LORENZO GHIBERTI (1378-1455), who was
+born in Florence, and was both a goldsmith and sculptor; and though his
+fame rests upon his bas-reliefs, yet the exquisite detail and careful
+finish in them came from his practice of the goldsmith's art. In 1398 a
+plague broke out in Florence, and Ghiberti fled to Rimini for safety.
+While there he painted a few pictures; but his name is so linked with
+the splendid gates which he made for the Baptistery of Florence that it
+is of those that one naturally thinks when his name is heard.
+
+We have spoken of the gates which Andrea Pisano had made to this
+Baptistery long before; these were for the south side; and when, in
+1400, the plague again visited Florence the people believed that the
+wrath of Heaven should be appeased by a thank-offering. Accordingly the
+Guild of Wool-merchants promised to add gates on the north and east of
+the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist.
+
+A time was appointed for the examination of designs, and many artists
+entered into the competition, and sent in their drawings and models. A
+great number of these represented the Sacrifice of Isaac. At length all
+the models were set aside but two, and these were made by Brunelleschi
+and Ghiberti; then the former declared that he thought his rival's
+design the best, thus showing a nobility of character which cannot be
+too much praised.
+
+The commission was thus given to Ghiberti, who first executed the
+northern gates. He began them in 1403, and finished them twenty-one
+years later. They illustrate the life of Christ in twenty scenes; they
+have also the figures of the evangelists and the four Fathers of the
+Church in a beautiful framework of foliage, animals, and other
+ornamental figures, which divides and incloses the larger compositions.
+These gates are done in a manner much in advance of that of Pisano, and
+yet they retain some features of an earlier style which are not found in
+Ghiberti's later works. But from the first he showed original talent, as
+one may see by his model of the Sacrifice of Isaac, which is preserved
+in the Museum of the Bargello, beside that of Brunelleschi.
+
+These northern gates are very beautiful, but those on the east are far
+more so; it is of these last that Michael Angelo declared, "They are
+worthy to be the gates of Paradise!" These are divided into ten
+compartments, representing: 1, Creation of Adam and Eve; 2, History of
+Cain and Abel; 3, Noah; 4, Abraham and Isaac; 5, Jacob and Esau; 6,
+History of Joseph; 7, Moses on Mount Sinai; 8, Joshua before Jericho; 9,
+David and Goliath; 10, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Fig. 83).
+
+This sculptor showed great skill for one in his age, but to us there is
+some disappointment in them on account of the crowded appearance of the
+figures. Familiarity with them, however, reveals their beauty, and we
+find that, in truth, the stories Ghiberti wished to tell are brought out
+with much distinctness. They will ever remain one of the great monuments
+of the sculpture of the Renaissance.
+
+Ghiberti endeavored to introduce fine backgrounds to his reliefs, which
+gave him an opportunity to add figures illustrating other incidents than
+the principal one of the work. His sculptures show the influence of the
+Gothic style, the study of nature and that of the antique all combined;
+with these are united his own power of conception, his ability in
+design, and his wonderful delicacy of execution. These gates have been
+continually studied by the artists of his own and succeeding
+generations.
+
+The next work of importance by Ghiberti is the sarcophagus of St.
+Zenobius in the Cathedral of Florence. Other lesser sculptures are in
+other churches in Florence and in the Cathedral of Siena.
+
+We come now to one of the most interesting sculptors of the fifteenth
+century. DONATELLO he was called, but his real name was DONATO DI BETTO
+BARDI (1386-1468). He was born in Florence, and from his boyhood was a
+member of the family of the rich banker Ruberto Martelli, who was the
+firm friend of the sculptor for life, and when he died he provided in
+his will that the works by Donatello which he bequeathed to his family
+should never be pledged, sold, or given away, but kept as a perpetual
+inheritance for his heirs. Donatello was a realist, and followed nature
+with great exactness. This was not always productive of beauty in his
+works; indeed, some of them are very ugly, and a story which illustrates
+this is told of himself and Brunelleschi. Donatello had made a crucifix,
+carved from wood, for the Church of Santa Croce, and when it was
+finished he asked Brunelleschi's opinion of it. This latter artist was
+principally an architect; but as he had learned the goldsmith's trade,
+he executed some sculptures, and a close friendship existed between
+himself and Donatello. Relying on their love for each other,
+Brunelleschi frankly told Donatello that his crucifix was very ugly, and
+his figure of Christ like that of a day-laborer, whereas it should
+represent a person of the greatest possible beauty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--FROM THE EASTERN GATES. _Showing compartments
+6, 8, and 10._]
+
+Donatello was very angry at this, and exclaimed, "It is easier to
+criticise than to execute; do you take a piece of wood and make a better
+crucifix!" Brunelleschi determined to do this, and when his work was
+finished he invited Donatello to sup with him. He placed the crucifix in
+a conspicuous place in his house, and then took Donatello with him to
+the market to buy their food. He gave the parcels to Donatello, and
+asked him to go before to the house, saying that he would soon follow.
+When Donatello entered and saw the crucifix he was so delighted at the
+sight that he forgot everything else, and dropped the eggs, cheese, and
+all on the floor, and stood gazing at the carving as motionless as if he
+were a statue himself. When Brunelleschi came he said, "What are we to
+do now? You have spoiled all the dinner!"
+
+"I have had dinner enough for to-day," replied Donatello. "You may have
+a better appetite. To you, I confess, belongs the power of carving the
+figure of Christ; to me that of representing day-laborers."
+
+This famous crucifix by Brunelleschi is now in the Gondi Chapel of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella; that by Donatello is in the chapel of
+Saints Ludovico and Bartolommeo in the Church of Santa Croce.
+
+The Annunciation cut from sandstone, which is in Santa Croce, is one of
+his earliest works, and is full of grace and nobleness (Fig. 84). He
+made some beautiful groups of dancing children, which are now in the
+Uffizi Gallery; but he considered his David, which is in the same
+gallery, as his masterpiece. He was so proud of it that he swore by it,
+saying, "By the faith I have in my Zuccone!" This word means bald-head,
+and had come to be used as the usual name for the David.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _By Donatello._]
+
+But in spite of his liking for the David, it is generally thought that
+his St. George, on the exterior of the Church of Or San Michele, is far
+better. The German art-writer Grimm thus speaks of this work: "What a
+man is the St. George in the niche of the Church of Or San Michele! He
+stands there in complete armor, sturdily, with his legs somewhat
+striding apart, resting on both with equal weight, as if he meant to
+stand so that no power could move him from his post. Straight before him
+he holds up his high shield; both hands touch its edge, partly for the
+sake of holding it, partly in order to rest on it; the eyes and brows
+are full of expectant boldness.... We approach this St. George, and the
+mere artistic interest is transformed suddenly into a more lively
+sympathy with the person of the master.... Who is it, we ask, who has
+placed such a man there, so ready for battle?" (Fig. 85.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--STATUE OF ST. GEORGE. _By Donatello._]
+
+Donatello's impetuosity led him into many rash acts. Among other
+instances of this it is related that a rich Genoese merchant gave an
+order for a portrait bust of himself in bronze; when it was finished the
+great Duke Cosimo de' Medici, who was a friend of Donatello, admired the
+work so much that he placed it on his balcony, so that all Florentines
+who passed by could see it. When the merchant was given the price of the
+bust he objected to it, and it was referred to Duke Cosimo for
+settlement. In the conversation the Genoese said that the bust could be
+made in a month, and that he was willing to pay the artist a dollar a
+day for his time and labor.
+
+When Donatello heard this he exclaimed, "I know how to destroy the
+result of the study of years in the twinkling of an eye!" and he threw
+the bust into the street below, where it was broken into fragments. Then
+the merchant was deeply mortified, and offered the sculptor double the
+price he had asked if he would repeat the work; but though Donatello
+sadly needed the money he would not do this, and persisted in his
+refusal, even when Cosimo de' Medici tried to persuade him to consent.
+
+When Donatello was old Duke Cosimo gave him an allowance which would
+support himself and four workmen; but in spite of this Donatello wore
+such shabby clothes that Cosimo sent him a red surcoat, a mantle and
+hood. These Donatello returned, saying they were far too fine for him.
+When the sculptor at length became feeble and bedridden his benefactor
+had died, but Piero de' Medici, the son of Cosimo, was careful to keep
+him in comfort; and when he died his funeral was attended with much
+ceremony. He was buried near Duke Cosimo, in the Church of San Lorenzo.
+
+Several of Donatello's works are in this church, and are a more suitable
+monument to his memory than any that could be made by other hands.
+
+The works of Donatello are numerous, both in marble and bronze, and in
+both these substances he made statues and reliefs. We cannot speak in
+detail of all that he accomplished; but as he lived in an age when every
+advance in art was an event in history, we must not forget to say that
+he made the first equestrian statue which had been produced since the
+time of the Romans. This statue is in Padua, in front of the Church of
+San Antonio; it is of colossal size, and represents the Venetian General
+Gattamelata; and though it does not satisfy our conception as an
+equestrian statue, it is worthy of some praise when we remember all the
+circumstances of its origin. It is not probable that Donatello had ever
+seen an antique equestrian statue, unless it might have been that of
+Marcus Aurelius, which was found in the Forum in 1187; no modern statues
+existed as examples for him; he was not familiar with the modelling of
+horses, and for every reason it was a bold thing for him to undertake
+such a work.
+
+Donatello had more influence upon the art of his time than any other
+Tuscan sculptor, with the single exception of Michael Angelo. As a man
+he was honest, simple, and upright in all his dealings; as a friend he
+was loyal and faithful; as a Christian he was humble and charitable, and
+left behind him a name which has been handed down through more than four
+centuries with respect and honor.
+
+LUCA DELLA ROBBIA (1400-1481) is another native of Florence, whose name
+is widely known. Like many others, he began life as a goldsmith, and in
+this way gained a mastery over detail and a finish of style that are
+remarkable in all his works. He turned his attention to sculpture early
+in life, and was so enthusiastic in his pursuit of this art that he
+worked night and day, minding neither cold nor hunger and fatigue; in
+the beginning he made numerous wax models, which have perished, and with
+all his industry we have no work of his before he was forty-five years
+old, except the reliefs of Music, Philosophy, Geometry, Grammar and
+Astronomy, Plato and Aristotle, Ptolemy and Euclid, and a man playing a
+lute, which are set into the side of the Campanile at Florence, and two
+scenes from the life of St. Peter, which are in the Uffizi.
+
+In the same gallery are also the series of reliefs which Luca began when
+forty-five years old for the balustrade of an organ in the cathedral.
+These reliefs represent boys singing, dancing, and playing on musical
+instruments (Fig. 86). The attitudes are so graceful and so varied, and
+the expressions on the faces are so many, that there is much to admire
+in a subject which in unskilful hands would be very monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--DANCING BOYS. _By Luca della Robbia._]
+
+No sculptures since the classic days represent child-life with such
+freshness and charming qualities, and these alone would have raised Luca
+to a high rank as a sculptor. In the Uffizi one is able to examine these
+works closely, and they gain by this nearness to the eye, which enables
+one to see the minuteness of his finish. There are various works of his
+in bronze and marble still to be seen in the churches of Florence, but
+the special art to which he gave his attention was to the perfecting of
+enamel upon terra-cotta--on the making of what is known as the Robbia
+ware. In this he achieved a great success, and his bas-reliefs are very
+beautiful. At first he used but few colors, but later he increased their
+number, and was able to produce a combined effect of painting and relief
+that is very pleasing.
+
+These works were used for altar-pieces, medallions on exteriors,
+fountains, wall decoration, and a great variety of purposes. Twelve
+medallions representing the months, which are in the South Kensington
+Museum, are said to have been made by Luca to decorate a writing cabinet
+for one of the Medici.
+
+Luca worked with his nephew, Andrea, who had four sons; and when Luca
+died his secrets belonged to them, and made their fortunes. They were
+occupied eleven years in making a frieze to a hospital in Pistoja; it
+represented the Seven Acts of Mercy. One of them went to France and
+decorated the Château of Madrid for Francis I. Pope Leo X. employed
+another to pave the Loggie of the Vatican with Robbia tiles, and these
+wares, in one form and another, were used in numberless ways, both
+useful and decorative.
+
+The Robbia family was followed by other workers in glazed ware, and
+during about a century it was a prominent feature in art, and then was
+gradually given up.
+
+The most noted pupil of Donatello was ANDREA DEL VEROCCHIO (1432-1488).
+He was born at Florence, and was early apprenticed to a goldsmith called
+Verocchio, from whom the sculptor took his surname. It is said that this
+name came from the fact that the elder Verocchio had remarkable
+exactness of sight.
+
+Neither the metal works nor the paintings which Verocchio did remain,
+and after about 1466 he devoted himself entirely to sculpture. It is
+difficult to associate him with Donatello; his execution is finished
+like most sculptors who were also metal-workers; his nude parts are true
+to nature, but not graceful or attractive, and his draperies are in
+small folds, which give a tumbled, crumpled effect rather than that of
+the easy, graceful falling of soft material.
+
+His best works are a David in the Museum of the Bargello, Florence; a
+bronze Genius pressing a Dolphin to itself on a fountain in the court of
+the Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 87); an equestrian statue of Colleoni before
+the Church of San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (Fig. 88); and a group of St.
+Thomas examining the Wounds of Christ at the Church of Or San Michele,
+Florence. This last work is in his best and latest manner; the
+expression is powerful, but the drapery is still very faulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--BOY WITH DOLPHIN. _By Verocchio._]
+
+Although this equestrian statue is called by Verocchio's name, he did
+not live to see it completed; and though it was without doubt made from
+his design, still some credit for its execution is due to Alessandro
+Leopardo, who finished it. When Colleoni died he left all his large
+fortune to the Republic of Venice on condition that they should erect
+an equestrian monument to him in the square of St. Mark. As it was
+forbidden by the laws of Venice to place such things in the Piazza of
+St. Mark, it was placed in its present position, before the Church of
+San Giovanni e Paolo, on the square of the School of St. Mark, and it
+was thought that this answered the requirements of the will.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--STATUE OF COLLEONI. _By Verocchio._]
+
+When Verocchio had gone to Venice and had modelled the horse, he was
+told that the Signory intended to have the rider made by another
+sculptor. He felt this to be an insult, and broke off the head and legs
+of the horse, and left Venice for Florence. The Signory issued a decree
+forbidding him to set foot again on Venetian soil under pain of death.
+The sculptor replied that he should not take the risk, as he well knew
+that the Signory could take off his head, and he could not put it on,
+while he could replace his horse's head with a better one. The Venetians
+knew that this was true, and repealed their decree, and doubling his
+pay, asked him to come to complete his work. Verocchio consented to do
+so, but had not been long in Venice when he died. Verocchio is said to
+have spent much time in drawing from the antique, and his works prove
+him to have been diligent and painstaking; these qualities made him the
+sculptor that he was; but we see no traces in his work of the
+heaven-born genius which makes the artist great, and so inspires himself
+that his works fill all beholders with an enthusiasm in a degree akin to
+his own; the works of such artists as Verocchio, who have only the
+excellencies which come from patient industry, interest us, but they
+cannot move our hearts.
+
+It often happened in Italy that a number of artists belonged to the same
+family, as in the case of the Robbias. One such family had the name of
+GAMBARELLI, but were known in art as the ROSSELLINI. There were five
+sculptors of this name, all brothers. Two of them had great ability,
+Bernardo and Antonio. Bernardo was most distinguished as an architect,
+and some very celebrated edifices were built from his designs; he also
+executed some excellent sculptures, among which are the fine monument of
+Lionardo Bruni in the Church of Santa Croce, and that of the Beata
+Villana in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. The first is one of the best
+monuments in Tuscany. In the Uffizi are a bust of St. John, a charming
+work, and a portrait bust of Battista Sforza.
+
+ANTONIO ROSSELLINO (1427-1490), called PROCONSOLO, from the quarter of
+Florence in which he was born, was by far the best sculptor of the
+family. He is called a pupil of Donatello, but his work very closely
+resembles that of Ghiberti. Among his best works are the monument to
+Cardinal Portogallo, in the Church of San Miniato, near Florence; that
+of Mary of Aragon in Monte Oliveto at Naples; a relief of the Nativity
+in the same church, and a relief of the Adoring Madonna in the Uffizi
+Gallery. His characteristics were grace, delicacy of treatment,
+sweetness of expression, and all these combined with a noble dignity.
+
+Other Tuscan sculptors of this period were DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO, MINO
+DA FIESOLE (1400-1486), ANDREA FERRUCCI (1465-1526), and BENEDETTO DA
+MAJANO (1442-1498), who was eminent as an architect as well as for his
+sculpture. His father was a stone-cutter, and two other sons in the
+family were artists. Benedetto began life as a worker in wooden mosaics,
+or intarsiatore, as it is called. He made two beautiful inlaid chests,
+and carried them to Hungary as a gift to King Matthias Corvinus, whose
+fame as a patron of art had reached his ears. But the young artist was
+doomed to a dreadful disappointment, for when he unpacked his chests in
+the presence of the king it was found that the sea-damp had spoiled
+them, and the mosaics had fallen apart. Benedetto then determined to
+work in more durable materials, and executed some sculptures in marble
+and terra-cotta while he remained in Hungary.
+
+After his return to Florence, Benedetto worked as an architect, and the
+Strozzi Palace was built after his design. His masterpiece in sculpture
+was the monument to Filippo Strozzi, in the Strozzi Chapel in Santa
+Maria Novella, and it also merits mention among the best works of the
+fifteenth century. A pulpit in Santa Croce, by Benedetto, is also very
+fine, and his skill was shown here in his supporting the pulpit against
+a column and putting the staircase by which the pulpit is entered inside
+the column; thus it was concealed, and the building in no wise weakened,
+while the pulpit is far more beautiful than it would be were the
+staircase in sight.
+
+Benedetto was summoned to Naples by the Duke of Calabria, who gave him
+commissions which occupied him for two years. Few Tuscan sculptors have
+produced more pleasing works than Benedetto's; though not profound they
+are pleasing and unaffected, and in whatever frame of mind one may be,
+they do not disturb, but rather soothe and charm, as they could not do
+if they were false in sentiment or executed in an affected manner.
+
+MATTEO CIVITALI DI GIOVANNI (1435-1501) was born in Lucca, but studied
+art in Florence. His statue of St. Sebastian in the Cathedral of Lucca
+was so much admired by the painter Perugino that he copied it in his
+picture of the Entombment.
+
+Civitali's chief work in sculpture was the tomb of Pietro da Noceto in
+the same cathedral. In Genoa, in the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, he
+executed six statues and five bas-reliefs. A bas-relief of Faith by
+Civitali in the Uffizi Gallery is a fine work, full of earnestness and
+deep religious feeling.
+
+Civitali was also an accomplished architect, and did much to improve the
+style of building in Lucca. The beautiful temple of the Volto Santo in
+the cathedral was designed by him.
+
+This sculptor may be said to have had four different styles of work. The
+St. Sebastian was in his earliest manner, and is simply realistic; his
+second manner was the best; it is pure and dignified in conception,
+while deep feeling pervades all; the tomb of Noceto was in this second
+style; his third manner was more free and less pure, while the fourth,
+as seen in his work at Genoa, is full of extravagant exaggeration.
+
+Next to the sculptors of the Tuscan or Florentine school of this period
+were those of Venice in importance and independence of manner. This
+school was much influenced by that of Tuscany because of the nearness of
+the two cities and the constant communication between them, as well as
+by the fact that Tuscan sculptors were more or less employed in Venice.
+One of the earliest Venetian sculptors was ANTONIO GIOVANNI BREGNO,
+called ANTONIO RIZZO or RICCIO (about 1430-1498?). Although he was born
+in Verona, and there had the opportunity to study the Roman ruins which
+are the pride of the city, he is yet essentially an artist of Venice,
+since he spent most of his life there, and was even at the head of the
+workshop for the sculptors who worked upon the palace. One little
+episode in the life of this artist was an expedition to Scutari with the
+Venetian soldiers, who went to its defence against the Turks. Rizzo
+showed himself so brave in action, and was so severely wounded, that
+after his return to Venice the Senate gave him a pension which lasted
+through twenty years. Rizzo so won the confidence of the Venetians that
+he was appointed to important offices with large salaries, and it is sad
+to be forced to add that he proved to be a dishonest man, and when his
+accounts were examined he fled to Foligno, where he soon died. We will
+not speak of him as an architect; as a sculptor he is known by statues
+of Adam and Eve in niches opposite the Giant's Staircase in the Ducal
+Palace, and by sepulchral monuments in the Church of the Frari. While
+his works cannot be highly praised for beauty, they do show the style of
+the Renaissance distinctly.
+
+LOMBARDO is the family name of three sculptors of this period in Venice.
+They were PIETRO and his two sons, TULLIO and ANTONIO, and the three
+together are spoken of as the Lombardi. Pietro, the father, was as much
+an architect as a sculptor, and the works of the father and son are so
+associated that it is difficult to speak of them separately. We know
+that Tullio was the superior artist of the three, but there are no works
+of theirs that command a detailed description here. The monument to the
+Doge Pietro Mocenigo, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, the angels
+of the font in San Martino, an altar-relief in the altar of San Giovanni
+Crisostomo, reliefs on the front of the Scuola di San Marco, and two
+reliefs in the Church of San Antonio at Padua, are the principal
+sculptures of the Lombardi.
+
+ALESSANDRO LEOPARDO, who flourished about 1490, was the most eminent
+bronze-caster of his time, and was distinguished for the happy manner in
+which he adapted classic ideas to his needs in his works.
+
+Very little is known of the life of this sculptor, and that little is
+not to his credit. He lived in Venice, and had a studio in the Piazza
+del Cavallo, and in 1487 committed a forgery, for which he was banished
+from the city. But when Verocchio died, leaving the Colleoni statue
+unfinished, the Senate desired to have it completed by Leopardo, so they
+sent him a safe-conduct for six months, and he returned to Venice. As
+there is no account of his again leaving the city, it is supposed that
+he was allowed to remain as long as he chose. There has been much
+difference of opinion as to which artist--Verocchio or Leopardo--should
+be credited with the excellence of the Colleoni statue. The truth, as
+near as it can be told, seems to be that Verocchio designed and modelled
+it, that Leopardo completed and cast it, and made the lofty pedestal
+upon which it stands, and which, taken by itself, is a splendid work. It
+is of fine proportions, and has six Corinthian columns, in the capitals
+of which there are dolphins, while the frieze is composed of trophies
+and marine animals, all of which are symbols of the City on the Sea
+which erected the monument.
+
+After the Colleoni statue was unveiled the Senate gave Leopardo an order
+for three standard bases of bronze to be placed in the Piazza of St.
+Mark's. He also made three splendid candelabra for the Venetian Academy.
+Leopardo was also an architect. The time of his death is very
+uncertain, but a writer speaks of him in 1541 as "the new glory of our
+age, who shines like a star in the Venetian waters."
+
+Although an immense amount of sculpture of this period remains in
+various parts of Italy, it is very difficult to trace the story of
+separate artists and to give a satisfactory account of those whose works
+are worthy of high praise. There is scarcely an Italian city of any size
+which has not some splendid remains of this morning of the Renaissance.
+In Ancona there are the portal of San Francesco and the front of
+Mercanzia, with which the name of Giorgio da Sebenico is associated. At
+Rimini the Church of San Francesco, with its wealth of plastic ornament,
+cannot be ascribed to any one artist or to any number with surety; it is
+in the style of Luca della Robbia and Donatello, but in the execution
+does not reach their standard. In Cesena, Padua, and Verona there are
+fifteenth-century sculptures, and in the Milanese territory the plastic
+art of this period is very interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 89, 90.--TERRA-COTTAS FROM THE OSPEDALE GRANDE.
+_Milan._]
+
+In Milan, in the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, in the Ospedale
+Grande, and in the cathedral there is a wealth of sculpture to reward
+the student of this art who visits them; and in the Museum of the Breda
+there are many interesting works. The terra-cotta decoration of the
+Ospedale excels all other works of this sort in upper Italy, and the
+immense façade of this edifice is a marvel in its way (Figs. 89, 90).
+The differences between this hospital and the wonderful Milan Cathedral
+afford a remarkable contrast in works of the same period.
+
+GIOVANNI ANTONIO AMADEO, or OMODEO (1447-1520), was born on a farm near
+the Certosa of Pavia. When but nineteen years old his name appears as
+one of those who were employed upon this splendid edifice, and the
+records of his payments show that his work was well considered, even
+then. Omodeo was undoubtedly the best sculptor of his time in all
+Lombardy, and his sculptures in the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo would be
+sufficient to make any artist famous. The whole work may be called his,
+for he designed the building and the sculptures of the façade, which are
+in the richest style of the Renaissance; there are statuettes,
+colonettes, busts, medallions, and bas-reliefs, and wherever a flat
+surface exists it is divided into diamond-shaped slabs of colored
+marbles. The portal is very much ornamented: on each side of the rose
+window above this entrance there are busts of Cæsar and Augustus in
+contrast with numbers of angels' heads not far away. There are
+bas-reliefs representing children playing upon musical instruments, and
+the whole front of the chapel, with its numerous pilasters and
+colonettes, has been compared to a gigantic organ, by Mr. Perkins, in
+his "Italian Sculptors".
+
+Of the interior decoration we can only say that it is much in Omodeo's
+style, though the monument to Colleoni, the founder of the chapel, is
+said to be the work of German sculptors, and to have been done after
+Omodeo left Bergamo.
+
+At Pavia, Omodeo succeeded Guiniforte as chief architect of the Certosa,
+and designed the façade, which was made by him and his successors. The
+bas-relief of the Deposition from the Cross, which is on the front of
+the high-altar here, is the work of Omodeo. At Cremona and at Isola
+Bella he executed some monuments, but at length, in 1490, he began his
+work on the Cathedral of Milan. Here a cupola was commenced after his
+model and under his direction; but when it was partly done doubts of its
+solidity were expressed, and Omodeo was commanded to leave it and design
+the north door to the cathedral. He also constructed the spiral
+staircase leading to the roof through an elegant Gothic turret, where
+the medallion portrait of Omodeo may be seen. It has since been proved
+that the cupola of Omodeo was solid enough, for it has sustained the
+spire which was put upon it in 1772; but he was tormented concerning it
+in many ways, and died without justification.
+
+Omodeo stands at the head of northern Italian sculptors in his dexterous
+use of his chisel; his ease in composition and his skill in the
+management of drapery would have made him eminent; but the effect of all
+these good qualities was injured by his mannerism, and the fact that his
+standard of beauty was not a high one. This may be partly accounted for
+by the fact that in Lombardy an artist had no opportunity to study the
+remains of classic art, and this one circumstance very largely excuses
+the inferiority of the northern sculptors to those of Tuscany, whose
+taste had been much improved by close study of ancient plastic art.
+
+There are many sculptors mentioned as having done some part of the work
+upon the Milan Cathedral, but very few are known, except by casual
+remark. CRISTOFORO SOLARI, called "IL GOBBO, or DEL GOBBO," was one of
+the most prominent, and yet we know almost nothing of his history until,
+in 1490, he was so disappointed when Omodeo was made architect of the
+cathedral instead of himself that he went to Venice, and remained there
+during several years.
+
+After a time Solari was appointed ducal sculptor to Ludovico Moro, and
+the monument which he erected to Beatrice d'Este was one of his
+principal works. When Ludovico lost his power Solari went to Rome, and
+remained until he was recalled to Milan to execute sculptures for the
+cathedral. He was very independent in his reply, and refused to go
+unless his conditions were complied with; one of these conditions was
+that he should not be under the direction of any one, but should select
+his marbles and his subjects to please himself. The statues he made are
+not as fine as we might expect them to be after this beginning; however,
+he was at length appointed head architect. Soon after this he was
+engaged in making a new model for a cupola, and then suddenly his name
+ceases to appear upon the registers.
+
+The Cathedral of Como is another of those vast edifices which afforded
+opportunities for artists to make themselves famous. The principal part
+of the façade to this cathedral was ornamented by TOMMASO and JACOPO
+RODARI. The first was at one time architect of the cathedral, and
+together they executed a large portion of the sculptures. Their best
+work was in the ornamental parts.
+
+In the southern parts of Italy, both in the states of the Church and in
+Naples, there are many works of the fifteenth century which were
+executed by artists from Florence and other parts of Italy. Thus there
+is nothing new to be said concerning sculpture in Southern Italy during
+this period, since the works which are not by foreign artists are in the
+same style as theirs; for the native sculptors copied those from Central
+and Northern Italy, and no great progress or original manner can be
+found in these southern districts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN, FROM 1450 TO 1550.
+
+
+In Italy, as we have seen, the sculpture of the Renaissance was much
+advanced by the fact that in the beginning of its growth the
+architecture of the country was largely an imitation of Greek
+architecture; and as the same artist was frequently an architect,
+sculptor, and painter, edifices were designed with the purpose of
+placing the works of the sculptor in the most favorable positions.
+
+In the countries north of Italy sculpture had no such aid or advantages.
+The Gothic style of architecture was a hindrance to the sculptor, whose
+works were combined with it. The Gothic construction afforded no broad,
+generous spaces for sculpture; all plastic work must be confined in
+limited spaces between columns and baldachins, or in arched niches, or
+between narrow flutings; and though something had been done to vary the
+upright stiffness of the statues of its earliest days, there was no
+freedom for the realistic and natural tendencies of the Renaissance art
+to develop in.
+
+Another advantage on the side of Italian art was the fact that Italy was
+a land of grace and beauty; its people were more refined in manner, more
+elegant and picturesque in their costumes than were those of Northern
+Europe, and all the influences surrounding the Italian artist were far
+more favorable to a development of his artistic nature than were those
+of France or Germany. Then, too, the remains of antique art which were
+within reach of the Italian sculptor were quite shut off from others.
+For all these and other reasons the sculpture of the north was more
+tardy in taking on the better spirit and form of the Renaissance, and as
+a whole it never became as pleasing to most people as was the sculpture
+of Italy.
+
+In a former chapter we have spoken of the sculptor Claux Sluter and his
+work at Dijon in the fourteenth century; the desire which he showed to
+make his figures like the men they represented, and a general study of
+nature rather than of older works of sculpture, had much effect upon the
+sculpture of his time, and gradually became much exaggerated. German
+sculptors tried not only to make exact portraits of the faces and heads
+of their figures, but they gave the same attention to imitating every
+detail of costume and every personal peculiarity of the model from which
+they worked. This tended to weaken and narrow their own designs, and the
+whole effect of their work is fantastic and exaggerated--an effect quite
+opposed to the noble and harmonious treatment of the whole which the
+best Italian masters strove to attain.
+
+The attempt to produce startling effects in German art made such
+subjects as the Passion of Christ, the Temptation of St. Anthony, and
+the Martyrdoms of the Saints to be constantly repeated, and many reliefs
+are overloaded with such details as may very properly be used in
+painting, and which belong to _picturesque_ art, but which take away the
+dignity and calm grandeur which should make the spirit of sculpture. But
+there is one feature of German sculpture at this time which appeals to
+our sympathy--that is, the deep, earnest feeling which pervades it, and
+which constantly tried new methods of expression.
+
+In Germany there were guilds or trade-associations, and the members of
+these guilds were allowed to work in the special branch only of
+sculpture which belonged to their company, so that this art was divided
+by more fixed lines than in Italy, where, in truth, at the period of
+which we speak, the Florentine school was a supreme power, and its
+sculptors, as we have seen, worked in as many sorts of sculpture as
+pleased them.
+
+The schools of Germany were far more independent of each other, and the
+entire organization of art in Germany was very different from that of
+Italy.
+
+One of the most prominent effects of the architecture of Germany was to
+drive the sculptors to seek for such work as had no relation to
+architecture, and an important result from this was the great attention
+which they paid to wood-carving; indeed, this was the favorite pursuit
+of the German sculptors for many years. About the middle of the
+fifteenth century the importance of this art in Germany was far greater
+than those of bronze-casting or stone sculpture.
+
+The principal works in wood-carving were the altars, which finally came
+to be colossal in size, and with their multitude of reliefs, statuettes,
+and ornaments were marvellous monuments to the industry and skill of the
+wood-carvers. The reliefs in these works are usually arranged on
+landscape backgrounds, and so much resemble pictures in many ways that
+the colors and gilding which were freely used on them do not seem out of
+place, and it appears to be quite natural that wood-carvers should often
+have been painters also.
+
+The Swabian school, the principal seat of which was Ulm, was the
+earliest to adopt the new, realistic style. There are works by Swabian
+artists which show this tendency as early as 1431. JÖRG SYRLIN, who
+flourished during the last half of the fifteenth century, was an eminent
+wood-carver, and as he did not color his works he can be better judged
+as a sculptor than he could be if the effect of the whole depended
+partly upon painting. The choir-stalls in the Cathedral of Ulm and the
+fountain in the market-place, called "Fischkasten," are his most
+important works; but a singing-desk, now in the museum, and other lesser
+pieces are also excellent examples of his style. The choir-stalls have
+an immense number of figures and a mass of ornament, which made them far
+richer than any such work of an earlier date, and none that have since
+been made have equalled them. It is almost incredible that they were
+completed in four years, and yet there are no marks of haste upon the
+work. The figures are dignified and graceful, the faces delicate and
+expressive, the hands well formed, and a beauty of design and execution
+marks the whole. The lower figures, which come nearest the eye, are
+finer than those which are higher up, so that a unity of effect is
+preserved throughout the whole. He sometimes took occasion to give
+touches of humor in his works, and in these stalls he introduced his own
+portrait and that of his wife.
+
+The "Fischkasten" is sculptured in stone, and has three knights upon it
+which appear to be boldly advancing, as if about to step off and walk
+away. Other works by this master are less important, and it is doubtful
+if all that are called by his name are really his own. Jörg Syrlin, the
+younger, trained by his father, adopted his style, and became an
+excellent artist.
+
+We have not space to speak of the Swabian sculptures in detail. Fine
+works exist in Tiefenbronn, Rothenburg, Blaubeuren, Herrenberg, Gmünd,
+Ravensburg, and many other places.
+
+The influence of the Swabian school was very wide; it can be traced in
+many parts of Germany, in Hungary and Transylvania, and even in
+Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria. Swabian artists were often summoned
+to adjacent provinces, and thus did much work away from their homes. The
+reliefs upon the door of the Cathedral of Constance were executed by
+Simon Hayder, a Swabian, in 1470. The altar of the cathedral at Chur
+was the work of Jacob Rösch, another Swabian master, who thus labored on
+the very boundary of Italy. The school at Augsburg was the second
+Swabian school in importance, and much influence went out from that
+centre, though its sculptures were not as fine as those of Ulm.
+
+In some cases fine old sculptures still exist in the churches and other
+places for which they were intended. Again we find them either whole, or
+in parts, in museums to which they have been removed when they were no
+longer required for the uses for which they were made, or when they were
+replaced by more modern works. So few facts are known concerning them
+that it is almost impossible to do more than repeat descriptions of the
+subjects they represent; and this is neither profitable nor entertaining
+in a book of this kind; therefore I shall now speak only of such artists
+as have left some record behind them, and of works whose authorship can
+be given.
+
+VEIT STOSS, who flourished about the middle of the fifteenth century,
+was an eminent wood-carver. Very little is known about him. His name is
+sometimes said to be Wit Stwosz, and Cracow and Nuremberg both claim to
+have been his birthplace. But it is now believed that he was born in
+Nuremberg, as it is known that in 1477 he gave up his citizenship there
+and went to Cracow, and in 1496 he paid a small sum to be again made a
+citizen of Nuremberg.
+
+We also know that his reputation as a man was not good. In a Nuremberg
+decree he is called a "reckless and graceless citizen, who has caused
+much uneasiness to the honorable council and the whole town." He was
+convicted of crimes for which he should have suffered death, but the
+sentence was changed, and he was branded: both cheeks were pierced with
+a hot iron. After this he broke the oath he had taken to the city, and
+joined her enemies in plotting against her; he was subsequently
+imprisoned, and at his death, in 1533, he was very old and perfectly
+blind.
+
+It seems almost like a contradiction to say that this master was one of
+the most tender in feeling of all the wood-carvers of his time. He was
+especially successful in representing the purity of the Madonna and of
+youthful saints. His principal works are in the churches of Cracow and
+Nuremberg. In the Frauenkirche at Cracow the high-altar, a part of the
+stalls in the choir, and some other sculptures are his. In Nuremberg his
+best works are a bas-relief of the Crowning of the Virgin, which is
+preserved in the Burgkapelle; the great Madonna statue, which was placed
+in the Frauenkirche in 1504; and the colossal Angel's Salutation, which
+is suspended in the choir of the Church of St. Laurence. This last is an
+unusual and important work. The angel appears as if flying, and the
+drapery is much inflated; the Virgin is queenly and majestic, yet
+graceful; all around are medallions in which are represented the Seven
+Sorrows of the Virgin. The style of these reliefs is charming if we
+except the drapery; that has the faults of the time, and is bad in
+style; but the female heads are all that we could ask; the whole design
+is distinct, and few reliefs could surpass these in simple beauty and
+genuine artistic feeling.
+
+Another remarkable work of his is a panel of roses, now in the
+Burgkapelle. The panel is seven feet high by five wide; more than half
+of this is covered by a wreath of roses; there are besides four rows of
+small half-length figures arranged round a cross of St. Anthony, a
+representation of the Last Judgment, scenes in the history of man from
+the creation to the death of the Virgin, and many other saints and like
+subjects in bits of reliefs, which fill up all spare spaces. The style
+is very distinct, and the draperies better in this work than in others
+from his hand.
+
+There are other works in Nuremberg and elsewhere which are attributed
+to Veit Stoss, but these that are known to be his are quite enough to
+establish his fame as a gifted artist and a remarkable sculptor for his
+time.
+
+Though Stoss is among the early masters of Nuremberg, it is yet true
+that others had been at work while he was in Cracow, and the way had
+been prepared for him and his work when he returned to his native city
+in 1496. Among the most active artists in Nuremberg was MICHAEL
+WOHLGEMUTH (1434-1519), who is generally considered as a painter only;
+but we know that he made contracts for entire works in which sculpture
+and painting are combined, and must have had the oversight of the whole;
+and in this view it is proper to mention this master's name. The altars
+at Haller Cross Chapel, Nuremberg, one at Zwickau, another at Schwabach,
+and that of the Heilsbronn Monastery, near Nuremberg, are all ascribed
+to Wohlgemuth.
+
+ALBRECHT DÜRER (1471-1528), who was one of the great masters of the
+world, was an architect, painter, and sculptor. He was a pupil of
+Michael Wohlgemuth, and sculpture was less practised by him than other
+arts; yet the few works of his which remain are much valued.
+
+Dürer probably executed his carvings about 1510-1520. In the British
+Museum there is a relief of the Birth of St. John the Baptist, which was
+purchased in the Netherlands more than eighty years since for $2500. It
+is cut in a block of cream-colored stone, seven and one half by five and
+one half inches in size, and is a wonderful work. The companion piece,
+which represents the same saint Preaching in the Wilderness, is in the
+Brunswick Museum, where there is also an "Ecce Homo" carved in wood.
+
+Dürer executed many little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and
+the existing ones are seen in various collections in Germany. It is
+quite probable that others are in private hands.
+
+There are in Nuremberg many most excellent wood-carvings by unknown
+masters; one who cares for this art is well repaid for a visit to this
+old city, and, indeed, this is true of other old German towns. Bamberg,
+Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dortmund, Halle, and many other towns
+have riches in this kind of art.
+
+The stone sculpture of Germany in the fifteenth century was of less
+importance than the wood-carving until toward the close of the period.
+The exteriors of the churches and other edifices erected at this time
+had but little sculptural ornament, and that consisted principally of
+traceries and figures in geometric designs. Some small detached works,
+such as fonts, pulpits, or fountains, were made in stone, but the chief
+use of stone sculpture was for monuments to the dead.
+
+ADAM KRAFFT (about 1430-1507), of whose early history almost nothing is
+known, is a very important master of this time, and his principal works
+add another charm to the city of Nuremberg. A remarkable series of works
+by Krafft are the Seven Stages, or seven bas-reliefs placed on the way
+to the Johannis Cemetery, the designs representing the seven falls of
+Christ on his way to Golgotha.
+
+These reliefs are much crowded, and the only part that is at all
+idealized is the figure of Christ; that is noble and calm in effect, and
+the drapery is simple and dignified. The other figures are coarse and
+dressed like the Nurembergers of the time in which Krafft lived.
+
+In the churches of St. Sebald and St. Laurence and in the Frauenkirche
+there are other splendid works of Krafft, and in some dwelling-houses of
+Nuremberg there are sculptures of his. A Madonna on the houses, 1306, in
+the Hirschelgasse, is one of the finest, perhaps the very best in all
+Germany. We do not know whether this was by Krafft or not, but it has a
+purity and nobleness that scarcely any other German sculptor attained.
+
+That Krafft had a sense of humor is shown by a bas-relief above the
+entrance to the Public Scales. The weigher stands observing the beam,
+and beneath it is written, "To thyself as to others." Another man adds a
+weight to one scale, and the man who is to be taxed puts his hand into
+his money-bag very reluctantly.
+
+Perhaps his most artistic work was the tabernacle in the Church of St.
+Laurence. It is sixty-four feet high; the lower part is supported by the
+kneeling figures of Krafft and two of his associates. Above this rises a
+slender Gothic pyramid ornamented with bas-reliefs and statuettes. He
+was employed upon this tabernacle from 1496 to 1500. It is believed that
+a "Burial of Christ," in the chapel of the Johannis Cemetery, was his
+latest work, and executed in 1507, the year in which he died, in the
+hospital of Schwabach. Krafft led a most industrious life, and was so
+skilful a workman that he could work with his left hand as readily as
+with his right.
+
+TILMAN RIEMENSCHNEIDER was an important sculptor, born at Osterode, in
+the Hartz Mountains, probably about 1460. In 1483 he went to Würzburg,
+and was elected to one honorable office after another, until, in 1520,
+he was head burgomaster. After the Peasants' War, in 1525, he was
+deprived of his office; he lived but six years after this, and kept
+himself in close retirement, not even practising his art.
+
+His sculptures are mostly in stone, and are quite numerous in Würzburg
+and its vicinity. His monument to the Knight Eberhard von Grumbach, in
+the church at Rimpar, was probably his earliest important work. In it he
+has contrived to express strength and bravery of character in spite of
+the stiff costume, every detail of which is worked out (Fig. 91).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--COUNT EBERHARD VON GRUMBACH. _Rimpar._]
+
+In 1495 Riemenschneider received the important commission to erect in
+Bamberg Cathedral a splendid monument to the Emperor Heinrich II. and
+his wife Kunigunde. This occupied him until 1513, and is a splendid
+example of his skill. The figures of the two royal personages lie upon a
+large sarcophagus; the statues are more than life-size, and are dressed
+in the fantastic costume of the fifteenth century. Upon the sides of the
+sarcophagus are five reliefs, representing as many scenes from the lives
+of the emperor and empress. The monuments and religious subjects
+executed by this sculptor are very numerous. In the church at Maidbrunn
+there is a relief representing the "Lamentation over the Dead Body of
+Christ," which is probably his latest work. It is cut from sandstone,
+and the figure of Nicodemus is believed to be the sculptor's own
+portrait.
+
+We give here four figures from the portal of the cathedral at Berne, in
+Switzerland. The really splendid sculptures were the work of Nicolaus
+Künz, and from their style seem to belong to about 1520. They show the
+influence of such artists as the painters Nicolaus Manuel (1484-1531)
+and Hans Holbein (about 1459-1524). The statues of the Wise and Foolish
+Virgins are fine, and that of Justice, whose pose is full of grace, and
+whose almost transparent garment is an exquisite work, affords an
+excellent illustration of the most pleasing sculpture of this period
+(Figs. 92, 93).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--JUSTICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE THREE WISE VIRGINS.]
+
+Another art, which had its headquarters at Nuremberg in the fifteenth
+century, is bronze-casting, and its chief master was the famous PETER
+VISCHER, who was the son of another brasier, HERMANN VISCHER. The date
+of Peter Vischer's birth is given as 1460, and he was admitted to be a
+master in his art in 1489. Five years later than this he was summoned to
+Heidelberg together with a sculptor, Simon Lamberger, to aid the Elector
+Philip with advice and skill. Nothing is known of any work which Vischer
+did there.
+
+Vischer's foundry at Nuremberg enjoyed a great fame, and orders were
+sent to it from far and near. No doubt a great many monuments were cast
+here which were not designed by Vischer at all. His works were numerous,
+but I shall only describe his masterpiece, which was the shrine or tomb
+of St. Sebald, and occupied Peter Vischer from 1508 to 1519, he being
+assisted by his five sons. The son Peter was admitted as a master in the
+thimble trade in 1527. Hans was called "the caster," and seems to have
+superintended the carving of models; Hermann went to Italy and brought
+home designs and models; and Jacob and Paul seem to have had no special
+departments. Between 1495 and 1508 so little was recorded of Peter
+Vischer that it leads to the belief that these years must have been
+given to study and to the improvement which the tomb of St. Sebald shows
+over the work of the monument to Archbishop Ernst, in the Magdeburg
+Cathedral, which was done in 1495.
+
+The bones of St. Sebald had been inclosed in a sarcophagus of the Middle
+Ages, and the work required of Vischer was a fitting tomb for such
+precious and honored relics, for St. Sebald is the special patron saint
+of Nuremberg, and dwelt in a cell near that city. His legend relates
+that he was the son of a Danish king, who came to Germany as a
+missionary and settled at Nuremberg, where he did many miraculous works
+of charity. On one occasion, during very cold weather, he is said to
+have found a family nearly frozen and without fuel; he commanded them to
+bring the icicles hanging from the roof and make a fire of them. They
+obeyed, and were thus warmed. Many such wonders are told of him, and
+Vischer in his statue makes him to appear as a pilgrim, with shell in
+hat, staff, rosary and wallet, while in his hand he holds a model of a
+church intended to represent that in which the tomb is erected. This
+Church of St. Sebald is now used for the Lutheran service, and the
+shrine still stands in the centre of the choir. (Fig. 94.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--TOMB OF ST. SEBALD. _By Peter Vischer._
+_Nuremberg._]
+
+The architecture of this remarkable work is of the richest style of
+Gothic, and the whole of it is in bronze, except that the oaken
+sarcophagus is encased in silver plates. This rests beneath a fret-work
+canopy supported on slender pillars. There is an abundance of ornament
+everywhere, but the close examination of its detail shows beauty and
+fitness in every part. For example, if we compare the statue of the
+saint, of which we have spoken, which stands at the end of the shrine
+most exposed, with the statue of Vischer himself, which is at the
+opposite end, we shall see how the saint, with his symbols and his
+flowing drapery, is an ideal work, and seems to be advancing with
+authority and the air which befits the son of a king, while Vischer,
+with his round cap, leather apron, and German face, is simply the
+representation of a worker bent upon doing his best (Fig. 95).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--PETER VISCHER'S STATUE.]
+
+The sarcophagus rests upon a base on which are four reliefs of scenes
+from the life of the saint, all in the purest manner of the time. One of
+these represents the burning of the icicles recounted above (Fig. 96).
+
+This base and sarcophagus and the fret-work above it form the centre of
+the tomb. Then outside of this are eight pillars supporting a
+baldachin, or canopy, in the richly ornamented Romanesque style, and the
+combinations of the Gothic and the decorative architecture are so
+skilfully made as not to offend our taste. But it is generally
+acknowledged that the chief beauty of this work is the series of the
+figures of the apostles, which are upon the pillars. They are slender in
+proportion, gracefully draped, and bear their distinctive symbols. They
+are perfectly free from the realism of the earlier works of Vischer, and
+have more of the purity and nobleness of the works of Ghiberti than are
+seen in the statues of any other German artist of this age (Figs. 97,
+98).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--ST. SEBALD AND THE BURNING ICICLES. _Vischer._]
+
+Above the apostles are figures of prophets and other Biblical
+personages; Perseus and Hercules are also represented, and other statues
+typify Strength, Justice, Prudence, and Moderation. The figure of the
+Infant Christ is upon the centre of the highest, or middle dome. Between
+the pillars at their bases stand graceful candelabra, and the base
+itself rests upon snails. Besides all these principal figures there are
+almost numberless others and many ornamental designs. There are
+harpies, sirens, satyrs, fawns, and all sorts of fantastic creatures.
+The whole work is full of the deep feeling of the north and the beauty
+and richness of the south, and is a most remarkable production.
+
+We are told that Vischer was but poorly paid for this labor, with all
+its thought and skill. He inscribed upon it these words: "... He
+completed it for the praise of God Almighty alone, and for the honor of
+St. Sebald, Prince of Heaven, by the aid of pious persons, paid by their
+voluntary contributions." There is a satisfaction in remembering that
+Vischer lived ten years after this tomb was completed, and must have
+heard many praises of his work.
+
+The later works of Vischer were a few reliefs and two important
+monuments at Aschaffenburg and Wittenberg. His sons Hans and Hermann
+executed a few monuments, which are done in the manner of their father,
+but do not equal him in design or finish. There are numerous works which
+must be regarded as productions of Vischer's studio and foundry of which
+we cannot give clear accounts, not knowing whether they were the earlier
+works of the father, or were executed by the sons or other pupils, of
+which he had many.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--PETER. _By Peter Vischer._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--JOHN. _By Peter Vischer._]
+
+PANKRAZ LABENWOLF was one of Vischer's pupils, and completed the
+splendid lattice-work over the Town-hall which the master left
+unfinished; Labenwolf added some ornaments and coats-of-arms to it. In
+1550 he cast the fountain in the court-yard of the same building, which
+is a graceful and creditable work; but another fountain in the vegetable
+market, behind the Frauenkirche, is truly original; the water flows from
+the mouths of two geese held under the arms of a peasant; the whole
+effect is droll and unique (Fig. 99).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--MAN AND GEESE. _By Labenwolf._]
+
+You will remember how, about 1390, Claux Sluter, by his works in Dijon,
+had a great influence upon French sculpture. A century and more later
+this art in France was largely under the influence of Italian masters,
+who had been called into France by Francis I. and other patrons of art.
+Splendid works of sculpture were also imported from Italy, and the
+effect of the Italian Renaissance, which was so plainly seen upon the
+painting of France, was also at work upon its sculpture.
+
+Where the sculptures were a part of an architectural decoration, as in
+the case of the choir screen in the cathedral at Amiens, and other like
+works, the change was not as complete as in cases where the work was one
+of independent sculpture, as in monuments and statues to commemorate the
+dead, or in portrait sculpture.
+
+The wealth and power of the nobility of France at this period enabled
+them to gratify their desire to leave fine monuments of themselves, in
+order to keep their names in memory in future centuries. In these the
+Italian manner was adopted, and the works when completed were far more
+splendid and elegant than were the corresponding works in Germany. But
+they have a grave fault, which makes them much less interesting than are
+the German sculptures: they are more conventional, less expressive, and
+far less artistic in spirit. They impress one as if the soft, luxurious
+court atmosphere had passed over them, and taking away their strong
+points, had left them only a general air of being well-bred and
+well-kept persons, of little importance to the real life of the world.
+
+In the Louvre, in the Museum of Modern Sculpture, all this change can be
+traced, and the traveller in France may see such monuments as we refer
+to in all the cathedrals and most of the churches all over the country.
+Many of them cannot be traced to any one master. A fine specimen is the
+Amboise Monument in Rouen Cathedral, which is said to have been the work
+of one Roulland de Roux and his assistants.
+
+JEAN JUSTE of Tours was one of the best French artists of his day. In
+the Cathedral of Tours is a monument to two young children of Charles
+VIII., which proves him to have had much delicacy and tenderness of
+execution. The sarcophagus is covered with graceful designs, and on the
+lid lie the two babies, for the eldest was but three years old. The
+whole work is exquisite, and gives one a feeling of satisfaction.
+
+About 1530 Juste erected the splendid monument to Louis XII. and Anne of
+Brittany in the Church of St. Denis. While the general form of the
+monument is much like that of the Visconti in the Certosa at Pavia, the
+figures of the dead couple are quite different from the Italian manner.
+Below on a bier the two nude bodies are stretched in all the realism
+possible, and the heads are noble and touching in expression. Above, on
+the upper part of the monument, where in Italy the patron saint or some
+other figure usually is placed, the king and queen again appear; they
+are kneeling, with full drapery about them, while the faces are
+characteristic and very expressive. This monument, taken all in all, is
+in the perfection of the French art of the time. Another work by Juste
+now in the Louvre is the monument to Louis de Poncher, one of the
+ministers of Francis I., and his wife, Roberta. These statues are in
+alabaster, and were formerly in the Church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois,
+which was built by Poncher.
+
+PIERRE BONTEMPS must have been a famous sculptor, as he was chosen to
+erect the monument to Francis I., his wife Claude and their three
+children. This is also at St. Denis, and is even more grand than that to
+Louis XII. On the upper platform the five figures are kneeling; they are
+noble and simple, with an air of great repose. These examples serve to
+give an idea of the religious sculpture of the time.
+
+Secular subjects were unusual. A house in Bourges is decorated with the
+figures of the master and mistress above the entrance, as if they would
+speak a welcome, while reliefs of industrial scenes, such as might be
+seen outside and inside of the house, are placed in various positions
+over the building and in the court-yard. Something of a like sort is
+upon the Hotel Bourgtheroulde at Rouen, where the friezes show scenes
+between Francis I. and Henry VIII. Biblical scenes are also distributed
+over the building.
+
+Bruges is almost the only city of the Netherlands that has any
+sculptures of this period of which one would speak. Just at this time
+the art of that country was painting preeminently, and the Van Eycks and
+their followers had done such things as held the attention of all to the
+neglect of other arts. At Bruges in the cathedral, the Church of St.
+Jacques, and the Liebfrauenkirche there are some fine monuments, and the
+Palais de Justice has a carved chimney-piece which is magnificent, and
+a work of the highest rank.
+
+In England sculpture was of less account even than in the Netherlands.
+One circumstance is worthy of notice. Pietro Torrigiano, after
+quarrelling with Michael Angelo and breaking his nose, fled to England,
+and his monument of Henry VII. and his queen in Westminster Abbey,
+erected in 1519, marks the introduction of the style of the Italian
+Renaissance into England. The structure is of black marble; the statues
+of the king and queen are in gilt bronze, and are grandly noble in
+design and finished in execution. The smaller figures and all the
+details of the monument are fine. The master received £1000 for this
+work. Torrigiano executed other works, and entered into an agreement to
+make a monument to Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but for some
+reason he went to Spain in 1519 and never returned, as he was destroyed
+by the Inquisition three years later.
+
+It is probable that Torrigiano may have been led to Spain by hearing of
+the revival of art which was taking place there. Flemish and Italian
+artists went there, and the influence of their styles was felt by the
+native masters. The result was that they brought forth a manner of their
+own, combining certain features of northern and of southern art, and
+used to express the thoughts of the Spaniards themselves. The carved
+altars of Seville, Toledo, and Burgos show how splendid this art was;
+and though we cannot trace the lives and works of Spanish sculptors as
+we should like to do, we can be sure that there were men among them
+equal to any demand that could be made upon decorative sculptors.
+
+This is proved by the portals and fronts of the churches, by the highly
+ornamented chapels, the wall niches and choir screens of the interiors,
+while the monuments are also equal to those of other nations. That of
+Ferdinand and Isabella in the Church of the Guardian Angel, at Granada,
+is noble and magnificent. It is believed to have been erected before the
+death of Ferdinand in 1516, and was probably the work of an Italian
+sculptor. This monument has a large marble sarcophagus, with a structure
+above it in the Renaissance style. At the corners of the sarcophagus
+there are griffins of excellent workmanship, and on the sides reliefs
+and statuettes of the Four Fathers of the Church; on the lid repose the
+figures of the royal pair, executed in a grand and dignified
+simplicity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI, MICHAEL ANGELO, AND
+OTHERS.
+
+
+By the beginning of the sixteenth century sculpture occupied a different
+place with relation to architecture from that which it had held in the
+previous centuries which we have just considered. The architecture of
+Italy became much more plain, and its union with sculpture in any large
+degree was rare.
+
+Painting, too, had now an effect to lessen the sphere of sculpture. This
+art was always preferred by the Christians, as has been shown before,
+and now, when it had reached most satisfactory heights, it was used in
+many places where sculpture had before been placed. One important
+example of this is seen in the decoration of altars; where bas-reliefs
+had been used paintings were now preferred, and the end of all was that
+sculpture was limited to monuments and to separate pieces--reliefs or
+single statues or groups of figures.
+
+In some ways this separation of the arts was a benefit to all. Under the
+old rule sculptors had often been forced to sacrifice their design to
+the needs of the architecture their work adorned. At other times they
+were compelled to put aside their own feeling and their artistic ideas
+as to how a subject should be treated, and suit themselves to such forms
+as were approved by the particular priest or bishop whose church they
+decorated. Now, when left to itself, sculpture became more individual
+in its expression, and far more free and interesting in itself. In the
+beginning of the sixteenth century the works of Italian sculpture were
+splendid in the extreme. It was delicate and beautiful; the drapery was
+made to show the figure and its natural motion, while it added an
+exquisite grace to the whole; many works of this period were fine in
+conception, good in their arrangement, and executed in a noble, spirited
+manner. Some critics believe that during the first four decades of this
+era Italian sculpture equalled the antique art of the Romans. Others
+make 1520, or the time of Raphael, the limit to the best epoch of this
+art; but it is scarcely possible thus to fix an exact bound; the
+important point is that this excellence was reached, and the regret
+follows that it could not endure for a longer period.
+
+A far greater variety of subjects was represented in this age of
+sculpture than before. Formerly the rule was the production of religious
+effects. Scenes from the life of Christ and his disciples, others from
+those of the saints, or the illustration of scriptural stories, with the
+portrait tomb-sculpture, had been the sculptor's work. Now all the
+stories of mythology were studied as diligently as they had been in
+classic days, and artists studied to clothe the pagan personages with
+new forms; and in all this effort much appeared that was original. It is
+easy to see that such sculpture from the hand of a Christian artist must
+lack the important element of pure sincerity. An artist who believed in
+Jesus Christ could not conceive a statue of Jupiter, with all the
+glorious attributes, that an ancient Greek would have given to his god
+of gods. In this view the sculpture of classic subjects of this
+sixteenth century may be said to have been two-sided--the work
+illustrated a religion in which the artist pleased his imagination, but
+for which he had no reverence or love. But in spite of all it was a
+golden age, and many of its works are a "joy forever."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100. PHARISEE.
+FIG. 101. LEVITE. _By Rustici._]
+
+Although the first public work which Leonardo Da Vinci did at Milan was
+to model an equestrian statue, we can scarcely speak of him as a
+sculptor. But the first Florentine of this period whom I shall mention
+is GIOVANNI FRANCESCO RUSTICI (1476-1550), who was a fellow-pupil with
+Leonardo under Verocchio. Very few works by this master remain, but a
+prominent and important one is the bronze group above the northern
+portal to the baptistery at Florence. It represents the "preaching of
+St. John The Baptist," and is grand in the free action of its figures.
+The Drapery is in a pure style, very much like that of Ghiberti (figs.
+100, 101). This work was ordered by a guild of merchants, and they
+failed to pay the price which had been fixed for it. Rustici was so
+embarrassed by this that he undertook no more large works, and after the
+Medici were expelled from florence he went into the service of Francis
+I. in France he had executed various works, and was finally commissioned
+to model an equestrian statue of the king in colossal size, when the
+sovereign died. Rustici survived but three years, and we are told that
+he only executed small works, and those "for the most part for the sake
+of kindness."
+
+ANDREA CONTUCCI DAL MONTE SAN SAVINO, called SANSOVINO (1460-1529), was
+a very important sculptor, because large works were committed to him,
+and his name must remain associated with them. Like Giotto, Sansovino
+was a shepherd-boy, and drew pictures upon the stones of the fields.
+Like Giotto, too, he was sent to Florence to study, and in the school of
+Pallajuolo made good progress. When thirty years old he was appointed
+architect and sculptor to the King of Portugal. After an absence of ten
+years he returned to Florence, and later to Rome, where Pope Julius II.
+commissioned him to erect monuments to the Cardinals Rovere and Sforza,
+in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo.
+
+These monuments were his best works, but they cannot be praised. The
+statues are in positions which seem to be uncomfortable, and there is
+such a mass of ornament and so many statuettes that the whole has an
+effect of confusion.
+
+In 1513 Leo X. sent Sansovino to Loreto to adorn the temple which
+incloses the "Casa Santa" with bas-reliefs. This Casa Santa is believed
+to be the house in which the Virgin Mary was born at Nazareth; and when
+the Saracens invaded the land four angels are said to have borne the
+house to the coast of Dalmatia, and later to a spot near Loreto; but
+here some brigands entered it, and again it was removed to its present
+position in the Church of Loreto; this is said to have been done in
+1295. Naturally this "Casa Santa" is a sacred object to all Roman
+Catholics, and it is visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims each
+year.
+
+The decoration of this shrine was very important, and an honorable work
+for any artist. Sansovino did not execute all the reliefs, and the
+highest praise that can be given to those he did is to say that they are
+superior to the others that are beside them. He was a most skilful
+workman, and it seems as if marble became like wax under his hand; but
+this very skill led him to multiply his ornaments, and to repeat
+acanthus leaves and honeysuckle vines until the whole was a weariness
+and confusion, and conveyed no meaning or sentiment whatever.
+
+Sansovino's most important pupil was JACOPO TATTI, who, on account of
+his master, is called JACOPO SANSOVINO (1477-1570). He was born at
+Florence, and when Andrea Sansovino returned from Portugal Jacopo became
+his pupil. Early in life he went to Rome, and there studied and copied
+the works of antiquity; among other things he made a copy of the
+Laocoon, which was cast in bronze at a later time. Soon after his return
+to Florence, in 1511, Jacopo received orders for some works, but the
+most important statue which he made about this time is the Bacchus, now
+in the Uffizi. In this work he showed how completely he was in sympathy
+with the classic spirit; this Bacchus is a triumph in this manner, and
+has been called "the most beautiful and spirited pagan statue of the
+Renaissance period." It is full of gladness, and is simple, delicate,
+and beautiful. The young god is advancing and holding up a cup, which he
+regards with an expression of delight; in his right hand he has a bunch
+of grapes, from which a Pan is eating stealthily (Fig. 102).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--BACCHUS.
+_By Jacopo Sansovino._]
+
+In 1514 Jacopo Sansovino was employed upon the decorations for the visit
+of Leo X. to Florence. Soon after this he went again to Rome and
+submitted plans for the Church of San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, which the
+Florentines were about to erect--for this master was an architect as
+well as a sculptor. The taking of Rome by Constable de Bourbon, in 1527,
+drove Sansovino away; he went to Venice, intending to go to France, but
+Venice charmed him, and his work pleased the Venetians, and the result
+was that from 1529 he served the Venetians as long as he lived. He was
+appointed Protomastro of the Republic of Venice, and had the care of St.
+Mark's, the Campanile, the Piazza, and the surrounding buildings. He
+received a good salary, and was provided with a handsome house to live
+in.
+
+He first restored the cupolas of St. Mark's; then completed the Scuola
+della Misericordia; he next made the interior of San Francesco della
+Vigna; then the Zecca, the Fabbriche Nuove, and the Loggietta of the
+Campanile. He also erected other churches and palaces, besides smaller
+sculptural works. But his architectural masterpiece was the Library of
+St. Mark's. The bronze gate to the Sacristy of St. Mark's was one of his
+principal works. It is subject to criticism as being too crowded; but it
+is a fine work and full of strong feeling.
+
+His statues are numerous and seen all over Venice; indeed, it is proper
+to speak of him as a Venetian, so thoroughly did he adopt that city, and
+so industriously did he work for it during forty years. Had he remained
+in Florence he might have been a better artist; the splendor and luxury
+of the Venetians brought out corresponding traits in Jacopo, and he fell
+short of the purity which the influence of Florence might have given
+him. He is one of the masters in whom the sensual influence of the study
+of pagan art was fully manifested. Many of his subjects were
+mythological; among them were the story of Phrixos and Helle, Mercury,
+Apollo, Pallas, Mars, and Neptune, the last two being colossal figures
+on the steps of the Doge's Palace.
+
+Among the pupils and associates of Sansovino were NICCOLO BRACCINI
+(1485-1550), called IL TRIBOLO, and FRANCESCO SANGALLO (1498-1570),
+neither of whom were important artists, though many works by them are
+seen in various places in Italy.
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI (1500-1572) is a far more interesting study than were
+many sculptors of his time. His life was an eventful one, and his own
+account of it is one of the most interesting books of its class in
+existence. His statement of the origin of his family is that "Julius
+Cæsar had a chief and valorous captain named Fiorino da Cellino, from a
+castle situated four miles from Monte Fiascone. This Fiorino having
+pitched his camp below Fiesole, where Florence now stands, in order to
+be near the river Arno, for the convenience of the army, the soldiers
+and other persons, when they had the occasion to visit him, said to each
+other, 'Let us go to Fiorenza,' which name they gave to the place where
+they were encamped, partly from their captain's name of Fiorino, and
+partly from the abundance of flowers which grew there; wherefore Cæsar,
+thinking it a beautiful name, and considering flowers to be of good
+augury, and also wishing to honor his captain, whom he had raised from
+an humble station, and to whom he was greatly attached, gave it to the
+city which he founded on that spot."
+
+When this artist was born his father was quite old, and named him
+Benvenuto, which means welcome, on account of his pleasure in the child
+of his old age. The father had a passion for music, and from the first
+wished that his son should study this art; but the boy loved drawing,
+and was determined to be an artist; thus his time was divided between
+these two pursuits until he was fifteen years old, when he was
+apprenticed to a goldsmith.
+
+Benvenuto had a fiery temper, and when still very young he became
+involved in so serious a quarrel that he was obliged to flee from
+Florence. He went first to Siena, and thence to Bologna, and at last
+back to Florence, where he resumed his work. It was not long, however,
+before he became angry again because his best clothes were given to his
+brother, and he walked off to Pisa, where he remained a year. He had
+even then become so skilful in his art that some of his works done there
+have never been excelled either in design or execution.
+
+When Cellini was eighteen years old Torrigiano came to Florence to
+engage artists to go to England to aid him in some works he was to
+execute. He wished to have Cellini in the number; but Torrigiano so
+disgusted Benvenuto by his boasting of the blow that he had given
+Michael Angelo, that though he had the natural youthful desire to
+travel, he refused to be employed by such a man as Torrigiano. We can
+safely assume that this predisposed Michael Angelo in Cellini's favor,
+and was the foundation of the friendship which he afterward showed to
+the younger sculptor.
+
+From his eighteenth to his fortieth year Cellini lived mostly at Rome.
+He was employed by Pope Clement VII., the cardinals and Roman nobles.
+The Pope desired to have a cope button made and a magnificent diamond
+set in it. This jewel had cost Julius II. thirty-six thousand ducats.
+Many artists sent in designs for this button, and Clement chose that by
+Cellini. He used the diamond as a throne, and placed a figure of the
+Almighty upon it; the hand was raised as if in blessing, and many angels
+fluttered about the folds of the drapery, while various jewels were set
+around the whole. When other artists saw the design they did not believe
+that it could be executed successfully; but Cellini made it a perfect
+work of art and of beauty.
+
+Cellini writes of himself as being very active in the siege of Rome, May
+5th, 1527. He says that he killed the Constable de Bourbon, who led the
+siege, and that he wounded the Prince of Orange, who was chosen in
+Bourbon's place. No one else saw him perform these feats. Cellini went
+to the Pope, who was in the Castle of St. Angelo, and he there rendered
+such services to the cause of the Church that the Holy Father pardoned
+him for all the sins into which his temper had led him--"for all the
+homicides he had committed or might commit in the service of the
+Apostolic Church." A few years later, when Cellini was called upon to
+take part in the defence of his own city, he put all his property into
+the care of a friend, and stole away to Rome.
+
+In 1534 Cellini killed a fellow-goldsmith, called Pompeo; Paul III. was
+now Pope; and as he needed the services of Benvenuto very much he
+pardoned him. But the sculptor felt that he was in ill favor with all
+about him, and went to France. In about a year he returned to find that
+he had been accused of stealing some jewels which the pope had commanded
+him to take out of their settings. Cellini was held a prisoner nearly
+two years, but his guilt was never proved.
+
+At the end of this time the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este obtained his
+release in order that he might go to France to execute some work for
+Francis I. Cellini remained in France five years, and received many
+honors and gifts; but as Madame d'Étampes and other persons to whose
+advice the king listened were enemies of Cellini, he never was treated
+as his artistic qualities merited. Francis I. really admired Cellini,
+and presented him with the Hôtel de Petit Nesle, which was on the site
+of the present Hôtel de la Monnaie; he also made him a lord, and on one
+occasion expressed his fear of losing him, when Madame d'Étampes
+replied, "The surest way of keeping him would be to hang him on a
+gibbet."
+
+Of all the objects which Cellini made during his five years in France
+but two remain. One is a splendid salt-cellar, and the other is a nymph
+in bronze, which was made for the Palace of Fontainebleau, and is now in
+the Renaissance Museum of the Louvre. This salt-cellar is now in the
+Ambraser Gallery at Vienna. The frieze around the base has figures in
+relief which represent the hours of the day and the winds. The upper
+part is made like the surface of the sea, and from it rise figures of
+Neptune and Cybele. The first is a symbol of the salt of the sea, and
+the second of the spices which the earth gives. The god is placing his
+arm on a small ship intended for the salt, and a vessel for pepper, in
+the form of a triumphal arch, is near the goddess. All this is made of
+fine embossed gold, and has some touches of enamel-work. It is one of
+the finest pieces of the goldsmith's art which remains from the
+sixteenth century.
+
+In 1545 Cellini returned to Florence, and remained there, with short
+absences, until his death. Duke Cosmo de' Medici became his patron, and
+commissioned him to make a statue of Perseus for the Loggia de' Lanzi.
+The ambition of the artist was much excited by the thought of having his
+work placed by those of Donatello and Michael Angelo, and all care was
+taken from his mind, as the Duke provided him with a comfortable house
+and gave him a salary sufficient for his support.
+
+It was nine years before the statue was completed and in its place, and
+in this time Cellini had suffered much. Baccio Bandinelli and others
+were his enemies, and at times the Duke had been under their influence,
+and would not furnish the money necessary to the work. But at last all
+was ready for the casting; and just at this unfortunate moment for
+Cellini to leave it he was seized with a severe illness; he was
+suffering much, and believed himself about to die, when some one ran in
+shouting, "Oh, Benvenuto, your work is ruined past earthly remedy!"
+
+Ill as he was he rushed out to the furnace, to find that the fire was
+too low, and the metal, being cool, had ceased flowing into the mould.
+By almost superhuman efforts he remedied the evil, and again the bronze
+flowed; he prayed earnestly, and when the mould was filled he writes: "I
+fell on my knees and thanked God with all my heart, after which I ate a
+hearty meal with my assistants, and it being then two hours before dawn,
+went to bed with a light heart, and slept as sweetly as if I had never
+been ill in all my life."
+
+When the statue was unveiled Cellini's prediction that it would please
+all the world except Bandinelli and his friends was fulfilled. Perseus
+is represented just at the moment when he has cut off the head of
+Medusa, who was one of the Gorgons, and had turned to stone every one
+who looked at her. (Fig. 103.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--PERSEUS. _By Benvenuto Cellini._]
+
+After the completion of the Perseus, Cellini went to Rome for a short
+time. While there he made a bust of Bindo Altoviti; when Michael Angelo
+saw this he wrote: "My Benvenuto, I have long known you as the best
+goldsmith in the world, and I now know you as an equally good sculptor,
+through the bust of Messer Bindo Altoviti." Cellini did no more
+important works, though he was always industrious. He made a crucifix
+which he intended for his own grave, but he gave it to the Duchess
+Eleanora; this was afterward sent to Philip II. of Spain, and is now in
+the Escurial.
+
+Cellini's life was by no means a model one, but he had his good
+qualities. He took a widowed sister with six children to his home, and
+made them welcome and happy. At his death he was buried in the Church of
+the Annunziata, beneath the chapel of the Company of St. Luke, and many
+honors were paid to his memory.
+
+His autobiography was so rich in its use of the Florentine manner of
+speech and so fine in its diction that it was honored as an authority by
+the Accademia della Crusca. He also wrote valuable works on the
+goldsmith's art and on bronze-casting and sculpture. He wrote poems and
+various kinds of verses, but his large acquaintance with popes,
+cardinals, kings, artists, and men of letters makes his story of his
+life far more interesting than his other writings.
+
+The artists of Upper Italy were much influenced by Florentine art, as
+they had formerly been, and we can speak of no very great sculptor of
+this century who belonged to this part of the country. ALFONSO LOMBARDO
+(1488-1537) was a native of Lucca; his principal works are seen in
+Ferrara, Bologna, and Cesena.
+
+PROPERZIA DE' ROSSI (1490-1530) was born at Bologna, and is interesting
+as the one Italian sculptress of that time. She was born about a year
+after her father had returned from the galleys, where he had worked out
+a sentence of eighteen years for the crime of manslaughter. Properzia
+seems to have inherited her father's violent temper, and was twice
+arraigned in court. She was very beautiful in person, and had a devoted
+lover in Antonio Galeazzo Malvasia de' Bottigari, who did not marry
+until many years after the death of Properzia.
+
+Properzia studied drawing under Marc Antonio Raimondi, the famous
+engraver. She first devoted herself to the cutting of intaglios, which
+demanded an immense amount of patient labor. There is in the cabinet of
+gems in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence, a cherry-stone carved by
+Properzia, on which sixty heads may be counted; the subject is a Glory
+of Saints. Other like works of hers exist in the Palazzo Grassi, in
+Bologna. Her next work was in arabesques, marble ornaments, lions,
+griffins, vases, eagles, and similar objects.
+
+Finally she essayed a bust of Count Guido Pepoli; it is now in the
+Sacristy of San Petronio, in Bologna. In the same place are two
+bas-reliefs by her hand, Solomon receiving the Queen of Sheba, and
+Joseph and Potiphar's Wife. In the chapel Zambeccari in San Petronio
+there are two large figures of angels by Properzia, which are near the
+Ascension of the Virgin by Il Tribolo. Her manner was much influenced by
+her contact with this sculptor. Properzia was employed, with other
+artists, to finish the sculpture of the portal of San Petronio, left
+unfinished by Jacopo della Quercia.
+
+ANTONIO BEGARELLI (1499-1565), called also ANTONIO DA MODENA, from the
+place of his birth, was a celebrated modeller in clay. It is said that
+when Michael Angelo visited Modena in 1529 he saw Begarelli and his
+works, and exclaimed, "Alas for the statues of the ancients, if this
+clay were changed to marble!" Begarelli had a school for teaching design
+and modelling, and he greatly influenced the manner of the Lombard
+school of painting. Its foreshortening, its relief and grace are largely
+due to him and his teaching.
+
+Begarelli and Correggio were fast friends, and resembled each other in
+their conception of the grand and beautiful. When Correggio was
+decorating the cupola of the Cathedral of Parma, Begarelli was at work
+in the same place, and made many models from which Correggio painted his
+floating figures. Some works by Begarelli may be seen in the Berlin
+Museum. His Descent from the Cross, in the Church of San Francesco, at
+Modena, is one of his best works. He was also employed in the Church of
+San Benedetto, in Mantua, and in San Giovanni, at Parma.
+
+During the sixteenth century the works at the Certosa at Pavia and in
+various edifices in Milan were constantly carried on. Frequently the
+same sculptors worked in both cities, but there is no one artist of
+great excellence among them of whom we can give an account. The same is
+true of the works in Venice and in Southern Italy. The traveller sees
+many pieces of sculpture belonging to this period, but there are no
+great and interesting men whose story we can tell in connection with
+them, and I shall now pass to an account of the great Florentine.
+
+MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI (1475-1564) was born in the Castle of Caprese,
+where his father, Ludovico Buonarroti, was stationed at that time,
+holding the office of Podesta, or Governor, of the towns of Caprese and
+Chiusi. The Buonarroti family held good rank in Florence, and the mother
+of the great artist was also a woman of good position. When his father
+returned to Florence the child Michael was left at Settignano upon an
+estate of the family, and was in the care of the wife of a stone-mason.
+As soon as the boy could use his hands he drew pictures everywhere that
+it was possible, and his nurse could show many of these childish
+drawings with which he adorned the walls of her house.
+
+At a proper time Michael Angelo was removed to Florence and placed in a
+school, where he became intimate with Francesco Granacci, who was a
+pupil of the artist Ghirlandajo. Michael Angelo's father and his uncles
+were firmly opposed to his being an artist; they wished him to follow
+the traditions of his family, and carry on the silk and woollen trade.
+But the boy was firm in his determination, and after many trials was at
+length, in 1488, apprenticed to the Ghirlandaji for three years.
+
+Domenico Ghirlandajo was at this time engaged in the restoration of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella, and Michael Angelo came into the midst of
+great artistic works. One day at the dinner hour he drew a picture of
+the scaffolding and all its belongings, with the men at work on it; it
+was a remarkable drawing for a boy, and when the master saw it he
+exclaimed, "He understands more than I do myself!" The master really
+became jealous of his pupil, more especially when Michael Angelo
+corrected the drawings which Ghirlandajo gave his scholars for models.
+
+About this time Michael Angelo was brought to the notice of Lorenzo de'
+Medici, who was at that time at the head of the government of Florence,
+and from him the boy-artist obtained admission for himself and Granacci
+to study in the gardens of San Marco. The art treasures of the Medici
+were placed in these gardens; works of sculpture were there, and
+cartoons and pictures were hung in buildings erected for the purpose,
+and art-students were admitted to study there and proper instructors
+provided for them.
+
+The master in sculpture was old Bertoldo, and Michael Angelo, forsaking
+painting, obtained some instruments and a piece of marble, and copied a
+mask of a faun. He changed his own work somewhat from the model, and
+opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When Lorenzo saw this
+he praised the work, but said, "You have made your faun old, and yet you
+have left all his teeth; you should have known that at such an age there
+are generally some teeth wanting." When he came again he saw that a gap
+had been made in the teeth, and so well done that he was delighted. This
+work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.
+
+Very soon Lorenzo sent for Michael Angelo's father, who had been sad
+enough at the thought that his son might be a painter, and was now in
+despair when he found that he inclined also to be a stone-mason. At
+first he refused to see the duke, but Granacci persuaded him to go. He
+went with a firm determination to yield to nothing, but once in presence
+of Lorenzo he yielded everything, and returned home declaring that not
+only Michael, but he himself, and all that he had were at the nobleman's
+service.
+
+Lorenzo at once took Michael Angelo into his palace; he clothed the boy
+properly, and gave him five ducats a month for spending money. Each day
+Lorenzo gave an entertainment, and it was the rule that the first person
+who came should sit next the duke at the head of the table. Michael
+Angelo often had this place, and he soon became a great favorite with
+Lorenzo, and obtained besides the greatest advantages from the life in
+the palace; for many eminent men from all parts of the world came to
+visit there, and all sorts of subjects were discussed in such a manner
+that a young man could learn much of the world and what was in it, and
+acquire a feeling of ease with strangers and in society such as few
+young persons possess.
+
+Michael Angelo was but seventeen years old when Poliziano advised him to
+attempt an original work, and gave him the marble for a relief of the
+contest between Hercules and the Centaurs. This work surprised every
+one, and is still preserved in the collection of the Buonarroti family.
+In the year 1492 he also made a relief of the Madonna Suckling the Child
+Jesus, which is also in the same place. In the same year Lorenzo de'
+Medici died, and Michael Angelo, full of grief, went to his father's
+house and arranged a studio there. After a time Piero de Medici invited
+him to come back to the palace, and he went; but it was no more the
+same place as formerly, and he was unhappy there. Soon political
+troubles drove the Medici from power, and in 1494, in the midst of the
+confusion, Michael Angelo escaped to Venice. There he made friends with
+Gian Francesco Aldovrandi of Bologna, and was persuaded by that nobleman
+to accompany him to his own city.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S ANGEL. _Bologna._]
+
+While at Bologna he executed an angel holding a candelabra, which is one
+of the most lovely and pleasing things he ever made (Fig. 104). When he
+received the commission to ornament the sarcophagus which contained the
+remains of San Domenico in the Church of San Petronio, the Bolognese
+artists were so angry at being thus set aside for a stranger, and a
+youth of twenty, that they threatened vengeance on him, and he returned
+to Florence.
+
+It was at this time that he executed a Cupid, which was the means of
+leading him to Rome. The story is that when he had the statue completed
+Lorenzo de' Medici, a relative of his first patron, advised him to give
+it the appearance of an antique marble, and added that he would then
+sell it in Rome and get a good price for it. Michael Angelo consented to
+this plan, and in the end he received thirty ducats for the work. The
+secret of its origin was not kept, and the cardinal who had bought it
+sent an agent to Florence to find out the truth about it. This agent
+pretended to be in search of a sculptor; and when he saw Michael Angelo
+he asked him what works he had done. When he mentioned a Sleeping Cupid,
+and the agent asked questions, the young sculptor found that the
+cardinal had paid two hundred ducats for it, and that he had been
+greatly deceived when attempting to deceive others.
+
+Michael Angelo consented to go to Rome with this man, who promised to
+receive him into his own house, and assured him that he would be fully
+occupied in the Eternal City. The oldest writing by the hand of Michael
+Angelo is the letter which he wrote to Lorenzo telling him of his
+arrival in Rome; when this was written he was twenty-one years old. The
+first work which he did after he reached Rome was the "Drunken Bacchus,"
+now in the Uffizi Gallery; it shows a great knowledge of anatomy in one
+so young, and the expression of drunkenness is given in the most natural
+manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--PIETÀ. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+But the work that established his fame as a great sculptor is the Pietà,
+now in St. Peter's at Rome (Fig. 105). He was twenty-five years old when
+he executed this work, and from that time was acknowledged to be the
+greatest sculptor of Italy--a decision which has never been reversed.
+
+Soon after this Michael Angelo returned to Florence, and his first
+important work was a Madonna, now at Bruges; it is life-size, and one of
+his finest sculptures. There was at this time an immense block of marble
+which had lain many years in the yard to the workshops of the cathedral.
+Several sculptors had talked of making something from it, and now
+Michael Angelo was asked by the consuls to make something good of it. He
+had just taken an order for fifteen statues for the Piccolomini tomb at
+Siena; but when he saw the immense block he gave up the Siena work, and
+contracted to make a statue in two years. He was to be paid six gold
+florins a month, and as much more as could be agreed upon when the work
+was done. He first made a model in wax of his David; it was very small,
+and is now in the Uffizi. In the beginning of 1504, after about two
+years and a half had been spent upon it, the work was done, and a
+discussion then arose as to where it should be placed.
+
+At length it was decided to put it where Michael Angelo himself wished
+it to be, next the gate of the palace where the Judith of Donatello then
+stood. The statue weighed eighteen thousand pounds, and its removal was
+a work of great importance. I shall not give all the details of it here,
+but shall quote what Grimm says: "The erection of this David was like
+an occurrence in nature from which people are accustomed to reckon. We
+find events dated so many years after the erection of the giant. It was
+mentioned in records in which there was not a line respecting art."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S DAVID.]
+
+In 1527 the statue was injured by a stone thrown in a riot. At length it
+began to show the effect of time and weather, and the people of Florence
+talked of removing it for better preservation. There was much feeling
+against this; the Florentines feared that misfortunes would fall upon
+them if this great work were disturbed; but at last, in 1873, it was
+placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. It represents the youthful David at
+the moment when he declares to Goliath, "I come unto thee in the name of
+the Lord of Hosts." The beautiful figure is muscular and pliant, and
+the face is full of courage. (Fig. 106.)
+
+About the beginning of the year 1505 Pope Julius II. summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome, and after a time gave him a commission to build a
+colossal mausoleum to be erected for himself. The design was made and
+accepted, and then Michael Angelo went to Carrara to select marble;
+after much trouble he succeeded in getting it to Rome, where all who saw
+it were astonished at the size of the blocks. Pope Julius was delighted,
+and had a passage made from the palace to the workshop of the sculptor,
+so that he could visit the artist without being seen. Other sculptors
+now became jealous of Michael Angelo, and when he went a second time to
+Carrara, Bramante persuaded the pope that it was a bad sign to build his
+tomb while he was still living. When Michael Angelo returned and the
+workmen he had hired arrived from Florence, he found the pope much
+changed toward him. He no longer hastened the work, neither would he
+furnish money to carry it on.
+
+Michael Angelo sought the pope for an explanation, and was refused an
+audience. He wrote a letter thus: "Most Holy Father, I was this morning
+driven from the palace by the order of your Holiness. If you require me
+in future you can seek me elsewhere than in Rome." He ordered a Jew to
+sell all he possessed in Rome, and started for Florence, and stopped not
+until he was on the ground of Tuscany. The pope sent after him, but as
+he was a citizen of Florence he threatened the messengers if they
+touched him. He said he had been treated as a criminal, and he
+considered himself free from his engagements, and would not return then
+or ever.
+
+When he reached home a letter came to the Signory of Florence urging his
+return, and saying that he should be safe. But Michael waited until the
+third letter was received, and only consented to go when it was
+arranged that he should be sent as an ambassador of Florence, and be
+under the protection of the Florentine Republic.
+
+In November, 1506, when the pope had taken Bologna, he sent for Michael
+Angelo to come to him there. Michael Angelo had not yet seen the pope
+since he left Rome in anger. When he reached Bologna he went first to
+San Petronio to hear mass. A servant of the pope recognized him and led
+him to his Holiness. Julius was at table, but ordered that Michael
+Angelo should come in, and said to him, "You have waited thus long, it
+seems, till we should ourselves come to seek you." Michael Angelo
+kneeled down and begged his pardon, but added that he had remained away
+because he had been offended. The pope looked at him doubtfully, when
+one of the priests, fearing what would happen, advised the pope not to
+judge an ignorant artist as he would another man. Then the pope turned
+upon him in great anger, and declaring that he himself was ignorant and
+miserable, ordered him out of his sight. The poor ecclesiastic was so
+terrified that the attendants were obliged to carry him out, and then
+the pope spoke graciously to the sculptor, and commanded him not to
+leave Bologna without his permission. The pope soon gave him an order
+for a colossal statue in bronze to be erected in Bologna.
+
+The first cast of this statue failed, and the work was not ready to be
+put in its place until February, 1508. This being done, Michael Angelo
+returned to Florence, where he had much to do; but Julius soon sent for
+him to go to Rome, and insisted that he should paint the roof of the
+Sistine Chapel, which occupied him a long time.
+
+In 1513 Julius II. died, and Michael Angelo resumed his work upon his
+mausoleum. The pope had mentioned it in his will, and his heirs wished
+it to be completed. At this time he probably worked upon the statue of
+Moses and upon the two chained youths. He devoted himself to the
+mausoleum during three years.
+
+Leo X., who was now pope, demanded the services of Michael Angelo to
+erect a façade to the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. The artist
+objected to this great work, and declared that he was bound to complete
+the tomb for which he had already received money. But Leo insisted upon
+his going to Florence. He had much trouble to get his marble from the
+quarries--the men were ill there. He was ill himself, and he passed a
+year of great anxiety and trouble, when there came word from Rome that
+the work must be given up; the building was postponed, and no payment
+was made to Michael Angelo! He was much disheartened, but returned to
+his work on the mausoleum.
+
+About 1523, when, after many changes, Cardinal Medici was pope, the work
+at San Lorenzo was resumed. But in 1525 the pope again summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome. The heirs of Julius were complaining of delay, but at
+last the pope insisted upon his great need of the artist, and again he
+was sent back to Florence, where the cupola of the new Sacristy to San
+Lorenzo was soon finished. Great political confusion now ensued, and
+little can be said of Michael Angelo as a sculptor until 1530, when he
+again resumed his work on the Sacristy.
+
+He worked with the greatest industry and rapidity, and in a few months
+had nearly finished the four colossal figures which rest upon the
+sarcophagi of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici. The pope was forced to
+command the sculptor to rest. His health was so broken by the sorrow
+which the political condition of Florence caused him, and by his anxiety
+about the mausoleum of Julius, that there was much danger of his killing
+himself with work and worry. He went to Rome, and matters were more
+satisfactorily arranged. He returned to Florence, and labored there
+until 1534, when Clement VII. died, and Michael Angelo left his work
+in San Lorenzo, never to resume it. Unfinished as these sculptures are,
+they make a grand part of the wonderful works of this great man. The
+statues of the two Medici and those of Morning, Evening, Day, and Night
+would be sufficient to establish the fame of an artist if he had done
+nothing more. (Fig. 107.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--GIULIANO DE' MEDICI. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+Under the new pope, Paul III., he was constantly employed as a painter,
+and architectural labors were put upon him, so that as a sculptor we
+have no more works of his to mention except an unfinished group which
+was in his studio at the time of his death. It represents the dead
+Christ upon his mother's lap, with Joseph of Arimathea standing by. This
+group is now in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Cathedral of
+Florence. The mausoleum of Julius II. caused Michael Angelo and others
+so much trouble and vexation that the whole affair came to be known as
+the "tragedy of the sepulchre." When Julius first ordered it he intended
+to place it in St. Peter's, but in the end it was erected in the Church
+of San Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been the titular cardinal.
+Of all the monument but three figures can really be called the work of
+Michael Angelo. These are the Leah and Rachel upon the lower stage, and
+the Moses, which is one of the most famous statues in the world. Paul
+III., with eight cardinals, once visited the studio of the sculptor when
+he was at work upon this statue, and they declared that this alone was
+sufficient for the pope's monument (Fig. 108).
+
+The life of Michael Angelo was a sad one; indeed, it is scarcely
+possible to recount a more pathetic story than was his. The misfortunes
+which came to the Medici were sharp griefs to him, and his temperament
+was such that he could not forget his woes. His family, too, looked to
+him for large sums of money, and while he lived most frugally they spent
+his earnings. In his old age he said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived
+like a poor man."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--STATUE OF MOSES. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+In 1529, when Florence was under great political excitement, Michael
+Angelo was appointed superintendent of all the fortifications of the
+Florentine territory. In the midst of his duties he became aware of
+facts which determined him to fly. He went to Venice, and was proscribed
+as a rebel. We cannot stay here to inquire as to his wisdom in this, but
+must go on to say that at length he was so much needed that he was
+persuaded to return. Then he had the dreadful experiences of hope and
+fear, sickness and famine, and all the horrors of a siege, only to see
+his beloved home deprived of its freedom, and in the possession of those
+whom he despised and hated. To Michael Angelo this was far more bitter
+than any personal sorrow; he never recovered from its effects, and it
+was immediately after this that he worked in the Sacristy of San Lorenzo
+as if trying to kill himself.
+
+He was bold as he was angry. He was treated kindly, and advised to
+forget the past; but he never concealed his views. When his statue of
+Night was exhibited, verses were put upon it, according to the custom of
+the time; one verse read, "Night, whom you see slumbering here so
+charmingly, has been carved by an angel, in marble. She sleeps, she
+lives; waken her, if you will not believe it, and she will speak."
+
+To this Michael Angelo replied, "Sleep is dear to me, and still more
+that I am stone, so long as dishonor and shame last among us; the
+happiest fate is to see, to hear nothing; for this reason waken me not.
+I pray you, speak gently." He had great courage to speak his anger thus
+publicly in the midst of those who could easily destroy him.
+
+In 1537 or 1538 his father died, and the artist suffered terribly from
+his grief. He wrote a sonnet beginning:
+
+   "Already had I wept and sighed so much.
+   I thought all grief forever at an end,
+   Exhaled in sighs, shed forth in bitter tears."
+
+The religious views of Michael Angelo were very broad, and he had a
+trustful and obedient dependence upon God, in whose mercy and love he
+gratefully rested with the simple faith of a child. It was not far from
+the time when his father died that Michael Angelo first met Vittoria
+Colonna. He was now more than sixty years old; and though his poems show
+that he had loved children and women all his life, yet he had allowed
+himself no attachments; his life had been lonely and alone. Now, at this
+late hour, he yielded his heart to this beautiful, gifted woman, who
+returned his friendship with the fullest esteem. During these years he
+was happier than he had ever been. But in 1541 she fell under the
+suspicion of the Inquisition, and was obliged to leave Rome.
+
+During two years they wrote constantly to each other, and each sent to
+the other the sonnets they wrote. At this time all Italy read the poems
+of Vittoria, and those of Michael Angelo still stand the test of time.
+In them he shows the blessed effect of her influence over him. At length
+she returned to Rome and entered a convent, where she died in 1547.
+Michael Angelo was with her to the last, and years later he declared
+that he regretted nothing so much as that he had only kissed her hand,
+and not her forehead or cheeks in that last hour. His loss was far too
+great to be told. (An engraving of a portrait of Michael Angelo can be
+seen in Mrs. Clement's "Painting," p. 95.)
+
+In the year following Vittoria's death all the hopes which he had
+cherished for the freedom of Florence were crushed. High honors were
+offered him to induce him to return there, but he would not go. His
+health failed, his sadness increased, and his writings show how
+constantly he mourned for Vittoria. After this he did much work as an
+architect, and held the post of director of the building of St. Peter's.
+He superintended the erection of the statue of Marcus Aurelius, and
+completed the Farnese Palace, and had many improvements in mind.
+
+Now, in his old age, he was authority itself in Rome. He had no rival,
+and his advice was sought by artists as well as others. He lived very
+simply: he dined alone, and received his visitors in the plainest
+manner. Anatomy, which had always been a passion with him, was now his
+chief pursuit. He made many dissections of animals, and was grateful
+when a human subject could be allowed him.
+
+When he could not sleep he would get up at night and work upon the group
+of which we have spoken; he had a cap with a candle in it, so that it
+cast a light upon his work. Vasari once entered when he was at work upon
+this group, and had a lantern in his hand; he dropped it purposely, so
+that the sculpture should not be seen, and said: "I am so old that death
+often pulls me by the coat to come to him, and some day I shall fall
+down like this lantern, and my last spark of life will be extinguished."
+
+There are many very interesting circumstances told of his last years and
+his strength of mind, and the work which he did was wonderful; but we
+have not space to recount it here.
+
+At length, in February, 1564, when almost ninety years old, he died. He
+had asked to be buried in Florence. His friends feared that this would
+be opposed, so they held burial-services in Rome, and his body was
+afterward carried through the gates as merchandise. In Florence the body
+was first laid in San Piero Maggiore, and on Sunday, at evening, the
+artists assembled, and forming a procession, proceeded to Santa Croce,
+where he was buried. The younger artists bore the bier upon their
+shoulders, and the older ones carried torches to light the way. A great
+multitude followed the procession, and in the Sacristy of Santa Croce
+the coffin was opened; though three weeks had passed since his death,
+his face appeared as if he had just died; the crowd was very great, but
+all was quiet, and before morning it had dispersed. The Duke had thought
+that a public funeral would recall old memories, and might cause a
+disturbance; but Michael Angelo had left Florence thirty years before
+his death, and his connection with the city was forgotten by many.
+
+The July following was appointed for a memorial service in his honor;
+San Lorenzo was splendidly decorated; Varchi delivered an oration.
+Leonardo, his nephew, erected a monument to him in Santa Croce, for
+which the Duke gave the marble. His statue stands in the court of the
+Uffizi with those of other great Florentines, but with no especial
+prominence. His house in the Ghibelline Street is preserved as a museum,
+and visitors there see many mementos of this great man.
+
+In 1875 a grand festival was held in Florence to celebrate the four
+hundredth anniversary of his birth. The ceremonies were impressive, and
+certain documents relating to his life which had never been opened, by
+command of the king, were given to suitable persons for examination. Mr.
+Heath Wilson, an English artist, then residing at Florence, wrote a new
+life of Michael Angelo, and the last signature which Victor Emmanuel
+wrote before his death was upon the paper which conferred on Mr. Wilson
+the Order of the _Corona d'Italia_, given as a recognition of his
+services in writing this book.
+
+The national pride in Michael Angelo is very strong. "All Italians feel
+that he occupies the third place by the side of Dante and Raphael, and
+forms with them a triumvirate of the greatest men produced by their
+country--a poet, a painter, and one who was great in all arts. Who would
+place a general or a statesman by their side as equal to them? It is art
+alone which marks the prime of nations."
+
+The genius of Michael Angelo and his spirit were powerful forces. They
+pervaded the whole art of Italy to such an extent that it may be said
+that all sculptors were his imitators, both while he lived and after his
+death. He loved to treat strong subjects, such as demanded violent
+movement and unusual positions. It was only a man of his genius who
+could raise such subjects above grotesqueness and the one effect of
+strange and unnatural exaggeration. As we look over all his works it
+seems as if the idea of beauty and such things as are pleasing to the
+ordinary mind rarely, if ever, came to his mind. Noble feeling, depth of
+thought, strength, and grandeur are the associations which we have with
+him, and in the hands of weaker men, as his imitators were, these
+subjects became barren, hollow displays of distorted limbs and soulless
+heads and faces.
+
+The result is, that there is little to be said of the immediate
+followers of this great man. GUGLIELMO DELLA PORTA was one of his most
+able scholars, and his chief work was a monument to Pope Paul III. in
+the Church of St. Peter's. The figure of the pope is in bronze, is
+seated, and holding the right hand in benediction. It is dignified and
+well designed. The figures of Justice and Prudence are not as good, and
+two others, Peace and Abundance, which were a part of this work, but are
+now in the Farnese Palace, lack power, and show an attempt at a
+representation of mere physical beauty.
+
+BACCIO BANDINELLI (1487-1559) is more noticeable for his hatred of
+Michael Angelo than for any other characteristic. He was a native of
+Florence and a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. He was powerful in his
+design and bold in his treatment of his subjects, but he was full of
+affectation and mannerisms in his execution of his works. He was false
+and envious, and his one good quality was that of industry. His best
+works are on the screen of the high-altar in the Cathedral of Florence,
+a relief on a pedestal in the Piazza of San Lorenzo, in Florence, and a
+group in the Church of the Annunziata, which he intended for his own
+monument; the subject is Nicodemus supporting Christ, and the Nicodemus
+is a portrait of Bandinelli himself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA.
+
+
+Not only Italian artists attempted to follow the great sculptor of
+Italy, but those of other nations flocked to Rome, and whatever ideas
+they may have had before reaching that city they seemed to lose them all
+and to aim simply at one thing--to be Michaelangeloesque.
+
+GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA (1529-1608) was born in Douai, in Flanders, and was
+called Il Fiammingo for this reason. Giovanni was intended for a notary
+by his father, who planned his education with that end in view; but the
+boy's passion for sculpture was so great that the father was obliged to
+yield to it, and placed him under the instruction of a sculptor named
+Beuch, who had studied in Italy. Later Giovanni went to Rome, and
+finally settled in Florence, where his most important works remain.
+
+He was an imitator of Michael Angelo, and one of his best imitators; but
+when his works are compared with those of the great master, or with the
+masterpieces of the fifteenth century, we see a decline in them. In
+religious subjects Giovanni was not at home; his most successful works
+were those which represented sentiment or abstract ideas, because on
+them he could lavish his skill in execution, and use ornaments that did
+not suit the simplicity of religious subjects. In the Loggia de' Lanzi,
+at Florence, there are two groups by him, the Rape of the Sabines and
+Hercules and Nessus. In the Piazza della Signoria is his excellent
+statue of Duke Cosmo I., and in the Uffizi Gallery a bronze statue of
+Mercury. The Rape of the Sabines is his masterpiece, and the Mercury is
+one of the best works of its kind since the days of classic art. It is
+the favorite Mercury of the world, and has been frequently copied. It is
+seen in many galleries and collections in its original size, and a small
+copy is much used in private houses. (Fig. 109.)
+
+Giovanni was especially happy in his designs for fountains, and that
+which he erected in Bologna, in 1564, in front of the Palazzo Pubblico,
+is a splendid work of this kind. The statue of Neptune at its summit is
+stately and free in its action; the children are charming and life-like,
+and the Sirens at the base give an harmonious finish and complete the
+outline with easy grace.
+
+He also erected a magnificent fountain in the island of the Boboli
+Gardens. In the Palazzo Vecchio is a marble group by Giovanni
+representing Virtue conquering Vice. At Petraja there is a beautiful
+Venus crowning a fountain remarkable for grace and delicacy, and, all in
+all, his works prove him to have been the best sculptor of his own time.
+Tuscany may claim him and be proud of him, for he was far more her son
+than that of his native Flanders.
+
+Giovanni da Bologna was far less successful in reliefs than in statues,
+as may be seen in the bronze gates to the Cathedral of Pisa, which he
+made in the last years of his life. In his character this master was
+attractive and much beloved by his friends. One of them wrote of him:
+"The best fellow in the world, not in the least covetous, as he shows by
+his poverty; filled with a love of glory, and ambitious of rivalling
+Michael Angelo."
+
+Giovanni decorated a chapel in the Church of the Annunziata with several
+reliefs in bronze and with a crucifix; he not only wished to be buried
+here himself, as he was, but he also desired to provide a place of
+burial for any of his countrymen who might die in Florence. The chapel
+is called that of the Madonna del Soccorso.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--MERCURY. _By Giovanni da Bologna._]
+
+The decline of sculpture in Italy at this period makes its study so
+unpromising that it is a pleasure to turn to France, where the works of
+JEAN GOUJON show that he had the true idea of sculpture in relief. From
+1555 to 1562 this sculptor was employed on the works at the Louvre, and
+during the massacre of St. Bartholomew he was shot while on a scaffold
+quietly working at a bas-relief on that palace.
+
+Goujon was an architect as well as a sculptor, and also a medal
+engraver, as is shown by the curious and rare medal which he made for
+Catherine de' Medici. Many of his works are preserved in different parts
+of France, and some bas-reliefs in the Museum of the Louvre are
+excellent specimens of his style.
+
+One also sees in France many works by GERMAIN PILON, who died in 1590.
+He executed the monument to Francis I., and took a part in that of Henry
+II. and Catherine de' Medici at the Church of St. Denis. He was the
+sculptor of the group of the three Graces in the Louvre, which formerly
+bore an urn containing the heart of Henry II., and was in the Church of
+the Celestines.
+
+But the sculptors of France at this time are not of such interest as to
+hold our attention long. There was a certain amount of spirit in their
+decorations of palaces and tombs, but there were no men of great genius,
+and no splendid works upon which we can dwell with pleasure or profit.
+
+In Germany, too, while there was much activity in sculpture, and public
+fountains and luxurious palaces and rich ornaments employed many
+artists, yet there was no originality or freshness in these works, and
+they fell below those of the past. Bronzes are still made at Nuremberg,
+but they only serve to make one regret that they are so inferior to
+those of earlier days; and nowhere in all Germany does any one artist
+stand out and present a man to be studied in his works or remembered as
+one of the gifted of the earth. And yet a list of the names of German
+sculptors of this time would be very long, for all over the land
+churches were being decorated, monuments built, and statues and
+fountains erected.
+
+In England the best sculpture of the sixteenth century was seen in the
+portrait statues on monuments, and we find no great artists there of
+whom to give an account.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--RELIEF BY BERRUGUETE. _Valladolid._]
+
+In Spain ALONSO BERRUGUETE (1480-1561), who was the most eminent artist
+of his time, had introduced the Italian manner. He went to Italy about
+1503, and studied in Rome and Florence during seventeen years. This was
+at the time when Italian sculpture was at the height of its excellence;
+and Berruguete returned to Spain filled with the purest and best
+conceptions of what art should be, and the ends it should serve. He has
+been called the Michael Angelo of Spain, because he was an architect,
+painter, and sculptor.
+
+Upon his return to Spain he was appointed painter and sculptor to
+Charles V. Among his most celebrated works in sculpture are the reliefs
+in the choir of the Cathedral at Toledo; the altar in the Church of San
+Benito el Real at Valladolid (Fig. 110), for which he was paid
+forty-four hundred ducats, and his sculptures in the Collegio Mayor at
+Salamanca. His final work was a monument to the Cardinal and Grand
+Inquisitor, Don Juan de Tavera, which is in the Church of the Hospital
+of St. John at Toledo. The sarcophagus is ornamented by reliefs from the
+story of John the Baptist, which are executed in an excellent manner,
+simple and expressive.
+
+Other Spanish sculptors were ESTEBAN JORDAN, an eminent wood-carver,
+GREGORIO HERNANDEZ (1566-1636), who has been called "the sculptor of
+religion." His works are so full of a spirit of devotion that they seem
+to have been executed under an inspiration. Hernandez was very devout in
+his life, and did many works of charity; he often provided decent burial
+for the very poor who died without friends who could bury them.
+
+Many of his works have been removed from the chapels for which they were
+designed, and are now in the Museum of Valladolid, where they are not as
+effective as when placed in their original positions. He is superior to
+other Spanish sculptors in his representation of nude figures and in the
+grandeur of his expression.
+
+JUAN DE JUNI (died 1614) studied in Italy, and acquired much mannerism;
+his works are seen in Valladolid.
+
+JUAN MARTINEZ MONTAÑES (died 1650) was a famous sculptor, and excelled
+in figures of children and cherubs. His conceptions had much beauty and
+depth of feeling, and his draperies were most graceful; and to this
+power of thinking out clearly and well the subject he wished to
+represent he added the ability to do his work in an artistic manner, and
+to give it an elegance of finish without taking away its strength. A
+Conception by him, in the Cathedral of Seville, is a noble work, and in
+the university church of the same city there is an altar which is one of
+his important works. Other sculptures by Montañes are in the Museum of
+Seville.
+
+The great ALONSO CANO (1601-1667) was a pupil of Montañes in sculpture,
+and, like so many other artists of his time, was a painter and architect
+as well as a sculptor. His personal history is very peculiar. He was a
+man of violent temper, and was often involved in serious quarrels. He
+was obliged to flee from Granada to Madrid on account of a duel, and
+when his wife was found murdered in her bed he was suspected of the
+crime. In spite of all this he took priest's orders, and was appointed
+to a canonry in the Cathedral of Granada; but on account of his temper
+he was deprived of this office by the chapter of the cathedral. He was
+so angry at this that he would do no more work for the cathedral.
+
+He devoted the remainder of his life to religious and charitable works.
+He gave away the money he earned as soon as he received it, and when he
+had no money to give away he was in the habit of making drawings, which
+he signed and marked with a suitable price; these he gave to the person
+he desired to assist, and recommended some person to whom application to
+buy the work could be made. After his death a large number of these
+charitable works was collected.
+
+He hated Jews with such hatred that he could not endure to look at one,
+and many strange stories are told of him in connection with these
+people.
+
+He loved his chisel better than his brush, and was accustomed to say
+that when weary he carved for rest. One of his pupils expressed great
+surprise at this, when Cano answered, "Blockhead, don't you perceive
+that to create form and relief on a flat surface is a greater service
+than to fashion one shape into another?"
+
+The most beautiful sculpture by Cano which remains is a Virgin about a
+foot high in the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Granada, where there are
+several other statuettes by him. These are colored in a manner which the
+Spaniards call "estofado;" it has the effect to soften the whole
+appearance of the works, like an enamel. At the entrance of the choir of
+the cathedral there are two colossal busts by Cano; they are grand
+works, and are called Adam and Eve.
+
+PEDRO ROLDAN (1624-1700), born at Seville, is an interesting sculptor
+because of his work, and on account of his being the last one whose
+manner was like that of Juni and Hernandez. His first celebrated work
+was the high-altar in the chapel of the Biscayans in the Franciscan
+convent. When the Caridad, or Hospital of Charity, was restored, Roldan
+executed the last great work in painted sculpture; it was an immense
+piece for the centre of the retablo of the high-altar of the church, and
+represented the Entombment of Christ.
+
+Seville abounds in his works, and he executed bas-reliefs in stone for
+the exterior of the Cathedral at Jaen. He was so devoted to his art that
+he felt every moment to be lost that was not spent in its service. He
+married a lady of good family, and lived in the country; when obliged to
+go to Seville he was accustomed to carry a lump of clay, and model from
+it as he rode along. Roldan was not by any means the best of Spanish
+sculptors, but he had great skill in the composition of his works, and
+the draperies and all the details were carefully studied. His daughter,
+Doña Luisa Roldan, studied sculpture under her father's instruction, and
+became a good artist; he was accustomed to allow her to superintend her
+studio and his pupils. She often aided him by her suggestions, and on
+one occasion, when a statue that he had made was rejected, she pointed
+out to him certain anatomical defects, which he remedied, and the whole
+appearance of the work was so changed that it was thought to be new, and
+was accepted for the place for which it had been ordered.
+
+The works executed by Doña Luisa were principally small figures of the
+Virgin, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and kindred subjects. Several of
+these were presented to King Charles II., and he was so pleased by them
+that he ordered a life-size statue of St. Michael for the Church of the
+Escorial. She executed this to his satisfaction, and he then appointed
+her sculptress in ordinary to the king. She died at Madrid in 1704,
+surviving her father but four years. She left works in various convents
+and churches.
+
+In Italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century a new era in
+sculpture was inaugurated. Art was now required to serve the Church in
+the way of appealing to sentiments and feeling in a far coarser and more
+sensational a manner than formerly. Painting was suited to these
+purposes far more than sculpture, and it had been raised to great
+heights, in Spain, by Murillo, in the North by Rubens and his followers,
+and in Italy by numerous masters.
+
+Lübke says of this period: "All that was now demanded of art was effect
+and feeling at any price. The one was attained through the other. A
+passionate excitement pulsates throughout all artistic works; the ideal
+repose of the former altar-pieces no longer satisfied. Longing,
+devotional ardor, passionate rapture, enthusiastic ecstasy--these are
+the aims of the new art. No longer the solemn dignity of the saint, but
+the nervous visions of enraptured monks, are its ideal. It delights in
+thrilling delineations of martyrdom, seeking to render such scenes as
+effective and touching as possible. A desire for substantial power, a
+political-religious tendency, had taken possession of art, and had
+adapted it to its own objects. That, under such circumstances, painting
+reaches a new and truly artistic importance may be traced above all to
+the great masters who now cultivated the art, and still more to the tone
+of the age, which promoted it in a rare measure.... The same spirit,
+however, which imparted such genuine importance to painting produced the
+ruin of sculpture. This epoch, more than any other, is a proof that the
+greatest men of talent, appearing in a perverted age, are carried by
+their very genius all the more certainly to ruin. All that, in a more
+favorable period, would have raised them to be stars in the art
+firmament, now made them fall like some _ignis fatuus_, the brilliant
+light of which owes its illusory existence only to miasma. This striking
+fact appears, at first sight, inexplicable; but it is easy to
+understand, if we consider the different character of the two arts.
+Plastic art had formerly emulated painting, and thus, especially in
+relief, had suffered unmistakable injury to its own peculiar nature. At
+that time, however, painting itself was full of architectural severity
+and plastic nobleness of form. Now, when everything depended on striking
+effect and speaking delineation of passionate emotions, it was compelled
+to have recourse to naturalistic representation, to freer arrangements
+and to more striking forms that emulated reality. If, however,
+sculpture, which could not keep pace with its rival in the enamelled
+coloring and mysterious charm of the _chiaro-oscuro_ which it brought
+into the field, would, in anywise, do the same as painting, it was
+compelled to plunge regardlessly into the same naturalism of forms and
+into the same bold display of passion with which painting produced such
+grand effects. And this sculpture did without the slightest scruple, and
+in this lack of an artistic conscience its whole glory perished. It is
+true in this passion for excited compositions an excess of splendid
+works were produced; it is true immense resources were expended, and
+able artists were employed; but such inner hollowness stares at us with
+inanimate eye from the greater number of these works that we turn from
+them with repugnance, and even often with disgust."
+
+The artist who first met this new demand upon sculpture, and may be
+called the founder of a new style, was GIOVANNI LORENZO BERNINI
+(1598-1680), a very gifted man. When but ten years old this remarkable
+genius was known as a prodigy in art, and it was at this early age that
+his father took him to Rome. Pope Paul V. was soon interested in him,
+and Cardinal Barberini assisted him in his studies; from this fortunate
+beginning all through his life good fortune attended his steps. He lived
+through the pontificate of nine popes, and was always in favor with the
+reigning head of the Church. This gave him the opportunity to fill Rome
+with his works, and he imprinted himself upon the art of the Eternal
+City; no artist since the time of Michael Angelo held such sway, and
+Bernini acquired his power easily, while the grand Michael Angelo was
+disputed at every step, and fought a long, hard battle before he was
+allowed to take the place which was so clearly his by right.
+
+The fame of Bernini extended to other lands, and he was invited to
+France, where he went when sixty-eight years old, accompanied by one of
+his sons and a numerous retinue. He was loaded with favors, and received
+large sums of money and many valuable presents. In Rome, too, he was
+much favored; he held several church benefices, and his son was made a
+Canon of Santa Maria Maggiore; and it was in this church that Bernini
+was buried with great magnificence, as became his position and his
+wealth, for he left the immense fortune of four hundred thousand Roman
+crowns.
+
+Bernini had great versatility of talent, a remarkable imagination and
+power of conceiving his subjects clearly, and, more than all, he had
+marvellous power of execution and compelling his marble to show forth
+his thought. It has been said that marble was like wax or clay beneath
+his hand. He was subject to no rules; indeed, he believed that an artist
+must set aside all rules if he would excel. This sounds very
+fascinating, but a study of Bernini's works will show that it is a
+deceitful maxim. A man of small talent could do nothing in this way, and
+even Bernini, who without doubt had great gifts, often failed to make up
+in any way for the sins against rules of which he was guilty.
+Westmacott, in his writing upon sculpture, says it would have been
+better for art if Bernini had never lived; and it is true that in his
+struggle for effect he was an injury rather than a benefit to the art of
+his own day and the succeeding years.
+
+The worst defect in the sculpture of Bernini is his treatment of the
+human body. At times he exaggerates the muscular power beyond all
+resemblance to nature, and again he seems to leave out all anatomy and
+soften the body to a point that far exceeds possibility. This softness
+is seen in his Apollo and Daphne, which shows the moment when she is
+suddenly changed into a laurel-tree in order to escape the pursuit of
+the young god. This group is in the Villa Borghese, at Rome; it was
+executed when Bernini was but eighteen years old, and near the close of
+his life he declared that he had made little progress after its
+production.
+
+But he reached the height of this objectionable manner in his
+representation of the Rape of Proserpine, which is in the Villa
+Ludovisi. The Pluto is a rough, repulsive man, with whom no association
+of a god can be made, and the Proserpine is made a soulless, sensual
+figure, so far from attractive in a pure sense that we are almost
+willing that Pluto should carry her to some region from which she is not
+likely to come back. At the same time we are sorry not to provide her
+with an ointment for the blue marks which the big hands of Pluto are
+making on her soft flesh. The plain truth is, that this work makes a low
+and common thing of a subject which could be so treated as to be a
+"thing of beauty" in a charming sense. (Fig. 111.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--RAPE OF PROSERPINE. _By Bernini._]
+
+Bernini executed a statue of St. Bibiana for the church of that saint at
+Rome, and one of St. Longinus in one of the niches to the dome of St.
+Peter's; he also made the designs for the one hundred and sixty-two
+statues in the colonnades of St. Peter's, and for the decorations of the
+bridge of St. Angelo; in such works, almost without exception, he chose
+some moment in the lives of the persons represented that called for a
+striking attitude and gave an opportunity for an effect that is often
+theatrical. As a mere decoration such statues have a certain value of an
+inferior sort; but as works of art, as intellectual efforts, they are
+worthless. However, this decorative effect, as it is seen on the façade
+of the Lateran, where the figures stand out against the sky, or on the
+bridge of St. Angelo, is not by any means to be despised; only we cannot
+call a sculptor a great artist when he can do nothing finer than this.
+
+Some of Bernini's works in which he shows intense suffering have more
+genuine feeling, and are finer in artistic qualities. One of these is
+Pietà, in the chapel of St. Andreas Corsini in the Lateran. But he
+frequently goes beyond the bounds of good taste, as, for example, on the
+monument to Pope Urban VIII., in St. Peter's, where he represents Death
+with his bony hand writing the inscription on the panel; this is truly
+terrible, and not less so is another Death upon the monument of
+Alexander VII., raising the marble curtain before the entrance to the
+vault, as if he were inviting one to walk in. Many objections can be
+made to his draperies. He exaggerated the small curtains seen on some
+ancient tombs until they were huge objects of ugliness; the drapery upon
+his figures is so prominently treated that instead of being a minor
+object it sometimes seems like the principal one; it no longer serves to
+conceal forms, and at the same time show their grace and motion, but it
+is inflated, fluttering, grotesque in form and quite absurd when
+compared with statues in which it answers its true purpose.
+
+Charles I. of England heard so much of Bernini that he desired to have a
+statue of himself executed by this sculptor; three of Vandyck's
+portraits of the king were sent to him, and the likeness of the statue
+was so satisfactory to the monarch that he sent the artist six thousand
+crowns and a ring worth as much more.
+
+Bernini executed a colossal equestrian statue of Constantine for the
+portico of St. Peter's; he made another of Louis XIV., which was changed
+into a Marcus Curtius, and sent to Versailles. He also executed the
+fountain in the Piazza Navona, at Rome, which is one of his exaggerated
+works.
+
+FRANÇOIS DUQUESNOY (1594-1646) was born at Brussels, and was known in
+Rome as Il Fiammingo. The Archduke Albert sent him to Rome to study, and
+he was a contemporary of Bernini. When his patron died Duquesnoy was
+left without means, and was forced to carve small figures in ivory for
+his support. His figures of children, which were full of life and
+child-like expression, became quite famous. An important work of his in
+this way is the fountain of the Manneken-Pis, at Brussels.
+
+His masterpiece is a colossal statue of St. Andrew in the Church of St.
+Peter's; it occupied him five years, and is one of the best works of
+modern art. His statue of St. Susanna in the Church of Santa Maria di
+Loreto, in Rome, is simple and noble, and is much admired. Little is
+known of this artist's life, and it is said that he was poisoned by his
+brother when on his way to France.
+
+There was a goodly company of sculptors following Bernini, but none
+whose works or life was of sufficient importance or interest to demand
+our attention here, and we will pass to the sculpture of France, where
+the arts were less devoted to the service of the Church and more to the
+uses of kings, princes, and noblemen. The court of France was devoted to
+pomp and pleasure, and sculpture was used for the glorification of the
+leaders in all its follies. In one sense this is more agreeable than the
+art in Italy which we have been considering, for nothing can be more
+disagreeable than a false religious sentiment in art; it is only when
+the artist is filled with true devotion and feels deeply in his own soul
+all that he tries to express in his work that religious representations
+can appeal to us agreeably or benefit us by their influence.
+
+SIMON GUILLAIN (1581-1658) is especially interesting as the sculptor of
+the statue of Louis XIV. as a boy, which is in the Louvre; those of his
+parents are also there; formerly they decorated the Pont au Change.
+Other works by this master are in the same museum.
+
+JACQUES SARRAZIN (1588-1660) is only known by his works, which are now
+in the Louvre, of which a bronze bust of the Chancellor Pierre Séguier
+is worthy of notice.
+
+FRANÇOIS ANGUIER (1604-1669) was born at Eu, in Normandy, and was the
+son of a carpenter, who taught his son to carve in wood at an early age.
+When still quite young François went to Paris to study, and later to
+Rome. He became one of the first artists of his time in France, and was
+a favorite of the king, Louis XIII., who made him keeper of the gallery
+of antiquities, and gave him apartments in the Louvre. Most of his
+important works were monuments to illustrious men. His copies of antique
+sculptures were very fine.
+
+MICHEL ANGUIER (1612-1686) was a brother of the preceding, with whom he
+studied until they both went to Rome. Michel remained there ten years,
+and was employed with other artists in St. Peter's and in some palaces.
+In 1651 he returned to Paris, and assisted François in the great work of
+the tomb of the Duke de Montmorenci at Moulins.
+
+Michel executed a statue of Louis XIII., which was cast in bronze. He
+adorned the apartments of Queen Anne of Austria in the Louvre, and for
+her executed the principal sculptures in the Church of Val de Grace; a
+Nativity in this church is his best work. His sculptures are seen in
+various churches, and he also executed statues of ancient gods and vases
+for garden ornaments. He was a professor in the Academy of Arts in
+Paris, and wrote lectures on sculpture.
+
+FRANÇOIS GIRARDON (1630-1715), born at Troyes, was a _protégé_ of the
+Chancellor Séguier. Louis XIV. gave him a pension, by which he was
+enabled to study in Rome, and after his return to France the king gave
+him many commissions. The monument to Cardinal Richelieu in the Church
+of the Sorbonne is from the hand of this sculptor. Perhaps his
+best-known work is the Rape of Proserpine at Versailles. He made an
+equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in the Revolution;
+a model of it in bronze is in the Louvre. His bust of Boileau is a
+strong, fine work. Many of his sculptures were destroyed by the
+revolutionists.
+
+A devoted follower of Bernini was PIERRE PUGET (1622-1694). His works
+are seen at the Louvre and at Versailles. His group of Milo of Crotona
+endeavoring to free himself from the claws of the lion is full of life
+and is natural, but the subject is too repulsive to be long examined;
+his Perseus liberating Andromeda is more agreeable, and is noble in its
+forms and animated in expression. His Alexander and Diogenes is in
+relief, and is effective and picturesque.
+
+ANTOINE COYSEVOX (1640-1720) was born at Lyons, and manifested his
+artistic talent very early in life. Before he was seventeen years old he
+had distinguished himself by a statue of the Virgin, and progressed
+rapidly in his studies, which he made in Paris. In 1667 he was engaged
+by Cardinal Furstenburg to go to Alsace to decorate his palace; this
+occupied him four years. When he again went to Paris he became a very
+eminent artist. He executed a statue of Louis XIV., and received a
+commission from the province of Bretagne for an equestrian statue of the
+same monarch.
+
+Among his best works are the tomb of Cardinal Mazarin; the tomb of the
+great Colbert in the Church of St. Eustache; the monument of Charles le
+Brun in the Church of St. Nicolas; the statue of the great Condé; the
+marble statue of Louis XIV., in the Church of Notre Dame, and others. In
+the tomb of Mazarin he showed fine powers of construction and excellence
+of design. The kneeling figure of the minister is a dignified statue and
+well executed; the statues in bronze of Prudence, Peace, and Fidelity,
+and the marble figures of Charity and Religion are each and all noble
+works, and free to a remarkable degree from the mannerisms and faults of
+his time.
+
+NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was a nephew and pupil of Coysevox. He took
+the grand prize at Paris, and went to Rome to study when he was
+twenty-three years old. He made many copies of the antique. After his
+return to France he was much employed. His chief work was a colossal
+representation of the Junction of the Seine and the Marne. He also made
+for the city of Lyons a bronze statue representing the river Saone. Some
+of his sculptures are in the Church of Notre Dame.
+
+GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1678-1746), brother of Nicolas, also gained the grand
+prize and went to Rome, and on his return made a fine reputation. Much
+of his best work was for the gardens of Marly; he executed a bronze
+statue of the Rhone at Lyons; a bas-relief of Christ with the Doctors,
+at Versailles, and statues of Louis XIV. and Cardinal Dubois, in the
+Museum of French Monuments.
+
+JEAN BAPTISTE PIGALLE (1714-1785) is the last French sculptor of whom I
+shall speak here. He was born in Paris, and gained his first fame by a
+statue of Mercury; but his masterpiece was the tomb of Marshal Moritz of
+Saxony, in the Church of St. Thomas, at Strasburg. The soldier is
+represented in his own costume, just as he wore it in life, about to
+enter a tomb, on one side of which stands a skeleton Death, and on the
+other a mourning Hercules. A statue representing France tries to hold
+him back, and a Genius attends on him with an inverted torch. There are
+many accessories of military emblems and trophies. There have been
+several engravings made from this tomb, the best part of which is the
+figure of the Marshal.
+
+Pigalle was a favorite with Mme. Pompadour, of whom he made a portrait
+statue. She employed him to do many works for her. His best monument in
+Paris is that of the Comte d'Harcourt, in the Church of Notre Dame.
+
+In the Netherlands, as in Italy, the painting of the time had a great
+effect upon sculpture, and it was full of energy, like the pictures of
+the Rubens school; at the same time there remained traces of the
+traditions of former days, and while a great change had come since the
+days of Vischer, there was still a firm adherence to nature, and no
+such affectations and mannerisms existed here as were seen in the works
+of Bernini and his followers in Italy and France.
+
+One of the ablest sculptors of his day was ARTHUR QUELLINUS, who was
+born at Antwerp in 1607. He studied under Duquesnoy, and was especially
+happy in his manner of imagining his subjects, and of avoiding the
+imitation of others or a commonplace treatment of his own. The
+magnificent Town Hall of Antwerp was commenced in 1648, and Quellinus
+received the commission to decorate it with plastic works. His
+sculptures are numerous, both on the interior and exterior of the
+edifice. In the two pediments he introduced allegorical representations
+of the power of the city of Antwerp, especially in her commerce. These
+compositions are picturesque in their arrangement, but the treatment is
+such as belongs to sculpture; in one of these a figure which represents
+the city is enthroned like a queen, and is surrounded by fantastic
+sea-gods, who offer their homage to her. (Fig. 112.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--CARYATIDE. _Quellinus._]
+
+We cannot give a list of many detached works by Quellinus, but one of
+the best of the old monuments in Berlin is attributed to him. It is the
+tomb of Count Sparr in the Marienkirche.
+
+At the present day Berlin is a city of much artistic importance, and the
+beginning of its present architectural and sculptural prominence may be
+dated at about the end of the seventeenth century, not quite two hundred
+years ago. One of the most influential artists of that time was ANDREAS
+SCHLÜTER (1662-1714), who was born in Hamburg. His father was a sculptor
+of no prominence, but he took his son with him to Dantzig, where many
+Netherlandish artists were employed upon the buildings being constructed
+there. Andreas Schlüter was naturally gifted, and he devoted himself to
+the study of both architecture and sculpture, at home and later in
+Italy. Before he was thirty years old he was employed in important
+affairs in Warsaw, and in 1694 he was summoned to Berlin, where he
+executed the plastic ornaments of the Arsenal; the heads of the Dying
+Warriors above the windows in the court-yard are remarkable works. They
+are very fine when regarded only as excellent examples of good
+sculpture, and they are very effective placed as they are, for they seem
+to tell the whole tragic story of what a soldier's life and fate must
+often be (Fig. 113).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--HEADS OF DYING WARRIORS. _By Schlüter._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE GREAT ELECTOR. _By Schlüter._]
+
+However, the masterpiece of this sculptor is the equestrian statue of
+the Great Elector for the long bridge at Berlin, which was completed in
+1703 (Fig. 114). Lübke says of this: "Although biassed as regards form
+by the age which prescribed the Roman costume to ideal portraits of this
+kind, the horseman on his mighty charger is conceived with so much
+energy, he is filled with such power of will, he is so noble in bearing
+and so steady in his course, that no other equestrian statue can be
+compared with this in fiery majesty. Equally masterly is the
+arrangement of the whole, especially the four chained slaves on the
+base, in whom we gladly pardon a certain crowding of movements and
+forms."
+
+Schlüter also made a statue of the Elector Frederic III., which is now
+in Königsberg. Besides his works in sculpture he was the architect of
+the royal palaces at Potsdam, Charlottenburg, and Berlin, and there are
+many sculptures by him at these places. When he was thus in an important
+position and at the height of professional prosperity he met with a sad
+misfortune, from the effects of which he never recovered. A chime of
+bells had been purchased in Holland, and Schlüter was commissioned to
+arrange an old tower for their reception. He carried it higher than it
+had been, and was proceeding to finish it, when it threatened to fall,
+and had to be pulled down. On account of this Schlüter was dismissed
+from his position as court architect; and though his office of sculptor
+was left to him his power was gone, and he was broken down in spirit. He
+was called to St. Petersburg by Peter the Great, and died soon after.
+Now, the verdict of judges is that he was one of the greatest artists of
+his age, and that his works, both in sculpture and architecture, belong
+to the noblest productions of his century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS.
+
+
+In the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a
+feeble state that a true artistic work--one conceived and executed in an
+artist spirit--was not to be looked for. As in the Middle Ages, too,
+thought seemed to be sleeping. Both art and letters were largely
+prostrated to the service of those in high places; they were scarcely
+used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made
+them to be feared, and because they were feared they were flattered
+openly and despised secretly.
+
+But about the end of the century another spirit arose; a second
+Renaissance took place, which may be traced in literature and in art, as
+it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of
+thought everywhere.
+
+Naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models
+was an important one, and as before in various epochs in art the antique
+had been the "only help in time of trouble," so it proved again. In 1764
+Winckelmann published his "History of Ancient Art," in which the rich
+significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student. The
+service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be
+over-estimated, coming, as it did, at a time when the genius of art
+seemed to have turned his back upon the world, and all true inspiration
+was lost. At about the same time the monuments of Athens were recalled
+to the European world by Stuart and Revett in their architectural
+designs, and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done
+its transforming work, and artists were striving for more worthy ends
+than the favor of kings and powerful patrons. This new study of classic
+art did not show its full and best results until the Danish sculptor
+Thorwaldsen executed his works; but before his time others were striving
+for that which it was his privilege to perfect.
+
+Among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers
+was the Venetian, ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822). He was born in Possagno,
+and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters. His father died when he
+was very young, and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his
+grandfather, the old Pasino Canova, who lost no time in accustoming the
+boy to the use of the chisel, for there are cuttings in existence which
+were executed by Canova in his ninth year. Signor Giovanni Faliero dwelt
+near Possagno, and was in the habit of employing Pasino Canova
+frequently; he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he
+sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa. On these visits
+the old man was accompanied by Antonio, who soon became a favorite with
+all the family of Faliero, and a friend of the young Giuseppe.
+
+On one occasion when Pasino and the boy attended a festival at Villa
+Faliero, the ornament for the dessert was forgotten. When the servants
+remembered it at the last moment they went to the old Pasino in
+distress, and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the
+master. The old man could do nothing for them, but the young Tonin, as
+he was called, asked for some butter, and from it quickly carved a lion.
+At table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the
+guests, and Tonin was called in to receive their praises; from this time
+the Senator Faliero became his patron, and he placed the boy under the
+instruction of Giuseppe Bernardi, called Toretto, a Venetian sculptor
+who had settled at Pagnano.
+
+At this time Canova was twelve years old; he studied two years under
+Toretto, and made many statues and models, which are still preserved by
+the Faliero family, or in other collections. His first really original
+work was the modelling of two angels in clay; he did these during an
+absence of his master's; he placed them in a prominent place, and then
+awaited Toretto's opinion with great anxiety. When the master saw them
+he was filled with surprise, and exclaimed that they were truly
+marvellous; from these models the grandfather cut two angels in _pietra
+dura_ for the high-altar at Monfumo. At this same period Canova made his
+first representations of the human form; he was accustomed to make small
+statues and give them to his friends.
+
+When he was fifteen years old Faliero sent for him, and received him
+into his own family. Canova wished to earn something for himself, and
+engaged to work half of the day for Giuseppe Ferrari, who was a nephew
+of his former master, Toretto. Of this time Canova afterward wrote: "I
+labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of
+my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of
+more honorable rewards." This circumstance proves how remarkable he must
+have been; it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work
+instead of paying for instruction. In Venice he was able to learn much
+from observation. He divided his time systematically, spending his
+mornings in the Academy or some gallery, his afternoons in the shop
+where he was employed, and his evenings in studies for which he had had
+no opportunity as a child.
+
+The first commission which was given to Canova was from the Commendatore
+Farsetti for a pair of baskets filled with fruit and flowers, to be
+sculptured in marble, and placed on a staircase which led to the picture
+gallery in the Farsetti Palace, where Canova spent much time in study.
+These works have no special excellence.
+
+After a year in Venice he went to Asolo with the Faliero family. Some
+time before this his patron had asked Canova to make for him a group of
+Orpheus and Eurydice, taking the moment when Eurydice beholds her lover
+torn away from her forever. Canova had been busy with this in his
+leisure hours in Venice, and he took with him to Asolo everything
+necessary to the work. He completed the Eurydice in his sixteenth year;
+it was life-size, and cut from _pietra di Costosa_.
+
+With this first attempt Canova became convinced that the small models
+such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work,
+and he determined that his models should be of the size which the
+finished work would have, even when colossal.
+
+After this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the
+Augustine friars attached to the Church of San Stefano, in Venice.
+During the next three years he was occupied with his Orpheus and a bust
+of the Doge Renier. At this time he studied entirely from nature; he
+devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy, and after a time was
+accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from
+important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular
+instances.
+
+In 1776 his Orpheus was finished and exhibited, and it chanced to be at
+the annual festival of the Ascension, when the opera of Orpheus was
+brought out in Venice. Canova was accustomed to say that the praise he
+then received was "that which made him a sculptor;" and so grateful was
+he for it that later, when he became Marquis of Ischia, he chose for his
+armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols
+of Orpheus and Eurydice. The Senator Grimani ordered a copy of the
+Orpheus, and this was the first work of Canova in Carrara marble.
+
+He soon found his workshop too small, and removed to one in the street
+of San Maurizio, where he remained until he left his native country. His
+next work was a statue of Æsculapius, larger than life; a short time
+before his death, when he saw this statue, he sorrowfully declared that
+"his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of
+excellence in this performance of his youth." About this time he
+executed an Apollo and Daphne which was never entirely finished, and
+when twenty-two years old he completed a group of Dædalus and Icarus for
+the Senator Pisani. This was intended for an exterior decoration of his
+palace; but when it was done Pisani considered it worthy of a place in
+his gallery, already famous on account of the painting of Darius and his
+Family, by Paul Veronese, and other fine works. This may be called
+Canova's last work in Venice, as he went to Rome soon after his
+twenty-third birthday.
+
+The Cavaliere Zuliani was then the representative of Venice in Rome, and
+Faliero gave Canova letters to him. Zuliani was an enlightened patron of
+art, and he received the young sculptor with great kindness, and soon
+arranged to have his model of Dædalus and Icarus exhibited to the best
+artists and judges of art in Rome. We can fancy the anxiety with which
+Canova went to this exhibition; but the praise which he there received
+secured for him a place among the artists then in Rome.
+
+Canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important
+subject, and Zuliani was his friend in this; for he gave him the marble,
+and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value
+of the work when completed. He also gave him a workshop in the Venetian
+Palace, to which no one had access, where he could be entirely free and
+undisturbed. The subject chosen for the group was Theseus vanquishing
+the Minotaur, and the size was to be colossal. Canova now worked with
+untiring devotion; he was often seen before the statues on Monte
+Cavallo, with sketch-book in hand, as soon as it was light enough for
+him to see, and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of
+Rome. His friends in Venice had secured for him a pension of three
+hundred ducats, which placed him above want, and he was free to devote
+himself to his Theseus, although while at work on that he made a statue
+of Apollo, which was exhibited with Angelini's Minerva, and received
+much praise.
+
+Meantime no one knew of the Theseus save the ambassador. When it was
+finished Zuliani prepared it for exhibition, and invited all the most
+distinguished men in Rome to an entertainment. A model of the head of
+Theseus was put in a prominent place, and the guests were busy in
+discussing it; they asked questions and expressed opinions, and when
+their interest was well awakened Zuliani said: "Come, let us end this
+discussion by seeing the original," and the statue was unveiled before
+their eyes. Canova often declared that death itself could not have been
+more terrible to him than were those moments. But he and all else were
+forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited; in
+that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere
+praise. From that day the fame of Canova was established.
+
+Very soon he was selected to erect a monument to Clement XIV. This pope
+was a famous man; he was the collector of the Clementine Museum, the
+author of the elegant letters known by his family name of Ganganelli,
+and, above all, he was the suppressor of the Jesuits. While Canova felt
+the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to
+consult those who had conferred his pension upon him, and thus helped
+him to become the artist that he was. He went, therefore, to Venice
+and sought direction from the Senate; he was told to employ his time
+as should be most profitable to himself. He therefore gave up his studio
+in Venice, and as his patron, Zuliani, had now left Rome, he fitted up
+the studio in the Strada Babbuino, which became so well known to lovers
+of art of all nations who visited Rome. In 1787 the above monument was
+exhibited, and was much admired. An engraving was made from it and
+dedicated to Zuliani; but Canova desired to do something more worthy for
+his patron, and made a statue of Psyche as a gift to him; Zuliani
+hesitated to accept it, but finally consented to do so if Canova would
+in turn accept a number of silver medals with the Psyche on one side and
+a head of Canova on the other, which he could give to his friends. In
+the midst of all this Zuliani died, and his heirs were so angry because
+he had left works of art to the Public Library that they refused to
+carry out his plans. In the end the Psyche was bought by Napoleon and
+presented to the Queen of Bavaria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Canova._]
+
+Canova executed a second papal monument to Pope Clement XIII. It was
+erected in St. Peter's by his nephews. The mourning genius upon it is
+frequently mentioned as one of Canova's happiest figures. The execution
+of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of
+this sculptor's life.
+
+Canova's fame had extended over all Europe, and he was asked to go to
+St. Petersburg, and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so;
+but he declined, and executed the monument of Admiral Emo, on a
+commission from the Venetian Senate. For this work he received a gold
+medal and an annuity for life.
+
+In 1798, during the revolutionary excitement at Rome, Canova went to
+Possagno, his native town. Here, in his retirement, he painted more than
+twenty pictures, which were by no means to be despised. His masterpiece
+represented the Saviour just taken from the cross, and surrounded by
+the Marys, St. John, Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea. This was the
+first of the many gifts which he made to this little church, by which it
+became a splendid temple and the expression of Canova's love for his
+birthplace and early home.
+
+After he returned to Rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his
+usual close application to work, and he went to Berlin and Vienna in
+company with Prince Rezzonico, and this so benefited him that he was
+able to resume his labors with new energy. He soon achieved a proud
+triumph, for his Perseus was placed in one of the Stanze of the Vatican
+by a public decree; this was the first modern work which had been thus
+honored.
+
+In 1802-1803 Napoleon requested Canova to go to Paris to model a
+portrait bust for a colossal statue; the work was finished six years
+later. In 1805 the artist went again to Vienna, where he modelled a bust
+of the Emperor of Austria; in 1810 again to Paris to prepare a model for
+the statue of Maria Louisa. With the exception of these short journeys
+he was constantly at work in his Roman studio until 1815, when he was
+sent in an official capacity to France by the pope, for the purpose of
+reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from Italy in times
+of war, and which really belonged to the patrimony of the Church. Canova
+executed his commission with rare judgment, and then continued his
+journey to England. In London he received many honors; the king gave him
+an order for a group, held several conversations with him, made him
+valuable gifts, and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope.
+
+Canova returned to Rome on January 5th, 1816. His entry might almost be
+called a triumphal one, for the people of Rome were so grateful for the
+restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in
+demonstrations to Canova. He had been President of St. Luke's Academy
+before; he was now made President of the Commission to purchase works of
+art, and of the Academy of Archæology. In full consistory of all the
+high officers of the Church, the pope caused his name to be inscribed
+upon the "golden volume of the Capitol," and conferred upon him the
+title of Marquis of Ischia, with a pension of three thousand crowns a
+year.
+
+Canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of Religion, which
+should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment. He endeavored
+to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed; this
+was not done, and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the
+idea. But he determined that from this time he would devote his life and
+fortune to religion, and resolved to erect a church at Possagno, to
+adorn it with works of art, and to make it his own burial-place.
+
+On July 8th, 1819, Canova assembled his workmen in his native town, and
+gave them a _fête_; many peasant girls joined in the festivities and
+assisted in the breaking of the ground; at evening, as they all passed
+before Canova to bid him farewell, each one received a gift from him.
+Three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of
+the future church took place. An immense number of people from the
+surrounding country and from Venice were present; Canova, in his robes
+as a Knight of Christ, and wearing the insignia of other orders, led the
+procession; all who had seen Canova when a poor boy in their midst were
+much impressed by this occasion. Here, in a public manner, he
+consecrated his life and fortune to the service of God and the benefit
+of his birthplace. Every autumn Canova went to Possagno to encourage the
+workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done.
+Between these visits he worked devotedly, for he was forced to earn all
+he could in order to pay for his great undertaking.
+
+At this time he executed a statue of Washington, and was making an
+equestrian statue of Ferdinand of Naples, and in the month of May, 1822,
+went to that city, where he fell ill; he returned to Rome, and revived
+somewhat, and resumed his work. On September 17th he went to Possagno,
+in October to Villa Faliero, where, fifty years before, he had spent
+such happy days. From here he went to Venice, and on the 13th of the
+same month he died.
+
+Solemn services were held in the cathedral, and his remains were then
+intrusted to the priests of Possagno, who bore them to their temple,
+where he was buried on the 25th of the month; the crowd was so great
+that the oration was delivered in the open air. Canova's heart was given
+to the Academy of Venice, and an elegant little monument was erected in
+the Palace of Arts to contain this relic of the sculptor. The Venetian
+artists arranged to erect to him a monument, and chose the design which
+he himself had made for the tomb of Titian; it is in the Church of Santa
+Maria de' Frari. In Rome a statue was decreed to him, and he was
+declared the perpetual President of her chief academy.
+
+In personal appearance Canova was not grand or very attractive. His head
+was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders, and the loose manner in
+which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen; his forehead was a
+noble one, his hair black, and his whole manner and dress was modest and
+simple. His habits were very orderly and quiet; he rose early to work,
+and went little into public society; but he welcomed a few friends to
+dinner almost daily. He entertained them cordially, but without display,
+and led the conversation to light, cheerful topics that did not touch
+upon art, or demand mental exertion. At eleven o'clock he retired to his
+own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping. Some
+of his best drawings were made at this hour, and have been published
+with the title of "Pensieri," or thoughts. To describe one day was to
+give a picture of all, so regular were his habits of life.
+
+In his professional life he was just and generous to others, and though
+he would have no pupils, he would leave everything to advise an artist
+or visit his works. He was also a patron of art, and had executed, at
+his own expense, the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the
+Capitoline Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--HEBE. _By Canova._]
+
+There is a story of a romance in his life. It is said that when he first
+arrived in Venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older
+than himself, who went to draw in the Farsetti Gallery. Day by day he
+watched her until she came no more; at length her attendant returned,
+and Canova inquired for her mistress; she burst into tears and answered,
+"La Signora Julia is dead." He asked no more, and never knew who Julia
+was or any circumstances of her history; but all his life he treasured
+her image, and when he endeavored to unite the purity of an angel with
+the earthly beauty of a woman, the remembrance of Julia was always in
+his mind.
+
+Canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of
+praise and the benefits of their labors while alive. Without doubt he
+was a great sculptor, and coming as he did, at a time when art was at
+its worst, he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him. But
+the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends
+and patrons. His statues lack the repose which makes the grandest
+feature of the best sculpture; his female figures have a sentimental
+sort of air that is not all we could wish, and does not elevate them
+above what we may call pleasing art. His male figures are better, more
+natural and simple, though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse
+and brutal, as in the two fencers, Kreugas and Damoxenes, or Hercules
+and Lichas. But in his religious subjects he is much finer, and in some
+of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness, while his composition
+is in the true artistic spirit. Taken on the whole, he was a wonderful
+artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud.
+
+Other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at Rome,
+and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm. One of these was
+ANTOINE DENIS CHAUDET (1763-1810), who was born at Paris. His talent was
+so early developed that he was admitted to the Royal Academy when
+fourteen years old, and when twenty-one he gained the first prize, and
+with the royal pension went to Rome, where he remained five years. He
+soon took good rank among artists of that time, for he was a designer
+and painter as well as sculptor. He adhered strictly to the antique
+style, and attained much purity, though he was always cold in treatment.
+He was made a Professor of Sculpture in the French Academy, and made
+valuable contributions to the "Dictionary of Fine Arts."
+
+Chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of Peace
+in the Tuileries; a statue of Cincinnatus in the Senate Chamber; a
+statue of OEdipus; a bas-relief of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, in the Musée Napoléon, and many busts and smaller works.
+
+He also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a
+fine edition of Racine, and painted a picture of Æneas and Anchises in
+the Burning of Troy.
+
+JOHANN HEINRICH DANNECKER (1758-1841) was born at Stuttgart. By a statue
+of Milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by Duke Charles
+Eugene, and with the royal pension he went first to Paris and then to
+Rome, where he studied seven years. He then returned to Würtemberg, and
+was made Director of the Royal Academy, with a salary of fifteen
+thousand francs a year. During fifteen years Dannecker maintained a high
+rank in his art, but his health became so feeble that he was forced to
+see others excel him. One of his works has a wide reputation, and is
+known to many people the world over, through the generosity of Herr
+Bethmann of Frankfort, who admits visitors to his gallery, and from the
+models and pictures which have been made from it; it is the Ariadne on a
+Panther (Fig. 117).
+
+Dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature; his figures were light and
+graceful, and his heads were noble in expression. He labored eight years
+upon a figure of Christ, which belongs to the Emperor of Russia; in
+Stuttgart a nymph pouring water on Neckar Street and two nymphs on a
+reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural
+sculpture. Among his other works are a statue of Alexander, a monument
+to Count Zeppelin, a Cupid, and a Maiden lamenting a Dead Bird. Some of
+his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture; his
+portraits are noble and true to nature; the works named here are by no
+means all that he did, and we should add that his efforts in religious
+subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful, and a true conception of
+Christian ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--ARIADNE AND THE PANTHER. _By Dannecker._]
+
+We come now, for the first time, to a great English sculptor. JOHN
+FLAXMAN (1755-1826) was born in York, but while he was still an infant
+his father removed to London, where he kept a plaster-cast shop. The boy
+began to draw and even to model very early; when but five years old he
+kept some soft wax, with which he could take an impression from any seal
+or ring or coin which pleased him. He was very delicate in health, and
+was once thought to be dead, and was prepared for burial, when animation
+returned; his parents tried to gratify all his wishes, and while a child
+he modelled a great number of figures in wax, clay, and plaster.
+
+By the time he was ten years old he was much stronger, and was able to
+use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and
+imagination. About this time he read "Don Quixote," and was so moved by
+the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed
+with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel; he went
+to Hyde Park and wandered about all day, not finding any one who was in
+need of his services. At night he returned home, very hungry and weary,
+to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence.
+
+He now spent all his time in drawing and modelling, and never had more
+than two lessons from a master; at eleven years of age he began to gain
+various prizes, and at fourteen was admitted to study at the Royal
+Academy, and gained the silver medal there that same year. About this
+time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to
+learn more of history, all of which was of great use to him in his art.
+He was also fortunate in having the friendship of Mr. Wedgwood, for whom
+he made many models. He also painted a few pictures in oil.
+
+Among his earliest sculptures were a group of Venus and Cupid and a
+monument to Mrs. Morley, who, with her baby, died at sea. Flaxman
+represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received
+by descending angels.
+
+In 1782 Flaxman married Miss Ann Denman, whose intelligence and love of
+art were of great assistance to her husband. In 1787 he went to Rome,
+where he remained seven years. During this time he made a group for Lord
+Bristol, representing the Fury of Athamas, from the Metamorphoses of
+Ovid; this work cost him much labor, for which he received but small
+pay; it was carried to Ireland and then to Ickworth House, in Suffolk,
+where but few people see it. In Rome Flaxman also made a group of
+Cephalus and Aurora for Mr. Thomas Hope, and the designs from Homer,
+Æschylus, and Dante, which have such a world-wide fame.
+
+In 1794 he returned to England, where he was constantly employed on
+important works until his death. We cannot give a list of his numerous
+works. Many of his monuments are seen in the churches of England. In
+Glasgow are his statues of Mr. Pitt and Sir John Moore, in bronze; in
+Edinburgh is that of Robert Burns. Flaxman executed much sculpture for
+the East Indies, one of these works being unfinished when he died. Some
+critics consider his Archangel Michael and Satan his best work; it was
+made for the Earl of Egremont, who had his life-size Apollo also.
+
+In 1797 Flaxman was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1800
+an Academician, and in 1810, when a Professor of Sculpture was added to
+the other professors of the Academy, he was appointed to the office. His
+lectures have been published. The friezes on the Covent Garden Theatre
+were all designed by Flaxman, and he executed the figure of Comedy
+himself. His last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of
+Buckingham Palace, which would have been entirely under his direction
+and partly executed by him if he had lived.
+
+His wife died in 1820, and her loss was a grief from which he could not
+recover; she had been a great advantage to him, and he had depended much
+upon her sympathy and counsel. Flaxman was a singularly pure man, and so
+attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike.
+
+Sir Richard Westmacott succeeded Flaxman as Professor at the Royal
+Academy; he said: "But the greatest of modern sculptors was our
+illustrious countryman, John Flaxman, who not only had all the fine
+feeling of the ancient Greeks (which Canova in a degree possessed), but
+united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly
+astonishing. Though Canova was his superior in the manual part, high
+finishing, yet in the higher qualities, poetical feeling and invention,
+Flaxman was as superior to Canova as was Shakespeare to the dramatists
+of his day."
+
+But the perfection of the results of the study of Canova and others who
+endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the Dane,
+BERTEL THORWALDSEN (1770-1844), who was born in Copenhagen. The descent
+of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite
+distinct ways. Those who claim that the Norsemen discovered America
+relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born, from
+whom Thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed. The learned
+genealogists of Iceland say that his ancestors were descended from
+Harald Hildetand, King of Denmark, who, in the eighth century, was
+obliged to flee, first to Norway and then to Iceland, and that one of
+his descendants, Oluf Paa, in the twelfth century, was a famous
+wood-carver. But this much is certain: in the fourteenth century there
+lived in Southern Iceland a wealthy man, whose family and descendants
+were much honored. One of these, Thorvald Gottskalken, a pastor, had
+two sons and but a small fortune; so he sent his sons to Copenhagen,
+where one became a jeweller and died young; the other, who was a
+wood-carver, was the father of the artist, whose mother was Karen
+Gröulund, the daughter of a Jutland peasant.
+
+The father was employed in a shipyard, and carved only the rude
+ornaments of vessels and boats; but these served to lead the mind of the
+little Bertel to the art he later followed. His father could not have
+dreamed of such a future as came to his son, but he was wise enough to
+know that the boy might do more and better than he had done, and he sent
+him, when eleven years old, to the free school of the Royal Academy to
+study drawing; and very soon the works of the father showed the gain
+which the son had made, for his designs were those now used by the old
+wood-carver.
+
+Bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of Charlottenburg,
+and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class.
+When Bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the
+school at Charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize
+was his brother. He looked up with surprise, and blushing, said, "It is
+myself, Herr Chaplain." The priest was astounded at this, and said,
+"Herr Thorwaldsen, please to pass up to the first class."
+
+The boy was amazed at these honors, and from this day retained the title
+of "Herr," which gave him much distinction. When, after many years, the
+sculptor had been loaded with honors, and stood on the heights of fame,
+he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as
+that first rapture which came from the words of the Chaplain Höyer when
+he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy.
+
+The effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his ambition, and
+he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness. Two years later
+he made a bas-relief of Love in Repose, which took the large silver
+medal. His father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a
+ship's carver, and Bertel made no objection to doing so; but the painter
+Abildgaard, who had been his teacher in the academy, had grown very fond
+of him, and saw how much talent he had, and could not think of his being
+but a common tradesman without deep regret. He went, therefore, to the
+old carver, and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son
+should spend half his time in study at the academy, and the other half
+in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side.
+
+In 1790, when twenty years old, Thorwaldsen made a medallion of the
+Princess of Denmark, which was so good a likeness that a number of
+copies was sold. A year later he gained the small gold medal of the
+academy by a bas-relief of the Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple.
+The Minister of State now became interested in the young artist, and
+measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies. His patrons
+desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures, and he
+chose that of Priam begging the Body of Hector from Achilles. Later in
+life he repeated this subject, and it is interesting to notice the
+strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of
+the first. And yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of
+Thorwaldsen's future greatness. In 1793 he gained the prize which
+entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the
+academy. The work he presented was a bas-relief of Saint Peter healing
+the Paralytic. In these works this sculptor already showed two qualities
+which remained the same through his life; in his subjects from antiquity
+he showed a Greek spirit, which has led some writers to speak of him as
+a "posthumous Greek," or a true Greek artist born after other Greek
+artists had died; on the other hand, when he treated religious subjects
+his spirit was like that of the best masters of the Renaissance, and
+these works remind us of Raphael. All this excellence came entirely from
+his artistic nature, for outside of that he was ignorant; he knew
+nothing of history or literature, and was never a man of culture as long
+as he lived. Outside of the work connected with his profession
+Thorwaldsen was indolent, and only acquired knowledge of other matters
+through observation or from the conversation of others.
+
+Although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in 1793, he did
+not leave Copenhagen until May, 1796. In the mean time he had done what
+he could to earn something: he had made designs for book-publishers,
+given lessons in drawing and modelling, and made some bust and medallion
+portraits, reliefs, and so on. The vessel in which the young sculptor
+sailed for Naples was called the Thetis, and the captain engaged to
+watch over him; the voyage was long, and all on board became fond of
+Thorwaldsen, though the captain wrote, "He is an honest boy, but a lazy
+rascal." This opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous
+amount of labor he performed. At Naples he remained for some time, and
+saw and admired all its works of art. He did not reach Rome until about
+nine months after leaving Copenhagen, but from that time his whole
+thought and life were changed. He was accustomed to say, "I was born on
+the 8th of March, 1797; before then I did not exist."
+
+While in Naples Thorwaldsen had been ill, and suffered from a malarial
+affection, which compelled him to be idle much of the time. But he was
+always studying the antique statues, and made many copies. Some of the
+first original works which he attempted were failures, when, at last, he
+modelled a colossal statue of Jason, which was well received by those
+who saw it, and made him somewhat famous in Rome (Fig. 118). Canova
+praised it, and other critics did the same; but Thorwaldsen had no
+money; the academy had supported him six years; what could he do? Quite
+discouraged, he was engaged in his preparations for leaving Rome, when
+Mr. Thomas Hope, the English banker, gave him an order for the Jason in
+marble. In an hour his life was changed. He was living in Rome not as a
+student on charity, but as an artist gaining his living. We are forced
+to add that Mr. Hope did not receive this statue until 1828, and
+Thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude; but we
+cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair.
+
+Thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in Rome, the archæologist
+Zoëga; at his house the young Dane had met a beautiful Italian girl,
+Anna Maria Magnani, whom he loved devotedly. She was too ambitious to
+marry a poor sculptor, so she married a rich M. d'Uhden; but she
+persuaded Thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to
+take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should
+leave him; this was just what happened in 1803, and the sculptor
+received her into his house, where she remained sixteen years, when she
+disappears from his life. He provided an honorable marriage for their
+daughter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--JASON. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+In 1803 Thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the Baron von
+Schubart, the Danish Minister, who presented the sculptor to Baron von
+Humboldt; and through the friendship of these two men, and the persons
+to whom they presented him, Thorwaldsen received many orders. In 1804
+his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all
+countries, and from this time, during the rest of his life, he was never
+able to do all that was required of him. He was much courted in society,
+where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and
+pleasing manner. In this same year he was made a Professor of the Royal
+Academy of Florence; and though the Academy of Copenhagen expected his
+return, they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs, and
+sent him a gift of four hundred crowns. A few months later he was made a
+member of the Academy of Bologna and of that of his native city, in
+which last he was also appointed a Professor.
+
+Many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite
+the popular interest in him, when, in 1805, he produced the bas-relief
+of the Abduction of Briseis, which still remains one of his most
+celebrated works. His Jason had put him on a level with Canova, who was
+then at the height of his fame; now the Briseis was said by many to
+excel the same type of works by Canova, and there is no question that in
+bas-relief the Dane was the better sculptor of the two. This relief and
+his group of Cupid and Psyche, which was completed in 1805, mark the era
+at which Thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor. In this
+same year he modelled his first statue of Venus; it was less than
+life-size; and though two copies of it were finished in marble, he was
+not pleased with it, and destroyed the model: later he made the same
+statue in full size.
+
+In 1806 he received his first commission for religious subjects, which
+consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of Fionia.
+But he was devoted to mythological subjects, and preferred them before
+all others, and in this same year modelled a Hebe while engaged upon
+the fonts. His industry was great, but he found time to receive many
+visitors at his studio, and went frequently into society. At the house
+of Baron von Humboldt, then Prussian Ambassador at Rome, Thorwaldsen was
+always welcome and happy; here he met all persons of note who lived in
+or who visited Rome.
+
+It was at this period that the young Prince Louis of Bavaria entered
+into a correspondence with Thorwaldsen, which ended only with the
+sculptor's life. Louis was collecting objects for his Glyptothek at
+Munich, and he frequently consulted Thorwaldsen in these matters; his
+advice was of value, and he more than once saved Louis from imposition
+by dealers. Louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine Adonis, now
+in the Glyptothek; it was modelled in 1808, but was not completed until
+1832; this splendid work was executed entirely by Thorwaldsen's own
+hands. In 1808 he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be
+used in the restoration of the Palace of Christiansborg, which had been
+injured by fire. This was the year, too, when he was made an honorary
+member of the Academy of St. Luke.
+
+The year 1809 brought deep sorrows to Thorwaldsen in the death of his
+two friends, Stanley and Zoëga. He interested himself in the settlement
+of the affairs of the latter, and had much trouble and anxiety; but he
+managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year, in
+spite of the disturbed state of Rome on account of the pope's departure,
+and in spite of the hindrances in his own life.
+
+In 1810 the King of Denmark made Thorwaldsen a Knight of Danebrog, and
+he was then known in Italy as the _Cavaliere Alberto_. His work this
+year was in bas-reliefs, and in 1811 he modelled a colossal statue of
+Mars, the bust of Mademoiselle Ida Brun, a lovely statue of Psyche, and
+his own portrait as a colossal Hermes.
+
+The people of Denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged
+absence of their artist. He had left home a mere boy, and was now famous
+over all the world. They wished for his return; a marble quarry had been
+discovered in Norway, and even Prince Christian Frederick wrote to
+Thorwaldsen to urge his going home. The sculptor wished to go, and even
+made some preparations to do so, when he received so important a
+commission that it was impossible to leave Rome. This new work was a
+frieze for one of the great halls in the Quirinal Palace. He chose the
+Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon for his subject, and it
+proved to be one of the most important works of his life. It was
+completed in June, 1812; and though it had been somewhat criticised as
+too rough in its finish, when it was elevated to its proper height it
+was all that had been expected by the artist's friends; later he
+repeated this frieze for his own countrymen. In Rome he was now
+frequently called the "Patriarch of Bas-relief." Soon after this he was
+made a member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna.
+
+In 1813 Thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever, and visited
+the baths of Lucca, in company with the Baron and Baroness von Schubart,
+for the benefit of his health. He met many people and received much
+honor, especially from the Grand Duchess of Tuscany. His health was
+improved, but his old and tried friend, the Baroness von Schubart, died
+the winter following; he felt her loss deeply, for she had been his
+friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in Rome.
+
+He was always busy, and one after another of his almost numberless works
+was finished. In 1815 he made the Achilles and Priam, a relief which is
+sometimes called his masterpiece; in the same year he made the famous
+and familiar medallions of Night and Morning; it is said that he
+conceived the first while awake in a sleepless, restless condition, and
+modelled it entirely on the following day; these medallions have been
+reproduced in all possible forms--in engravings, on cameos, gems, in
+metals, and a variety of marble, plaster, and porcelain.
+
+About this time Thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens,
+and received pupils, and was overwhelmed with orders, so that he could
+not yet go to Denmark, in spite of the urgent letters he received. He
+executed many important original works, and also restored the marbles of
+Ægina, now at Munich; this was a great task, but his study of the
+antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern
+sculptor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.--GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+The exquisite group of Ganymede and the Eagle (Fig. 119) shows the
+effect of his study of the antique, and the same may be said of his
+statue of Hope, a small copy of which was afterward placed above the
+tomb of the Baroness von Humboldt. The Three Graces (Fig. 120) belongs
+to the year 1817; the Mercury was of about this date, as well as the
+elegant statue of the Princess Baryatinska, which is his finest portrait
+statue.
+
+After an absence from Denmark of twenty-three years he left Rome in
+July, 1819, and turned his face toward home. His model for the famous
+Lion of Lucerne had already been sent on before him, and the work
+commenced by one of his pupils, Bienaimé. Thorwaldsen first went to
+Lucerne, where he gave all necessary advice in this work, and then
+proceeding on his journey reached Copenhagen on the 3d of October.
+Apartments had been prepared for him in the Academy of Fine Arts, and as
+soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction
+and importance. Crowds went to welcome him to his home. A great
+reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor, and he was lauded
+to the skies in speeches, and was made a Counsellor of State, in order
+that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the
+court etiquette.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+All this must have gratified the artist, who had earned such proud
+honors by the force of his genius; but it interests us much more to know
+that he received commissions for some very important works, among which
+those of the Church of Our Lady are very interesting. The orders for all
+the work which he did here were not given at once, but in the end it
+became a splendid monument to this sculptor, and embraces almost all his
+religious works of any importance. There are the figures of Christ and
+the Twelve Apostles; the Angel of Baptism, which is an exquisite font;
+the Preaching of St. John the Baptist, which is a group in terra-cotta
+on the pediment of the church; a bas-relief in marble of the
+Institution of the Lord's Supper; another in plaster of Christ's Entry
+into Jerusalem; one of Christ Bearing the Cross; one of the Baptism of
+Christ; another of the Guardian Angel, and one of Christian Charity.
+
+He did not remain very long in Denmark, but went to Warsaw, where he had
+been summoned to arrange for some important works. He was presented to
+the Emperor Alexander, who gave him sittings for a portrait bust; this
+was so successful that for some years Thorwaldsen employed skilled
+workmen to constantly repeat it, in order to fill the demand for it
+which was made upon him. While at Warsaw he received an order for a
+monument to Copernicus, which was dedicated in 1830; other important
+commissions were given him, and after visiting Cracow, Troppau, and
+Vienna, he reached Rome in December, 1820, where he was heartily
+welcomed by the artists, who gave him a banquet, on which occasion the
+Prince Royal of Denmark sat next to the sculptor.
+
+Before this a correspondence had established a friendship between
+Thorwaldsen and Prince Louis of Bavaria; but from the year 1821 intimate
+personal relations existed between them. He took up work with great
+energy; he had returned to Rome with so much to do that he required much
+room, and employed a large company of workmen. In the summer of 1822 he
+was able to secure a large building which had been used for a stable to
+the Barberini Palace, and here he was able to set up all his large
+models.
+
+In 1824 Thorwaldsen was summoned by the Cardinal Consalvi, who gave him
+the commission for the monument to Pius VII., now in the Clementine
+Chapel of St. Peter's at Rome; this work was not completed when the
+cardinal himself died, and his own monument by Thorwaldsen was placed in
+the Pantheon before that of Pius VII. was put in its place. He also made
+a cross for the Capuchins for which he would accept no reward, though
+they were entirely satisfied with it.
+
+In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected President of the Academy of St. Luke
+with the advice and consent of Pope Leo XII., who paid him a visit in
+his studio. Many delays occurred, and the monument to Pius VII. was not
+erected until 1831.
+
+The works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far
+too numerous to be mentioned; he was at the very height of fame and
+popularity, and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him.
+In 1830 he went to Munich to superintend the setting up of his monument
+to Eugène Beauharnais, the Duke of Leuchtenberg. This gave Louis of
+Bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor, which he did
+in every possible way. Soon after the monument was unveiled Thorwaldsen
+received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor.
+
+Thorwaldsen's place in Rome was a very important one, not only as an
+artist, but as a man. He had the respect and esteem of many good men of
+all nations; he also suffered some things from the envy of those who
+were jealous of him, as is the case with all successful men; but he was
+a fearless person, and did not trouble himself on account of these
+things. The frequent agitations of a political nature, however, did
+disturb him, and he began to think seriously of returning to Denmark. In
+1837, when the cholera broke out in Rome, he determined to leave; his
+countrymen were delighted, and a government frigate was sent to take him
+home; he sailed from Leghorn in August, 1838. His arrival was hailed
+with joy in Denmark, and wherever he went his progress was marked by
+tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him. As soon as it was
+known in Copenhagen, on September 17th, that the "Rota," which brought
+the sculptor, was in the harbor, a flag was run up from St. Nicolas
+Church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been
+arranged.
+
+Although it rained heavily, boats filled with artists, poets, students,
+physicians, mechanics, and naval officers went out to meet him; each
+boat had a flag with an appropriate device, that of the artists having
+Thorwaldsen's Three Graces, the poets, a Pegasus, and so on. The meeting
+with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the
+artist, who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts
+of joyous demonstrations, a vast number of boats rowing after that in
+which he was seated. His carriage was drawn by the people from the quay
+to Charlottenburg, where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him.
+His form was tall and erect, his step firm; his long white hair fell on
+his shoulders, and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with
+intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him. He was led out
+on a balcony, where, uncovered, he saluted the people, who greeted him
+with wild applause. Thorwaldsen smiled and said, "Would not any one
+think that we were in Rome, and I were the pope about to give the
+benediction _urbi et orbi_ from the balcony of St. Peter's?"
+
+One ovation after another followed, day by day, and such crowds of
+visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his
+possessions which he had brought from Italy, or to work at all, which
+was worse to him. At last he began to do as he had done in Rome, and to
+receive his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand. He
+lived frugally, and continued many of his Roman habits of life; but he
+was forced to dine out every evening.
+
+He was now sixty-eight years old, but he did a vast amount of work in
+one way and another, and was so pursued by all sorts of people who
+wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects, that he
+seriously considered the question of leaving Copenhagen. He became very
+fond of certain families where he visited, among which was that of the
+Baron von Stampe, who, with his wife and children, were soon treated by
+the sculptor as if they were his own kindred. He went with them to their
+summer home at Nysoë, and while there the baroness persuaded him to
+model his own statue. He did this imperfectly, as he had no suitable
+workshop; and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an
+ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the
+castle. She took the time to do this when Thorwaldsen was absent for
+eight days, and in this short space the whole was completed, so that
+when he returned it seemed to him like magic. This studio was dedicated
+in July, 1839.
+
+He then began the proper modelling of his own statue, and was
+progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet
+Oehlenschlaeger, who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of
+himself. Thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when
+thus wanted for other work, and he threw down his tools, and would have
+broken the model. But the baroness succeeded in getting him away, and
+locked the studio, keeping the key. However, no argument or entreaty
+would move the sculptor, and she could do nothing with him until she
+happened to think of crying. When she began to weep and to accuse him of
+having no affection for her, and reminded him of the proofs of her
+devotion which she had given him, he was taken in by her mock tears, and
+exclaimed, "Well, they may think what they like. My statue is not for
+posterity, but I cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such
+pleasure." He then resumed his work, and completed his statue in
+seventeen days. He represented himself standing with one arm resting
+upon his statue of Hope.
+
+After this summer Thorwaldsen divided his time between Copenhagen and
+Stampeborg, and worked with the same industry in one place as in the
+other. The life in the country was a great delight to him; he played
+games, listened to fairy tales from the poet Andersen, or to music from
+the young girls of the house, all with equal pleasure; and if he were
+allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day
+in the woods or pay visits, and was perfectly happy in this succession
+of labor and leisure.
+
+Baroness Stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist, for she
+found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument. He had
+promised to execute a statue of Christian IV. for Christian VIII., the
+reigning king; he put it off until the king was impatient. One day, when
+he had gone for a walk, the baroness went to the studio and began a
+sketch in clay as well as she could. When Thorwaldsen returned he asked
+what she was doing, and she answered, "I am making the statue of the
+king. Since you will not do it, and I have pledged my word, I must do it
+myself." The artist laughed, and began to criticise her work; she
+insisted it was all right, and at last said, "Do it better, then,
+yourself; you make fun of me; I defy you to find anything to change in
+my work." Thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model, and when
+once he had begun he finished it.
+
+It would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous
+incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor; of the honors
+he received, of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do,
+of the visits he paid and received from persons of note; few lives are
+as full as was his, and the detailed accounts of it are very
+interesting.
+
+He had always desired to go again to Rome, and in 1841, when the Baron
+von Stampe decided to go there with his family, Thorwaldsen travelled
+with them. They went through Germany, and were everywhere received as
+honorably as if he were a royal person: he was invited to visit royal
+families; court carriages were at his service; Mendelssohn gave a
+musical _fête_ for him; in all the great cities he was shown the places
+and objects worthy of his attention; poets and orators paid him respect,
+and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and
+his works was omitted.
+
+In Rome it was the same; he remained there almost a year, and upon his
+arrival at Copenhagen, in October, 1842, he experienced the crowning
+glory of his life. During his absence the Thorwaldsen Museum had been
+completed, and here, the day after he reached home, he was received. The
+building was decorated with garlands, and he went over the whole of it;
+at last he entered the inner court, where he was to be buried; here he
+stood for some time with bowed head, while all about him kept silence.
+Can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him? Here he must
+be buried, and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which
+would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers.
+
+He lived three years more, and was always busy. His mind was strong and
+his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing, but his ability to
+execute his works was less; his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning.
+He went much into society, was fond of the theatre, and under the
+devoted care of his servant, Wilkens, he enjoyed all that was possible
+to a man of his age. On the 24th of March 1844, the Baroness von Stampe
+went to ask him to dine at her house; he said he was not well and would
+not go out; but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he
+decided to go. He was modelling a bust of Luther, and threw down before
+it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it; just so, as he left it,
+this now stands in the museum, preserved under glass, with the print of
+his hand in the clay.
+
+He was merry at dinner, and in speaking of the museum said he could die
+now, whenever he chose, since the architect Bindesböll had finished his
+tomb. After dinner he went to the theatre, and there it was seen that he
+was really ill; he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa, when
+it was found that he was already dead. The Charlottenburg joined the
+theatre, and there, in the hall of antique sculpture, he was laid. He
+was first buried in the Frue Kirke, which he had so splendidly
+decorated; four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of
+the Thorwaldsen Museum, where above him grows the evergreen ivy, a
+fitting emblem of his unfading fame.
+
+Thiele, in his splendid book called "Thorwaldsen and his Works," gives a
+list of two hundred and sixty works by this master; and as one journeys
+from Rome, where are some of his sculptures in St. Peter's and the
+Quirinal, to Copenhagen, with the Frue Kirke and the Museum, one passes
+through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs.
+Among his most important works are the frieze of Alexander's entrance
+into Babylon, at the Quirinal; the Lion of Lucerne; the many statues,
+groups, and bas-reliefs in the Frue Kirke; more than thirty sepulchral
+and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries; sixteen
+bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche; twenty
+bas-reliefs of Genii; twenty-two figures from antique fables, and many
+portrait busts and statues, and various other subjects.
+
+Thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man. No circumstance of his youth
+indicated his success, and a certain indolence which he had would have
+seemed to forbid it; but the power was within him, and was of that
+genuine quality which will declare itself; and a man who has it becomes
+great without intending to be so, and almost without believing that he
+is remarkable beyond others. The true antique spirit seems to have been
+revived in him. His characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity,
+perfect beauty in form, distinctness, and repose. Thiele says of him:
+"He has challenged and has received the decision of the world's Supreme
+Court, that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality. And if his
+life might be embodied in a single emblem, perhaps it should be that of
+a young lion, with an eye that glows and flashes fire, while he is bound
+with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces."
+
+The sculpture of Germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the
+early years of the present century was very interesting. The architect
+Schinkel was a great lover of antique art, and he had much influence
+over all arts, as well as in his special department. Thorwaldsen himself
+so admired the sculptor JOHN RUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822) that when the
+King of Prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied: "Sire,
+there is at this moment in Rome one of your faithful subjects who is
+more capable than I of performing to your satisfaction the task with
+which you deign to honor me; permit me to solicit for him your royal
+favor." The commission was given to Schadow, and he made his charming
+work, The Spinner. John Rudolph was the son of JOHN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW
+(1764-1850), who was court sculptor, and long survived his gifted son.
+The chief works of the father were the statues of Count von der Mark, at
+Berlin; that of Frederick the Great, at Stettin; Luther's monument in
+the market-place at Wittenberg, and Blücher's statue at Rostock.
+
+John Rudolph Schadow studied under both Canova and Thorwaldsen, and was
+a very gifted artist. He was engaged upon a group of Achilles protecting
+the body of Penthesilea at the time of his death; it was finished by
+Wolff.
+
+CHRISTIAN FREDERIC TIECK (1776-1851) was an eminent sculptor of his
+time, and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at
+Berlin by Schinkel. He was very active in establishing a gallery of
+models from the antique at Berlin, and was a Director of the Sculptures
+in the Museum as well as a member of the Academy. His most successful
+original works were portrait busts, and he had many notable people among
+his sitters. Among them were the Emperor of Germany, the King of
+Bavaria, Schelling, Goethe, Lessing, and many others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--STATUE OF QUEEN LOUISE. _By Rauch._]
+
+CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857). This eminent sculptor was born at Waldeck,
+and followed the manner of Schadow, which he carried to its perfection.
+His statue of Queen Louise (Fig. 121) is one of the finest works of
+modern sculpture, and his statues of the Generals Scharnhorst and Bülow,
+in Berlin, are very fine; the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic
+beauty. But his masterpiece is the grand Friedrichs monument. Rauch
+executed many excellent busts; he made good portraits, and yet he
+elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of
+which they were capable. As a rule Rauch avoided religious subjects, but
+late in life he modelled the group of Moses supported in prayer by Aaron
+and Hur.
+
+Among his important works are the statue of Blücher, at Breslau; that of
+August Hermann Franke, at Halle; Dürer, at Nuremberg; monument to
+Maximilian I., at Munich; and six marble Victories for the Walhalla. His
+works are numerous, and in them we feel that this artist had not a great
+imaginative power; he rarely conceived imaginary subjects, but he took
+some fact or personality as his motive, and elevated it to the highest
+point to which it could be brought, and under his masterly style of
+execution produced splendid results.
+
+ERNST RIETSCHEL (1804-1860) was a gifted pupil of Rauch. After spending
+some time in Rome he settled in Dresden, and executed the statue of
+Friederich August of Saxony, for the Zwingerhof, when but twenty-seven
+years old. His chief excellence was in portrait statues, and those of
+Lessing and Luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the
+intellectual and moral force of those men. His religious subjects were
+full of deep feeling, and his lighter works have a charming grace about
+them.
+
+LUDWIG SCHWANTHALER (1802-1848) studied much in Rome, and was as devoted
+to the antique as was Thorwaldsen. He executed many works in Munich, the
+principal ones being the interior decoration of the Glyptothek; also
+that of the Königsbau and two groups for the Walhalla. A prominent work
+by this master is the bronze statue of Bavaria, which is fifty-four feet
+high and stands in front of the Ruhmeshalle. He also made twelve
+gilt-bronze statues of Bavarian sovereigns. Schwanthaler had remarkable
+powers of invention and a fruitful imagination; in these points he ranks
+with the first of modern sculptors; but his works rarely rise above what
+we call decorative art, and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked
+the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues.
+
+There are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with
+modern sculpture in Germany. Nowhere have the monuments and portrait
+statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call,
+in general terms, the Berlin school. Profound attention has been given
+to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects,
+while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or
+commonplaceness. Nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of
+our own day than in the sculpture of Germany.
+
+But there are exceptions to this rule; some such artists as THEODORE
+KALIDE and LUDWIG WICHMANN are wanting in the serious qualities of
+Schadow, Rauch, and their followers, and sometimes fall into a coarse
+realism; but in spite of this, the revival of love for the antique,
+which began with Canova and his time, has borne rich fruit in the works
+of modern German sculptors.
+
+In France the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the
+severe classic style, and it has shown many of the same qualities that
+we have seen in modern German sculpture; but the different
+characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in
+everything else. In France the artist has aimed at a fine
+effect--flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic
+motives--far more than the northern sculptors have done. There is less
+thought and depth of feeling, more outward attraction and striking
+effect. The classic taste which asserted itself in the time of Canova
+was adopted in France, but in a French manner; and one of the earliest
+artists who showed its effects was FRANÇOIS JOSEPH BOSIO (1769-1845),
+who was much honored. He was made a member of the Institute of France
+and of the Royal Academy of Berlin: he was chief sculptor to the King of
+France, and executed many public works. He made many portrait busts of
+the royal family and other prominent persons, but his chief works were
+the reliefs on the column of the Place Vendôme, the Chariot on the arch
+of the Place du Carrousel, the monument to the Countess Demidoff, and
+statues of mythological heroes and heroines. For the Chapelle
+Expiatoire, Bosio executed a group representing Louis XVII. receiving
+comfort from an angel; the design is not as good as in some of his
+classic works, but the conception is pure and noble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--NYMPH. _By Bosio._]
+
+JAMES PRADIER (1790-1832), though born in Geneva, was essentially a
+French sculptor, and excelled the artists of his day in his
+representations of feminine beauty. His masterpiece is a fountain at
+Nimes, in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct
+in treatment. The serious and comic Muses of the Fountain Molière are
+excellent works. He made several separate statues which are well known;
+his Psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm; Atalanta
+is fastening her sandals; Sappho is in despair. His Niobe group showed
+his power to represent bold action, and his Prometheus chained, erected
+in the garden of the Tuileries, is grand and spirited.
+
+We could name a great number of French sculptors belonging to this
+period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn, but
+whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the
+world's artists, or make the accounts of them anything more than a list
+of works which has little meaning, except when one stands before them.
+Perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had PIERRE
+JEAN DAVID (1793-1856), who is called David of Angers, which was his
+birthplace, in order to distinguish him from Jacques Louis David, the
+great painter, who was like a father to this sculptor, though in no way
+connected with him by ties of kindred, as far as we know. But when the
+sculptor went to Paris, a very poor boy, David the painter, whose
+attention was called to him in some way, was his friend, and gave him
+lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways. In 1811 David of Angers
+obtained the prize which enabled him to go to Rome, and after his
+return to Paris he was constantly employed. The amount of his work was
+enormous; many of his statues were colossal, and he executed a great
+number of busts and more than ninety medallions.
+
+He made the statue of Mme. de Staël; one of Talma for the Théâtre
+Français; the colossal statue of King René at Aix; monument to Fénelon
+at Cambray; the statue of the great Condé at Versailles; the Gutenberg
+memorial at Strasburg, which is one of his most successful works, and a
+large number of other sculptures.
+
+His chief characteristic is realism, and he carried this so far that it
+frequently became coarseness. David designed the relief for the pediment
+of the Pantheon. The inscription on the building declares that it is
+dedicated by a grateful country to its great men, and the sculptor seems
+to have had this in mind, for he represented in his group a figure of
+France surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and
+days of peace. It is too realistic to be pleasing, and is far less
+creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works.
+
+If little can be said of the modern French sculpture prior to our
+immediate time, there is still less to be told of that of England. There
+are many public monuments there, but they do not show forth any high
+artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare
+instances. There is but one English sculptor of whom I shall speak. JOHN
+GIBSON (1791-1866) was born near Conway, in Wales. When he was nine
+years old his parents went to Liverpool with the intention of sailing
+for America; but they gave up the idea, and the boy was sent to school
+in Liverpool. Before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of
+making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with; he now
+studied the prints in the shop windows, and made pictures, which he sold
+to his fellow-pupils. He attracted the attention of a print-seller, who
+was so interested in him that he allowed him to draw from studies and
+casts from the antique which he had. When fourteen years old the boy was
+apprenticed to a cabinet-maker, but after a year he persuaded his
+employer to allow him to leave his shop, and was then apprenticed to a
+wood-carver. He did not stop at this, however, for when he became
+acquainted with the Messrs. Francis, who had a marble-yard, he persuaded
+his second master to release him, and was apprenticed for the third
+time, and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should
+be that of his life.
+
+He was now very happy, and his improvement in drawing, modelling, and
+working in marble was very rapid. After a few months he made the
+acquaintance of William Roscoe, who became his friend and patron. He
+remained in Liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old; he had
+improved every advantage within his reach, but he was very desirous of
+travelling. In 1817, armed with a few letters of introduction, he went
+to London, where he obtained several orders, and in October of that year
+went to Rome.
+
+He had a letter to Canova, who took him under his care and gave him
+admission to the classes in the Academy, in which he could draw from
+living models. In 1819 he received his first important commission; it
+was from the Duke of Devonshire for a group of Mars and Cupid. From this
+time he advanced steadily in his profession, and was always busy. He
+lived twenty-seven years in Rome, and passed his summers in Innsbrück.
+
+In 1844 he went to Liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of
+Mr. Huskisson; he was received with enthusiasm, and when he went to
+Glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of Mr. Finlay in the
+Merchants' Hall his reception was even more flattering, as it was given
+him simply as an artist, and not connected with any former associations,
+as in Liverpool. During this visit to England Gibson was summoned to
+Windsor to make a statue of Queen Victoria, which he completed after
+his return to Rome. The queen was represented in a classical costume,
+and the diadem, sandals, and borders of the drapery were colored. This
+was very much criticised and much was written and said about it; Gibson
+took little notice of all this, and simply answered it by saying,
+"Whatever the Greeks did was right."
+
+In 1851 Gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother Ben,
+who had lived with him in Rome for fourteen years. Five years later,
+when in perfect health, the sculptor was attacked by paralysis, and
+lived but a short time. He was buried in the English cemetery at Rome,
+and Lord Lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument. It says: "His
+native genius strengthened by careful study, he infused the spirit of
+Grecian art into masterpieces all his own. His character as a man was in
+unison with his attributes as an artist--beautiful in its simplicity and
+truthfulness, noble in its dignity and elevation." A monument was also
+raised to Gibson in the church at Conway.
+
+The master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his
+fortune to the Royal Academy in London. Among his works are Mars and
+Cupid, at Chatsworth; Psyche borne by Zephyrs, in the Palazzo Torlonia,
+at Rome, and a replica at St. Petersburg; Hylas surprised by Nymphs, in
+the National Gallery, London; Sleeping Shepherd Boy, in the Lenox
+collection in New York; Cupid disguised as a Shepherd, which he often
+repeated; portraits of Queen Victoria, at Buckingham Palace and Osborne;
+Sir Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey; George Stephenson, in St.
+George's Hall, Liverpool; eighteen portrait busts; sixteen bas-reliefs
+of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead. A large
+part of these are in the chapel of the Liverpool Cemetery. He modelled a
+bas-relief of Christ blessing little children.
+
+Gibson found his entire happiness in his art. In his own words, he
+worked on "happily and with ever new pleasure, avoiding evil and with a
+calm soul, making images, not for worship, but for the love of the
+beautiful. The beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world; the
+ideal, higher--yes, higher still, to celestial beauty, the fountain of
+all. Socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward; in
+the life of a man, as in an image, every part should be beautiful."
+
+He was never elated by praise; he was glad of tributes which proved that
+he was respected, but he received all honors with a simplicity of
+self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature.
+
+There are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about
+everything not connected with his art. Miss Harriet Hosmer was his only
+pupil, and she said of him: "He is a god in his studio, but God help him
+when he is out of it." He never could master the ins and outs of
+railroad travelling, and even when put in the right train at the right
+time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time.
+
+On one of his journeys, when he supposed he was at the right place, he
+got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral. In
+his own account he said: "But the scoundrel would have it there was no
+cathedral in the place, and at last had the impudence to ask me if I
+knew where I was. Then I discovered that instead of being in Chichester,
+where I had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter, I was
+safe in Portsmouth, where there was no cathedral at all."
+
+The time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of
+our own country. So many of our artists are still living that it would
+be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is
+complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history. We have no
+right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full
+height, and even after death a certain period must elapse before the
+true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its
+just place upon the roll of fame. So, in leaving this subject, we will
+turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern
+sculpture. In Italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which
+Canova and Thorwaldsen brought it; for though the last was a Dane, his
+work may truly be said to belong to the Roman school. We must regard
+Italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense, but it is easy to
+understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered
+an advance in artistic life could not be made. Now, when a new spirit is
+active there, and a freer thought prevails in other directions, may we
+not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best
+inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty?
+
+As we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an
+immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Schools and
+academies are multiplied everywhere, and the interest in works of art is
+universal. Many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of
+artists as were the princes and nobles of the past. It is as if there
+were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested,
+and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold
+must come forth.
+
+As we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the
+present, we are compelled to linger lovingly with the Greek or classic
+art. The period in which it existed was a blessed period for the
+sculptor. We all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art
+is the study and reproduction of _nature_, and in the times of the
+Greeks there was no reason why the human form, the most beautiful object
+in nature, should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the
+temple, for the statues of the public square or theatre, or for any
+position in which sculpture could be used at all. The customs of modern
+life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms, and the
+difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact
+are almost more than we can realize; and the task of draping a figure
+and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and
+action is one before which even a Greek sculptor would have reason to
+doubt himself.
+
+On the other hand, when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped
+figure which satisfies artistic taste, he has achieved much, and merits
+the highest praise. A drapery which has gracefully composed masses and
+flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a
+prophet, and there are numerous subjects, religious and monumental, in
+which a full, graceful drapery is requisite; but when, as is often the
+case, the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the
+day, what can we look for? The truth is, it has no grace in itself;
+what, then, must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble?
+Yet where is the remedy for this? We do not wish to see the men whom we
+have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put
+into an antique disguise by the sculptor; the incongruity of this is too
+apparent. Much has been written and said upon these points, and no
+solution of the difficulty has been found; but it is only just that when
+we judge of the statues made under such difficulties, we should remember
+them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the
+hindrances that exist for him.
+
+Westmacott, in his "Handbook of Sculpture," gives as his "Conclusion" an
+account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor, and I believe that I
+can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a
+quotation from that author.
+
+"The artist, having invented or conceived his subject, usually begins by
+making a small sketch of it in some soft and obedient substance, as
+clay or wax. He can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is
+satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition, and the
+proportions it will command of light and shadow. He then proceeds to
+copy this small but useful sketch, as his guide, in its general
+arrangement, for his full-sized model. Before commencing the larger
+model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron
+and wood, with joints made of wire, to support the great mass of clay in
+which the figure or group is now to be executed. This iron frame is
+firmly fixed upon a turning bench, or banker, so that the model may be
+constantly moved without difficulty, so as to be seen in different
+lights and in various points of view. As the clay is likely to shrink as
+it gets dry, it is necessary occasionally to wet it. This is done by
+sprinkling water over it with a brush, or from a large syringe, and by
+laying damp cloths upon it. This is the ordinary process for making a
+model in the 'round.'
+
+"In modelling in _rilievo_ of either kind, _alto_ or _basso_, a plane or
+ground is prepared upon which the design is, or should be, carefully
+drawn. This may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board, or the
+ground may be of slate, or even of wood, though the latter is
+objectionable, in large works especially, from its liability to shrink
+and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture. The clay is then
+laid in small quantities upon this ground, the outline being bounded by
+the drawing, which should be carefully preserved; and the bulk or
+projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the
+sculptor desires to give to his design.
+
+"If the final work is to be baked in clay (_terra-cotta_) there must be
+no iron or wooden nucleus, as it would interfere with the model drying
+regularly and uniformly, and probably cause it to crack in shrinking.
+The model is therefore prepared for drying without such support. When
+perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked
+slowly, by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar
+brownish-red color seen in these works. This art has been brought to
+great perfection in England in modern days.
+
+"If the final work is to be in marble, or bronze, or only in plaster,
+the next process after finishing the model is to mould it, in
+preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving
+about without risk of injury to the design. This is done by covering it
+with a mixture of plaster of Paris with water, which quickly sets or
+becomes consistent, forming a hard and thick coating over the whole. The
+clay is then carefully picked out, and an exact matrix, or form,
+remains. This is washed clean, and the interior is then brushed over
+with any greasy substance, usually a composition of soap and oil, to
+prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too
+firmly to it. The fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of
+cream and then poured into the mould, which is gently moved about till
+the inner surface is entirely filled or covered, so that all parts may
+be reached. The thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the
+size of the work and the degree of strength required.
+
+"When the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked
+away with chisels, and a true cast appears beneath, giving an entire
+fac-simile of the original model. Some skill is required in making
+moulds, in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings;
+practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties
+when they occur. The above general instructions sufficiently explain the
+ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster.
+
+"In metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the
+strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal; but the
+principle described in plaster-moulding applies also to the preparation
+for metal-casting. The mixture of metals to form bronze, the proper
+heating of the furnace, burning and uniting parts, chasing and other
+processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place. They
+belong to a distinct practice, and to be well understood must be studied
+in the foundry.
+
+"If the model--now reproduced in plaster--is to be copied in marble or
+stone, the first step is to procure a block of the required size. Two
+stones, called _scale-stones_, are then prepared, upon one of which the
+model or plaster cast is placed, and upon the other the rough block of
+marble. The fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales,' to
+use the technical term, exactly corresponding. An instrument capable of
+being easily moved, and which is fitted up with socket-joints and
+movable arms, is then applied to the scale-stone of the model, and a
+projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the
+model itself. This is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough
+block, and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into
+the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model. A
+pencil-mark is then made to show that the _point_ is found and
+registered. This process is repeated all over the model and block,
+alternately, till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made.
+These 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms,
+but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all. The
+statue being thus rudely shaped out, the block is placed in the hands of
+a superior workman, called a 'carver,' who, having the plastic model
+near at hand to refer to, copies the more minute portions of the work by
+means of chisels, rasps, and files, the pencil-marks made by the
+'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit
+beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble. When the carver has
+carried the work as far as the sculptor desires, he proceeds himself to
+give it the finishing touches, improving the details of form and
+expression, managing the different effects produced by two different
+materials--one, the plastic model, being opaque; the other, the marble,
+being considerably diaphanous; giving the proper varieties of texture in
+the flesh, hair, and drapery, and, more especially, harmonizing the
+whole.
+
+"The rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of
+marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other
+substances, and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their
+work by a process which is called '_circumlitio_,' and may mean not only
+rubbing or polishing, but applying some composition, such as hot wax, to
+give a soft, glowing color to the surface. Many of the ancient statues
+certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having
+slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an
+inch, and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it; a
+process, be it observed, quite distinct from and not to be confounded
+with _polychromy_, or what is usually understood by painting sculpture
+with various tints, in imitation of the natural color of the complexion,
+hair, and eyes. Its object, probably, with the ancients as with modern
+sculptors, has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of
+appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work, by
+giving a general warmth to the color of the marble."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+   "Abduction of Briseis" (Thorwaldsen), 257
+
+   Abildgaard, 254
+
+   "Abraham and Isaac," 139
+
+   "Abundance" (della Porta), 212
+
+   Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Michael Angelo's David in, 201
+
+   Achilles, story of, 26;
+     and Priam (Thorwaldsen), 299;
+     and Penthesilea (Schadow), 270
+
+   Acropolis, 78
+
+   Action in Egyptian sculpture, 3
+
+   "Actæon and his Dogs," 24
+
+   "Adam" (Cano), 220
+
+   "Adam and Eve," reliefs of, 138, 139;
+     by Rizzo, 154
+
+   "Adonis" (Thorwaldsen), 258
+
+   "Adoring Madonna," 152
+
+   Ægina, marbles of, and Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Æmilius Paulus, 84
+
+   "Æneas and Anchises" (Chaudet), 248
+
+   Æsculapius. _See_ Asclepius
+
+   Ætolians, 84
+
+   Agamemnon, 90
+
+   Agesander and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Agnello, Fra Guglielmo d', 130
+
+   Agoracritus, 49, 51
+
+   Agrippa and the Apoxyomenos, 70
+
+   Agrippina, statue of, 103
+
+   Aix, 275
+
+   Alaric and Minerva Promachos, 35
+
+   Albert, Archduke, and Duquesnoy, 226
+
+   Alcamenes, 49
+
+   Aldovrandi, Gian Francesco, 198
+
+   Alexander the Great;
+     statues of, 69, 72;
+     decline after, 72;
+     portrait statues of, 100;
+     and Diogenes, by Puget, 229;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 259;
+     Entrance into Babylon of, 268
+
+   Alexander, Emperor of Russia, and Thorwaldsen, 262
+
+   Alexander VII., monument of, 226
+
+   Alexandros, sculptor of Venus of Milo, 87
+
+   Alto-rilievo, 281
+
+   Altoviti, statue of (Cellini), 191
+
+   Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, 157
+
+   Amboise Monument, 177
+
+   Ambraser Gallery, Vienna, Cellini's salt-cellar in, 190
+
+   Amiens Cathedral, 176
+
+   Ancient Italian sculpture, 82
+
+   Ancona, 156
+
+   Andersen, Hans, and Thorwaldsen, 266
+
+   Androsphinx, 6
+
+   "Angel of Baptism" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   "Angel's Salutation" (Stoss), 165
+
+   Anguier, François, 228
+
+   Anguier, Michael, 228
+
+   Animals in Egyptian sculpture, 5
+
+   Anne of Austria, and Anguier, 228
+
+   Anne of Brittany, monument of, 177
+
+   "Annunciation" (Donatello), 142
+
+   Annunziata, church of, 212
+
+   Antigonus, father of Poliorcetes, 73
+
+   Antium, 91
+
+   Antonelli, Cardinal, 100
+
+   Antwerp, town hall of, 231
+
+   Aphrodite. _See_ Venus
+
+   Apollo;
+     Sosianus, temple of, 61;
+     by Leochares, 65;
+     the Belvedere, 91,
+       theories concerning, 92, 95;
+     the Steinhäuser, 91;
+     the Stroganoff, 92;
+     by Sansovino, 186;
+     and Daphne, by Bernini, 224;
+     and Daphne, by Canova, 239;
+     by Canova, 240;
+     by Flaxman, 251
+
+   Apollodorus, 86
+
+   Apollonius, of the Toro Farnese, 76
+
+   Apostles (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   "Apoxyomenos" (Lysippus), 70
+
+   Archaic period, 22
+
+   Archaistic period, 27
+
+   Arches in Rome, 97
+
+   Architecture, close connection with Egyptian sculpture, 10
+
+   "Archangel Michael and Satan" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Areobrudus, diptych of, 109
+
+   Arezzo, 132
+
+   Argos, school of, 72
+
+   "Ariadne" (Dannecker), 248
+
+   Arrezzo, Niccolò of, 135
+
+   Artemis, archaistic statue of, 28, 94, 95 (and _see_ Diana)
+
+   Aschaffenburg Vischer's works in, 175
+
+   Asclepius, by Alcamenes, 50;
+     by Canova, 239
+
+   Assos, reliefs from, 23
+
+   Assyria, 10
+
+   Assyrian influence on Etruscan art, 82
+
+   Atalanta, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Athena;
+     Promachos (Phidias), 34;
+     birth of, 38;
+     attributes of, 39;
+     representations of, 40;
+     by Phidias, 84;
+     of the Capitol, 94, 95, 96 (and _see_ Minerva and Pallas)
+
+   Athenodorus and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Athens, statue from, at Rome, 84
+
+   Attalus I., statues of, 78
+
+   Augsburg, 123, 164
+
+   Augustio, 108
+
+   Augustus, Emperor;
+     and archaistic period, 27;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84;
+     statue of, 102
+
+
+   Babylonians, 17
+
+   Bacchus;
+     and the Tyrrhenian robbers, 67;
+     tripod of, by Lysicrates, 67; 84;
+     by Sansovino, 185;
+     by Michael Angelo, 200
+
+   Baldachin, 174
+
+   Balier, Heinrich den, 123
+
+   Bamberg, 123;
+     carvings in, 167;
+     and Krafft, 168
+
+   Bandinelli, Baccio, 212;
+     and Cellini, 190
+
+   Baptistery of Pisa, 128
+
+   Baptistery of Florence, 137, 138;
+     gates of, 133
+
+   Barberini, Cardinal, and Bernini, 223
+
+   "Barberini Faun," 73
+
+   Bargello, museum of the, 139
+
+   Baryatinska, Princess, 260
+
+   Basle, Steinhäuser Apollo in, 91
+
+   Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna, 137
+
+   Bas-relief;
+     Egyptian, 2;
+     Assyrian, 12;
+     the first, 20
+
+   Basso-rilievo, 281
+
+   "Battle of Athenians and Amazons," 78
+
+   "Battle of Marathon," 78
+
+   "Battle of the Gods and Giants," 78
+
+   Bavaria;
+     King of, 270;
+     statue of, 271;
+     sovereigns of, Schwanthaler's statues of, 272
+
+   Beata Villana, 151
+
+   Beauharnais, monument to, 263
+
+   "Beautiful Fountain," Nuremberg, 123
+
+   Beauty, Greek love of, 18
+
+   Begarelli, Antonio, 193
+
+   "Berengaria," statue of, 119
+
+   Berlin Museum, works of Pythagoras in, 30;
+     Begarelli's works in, 194
+
+   Berlin school, 272
+
+   Bernardi, Giuseppe, 237
+
+   Berne, cathedral of, 170
+
+   Bernini, 223
+
+   Berruguete, Alonso, 217
+
+   Bertoldo and Michael Angelo, 195
+
+   Bethmann, Herr, 248
+
+   Beuch, 213
+
+   Bienaimé, pupil of Thorwaldsen, 261
+
+   Bindesböll, architect, 268
+
+   "Birth of St. John" (Dürer), 166
+
+   Blücher, Schadow's statue of, 269;
+     Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Boboli Gardens, 214
+
+   Boethus of Chalcedon, 80
+
+   Boileau, bust of, 229
+
+   Bologna; 128;
+     works of Lombardo in, 192;
+     Michael Angelo in, 198
+
+   Bologna, Giovanni da, 213
+
+   Bon family, 135
+
+   Bontemps, Pierre, 178
+
+   Bosio, François Joseph, 273
+
+   Bottigari, de', 193
+
+   Bourges, Cathedral of, 114, 178
+
+   Bourgtherroulde, Hotel, 178
+
+   "Boy and Dolphin" (Verocchio), 149
+
+   "Boy and Goose," 80
+
+   Braccini, Nicolo, 187
+
+   Bramante and Michael Angelo, 202
+
+   Braye, Cardinal de, monument of, 133
+
+   Bregno, Antonio Giovanni, 154
+
+   Breslau, 271
+
+   Briseis, by Thorwaldsen, 257
+
+   Bristol, Lord, and Flaxman, 251
+
+   British Museum;
+     Harpy monument in, 24;
+     Elgin marbles in, 37;
+     statue of Pericles in, 52;
+     statue of Mausolus in, 57;
+     Etruscan table-ware in, 83;
+     Dürer's carvings in, 166
+
+   Bronzes, Etruscan, 82
+
+   "Brother and Sister," Niobe group, 64
+
+   Bruges, 178
+
+   Brugsch-Bey concerning Martisen, 1
+
+   Brun, Charles le, monument of, 229
+
+   Brun, Ida, Thorwaldsen's statue of, 258
+
+   Brunelleschi, 139, 140
+
+   Bruni, Lionardo, statue of, 151
+
+   Brunswick Museum, 166
+
+   Buckingham Palace, and Flaxman, 251;
+     and Gibson, 277
+
+   Buonarroti, 194
+
+   Buoni, 135
+
+   Burgkapelle, and Veit Stoss, 165
+
+   Burgos, Altars of, 179
+
+   "Burial of Christ" (Krafft), 168
+
+   Burns, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Bülow, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Byzantium, early Christian sculpture in, 108;
+     ivory carving in, 108
+
+
+   "Cain and Abel," 139
+
+   Calabria, Duke of, 153
+
+   Calamis, 31
+
+   Caligula, and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Callimachus, 52
+
+   Callon of Ægina, 27
+
+   Cambio, Arnolfo di, 133
+
+   Cambray, 275
+
+   Campanile at Florence, 146
+
+   Campo Santo of Pisa, 131
+
+   Cano, Alonso, 219
+
+   Canon of Polycleitus, 54
+
+   Canova, Antonio, 236;
+     and Gibson, 276
+
+   Canova, Pasino, 236
+
+   Canterbury Cathedral, 121
+
+   Capitol at Rome;
+     Helios in, 69;
+     Minerva in, 95
+
+   Capitoline Museum, busts by Canova in, 246
+
+   Capuchins and Thorwaldsen, 263
+
+   Caracalla, Baths of;
+     and "Farnese Bull," 76;
+     and "Farnesian Hercules," 88
+
+   Caridad of Seville, 220
+
+   Carlovingians, statues of, 119
+
+   Carrousel, Place du, Chariot of, 273
+
+   Carthusian Chapel, Dijon, 125
+
+   Carver, 283
+
+   Casa Santa, Loreto, 184
+
+   Castellani collection, 78
+
+   Cavaliere Alberto, 258
+
+   Cellini, Benvenuto, 187
+
+   "Centaurs and Lapithæ" (Alcamenes), 51
+
+   "Cephalus and Aurora" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Cephisodotus, 55
+
+   Ceres;
+     Roman temple of, 83;
+     Livia as, 104
+
+   Certosa of Pavia, 177; 194;
+     and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Cesena, 156;
+     and Lombardo, 192
+
+   Chapelle Expiatoire, 274
+
+   Chares of Lindos, 71
+
+   "Charity" (Coysevox), 229
+
+   Charles I. and Bernini, 226
+
+   Charles VIII., 177
+
+   Charmidas, 32
+
+   Chartres, cathedral of, 114
+
+   Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 247
+
+   Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 65
+
+   Choragus, 65
+
+   Christ;
+     early statues of, 106;
+     figure of, at Rheims, 117;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Michael Angelo, 206;
+     by Coustou, 230;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     various statues of, by Thorwaldsen, 262;
+       by Gibson, 277
+
+   Christian IV., Thorwaldsen's statue of, 266
+
+   Christian VIII. and Thorwaldsen, 266
+
+   Christian Art, 104
+
+   "Christian Charity" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Christian Frederick, Prince, 259
+
+   Christian sculpture, 105
+
+   Christiansborg palace and Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Chryselephantine statues, 22
+
+   Chur, cathedral of, 164
+
+   Church of Our Lady, Thorwaldsen's works in, 262
+
+   Cimon, patron of Phidias, 34
+
+   Cincinnatus, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Cione, Andrea Arcagnuolo di, 134
+
+   Circumlitio, 284
+
+   Civitali, Matteo, 153
+
+   Claudius;
+     and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     arch of, in Rome, 98
+
+   Clement VII. and Cellini, 187
+
+   Clement XIII., Canova's monument of, 242
+
+   Clement XIV., monument of, 240
+
+   Cleomenes, 86, 90
+
+   Cnidos, Venus of, 60
+
+   Coins, Athenian, 35;
+     of Elis, 35
+
+   Colbert, tomb of, 229
+
+   Colleoni;
+     statue of, 149;
+     and Leopardo, 155
+
+   Colleoni Chapel, Bergamo, 157
+
+   Cologne, 123
+
+   Colonna, Vittoria, and Michael Angelo, 209
+
+   Color;
+     in Assyrian bas-reliefs, 14;
+     in Æginetan statues, 26;
+     in thirteenth century sculptures, 115
+
+   Colossi, Egyptian, 8;
+     of Thebes, 8
+
+   Colossus of Rhodes, 71
+
+   "Comedy" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Como, cathedral of, 159
+
+   "Conception" (Montañes), 219
+
+   Condé, statues of, by Coysevox, 229;
+     by David, 275
+
+   Consalvi, Cardinal, 263
+
+   Constance, cathedral of, 163
+
+   Constantine, arch of, 105;
+     column of, 108;
+     Bernini's statue of, 226
+
+   Conway, 277
+
+   Copernicus, Thorwaldsen's monument to, 262
+
+   Corinthian capital, 53
+
+   Cornacini, 74
+
+   Corneto, 83
+
+   Correggio and Begarelli, 193
+
+   Cortona, 132
+
+   Cosmo I., and Donatello, 144;
+     Giovanni da Bologna's statue of, 214
+
+   Cosmo III. and "Venus de' Medici," 85
+
+   Coustou, Guillaume, 230
+
+   Coustou, Nicolas, 229
+
+   Covent Garden Theatre, 251
+
+   Cow, Myron's statue of, 30
+
+   Coysevox, Antoine, 229
+
+   Cracow and Veit Stoss, 164
+
+   Cresilas, 52
+
+   "Crowning of the Virgin" (Stoss), 165
+
+   Cupid;
+     by Praxiteles, 60;
+     by Michael Angelo, 198;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     and Psyche (Thorwaldsen), 257;
+     as a shepherd (Gibson), 183 (and _see_ Eros)
+
+   Cybele, by Cellini, 190
+
+
+   Dacians on Trajan's Pillar, 99
+
+   Dædalus, 20;
+     and Icarus (Canova), 239
+
+   Damophilus, 83
+
+   Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248
+
+   Da Siena, Ugolino, 134
+
+   David, by Donatello, 142;
+     by Verocchio, 149;
+     by Michael Angelo, 200
+
+   "David and Goliath," 139
+
+   David of Angers, 274
+
+   David, Jacques Louis, 274
+
+   David, Pierre Jean, 274
+
+   "Day" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   "Death," by Bernini, 226;
+     by Pigalle, 230
+
+   "Death of the Virgin" (Strasburg), 120
+
+   Delphi, bronzes from, 84
+
+   Demetrius Poliorcetes, 71
+
+   Demidoff, Countess, Bosio's statue of, 274
+
+   Denman, Ann, 251
+
+   "Deposition from the Cross," by Pisano, 127;
+     by Omodeo, 158
+
+   "Descent from the Cross" (Begarelli), 194
+
+   "Destruction of the Gauls in Mysia," 78
+
+   Devonshire, Duke of, 276
+
+   Diadochi, 73
+
+   Diana;
+     temple of, at Ephesus, 57;
+     _à la Biche_, 95 (and _see_ Artemis)
+
+   Dibutades, 20
+
+   Dijon, 125
+
+   Diomed, by Myron, 31
+
+   Diptychs, 109
+
+   "Discobolus" of Myron, 30
+
+   Donatello, 140
+
+   Donato di Betto Bardi, 140
+
+   Dortmund, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   "Doryphorus," by Polycleitus, 54
+
+   Dubois, Cardinal, Coustou's statue of, 230
+
+   Duquesnoy, François, 226, 231
+
+   Dürer, Albrecht; 166;
+     Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   "Dying Gaul," 79
+
+   "Dying Warriors" (Schlüter), 232
+
+
+   Egremont, Earl of, 251
+
+   Egyptians;
+     ancient sculpture of, 1;
+     influence of, on Etruscan art, 82
+
+   "Eldest Daughter," Niobe group, 64
+
+   Elector Frederic III., Schlüter's statue of, 234
+
+   Eleventh century, metal work in, 111
+
+   Elgin, Lord, 37
+
+   Elgin marbles, 35, 40
+
+   Emo, Admiral, monument of, 242
+
+   Emperor of Austria, Canova's bust of, 243
+
+   England; sculpture introduced into, in fourteenth century, 125;
+     in sixteenth century, 179
+
+   "Entombment of Christ" (Roldan), 220
+
+   Erinnyes, 25
+
+   Ernst, Vischer's monument of, 171
+
+   Eros, 55;
+     of Centocelle, 60 (and _see_ Cupid)
+
+   Escorial, church of, 221
+
+   Esquiline, Discobolos found on, 31
+
+   Estofado, 220
+
+   Étampes, Mme. d', 189
+
+   Etruscans originated Italian sculpture, 82
+
+   Eurydice, by Canova, 238
+
+   Eurythmy, 49
+
+   Eustathius of Rome, 108
+
+   Eve, by Cano, 220
+
+   "Evening" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   "Expulsion of Heliodorus" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Eyck, van, 178
+
+
+   Fabbriche Nuova, 186
+
+   Faliero, Giovanni, 236
+
+   Farnese Palace;
+     and Michael Angelo, 209;
+     della Porta's statues in, 212
+
+   "Farnesian Bull," 76
+
+   "Farnesian Hercules," 88
+
+   Farsetti, Commendatore and Canova, 237
+
+   Fénelon, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Ferdinand and Isabella, monument of, 180
+
+   Ferrara, Quercia's works in, 137;
+     Lombardo's works in, 192
+
+   Ferrari, Giuseppe, and Canova, 237
+
+   Ferrucci, Andrea, 152
+
+   Fiammingo, Il, 213
+
+   "Fidelity" (Coysevox), 229
+
+   Fiesole, Mino da, 152
+
+   Fifteenth century, 136
+
+   Finlay, Gibson's statue of, 276
+
+   Fionia, Island of, 257
+
+   Fiorino, 187
+
+   "Fischkasten" (Syrlin), 163
+
+   Flaccus, Fulvius, and statues from Volsinii, 82
+
+   Flaminius, 84
+
+   Flaxman, John, 250
+
+   Flora, Julia as, 104
+
+   Florence;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 132;
+     and Pietro di Giovanni, 135;
+     Ghiberti's works in, 140
+
+   Florence, Baptistery of, 133
+
+   Florence, cathedral of, high altar in, 212
+
+   Forum Trajani, 98
+
+   Fountain;
+     by Labenwolf, 176;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Bernini, 226;
+     of the Manneken-Pis, 227;
+     Molière, 274
+
+   Fourteenth century, 122
+
+   Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello, 130
+
+   France in fourteenth century, 124
+
+   Francis I., 148, 176;
+     and Rustici, 183;
+     and Cellini, 189;
+     monument of, by Pilon, 216
+
+   Franke, Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Frankfort, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   Frari, church of, 154
+
+   Frauenkirche, Nuremberg; 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167
+
+   Frederic II., 127
+
+   Frederick the Great, Schadow's statue of, 269
+
+   Freiburg, cathedral of, 121
+
+   French monuments, Museum of, 230
+
+   Friedrich August, Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Friedrichs monument, 271
+
+   Frue Kirche, 268
+
+   Fulvius Nobilior, 84
+
+   Furstenburg, Cardinal, and Coysevox, 229
+
+   "Fury of Athamas" (Flaxman), 251
+
+
+   "Gallic theory" concerning Apollo, Diana, and Minerva, 96
+
+   "Gallic Warrior" in Venice, 78
+
+   Gambarelli, The, 151
+
+   Ganymede, by Leochares, 65;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Gattamelata, statue of, 145
+
+   Genii, by Thorwaldsen, 268
+
+   Genoa, 153
+
+   Genre;
+     Apoxyomenos as example of, 70;
+     sculpture, 81
+
+   Germany, Emperor of, 270
+
+   Ghibelline Street, 211
+
+   Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 133, 138
+
+   Ghirlandajo, Domenico, and Michael Angelo, 195
+
+   Gibson, John, 275
+
+   Giovanni, Luca di, 137
+
+   Giovanni, Pietro di, 135
+
+   Girardon, François, 228
+
+   Glycon, 88
+
+   Glyptothek, Munich;
+     groups from Ægina in, 25;
+     Barberini Faun in, 73;
+     Thorwaldsen's Adonis in, 258;
+     Schwanthaler's decoration of, 271
+
+   "Gobbo, Il." _See_ Solari
+
+   Goethe, Tieck's statue of, 270
+
+   Golden House of Nero, 84;
+     "Venus Callipiga" in, 87
+
+   Gorgasus, 83
+
+   Gothic style, 114, 115;
+     in German art, 120;
+     hindrances of, 160
+
+   Gottfried of Strasburg, 115
+
+   Gottskalken, Thorvald, 253
+
+   Goujon, Jean, 216
+
+   Graces, The, by Pilon, 216;
+     by Canova, 241;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Granacci, Francesco, 194
+
+   Granada, cathedral of, Virgin by Cano in, 220
+
+   Great Elector, Schlüter's statue of, 233.
+
+   Greece;
+     ancient sculpture of, 18;
+     religion of, 19;
+     influence of, on Etruscan art, 82;
+     portrait sculpture in, 100
+
+   Gregory XVI., Pope, 100
+
+   Grimani, Senator, 239
+
+   Grimm;
+     concerning Donatello's St. George, 143;
+     concerning Michael Angelo's David, 200
+
+   Gröulund, Karen, 253
+
+   Grumbach, statue of (Krafft), 168
+
+   Guardian Angel, church of, 180
+
+   "Guardian Angel" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Guido Reni, 64
+
+   Guillain, Simon, 227
+
+   Guillaume de Sens, 121
+
+   Guinifort and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Gutenberg memorial, Strasburg, 275
+
+   Hadrian, Emperor;
+     and archaistic period, 27;
+     and Glycon, 88
+
+   Halle;
+     wood-carvings in, 167;
+     statue of Franke in, 271
+
+   Hamilton, Gavin, 60
+
+   Harald Hildetand, 252
+
+   Harcourt, Comte d', Pigalle's statue of, 230
+
+   "Harpy Monument," 24
+
+   Hartmann of Aue, 115
+
+   Hayder, Simon, 163
+
+   Hebe, by Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Heinrich II., Krafft's statue of, 168
+
+   Helios, 69
+
+   Henry II., monument of, 216
+
+   Henry III. of England, 121
+
+   Henry VII., monument of, 179
+
+   Hephæstus (Vulcan) by Alcamenes, 49
+
+   Hera;
+     statue of, by Polycleitus, 53;
+     temple of, at Argos, 53 (and _see_ Juno)
+
+   Heracles (Hercules);
+     and Triton, 23;
+     and Cecrops, 23 (and _see_ Hercules)
+
+   Hercules;
+     by Scopas, 59;
+     by Lysippus, 69;
+     caricature of, 80;
+     the Farnesian, 88;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Michael Angelo, 196;
+     and Nessus, by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+       by Pigalle, 230;
+     and Lichas, by Canova, 247 (and _see_ Heracles)
+
+   Hermes, by Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Hernandez, Gregorio, 218, 220
+
+   Hesperides, apples of, 89
+
+   Hieracosphinx, 6
+
+   Hildesheim, bronze gate at, 112
+
+   History shown by Assyrian bas-reliefs, 16
+
+   Honor and Valor, temple of, 83
+
+   Hope, Thomas, 251, 256
+
+   "Hope," Thorwaldsen's statue of, 260
+
+   Hosmer, Harriet, 278
+
+   Höyer, 253
+
+   Humboldt, Baron von, 257, 258
+
+   Huskisson, Gibson's statue of, 276
+
+   "Hylas and Nymphs" (Gibson), 277
+
+
+   Iliad, selection from, 94
+
+   Intarsiatore, 152
+
+   Iphigenia, relief of, 90
+
+   Isabella of Aragon, statue of, 119
+
+   Ischia, Marquis of, 244
+
+   Isocephalism, 44
+
+   Italian classic sculpture, time of, 105
+
+   Italy in fourteenth century, 126
+
+   Ivory carving;
+     in Byzantium, 108;
+     in Germany, 110;
+     in fourteenth century, 123
+
+
+   "Jacob and Esau," 139
+
+   Jacopo della Fonte, 137
+
+   Jaen, cathedral of, 220
+
+   Janina, 92
+
+   Jason, by Thorwaldsen, 255
+
+   Johannis Cemetery, 167, 168
+
+   "John the Baptist," by Andrea Pisano, 134;
+     by Berruguete, 218
+
+   Jordan, Esteban, 218
+
+   Joseph;
+     history of, by Ghiberti, 139;
+     and Potiphar's wife, 193
+
+   Joseph of Arimathea, by Canova, 243
+
+   "Joshua before Jericho," 139
+
+   Julia as Flora, 104
+
+   Julia and Canova, 246
+
+   Julius II., Pope;
+     and the Laocoon, 74;
+     and Sansovino, 184;
+     and Michael Angelo, 202;
+     mausoleum of, 206
+
+   "Junction of the Seine and Marne" (Coustou), 230
+
+   Juni, Juan de, 218, 220
+
+   Juno, 86 (and _see_ Hera)
+
+   Jupiter;
+     Otricoli, 36;
+     temple of, at Olympia, 51;
+     "Tonans" on Trajan's Pillar, 99;
+     as St. Peter, 107 (and _see_ Zeus)
+
+   Juste, Jean, 177
+
+   "Justice," by Krafft, 170;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by della Porta, 212
+
+   Justinian, monument of, 108
+
+
+   Kalide, Theodore, 272
+
+   King of Prussia and Schadow, 269
+
+   Königsbau, 271
+
+   Königsberg, statue in, 234
+
+   Kora, 20
+
+   Krafft, Adam, 167
+
+   "Kreugas and Damoxenes" (Canova), 247
+
+   Kriosphinx, 6
+
+   Kunigunde, by Krafft, 168
+
+   Künz, Nicolaus, 170
+
+
+   Labenwolf, Pankraz, 175
+
+   Lamberger, Simon, 171
+
+   "Lamentation" (Krafft), 170
+
+   Lamp of Minerva, by Callimachus, 53
+
+   Laocoon, 74;
+     by Sansovino, 185
+
+   "Last Judgment," of Rheims cathedral, 117
+
+   Lateran;
+     Myron's Marsyas in, 31;
+     antique statue of Nemesis in, 51;
+     statue of Sophocles in, 100;
+     statue of St. Hippolitus in, 106;
+     Sarcophagi in, 107;
+     Bernini's "Pietà" in, 226
+
+   Leah, by Michael Angelo, 206
+
+   Le Mans, cathedral of, 114
+
+   Lenox Gallery, New York, 277
+
+   Leo I., Pope, 107
+
+   Leo X., Pope, 148, 184;
+     and Michael Angelo, 204
+
+   Leo XII. and Thorwaldsen, 263
+
+   Leochares, 65
+
+   Leopardo, Alessandro, 149, 155
+
+   Lessing, Tieck's statue of, 270;
+     Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Leuchtenberg, Duke of, monument to, 263
+
+   Liebfrauenkirche, 178
+
+   "Lion of Lucerne" (Thorwaldsen), 261
+
+   Liverpool Cemetery, chapel, 277
+
+   Livia, wife of Augustus, 102, 104
+
+   Loggia de' Lanzi, Florence, groups in, 213
+
+   Loggietta of the Campanile, Venice, 186
+
+   Lombardi, The, 154
+
+   Lombardo, Alfonso, 192
+
+   "Lord's Supper" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Loreto, 184
+
+   Louis of Bavaria and Thorwaldsen, 258, 262, 263
+
+   Louis XII., monument of, 177
+
+   Louis XIII., Anguier's statue of, 228
+
+   Louis XIV.;
+     Guillain's statue of, 227;
+     and Girardon, 228;
+     Coysevox's statue of, 229;
+     Coustou's statue of, 230
+
+   Louis XVIII.;
+     and Venus of Milo, 87;
+     Bosio's statue of, 274
+
+   Louise, Queen, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Louvre, Paris;
+     Egyptian collection in, 1;
+     archaic reliefs in, 23;
+     "Venus of Milo" in, 87;
+     statue of Artemis in, 95;
+     Museum of Modern Sculpture in, 177;
+     monument by Juste in, 178;
+     Cellini's nymph in, 190;
+     Pilon's "Graces" in, 216;
+     bas-reliefs by Goujon in, 216;
+     Sarrazin's works in, 227;
+     Guillain's Louis XIV. in, 227;
+     Girardon's works in, 228;
+     Puget's works in, 229
+
+   "Love in Repose" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Lübke, Wilhelm;
+     concerning Apollo Belvedere, 94;
+     concerning fourteenth century, 221;
+     concerning Schlüter, 233
+
+   Lucca, 128, 137
+
+   Lucian, concerning Calamis, 32
+
+   Ludovico Moro and Omodeo, 159
+
+   Luther, bust of (Thorwaldsen), 268;
+     Schadow's monument to, 269;
+     Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Lysippus, 68;
+     school of, 72;
+     Hercules by, 88;
+     power of, 89
+
+   Lytton, Lord, concerning Gibson, 277
+
+
+   Madonna, statue of (Freiburg), 121;
+     repetition of, 122;
+     by Arnolfo di Cambio, 133;
+     by Stoss, 165;
+     by Michael Angelo, 196, 200
+
+   Madonna del Soccorso, chapel of, 216
+
+   Magnani, Anna Maria, 256
+
+   Maidbrunn, Krafft's work in, 170
+
+   "Maiden and Bird" (Dannecker), 248
+
+   Majano, Benedetto da, 152
+
+   Manuel, Nicolaus, 170
+
+   Marburg, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   Marcellus, 83
+
+   Marcus Aurelius;
+     arch of, in Rome, 98;
+     statue of, 209
+
+   Maria Louisa, Canova's statue of, 243
+
+   Marienkirche, Count Sparr's monument in, 231
+
+   Mark, Count von der, 269
+
+   Mars;
+     and the Romans, by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 258;
+     and Cupid, by Gibson, 276, 277
+
+   Marsyas, by Myron, 31
+
+   Martisen, Egyptian sculptor, 1
+
+   Mary of Aragon, 152
+
+   Marys, The, by Canova, 243
+
+   Massegne, The, 135
+
+   Massimi Villa, 30
+
+   Matthias Corvinus, 152
+
+   Mausoleum, 57
+
+   Mausolus, 56
+
+   Maximianus, cathedra of, 108
+
+   Maximilian I., Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Mazarin, Cardinal, tomb of, 229
+
+   Medemet Haboo, sculpture in, 4
+
+   Medes, 17
+
+   Medici, Catherine de', 216
+
+   Medici, Cosmo de', 144;
+     and Cellini, 190
+
+   Medici, Giuliano de', 204
+
+   Medici, Lorenzo de', 195, 204
+
+   Medici, Piero de', 144;
+     and Michael Angelo, 196
+
+   Melos, 50
+
+   Mendelsohn and Thorwaldsen, 267
+
+   Menides of Antiocheia, 87
+
+   Mercury, by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Pigalle, 230;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Merovingians, statues of, 119
+
+   Metal work;
+     Assyrian, 14;
+     in tenth century, 110;
+     in eleventh century, 111
+
+   Michael Angelo;
+     attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74;
+     concerning Ghiberti's gates, 139;
+     and Cellini, 187, 191, 194
+
+   Milan, 156;
+     cathedral of, and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Milo (Melos), 87
+
+   Milo, by Puget, 229;
+     by Dannecker, 248
+
+   Minerva;
+     temple of, in Ægina, 25;
+     of the Capitol, 95;
+     temple of, in the Forum, 98 (and _see_ Athena and Pallas)
+
+   Mocenigo, Doge Pietro, 155
+
+   Modena, Antonio da, 193
+
+   "Moderation" (Vischer), 174
+
+   Montañes, Juan Martinez, 218
+
+   Monte Oliveto, 152
+
+   Montmorenci, Duke de, tomb of, 228
+
+   Montorsoli attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Monumental sculpture of thirteenth century, 119
+
+   Moore, Sir John, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Moritz, statue of (Pigalle), 230
+
+   Morley, Mrs., monument of, 251
+
+   "Morning" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   Moses;
+     on Mount Sinai, 139;
+     by Michael Angelo, 206, 207;
+     Aaron, and Hur (Rauch), 271
+
+   "Moses Fountain," 125
+
+   Mount Cithæron and "Farnese Bull," 76
+
+   Mummius and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Munich, group by Cephisodotus in, 55
+
+   Murillo, 221
+
+   "Music" (della Robbia), 146
+
+   Mycenæ, Lion Gate of, 20
+
+   Myron of Eleutheræ, 30;
+     followers of, 51
+
+
+   Naples;
+     Laocoon group in, 76;
+     historical statues in, 78
+
+   Naples, Museum of;
+     "Venus Callipiga" in, 87;
+     and "Farnese Bull", 76;
+     "Farnesian Hercules" in, 88
+
+   Napoleon and Canova, 242, 243
+
+   National Gallery, London, 277
+
+   "Nativity," by Rossellino, 152;
+     by Anguier, 228
+
+   Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51
+
+   Neptune;
+     by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Cellini, 190;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214
+
+   Nero, and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Niccolò of Arezzo, 135
+
+   Nicodemus;
+     by Krafft, 170;
+     by Bandinelli, 212;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   "Night," by Michael Angelo, 206, 208
+
+   "Nile of the Vatican," 73
+
+   Nimes, Pradier's fountain at, 274
+
+   Nimrud, bas-reliefs at, 13
+
+   Niobe;
+     of Mount Sipylus, 20;
+     group, 61;
+     myth of, 62
+
+   Noah, 139
+
+   Noceto, 153
+
+   Notre Dame, church of;
+     statue of Louis XIV. in, 229;
+     Coustou's sculptures in, 230;
+     d'Harcourt's monument in, 230
+
+   Nuremberg;
+     sculptures of, 123;
+     and Veit Stoss, 164;
+     and Wohlgemuth, 166;
+     statue of Dürer in, 271
+
+   "Nymph," by Dannecker, 248;
+     by Bosio, 273
+
+   Nysoë and Thorwaldsen, 265
+
+
+   Obelisks, 4
+
+   Octavia, portico of, and Venus de' Medici, 85
+
+   OEdipus, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Oehlenschlager, 265
+
+   Oluf Paa, 252
+
+   Olympiad, 41
+
+   Olympic games, 41
+
+   Omodeo. _See_ Amadeo
+
+   Or San Michele, church of, 134, 143, 149
+
+   Orcagna, Andrea, 134
+
+   "Orpheus and Eurydice" (Canova), 238
+
+   Orvieto, 133
+
+   Osborne, 277
+
+   Othman IV., Caliph, and Colossus of Rhodes, 72
+
+   Our Lady, church of, Nuremberg, 123
+
+
+   Padua, 137, 156
+
+   "Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture," relief of, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Palais de Justice (Bruges), 178
+
+   Palazzo Grassi, 193
+
+   Palazzo Pubblico, fountain in front of, 214
+
+   Palazzo Torlonia (Rome), 277
+
+   Palazzo Vecchio, 149, 214
+
+   Pallajuolo, 184
+
+   Pallas, by Sansovino, 186 (and _see_ Athena and Minerva)
+
+   Panathenaic Procession, 41
+
+   Pandareus, King, 25
+
+   Panhellenic games, 29
+
+   Pantheon, influence of, upon sculpture, 29
+
+   Pantheon, Paris, 275
+
+   Paris;
+     historic statue in, 78;
+     cathedrals of, 114
+
+   Paros, 56
+
+   Parthenon, frieze of; 35; 40;
+     groups of seven on, 42;
+     central group in, 43;
+     historical value of, 45;
+     inequality of work in, 45
+
+   Paul III. and Michael Angelo, 206;
+     monument of, 212
+
+   Paul V. and Bernini, 223
+
+   Pavia, Omodeo in, 158
+
+   "Peace," by della Porta, 212;
+     by Coysevox, 229;
+     by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Peel, Sir Robert, Gibson's statue of, 277
+
+   Peleus, 86
+
+   Peloponnesus, school of, 53, 68
+
+   Peloponnesian war, effect of, on sculpture, 54
+
+   "Pensieri," by Canova, 246
+
+   Peplos, 41
+
+   Pepoli, bust of, 193
+
+   Pergamon, school of, 78;
+     and the Dying Gaul, 79
+
+   Periclean age, 29
+
+   Pericles;
+     patron of Phidias, 32;
+     portrait statue of, 52;
+     qualities of, 54
+
+   Perkins, Mr.;
+     concerning Nicola Pisano, 130;
+     concerning Amadeo, 157
+
+   Perry, Walter Copeland;
+     concerning Athena, 39;
+     concerning "Venus of Milo," 88
+
+   Perseus;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Cellini, 190;
+     and Andromeda, by Puget, 229;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   Perseus of Macedon, 84
+
+   Persians, 17
+
+   Perugia;
+     fountain of, 129;
+     Giovanni Pisano's works in, 132
+
+   Peter the Great and Schlüter, 234
+
+   Phalereus, Demetrius, statues to, 73
+
+   Phidias;
+     forerunners of, 29;
+     and Pericles, 32;
+     and Praxiteles, 56;
+     and Lysippus, 70;
+     statue of Athena by, 84;
+     superiority of, 89;
+     and thirteenth century, 118
+
+   Philip, Elector, and Vischer, 171
+
+   Philip the Bold;
+     statue of, 119;
+     and Sluter, 125
+
+   "Phrixos and Helle," 186
+
+   Phryne and Praxiteles, 60
+
+   Piazza della Signoria, 214
+
+   Piazza Navona, fountain in, 226
+
+   Piazza of San Lorenzo (Florence), 212
+
+   Piccolomini tomb, Siena, 200
+
+   "Pietà;"
+     by Michael Angelo, 200;
+     by Bernini, 226
+
+   Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 230
+
+   Pilon, Germain, 216
+
+   Pisa;
+     Baptistery of, 128;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 131;
+     Nino Pisano's works in, 134;
+     cathedral of, 214
+
+   Pisani, Senator, 239
+
+   Pisano, Andrea, 133, 134
+
+   Pisano, Giovanni, 131
+
+   Pisano, Nicola, 127, 133
+
+   Pisano, Nino, 134
+
+   Pistoja, 132, 148
+
+   Pitt, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Pius VII., monument of, 263
+
+   Pliny;
+     concerning the first bas-relief, 20;
+     concerning Cresilas, 52;
+     concerning the Niobe group, 61;
+     concerning the Laocoon, 74;
+     and Boethus, 80
+
+   Plutarch, concerning the Pericleian age, 35
+
+   Plutus, 58
+
+   Point, 283
+
+   Pointer, 283
+
+   Poliorcetes, Demetrius, 72
+
+   Poliziano, 196
+
+   Pollio, Asinius, 76
+
+   Polychromy, 284
+
+   Polycleitus, 53;
+     canon of, 54;
+     and Peloponnesian school, 68
+
+   Polydorus and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Pompadour, Mme., 230
+
+   Pompeii, 28
+
+   Poncher monument, 178
+
+   Porta, Guglielmo della, 212
+
+   Porta Prima, 102
+
+   Portogallo, Cardinal, 152
+
+   Portrait sculpture;
+     archaic, 22;
+     in Greece and Rome, 100
+
+   Possagno and Canova, 244
+
+   Pradier, James, 274
+
+   Prague, 123
+
+   Prato, cathedral of, 132
+
+   Praxiteles, 85
+
+   Preller, Ludwig, and Apollo Belvedere, 93
+
+   "Priam begging Hector's body" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Proconsolo, 151
+
+   Prometheus, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Provençal Poets, 114
+
+   "Prudence;"
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by della Porta, 212;
+     by Coysevox, 229
+
+   Psyche;
+     by Canova, 242;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 258;
+     by Pradier, 274;
+     and Zephyrs, by Gibson, 277
+
+   Ptolemy, Alexander's general, 73
+
+   Puget, Pierre, 229
+
+   Pythagoras of Rhegium, 30
+
+
+   Quellinus, Arthur, 231
+
+   Quercia, Jacopo della, 137
+
+   Quintilian, concerning Timanthes, 91
+
+   Quirinal Palace;
+     Thorwaldsen's frieze in, 259;
+     Thorwaldsen's works in, 268
+
+   "Quoit-thrower" of Myron, 30
+
+
+   "Rachel," by Michael Angelo, 206
+
+   Racine, illustrated by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Raimondi, 193
+
+   Rameses II., colossus of, 8
+
+   "Rape of Proserpine," by Bernini, 224;
+     by Girardon, 228
+
+   "Rape of the Sabines" (Giovanni da Bologna), 213
+
+   Rauch, Christian, 270
+
+   Ravenna, ivory carving in, 108
+
+   "Religion," by Coysevox, 229;
+     by Canova, 244
+
+   Renaissance, 136
+
+   René, King, statue of, 275
+
+   "Resurrection of  the Dead" (Rheims), 117
+
+   Rezzonico, Prince, and Canova, 243
+
+   Rhamnus and Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51
+
+   Rheims, cathedral of, 116
+
+   Rhodes;
+     colossus of, 71;
+     undisturbed by death of Alexander, 73;
+     and the Farnese Bull, 76;
+     school of, 78
+
+   "Rhone," by Coustou, 230
+
+   Richelieu, monument of, 228
+
+   Riemenschneider, Tilman, 168
+
+   Rietschel, Ernst, 271
+
+   Rilievo, 281
+
+   Rimini, 156
+
+   Rivière, Marquis of, 87
+
+   Rizzo, or Riccio, Antonio, 154
+
+   Robbia, Luca della, 146
+
+   Robbia ware, 148
+
+   Rodari, The, 159
+
+   Roldan, Louisa, 220
+
+   Roldan, Pedro, 220
+
+   Romanesque period, 113
+
+   Rome, lack of artists in, 83;
+     portrait sculpture of, 101;
+     decline of art in, 104
+
+   Rösch, Jacob, 164
+
+   Roscoe, William, 276
+
+   Rossellini, The, 151
+
+   Rossellino, Antonio, 151
+
+   Rossi, Properzia de', 192
+
+   Roux, Roulland de, 177
+
+   Rovere, monument of, 184
+
+   Royal Academy, London, 277
+
+   Rubens, 221
+
+   Ruhmeshalle, 271
+
+   Rustici, Giovanni Francesco, 183
+
+
+   "Sacrifice of Isaac," 139
+
+   Sacristy of St. Mark's, 186
+
+   St. Andrew, by Duquesnoy, 227
+
+   St. Angelo, bridge of, 225
+
+   St. Bibiana, by Bernini, 225
+
+   St. Denis, cathedral of, 114;
+     reliefs of, 119;
+     and Sluter, 125;
+     monument in, 178
+
+   St. Dominick, sarcophagus of, 128
+
+   St. George, by Donatello, 143
+
+   St. George's Hall (Liverpool), 277
+
+   St. Germain l'Auxerrois, 178
+
+   St. Hippolytus, statue of, 106
+
+   St. Jacques, church of, 178
+
+   St. John;
+     by Bernardo Rossellino, 151;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   St. John the Baptist;
+     chapel of, 153;
+     by Rustici, 183;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 262
+
+   St. Laurence, church of, Nuremberg, 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167
+
+   St. Longinus, by Bernini, 225
+
+   St. Mark's, library of, 186
+
+   St. Michael, by Luisa Roldan, 221
+
+   St. Nicolas, church of, 229
+
+   St. Peter;
+     statue of, on Trajan's Pillar, 98;
+     statue of, in St. Peter's, 106;
+     and the Paralytic, Thorwaldsen, 254
+
+   St. Peter's;
+     Cathedral (Rome), 106;
+     Pietà in, 200;
+     monument of Paul III. in, 212;
+     Bernini's sculptures in, 225;
+     Duquesnoy's St. Andrew in, 227;
+     monument of Pius VII., 263;
+     Thorwaldsen's works in, 268
+
+   St. Sebald, church of (Nuremberg), 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167;
+     shrine of (Vischer), 171
+
+   St. Sebastian, by Civitali, 153
+
+   St. Susanna, by Duquesnoy, 227
+
+   St. Thomas, church of (Strasburg), 230
+
+   St. Zenobius, sarcophagus of, 140
+
+   Ste. Chapelle, church of, 116
+
+   SS. Giovanni e Paolo, church of, 149, 155
+
+   Salt-cellar, by Cellini, 189
+
+   San Antonio, church of (Padua), relief in, 155
+
+   San Benedetto, church of (Mantua), 194
+
+   San Benito el Real, church of, 217
+
+   San Domenico, church of (Orvieto), 133
+
+   San Domenico, sarcophagus of, 198
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Ancona), 156
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Modena), 194
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Rimini), 156
+
+   San Francesco della Vigna, 186
+
+   San Giovanni Crisostomo, relief in, 155
+
+   San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, 186
+
+   San Lorenzo, church of, 204
+
+   San Martino, cathedral of (Lucca), 127
+
+   San Miniato, church of, 152
+
+   San Petronio, church of (Bologna), 193, 198
+
+   San Piero Maggiore, church of (Florence), 210
+
+   San Pietro in Vincoli, church of, 206
+
+   Santa Croce, church of, and Donatello, 140;
+     and Brunelleschi, 142;
+     monument of Bruni in, 151;
+     pulpit in, 152;
+     Michael Angelo buried in, 210
+
+   Santa Maria de' Frari, church of (Florence), Canova's tomb in, 245
+
+   Santa Maria del Fiore, church of, 206
+
+   Santa Maria del Popolo, 184
+
+   Santa Maria della Spina, church of, 131
+
+   Santa Maria di Loreto, church of, 227
+
+   Santa Maria Novella, church of, 142, 152
+
+   Sangallo, Francesco, 187
+
+   Sansovino (San Savino), Andrea, 183
+
+   Sansovino, Jacopo, 185
+
+   "Saone," by Coustou, 230
+
+   Sappho, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Sardanapalus I., statue of, 12
+
+   Sarrazin, Jacques, 227
+
+   Satyr, by Praxiteles, 60
+
+   Saviour, by Canova, 242
+
+   Scale-stones, 283
+
+   Schadow, John Gottfried, 269
+
+   Schadow, John Rudolph, 269
+
+   Scharnhorst, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Schelling, Tieck's statue of, 270
+
+   Schinkel, 269, 270
+
+   Schliemann, Dr., and the metope of Ilium, 73
+
+   Schlüter, Andreas, 231
+
+   Schubart, Baron von, 256
+
+   Schwabach and Wohlgemuth, 166
+
+   Schwanthaler, Ludwig, 271
+
+   Scopas, 56;
+     and Leochares, 65
+
+   Scorgola, la, abbey of, 129
+
+   Scuola della Misericordia, 186
+
+   Sebenico, Giorgio da, 156
+
+   Séguier, Pierre, bust of, 227;
+     and Girardon, 228
+
+   Selene on Trajan's Pillar, 99
+
+   Selinus, reliefs from, 23, 24
+
+   Senate Chamber, Chaudet's Cincinnatus in, 248
+
+   Septimius Severus, arch of (Rome), 98
+
+   Serra family, 57
+
+   Settignano, Desiderio da, 152
+
+   "Seven Sorrows of the Virgin," 165
+
+   "Seven Stages" (Krafft), 167
+
+   Seventeenth century, 221
+
+   Seville, altars of, 179
+
+   Sforza, Battista, bust of, 151
+
+   Sforza, Cardinal, monument of, 184
+
+   Sicyon, 68;
+     school of, 72
+
+   Siena, cathedral of, 128;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 132;
+     and Quercia, 138;
+     and Ghiberti, 140
+
+   "Sirens" (Giovanni da Bologna), 214
+
+   Sistine Chapel and Michael Angelo, 203
+
+   Sixteenth century, 181
+
+   Sixtus V., Pope, 98
+
+   "Sleeping Shepherd" (Gibson), 277
+
+   Sluter, Claux, 125;
+     influence of, 161
+
+   Socrates, 55, 278
+
+   Solari, Cristoforo, 158
+
+   "Solomon and Queen of Sheba," 139, 193
+
+   Sophocles, statue of, 100
+
+   Sorbonne, church of the, 228
+
+   Sosius, 61
+
+   South Kensington Museum, 148
+
+   Sparr, Count, monument of, 231
+
+   Sphinx, 6
+
+   "Spinario," 81
+
+   "Spinner" (Schadow), 269
+
+   Squarcione, Francesco, 137
+
+   Staël, Mme. de, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Stampe, Baron von, and Thorwaldsen, 265
+
+   Statuettes, Assyrian, 12
+
+   Steinbach, Sabina von, 120
+
+   "Steinhäuser, Apollo," 91
+
+   Stephani and "Apollo Belvedere," 92
+
+   Stephenson, Gibson's statue of, 277
+
+   Stettin, 269
+
+   Stoss, Veit, 164
+
+   Strada Babbuino, 242
+
+   Strasburg, cathedral of, 120;
+     Gutenberg memorial in, 275
+
+   "Strength" (Vischer), 174
+
+   "Stroganoff Apollo," 92
+
+   Strozzi, Filippo, monument of, 152
+
+   Strozzi Palace, 152
+
+   Stuart and Revett, 236
+
+   Stuttgart, 123
+
+   Sulla and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Swabian School, 162
+
+   Syrlin, Jörg, 162
+
+
+   Talma, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Tatti, Jacopo, 185
+
+   Tauriscus, of the Toro Farnese, 76
+
+   Tavera, Juan de, 218
+
+   Tedesco, Pietro, 135
+
+   "Temperance" (Giovanni Pisano), 131
+
+   Temple Church, 121
+
+   Tenth century, metal work in, 110
+
+   Terra-cotta, 281
+
+   Terra-cottas in Milan, 157
+
+   Théâtre Français, Talma's statue in, 275
+
+   Theodosius, column and obelisk of, 108
+
+   Theseion, 33
+
+   Theseus;
+     temple of, by Phidias, 33;
+     torso of, 37;
+     and the Minotaur, Canova, 240
+
+   Thetis, 86
+
+   Thiele, concerning Thorwaldsen, 268, 269
+
+   Thirteenth century, 114
+
+   Thorwaldsen, Bertel;
+     and reliefs from Ægina, 26;
+     and classic art, 236;
+     life and works, 252
+
+   Thorwaldsen Museum, 267, 268
+
+   Tiberius and the Apoxyomenos, 70
+
+   Tieck, Christian Frederic, 270
+
+   Timanthes, 90
+
+   Titus;
+     and the Laocoon, 74;
+     arch of (Rome), 98
+
+   Toledo;
+     altars of, 179;
+     cathedral of, 217
+
+   Toretto, 237
+
+   "Toro Farnese," 76
+
+   Torrigiano, Pietro;
+     in England, 179;
+     and Cellini, 188
+
+   Tours, cathedral of, 177
+
+   Trajan;
+     arch of, 98, 105;
+     pillar of, 98
+
+   Tralles, 76
+
+   Trastevere, Apoxyomenos found in, 70
+
+   Tribolo, Il, (Braccini), 187
+
+   Trojan war in Æginetan reliefs, 26
+
+   Tuileries;
+     Chaudet's "Peace" in, 248;
+     statue of Prometheus in, 274
+
+   Tuscany, 136
+
+   Twelfth century, 112
+
+   Uffizi;
+     Niobe group in, 61;
+     "Venus de' Medici" in, 85;
+     Donatello's works in, 142;
+     della Robbia's works in, 146, 147;
+     Rossellino's works in, 151, 152;
+     Sansovino's Bacchus in, 185;
+     carved cherry-stone in, 193;
+     model of Michael Angelo's David in, 200;
+     statue of Michael Angelo in, 211
+
+   Uhden, M. d', 256
+
+   Ulm, wood-carvings in, 162
+
+   Urban VIII., monument of, 226
+
+   Usurtasen, Egyptian sculptor, 2
+
+
+   Val de Grace, church of, 228
+
+   Valladolid, 218
+
+   Varchi, 211
+
+   Vasari and Michael Angelo, 210
+
+   Vatican;
+     Eros of Centocelle in, 60;
+     Apoxyomenos in, 70;
+     copy of the Laocoon in, 74;
+     historic statue in, 78;
+     Etruscan table-ware in, 83;
+     Chigi Venus in, 87;
+     Apollo Belvedere in, 91;
+     "Young Augustus" in, 103;
+     statue of Augustus in, 103;
+     sarcophagi in, 107;
+     statue of Perseus in, 243
+
+   Vendôme Column, 273
+
+   Venice;
+     historic statues in, 78;
+     Sansovino in, 186;
+     Canova's heart in, 245
+
+   Venus;
+     by Alcamenes, 49;
+     by Scopas, 58;
+     of Cnidos, 60;
+     and the Romans, 84;
+     de' Medici, 85;
+     Cnidian, 85;
+     of the Capitol, 87;
+     of Milo (Melos), 87;
+     of Chigi, 87;
+     Callipiga, 87;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 257 (and _see_ Aphrodite)
+
+   Verocchio, Andrea del, 148, 155
+
+   Verona, 156
+
+   Versailles, Puget's works in, 229
+
+   Victoria;
+     Gibson's statue of, 277;
+     portraits of, by Gibson, 277
+
+   "Victories," by Rauch, 271
+
+   Victors, statues of, 29
+
+   Villa Borghese;
+     and arch of Claudius, 98;
+     Bernini's "Apollo and Daphne" in, 224
+
+   Villa Ludovisi, Bernini's "Rape of Proserpine" in, 224
+
+   Vinci, Leonardo da, 183
+
+   Virgin;
+     by Cano, 220;
+     by Coysevox, 229
+
+   "Virtue and Vice" (Giovanni), 214
+
+   Vischer, Hermann, 171
+
+   Vischer, Peter, 171
+
+   Vischers, The, 171
+
+   Visconti Monument, 177
+
+   Volsinii, 82
+
+   Volto Santo, temple of, 153
+
+   Vulcan. _See_ Hephæstus
+
+
+   Walhalla, 271;
+     "Victories" by Rauch in, 271
+
+   Walther von der Vogelweid, 115
+
+   Washington, Canova's statue of, 245
+
+   Wedgwood and Flaxman, 250
+
+   Wells Cathedral, 122
+
+   Westmacott;
+     concerning Bernini, 224;
+     concerning Flaxman, 252;
+     concerning mechanical methods, 280
+
+   Westminster Abbey, 121, 277
+
+   Wichmann, Ludwig, 272
+
+   Wilkens, 267
+
+   Wilson, Heath, 211
+
+   Winckelmann, 235
+
+   "Wise Virgins," by Krafft, 170
+
+   Wittenberg, monument in, 175;
+     Luther's statue in, 269
+
+   Wohlgemuth, Michael, 166
+
+   Wolff, 270
+
+   Wolfram of Strasburg, 115
+
+   Wood-carving in fifteenth century, 162
+
+   Wounded Lion, Assyrian, 15
+
+   Würzburg, 123, 168
+
+
+   Zecca, 186
+
+   Zeppelin, Count, monument of, 248
+
+   Zeus;
+     Phidias's statue of, 33;
+     by Leochares, 65 (and _see_ Jupiter)
+
+   Zoëga and Thorwaldsen, 256, 258
+
+   Zuliani, Cavaliere, and Canova, 239, 240
+
+   Zwickau and Wohlgemuth, 166
+
+   Zwingerhof, 271
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students, by Clara Erskine Clement
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART ***
+
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by Clara Erskine Clement.
+    </title>
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by 
+Clara Erskine Clement
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students
+       Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
+
+Author: Clara Erskine Clement
+
+Release Date: May 29, 2008 [EBook #25632]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 294px;"><a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a><a name="Fig58" id="Fig58"></a>
+<img src="images/frontis-illus58.jpg" width="294" height="650" alt="Fig. 58" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.&mdash;The Venus of Milo.</span> (<i>See <a href='#Page_87'><b>page 87</b></a>.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h1>A<br />
+
+HISTORY OF ART</h1>
+
+<h4>FOR</h4>
+
+<h2>BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS</h2>
+
+<h2>PAINTING&mdash;SCULPTURE&mdash;ARCHITECTURE</h2>
+
+<h4>WITH</h4>
+
+<h3><i>COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS</i></h3>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h2>CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT</h2>
+
+<p class="center">AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART,"<br />"PAINTERS,
+SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS,"<br />"ARTISTS OF THE
+NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="200" height="137" alt="" title="title page decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK<br /><br />
+
+FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1887,<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">By</span> FREDERICK A. STOKES,<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Successor to White, Stokes, &amp; Allen</span>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Ancient Sculpture</span>:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 2em;">Egypt</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 2em;">Assyria</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Greek Sculpture</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Ancient Italian Sculpture</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Medi&aelig;val Sculpture, from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Italian Sculpture in the Fifteenth Century</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sculpture in Germany, France, England, and Spain, from 1450 to 1550</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Italian Sculpture in the Sixteenth Century&mdash;Cellini, Michael Angelo, and Others</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">European Sculpture from Michael Angelo to Canova</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Canova, Thorwaldsen, and Other Recent Sculptors</span>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<tr><td align='left'>Venus of Milo,</td><td align='right'><a href='#frontis'><b><i>Frontispiece</i></b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Various Kinds of Dogs,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Androsphinx,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kriosphinx,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Great Sphinx,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hieracosphinx,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Colossi at Thebes,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Polishing a Colossal Statue,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a lithographic Drawing),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Fig_13'><b>16</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lion Devouring Deer,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Heracles, Triton, and Nereids,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Heracles and the Cecrops,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Act&aelig;on and his Dogs,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Harpy Monument, London,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at &AElig;gina,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Archaistic Artemis at Naples,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Discobolus (Myron),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Fig_25'><b>37</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Frieze of the Parthenon,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Five Central Figures,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Horsemen Starting,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Procession of Cavalry,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Procession of Chariots,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Train of Musicians and Youths,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cows for Sacrifice,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Train of Noble Maidens,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Pericles (Cresilas),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Portrait of Mausolus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Frieze of the Mausoleum,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Eros of Centocelle,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Niobe and her Youngest Daughter,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Brother and Sister,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Fig_44'><b>63</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Eldest Daughter,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A Niobid,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'><b>65</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ganymede (after Leochares),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Fig_48'><b>66</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Monument of Lysicrates (Athens),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Laocoon Group,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Farnese Bull,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gallic Warrior (Venice),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Dying Gaul,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'><b>79</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Boy and Goose,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spinario,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'><b>81</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Venus de' Medici,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Farnesian Hercules,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Apollo Belvedere,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Head of Apollo Belvedere,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Steinh&auml;user Head,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Stroganoff Apollo,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Diane &agrave; la Biche</i>,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Athena of the Capitol,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'><b>96</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'><b>97</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Portrait of Sophocles,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'><b>101</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Augustus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Agrippina the Elder,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of St. Peter,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Cathedra of Maximianus,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diptych (Zurich),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Fa&ccedil;ade of Chartres Cathedral,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the West Fa&ccedil;ade of Strasburg Cathedral,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duke Robert of Normandy,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Annunciation (Donatello),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of St. George (Donatello),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'><b>147</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_148'><b>149</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Justice,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Three Wise Virgins,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peter Vischer's Statue,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peter (Vischer),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>John (Vischer),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man and Geese (Labenwolf),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pharisee, Levite (Rustici),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Piet&agrave; (Michael Angelo),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Michael Angelo's David,</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rape of Proserpine (Bernini),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caryatide (Quellinus),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Heads of Dying Warriors (Schl&uuml;ter),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Great Elector (Schl&uuml;ter),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Three Graces (Canova),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hebe (Canova),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Jason (Thorwaldsen),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nymph (by Bosio),</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br />SCULPTURE.<br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-birds.jpg" width="500" height="132" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>ANCIENT SCULPTURE.</h3>
+
+<h3>EGYPT.</h3>
+
+
+<p>No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first
+practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time
+ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates
+from 2466 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as
+could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training
+and practice in this art.</p>
+
+<p>In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the
+memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that
+reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which
+Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke
+to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he
+lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer
+on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand
+art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He
+relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every
+position,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward,
+as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly
+understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor
+washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that
+'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and
+the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen
+able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in
+masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to
+ivory and ebony.'"</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named
+Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its
+highest point.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in
+the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and
+they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though
+more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The
+subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried
+in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus
+represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the
+stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of
+arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it
+should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their
+minds&mdash;no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the
+contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure,
+and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the
+fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the
+whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as
+if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one
+sense really have no relation to each other.</p>
+
+<p>The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different
+parts might have been made separately or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> even by different sculptors,
+and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to
+think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position
+of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed
+close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the
+legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery,
+and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great
+advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact
+that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures
+moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed:
+they were <i>statues</i>, and no one can forget this for a moment while
+looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if
+in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting
+statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees
+or held across the breast (Fig. 1).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;">
+<img src="images/illus001.jpg" width="237" height="400" alt="Fig. 1" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had
+more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife
+sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their
+arms around<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal
+figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller
+and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few
+attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as
+if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of
+positions after which all sculptured figures were made.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is
+remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by
+prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture
+and painting.</p>
+
+<p>The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were
+covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings&mdash;of their wars
+and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The
+sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or
+even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor
+it required to make them are simply marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the
+palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt
+and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct
+the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the
+back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
+foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer
+counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll;
+each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the
+returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one
+thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above,
+where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war
+was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or
+green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses
+give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> Assyria
+and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he
+places near the Caspian." ...</p>
+
+<p>The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The
+king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car,
+conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and
+before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend
+as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
+corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in
+regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany
+their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra
+and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the
+victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled
+beneath his feet."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 466px;">
+<img src="images/illus002.jpg" width="466" height="600" alt="Fig. 2" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2&mdash;<span class="smcap">Various Kinds of Dogs.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will
+give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful
+as any part of them. There being no intel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>lectual expression required,
+they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging
+features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and
+the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the
+sculptures&mdash;No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7,
+greyhounds.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/illus003.jpg" width="350" height="248" alt="Fig. 3" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.--Androsphinx.</span></span>
+</div><div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/illus004.jpg" width="350" height="241" alt="Fig 4" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.&mdash;Kriosphinx.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the
+Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the
+great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head.
+It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is <i>the</i> Sphinx of the
+world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in
+Egypt&mdash;in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered
+by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express
+some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are
+very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and
+mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the
+great Sphinx is called the <i>androsphinx</i> (Fig. 3). Another has the body
+of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the <i>kriosphinx</i>
+(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this
+is called the <i>hieracosphinx</i> (Fig. 6). They all typified the king,
+without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given
+to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the
+heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in
+place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but
+it is rare.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus005.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="Fig. 5" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Great Sphinx.</span></span>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/illus006.jpg" width="350" height="243" alt="Fig. 6" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hieracosphinx.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 3em;">The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their
+vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west
+bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from
+a single block of stone such as is not found within several days'
+journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high,
+and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is
+still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was
+of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It
+was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and
+thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast
+weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also
+how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given
+(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one
+(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These
+representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly
+just what we wish to know about these things.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus007.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="Fig. 7" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Colossi at Thebes.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture,
+and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that
+in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of
+Egyptian archi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>tecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the
+decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while
+at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the
+nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true&mdash;though the
+reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are,
+as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The
+obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand
+buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we
+may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was
+essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for
+that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt
+that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the
+natural result of its earliest attainments.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus008.jpg" width="500" height="472" alt="Fig. 8" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8&mdash;<span class="smcap">Polishing a colossal Statue.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3>ASSYRIA.</h3>
+
+<p>The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs,
+statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller
+works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger
+works in sculpture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus009.jpg" width="650" height="284" alt="Fig. 9" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the
+Quarries.</span><br /><i>From a Lithographic Drawing.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center">In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private
+individual, not of a king, or a deity.</p>
+
+<p>2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of
+a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to
+throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala.</p>
+
+<p>4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase.</p>
+
+<p>5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs.</p>
+
+<p>6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue.</p>
+
+<p>10. Men carrying water, or grease.</p>
+
+<p>11. Some implements.</p>
+
+<p>12. Taskmasters.</p>
+
+<p>13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.</p></blockquote>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our
+idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian
+works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the
+weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which
+they were originally finished.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 136px;">
+<img src="images/illus010.jpg" width="136" height="350" alt="Fig. 10" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Statue of Sardanapalus I.</span><br />
+
+<i>From Nimrud.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one
+given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of
+preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about
+forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic
+than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking,
+and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always
+of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They
+also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way
+than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are
+also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and
+ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most
+unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their
+greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can
+be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the
+Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It
+was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression
+to their religious feeling;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> they told the history of their nation, and
+glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now
+make the subjects of <i>genre</i> pictures; and even imitated vegetables and
+fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these
+pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs
+that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures
+are even more important than when they are considered merely from an
+artistic view.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of
+bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> One
+striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and
+animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of
+position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt
+given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you
+will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the
+human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In
+these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these
+are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are
+all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of
+this art<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> was reached about 650 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> At this period the various forms
+seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The
+human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an
+air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far
+better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more
+beautiful than before.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus011.jpg" width="650" height="278" alt="Fig. 11" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lion-hunt.</span><br /><i>From Nimrud.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period.
+I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion,
+probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in
+Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his
+agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The
+drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares
+favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art,
+either classic or modern (Fig. 12).</p>
+
+<p>There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of
+color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color
+remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we
+know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs
+belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what
+extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the
+Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the
+ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria
+are white, black, red and blue.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most
+important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low
+bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but
+finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal
+forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of
+them have a ring fastened to the back,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> which indicates that they were
+used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but
+we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal
+castings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 495px;">
+<img src="images/illus012.jpg" width="495" height="600" alt="Fig. 12" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wounded Lion biting a Chariot-wheel.</span><br /><i>From the
+North Palace, Koyunjik.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 317px;">
+<img src="images/illus013.jpg" width="317" height="350" alt="Fig 13" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Arm-chair or Throne.</span><br /><i>Khorsabad.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and
+perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small
+nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the
+contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls
+and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of
+sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other
+ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables,
+chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals.
+All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to
+have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are
+coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea
+of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various
+designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great
+many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and
+interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn
+by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were
+carried on, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were.
+Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits,
+food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is
+plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole
+history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one
+source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig.
+13).</p>
+
+<p>Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their
+arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians;
+but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians,
+though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing
+as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have
+considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of
+Greece.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/illus014.jpg" width="550" height="340" alt="Fig. 14" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mode of Drawing the Bow.</span><br /><i>Koyunjik.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-deer.jpg" width="500" height="115" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK SCULPTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>We have seen that the Egyptians and Assyrians were skilful in sculpture,
+but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be
+moved by art; there is always something beyond them to be desired, and
+it remained for the Greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture
+which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of
+beauty and grace. In truth, in Greece alone has this perfection in
+plastic art existed, and since the time of its highest excellence there
+no other nation has equalled the examples of Greek sculpture which still
+exist, though we have reason to believe that its finest works have
+perished, and that those remaining are of the second grade.</p>
+
+<p>There are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the Greeks,
+and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an
+essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book; but I will
+speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect
+Greek art&mdash;that is, the unbounded love of beauty, which was an essential
+part of the Greek nature. To the Greek, in fact, beauty and good had the
+same meaning&mdash;<i>beauty was good</i>, and the good must be beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>Sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man, and the other
+features in it have some relation to the human element of the design;
+and it would have been impossible for a true Greek to represent the
+human form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> otherwise than beautiful. A writer on this point says: "The
+chief aim of the enlightened Greek, his highest ambition and his
+greatest joy, was to be a <i>man</i> in the fullest sense of the word&mdash;man in
+the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty, in the
+active exercise of the keenest senses, in the greatest because tempered
+enjoyment of sensual pleasure, in the free and joyous play of an
+intellect strong by nature, graced and guided by the most exquisite
+taste, and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy." Thus, beauty was so
+important to the Greek that every parent prayed that his children might
+have this gift, and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon
+pillars set where all could read them; and at times there were
+competitions for the prize of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the Greek, too, taught that the body was the beautiful
+and godlike temple of his soul; and the truth that human beings have
+something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great
+respect for humanity, and, in truth, he felt that if he could escape
+death he should be content and almost, if not quite, a god. For we must
+remember that the gods of the Greek were not all-wise, all-powerful, and
+all-good, as we believe our God to be. If you read their mythology you
+will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness
+were mingled. They did not believe that Zeus had been the greatest god
+from the beginning, but that there was a time when he had no power. He
+was not omniscient nor omnipresent, and was himself subject to the
+decrees of Fate, as when he could not save his loved Sarpedon from
+death. Not knowing all things, even the gods are sometimes represented
+as depending upon mortals for information, and all these religious views
+tended to make the human form far more noble to the Greek than it can be
+to the Christian, with his different views of the relations of God and
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Greek sculpture existed in very early days, and we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> vague accounts
+of a person called <span class="smcap">D&aelig;dalus</span>, who seems to have been a wood-carver. Many
+cities claimed to have been his birthplace, and no one can give any
+clear account of this ancient artist. He is called the inventor of the
+axe, saw, gimlet, plummet-line, and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass. He
+is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from
+the bodies of his statues, or made the feet to step out; he also opened
+their eyes, and there is a legend that the statues of D&aelig;dalus were so
+full of life that they were chained lest they should run away.</p>
+
+<p>We call the time to which D&aelig;dalus belonged the prehistoric period, and
+his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished. Two
+very ancient specimens of sculpture remain&mdash;the Lion Gate of Mycen&aelig; and
+the Niobe of Mount Sipylus; but as their origin is not known, and they
+may not be the work of Greek artists, it is best for us to pass on to
+about 700 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, when the records of individual artists begin.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest of these was <span class="smcap">Dibutades</span>, of whom Pliny said that he
+was the first who made likenesses in clay. This author also adds that
+Dibutades first mixed red earth with clay, and made the masks which were
+fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples.
+Pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in
+bas-relief.</p>
+
+<p>Dibutades lived in Sicyon, and had a daughter called sometimes Kora, and
+again Callirhoe. She could not aid her father very much in his work as a
+sculptor, but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home
+flowers, which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little
+shop. Kora was very beautiful, and many young Greeks visited her father
+for the sake of seeing the daughter. At length one of these youths asked
+Dibutades to take him as an apprentice; and when this request was
+granted the young man made one of the family of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> sculptor. Their
+life was one of simple content. The young man could play upon the reed,
+and his education fitted him to be the instructor of Kora. After a time,
+for some reason that Pliny does not mention, it was best for the youth
+to go away from the artist's home, and he then asked Kora if she would
+be his wife. She consented, and vows of betrothal were exchanged, while
+they were sad at the thought of parting.</p>
+
+<p>The last evening of his stay, as they sat together, Kora seized a coal
+from the brazier, and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that
+was so dear to her; and she did this so correctly that when her father
+saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn. Then he
+wished to do his part, for he also loved the young man. So he brought
+his clay and filled in the outline which Kora had drawn, and so went on
+to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made. Thus did
+this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of Sicyon,
+about twenty-five hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>After this beginning Dibutades went on to perfect his art. He made
+medallions and busts, and decorated the beautiful Grecian structures
+with his work, and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful
+ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of Greece. He also
+founded a school for modelling at Sicyon, and became so famous an artist
+that several Greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace.</p>
+
+<p>The bas-relief made from Kora's outline was preserved in the Nymph&aelig;um at
+Corinth for almost two hundred years, but was then destroyed by fire.
+She married her lover, and he became a famous artist at Corinth.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about 700
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>; but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in
+detail that I shall pass on about two hundred years, after saying a few
+words of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> advance made in the arts of sculpture, and mentioning a
+few of the examples which remain from that early time, which is called
+the Archaic period. This expression not only means an ancient period of
+art, but carries also the idea of an obsolete art&mdash;of something that is
+not only ancient, but something that is no longer practised in the same
+manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time.
+During this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of
+plastic art. There were statues in metal and marble, bas-reliefs in
+various kinds of stone and marble, as well as some chryselephantine
+statues. This kind of work is often said to have been invented by
+Phidias, but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor, but
+carried it to great perfection. These chryselephantine statues were made
+of wood and then covered with ivory and gold; the ivory was used for the
+flesh parts of the statue, and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the
+figure, and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus015.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="Fig. 15" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lion devouring Deer.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic
+period were connected with the religion of the Greeks, which is known to
+us as mythology. Most statues were of the gods, but portrait statues
+were not unknown, and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in
+the Greek games dates back to this very early time. This was a custom
+which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in, and must have had
+a great influence to give life and progress to their art.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written,
+but I shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be
+given to aid you in understanding about them. Among the earliest reliefs
+that have been preserved are those now in the Museum of the Louvre, at
+Paris, which were found in the ruins of a Doric temple at Assos (Fig.
+15).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus016.jpg" width="600" height="190" alt="Fig. 16" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Heracles, Triton, and Nereids.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/illus017.jpg" width="270" height="350" alt="Fig. 17" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Heracles and the Cecrops.</span></span>
+</div>
+<p>The various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with
+each other, and are executed in a rude manner. The most interesting one
+represents Heracles, or Hercules, struggling with a Triton (Fig. 16).</p>
+
+<p>The female figures represent Nereids, who are terrified by seeing
+Heracles in contest with the sea-monster. There are many proofs that
+these reliefs belong to a very ancient day.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>An interesting relief from the temple of Selinus represents Heracles
+striding off with a pole across his shoulders, to which are hung two
+Cecrops who had robbed and tormented him (Fig. 17).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A very fine work is also from Selinus, and represents Act&aelig;on torn by his
+dogs. The mythological story was that Zeus, or Jupiter, was angry with
+Act&aelig;on because he wished to marry Semele, and the great god commanded
+Artemis, or Diana, to throw a stag's skin over Act&aelig;on, so that his own
+dogs would tear him. In the relief Artemis stands at the left (Fig. 18).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 320px;">
+<img src="images/illus018.jpg" width="320" height="350" alt="Fig. 18" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Act&aelig;on and his Dogs.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There is in the British Museum a monument which was discovered at
+Xanthos in 1838. It is thought to have been made about 500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and is
+called "The Harpy Monument," It is a tower, round the four sides of
+which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the
+ground. The frieze is of white marble, and is let into the frieze which
+is of sandstone. The Lycians, in whose country it was found, were
+accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers.</p>
+
+<p>There is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics
+concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures; and as
+all their writing is speculation, and no one knows the truth about it, I
+shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of
+art, and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of
+the frieze, from which the whole work takes its name. The Harpies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> are
+very curious; they had wings, and arms like human arms, with claws for
+hands, and feathered tails. Their bodies are egg-shaped, which is a very
+strange feature in their formation. We cannot explain all these
+different things, but there is little doubt that, with the little forms
+which they have in their arms, they represent the messengers of death
+bearing away the souls of the deceased. In the Odyssey, Homer represents
+the Harpies as carrying off the daughters of King Pandareus and giving
+them to the cruel Erinnyes for servants. For this reason the Harpies
+were considered as robbers, and whenever a person suddenly disappeared
+it was said that they had been carried off by Harpies (Fig. 19).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus019.jpg" width="650" height="537" alt="Fig. 19" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;<i>From the Harpy Monument, London.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth
+century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, I will speak of the two groups which belonged to the
+temple of Minerva in &AElig;gina, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The
+city of &AElig;gina was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> principal city of the island of &AElig;gina, which was
+in the gulf of the same name, near the south-west coast of Greece. This
+city was at the height of its prosperity about 475 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, at which time a
+beautiful temple was built, of which many columns are still standing,
+though much of it has fallen down. In 1811 some English and German
+architects visited this place, and the marbles they obtained are the
+most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period.
+Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, restored these reliefs, and the King
+of Bavaria bought them.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an
+episode in the Trojan war; it was the struggle of Ajax, Ulysses, and
+other Greek warriors to obtain the dead body of Achilles, which was held
+by the Trojans. The story is that the goddess Thetis had dipped her son
+Achilles in the river Styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable,
+or safe from wounds by weapons. But as she held him by the ankles they
+were not wetted, and so he could be wounded in them. During the siege of
+Troy Apollo guided the arrow of Paris to this spot, and the great leader
+of the Greeks was killed. It is believed that the warrior in this
+picture who is about to send his arrow is Paris. In the central or
+highest part of the pediment the goddess Minerva stands and tries to
+cover the fallen body of Achilles with her shield. These figures are on
+the side where the space grows narrower. You can judge of what the
+action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have
+so much. We are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as
+must carry death to its victim, and the second warrior, who braces
+himself on his feet and knee, will thrust his lance with equal power
+(Fig. 20).</p>
+
+<p>There are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these &AElig;ginetan
+statues; the weapons, helmets, shields, and quivers were red or blue;
+the eyes, hair, and lips were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> painted, and there are marks upon the
+garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze
+ornaments. There was a famous sculptor of &AElig;gina named Callon, who lived
+about the time that this temple was built; and though it is not known to
+be so, yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the
+sculptor of these works, because they resemble the written descriptions
+of his statues and reliefs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus020.jpg" width="600" height="341" alt="Fig. 20" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;<i>Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of
+Minerva, at &AElig;gina.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There was a period which we call archaistic, and by this we indicate a
+time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as
+possible the works of the true archaic period. It has constantly
+happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same
+thing, though the objects of imitation have varied with the different
+ages and nations. This archaistic "craze" to imitate old sculptures was
+at its height in the times of the Roman emperors Augustus and Hadrian;
+but here in America we have seen the same passion manifested in the
+desire to have such furniture as Queen Anne and her people admired, or
+such as "came over in the Mayflower;" and when the true original
+articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way
+places, then manufacturers began to imitate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> the old in the new, and one
+can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just
+from the workmen's hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;">
+<img src="images/illus021.jpg" width="153" height="300" alt="Fig. 21" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Archaistic Artemis at Naples.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But among the Greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works
+of the earlier artists, which was the fact that the images of the gods
+and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their
+earliest forms, and were venerated by the people. Thus it followed that
+the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the
+artists was more suited to other subjects, while the religious images
+were made as nearly as possible like the older ones. If it happened that
+a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and
+more beautiful statue of the same deity, the pious Greek would prefer
+the ugly one, while he could well admire the most lovely. You should
+remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>This is a very beautiful temple image, and was discovered at Pompeii in
+1760. It was found in a small temple or chapel, of which it must have
+been the principal deity. It is in excellent preservation; the only
+parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object
+which it held. Like many of these statues, it is less than
+life-size&mdash;four feet and two inches in height. When it was first
+discovered there were many traces of color about it. The hair was gilded
+to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to Artemis
+(Diana). There was considerable red about the garments, and some flowers
+were upon the border<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> of the drapery. There is an archaic stiffness
+about this statue, but the flowing hair, the form of the eyes, and the
+free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic
+period (Fig. 21).</p>
+
+<p>It would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the
+progress of Greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the
+Periclean age, or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of &AElig;gina to
+the perfections of the reliefs of the Parthenon. This we cannot do; but
+we know some of the causes that led to this progress, and can give
+accounts of a few sculptors who, while they did not equal the great
+Phidias, were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the
+artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects. So long as the
+subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in
+the manner of treating them. Each god or goddess had its own attributes,
+which must be rendered with exact care; and any new mode of portraying
+them was almost a sacrilege. But as time passed on and the Panhellenic
+games and the national Pantheon at Olympia grew into their great
+importance, new subjects were furnished for the artists, which allowed
+them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic
+imaginations to their fullest extent. The victors in the games were
+heroes, and regarded even as demi-gods, and statues were allowed to be
+erected to them, although this had hitherto been considered a divine
+honor and was accorded to the gods alone. When these heroes were
+represented, the artists, not being bound by any laws, could study their
+subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to
+do. This exaltation of the Olympian victors gave an opportunity for the
+development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its
+influence and results.</p>
+
+<p>Another characteristic of the art of the time we are now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> considering
+was the almost universal use of bronze. This metal is excellent for
+displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues, but it is
+not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving
+expression to the face. <span class="smcap">Pythagoras of Rhegium</span> was a famous artist who
+worked entirely in bronze. The only copies from his works of which we
+know are on two gems, one of which is in the Berlin Museum. He made
+exact studies of the body in action, and gave new importance to the
+reproduction of the veins and muscles. It is also claimed that
+Pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or
+proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Myron of Eleuther&aelig;</span> flourished about 500 to 440 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and was reckoned
+among Athenian artists because, though not born at Athens, he did most
+of his works there, and his most famous work, the statue of a cow, stood
+on the Acropolis of that city. This cow was represented as in the act of
+lowing, and was elevated upon a marble base. It was carried from Athens
+to Rome, where it stood in the Forum of Peace. Many writers mentioned
+this work of Myron's, and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning
+it.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/illus022.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="Fig. 22" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Discobolus.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Though the cow was so much talked of, the artistic fame of Myron rests
+more upon the "Discobolus," or quoit-thrower. The original statue does
+not exist, but there are several copies of it. That in the Massimi Villa
+is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> a very accurate one, and was found on the Esquiline Hill at Rome in
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1782; our illustration is made from this statue. Myron's great
+skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown
+in the quoit-thrower. To make such a figure as this requires great power
+in a sculptor. No model could constantly repeat this action, and if he
+could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the
+position he reproduces. This figure, however, is so true to life that
+one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies (Fig.
+22). There are several other existing works attributed to Myron: they
+are a marble copy of his statue of Marsyas, in the Lateran at Rome; two
+torsi in the gallery at Florence; a figure called Diomed, and a bronze
+in the gallery at Munich.</p>
+
+<p>Myron made statues of gods and heroes, but he excelled in representing
+athletes. His works were very numerous, and a list of those which are
+only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of
+little value here. While Myron reproduced the form and action of the
+body with marvellous effect, he made no advance in representing the
+expression of the face, nor in the treatment of the hair. He was daring
+in his art, for he not only imitated what he saw in life, but he also
+represented grotesque imaginary creatures, and in many ways proved that
+he had a rich creative fancy.</p>
+
+<p>A third sculptor of this time was <span class="smcap">Calamis</span>, who was in his prime about
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 450. He was not born in Athens, but he worked there. Calamis added
+to the exact representations of Pythagoras and Myron the element of
+grace beyond their powers in that direction. He made a greater variety
+of figures than they, for to gods and heroes he added heroines, boys and
+horses. His works were in bronze, gold and ivory, as well as marble. But
+what we know of Calamis is gathered from the writings of Greek authors
+rather than from works, or copies of works, by him still existing;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+indeed, no statue remains known to be his own, though there are some
+which critics fancy may be so. But we may be certain of his great
+excellence from the many praises sung and said of him, and Lucian, who
+knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of Greece, puts
+Calamis before them all for elegance and grace, and for the finer
+expression of faces; when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl
+he declares that he would go to Calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty
+and give it a sweet and unaffected smile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phidias</span> is the most famous of all Greek sculptors, and as Greek
+sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge, it
+follows that Phidias was the first sculptor of the world. And yet, in
+spite of his fame, we do not know the time of his birth. We know that he
+was the son of Charmidas, but we know nothing of the father except that
+he had a brother who was a painter, and this makes it probable that the
+family of Phidias were artists.</p>
+
+<p>As nearly as can be told, Phidias was born about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 500. This would
+have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of Marathon and
+twenty years old when Salamis was fought, while he came of age at the
+time of Plat&aelig;a. He seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter,
+and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the
+administration of Cimon, about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 471. But his finest works belong to
+the time of Pericles, who was his friend as well as patron, and made him
+the master over all the great public works at Athens during what we
+speak of as the Periclean age.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that the favor of Pericles was a dear privilege to Phidias, for
+it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred; and those who feared to attack
+Pericles himself avenged themselves upon Phidias, and accused him of
+dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of Minerva
+which he made for the Parthenon. He proved himself in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>nocent of this,
+but he was accused of other crimes, and one account says that he was
+thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison. Another account
+relates that the great sculptor went into exile at Elis, where he made
+his most famous statue, the Olympian Zeus, and that he was there
+convicted of theft and put to death. With such contradictory stories we
+cannot know the exact truth; but we do know that he went to Elis
+accompanied by distinguished artists. He was received with honor, and
+for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to
+strangers. The Olympians also allowed him an honor which the Athenians
+never extended to him&mdash;that is, to inscribe his name upon the base of
+the statue of Zeus, which he was not permitted to do in the case of the
+Minerva (or Athena) of the Parthenon.</p>
+
+<p>It often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which
+have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in
+so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at
+any other time, and that he could not avoid being so, when everything
+had been shaped to his advantage. This was true of Phidias. When he came
+to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged Greece were over, and
+the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the
+rebuilding of Athens. Large quantities of "marble, bronze, ivory, gold,
+ebony and cypress wood" were there, and a great number of skilful
+workmen were at hand to work under his command. The Athenians were
+ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods, who,
+as they believed, had led them to their victories, and not only the
+public, but the private means were used to make Athens the grandest and
+most beautiful city of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The first great work with which the name of Phidias was connected was
+the building of the temple of Theseus, called also the Theseion. This
+was a very important temple, and was constructed in obedience to the
+command of an oracle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> in this wise: In <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 470 the island of Scyros had
+been taken by the Athenians, and upon this island Theseus had been
+buried. After the battle of Marathon, in which he had aided the
+Athenians, Theseus was much regarded by them, and in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 476 they were
+directed to remove his bones to Athens and build over them a shrine
+worthy of so great a champion. Just then a gigantic skeleton was
+discovered at Scyros by Cimon, and was brought to Athens with great
+ceremony, and laid to rest with pompous respect, and the splendid temple
+dedicated to Theseus was begun, and Phidias was commissioned to make its
+plastic ornaments. The precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary
+where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus023.jpg" width="450" height="228" alt="Fig. 23" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Phidias executed many works under the patronage of Cimon, the greatest
+of which was the colossal statue of Minerva, which stood on the
+Acropolis. It was called the "Minerva Promachos," and was so gigantic
+that "the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen
+by the mariner off the promontory of Sunium glittering in the sunlight
+as a welcome to her own chosen people, and an awful warning to her
+foes." The meaning of Promachos may be given as champion or guardian,
+and we know from existing descriptions that, with its pedestal, it must
+have been at least seventy feet in height. It was made from the spoils
+taken at Marathon; its pedestal was found, in 1840, standing between the
+Parthenon and the Erechtheium. It has been called the "Pallas with the
+golden spear," for this goddess was known as Athena, Minerva, and
+Pallas, and it is said that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> Alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect
+that he shrank from it in horror. The only representations of this
+statue now in existence are upon Athenian coins, and the position of the
+goddess differs in these, as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 23);
+there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests
+upon the ground is correct, one of which is that some years after the
+death of Phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of
+the battle of the Centaurs.</p>
+
+<p>Though Phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of
+Cimon, it was not until the time of Pericles that he reached the
+glorious height of his genius. Pericles and Phidias seem to have been
+two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic
+grandeur of Athens, and, indeed, of all Attica, for within a period of
+twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and
+completed. Plutarch writes of these wonders in these words: "Hence we
+have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by Pericles
+should be built in so short a time, and yet built for ages. For as each
+of them, as soon as it was finished, had the venerable air of antiquity,
+so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building. A
+bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by
+time, as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and
+unfading elegance."</p>
+
+<p>It is quite impossible that I should speak here of the works of Phidias
+in detail, and I have decided to speak only of the frieze of the
+Parthenon, because the Elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations
+from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great
+masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice. But,
+first, I will give a picture of a coin which shows the great Olympian
+Zeus, or Jupiter, which Phidias made at Elis, after he was an exile from
+Athens (Fig. 24). When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> Phidias was asked how he had found a model for
+this Jupiter, he quoted the lines from Homer:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"He said, and nodded with his shadowy brows,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And all Olympus trembled at the nod."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus024.jpg" width="450" height="206" alt="Fig. 24" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 262px;">
+<img src="images/illus025.jpg" width="262" height="400" alt="Fig. 25" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this
+statue, and its praise is unending. It was colossal in size and made of
+ivory and gold, and one historian says that though the temple had great
+height, yet the Jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his
+throne he must have carried the roof away. It is related that when the
+work was completed Phidias prayed to Jupiter to give him a sign from
+heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god
+or not. This prayer was answered, and a flash of lightning came which
+struck the pavement in front of the statue. This statue was reckoned
+among the seven wonders of the world, and it is believed that the
+magnificent bust called the "Jupiter Otricoli" is a copy from the
+Olympian statue (Fig. 25).</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>I shall speak in another volume (upon Architecture) of the former glory
+and the present ruin of the Parthenon at Athens, and tell how upon its
+decoration Phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in
+beauty any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> other structure of which we have knowledge. Early in the
+present century Lord Elgin, the English Ambassador to the Porte,
+interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to
+England. In 1812 eighty chests containing these priceless works of the
+greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in Burlington House, and a
+few years later Parliament purchased them for &pound;35,000, and they were
+placed in the British Museum, where they now are. There is a great
+number of them, and all are of great interest; but I shall pass over the
+metopes and the pediments, and shall pass to the frieze after speaking
+of this one figure of Theseus, which is from the sculptures of the
+eastern pediment. The sculptures upon this pediment represented the
+story of the birth of Athena, and it was proper that Theseus should be
+present, as he was king over Athens, of which city Athena, or Minerva,
+was the protecting goddess. Torso is a term used in sculpture to denote
+a mutilated figure, and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist
+which are so beautiful, even in their ruin, that they are the pride of
+the museums where they are, and serve as studies for the artists of all
+time. This figure of Theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of
+its attitude, for perfection of its anatomical accuracy, and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> the
+appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one, even
+though made of marble. It really seems as if the skin could be moved
+upon it, so soft does its surface look to be. It is ranked as the
+greatest miracle of sculpture. Though it is called a Theseus, I ought to
+state that some critics take exceptions to this name, and believe it to
+be Hercules or Bacchus; but by almost general consent it is called a
+Theseus (Fig. 26).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus026.jpg" width="500" height="413" alt="Fig. 26" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?).</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must
+have been magnificent. Of course the chosen goddess of Athens would be
+made to appear with great glory. The myth relates that Athena was born
+in an instant, by springing forth from the head of Zeus, or Jupiter,
+fully armed. It is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a
+moment after birth when she appeared in full, colossal majesty, shouting
+her war-cry and waving her lance&mdash;something as these lines represent the
+scene:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 8.5em;">"Wonder strange possessed</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">The everlasting gods, that shape to see</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Rush from the crest of &aelig;gis-bearing Jove.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Fearfully Heaven was shaken, and did move</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Beneath the might of the C&aelig;rulean-eyed</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And lifted from its depths; the sea swelled high</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">In purple billows."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>It is very important, when considering the sculpture at Athens, to know
+something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence
+was so great there. I shall give an extract from an English writer on
+Greek sculpture, Mr. Walter Copeland Perry:</p>
+
+<p>"It is a very remarkable fact, and one which gives us a deep insight
+into the character of the Athenians, that the central figure in their
+religion, the most perfect representative of their feelings, thoughts,
+and aspirations, was not Zeus or Hera (Juno), nor the most popular gods
+of all times and nations, Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus), but Athena,
+the virgin, the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed! She was
+enthroned in the very heart of their citadel; and she stood in colossal
+grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes, and to give the first
+welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and
+beautiful home, which reposed in safety under the protection of her
+lance and shield."</p>
+
+<p>The attributes of this goddess, as given in Greek literature and shown
+forth in Greek art, are very varied and hard to be understood as
+belonging to one person. She is the patroness of war, and in Homer's
+Iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"The cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And stood accoutred for the bloody fray.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Her tasselled &aelig;gis round her shoulders next</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 3em;">She threw, with terror circled all around,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And on its face were figured deeds of arms</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And Strife and Courage high, and panic Rout.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">There too a Gorgon's head of monstrous size</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Frown'd terrible, portent of angry Jove.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">. . . . . . . In her hand</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">A spear she bore, long, weighty, tough, wherewith</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">The mighty daughter of a mighty sire</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>But this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who
+restrains Achilles from rash action; and though she does not shrink from
+war and danger, yet the most precious gift to her people was not the
+war-horse, but the olive, the emblem of peace, and to her honor was this
+sacred tree planted. "She stands in full armor, with brandished lance,
+on the highest point of the Acropolis, and yet she is the patroness of
+all household and female work, in which she herself excels."</p>
+
+<p>It is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of
+Athena, while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in
+her right hand, she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle
+and the lamp of knowledge. In the later art of Phidias she is still
+stern and severe, but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of
+thought and character. Later still, her warlike attributes are made less
+prominent: the shield rests on the ground, and the lance is more like a
+sceptre, until, in the decline of art, she is represented as lovely and
+gentle, and all her grand power is lost, and she is not above a great
+number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft, lovely
+grace, but have no selfhood, no individuality to command our admiration
+or respect.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to speak of the Elgin marbles from the frieze of the
+Parthenon. It was about thirty-five feet above the floor, three feet
+three inches broad, and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long. It
+represented a continuous procession, and the subject is called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> the
+great Panathenaic Procession. About four hundred feet of this frieze
+remains, so that a good judgment can be formed of it. First I must tell
+you what this procession means. The festival of the Panathen&aelig;a was the
+most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at
+Athens. It is probable that this festival was held every year about the
+middle of August, but <i>the great Panathenaic</i> occurred only in the third
+year of each olympiad; an olympiad was a period of four years, extending
+from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, which was an event
+of great importance in reckoning time with the Greeks; thus we see that
+the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every
+four years. This festival continued several days, and all were filled
+with horse-racing, cock-fighting, gymnastic and musical contests, and a
+great variety of games; poets also recited their verses, and
+philosophers held arguments in public places.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> But the most important
+day was that on which a procession went up to the Parthenon and carried
+the peplos, or garment for the great goddess, which had been woven by
+the maidens of Athens. This peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff, on
+which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants
+appeared in beautiful, rich embroidery. In later years, after the
+Athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity, they
+sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they
+wished to flatter, as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a
+very great compliment.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> In the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 480, that
+monarch was surprised to learn that the Olympic games were not suspended
+at the approach of his army.</p></div>
+
+<p>The procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the Potters'
+Quarter of the city, and passed to the Dromos, then to the market-place,
+onward to the temple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> of Demeter, round the Acropolis along the Pelasgic
+wall, through the Propyl&aelig;a to the temple of Athena Polias. The
+procession was as splendid as all the wealth, nobility, youth and beauty
+of Athens could make it. Of the vast multitude which joined it some were
+in chariots, others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot.
+After the most important officers of the government come the envoys of
+the Attic colonies with the noble Athenian maidens, the basket-bearers,
+the aliens who resided in Athens dressed in red instead of white, and a
+chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive.</p>
+
+<p>The peplos was not borne by hands, but was suspended from the mast of a
+ship, upon wheels, which some writers say was moved by machinery placed
+underground. When the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed
+upon the sacred statue, which was believed to have fallen from heaven.
+During the festival of the Panathen&aelig;a prisoners were permitted to enjoy
+their freedom, men whose services to the public merited recognition
+received gifts of gold crowns, and their names were announced by heralds
+in public places, and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time. We
+do not know the exact order in which all these things happened; but it
+is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of
+it all, and was celebrated on the final day.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the Parthenon frieze which represented this great procession
+was as follows: On the eastern side above the main entrance to the
+temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the
+many gods of the Greek religion. Each of these groups had six gods and
+an attendant, so that there were seven figures in each of these groups,
+as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 27).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>There has been much study of these sculptures, and many scholars have
+written about them. There is still a difference of opinion as to which
+gods are here represented,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> but I shall give you the most generally
+accepted opinion, which calls <i>a</i>, Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of
+the gods; <i>b</i>, Apollo; <i>c</i>, Artemis, or Diana; <i>d</i>, Ares, or Mars; <i>e</i>,
+Iris, who is attending upon <i>f</i>, Hera, or Juno; <i>g</i>, Zeus, or Jupiter;
+<i>h</i>, Athena, Minerva, or Pallas; <i>i</i>, Heph&aelig;stus, or Vulcan; <i>j</i>,
+Poseidon, or Neptune; <i>k</i>, Dionysus, or Bacchus; <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i> are more
+doubtful, but are probably Aphrodite, or Venus, Demeter, or Ceres, and
+Triptolemus, the boy who was a favorite with Ceres, who invented the
+plough and first sowed corn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus027.jpg" width="650" height="461" alt="Fig. 27" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Now, these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular
+group containing five figures (Fig. 28).</p>
+
+<p>There has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are
+doing. They seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to
+them on either side. The greater number of critics consider that the two
+maidens, <i>e</i> and <i>d</i>, are of the number who have embroidered the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+peplos; the central figure, <i>c</i>, a priestess of Athena; <i>a</i>, the Archon
+Basileus; and <i>b</i>, a consecrated servant-boy, who is delivering up the
+peplos. Other critics believe, however, that these figures are all
+preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin, and that the priest
+is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off. Other
+theories may arise, and we can only listen to them all, and yet not know
+the truth; but the more we study the more we shall admire these
+exquisite figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus028.jpg" width="600" height="336" alt="Fig. 28" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 28.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Five Central Figures.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Just here I will call your attention to one feature of these antique
+bas-reliefs which is called <i>Isocephalism</i>, and means that all the heads
+are at an equal height. You will see that all figures, whether standing
+or sitting, walking, in chariots, or on horseback, have the heads on the
+same level.</p>
+
+<p>These three groups, the five central figures and the two groups of gods,
+are approached on each side by long, continuous processions, and these
+processions each start out from the south-west corner of the Parthenon,
+so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side, and
+the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and
+north, and a portion of the east side. I shall give here a series of
+pictures which are all explained by their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> titles, and will give you an
+excellent idea of this magnificent frieze, and doubtless many of my
+readers have studied or will study and admire it in the British Museum
+(Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus029.jpg" width="650" height="196" alt="Fig. 29" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 29&mdash;<span class="smcap">Youths Preparing to Join the Cavalcade</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Though all this frieze was the conception of the great Phidias, it must
+have been the work of many hands, and close examination shows that some
+portions of it are done much better than others. These sculptures have a
+double value; for while they are so priceless as treasures of art, they
+tell us much of that prosperous, glorious Athens of which we love to
+read and hear stories. These figures show us how the people dressed and
+moved, and we see in them the "stately" magistrates and venerable seers
+of Athens, the sacred envoys of dependent states, the victors in their
+chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but
+priceless garland, the full-armed warriors, the splendid cavalry, and
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> noble youths of 'horse-loving' Athens on their favorite steeds,
+in the flush and pride of their young life; and last, not least, the
+train of high-born Athenian maidens, marching with bowed heads and quiet
+gait, for they are engaged in holy work, with modest mien, and gentle
+dignity and grace. All that was sacred, powerful, and grand&mdash;all that
+was beautiful, graceful, and joyous in Athenian life, is represented
+there, in ideal form, of course, but in strict conformity with the
+realities of life.... It is by the study of such works as these that we
+get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical
+antiquity; and they help us better to understand all that we may read in
+history or poetry concerning the ancient, classic Greeks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus030.jpg" width="600" height="221" alt="Fig. 30" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 30.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Horsemen Starting</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus031.jpg" width="650" height="203" alt="Fig. 31" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 31.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Procession of Cavalry</span>.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus032.jpg" width="650" height="206" alt="Fig. 32" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 32.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Procession of Chariots</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus033.jpg" width="650" height="202" alt="Fig. 33" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 33.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Train of Musicians and Youths</span>.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus034.jpg" width="650" height="184" alt="Fig. 34" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 34.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cows for Sacrifice</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus035.jpg" width="600" height="214" alt="Fig. 35" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 35.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Train of Noble Maidens</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<p>We must now leave Phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his
+contemporaries and pupils. Among the last <span class="smcap">Alcamenes</span> was the most
+celebrated. He was born in Lemnos, but was a citizen of Athens; so he is
+sometimes called an Athenian, and again a Lemnian. His statues were
+numerous, and most of them represented the gods. One of Heph&aelig;stus, or
+Vulcan, was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed
+so skilfully that no deformity appeared.</p>
+
+<p>His most famous statue was a Venus, or Aphrodite, concerning which it is
+related that Agoracritus, another celebrated pupil of Phidias, contended
+with Alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess. The preference was
+given to Alcamenes, and Agoracritus believed this to have been done on
+account of his being an Athenian citizen, and not solely for the merit
+of the statue. The Venus of Alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess
+in a garden beyond the eastern wall of Athens. This statue was very much
+praised for its beauty by ancient writers, who all mention with especial
+pride the <i>eurythmy</i> of the action of the wrist. This is a term
+frequently used in regard to sculpture, and is somewhat difficult to
+explain. It means a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> harmony and proportion of action which corresponds
+to rhythm in music. When a statue has the effect it should have it
+appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment, and
+would be resumed immediately. That is what we mean when we say a statue
+has life; and, as in life, the motion of a statue may be awkward or it
+may be graceful; it may be harmonious to the eye, just as music is
+harmonious to the ear, or it may seem out of tune and time, just as
+inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound; so
+when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent
+motion is in accord with the laws of proportion, and is harmonious and
+graceful to the eye.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;">
+<img src="images/illus036.jpg" width="239" height="350" alt="Fig. 36" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 36.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Head of Asclepius</span>.<br /><i>In the British Museum.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>While Alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues, he
+also approached Phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness, which was the
+sweetness of great strength. In truth, he is recognized as the sculptor
+who most nearly approached the great Phidias. He represented also for
+the first time the god Asclepius, or &AElig;sculapius, who was very important
+to the Greeks, who placed great value upon physical health. Alcamenes
+represented him as a sort of humanized Zeus or Jupiter. Of the Asclepius
+heads found at Melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of
+the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of
+medicine and health to be (Fig. 36).</p>
+
+<p>Alcamenes was also the principal assistant of Phidias in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> his decoration
+of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, and is said to have himself
+executed the relief upon the western pediment, in which the battle of
+the Centaurs and Lapith&aelig; was represented with great spirit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Agoracritus</span> of Paros, who has been mentioned as the rival of Alcamenes,
+is called the favorite pupil of Phidias, and it is said that the master
+even gave Agoracritus some of his works, and allowed the pupil to
+inscribe his name upon them. For this reason the ancient writers were
+often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names
+of these sculptors. It is said that when the Venus of Alcamenes was
+preferred before that of Agoracritus the latter changed his mark, and
+made it to represent a Nemesis, or the goddess who sent suffering to
+those who were blessed with too many gifts. It is said that this statue
+was cut from a block of marble which the Persians brought with them to
+Marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set
+up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining; in their
+flight and adversity it was left, and at last served a Greek sculptor in
+making a statue of an avenging goddess. This seems to be a striking
+illustration of "poetic justice."</p>
+
+<p>Agoracritus sold the Nemesis to the people of Rhamnus, who had a temple
+dedicated to that goddess, and made a condition that it should never be
+set up in Athens. In the museum of the Lateran at Rome there is a small
+but very beautiful antique statue of Nemesis, which is thought to be a
+copy of this famous work. As Nemesis was the goddess who meted out
+fortune according to her idea of right, a measure was her symbol, and
+the Greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand. The word
+cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist, and
+in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very
+prominent, and the measure itself is omitted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 124px;">
+<img src="images/illus037.jpg" width="124" height="350" alt="Fig. 37" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.&mdash;A Wounded Amazon.</span><br /><i>Cresilas.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;">
+<img src="images/illus038.jpg" width="204" height="350" alt="Fig. 38" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.&mdash;Statue of Pericles.</span><br /><i>Cresilas.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sculptor Myron also had pupils and followers who executed many
+works, and of this school was <span class="smcap">Cresilas</span> of Cydonia, in Crete. We are
+interested in him because two copies from his works exist, of which I
+give pictures here. Pliny, in speaking of the portrait statue of
+Pericles, said it was a marvel of the art "which makes illustrious men
+still more illustrious." The cut given here is from a bust in the
+British Museum. There is reason to believe that Cresilas excelled Myron
+in the expression of his faces (Figs. 37, 38).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Callimachus</span> is an artist of whom we know little, but that little is
+interesting. We do not know where he was born, but as he was employed to
+make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred
+statue of Athena Polias, we may suppose that he was an Athenian.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> Some
+writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without
+going out, and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the
+temple of Minerva. Callimachus lived between <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 550 and 396, and is
+credited with having invented the Corinthian capital in this wise: A
+young girl of Corinth died, and her nurse, according to custom, placed a
+basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life. It
+chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant, and
+the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when Callimachus
+saw it the design for the capital which we know as Corinthian was
+suggested to him, and was thus named from the city in which all this had
+occurred.</p>
+
+<p>While the plastic art of Athens, or the Attic school of sculpture,
+reached its greatest excellence in Phidias, there was in the
+Peloponnesus another school of much importance. Argos was the chief city
+of this school, and its best master was <span class="smcap">Polycleitus</span> of Sicyon, who was
+born about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 482. He was thus about twelve years younger than
+Phidias. Polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient
+writers couple his name with that of Phidias. He was employed in the
+decoration of the Heraion, or temple of Hera, at Argos. But his greatest
+work was a statue of Hera, or Juno, for a temple on Mount Eub&oelig;a,
+between Argos and Mycen&aelig;. This statue was chryselephantine, and as Juno
+was the majestic, white-armed, ox-eyed goddess consort of Jupiter, it is
+a striking coincidence that Phidias at Olympia and Polycleitus on Mount
+Eub&oelig;a should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this
+renowned pair, who reigned over the mythical world of the Greek
+religion. There are several copies of heads of Juno in various museums,
+and some of them have been ascribed to Polycleitus; but the proof of the
+truth of this is far from being satisfactory. This master made other
+statues of divinities, but he excelled in representing ath<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>letes; and
+however fine his other works may have been, it was in the reproduction
+of strong, youthful, manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors.
+Some of his statues of this sort, especially a Doryphorus, or
+spear-bearer, were considered as models from which all other artists
+could work.</p>
+
+<p>Polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact
+rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body. This was
+called "the canon" of Polycleitus, and there is good reason to believe
+that the Doryphorus was called by the same name, "the canon," because it
+was fashioned according to the rules laid down by Polycleitus in his
+treatise. His pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the Greek
+authors of his time, but I need not mention them here.</p>
+
+<p>The art of Phidias and Polycleitus was the art of Greece at its best
+period. After the close of the Persian wars the people of Greece were a
+religious and patriotic people. The Persian wars developed the best
+quality of character, for these wars were waged against a foreign foe,
+and the Greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization, and
+at the end of the struggle Pericles, who guided them to their greatest
+prosperity, was a statesman and a man of high aims; he was a gentleman
+as well as a strong ruler. The Peloponnesian war, on the contrary, was a
+civil war, and it divided the Greeks among themselves and roused the
+evil passions of friend against friend all over their country. It was
+the cause of selfishness, treachery, and immorality, and one of its
+worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people:
+their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone; every man
+thought only of himself, and the nation began to sink into the condition
+which at last made it an easy prey to the Macedonians. We have studied
+all these wars in our histories, but perhaps we have not thought how
+much they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> affected sculpture and the other arts, and brought them down
+from the lofty heights of the Periclean age.</p>
+
+<p>But there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and
+in intellect, and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on
+account of the decline they saw about them. Few countries in any age
+have had more splendid men than Socrates, Plato, Euripides,
+Aristophanes, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Demosthenes, Dion, and Timoleon,
+and these all lived between the Peloponnesian and the Macedonian wars.
+And while the arts were less grand than before, they did not fall into
+decline for some years, though they took on new features. The gods who
+had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the
+sculptor, and when they were so they were softened and made less awful
+in their effect. Other gods were more freely taken for models, such as
+came nearer to human life and thought, because less sublime in their
+attributes and characters. Among these were Venus as a lovely woman
+rather than as the great mother of all living creatures, and Eros, or
+Love; while Plutus, or Wealth, and satyrs, nymphs, and tritons were
+multiplied in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>When the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their
+character, it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled
+men and women, and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed
+to grace, beauty, and mirth. Many people would prefer these works
+because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world; but
+earnest, thoughtful minds look for something more noble in
+art&mdash;something that will not come down to us as we are, but will help us
+to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cephisodotus</span> was a sculptor who lived until about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 385, or a little
+later, and stood between the old and the new schools of Greek art. The
+cut given here is from a group at Munich, which is believed to be a copy
+of a work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> by him, and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the
+art of Phidias (which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge
+of its folds) and the later Attic style (which is seen in the dreamy,
+gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god). (Fig. 39.) We
+know very little of the life of Cephisodotus, and as little is said of
+his works by ancient writers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 189px;">
+<img src="images/illus039.jpg" width="189" height="400" alt="Fig. 39" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Eirene and the Young Plutus</span>.<br /><i>Cephisodotus.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scopas</span> of Paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later Attic
+school. The island of Paros, where he was born, was the place where the
+finest Greek marble was found; but he worked so much at Athens that he
+is spoken of as an Athenian. He was an architect as well as a sculptor,
+and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures, which he
+also ornamented with his sculptures. I shall speak especially of the
+tomb of Mausolus, the King of Caria. Scopas executed the sculptures of
+the east side, and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed
+there, it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the
+work. This mausoleum was reckoned as one of the "seven wonders of the
+world," and has given a name to fine tombs the world over.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<img src="images/illus040.jpg" width="138" height="350" alt="Fig. 40" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Portrait of Mausolus.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in
+the British Museum seems to me to be the statue of Mausolus himself. It
+is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king, and it is so
+designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as
+he was when alive, more than twenty-two hundred years ago (Fig. 40).</p>
+
+<p>A part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the Greeks
+and the Amazons, and this illustration from it gives an idea of the
+boldness of action and the correctness of the design (Fig. 41). This
+picture is from a slab in the possession of the Serra family in Genoa.
+On the right a warrior holds down an Amazon whom he has forced to her
+knees and is about to kill, while she stretches out her right hand in
+supplication. The figures to the left are full of spirit, and absolutely
+seem to be in motion. We do not know that any of these figures were
+executed by the hand of Scopas, but it is probable that they were, and
+they give us an idea of the art of his time.</p>
+
+
+<p>Scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of Diana at
+Ephesus, and did much architectural decoration, as well as to execute
+many statues and groups of figures. The ancient writers say very little
+of the art of Scopas, but when all that we can learn is brought
+together, it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own
+ideas, that his genius was creative and his works original. He
+represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their
+works in quite a new manner, and he was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> first to show the goddess
+Venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her. His
+representations of nymphs of wood and sea, of monsters, and all sorts of
+strange, imaginary beings were numberless, and he made his sculptured
+figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt, from the
+tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus041.jpg" width="650" height="270" alt="Fig. 41" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41&mdash;From the Frieze of the Mausoleum.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown
+by some superhuman beings; he never portrayed a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> hero, with the
+exception of Hercules, and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with
+realities about him. He worked in marble only, which is far more suited
+to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed to call <span class="smcap">Praxiteles</span> the greatest sculptor of the second
+school of Greek art, just as we give that place to Phidias in the first.
+We have no fixed dates concerning Praxiteles. We know that he was the
+son of a Cephisodotus, who was a bronze worker, and was thought to be a
+son of Alcamenes, thus making Praxiteles a grandson of the latter.
+Praxiteles was first instructed by his father. Later he came under the
+influence of Scopas, who was much older than he; and by Scopas he was
+persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble.
+Perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by
+Pliny, who says that he was in his prime from <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 364-360.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to praise a sculptor more than Praxiteles was praised
+by the Greek authors; and, although Athens was the place where he lived
+and labored most, yet he was known to all Greece, and even to other
+countries, and the number of his works was marvellous. There are
+trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups, reliefs, and statues by his
+hand, and it is not probable that these are all that he executed.</p>
+
+<p>Praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most
+pleasing to popular taste. Thus it happened that his male figures were
+the young Apollo, Eros, and youthful satyrs, while a large proportion of
+his statues represented lovely women. Venus was frequently repeated by
+him, and there is a story that he made two statues of her, one being
+draped and the other nude. The people of Cos bought the first, and the
+last was purchased by the Cnidians, who placed it in the midst of an
+open temple, where it could be seen from all sides. It became so famous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+that many people went to Cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it, and
+the "Cnidian Venus" acquired a reputation wherever art was known. When
+the oppressor of the Cnidians, King Nicodemus of Bithynia, offered to
+release them from a debt of one hundred talents (about $100,000) if they
+would give him the Venus, they refused, and declared that it was the
+chief glory of their State.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/illus042.jpg" width="350" height="345" alt="Fig. 42" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.&mdash;The Eros of Centocelle.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Another story relates that Phryne, a friend of Praxiteles, had been told
+by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his
+workshop. She wished to have the one which the artist himself considered
+the best. In order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant
+to tell him that his workshop was on fire. He exclaimed, "All is lost if
+my Satyr and Cupid are not saved!" Then Phryne told him of her trick,
+and chose the Cupid, or Eros, for her gift. Phryne then offered the
+statue to the temple of Thespi&aelig;, in B&oelig;otia, where it was placed
+between a statue of Venus and one of Phryne herself. This Cupid was
+almost as celebrated as the Cnidian Venus, and was visited by many
+people. The head given here (Fig. 42), which was found in Centocelle by
+Gavin Hamilton, and is now in the Vatican, is thought by many to be a
+copy of a Cupid by Praxiteles, and even of the Thespian statue; but we
+have no proof of this. The Cupid, or Eros, of the art of Scopas and
+Praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later
+art; he is a youth just coming into manhood, with a dreamy, melancholy
+face, the tender beauty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> of which makes him one of the most attractive
+subjects in sculpture. Caligula carried the Thespian Cupid to Rome;
+Claudius restored it to its original place, but Nero again bore it to
+Rome, where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of Titus.</p>
+
+<p>I shall say no more of Praxiteles personally, because I wish to describe
+to you the largest and grandest group of Greek statues which exists, or,
+as I should say, of which we have any copies. We do not know whether
+Scopas or Praxiteles made these famous figures, since they are
+attributed to both these sculptors; perhaps we can never positively know
+to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work. The historian Pliny
+tells us that they stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome.
+Sosius was the legate of Antony in Syria and Cilicia; he erected this
+temple in his own honor, and brought many beautiful works from the East
+for its decoration. It is believed that he brought the Niobe group from
+Cilicia, and displayed it when celebrating his victory over Judea, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+35.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;">
+<img src="images/illus043.jpg" width="254" height="400" alt="Fig. 43" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.&mdash;Niobe and Her Youngest Daughter</span>.</span>
+</div>
+<p>In <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1583 a large number of statues representing this subject were
+found in Rome, and were purchased by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who
+placed them in the Villa Medici. In 1775 they were removed to the Palace
+of the Uffizi, in Florence, where an apartment was assigned to them. The
+figures were restored, and each one placed on its own pedestal, which
+work was not completed until 1794.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>The group must have had originally seventeen figures&mdash;Niobe and fourteen
+children, a pedagogue and a female nurse. Now there are but
+twelve&mdash;Niobe, six sons, four daughters, and the pedagogue. At first it
+was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment, but it
+is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base, with a
+background at a little distance. Niobe is the central figure, in any
+case, and the children were fleeing toward her from either side; she is
+the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to
+the beholder (Fig. 43). But we shall better understand our subject if I
+recount as concisely as possible the story of Niobe, which, as you know,
+is a Grecian myth. Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, and was born on
+Mount Sipylus. When a child Niobe played with Lato, or Latona, who
+afterward married the great god Jupiter, or Zeus. Niobe became the wife
+of Amphion, and had a very happy life; she was the mother of seven sons
+and seven daughters, and all this prosperity made her forget that she
+was mortal, and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves.
+Lato had but two children, the beautiful Apollo and the archer-queen of
+heaven, called Diana, or Artemis.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 559px;">
+<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/illus044.jpg" width="559" height="600" alt="Fig. 44" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.&mdash;Brother and Sister.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Amphion and Niobe were the King and Queen of Thebes, and when the
+worship of Lato was established in that city Niobe was very angry. She
+thought of Lato as her playmate and not a goddess, and was so imprudent
+as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the Theban women
+not to join in this worship. Niobe also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> asserted that she was superior
+to this Lato, who had but two children, while she had fourteen lovely
+sons and daughters, any one of which was worthy of honor. All this so
+enraged Lato that she begged Apollo, who was the god of the silver bow,
+and Diana, her huntress daughter, to take revenge on Niobe. Obedient to
+her commands, Apollo and Artemis descended to earth, and in one day slew
+all the children of Niobe. Then this proud mother, left alone, could do
+nothing but weep, and this she did continually until Jupiter took pity
+on her and turned her into stone, and whirled her away from Thebes to
+Mount Sipylus, the scene of her happy childhood. In this picture of
+Niobe she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> clasps her youngest child, who has fled to her for
+protection.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 259px;">
+<img src="images/illus045.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt="Fig. 45" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.&mdash;The Eldest Daughter</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 326px;">
+<img src="images/illus046.jpg" width="326" height="400" alt="Fig. 46" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.&mdash;A Niobid.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I cannot give pictures of all the figures, but one of the most
+interesting is this brother and sister. She is wounded, and he endeavors
+to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly
+arrows which pursue them (Fig. 44).</p>
+
+<p>This figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful. An arrow has
+pierced her neck, and the right hand is bent back to the wound. The face
+is noble and simple, and has been a favorite model to Guido Reni and
+other Italian masters (Fig. 45).</p>
+
+
+<p>Fig. 46 shows one of the older sons, who, though wounded and fallen on
+one knee, still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance. There
+is a world of interest connected with these statues, and they move us
+with a variety of emotions. The poor mother, so prosperous a moment
+before, and now seeing her children dying around her, slain by the sure
+arrows of the unseen gods&mdash;how can we pity her enough! and then the
+brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the
+suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for; the old
+pedagogue, to whom the youngest boy has run for protection&mdash;and,
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>deed, all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for
+their beauty, which is still theirs in spite of their woe.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>One of the young sculptors who was employed with Scopas in the work on
+the mausoleum was <span class="smcap">Leochares</span>. We read of several statues of Zeus and
+Apollo by this master, but his most celebrated work was the group of
+Ganymede borne upward by the eagle of Zeus. There are several copies of
+this sculpture, but that given here, from the Vatican figure, is the
+best of all, and is very beautiful. We know very few facts concerning
+Leochares, and cannot even say whether he was an Athenian or not (Fig.
+47).</p>
+
+<p>There is still standing at Athens, in its original place, the Choragic
+monument of Lysicrates; and though we do not know the names of the
+architects and sculptors who made it, there are traces upon it which
+indicate that it belonged to the school of Scopas (Fig. 48).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;">
+<a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/illus047.jpg" width="476" height="650" alt="Fig. 47" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ganymede</span>.<br /><i>After Leochares</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;">
+<img src="images/illus048.jpg" width="185" height="400" alt="Fig. 48" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.&mdash;Monument of Lysicrates</span>.<br /><i>Athens.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p>This monument was erected <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 334, when Lysicrates was <i>choragus</i>&mdash;that
+is, when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays
+represented at Athens. This was an expensive office, and one that
+demanded much labor and care. He had first to find the choristers, and
+then bring them together to be instructed, and provide them with proper
+food while they studied. The choragus who gave the best musical
+entertainment received a tripod as his reward, and it was the custom to
+build a monument upon which to place the tripod, so that it should be a
+lasting honor to the choragus and his family. The street in which these
+monuments were erected was called "the street of the Tripods."</p>
+
+
+<p>It was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity,
+and this of Lysicrates was dedicated to Bacchus, and had a frieze with
+sculptures telling the story of that god and the Tyrrhenian robbers who
+bore him off to their ship. In order to revenge himself he changed the
+oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion; music was heard,
+and ivy grew all over the vessel; the robbers went mad and leaped into
+the sea, and changed into dolphins.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In the frieze, however, it is represented that the god is on shore
+quietly amusing himself with the lion (Fig. 49), while satyrs and sileni
+punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with
+fury, while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into
+the sea. The design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one
+of the best sculptors; but the execution is careless, and this is not
+strange when we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> remember that it was all done at the expense of one
+man, and he a private citizen.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus049.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="Fig. 49" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.&mdash;Bacchus and Lion</span>.<br /><i>From the Lysicrates
+Monument.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We will return now to the Peloponnesian school, of which Polycleitus was
+the head in its earliest period. After his time the sculptors of his
+school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled, and
+represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the
+artists of Athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and
+beauty. The subjects of the Peloponnesian school were especially suited
+to the use of bronze, and the chief sculptor of his time, <span class="smcap">Lysippus</span>,
+whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred, worked entirely
+in bronze. In order to keep a record of the number of his works, he
+adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every
+statue, and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above
+number of these coins thus laid away. His home was at Sicyon, and his
+time of work is given as <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 372-316. This seems a long period for
+active employment as a sculptor; but the number of his works accords
+well with this estimate of his working years.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/illus050.jpg" width="172" height="350" alt="Fig. 50" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.&mdash;The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school; he was original,
+and this trait made him prominent, for he was not bound by old customs,
+but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age, which came
+to Greece with the reign of Alexander. This sculptor made a great number
+of statues of Hercules; and as Alexander loved to regard himself as a
+modern Hercules, Lysippus also represented the monarch in many different
+ways, and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of
+the hero-god. For example, he made a statue of "Alexander with his
+Spear," "Alexander at a Lion Hunt," "Alexander as the Sun-God," and so
+on through many changes of expression and attributes, but all being
+likenesses of the great king. There is in the Capitol at Rome a head of
+Alexander called <i>Helios</i>, which is thought by many critics to be the
+best bust of him in existence. There are metal rays fastened to the
+head; it has a wild, Bacchus-like air, and the hair is thrown back, as
+if he had shaken his head furiously; and the defect of a wry neck, which
+the monarch had, is cleverly concealed by this motion. Alexander was a
+very handsome man, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> faults being this twist in his neck and a
+peculiar shape of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot here give the long list of works by Lysippus, but will speak
+of that which interests us most, because we have a beautiful copy of it.
+I mean the Apoxyomenos, which is in the Vatican. It represents a youth
+scraping himself (as the name denotes) with the strigil after a contest
+in the arena (Fig. 50). The Vatican copy was found in the Trastevere at
+Rome in 1849, and is well preserved. Without doubt it is a faithful
+reproduction of the original, which was probably brought from Greece to
+Rome by Agrippa, who set it up in front of his public baths. Here it
+became such a favorite with the people that when Tiberius removed it to
+his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre, and so violent a
+demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not
+refuse. This statue may be called an example of a grand <i>genre</i> style.
+It represents a scene from common life in Greece, but it is so simply
+natural, so graceful and free from restraint, that one could not weary
+of it. The expression of the face is that of quiet content&mdash;his task has
+been faithfully done, and the remembrance of it is pleasant. The hair is
+finely executed; this was a point in which Lysippus excelled; but the
+great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure. In his occupation
+of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly
+change his position, and this one, in which he can rest but a moment,
+seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make,
+while it is full of easy grace in itself. The art of Lysippus was not as
+elevated as that of Phidias, who tried to represent the highest ideal
+which a mortal may form of a god; but there was nothing mean or vulgar
+in the works of the former; on the contrary, it was with a pure and
+noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of
+youthful, manly beauty, and his naturalism was of a healthy and
+dignified sort.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The most important pupil of Lysippus was <span class="smcap">Chares Of Lindos</span>, who was
+prominent not only on account of his own works, but also because he
+introduced the art of Sicyon into his native island of Rhodes. This
+island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its
+broadest part, and yet its art became second only to that of Athens.</p>
+
+<p>At the city of Rhodes alone there were three thousand statues, besides
+many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects. Chares is best
+known for the sun-god which he erected here; it was called the "Colossus
+of Rhodes," and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world.
+One hundred statues of the sun were erected at Rhodes, and Pliny says
+that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous; but that
+of Chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest.</p>
+
+<p>It stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, but we have no
+reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that
+ships sailed between them, as has often been said, although its size was
+almost beyond our imagination. The statue was one hundred and five feet
+high, and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms,
+while each finger was as large as most statues. Twelve years were
+occupied in its erection, from <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 292 to 280, and it cost three
+hundred talents, or about $300,000 of our money, according to its usual
+estimate, though there are those who name its cost as more than four
+times that amount. The men of Rhodes obtained this great sum by selling
+the engines of war which Demetrius Poliorcetes left behind him when he
+abandoned the siege of Rhodes in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 303. We have no copy of this
+statue, but there are coins of Rhodes which bear a face that is believed
+with good reason to be that of the Colossus.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty-six years after its completion, in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 224, the Colossus was
+overthrown by an earthquake, and an oracle forbade the restoration of it
+by the Rhodians. In <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 672,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> nearly a thousand years after its fall,
+its fragments were sold to a Jew of Emesa by the command of the Caliph
+Othman IV. It is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds,
+and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away. When we
+consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in
+bronze, and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy
+the standard of art at Rhodes, we are not surprised that it should have
+been reckoned among the seven wonders, and that Chares should have
+become a famous master.</p>
+
+<p>Chares also founded a school of art which became very important, and,
+indeed, it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the
+Peloponnesus; for after the time of Lysippus the sculpture of Argos and
+Sicyon came to an end, and we may add that with Lysippus and his school
+the growth of art in Greece ceased; it had reached the highest point to
+which it ever attained, and all its later works were of its decline, and
+foreshadowed its death.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Alexander the Great was so brilliant that it is difficult
+to realize that it was a time of decline to the Greeks; and during the
+life of Alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness; but at
+the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among
+his generals that everything in Greece suffered, and with the rest Greek
+art was degraded. In the time of Pericles it was thought to be a crime
+in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the
+Parthenon, and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a
+privilege which belonged to the gods alone. Alexander, on the contrary,
+claimed to be a god, and was represented by painters and sculptors until
+his portraits and statues were almost numberless.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the death of Alexander the humiliation of Athens and its old
+Periclean spirit was complete. If you read the history of Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, who was even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred
+part of the Parthenon&mdash;the temple of Minerva&mdash;you will see that Athens
+was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the
+arts of peace, as they were no longer the brave men who could stand
+first in war. In their degraded state the Athenians suffered three
+hundred and sixty statues to be erected to Demetrius Phalereus, and
+these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering
+freebooter Poliorcetes. This last was hailed by the debased people as a
+god and a saviour. His name and that of his father, Antigonus, were
+woven into the sacred peplos.</p>
+
+<p>At length, under the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander, order was
+restored, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus divided the
+kingdom of Alexander into four Gr&aelig;co-Oriental monarchies. The dynasty of
+the Ptolemies in Egypt was the most reputable of these, and gave much
+encouragement to art and letters. But the sacred fire seems to have died
+out, or did not burn clearly when transplanted from Athens to
+Alexandria. The Alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what
+had gone before, and there is nothing to be said of them that is of
+importance enough for us to linger over it. Very few works remain from
+this Diadochean period. The Metope of Ilium, which Dr. Schliemann has in
+his garden in Athens, the Barberini Faun, in the Glyptothek at Munich,
+and the Nile of the Vatican are the most important remnants of
+Alexandrine sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>Amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of Alexander
+the island of Rhodes remained undisturbed, and when the division of the
+monarchies was made the Rhodians still retained their independence. They
+were neutral, and so had a commerce with all the monarchies, and thus
+gained great wealth; and theirs was the only independent State of the
+old Hellenic world which was able to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> found and maintain a school of
+art. Among the great works of the Rhodian artists none is more familiar
+to us than the group of the Laocoon.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Pliny this work stood in the palace of Titus, and the
+historian called it "preferable to all other works of pictorial or
+plastic art." There is a difference of opinion as to the period when it
+was made, and many date it in the time of Titus, who lived <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 40 to
+81. But the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who
+believe that it was made at Rhodes in the time of the Diadochi.</p>
+
+<p>The group in the Vatican is probably a copy, because Pliny says that the
+original was made of one block, and that of the Vatican is composed of
+six pieces. Pliny also tells us that the Laocoon was the work of three
+sculptors, <span class="smcap">Agesander</span>, <span class="smcap">Polydorus</span>, and <span class="smcap">Athenodorus</span>. The Vatican group was
+found in 1506 in the excavation of the Baths of Titus, in Rome, and was
+placed in its present position by Pope Julius II. (Fig. 51). The right
+arm of Laocoon was missing, and Michael Angelo attempted to restore it,
+but left it incomplete; Montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for
+its restoration, and the arm as it now is was made by Cornacini, and
+more straight than it should be.</p>
+
+<p>The story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of
+the &AElig;neid, and says that Laocoon was a priest of Apollo at Troy, who,
+when the Greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to
+sail away, warned the Trojans against taking the horse inside the walls;
+he also struck his spear into the side of the monster. But Sinon, who
+had been left behind by the Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse
+would prove a blessing to them, and they drew it into the city, and
+ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the
+occasion. Laocoon had much offended Pallas Athene by his words and acts,
+and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to Neptune that goddess sent two
+huge serpents up out of the sea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> to destroy him and his two sons, who
+were with him by the altar. When the three victims were dead the fearful
+creatures went to the Acropolis and disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 493px;">
+<img src="images/illus051.jpg" width="493" height="650" alt="Fig. 51" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 51.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Laocoon Group</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In the Laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself,
+and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the
+account of Virgil; but we see that it must be the same story that is
+illustrated, and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> know that it was told with some variation by other
+poets. This group is a wonderful piece of sculpture, but it is not of
+the highest art, and it is far from pleasant to look at. The same is
+true of another famous group which is in Naples, and which is also from
+the Rhodian school.</p>
+
+<p>I mean the Farnesian Bull, or the Toro Farnese. This group was made by
+<span class="smcap">Apollonius</span> and <span class="smcap">Tauriscus</span>, who are believed to have been brothers. It was
+probably made at Tralles, in Caria, which was their native place, and
+sent by them to Rhodes, the great art-centre; from Rhodes it was sent to
+Rome, where it was in the possession of Asinius Pollio. This splendid
+group, which is probably the original work, was found in the Baths of
+Caracalla, in 1546, and was first placed in the Farnese Palace, from
+which it was removed to the National Museum in Naples, in 1786 (Fig.
+52).</p>
+
+<p>This group tells a part of the story of Dirce, who had incurred the
+hatred and displeasure of Antiope, the mother of Amphion, who was King
+of Thebes and the husband of Niobe. In order to appease the wrath of his
+mother, Amphion, with the aid of his twin-brother Zethus, bound Dirce to
+the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces. All this takes place on
+Mount Cith&aelig;ron, and it is said that after Dirce had suffered horrible
+agonies the god Dionysus changed her into a fountain, which always
+remains upon this mountain.</p>
+
+<p>In this piece of sculpture, dreadful as the idea is, there is less of
+horror than in the Laocoon, for the reason that the moment chosen is
+that just before the climax of the catastrophe, while in the Laocoon it
+is in its midst. The latter group is made to be seen from but one side,
+and was probably intended for a niche; but the Farnese Bull is perfect,
+and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of
+view. There are numerous accessories and much attention to detail, while
+the rocky base represents Mount<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> Cith&aelig;ron and the wildness of the scene
+in a manner not before known in sculpture. The group has been much
+restored, but its excellences support the theory of its being the
+original work of the Greek artists, and the skill with which the various
+figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great
+praise and admiration; it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture
+tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;">
+<img src="images/illus052.jpg" width="597" height="650" alt="Fig. 52" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 52.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Farnese Bull</span>.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/illus053.jpg" width="350" height="293" alt="Fig. 53" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 53.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gallic Warrior</span>.<br /><i>Venice</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the art of Rhodes that of Pergamon was important. When Attalus I.,
+King of Pergamon, gained his victory over the Gauls, in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 229, the
+Greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the
+great deeds of Attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious
+heroes of their nation who had preceded him. It is recorded that the
+conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at Athens, and that
+they stood on the southern wall of the Acropolis. The subjects were:
+"The Battle of the Gods and Giants," "The Battle of Athenians and
+Amazons," "The Battle of Marathon," and "The Destruction of the Gauls in
+Mysia by Attalus." Thus the different epochs of Greek history were
+represented, and Attalus placed himself near the other great warriors
+who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation. These groups
+consisted of many figures, and are estimated to have been from sixty to
+eighty in number. It is believed that at least ten of them are now in
+European collections&mdash;that is, three in Venice, four in Naples, one in
+Paris, one in the Vatican, and the last in the Castellani collection in
+Rome. This picture of one of those in Venice seems to represent a
+warrior who has been suddenly thrown down; his weapons and shield&mdash;which
+last was probably held in the left hand&mdash;have been dropped in the
+violence of the shock which has prostrated him (Fig. 53). His face and
+hair are of the barbarian type, and the power and elasticity of his
+powerful frame are manifest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> even in this moment of his defeat. He is
+yet unwounded, but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes,
+and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus054.jpg" width="600" height="328" alt="Fig. 54" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 54.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Dying Gaul</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is now believed that the statue of the Dying Gaul, often called the
+Dying Gladiator, was the work of a sculptor of Pergamon, and represents
+a Gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his
+conquerors. The moment had come when he could not escape, and he chose
+death rather than humiliation. We learn from history that when these
+barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and
+children and then themselves, to avoid being taken as prisoners, which
+really meant being made slaves. This warrior has thrown himself upon his
+shield; his battle-horn is broken, and the sword which has given him the
+freedom of death has fallen from his hand. His eye is already dim, his
+right arm can scarce sustain him, his brow is contracted with pain, and
+it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips. He has not the noble form of the
+Greeks; we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death
+scenes of some of the Periclean statue<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> heroes; here it is only a rude,
+barbarous Gaul, suffering death as a brute might; it is very realistic,
+and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the
+skin, the hardened soles of the feet, the coarse hand, and we are sure
+the artist must have made a true representation of this wild, savage
+man, who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be
+enslaved (Fig. 54).</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;">
+<img src="images/illus055.jpg" width="215" height="350" alt="Fig. 55" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 55.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boy and Goose</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 259px;">
+<img src="images/illus056.jpg" width="259" height="350" alt="Fig. 56" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 56.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spinario</span>.</span>
+</div>
+<p>These illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of
+Pergamon, and I shall now leave the subject of Greek sculpture after
+some account of <span class="smcap">Boethus of Chalcedon</span>. His date is very uncertain, though
+we have accounts of his works by ancient writers. Some scholars believe
+that he lived about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 275. Many works in chased silver made by
+Boethus were in the temple of Athena in Lindus in the time of the
+historian Pliny; there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold
+and one of the youthful Asclepius; but the Boy Strangling a Goose, in
+the gallery of the Louvre, is his most interesting work for us (Fig.
+55). You will remember that even the ancient Egyptians made caricatures
+and playful, mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day. This boy
+and goose are of the same spirit, and is intended as a parody on the
+representations of Hercules struggling with the Nemean lion, which had
+been represented many times by Greek artists. The boy seems to be
+working as hard as any giant could do. The execution of this work is
+fine. It was probably made for a fountain, the water coming through the
+beak of the goose. There are several works of ancient sculpture which
+are of the same spirit, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> for this reason are attributed to Boethus.
+The Spinario, or Thorn-extractor, in the museum of the Capitol, at Rome,
+is one of the most charming pieces of <i>genre</i> statuary in existence
+(Fig. 56).</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>It represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot. His attitude is
+natural and graceful, and the purity and simplicity of its style places
+it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture. The
+expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is
+doing, and is given with great skill and truthfulness. The treatment of
+the hair is like that of the archaic period, and there will always be
+some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the
+sculpture of what we call the Alexandrian age.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-eaglewoman.jpg" width="500" height="100" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Ancient Italian sculpture was essentially Greek in its spirit, and
+originated with the Etruscans, a very ancient people in Italy. There are
+traces of an Oriental influence in the art of Etruria&mdash;a suggestion of
+the sculpture of Egypt and Assyria, just as there is in Greek archaic
+art; but the real feeling and spirit of it is Greek, and must have been
+borrowed from Greece in some way.</p>
+
+<p>The different theories and opinions about the Etruscans and their origin
+do not concern us here; we have to do only with their sculpture as it is
+seen in the remnants of it now in existence. In the beginning the
+Etruscans made their statues of clay; marble was very rarely used. Later
+on they learned the art of working in bronze, and carried it to great
+perfection. Their bronze works were so numerous that in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 295 Fulvius
+Flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from Volsinii
+alone. Some of their figures were colossal, but the greater number were
+statuettes.</p>
+
+<p>There are some Etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of Europe. The
+Etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists; but they
+copied such excellent things, and did it so well, that their productions
+are by no means to be despised, and the skill which they acquired caused
+their bronze and metal work to be highly valued, even in Athens itself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the Greeks,
+as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs
+of Corneto and other places. They gave much attention to luxury of
+living, and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table
+furniture which they made may be seen in the Vatican and British Museum,
+while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is
+still much admired and copied diligently.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists. They
+seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other
+nations; but of Romans themselves there were very few sculptors; their
+artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the
+lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius. At first, as we have
+said, they relied upon the Etruscans, who built their earliest temples
+and adorned them with sculptures, and the first record which we have of
+Greek artists working in Rome gives us the names of Damophilus and
+Gorgasus, who decorated the temple of Ceres with paintings and
+sculptures. This temple was consecrated in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 493; if its adornment
+was of the same date, the knowledge of Greek art was brought to Rome at
+a very early period&mdash;at least fifty-six years before the completion of
+the Parthenon.</p>
+
+<p>But the means by which the whole Roman people were made familiar with
+the beauties of Greek art are to be found in another direction. It was
+not the building of their own temples, or any work done by Greek artists
+in Rome, that gave the Romans their love and appreciation for art; it
+was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought
+home to adorn and beautify every portion of the Eternal City. In <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+212 Marcellus carried to Rome the spoils he had taken at Syracuse; he
+exhibited them in his triumphal procession, and afterward consecrated
+them in the temple of Honor and Valor which he built.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> From this time it
+was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that Roman
+conquerors could seize, and the number of beautiful objects thus gained
+for Rome was marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>When Flaminius defeated Philip of Macedon it required two days to gather
+up the spoils. After Fulvius Nobilior conquered the &AElig;tolians he brought
+Greek artists to Rome to arrange his festivities, and he exhibited five
+hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from
+the defeated people. When Perseus of Macedon was overcome by &AElig;milius
+Paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures
+and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession; among
+these treasures there was a statue of Athena by Phidias himself. This
+work of spoiling the Grecian cities which came into their power was
+diligently carried on by Mummius, Sulla, and others, until at length the
+Emperor Augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to Rome. But the
+works which best pleased the Romans were those of the later school of
+Athens. The ruling gods at Rome were Mars, Bacchus, and Venus, and the
+statues of these deities were much valued.</p>
+
+<p>So far, to the time of Augustus, the statues and other objects removed
+had been the spoils of war; but Caligula and Nero did not hesitate to go
+in times of peace and act the part of robbers. The first sent a consul
+in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 31 with orders to bring the best works of art from Greece to
+Rome to adorn his villas; Nero went so far as to send his agents to
+bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples,
+together with the offerings made to them, for the decoration of his
+Golden House; it is said that from Delphi alone he received five hundred
+statues of bronze.</p>
+
+<p>At first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be
+constantly seen by the whole Roman people, and there is no doubt that
+their influence was very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> great and went far to refine their ideas and
+to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the Augustan age. Very
+soon the individual desire for works of art was felt, and wealthy men
+began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues; and at last
+these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of
+life.</p>
+
+<p>From all these causes there came about a revival of Greek art under the
+Romans, and in it many beautiful works were produced. Indeed, the
+greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the
+collections all over Europe belong to this period. It cannot be said
+that the artists of this date originated much, but they followed the
+greatest masters that ever lived; and if they repeated their subjects
+they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave
+their works a certain effect of being something new, and threw their own
+individuality about them.</p>
+
+<p>The list of names which can be given as belonging to Greek sculptors who
+worked at Rome is long, and would have little interest here. Instead of
+speaking of the artists I shall speak of the most famous works of the
+time which remain; most of these are so placed that they are seen by
+travellers, and have become familiar to all the world.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful statue which is known as the Venus de' Medici is so called
+because after its discovery it rested for a time in the Medici Palace in
+Rome. It was found in the seventeenth century in the Portico of Octavia
+at Rome, and was broken into eleven fragments. The arms from the elbows
+down are restored; when it was found it had traces of gilding on the
+hair; the ears are pierced, as if gold rings had sometimes been placed
+in them. In 1680 Duke Cosmo III. removed it to Florence, where it is the
+chief glory of the famous Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. Many persons
+believe this to have been a copy of the renowned Cnidian Venus by
+Praxiteles, of which I have told you.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> This Venus de' Medici was the
+work of an Athenian artist named Cleomenes. He was the son of
+Apollodorus, a sculptor who lived in Rome in the first or second century
+of the Christian era. (Fig. 57.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 119px;">
+<img src="images/illus057.jpg" width="119" height="350" alt="Fig.57" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 57.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Venus de' Medici.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess, and his work lacks
+the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of Venus.
+Cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her
+beauty. Some critics believe that this Venus is intended to represent
+the moment when that goddess stood before Paris for judgment. If this
+story is not well known I will tell how when Peleus and Thetis were
+married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess
+Discordia, and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into
+the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words, "To
+the fairest." Juno, Minerva, and Venus all claimed it, and Jupiter sent
+Mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to Paris, that he
+might decide to which it belonged. His decision gave the apple to Venus;
+and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long
+list of serious troubles arose until Paris was driven out of Greece,
+and, going to the house of Menelaus, he saw and loved Helen, carried her
+off to Troy, and thus brought on the Trojan war of which the world has
+heard so much ever since. If I were writing a Sunday-school book I could
+draw many lessons from this story; but as I am only writing about art, I
+will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+statues and to find out exactly what they mean; some such students say
+that the moment when Paris pronounced Venus to be the most lovely of the
+goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the Venus de'
+Medici.</p>
+
+<p>As Venus was the goddess of Love and Beauty, it was natural that statues
+of her should be multiplied. The Chigi Venus in the Vatican has much the
+same pose as the Venus de' Medici, but she holds the end of a fringed
+garment in her hand. The Venus of the Capitol, in Rome, is larger than
+these; the Venus Callipiga, which was found in the Golden House of Nero,
+and is now in the Museum of Naples, is also worthy of being mentioned in
+company with these other exquisite sculptures.</p>
+
+<p>However, there is yet another Venus more admirable and more praised than
+these. She is called the Venus of Milo, or Melos, and is in the gallery
+of the Louvre, at Paris. This statue is probably of a later date than
+those of which we have spoken, and is thought to be the work of
+Alexandros, the son of Menides of Antiocheia, or one of those sculptors
+who are called Asiatic Greeks. It is said that the base of this statue
+with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed, for the purpose of
+leading the King of France to believe it to be more ancient than it
+really is (<a href='#Fig58'>Fig. 58, <i>frontispiece</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p>This magnificent statue was discovered in 1820 by a peasant of the town
+of Melos, or Milo, on the island of the same name. It was in a niche of
+a wall which had long been buried. The Marquis of Rivi&egrave;re, who was the
+French Ambassador at Constantinople, purchased it and presented it to
+King Louis XVIII., who placed it in the Louvre. It is made from two
+blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs. As
+the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which
+projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern
+artists.</p>
+
+<p>This is the only Venus which has come down to us from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> the past which
+represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman. The form has beauty
+of the highest type, but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above
+mere beauty. The pure, majestic expression of the head and face speak
+the calm dignity of a superior being. I shall quote from Perry, who
+says: "The Venus de Milo is justly admired, not only for the grandeur of
+its design, the perfection of its proportion, and the exquisite moulding
+of the superb and luxuriant form, but for the vivid freshness of the
+flesh and the velvet softness of the skin, in which it stands unrivalled
+in ancient and modern art. The extraordinary skill with which minute
+details, such as the folds of the skin in the neck, are harmonized with
+the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise.
+The life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced
+by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the
+beautiful warm, yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given
+to the marble."</p>
+
+<p>In the Museum at Naples is the Farnesian Hercules, which was found in
+the Baths of Caracalla, in Rome, in 1540. It was first placed in the
+Farnese Palace, and from that circumstance received the name by which it
+is known. It is the work of Glycon, an Athenian, and his name is
+inscribed upon it. There is little doubt that this is a copy of a more
+ancient statue by the great Lysippus; that master created
+representations of Hercules in all ages and forms. Glycon probably
+worked in the time of Hadrian; and though he copied the design and form
+of Lysippus, he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of
+the whole. For example, the head is small in proportion to the breadth
+of the breast and shoulders; and because Hercules was a swift runner the
+sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural. It is in such
+particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced, even in
+works that command admiration (Fig. 59).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 181px;">
+<img src="images/illus059.jpg" width="181" height="350" alt="Fig. 59" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.&mdash;The Farnesian Hercules.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately
+followed his securing the apples of the Hesperides, the wedding present
+of Ge to Juno. Of all the labors of Hercules, perhaps this was the most
+arduous. Juno had left these apples with the Hesperides for safekeeping.
+These goddesses lived on Mount Atlas, and the serpent Ladon helped them
+to guard their precious trust. Hercules did not know just where the
+apples were kept, and this made his task all the more difficult. When,
+therefore, he arrived at Mount Atlas he offered to hold up the world for
+Atlas if he would go and fetch the apples. This Atlas did, but refused
+to take the weight from Hercules again. However, Hercules took the
+apples and hastened to his master, Eurystheus, with them. While
+performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with Ladon, and some
+accounts say that he killed the monster.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Now, the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand,
+the world held on his back, while he leans heavily on his club covered
+with a lion's skin. All the muscles of his body are swollen from his
+struggle; his head droops, his whole expression of face and form is that
+of sadness and weariness. The youthfulness and strength with which the
+older sculptors invested him is not here. It is a splendid work, but it
+is not of the best; it belongs to an age when there was too much
+straining after effect, when the moderation of the best Greek masters
+did not satisfy the spirit of the time; and no sculptor lived whose
+power equalled that of Phidias or Lysippus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 351px;">
+<img src="images/illus060.jpg" width="351" height="500" alt="Fig. 60" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.&mdash;The Apollo Belvedere.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are some reliefs and vases of this Roman period that are very
+interesting. I shall speak of but one relief&mdash;the Sacrifice of
+Iphigenia, which is in Florence. It is called the work of Cleomenes, and
+his name is inscribed upon it; but there is some doubt as to the
+genuineness of the inscription. This relief is very beautiful. It
+represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a
+preparation for her sacrifice.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The story runs that Iphigenia was the daughter of Agamemnon, who killed
+a hart sacred to Diana. To revenge this act the goddess becalmed the
+Greek fleet on its way to Aulis. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon to
+sacrifice his daughter to appease Diana; this he consented to do, but
+Diana put a hart in the place of the maiden, whom she bore to Tauris and
+made a priestess. In this relief the maiden has an air of resigned
+grief; her father stands by himself with his head covered. The sculptor
+of this relief was not the first who had represented Agamemnon thus, for
+a painter, Timanthes, had made a picture of this subject about <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 400,
+and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> describing it Quintilian said that "when he had painted Calchas
+sad, Ulysses sadder, and had represented in the face of Menelaus the
+most poignant grief that art can express, having exhausted the deepest
+feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of
+<i>the father</i>, he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart
+to estimate his sufferings."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 208px;">
+<img src="images/illus061.jpg" width="208" height="300" alt="Fig. 61" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 61.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Head of Apollo Belvedere</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 206px;">
+<img src="images/illus062.jpg" width="206" height="300" alt="Fig. 62" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.&mdash;The Steinh&auml;user Head.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I come now to the Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of all
+the statues in the Vatican, and the best known and most universally
+admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us. It was found at
+about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of Antium,
+where it probably made one of the ornaments of the Imperial Palace. The
+authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the
+marble from which it is cut is a marble of Greece or of Italy (Fig. 60).</p>
+
+
+<p>This statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world, and
+nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise; and yet all
+who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible. A few years ago
+another head of Apollo, of Greek marble, was found in a magazine in
+Rome, by Herr Steinh&auml;user, by whose name it is known; it is now in the
+museum at Basle (Figs. 61, 62).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 191px;">
+<img src="images/illus063.jpg" width="191" height="350" alt="Fig. 63" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.&mdash;The Stroganoff Apollo.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet
+been satisfactorily explained, and there are several important questions
+about it which cannot be answered with certainty. Nothing is known of
+its age or of the name of its sculptor. It is not described by any
+ancient writer, neither can any one say whether it is an original or a
+copy; and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful
+young god is doing&mdash;what is the meaning of it?</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here I
+shall only mention the theory which I love, and which is accepted by
+many. When the statue was found the left hand was missing, and a bow was
+believed to have been the article which it held; and it was said that
+Apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight, and was watching
+for its effect. This theory was the principal one until 1860, when a
+scholar, Stephani, called attention to the fact that in St. Petersburg
+there is a bronze statuette, less than two feet high, which is almost
+exactly the same as the Apollo Belvedere&mdash;too nearly the same to be an
+accidental likeness. Now, as this is an antique bronze, it seems to
+prove that both it and the marble of the Vatican are copies of an
+ancient work. The statuette is called the Stroganoff Apollo, because it
+belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name. It is believed to
+be one of a number of bronzes which were found near Janina in 1792, and
+given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> by the son of Ali Pasha to his physician, Dr. Frank (Fig. 63).</p>
+
+<p>The chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand
+was perfect, and did not hold a bow, but some soft, elastic substance
+which Stephani believes to be the &aelig;gis, or shield, of Jupiter, on which
+was the head of Medusa. The sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw
+it; and though it belonged to Jupiter and Minerva, Jupiter sometimes
+lent it to his son Apollo to aid him in his warfare; such instances are
+recorded by Homer. After Stephani had told his idea of it, the German
+scholar Ludwig Preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of
+it by suggesting that Apollo was extending this dreadful <i>&aelig;gis</i> before
+the sight of the Gauls at Delphi, in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 279. History relates that when
+the Gauls approached Delphi the people asked the oracle if they should
+carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple. The oracle replied,
+"I myself and the White Maidens (meaning Athena and Artemis) will take
+care of that." Then four thousand Greeks stood by ready to defend the
+sacred place; but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down
+through the roof of the temple, and the White Maidens left their own
+altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe. A great tempest
+arose, and rocks fell from Parnassus on the heads of the Gauls, and it
+seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain
+the Greeks against their enemies. It is also written that the spectres
+of Greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the
+battle dealing death upon the Gauls. But above all the fury of the
+tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of
+Athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of Artemis were
+heard, while the flash of the awful shield of Apollo was seen to be even
+more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It is recorded that after this victory two statues of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> Apollo and one
+each of Athena and Artemis were offered in the temple of Apollo as
+thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the Gauls. It
+is delightful to regard the Apollo Belvedere as a copy of one of these,
+and this view of it is most satisfying. L&uuml;bke, in speaking of this
+theory, says: "Not till now have we understood the Apollo Belvedere. In
+unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure, the left
+shoulder only being covered by the chlamys, which falls down over the
+arm, which, far outstretched, holds the &aelig;gis with its Medusa head. The
+right arm is slightly turned aside, but both hands have been unskilfully
+restored. The attitude of the god is full of pathos, and is conceived at
+a dramatic moment. Ardently excited and filled with divine anger, with
+which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn, the intellectual head is
+turned sideward, while the figure, with elastic step, is hastening
+forward. The eye seems to shoot forth lightning; there is an expression
+of contempt in the corners of the mouth, and the distended nostrils seem
+to breathe forth divine anger. It is a bold attitude thus transfixed in
+marble, full of life-like and excited action."</p>
+
+<p>In the Iliad Homer describes the scene when Jupiter gave the &aelig;gis to
+Apollo, that he might put the Ach&aelig;ans to flight with it. In connection
+with the Apollo Belvedere it is well to recall that description which is
+thus translated by Lord Derby</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"While Ph&oelig;bus motionless his &aelig;gis held,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Thick flew the shafts, and fast the people fell</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">On either side; but when he turned its flash</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Full in the faces of the astonished Greeks,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And shouted loud, their spirits within them quailed,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Their fiery courage borne in mind no more."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>It is very interesting to know that many who believe that the Apollo
+Belvedere represents that god when terri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>fying the Gauls, believe also
+that the statues of the "White Maidens" rushing forth from their temples
+to aid him are in existence, the Artemis being the statue at the Louvre
+known as "<i>Diane &agrave; la Biche</i>" and the Minerva being the Athena with
+spear and shield in the museum of the Capitol at Rome.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;">
+<img src="images/illus064.jpg" width="235" height="350" alt="Fig. 64" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.&mdash;Diane &Agrave; La Biche.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 211px;">
+<img src="images/illus065.jpg" width="211" height="350" alt="Fig. 65" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.&mdash;Athena of the Capitol.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statue of Artemis, or Diana, has been in France since the time of
+Henry IV. Formerly it was at Versailles, but is now one of the treasures
+of the Louvre. The left hand with the bow is restored. The effect of the
+figure is that of lightness combined with strength. She is going forward
+rapidly, with her eyes fixed on some distant object, and draws an arrow
+from her quiver even as she flies. This figure corresponds to the Apollo
+Belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose; it is of
+the same proportions, and in such details of treatment as the rich
+sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the
+Apollo&mdash;indeed, there is no reason why it might not have formed a part
+of a group in which the Apollo stood. (Fig. 64.)</p>
+
+
+<p>If we think of this Diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the
+chase the statue is very beautiful, and a remarkable example of such a
+subject; but when she is regarded as one of the "White Maidens" rushing
+forth to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous
+enemy she is invested with a deeper interest; she becomes an important
+actor in a terrible drama, and those of us who could have no sympathy
+with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she
+will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the
+sacred hill of Pytho, and thus preserve its temple and its treasures.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>The statue of Athena, advancing with spear and shield, is supposed to be
+a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the
+Gauls. The position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were
+represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the Apollo
+Belvedere, the central figure of the whole. The whole bearing of this
+statue carries out the impression which Homer gives of the delight with
+which Athena led the Greeks to battle; she is full of eagerness, and
+rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of
+one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause (Fig. 65).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Whether this "Gallic theory," as it is called, concerning the Apollo,
+Diana, and Athena be correct or no, it is the most satisfactory in
+sentiment of any that has been advanced, and certainly, when we consider
+the three statues in this connection, there is nothing inharmonious in
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may
+have had many other figures of lesser importance in it.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other statues of the Roman period in various museums, but
+I shall leave this part of our subject here, and speak briefly of the
+historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the
+Eternal City. In an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man,
+and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest
+honors, it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place
+some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the
+eyes of the people, and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant
+deeds and their great successes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus066.jpg" width="650" height="332" alt="Fig. 66" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.&mdash;Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were
+displayed in public places in Rome at a very early date. We cannot find
+records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors,
+but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly.
+The principal historical reliefs in Rome were upon the arches of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+Claudius, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus, and on
+the architrave of the temple of Minerva in the Forum.</p>
+
+<p>Of the arch of Claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture,
+now in the Villa Borghese. The arch of Titus was erected to celebrate
+the taking of Jerusalem in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 70. It was restored in 1822. The frieze
+represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice. The picture
+we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace, who bear
+articles of booty taken from the conquered city. They have the
+candelabra with seven branches, the table of the shew-bread, the silver
+trumpets, etc. This will give you a good idea of these reliefs. (Fig.
+66.)</p>
+
+<p>The arch of Trajan no longer stands, and its reliefs are now on the arch
+of Constantine; but Trajan's Pillar is one of the best preserved of all
+the antique monuments of Rome, and with some account of this column and
+a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of Rome. The
+Senate and people of Rome decreed that this column should be erected to
+the memory of Trajan, and it was in the centre of the Forum which bore
+the same name&mdash;the Forum Trajani. The column is about one hundred and
+six feet high, and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of
+Trajan, which was replaced by one of St. Peter by Pope Sixtus V. A band
+of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form; this band is six
+hundred feet long, and the sculptures represent Trajan's campaign
+against the Dacians. Many of the figures lose their effect on account of
+the height at which they are placed. There are more than a hundred
+scenes upon it, in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures,
+besides many horses and other objects. The whole is executed with the
+greatest care.</p>
+
+<p>The real object of the whole work was to glorify the Emperor Trajan, and
+he is represented in many of the scenes; sometimes he is conducting
+engagements, storming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> a fort, or encouraging his troops; again he is
+holding an audience, protecting the women of a conquered city, or
+sitting in judgment on captives. Fig. 67 represents the Dacians
+assaulting a Roman fort. It is winter, and while some have crossed the
+ice in safety, others have broken through. Everything about it is
+represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner, and this
+shows distinctly the principal difference between the Greek and the
+Roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former. It is pure,
+realistic, historical sculpture, and this pillar shows this at its very
+best estate; it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art. In all these
+many scenes there are but two mythological figures: one is Selene, used
+to represent Night, and the other is <i>Jupiter tonans,</i> who indicates
+Storm. But the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the
+Greek teaching did for the Romans; for it was to the Greeks that the
+latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render
+it properly in sculpture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus067.jpg" width="650" height="223" alt="Fig. 67" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.&mdash;From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column.</span></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The last sort of ancient sculpture of which I shall speak is portrait
+sculpture, and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture, for it
+is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of
+many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of
+the world through all the centuries, because they were concerned in the
+events which make up what we call the history of the world. We have said
+that in Greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures;
+gradually they were introduced until, in the time of Alexander, portrait
+statues were almost numberless, and these and busts were used for the
+decoration of libraries and public buildings, as well as for the
+adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>The finest life-size statue which remains from the Greeks is that of
+Sophocles, of which we give a picture (Fig. 68). It was not found until
+about 1839, and was presented to Pope Gregory XVI. by Cardinal
+Antonelli; it is in the museum of the Lateran. This engraving from it
+shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in
+detail. This statue is valuable not only as a portrait of Sophocles, but
+as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of
+Athenian civilization and culture; of an elegant, aristocratic man who
+was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his
+physical parts, as well as in science, philosophy, and music&mdash;in various
+deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and
+scholarly, and at the same time elegant and graceful. "The attitude,
+though simple, is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the
+figure; and the position of the arms&mdash;the one gracefully enveloped in
+the himation, and the other firmly planted on the hip&mdash;gives to the
+whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity. The face is handsome and
+full of winning grace, and bears the stamp not only of the creative
+genius of the poet, but of the experi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>ence of the active citizen; of one
+who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot, and
+preserved amid them the constitutional calmness, the gentle benevolence,
+the tranquil, meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by
+the people among whom he lived and sang."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;">
+<img src="images/illus068.jpg" width="174" height="400" alt="Fig. 68" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.&mdash;Portrait Statue of Sophocles.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/illus069.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt="Fig. 69" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.&mdash;Statue of Augustus</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>Among the Romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance. This
+people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead,
+and from the earliest times had used different means of making them. In
+the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks
+of the faces of the dead in wax, and these masks were worn in the
+funeral procession by one of the mourners, who also wore the dress and
+insignia of the departed. The first aim in these masks was to have an
+exact resemblance to the dead; and this idea was carried on through all
+the eras of Roman art, and is a strong distinguishing feature between
+Greek and Roman sculpture; for while the Greeks wished to reproduce the
+face of one of whom they made a bust or statue, they did not hesitate to
+idealize that face; but the Romans labored to make an exact likeness of
+the man, leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be.
+This manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model, for
+the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation
+often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty; therefore the
+aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be
+imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced.</p>
+
+
+<p>I can speak of but a few of the almost numberless Roman portrait
+sculptures.</p>
+
+<p>This statue of Augustus was found in 1863 in a villa built by his wife,
+Livia, about nine miles from Rome, at Porta Prima. It is a noble work,
+and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning
+that can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> explained. At the same time the whole work is full of
+strength and dignity, which comes from the character of the man himself,
+and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power,
+with which the dress is loaded (Fig. 69). This statue is in the Vatican,
+and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the "Young
+Augustus" and with the statue of the emperor when aged, in which he is
+veiled as a priest. The study of these three sculptures, thus
+fortunately near each other, is most interesting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus070.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="Fig. 70" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 70.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Agrippina the Elder</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Roman women who held important positions were frequently honored
+with statues. Among those that remain none is more interesting than this
+of the elder Agrippina. She was a woman of great strength and equally
+great purity of character, and as we study this statue we can easily
+understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion
+demanded this service, and when that necessity was past could nurse the
+sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature. It is
+in every way a noble work of art, combining grace, dignity, and the
+aristo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>cratic refinement of a high-born lady. The drapery of this and
+other similar statues is very beautiful, and fully satisfies all
+artistic demands. We have full proof that such garments were in actual
+use by the women of Greece and Rome (Fig. 70).</p>
+
+<p>It was not unusual for the great men and women of Rome to be represented
+in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses. Livia
+appears as Ceres, Julia as Flora, and so on; and during the best days of
+Roman art these statues were very beautiful. But at last they, like all
+other sculptures, grew less and less worthy, until they became
+positively absurd, and lacked any power to command our admiration.</p>
+
+<p>What is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all Roman art. Its
+decline kept step with the decline of the nation, and both fell at
+length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption. From this we
+are glad to turn to the study of Christian art, which, even in its
+primary struggles, when groping its way through ignorance and
+helplessness, was still a living thing, and held the promise of a new
+life&mdash;a <i>renaissance</i> of that which had gradually died in Greece and
+Rome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-flowers.jpg" width="500" height="121" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>MEDI&AElig;VAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be
+said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the
+Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and
+is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon
+it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries
+earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of
+Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence
+of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by
+side.</p>
+
+<p>After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced
+to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of
+their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with
+the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with
+horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed
+that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the
+commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
+image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in
+the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened
+that when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they
+employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than
+sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early
+Christian art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;">
+<img src="images/illus071.jpg" width="396" height="500" alt="Fig. 71" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.&mdash;Statue of St. Peter</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St.
+Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there
+are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were
+found in the catacombs.</p>
+
+
+<p>The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is
+held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they
+enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads
+against the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some
+antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as
+to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from
+the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was
+made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century
+as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian
+Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This
+statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable
+excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).</p>
+
+<p>The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the
+decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in
+bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken
+from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such
+as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As
+time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the
+Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were
+crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the
+meaning of the whole more clear.</p>
+
+<p>The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the
+museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the
+finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who
+were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour
+before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses
+the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the
+shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of
+the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing
+of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses
+causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of
+Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> Besides these there are the
+Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will
+show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the
+subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or
+apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of
+Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.</p>
+
+<p>In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by
+the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city
+with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the
+Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to
+decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a
+column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also
+erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and
+about 543 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of
+himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of
+brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have
+of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called
+the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St.
+Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in
+pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the
+Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of
+statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which
+long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into
+special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to
+making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these
+carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the
+episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and
+552 (Fig. 72).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/illus072.jpg" width="175" height="350" alt="Fig. 72" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.&mdash;From the Cathedra of Maximianus.</span></span>
+</div>
+<p>This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from
+the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these
+are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of
+framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds
+among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic
+manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater
+number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups
+and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of
+which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.</p>
+
+<p>Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for
+writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the
+ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul
+Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon
+it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where&mdash;the
+circus gates being thrown open&mdash;the animals rush into the arena to be
+slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from
+the life of Christ and other religious themes.</p>
+
+
+<p>About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for
+church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels
+used for the Holy Sacra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>ment were made of it, magnificent covers for
+church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given
+to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to
+the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from
+Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it
+went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been
+practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 563px;">
+<img src="images/illus073.jpg" width="563" height="600" alt="Fig. 73" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.&mdash;Diptych</span>.<br /><i>Zurich</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the
+different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of
+this sort. Altar tables were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> covered with embossed metal plates, which
+were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming
+antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth
+are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief,
+ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and
+even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also
+made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and
+smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the
+church&mdash;incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or
+caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches
+and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved,
+and are of great interest in the study of art.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even
+grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the
+subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner.
+Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons,
+cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces
+represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case
+the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can
+understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that
+gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In
+truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in
+many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the
+industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to
+understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had
+attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of
+the world so completely, for in these medi&aelig;val days it existed nowhere
+on the face of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold
+an important place in the art of Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>many, and as architecture now
+received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze
+figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the
+decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the
+medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again
+brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the
+principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in
+various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind
+are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or
+wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.</p>
+
+<p>The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its
+uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every
+department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of
+zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the
+Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the
+nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had
+before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more
+individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had
+done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world
+seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with
+strength and activity.</p>
+
+<p>With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and
+sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be
+separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with
+the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention,
+and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with
+statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon
+extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the
+altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved
+stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly
+orna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>mented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess
+the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and
+the period known as the <i>Romanesque</i> was thus ushered in.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 433px;">
+<img src="images/illus074.jpg" width="433" height="500" alt="Fig. 74" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.&mdash;From the Fa&ccedil;ade of Chartres Cathedral.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the
+faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic
+sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which
+had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which
+followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in
+sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful,
+yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a
+hopeful and important change.</p>
+
+<p>Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic
+progress; but France was not far behind; and, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>deed, in the cathedral
+of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals
+of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque.
+In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the
+head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the
+classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had
+degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)</p>
+
+<p>Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid
+examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took
+the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange
+that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first
+works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had
+come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or
+in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both
+the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great
+revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.</p>
+
+<p>However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any
+other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to
+have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than
+did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer;
+but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength
+by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from
+northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different
+spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering
+summits of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the
+northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language
+had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own
+tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the
+Proven&ccedil;al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it
+was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national
+feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it
+resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of
+Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle
+which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets
+and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram
+and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in
+North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had
+the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the
+importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both
+architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so
+arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its
+turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference
+to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were
+fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited
+to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as
+one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one
+side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the
+costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment
+fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the
+figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the
+classic robes of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by
+the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and
+painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately
+tinted. Colors were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> used with care, and often served to conceal the
+defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color
+was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown
+upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this
+polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than
+formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central
+and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the
+saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to
+whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New
+symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and
+months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits
+of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous
+representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts
+were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with
+grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of
+this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For
+example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of
+sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers
+and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a
+charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.</p>
+
+<p>The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the
+first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development.
+Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff,
+perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions,
+had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief
+from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of
+thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> example of church
+building of its time, and its fa&ccedil;ade the most beautiful structure of the
+Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great
+portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various
+other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a
+forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the
+architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast
+amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the
+statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and
+awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant
+figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural
+folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite
+unknown before this time.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ
+which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every
+portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember
+that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic
+times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in
+the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the
+fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the
+statues of medi&aelig;val date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if
+the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures
+were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last
+Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among
+the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the
+Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section
+of it is here given (Fig. 75).</p>
+
+<p>There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and
+the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions
+are all that could be desired in any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> age of art. The forms are in good
+proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and
+supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the
+Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of
+medi&aelig;val art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus075.jpg" width="650" height="403" alt="Fig. 75" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.&mdash;From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of
+the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two
+periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from
+the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work
+with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the
+union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of
+sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure.
+Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great
+variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian
+cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in
+the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to
+show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> the working of the
+supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.</p>
+
+<p>But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental
+sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues
+still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were
+many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the
+statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion, who died in
+1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to
+the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue;
+the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the
+emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something
+about this statue which appeals to us&mdash;a human element which had been
+sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.</p>
+
+<p>But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis
+were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were
+sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French
+sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the
+Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the
+heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of
+Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who
+died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and
+they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all
+France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which
+went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new
+Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France.
+Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about
+the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> until the very end
+of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in
+the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon
+France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In
+Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was
+one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that
+could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French
+manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are
+still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed
+architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig.
+76.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus076.jpg" width="600" height="549" alt="Fig. 76" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.&mdash;From the West Fa&ccedil;ade, Strasburg Cathedral.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin,
+at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the
+architect of the west fa&ccedil;ade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and
+the transparent dra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>pery, which reminds us of the same effects in
+antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 117px;">
+<img src="images/illus077.jpg" width="117" height="350" alt="Fig. 77" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.&mdash;Duke Robert of Normandy.</span></span>
+</div>
+<p>In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270,
+there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in
+spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues
+of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this
+cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of
+the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the
+progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.</p>
+
+<p>Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was
+the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic
+art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient
+in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.</p>
+
+
+<p>The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century,
+when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new
+choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was
+erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry
+III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king
+summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and
+portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that
+day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries,
+it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble
+those whose mem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>ories they honored, far more than other nations had
+done. The illustration given here, with its air of life&mdash;almost of
+motion&mdash;is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).</p>
+
+<p>The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the
+interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but
+in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of
+sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward
+the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in
+the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer
+held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the
+imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects
+in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a
+development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an
+improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features
+which were attractive.</p>
+
+<p>In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper
+meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the
+citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to
+art along with others.</p>
+
+<p>This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they
+attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their
+works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated
+that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which
+the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had
+already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of
+Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism,
+more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of
+himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that
+art was elevated in its tone.</p>
+
+<p>There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted
+details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from
+suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects.
+For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits
+or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and
+burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these
+powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with
+such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of
+eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century,
+that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the
+thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at
+Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the
+Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the
+art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works
+of the Nuremberg sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den
+Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the
+city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the
+dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the
+most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.</p>
+
+<p>We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time;
+Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, W&uuml;rzburg, Cologne, and many other
+German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its
+character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a
+tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> practised and used
+for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and
+freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very
+attractive (Fig. 78).</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;">
+<img src="images/illus078.jpg" width="528" height="600" alt="Fig. 78" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.&mdash;Ivory Relief.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Hunting Scene.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of
+art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done
+in the thirteenth century&mdash;so many new churches built and so many older
+ones remodelled&mdash;is one reason for this change. In this direction there
+was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed
+by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However,
+there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already
+begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was
+accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank
+and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased
+in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in
+France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes
+of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was <span class="smcap">Claux Sluter</span>, who was the
+favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that
+duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of
+the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other
+works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had
+a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have
+established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.</p>
+
+<p>In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century.
+Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine.
+Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the
+principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to
+the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been
+confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the
+monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to
+mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced;
+but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the
+monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The
+costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque
+air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline
+which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It
+compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and
+the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> seem like a
+monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.</p>
+
+<p>As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of
+the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was
+that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than
+in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle
+Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art
+as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget
+themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his
+works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and
+not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the
+northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in
+them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches.
+Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the
+Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not
+give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings
+which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view,
+and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and
+sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of
+the merits of each art.</p>
+
+<p>So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the
+church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and
+tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered
+with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly
+sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for
+Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored;
+sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and
+sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other
+lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were
+employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of
+the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important;
+but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of
+the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and
+other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the
+many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The
+council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great
+opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the
+sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones
+with great clearness.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the
+progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of
+separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our
+attention is <span class="smcap">Nicola Pisano</span>, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207,
+and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and
+sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment
+as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served
+this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed
+as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.</p>
+
+<p>In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief
+representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its
+place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at
+Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist,
+and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian
+sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/illus079.jpg" width="550" height="283" alt="Fig. 79" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.&mdash;Relief by Nicola Pisano.</span><br /><i>Lucca.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly
+employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established
+his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the
+Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have
+given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca;
+and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied
+the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful
+advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of
+his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism
+when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its
+sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains
+of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was
+completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art
+of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit
+for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to
+live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits
+to Pisa&mdash;four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was
+completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great
+influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano
+had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the
+south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus080.jpg" width="650" height="482" alt="Fig. 80" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.&mdash;Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa.</span><br /><i>Nicola
+Pisano.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La
+Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last
+work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that
+city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of
+the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the
+figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that
+laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most
+valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that
+it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has
+suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an
+untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his
+associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty.
+Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were
+the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow
+to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles;
+founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the
+degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study;
+so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all
+profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an
+ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in
+selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an
+indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience
+to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now
+in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to
+design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace
+or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in
+both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his
+edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his
+bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models
+long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all
+classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man&mdash;one to
+whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in
+gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the
+same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello</span> (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of
+Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be
+said of his works after his master's death.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Pisano</span> (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil
+of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under
+some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred
+the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic
+action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an
+architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when
+twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for
+the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace
+there.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni
+in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in
+the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina,
+because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown
+of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of
+architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many
+shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to
+make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred
+earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with
+walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it
+could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most
+beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own
+hand. (Fig. 81.)</p>
+
+<p>This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making
+large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The
+city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her
+arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four
+statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a
+very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the
+originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of
+expression.</p>
+
+
+<p>From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Gio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>vanni became famous,
+and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people
+of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by
+freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to
+Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After
+this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a
+variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In
+1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 614px;">
+<img src="images/illus081.jpg" width="614" height="650" alt="Fig. 81" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.&mdash;Campo Santo of Pisa.</span><br /><i>Giovanni Pisano.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo
+has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its
+character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more
+than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an
+independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the
+feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in
+the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and
+dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any
+man who had not an uncommon genius.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arnolfo di Cambio</span> (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and
+though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an
+independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are
+some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are
+uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to
+discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico,
+a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and
+the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal,
+is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only
+well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the
+most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite
+sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Andrea Pisano</span> (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and
+his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of
+Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When
+these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to
+view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the
+Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most
+important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor
+of citizenship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John
+the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity,
+while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the
+execution of the whole almost perfect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nino Pisano</span> was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not
+known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially
+excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches
+of Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the
+most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was
+<span class="smcap">Andrea Arcagnuolo di Cione</span>, commonly called <span class="smcap">Andrea Orcagna</span> (1329-1376?).
+This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence.
+Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and
+poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he
+executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we
+shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the
+tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold
+the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle
+is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up
+toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief,
+statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her
+birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios,
+enamels, gilded glass, <i>pietra dura</i>, and all of these arranged in a
+whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of
+architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and
+whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who
+conceived and executed so difficult a task.</p>
+
+<p>During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many
+sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names.
+They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of
+which is still to be seen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> One of these, of whom few personal facts are
+known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his
+industry were almost marvellous. He was called <span class="smcap">Pietro di Giovanni</span> and
+<span class="smcap">Pietro Tedesco</span>, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not
+known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence
+from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work
+and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of
+leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He
+also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of
+different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions,
+bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies,
+and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches,
+while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works
+is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music
+hall or a theatre as they are for a church.</p>
+
+<p>The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be
+taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but
+<span class="smcap">Niccol&ograve; of Arrezzo</span>, the <span class="smcap">Massegne</span>, and the <span class="smcap">Bon</span> or <span class="smcap">Buoni</span> family, and many
+others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the
+stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic
+and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of
+the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting
+its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days
+of sculpture in Italy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-flowersa.jpg" width="500" height="118" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>There was no one great influence or circumstance which led up to the
+revival of art and letters which took place in the fifteenth century,
+and which is known under the general name of the Renaissance. Its causes
+were many, and may be traced in every department of the life of the
+Middle Ages&mdash;in religion, politics, learning, and the habits of the
+people. This is far too great a topic for us to enter on here, and we
+must keep to the one matter which we have in hand.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy, heretofore, as we have shown, sculpture had been almost
+entirely separated from other arts, and stood by itself. Its works had
+been the smaller objects of which we have spoken; and though these were
+oftentimes splendid in their design and execution, they did not afford
+the sculptor the same broad field for his work as he has when his
+productions are combined with architecture. Now all this was changed.
+The French and German artists had brought out a style of architecture of
+their own, the Italians pursued another course, and went back to classic
+art for their teaching, and now every opportunity was given for
+sculpture to assume its utmost importance; and the art of ancient Greece
+was studied with all the enthusiasm of the Italian nature.</p>
+
+<p>The masters of Florence, or, rather, of Tuscany, were of great
+importance in the beginning of the new movement,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> and I shall speak
+first of them. <span class="smcap">Francesco Squarcione</span>, who lived from 1396 to 1474, was a
+painter, and travelled into Greece to collect antique objects, and made
+many drawings from the monuments which he saw. He established a school
+in Padua, and his museum was of advantage to sculptors as well as to
+painters. Other Tuscan artists who were in love with classic art
+wandered among its remains in Rome and other parts of Italy, and brought
+back to their homes a greater knowledge of sculpture, as well as the
+drawings which they had made; and in this part of Italy the Renaissance
+early made itself a living, active power.</p>
+
+<p>Among the very first of these sculptors was <span class="smcap">Jacopo della Quercia</span>
+(1374-1438), who was so called from the little market town of Quercia,
+near Siena, in which he was born. His father was a goldsmith, and
+instructed his son in his art; but the boy loved sculpture, and studied
+it under one Luca di Giovanni. When but nineteen years old he made an
+equestrian statue of wood, and covered it with cloth, and painted it to
+represent marble in a manner which proved him to be an artist. About
+this time he left his home, and the next that we know of him was about
+ten years later, when his design for the gates of the Baptistery of
+Florence was pronounced to be next in merit to those of Ghiberti and
+Brunelleschi.</p>
+
+<p>In 1408 Quercia went to Ferrara, where he did several works. While there
+he was called by the Signory of Siena to make a new fountain in the
+Piazza del Campo. This was a beautiful work, and even in this century,
+though much injured, its remaining sculptures prove that it must have
+been a wonder in its day. It has been restored after the original model
+by Quercia, who was often called Jacopo della Fonte on account of this
+work. He executed some sculptures in Lucca, but his masterpiece was the
+decoration of the great portal of the Basilica of San Petronio, at
+Bologna. (Fig. 82.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 323px;">
+<img src="images/illus082.jpg" width="323" height="400" alt="Fig. 82" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.&mdash;Relief by Jacopo della Quercia.</span><br /><i>Bologna.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The fifteen reliefs here represent the history of Adam and Eve, and
+other stories from the creation to the deluge. They show the full
+freedom and power of Quercia's style, and are among the most attractive
+of all the Tuscan sculptures of this period. Duringd the last years of
+his life this artist was employed as superintendent of the works upon
+the Cathedral of Siena, in which city he died.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>We come now to speak of the famous <span class="smcap">Lorenzo Ghiberti</span> (1378-1455), who was
+born in Florence, and was both a goldsmith and sculptor; and though his
+fame rests upon his bas-reliefs, yet the exquisite detail and careful
+finish in them came from his practice of the goldsmith's art. In 1398 a
+plague broke out in Florence, and Ghiberti fled to Rimini for safety.
+While there he painted a few pictures; but his name is so linked with
+the splendid gates which he made for the Baptistery of Florence that it
+is of those that one naturally thinks when his name is heard.</p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of the gates which Andrea Pisano had made to this
+Baptistery long before; these were for the south side; and when, in
+1400, the plague again visited Florence the people believed that the
+wrath of Heaven should be appeased by a thank-offering. Accordingly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+Guild of Wool-merchants promised to add gates on the north and east of
+the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist.</p>
+
+<p>A time was appointed for the examination of designs, and many artists
+entered into the competition, and sent in their drawings and models. A
+great number of these represented the Sacrifice of Isaac. At length all
+the models were set aside but two, and these were made by Brunelleschi
+and Ghiberti; then the former declared that he thought his rival's
+design the best, thus showing a nobility of character which cannot be
+too much praised.</p>
+
+<p>The commission was thus given to Ghiberti, who first executed the
+northern gates. He began them in 1403, and finished them twenty-one
+years later. They illustrate the life of Christ in twenty scenes; they
+have also the figures of the evangelists and the four Fathers of the
+Church in a beautiful framework of foliage, animals, and other
+ornamental figures, which divides and incloses the larger compositions.
+These gates are done in a manner much in advance of that of Pisano, and
+yet they retain some features of an earlier style which are not found in
+Ghiberti's later works. But from the first he showed original talent, as
+one may see by his model of the Sacrifice of Isaac, which is preserved
+in the Museum of the Bargello, beside that of Brunelleschi.</p>
+
+<p>These northern gates are very beautiful, but those on the east are far
+more so; it is of these last that Michael Angelo declared, "They are
+worthy to be the gates of Paradise!" These are divided into ten
+compartments, representing: 1, Creation of Adam and Eve; 2, History of
+Cain and Abel; 3, Noah; 4, Abraham and Isaac; 5, Jacob and Esau; 6,
+History of Joseph; 7, Moses on Mount Sinai; 8, Joshua before Jericho; 9,
+David and Goliath; 10, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Fig. 83).</p>
+
+<p>This sculptor showed great skill for one in his age, but to us there is
+some disappointment in them on account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the crowded appearance of the
+figures. Familiarity with them, however, reveals their beauty, and we
+find that, in truth, the stories Ghiberti wished to tell are brought out
+with much distinctness. They will ever remain one of the great monuments
+of the sculpture of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Ghiberti endeavored to introduce fine backgrounds to his reliefs, which
+gave him an opportunity to add figures illustrating other incidents than
+the principal one of the work. His sculptures show the influence of the
+Gothic style, the study of nature and that of the antique all combined;
+with these are united his own power of conception, his ability in
+design, and his wonderful delicacy of execution. These gates have been
+continually studied by the artists of his own and succeeding
+generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;">
+<img src="images/illus083.jpg" width="393" height="630" alt="Fig. 83" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.&mdash;From the Eastern Gates.</span><br /><i>Showing compartments
+6, 8, and 10.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p>The next work of importance by Ghiberti is the sarcophagus of St.
+Zenobius in the Cathedral of Florence. Other lesser sculptures are in
+other churches in Florence and in the Cathedral of Siena.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to one of the most interesting sculptors of the fifteenth
+century. <span class="smcap">Donatello</span> he was called, but his real name was <span class="smcap">Donato di Betto
+Bardi</span> (1386-1468). He was born in Florence, and from his boyhood was a
+member of the family of the rich banker Ruberto Martelli, who was the
+firm friend of the sculptor for life, and when he died he provided in
+his will that the works by Donatello which he bequeathed to his family
+should never be pledged, sold, or given away, but kept as a perpetual
+inheritance for his heirs. Donatello was a realist, and followed nature
+with great exactness. This was not always productive of beauty in his
+works; indeed, some of them are very ugly, and a story which illustrates
+this is told of himself and Brunelleschi. Donatello had made a crucifix,
+carved from wood, for the Church of Santa Croce, and when it was
+finished he asked Brunelleschi's opinion of it. This latter artist was
+principally an architect; but as he had learned the gold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>smith's trade,
+he executed some sculptures, and a close friendship existed between
+himself and Donatello. Relying on their love for each other,
+Brunelleschi frankly told Donatello that his crucifix was very ugly, and
+his figure of Christ like that of a day-laborer, whereas it should
+represent a person of the greatest possible beauty.</p>
+
+
+<p>Donatello was very angry at this, and exclaimed, "It is easier to
+criticise than to execute; do you take a piece of wood and make a better
+crucifix!" Brunelleschi determined to do this, and when his work was
+finished he invited Donatello to sup with him. He placed the crucifix in
+a conspicuous place in his house, and then took Donatello with him to
+the market to buy their food. He gave the parcels to Donatello, and
+asked him to go before to the house, saying that he would soon follow.
+When Donatello entered and saw the crucifix he was so delighted at the
+sight that he forgot everything else, and dropped the eggs, cheese, and
+all on the floor, and stood gazing at the carving as motionless as if he
+were a statue himself. When Brunelleschi came he said, "What are we to
+do now? You have spoiled all the dinner!"</p>
+
+<p>"I have had dinner enough for to-day," replied Donatello. "You may have
+a better appetite. To you, I confess, belongs the power of carving the
+figure of Christ; to me that of representing day-laborers."</p>
+
+<p>This famous crucifix by Brunelleschi is now in the Gondi Chapel of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella; that by Donatello is in the chapel of
+Saints Ludovico and Bartolommeo in the Church of Santa Croce.</p>
+
+<p>The Annunciation cut from sandstone, which is in Santa Croce, is one of
+his earliest works, and is full of grace and nobleness (Fig. 84). He
+made some beautiful groups of dancing children, which are now in the
+Uffizi Gallery; but he considered his David, which is in the same
+gallery, as his masterpiece. He was so proud of it that he swore by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> it,
+saying, "By the faith I have in my Zuccone!" This word means bald-head,
+and had come to be used as the usual name for the David.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus084.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="Fig. 84" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.&mdash;The Annunciation.</span><br /><i>By Donatello.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>But in spite of his liking for the David, it is generally thought that
+his St. George, on the exterior of the Church of Or San Michele, is far
+better. The German art-writer Grimm thus speaks of this work: "What a
+man is the St. George in the niche of the Church of Or San Michele! He
+stands there in complete armor, sturdily, with his legs somewhat
+striding apart, resting on both with equal weight, as if he meant to
+stand so that no power could move him from his post. Straight before him
+he holds up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> his high shield; both hands touch its edge, partly for the
+sake of holding it, partly in order to rest on it; the eyes and brows
+are full of expectant boldness.... We approach this St. George, and the
+mere artistic interest is transformed suddenly into a more lively
+sympathy with the person of the master.... Who is it, we ask, who has
+placed such a man there, so ready for battle?" (Fig. 85.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 141px;">
+<img src="images/illus085.jpg" width="141" height="400" alt="Fig. 85" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.&mdash;Statue of St. George.</span><br /><i>By Donatello.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Donatello's impetuosity led him into many rash acts. Among other
+instances of this it is related that a rich Genoese merchant gave an
+order for a portrait bust of himself in bronze; when it was finished the
+great Duke Cosimo de' Medici, who was a friend of Donatello, admired the
+work so much that he placed it on his balcony, so that all Florentines
+who passed by could see it. When the merchant was given the price of the
+bust he objected to it, and it was referred to Duke Cosimo for
+settlement. In the conversation the Genoese said that the bust could be
+made in a month, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> that he was willing to pay the artist a dollar a
+day for his time and labor.</p>
+
+<p>When Donatello heard this he exclaimed, "I know how to destroy the
+result of the study of years in the twinkling of an eye!" and he threw
+the bust into the street below, where it was broken into fragments. Then
+the merchant was deeply mortified, and offered the sculptor double the
+price he had asked if he would repeat the work; but though Donatello
+sadly needed the money he would not do this, and persisted in his
+refusal, even when Cosimo de' Medici tried to persuade him to consent.</p>
+
+<p>When Donatello was old Duke Cosimo gave him an allowance which would
+support himself and four workmen; but in spite of this Donatello wore
+such shabby clothes that Cosimo sent him a red surcoat, a mantle and
+hood. These Donatello returned, saying they were far too fine for him.
+When the sculptor at length became feeble and bedridden his benefactor
+had died, but Piero de' Medici, the son of Cosimo, was careful to keep
+him in comfort; and when he died his funeral was attended with much
+ceremony. He was buried near Duke Cosimo, in the Church of San Lorenzo.</p>
+
+<p>Several of Donatello's works are in this church, and are a more suitable
+monument to his memory than any that could be made by other hands.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Donatello are numerous, both in marble and bronze, and in
+both these substances he made statues and reliefs. We cannot speak in
+detail of all that he accomplished; but as he lived in an age when every
+advance in art was an event in history, we must not forget to say that
+he made the first equestrian statue which had been produced since the
+time of the Romans. This statue is in Padua, in front of the Church of
+San Antonio; it is of colossal size, and represents the Venetian General
+Gattamelata; and though it does not satisfy our conception as an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+equestrian statue, it is worthy of some praise when we remember all the
+circumstances of its origin. It is not probable that Donatello had ever
+seen an antique equestrian statue, unless it might have been that of
+Marcus Aurelius, which was found in the Forum in 1187; no modern statues
+existed as examples for him; he was not familiar with the modelling of
+horses, and for every reason it was a bold thing for him to undertake
+such a work.</p>
+
+<p>Donatello had more influence upon the art of his time than any other
+Tuscan sculptor, with the single exception of Michael Angelo. As a man
+he was honest, simple, and upright in all his dealings; as a friend he
+was loyal and faithful; as a Christian he was humble and charitable, and
+left behind him a name which has been handed down through more than four
+centuries with respect and honor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Luca della Robbia</span> (1400-1481) is another native of Florence, whose name
+is widely known. Like many others, he began life as a goldsmith, and in
+this way gained a mastery over detail and a finish of style that are
+remarkable in all his works. He turned his attention to sculpture early
+in life, and was so enthusiastic in his pursuit of this art that he
+worked night and day, minding neither cold nor hunger and fatigue; in
+the beginning he made numerous wax models, which have perished, and with
+all his industry we have no work of his before he was forty-five years
+old, except the reliefs of Music, Philosophy, Geometry, Grammar and
+Astronomy, Plato and Aristotle, Ptolemy and Euclid, and a man playing a
+lute, which are set into the side of the Campanile at Florence, and two
+scenes from the life of St. Peter, which are in the Uffizi.</p>
+
+<p>In the same gallery are also the series of reliefs which Luca began when
+forty-five years old for the balustrade of an organ in the cathedral.
+These reliefs represent boys singing, dancing, and playing on musical
+instruments (Fig. 86). The attitudes are so graceful and so varied, and
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> expressions on the faces are so many, that there is much to admire
+in a subject which in unskilful hands would be very monotonous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;">
+<img src="images/illus086.jpg" width="538" height="600" alt="Fig. 86" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.&mdash;dancing Boys.</span><br /><i>By Luca della Robbia.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>No sculptures since the classic days represent child-life with such
+freshness and charming qualities, and these alone would have raised Luca
+to a high rank as a sculptor. In the Uffizi one is able to examine these
+works closely, and they gain by this nearness to the eye, which enables
+one to see the minuteness of his finish. There are various works of his
+in bronze and marble still to be seen in the churches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> of Florence, but
+the special art to which he gave his attention was to the perfecting of
+enamel upon terra-cotta&mdash;on the making of what is known as the Robbia
+ware. In this he achieved a great success, and his bas-reliefs are very
+beautiful. At first he used but few colors, but later he increased their
+number, and was able to produce a combined effect of painting and relief
+that is very pleasing.</p>
+
+<p>These works were used for altar-pieces, medallions on exteriors,
+fountains, wall decoration, and a great variety of purposes. Twelve
+medallions representing the months, which are in the South Kensington
+Museum, are said to have been made by Luca to decorate a writing cabinet
+for one of the Medici.</p>
+
+<p>Luca worked with his nephew, Andrea, who had four sons; and when Luca
+died his secrets belonged to them, and made their fortunes. They were
+occupied eleven years in making a frieze to a hospital in Pistoja; it
+represented the Seven Acts of Mercy. One of them went to France and
+decorated the Ch&acirc;teau of Madrid for Francis I. Pope Leo X. employed
+another to pave the Loggie of the Vatican with Robbia tiles, and these
+wares, in one form and another, were used in numberless ways, both
+useful and decorative.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;">
+<img src="images/illus087.jpg" width="198" height="300" alt="Fig. 87" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.&mdash;Boy with Dolphin.</span><br /><i>By Verocchio.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p>The Robbia family was followed by other workers in glazed ware, and
+during about a century it was a prominent feature in art, and then was
+gradually given up.</p>
+
+<p>The most noted pupil of Donatello was <span class="smcap">Andrea del Verocchio</span> (1432-1488).
+He was born at Florence, and was early apprenticed to a goldsmith called
+Verocchio, from whom the sculptor took his surname. It is said that this
+name came from the fact that the elder Verocchio had remarkable
+exactness of sight.</p>
+
+
+<p>Neither the metal works nor the paintings which Verocchio did remain,
+and after about 1466 he devoted himself entirely to sculpture. It is
+difficult to associate him with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> Donatello; his execution is finished
+like most sculptors who were also metal-workers; his nude parts are true
+to nature, but not graceful or attractive, and his draperies are in
+small folds, which give a tumbled, crumpled effect rather than that of
+the easy, graceful falling of soft material.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>His best works are a David in the Museum of the Bargello, Florence; a
+bronze Genius pressing a Dolphin to itself on a fountain in the court of
+the Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 87); an equestrian statue of Colleoni before
+the Church of San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (Fig. 88); and a group of St.
+Thomas examining the Wounds of Christ at the Church of Or San Michele,
+Florence. This last work is in his best and latest manner; the
+expression is powerful, but the drapery is still very faulty.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Although this equestrian statue is called by Verocchio's name, he did
+not live to see it completed; and though it was without doubt made from
+his design, still some credit for its execution is due to Alessandro
+Leopardo, who finished it. When Colleoni died he left all his large
+fortune to the Republic of Venice on condition that they should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> erect
+an equestrian monument to him in the square of St. Mark. As it was
+forbidden by the laws of Venice to place such things in the Piazza of
+St. Mark, it was placed in its present position, before the Church of
+San Giovanni e Paolo, on the square of the School of St. Mark, and it
+was thought that this answered the requirements of the will.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 562px;">
+<img src="images/illus088.jpg" width="562" height="600" alt="Fig. 88" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.&mdash;Statue of Colleoni.</span><br /><i>By Verocchio.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>When Verocchio had gone to Venice and had modelled the horse, he was
+told that the Signory intended to have the rider made by another
+sculptor. He felt this to be an insult, and broke off the head and legs
+of the horse, and left Venice for Florence. The Signory issued a decree
+forbidding him to set foot again on Venetian soil under pain of death.
+The sculptor replied that he should not take the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> risk, as he well knew
+that the Signory could take off his head, and he could not put it on,
+while he could replace his horse's head with a better one. The Venetians
+knew that this was true, and repealed their decree, and doubling his
+pay, asked him to come to complete his work. Verocchio consented to do
+so, but had not been long in Venice when he died. Verocchio is said to
+have spent much time in drawing from the antique, and his works prove
+him to have been diligent and painstaking; these qualities made him the
+sculptor that he was; but we see no traces in his work of the
+heaven-born genius which makes the artist great, and so inspires himself
+that his works fill all beholders with an enthusiasm in a degree akin to
+his own; the works of such artists as Verocchio, who have only the
+excellencies which come from patient industry, interest us, but they
+cannot move our hearts.</p>
+
+<p>It often happened in Italy that a number of artists belonged to the same
+family, as in the case of the Robbias. One such family had the name of
+<span class="smcap">Gambarelli</span>, but were known in art as the <span class="smcap">Rossellini</span>. There were five
+sculptors of this name, all brothers. Two of them had great ability,
+Bernardo and Antonio. Bernardo was most distinguished as an architect,
+and some very celebrated edifices were built from his designs; he also
+executed some excellent sculptures, among which are the fine monument of
+Lionardo Bruni in the Church of Santa Croce, and that of the Beata
+Villana in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. The first is one of the best
+monuments in Tuscany. In the Uffizi are a bust of St. John, a charming
+work, and a portrait bust of Battista Sforza.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Rossellino</span> (1427-1490), called <span class="smcap">Proconsolo</span>, from the quarter of
+Florence in which he was born, was by far the best sculptor of the
+family. He is called a pupil of Donatello, but his work very closely
+resembles that of Ghiberti. Among his best works are the monument to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+Cardinal Portogallo, in the Church of San Miniato, near Florence; that
+of Mary of Aragon in Monte Oliveto at Naples; a relief of the Nativity
+in the same church, and a relief of the Adoring Madonna in the Uffizi
+Gallery. His characteristics were grace, delicacy of treatment,
+sweetness of expression, and all these combined with a noble dignity.</p>
+
+<p>Other Tuscan sculptors of this period were <span class="smcap">Desiderio da Settignano</span>, <span class="smcap">Mino
+da Fiesole</span> (1400-1486), <span class="smcap">Andrea Ferrucci</span> (1465-1526), and <span class="smcap">Benedetto da
+Majano</span> (1442-1498), who was eminent as an architect as well as for his
+sculpture. His father was a stone-cutter, and two other sons in the
+family were artists. Benedetto began life as a worker in wooden mosaics,
+or intarsiatore, as it is called. He made two beautiful inlaid chests,
+and carried them to Hungary as a gift to King Matthias Corvinus, whose
+fame as a patron of art had reached his ears. But the young artist was
+doomed to a dreadful disappointment, for when he unpacked his chests in
+the presence of the king it was found that the sea-damp had spoiled
+them, and the mosaics had fallen apart. Benedetto then determined to
+work in more durable materials, and executed some sculptures in marble
+and terra-cotta while he remained in Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>After his return to Florence, Benedetto worked as an architect, and the
+Strozzi Palace was built after his design. His masterpiece in sculpture
+was the monument to Filippo Strozzi, in the Strozzi Chapel in Santa
+Maria Novella, and it also merits mention among the best works of the
+fifteenth century. A pulpit in Santa Croce, by Benedetto, is also very
+fine, and his skill was shown here in his supporting the pulpit against
+a column and putting the staircase by which the pulpit is entered inside
+the column; thus it was concealed, and the building in no wise weakened,
+while the pulpit is far more beautiful than it would be were the
+staircase in sight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Benedetto was summoned to Naples by the Duke of Calabria, who gave him
+commissions which occupied him for two years. Few Tuscan sculptors have
+produced more pleasing works than Benedetto's; though not profound they
+are pleasing and unaffected, and in whatever frame of mind one may be,
+they do not disturb, but rather soothe and charm, as they could not do
+if they were false in sentiment or executed in an affected manner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Matteo Civitali di Giovanni</span> (1435-1501) was born in Lucca, but studied
+art in Florence. His statue of St. Sebastian in the Cathedral of Lucca
+was so much admired by the painter Perugino that he copied it in his
+picture of the Entombment.</p>
+
+<p>Civitali's chief work in sculpture was the tomb of Pietro da Noceto in
+the same cathedral. In Genoa, in the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, he
+executed six statues and five bas-reliefs. A bas-relief of Faith by
+Civitali in the Uffizi Gallery is a fine work, full of earnestness and
+deep religious feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Civitali was also an accomplished architect, and did much to improve the
+style of building in Lucca. The beautiful temple of the Volto Santo in
+the cathedral was designed by him.</p>
+
+<p>This sculptor may be said to have had four different styles of work. The
+St. Sebastian was in his earliest manner, and is simply realistic; his
+second manner was the best; it is pure and dignified in conception,
+while deep feeling pervades all; the tomb of Noceto was in this second
+style; his third manner was more free and less pure, while the fourth,
+as seen in his work at Genoa, is full of extravagant exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the sculptors of the Tuscan or Florentine school of this period
+were those of Venice in importance and independence of manner. This
+school was much influenced by that of Tuscany because of the nearness of
+the two cities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> and the constant communication between them, as well as
+by the fact that Tuscan sculptors were more or less employed in Venice.
+One of the earliest Venetian sculptors was <span class="smcap">Antonio Giovanni Bregno</span>,
+called <span class="smcap">Antonio Rizzo</span> or <span class="smcap">Riccio</span> (about 1430-1498?). Although he was born
+in Verona, and there had the opportunity to study the Roman ruins which
+are the pride of the city, he is yet essentially an artist of Venice,
+since he spent most of his life there, and was even at the head of the
+workshop for the sculptors who worked upon the palace. One little
+episode in the life of this artist was an expedition to Scutari with the
+Venetian soldiers, who went to its defence against the Turks. Rizzo
+showed himself so brave in action, and was so severely wounded, that
+after his return to Venice the Senate gave him a pension which lasted
+through twenty years. Rizzo so won the confidence of the Venetians that
+he was appointed to important offices with large salaries, and it is sad
+to be forced to add that he proved to be a dishonest man, and when his
+accounts were examined he fled to Foligno, where he soon died. We will
+not speak of him as an architect; as a sculptor he is known by statues
+of Adam and Eve in niches opposite the Giant's Staircase in the Ducal
+Palace, and by sepulchral monuments in the Church of the Frari. While
+his works cannot be highly praised for beauty, they do show the style of
+the Renaissance distinctly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lombardo</span> is the family name of three sculptors of this period in Venice.
+They were <span class="smcap">Pietro</span> and his two sons, <span class="smcap">Tullio</span> and <span class="smcap">Antonio</span>, and the three
+together are spoken of as the Lombardi. Pietro, the father, was as much
+an architect as a sculptor, and the works of the father and son are so
+associated that it is difficult to speak of them separately. We know
+that Tullio was the superior artist of the three, but there are no works
+of theirs that command a detailed description here. The monument to the
+Doge Pietro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> Mocenigo, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, the angels
+of the font in San Martino, an altar-relief in the altar of San Giovanni
+Crisostomo, reliefs on the front of the Scuola di San Marco, and two
+reliefs in the Church of San Antonio at Padua, are the principal
+sculptures of the Lombardi.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alessandro Leopardo</span>, who flourished about 1490, was the most eminent
+bronze-caster of his time, and was distinguished for the happy manner in
+which he adapted classic ideas to his needs in his works.</p>
+
+<p>Very little is known of the life of this sculptor, and that little is
+not to his credit. He lived in Venice, and had a studio in the Piazza
+del Cavallo, and in 1487 committed a forgery, for which he was banished
+from the city. But when Verocchio died, leaving the Colleoni statue
+unfinished, the Senate desired to have it completed by Leopardo, so they
+sent him a safe-conduct for six months, and he returned to Venice. As
+there is no account of his again leaving the city, it is supposed that
+he was allowed to remain as long as he chose. There has been much
+difference of opinion as to which artist&mdash;Verocchio or Leopardo&mdash;should
+be credited with the excellence of the Colleoni statue. The truth, as
+near as it can be told, seems to be that Verocchio designed and modelled
+it, that Leopardo completed and cast it, and made the lofty pedestal
+upon which it stands, and which, taken by itself, is a splendid work. It
+is of fine proportions, and has six Corinthian columns, in the capitals
+of which there are dolphins, while the frieze is composed of trophies
+and marine animals, all of which are symbols of the City on the Sea
+which erected the monument.</p>
+
+<p>After the Colleoni statue was unveiled the Senate gave Leopardo an order
+for three standard bases of bronze to be placed in the Piazza of St.
+Mark's. He also made three splendid candelabra for the Venetian Academy.
+Leopardo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> was also an architect. The time of his death is very
+uncertain, but a writer speaks of him in 1541 as "the new glory of our
+age, who shines like a star in the Venetian waters."</p>
+
+<p>Although an immense amount of sculpture of this period remains in
+various parts of Italy, it is very difficult to trace the story of
+separate artists and to give a satisfactory account of those whose works
+are worthy of high praise. There is scarcely an Italian city of any size
+which has not some splendid remains of this morning of the Renaissance.
+In Ancona there are the portal of San Francesco and the front of
+Mercanzia, with which the name of Giorgio da Sebenico is associated. At
+Rimini the Church of San Francesco, with its wealth of plastic ornament,
+cannot be ascribed to any one artist or to any number with surety; it is
+in the style of Luca della Robbia and Donatello, but in the execution
+does not reach their standard. In Cesena, Padua, and Verona there are
+fifteenth-century sculptures, and in the Milanese territory the plastic
+art of this period is very interesting.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs. 89 90">
+<tr>
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus089.jpg" width="261" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 89" /><br />
+         </td>
+
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus090.jpg" width="283" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 90" /><br />
+         </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Figs. 89, 90.&mdash;Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande.</span>
+<br /><i>Milan.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>In Milan, in the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> the Ospedale
+Grande, and in the cathedral there is a wealth of sculpture to reward
+the student of this art who visits them; and in the Museum of the Breda
+there are many interesting works. The terra-cotta decoration of the
+Ospedale excels all other works of this sort in upper Italy, and the
+immense fa&ccedil;ade of this edifice is a marvel in its way (Figs. 89, 90).
+The differences between this hospital and the wonderful Milan Cathedral
+afford a remarkable contrast in works of the same period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Antonio Amadeo</span>, or <span class="smcap">Omodeo</span> (1447-1520), was born on a farm near
+the Certosa of Pavia. When but nineteen years old his name appears as
+one of those who were employed upon this splendid edifice, and the
+records of his payments show that his work was well considered, even
+then. Omodeo was undoubtedly the best sculptor of his time in all
+Lombardy, and his sculptures in the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo would be
+sufficient to make any artist famous. The whole work may be called his,
+for he designed the building and the sculptures of the fa&ccedil;ade, which are
+in the richest style of the Renaissance; there are statuettes,
+colonettes, busts, medallions, and bas-reliefs, and wherever a flat
+surface exists it is divided into diamond-shaped slabs of colored
+marbles. The portal is very much ornamented: on each side of the rose
+window above this entrance there are busts of C&aelig;sar and Augustus in
+contrast with numbers of angels' heads not far away. There are
+bas-reliefs representing children playing upon musical instruments, and
+the whole front of the chapel, with its numerous pilasters and
+colonettes, has been compared to a gigantic organ, by Mr. Perkins, in
+his "Italian Sculptors".</p>
+
+<p>Of the interior decoration we can only say that it is much in Omodeo's
+style, though the monument to Colleoni, the founder of the chapel, is
+said to be the work of German sculptors, and to have been done after
+Omodeo left Bergamo.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At Pavia, Omodeo succeeded Guiniforte as chief architect of the Certosa,
+and designed the fa&ccedil;ade, which was made by him and his successors. The
+bas-relief of the Deposition from the Cross, which is on the front of
+the high-altar here, is the work of Omodeo. At Cremona and at Isola
+Bella he executed some monuments, but at length, in 1490, he began his
+work on the Cathedral of Milan. Here a cupola was commenced after his
+model and under his direction; but when it was partly done doubts of its
+solidity were expressed, and Omodeo was commanded to leave it and design
+the north door to the cathedral. He also constructed the spiral
+staircase leading to the roof through an elegant Gothic turret, where
+the medallion portrait of Omodeo may be seen. It has since been proved
+that the cupola of Omodeo was solid enough, for it has sustained the
+spire which was put upon it in 1772; but he was tormented concerning it
+in many ways, and died without justification.</p>
+
+<p>Omodeo stands at the head of northern Italian sculptors in his dexterous
+use of his chisel; his ease in composition and his skill in the
+management of drapery would have made him eminent; but the effect of all
+these good qualities was injured by his mannerism, and the fact that his
+standard of beauty was not a high one. This may be partly accounted for
+by the fact that in Lombardy an artist had no opportunity to study the
+remains of classic art, and this one circumstance very largely excuses
+the inferiority of the northern sculptors to those of Tuscany, whose
+taste had been much improved by close study of ancient plastic art.</p>
+
+<p>There are many sculptors mentioned as having done some part of the work
+upon the Milan Cathedral, but very few are known, except by casual
+remark. <span class="smcap">Cristoforo Solari</span>, called "<span class="smcap">Il Gobbo</span>, or <span class="smcap">del Gobbo</span>," was one of
+the most prominent, and yet we know almost nothing of his history until,
+in 1490, he was so disappointed when Omo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>deo was made architect of the
+cathedral instead of himself that he went to Venice, and remained there
+during several years.</p>
+
+<p>After a time Solari was appointed ducal sculptor to Ludovico Moro, and
+the monument which he erected to Beatrice d'Este was one of his
+principal works. When Ludovico lost his power Solari went to Rome, and
+remained until he was recalled to Milan to execute sculptures for the
+cathedral. He was very independent in his reply, and refused to go
+unless his conditions were complied with; one of these conditions was
+that he should not be under the direction of any one, but should select
+his marbles and his subjects to please himself. The statues he made are
+not as fine as we might expect them to be after this beginning; however,
+he was at length appointed head architect. Soon after this he was
+engaged in making a new model for a cupola, and then suddenly his name
+ceases to appear upon the registers.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Como is another of those vast edifices which afforded
+opportunities for artists to make themselves famous. The principal part
+of the fa&ccedil;ade to this cathedral was ornamented by <span class="smcap">Tommaso</span> and <span class="smcap">Jacopo
+Rodari</span>. The first was at one time architect of the cathedral, and
+together they executed a large portion of the sculptures. Their best
+work was in the ornamental parts.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern parts of Italy, both in the states of the Church and in
+Naples, there are many works of the fifteenth century which were
+executed by artists from Florence and other parts of Italy. Thus there
+is nothing new to be said concerning sculpture in Southern Italy during
+this period, since the works which are not by foreign artists are in the
+same style as theirs; for the native sculptors copied those from Central
+and Northern Italy, and no great progress or original manner can be
+found in these southern districts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-greenman.jpg" width="500" height="168" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN, FROM 1450 TO 1550.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In Italy, as we have seen, the sculpture of the Renaissance was much
+advanced by the fact that in the beginning of its growth the
+architecture of the country was largely an imitation of Greek
+architecture; and as the same artist was frequently an architect,
+sculptor, and painter, edifices were designed with the purpose of
+placing the works of the sculptor in the most favorable positions.</p>
+
+<p>In the countries north of Italy sculpture had no such aid or advantages.
+The Gothic style of architecture was a hindrance to the sculptor, whose
+works were combined with it. The Gothic construction afforded no broad,
+generous spaces for sculpture; all plastic work must be confined in
+limited spaces between columns and baldachins, or in arched niches, or
+between narrow flutings; and though something had been done to vary the
+upright stiffness of the statues of its earliest days, there was no
+freedom for the realistic and natural tendencies of the Renaissance art
+to develop in.</p>
+
+<p>Another advantage on the side of Italian art was the fact that Italy was
+a land of grace and beauty; its people were more refined in manner, more
+elegant and picturesque in their costumes than were those of Northern
+Europe, and all the influences surrounding the Italian artist were far
+more favorable to a development of his artistic nature than were those
+of France or Germany. Then, too, the remains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> of antique art which were
+within reach of the Italian sculptor were quite shut off from others.
+For all these and other reasons the sculpture of the north was more
+tardy in taking on the better spirit and form of the Renaissance, and as
+a whole it never became as pleasing to most people as was the sculpture
+of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In a former chapter we have spoken of the sculptor Claux Sluter and his
+work at Dijon in the fourteenth century; the desire which he showed to
+make his figures like the men they represented, and a general study of
+nature rather than of older works of sculpture, had much effect upon the
+sculpture of his time, and gradually became much exaggerated. German
+sculptors tried not only to make exact portraits of the faces and heads
+of their figures, but they gave the same attention to imitating every
+detail of costume and every personal peculiarity of the model from which
+they worked. This tended to weaken and narrow their own designs, and the
+whole effect of their work is fantastic and exaggerated&mdash;an effect quite
+opposed to the noble and harmonious treatment of the whole which the
+best Italian masters strove to attain.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to produce startling effects in German art made such
+subjects as the Passion of Christ, the Temptation of St. Anthony, and
+the Martyrdoms of the Saints to be constantly repeated, and many reliefs
+are overloaded with such details as may very properly be used in
+painting, and which belong to <i>picturesque</i> art, but which take away the
+dignity and calm grandeur which should make the spirit of sculpture. But
+there is one feature of German sculpture at this time which appeals to
+our sympathy&mdash;that is, the deep, earnest feeling which pervades it, and
+which constantly tried new methods of expression.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany there were guilds or trade-associations, and the members of
+these guilds were allowed to work in the special branch only of
+sculpture which belonged to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> company, so that this art was divided
+by more fixed lines than in Italy, where, in truth, at the period of
+which we speak, the Florentine school was a supreme power, and its
+sculptors, as we have seen, worked in as many sorts of sculpture as
+pleased them.</p>
+
+<p>The schools of Germany were far more independent of each other, and the
+entire organization of art in Germany was very different from that of
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most prominent effects of the architecture of Germany was to
+drive the sculptors to seek for such work as had no relation to
+architecture, and an important result from this was the great attention
+which they paid to wood-carving; indeed, this was the favorite pursuit
+of the German sculptors for many years. About the middle of the
+fifteenth century the importance of this art in Germany was far greater
+than those of bronze-casting or stone sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The principal works in wood-carving were the altars, which finally came
+to be colossal in size, and with their multitude of reliefs, statuettes,
+and ornaments were marvellous monuments to the industry and skill of the
+wood-carvers. The reliefs in these works are usually arranged on
+landscape backgrounds, and so much resemble pictures in many ways that
+the colors and gilding which were freely used on them do not seem out of
+place, and it appears to be quite natural that wood-carvers should often
+have been painters also.</p>
+
+<p>The Swabian school, the principal seat of which was Ulm, was the
+earliest to adopt the new, realistic style. There are works by Swabian
+artists which show this tendency as early as 1431. <span class="smcap">J&ouml;rg Syrlin</span>, who
+flourished during the last half of the fifteenth century, was an eminent
+wood-carver, and as he did not color his works he can be better judged
+as a sculptor than he could be if the effect of the whole depended
+partly upon painting. The choir-stalls in the Cathedral of Ulm and the
+fountain in the market-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>place, called "Fischkasten," are his most
+important works; but a singing-desk, now in the museum, and other lesser
+pieces are also excellent examples of his style. The choir-stalls have
+an immense number of figures and a mass of ornament, which made them far
+richer than any such work of an earlier date, and none that have since
+been made have equalled them. It is almost incredible that they were
+completed in four years, and yet there are no marks of haste upon the
+work. The figures are dignified and graceful, the faces delicate and
+expressive, the hands well formed, and a beauty of design and execution
+marks the whole. The lower figures, which come nearest the eye, are
+finer than those which are higher up, so that a unity of effect is
+preserved throughout the whole. He sometimes took occasion to give
+touches of humor in his works, and in these stalls he introduced his own
+portrait and that of his wife.</p>
+
+<p>The "Fischkasten" is sculptured in stone, and has three knights upon it
+which appear to be boldly advancing, as if about to step off and walk
+away. Other works by this master are less important, and it is doubtful
+if all that are called by his name are really his own. J&ouml;rg Syrlin, the
+younger, trained by his father, adopted his style, and became an
+excellent artist.</p>
+
+<p>We have not space to speak of the Swabian sculptures in detail. Fine
+works exist in Tiefenbronn, Rothenburg, Blaubeuren, Herrenberg, Gm&uuml;nd,
+Ravensburg, and many other places.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Swabian school was very wide; it can be traced in
+many parts of Germany, in Hungary and Transylvania, and even in
+Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria. Swabian artists were often summoned
+to adjacent provinces, and thus did much work away from their homes. The
+reliefs upon the door of the Cathedral of Constance were executed by
+Simon Hayder, a Swabian, in 1470. The altar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> of the cathedral at Chur
+was the work of Jacob R&ouml;sch, another Swabian master, who thus labored on
+the very boundary of Italy. The school at Augsburg was the second
+Swabian school in importance, and much influence went out from that
+centre, though its sculptures were not as fine as those of Ulm.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases fine old sculptures still exist in the churches and other
+places for which they were intended. Again we find them either whole, or
+in parts, in museums to which they have been removed when they were no
+longer required for the uses for which they were made, or when they were
+replaced by more modern works. So few facts are known concerning them
+that it is almost impossible to do more than repeat descriptions of the
+subjects they represent; and this is neither profitable nor entertaining
+in a book of this kind; therefore I shall now speak only of such artists
+as have left some record behind them, and of works whose authorship can
+be given.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Veit Stoss</span>, who flourished about the middle of the fifteenth century,
+was an eminent wood-carver. Very little is known about him. His name is
+sometimes said to be Wit Stwosz, and Cracow and Nuremberg both claim to
+have been his birthplace. But it is now believed that he was born in
+Nuremberg, as it is known that in 1477 he gave up his citizenship there
+and went to Cracow, and in 1496 he paid a small sum to be again made a
+citizen of Nuremberg.</p>
+
+<p>We also know that his reputation as a man was not good. In a Nuremberg
+decree he is called a "reckless and graceless citizen, who has caused
+much uneasiness to the honorable council and the whole town." He was
+convicted of crimes for which he should have suffered death, but the
+sentence was changed, and he was branded: both cheeks were pierced with
+a hot iron. After this he broke the oath he had taken to the city, and
+joined her enemies in plotting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> against her; he was subsequently
+imprisoned, and at his death, in 1533, he was very old and perfectly
+blind.</p>
+
+<p>It seems almost like a contradiction to say that this master was one of
+the most tender in feeling of all the wood-carvers of his time. He was
+especially successful in representing the purity of the Madonna and of
+youthful saints. His principal works are in the churches of Cracow and
+Nuremberg. In the Frauenkirche at Cracow the high-altar, a part of the
+stalls in the choir, and some other sculptures are his. In Nuremberg his
+best works are a bas-relief of the Crowning of the Virgin, which is
+preserved in the Burgkapelle; the great Madonna statue, which was placed
+in the Frauenkirche in 1504; and the colossal Angel's Salutation, which
+is suspended in the choir of the Church of St. Laurence. This last is an
+unusual and important work. The angel appears as if flying, and the
+drapery is much inflated; the Virgin is queenly and majestic, yet
+graceful; all around are medallions in which are represented the Seven
+Sorrows of the Virgin. The style of these reliefs is charming if we
+except the drapery; that has the faults of the time, and is bad in
+style; but the female heads are all that we could ask; the whole design
+is distinct, and few reliefs could surpass these in simple beauty and
+genuine artistic feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Another remarkable work of his is a panel of roses, now in the
+Burgkapelle. The panel is seven feet high by five wide; more than half
+of this is covered by a wreath of roses; there are besides four rows of
+small half-length figures arranged round a cross of St. Anthony, a
+representation of the Last Judgment, scenes in the history of man from
+the creation to the death of the Virgin, and many other saints and like
+subjects in bits of reliefs, which fill up all spare spaces. The style
+is very distinct, and the draperies better in this work than in others
+from his hand.</p>
+
+<p>There are other works in Nuremberg and elsewhere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> which are attributed
+to Veit Stoss, but these that are known to be his are quite enough to
+establish his fame as a gifted artist and a remarkable sculptor for his
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Though Stoss is among the early masters of Nuremberg, it is yet true
+that others had been at work while he was in Cracow, and the way had
+been prepared for him and his work when he returned to his native city
+in 1496. Among the most active artists in Nuremberg was <span class="smcap">Michael
+Wohlgemuth</span> (1434-1519), who is generally considered as a painter only;
+but we know that he made contracts for entire works in which sculpture
+and painting are combined, and must have had the oversight of the whole;
+and in this view it is proper to mention this master's name. The altars
+at Haller Cross Chapel, Nuremberg, one at Zwickau, another at Schwabach,
+and that of the Heilsbronn Monastery, near Nuremberg, are all ascribed
+to Wohlgemuth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Albrecht D&uuml;rer</span> (1471-1528), who was one of the great masters of the
+world, was an architect, painter, and sculptor. He was a pupil of
+Michael Wohlgemuth, and sculpture was less practised by him than other
+arts; yet the few works of his which remain are much valued.</p>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer probably executed his carvings about 1510-1520. In the British
+Museum there is a relief of the Birth of St. John the Baptist, which was
+purchased in the Netherlands more than eighty years since for $2500. It
+is cut in a block of cream-colored stone, seven and one half by five and
+one half inches in size, and is a wonderful work. The companion piece,
+which represents the same saint Preaching in the Wilderness, is in the
+Brunswick Museum, where there is also an "Ecce Homo" carved in wood.</p>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer executed many little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and
+the existing ones are seen in various collections in Germany. It is
+quite probable that others are in private hands.</p>
+
+<p>There are in Nuremberg many most excellent wood-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>carvings by unknown
+masters; one who cares for this art is well repaid for a visit to this
+old city, and, indeed, this is true of other old German towns. Bamberg,
+Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dortmund, Halle, and many other towns
+have riches in this kind of art.</p>
+
+<p>The stone sculpture of Germany in the fifteenth century was of less
+importance than the wood-carving until toward the close of the period.
+The exteriors of the churches and other edifices erected at this time
+had but little sculptural ornament, and that consisted principally of
+traceries and figures in geometric designs. Some small detached works,
+such as fonts, pulpits, or fountains, were made in stone, but the chief
+use of stone sculpture was for monuments to the dead.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Adam Krafft</span> (about 1430-1507), of whose early history almost nothing is
+known, is a very important master of this time, and his principal works
+add another charm to the city of Nuremberg. A remarkable series of works
+by Krafft are the Seven Stages, or seven bas-reliefs placed on the way
+to the Johannis Cemetery, the designs representing the seven falls of
+Christ on his way to Golgotha.</p>
+
+<p>These reliefs are much crowded, and the only part that is at all
+idealized is the figure of Christ; that is noble and calm in effect, and
+the drapery is simple and dignified. The other figures are coarse and
+dressed like the Nurembergers of the time in which Krafft lived.</p>
+
+<p>In the churches of St. Sebald and St. Laurence and in the Frauenkirche
+there are other splendid works of Krafft, and in some dwelling-houses of
+Nuremberg there are sculptures of his. A Madonna on the houses, 1306, in
+the Hirschelgasse, is one of the finest, perhaps the very best in all
+Germany. We do not know whether this was by Krafft or not, but it has a
+purity and nobleness that scarcely any other German sculptor attained.</p>
+
+<p>That Krafft had a sense of humor is shown by a bas-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>relief above the
+entrance to the Public Scales. The weigher stands observing the beam,
+and beneath it is written, "To thyself as to others." Another man adds a
+weight to one scale, and the man who is to be taxed puts his hand into
+his money-bag very reluctantly.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps his most artistic work was the tabernacle in the Church of St.
+Laurence. It is sixty-four feet high; the lower part is supported by the
+kneeling figures of Krafft and two of his associates. Above this rises a
+slender Gothic pyramid ornamented with bas-reliefs and statuettes. He
+was employed upon this tabernacle from 1496 to 1500. It is believed that
+a "Burial of Christ," in the chapel of the Johannis Cemetery, was his
+latest work, and executed in 1507, the year in which he died, in the
+hospital of Schwabach. Krafft led a most industrious life, and was so
+skilful a workman that he could work with his left hand as readily as
+with his right.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tilman Riemenschneider</span> was an important sculptor, born at Osterode, in
+the Hartz Mountains, probably about 1460. In 1483 he went to W&uuml;rzburg,
+and was elected to one honorable office after another, until, in 1520,
+he was head burgomaster. After the Peasants' War, in 1525, he was
+deprived of his office; he lived but six years after this, and kept
+himself in close retirement, not even practising his art.</p>
+
+<p>His sculptures are mostly in stone, and are quite numerous in W&uuml;rzburg
+and its vicinity. His monument to the Knight Eberhard von Grumbach, in
+the church at Rimpar, was probably his earliest important work. In it he
+has contrived to express strength and bravery of character in spite of
+the stiff costume, every detail of which is worked out (Fig. 91).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/illus091.jpg" width="280" height="550" alt="Fig. 91" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.&mdash;Count Eberhard von Grumbach.</span><br /><i>Rimpar.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In 1495 Riemenschneider received the important commission to erect in
+Bamberg Cathedral a splendid monument to the Emperor Heinrich II. and
+his wife Kunigunde.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> This occupied him until 1513, and is a splendid
+example of his skill. The figures of the two royal personages lie upon a
+large sarcophagus; the statues are more than life-size, and are dressed
+in the fantastic costume of the fifteenth century. Upon the sides of the
+sarcophagus are five reliefs, representing as many scenes from the lives
+of the emperor and empress. The monuments and religious subjects
+executed by this sculptor are very numerous. In the church at Maidbrunn
+there is a relief representing the "Lamentation over the Dead Body of
+Christ," which is probably his latest work. It is cut from sandstone,
+and the figure of Nicodemus is believed to be the sculptor's own
+portrait.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs. 92 93">
+<tr>
+<td align='center' ><img src="images/illus092.jpg" width="150" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 92" /><br />
+         </td>
+
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus093.jpg" width="404" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 93" /><br />
+         </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.&mdash;Justice.</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Fig. 93.&mdash;The Three Wise Virgins.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>We give here four figures from the portal of the cathedral at Berne, in
+Switzerland. The really splendid sculptures were the work of Nicolaus
+K&uuml;nz, and from their style seem to belong to about 1520. They show the
+influence of such artists as the painters Nicolaus Manuel (1484-1531)
+and Hans Holbein (about 1459-1524). The statues of the Wise and Foolish
+Virgins are fine, and that of Justice, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> pose is full of grace, and
+whose almost transparent garment is an exquisite work, affords an
+excellent illustration of the most pleasing sculpture of this period
+(Figs. 92, 93).</p>
+
+
+<p>Another art, which had its headquarters at Nuremberg in the fifteenth
+century, is bronze-casting, and its chief master was the famous <span class="smcap">Peter
+Vischer</span>, who was the son of another brasier, <span class="smcap">Hermann Vischer</span>. The date
+of Peter Vischer's birth is given as 1460, and he was admitted to be a
+master in his art in 1489. Five years later than this he was summoned to
+Heidelberg together with a sculptor, Simon Lamberger, to aid the Elector
+Philip with advice and skill. Nothing is known of any work which Vischer
+did there.</p>
+
+<p>Vischer's foundry at Nuremberg enjoyed a great fame, and orders were
+sent to it from far and near. No doubt a great many monuments were cast
+here which were not designed by Vischer at all. His works were numerous,
+but I shall only describe his masterpiece, which was the shrine or tomb
+of St. Sebald, and occupied Peter Vischer from 1508 to 1519, he being
+assisted by his five sons. The son Peter was admitted as a master in the
+thimble trade in 1527. Hans was called "the caster," and seems to have
+superintended the carving of models; Hermann went to Italy and brought
+home designs and models; and Jacob and Paul seem to have had no special
+departments. Between 1495 and 1508 so little was recorded of Peter
+Vischer that it leads to the belief that these years must have been
+given to study and to the improvement which the tomb of St. Sebald shows
+over the work of the monument to Archbishop Ernst, in the Magdeburg
+Cathedral, which was done in 1495.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of St. Sebald had been inclosed in a sarcophagus of the Middle
+Ages, and the work required of Vischer was a fitting tomb for such
+precious and honored relics, for St. Sebald is the special patron saint
+of Nuremberg, and dwelt in a cell near that city. His legend relates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+that he was the son of a Danish king, who came to Germany as a
+missionary and settled at Nuremberg, where he did many miraculous works
+of charity. On one occasion, during very cold weather, he is said to
+have found a family nearly frozen and without fuel; he commanded them to
+bring the icicles hanging from the roof and make a fire of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> them. They
+obeyed, and were thus warmed. Many such wonders are told of him, and
+Vischer in his statue makes him to appear as a pilgrim, with shell in
+hat, staff, rosary and wallet, while in his hand he holds a model of a
+church intended to represent that in which the tomb is erected. This
+Church of St. Sebald is now used for the Lutheran service, and the
+shrine still stands in the centre of the choir. (Fig. 94.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;">
+<img src="images/illus094.jpg" width="429" height="650" alt="Fig. 94" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.&mdash;Tomb of St. Sebald.</span><br /><i>By Peter Vischer.</i>
+<i>Nuremberg.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;">
+<img src="images/illus095.jpg" width="135" height="300" alt="Fig. 95" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.&mdash;Peter Vischer's Statue.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The architecture of this remarkable work is of the richest style of
+Gothic, and the whole of it is in bronze, except that the oaken
+sarcophagus is encased in silver plates. This rests beneath a fret-work
+canopy supported on slender pillars. There is an abundance of ornament
+everywhere, but the close examination of its detail shows beauty and
+fitness in every part. For example, if we compare the statue of the
+saint, of which we have spoken, which stands at the end of the shrine
+most exposed, with the statue of Vischer himself, which is at the
+opposite end, we shall see how the saint, with his symbols and his
+flowing drapery, is an ideal work, and seems to be advancing with
+authority and the air which befits the son of a king, while Vischer,
+with his round cap, leather apron, and German face, is simply the
+representation of a worker bent upon doing his best (Fig. 95).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The sarcophagus rests upon a base on which are four reliefs of scenes
+from the life of the saint, all in the purest manner of the time. One of
+these represents the burning of the icicles recounted above (Fig. 96).</p>
+
+<p>This base and sarcophagus and the fret-work above it form the centre of
+the tomb. Then outside of this are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> eight pillars supporting a
+baldachin, or canopy, in the richly ornamented Romanesque style, and the
+combinations of the Gothic and the decorative architecture are so
+skilfully made as not to offend our taste. But it is generally
+acknowledged that the chief beauty of this work is the series of the
+figures of the apostles, which are upon the pillars. They are slender in
+proportion, gracefully draped, and bear their distinctive symbols. They
+are perfectly free from the realism of the earlier works of Vischer, and
+have more of the purity and nobleness of the works of Ghiberti than are
+seen in the statues of any other German artist of this age (Figs. 97,
+98).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus096.jpg" width="650" height="434" alt="Fig. 96" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.&mdash;St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles.</span><br /><i>Vischer.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Above the apostles are figures of prophets and other Biblical
+personages; Perseus and Hercules are also represented, and other statues
+typify Strength, Justice, Prudence, and Moderation. The figure of the
+Infant Christ is upon the centre of the highest, or middle dome. Between
+the pillars at their bases stand graceful candelabra, and the base
+itself rests upon snails. Besides all these principal figures there are
+almost numberless others and many orna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>mental designs. There are
+harpies, sirens, satyrs, fawns, and all sorts of fantastic creatures.
+The whole work is full of the deep feeling of the north and the beauty
+and richness of the south, and is a most remarkable production.</p>
+
+<p>We are told that Vischer was but poorly paid for this labor, with all
+its thought and skill. He inscribed upon it these words: "... He
+completed it for the praise of God Almighty alone, and for the honor of
+St. Sebald, Prince of Heaven, by the aid of pious persons, paid by their
+voluntary contributions." There is a satisfaction in remembering that
+Vischer lived ten years after this tomb was completed, and must have
+heard many praises of his work.</p>
+
+<p>The later works of Vischer were a few reliefs and two important
+monuments at Aschaffenburg and Wittenberg. His sons Hans and Hermann
+executed a few monuments, which are done in the manner of their father,
+but do not equal him in design or finish. There are numerous works which
+must be regarded as productions of Vischer's studio and foundry of which
+we cannot give clear accounts, not knowing whether they were the earlier
+works of the father, or were executed by the sons or other pupils, of
+which he had many.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs. 89 90">
+<tr>
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus097.jpg" width="185" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 97" /><br />
+         </td>
+
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus098.jpg" width="163" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 98" /><br />
+         </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.&mdash;Peter.</span><br />
+<i>By Peter Vischer.</i></td>
+<td align='center'><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.&mdash;John.</span><br />
+<i>By Peter Vischer.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pankraz Labenwolf</span> was one of Vischer's pupils, and completed the
+splendid lattice-work over the Town-hall which the master left
+unfinished; Labenwolf added some ornaments and coats-of-arms to it. In
+1550 he cast the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> fountain in the court-yard of the same building, which
+is a graceful and creditable work; but another fountain in the vegetable
+market, behind the Frauenkirche, is truly original; the water flows from
+the mouths of two geese held under the arms of a peasant; the whole
+effect is droll and unique (Fig. 99).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 183px;">
+<img src="images/illus099.jpg" width="183" height="350" alt="Fig. 99" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.&mdash;Man and Geese.</span><br /><i>By Labenwolf.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You will remember how, about 1390, Claux Sluter, by his works in Dijon,
+had a great influence upon French sculpture. A century and more later
+this art in France was largely under the influence of Italian masters,
+who had been called into France by Francis I. and other patrons of art.
+Splendid works of sculpture were also imported from Italy, and the
+effect of the Italian Renaissance, which was so plainly seen upon the
+painting of France, was also at work upon its sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>Where the sculptures were a part of an architectural decoration, as in
+the case of the choir screen in the cathedral at Amiens, and other like
+works, the change was not as complete as in cases where the work was one
+of independent sculpture, as in monuments and statues to commemorate the
+dead, or in portrait sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The wealth and power of the nobility of France at this period enabled
+them to gratify their desire to leave fine monuments of themselves, in
+order to keep their names in memory in future centuries. In these the
+Italian manner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> was adopted, and the works when completed were far more
+splendid and elegant than were the corresponding works in Germany. But
+they have a grave fault, which makes them much less interesting than are
+the German sculptures: they are more conventional, less expressive, and
+far less artistic in spirit. They impress one as if the soft, luxurious
+court atmosphere had passed over them, and taking away their strong
+points, had left them only a general air of being well-bred and
+well-kept persons, of little importance to the real life of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In the Louvre, in the Museum of Modern Sculpture, all this change can be
+traced, and the traveller in France may see such monuments as we refer
+to in all the cathedrals and most of the churches all over the country.
+Many of them cannot be traced to any one master. A fine specimen is the
+Amboise Monument in Rouen Cathedral, which is said to have been the work
+of one Roulland de Roux and his assistants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jean Juste</span> of Tours was one of the best French artists of his day. In
+the Cathedral of Tours is a monument to two young children of Charles
+VIII., which proves him to have had much delicacy and tenderness of
+execution. The sarcophagus is covered with graceful designs, and on the
+lid lie the two babies, for the eldest was but three years old. The
+whole work is exquisite, and gives one a feeling of satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>About 1530 Juste erected the splendid monument to Louis XII. and Anne of
+Brittany in the Church of St. Denis. While the general form of the
+monument is much like that of the Visconti in the Certosa at Pavia, the
+figures of the dead couple are quite different from the Italian manner.
+Below on a bier the two nude bodies are stretched in all the realism
+possible, and the heads are noble and touching in expression. Above, on
+the upper part of the monument, where in Italy the patron saint or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> some
+other figure usually is placed, the king and queen again appear; they
+are kneeling, with full drapery about them, while the faces are
+characteristic and very expressive. This monument, taken all in all, is
+in the perfection of the French art of the time. Another work by Juste
+now in the Louvre is the monument to Louis de Poncher, one of the
+ministers of Francis I., and his wife, Roberta. These statues are in
+alabaster, and were formerly in the Church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois,
+which was built by Poncher.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Bontemps</span> must have been a famous sculptor, as he was chosen to
+erect the monument to Francis I., his wife Claude and their three
+children. This is also at St. Denis, and is even more grand than that to
+Louis XII. On the upper platform the five figures are kneeling; they are
+noble and simple, with an air of great repose. These examples serve to
+give an idea of the religious sculpture of the time.</p>
+
+<p>Secular subjects were unusual. A house in Bourges is decorated with the
+figures of the master and mistress above the entrance, as if they would
+speak a welcome, while reliefs of industrial scenes, such as might be
+seen outside and inside of the house, are placed in various positions
+over the building and in the court-yard. Something of a like sort is
+upon the Hotel Bourgtheroulde at Rouen, where the friezes show scenes
+between Francis I. and Henry VIII. Biblical scenes are also distributed
+over the building.</p>
+
+<p>Bruges is almost the only city of the Netherlands that has any
+sculptures of this period of which one would speak. Just at this time
+the art of that country was painting preeminently, and the Van Eycks and
+their followers had done such things as held the attention of all to the
+neglect of other arts. At Bruges in the cathedral, the Church of St.
+Jacques, and the Liebfrauenkirche there are some fine monuments, and the
+Palais de Justice has a carved chim<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>ney-piece which is magnificent, and
+a work of the highest rank.</p>
+
+<p>In England sculpture was of less account even than in the Netherlands.
+One circumstance is worthy of notice. Pietro Torrigiano, after
+quarrelling with Michael Angelo and breaking his nose, fled to England,
+and his monument of Henry VII. and his queen in Westminster Abbey,
+erected in 1519, marks the introduction of the style of the Italian
+Renaissance into England. The structure is of black marble; the statues
+of the king and queen are in gilt bronze, and are grandly noble in
+design and finished in execution. The smaller figures and all the
+details of the monument are fine. The master received &pound;1000 for this
+work. Torrigiano executed other works, and entered into an agreement to
+make a monument to Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but for some
+reason he went to Spain in 1519 and never returned, as he was destroyed
+by the Inquisition three years later.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that Torrigiano may have been led to Spain by hearing of
+the revival of art which was taking place there. Flemish and Italian
+artists went there, and the influence of their styles was felt by the
+native masters. The result was that they brought forth a manner of their
+own, combining certain features of northern and of southern art, and
+used to express the thoughts of the Spaniards themselves. The carved
+altars of Seville, Toledo, and Burgos show how splendid this art was;
+and though we cannot trace the lives and works of Spanish sculptors as
+we should like to do, we can be sure that there were men among them
+equal to any demand that could be made upon decorative sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>This is proved by the portals and fronts of the churches, by the highly
+ornamented chapels, the wall niches and choir screens of the interiors,
+while the monuments are also equal to those of other nations. That of
+Ferdinand and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> Isabella in the Church of the Guardian Angel, at Granada,
+is noble and magnificent. It is believed to have been erected before the
+death of Ferdinand in 1516, and was probably the work of an Italian
+sculptor. This monument has a large marble sarcophagus, with a structure
+above it in the Renaissance style. At the corners of the sarcophagus
+there are griffins of excellent workmanship, and on the sides reliefs
+and statuettes of the Four Fathers of the Church; on the lid repose the
+figures of the royal pair, executed in a grand and dignified
+simplicity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-gryffon.jpg" width="500" height="118" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY&mdash;CELLINI, MICHAEL ANGELO, AND
+OTHERS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>By the beginning of the sixteenth century sculpture occupied a different
+place with relation to architecture from that which it had held in the
+previous centuries which we have just considered. The architecture of
+Italy became much more plain, and its union with sculpture in any large
+degree was rare.</p>
+
+<p>Painting, too, had now an effect to lessen the sphere of sculpture. This
+art was always preferred by the Christians, as has been shown before,
+and now, when it had reached most satisfactory heights, it was used in
+many places where sculpture had before been placed. One important
+example of this is seen in the decoration of altars; where bas-reliefs
+had been used paintings were now preferred, and the end of all was that
+sculpture was limited to monuments and to separate pieces&mdash;reliefs or
+single statues or groups of figures.</p>
+
+<p>In some ways this separation of the arts was a benefit to all. Under the
+old rule sculptors had often been forced to sacrifice their design to
+the needs of the architecture their work adorned. At other times they
+were compelled to put aside their own feeling and their artistic ideas
+as to how a subject should be treated, and suit themselves to such forms
+as were approved by the particular priest or bishop whose church they
+decorated. Now, when left to itself,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> sculpture became more individual
+in its expression, and far more free and interesting in itself. In the
+beginning of the sixteenth century the works of Italian sculpture were
+splendid in the extreme. It was delicate and beautiful; the drapery was
+made to show the figure and its natural motion, while it added an
+exquisite grace to the whole; many works of this period were fine in
+conception, good in their arrangement, and executed in a noble, spirited
+manner. Some critics believe that during the first four decades of this
+era Italian sculpture equalled the antique art of the Romans. Others
+make 1520, or the time of Raphael, the limit to the best epoch of this
+art; but it is scarcely possible thus to fix an exact bound; the
+important point is that this excellence was reached, and the regret
+follows that it could not endure for a longer period.</p>
+
+<p>A far greater variety of subjects was represented in this age of
+sculpture than before. Formerly the rule was the production of religious
+effects. Scenes from the life of Christ and his disciples, others from
+those of the saints, or the illustration of scriptural stories, with the
+portrait tomb-sculpture, had been the sculptor's work. Now all the
+stories of mythology were studied as diligently as they had been in
+classic days, and artists studied to clothe the pagan personages with
+new forms; and in all this effort much appeared that was original. It is
+easy to see that such sculpture from the hand of a Christian artist must
+lack the important element of pure sincerity. An artist who believed in
+Jesus Christ could not conceive a statue of Jupiter, with all the
+glorious attributes, that an ancient Greek would have given to his god
+of gods. In this view the sculpture of classic subjects of this
+sixteenth century may be said to have been two-sided&mdash;the work
+illustrated a religion in which the artist pleased his imagination, but
+for which he had no reverence or love. But in spite of all it was a
+golden age, and many of its works are a "joy forever."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs. 89 90">
+<tr>
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus100.jpg" width="185" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 100" /><br />
+         </td>
+
+<td align='center'><img src="images/illus101.jpg" width="163" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 101" /><br />
+         </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 100. <span class="smcap">Pharisee.</span><br />
+<i>By Rustici.</i></td>
+<td align='center'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 101. <span class="smcap">Levite.</span><br />
+<i>By Rustici.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>Although the first public work which Leonardo Da Vinci did at Milan was
+to model an equestrian statue, we can scarcely speak of him as a
+sculptor. But the first Florentine of this period whom I shall mention
+is <span class="smcap">Giovanni Francesco Rustici</span> (1476-1550), who was a fellow-pupil with
+Leonardo under Verocchio. Very few works by this master remain, but a
+prominent and important one is the bronze group above the northern
+portal to the baptistery at Florence. It represents the "preaching of
+St. John The Baptist," and is grand in the free action of its figures.
+The Drapery is in a pure style, very much like that of Ghiberti (figs.
+100, 101). This work was ordered by a guild of merchants, and they
+failed to pay the price which had been fixed for it. Rustici was so
+embarrassed by this that he undertook no more large works, and after the
+Medici were expelled from florence he went into the service of Francis
+I. in France he had executed various works, and was finally commissioned
+to model an equestrian statue of the king in colossal size, when the
+sovereign died. Rustici survived but three years, and we are told that
+he only executed small works, and those "for the most part for the sake
+of kindness."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Andrea Contucci dal Monte San Savino</span>, called <span class="smcap">Sansovino</span> (1460-1529), was
+a very important sculptor, because large works were committed to him,
+and his name must remain associated with them. Like Giotto, Sansovino
+was a shepherd-boy, and drew pictures upon the stones of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> the fields.
+Like Giotto, too, he was sent to Florence to study, and in the school of
+Pallajuolo made good progress. When thirty years old he was appointed
+architect and sculptor to the King of Portugal. After an absence of ten
+years he returned to Florence, and later to Rome, where Pope Julius II.
+commissioned him to erect monuments to the Cardinals Rovere and Sforza,
+in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo.</p>
+
+<p>These monuments were his best works, but they cannot be praised. The
+statues are in positions which seem to be uncomfortable, and there is
+such a mass of ornament and so many statuettes that the whole has an
+effect of confusion.</p>
+
+<p>In 1513 Leo X. sent Sansovino to Loreto to adorn the temple which
+incloses the "Casa Santa" with bas-reliefs. This Casa Santa is believed
+to be the house in which the Virgin Mary was born at Nazareth; and when
+the Saracens invaded the land four angels are said to have borne the
+house to the coast of Dalmatia, and later to a spot near Loreto; but
+here some brigands entered it, and again it was removed to its present
+position in the Church of Loreto; this is said to have been done in
+1295. Naturally this "Casa Santa" is a sacred object to all Roman
+Catholics, and it is visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims each
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of this shrine was very important, and an honorable work
+for any artist. Sansovino did not execute all the reliefs, and the
+highest praise that can be given to those he did is to say that they are
+superior to the others that are beside them. He was a most skilful
+workman, and it seems as if marble became like wax under his hand; but
+this very skill led him to multiply his ornaments, and to repeat
+acanthus leaves and honeysuckle vines until the whole was a weariness
+and confusion, and conveyed no meaning or sentiment whatever.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/illus102.jpg" width="150" height="400" alt="Fig. 102" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.&mdash;Bacchus.</span><br />
+<i>By Jacopo Sansovino.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sansovino's most important pupil was <span class="smcap">Jacopo Tatti</span>, who, on account of
+his master, is called <span class="smcap">Jacopo Sansovino</span> (1477-1570). He was born at
+Florence, and when Andrea Sansovino returned from Portugal Jacopo became
+his pupil. Early in life he went to Rome, and there studied and copied
+the works of antiquity; among other things he made a copy of the
+Laocoon, which was cast in bronze at a later time. Soon after his return
+to Florence, in 1511, Jacopo received orders for some works, but the
+most important statue which he made about this time is the Bacchus, now
+in the Uffizi. In this work he showed how completely he was in sympathy
+with the classic spirit; this Bacchus is a triumph in this manner, and
+has been called "the most beautiful and spirited pagan statue of the
+Renaissance period." It is full of gladness, and is simple, delicate,
+and beautiful. The young god is advancing and holding up a cup, which he
+regards with an expression of delight; in his right hand he has a bunch
+of grapes, from which a Pan is eating stealthily (Fig. 102).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In 1514 Jacopo Sansovino was employed upon the decorations for the visit
+of Leo X. to Florence. Soon after this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> he went again to Rome and
+submitted plans for the Church of San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, which the
+Florentines were about to erect&mdash;for this master was an architect as
+well as a sculptor. The taking of Rome by Constable de Bourbon, in 1527,
+drove Sansovino away; he went to Venice, intending to go to France, but
+Venice charmed him, and his work pleased the Venetians, and the result
+was that from 1529 he served the Venetians as long as he lived. He was
+appointed Protomastro of the Republic of Venice, and had the care of St.
+Mark's, the Campanile, the Piazza, and the surrounding buildings. He
+received a good salary, and was provided with a handsome house to live
+in.</p>
+
+<p>He first restored the cupolas of St. Mark's; then completed the Scuola
+della Misericordia; he next made the interior of San Francesco della
+Vigna; then the Zecca, the Fabbriche Nuove, and the Loggietta of the
+Campanile. He also erected other churches and palaces, besides smaller
+sculptural works. But his architectural masterpiece was the Library of
+St. Mark's. The bronze gate to the Sacristy of St. Mark's was one of his
+principal works. It is subject to criticism as being too crowded; but it
+is a fine work and full of strong feeling.</p>
+
+<p>His statues are numerous and seen all over Venice; indeed, it is proper
+to speak of him as a Venetian, so thoroughly did he adopt that city, and
+so industriously did he work for it during forty years. Had he remained
+in Florence he might have been a better artist; the splendor and luxury
+of the Venetians brought out corresponding traits in Jacopo, and he fell
+short of the purity which the influence of Florence might have given
+him. He is one of the masters in whom the sensual influence of the study
+of pagan art was fully manifested. Many of his subjects were
+mythological; among them were the story of Phrixos and Helle, Mercury,
+Apollo, Pallas, Mars, and Neptune, the last two being colossal figures
+on the steps of the Doge's Palace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the pupils and associates of Sansovino were <span class="smcap">Niccolo Braccini</span>
+(1485-1550), called <span class="smcap">Il Tribolo</span>, and <span class="smcap">Francesco Sangallo</span> (1498-1570),
+neither of whom were important artists, though many works by them are
+seen in various places in Italy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Benvenuto Cellini</span> (1500-1572) is a far more interesting study than were
+many sculptors of his time. His life was an eventful one, and his own
+account of it is one of the most interesting books of its class in
+existence. His statement of the origin of his family is that "Julius
+C&aelig;sar had a chief and valorous captain named Fiorino da Cellino, from a
+castle situated four miles from Monte Fiascone. This Fiorino having
+pitched his camp below Fiesole, where Florence now stands, in order to
+be near the river Arno, for the convenience of the army, the soldiers
+and other persons, when they had the occasion to visit him, said to each
+other, 'Let us go to Fiorenza,' which name they gave to the place where
+they were encamped, partly from their captain's name of Fiorino, and
+partly from the abundance of flowers which grew there; wherefore C&aelig;sar,
+thinking it a beautiful name, and considering flowers to be of good
+augury, and also wishing to honor his captain, whom he had raised from
+an humble station, and to whom he was greatly attached, gave it to the
+city which he founded on that spot."</p>
+
+<p>When this artist was born his father was quite old, and named him
+Benvenuto, which means welcome, on account of his pleasure in the child
+of his old age. The father had a passion for music, and from the first
+wished that his son should study this art; but the boy loved drawing,
+and was determined to be an artist; thus his time was divided between
+these two pursuits until he was fifteen years old, when he was
+apprenticed to a goldsmith.</p>
+
+<p>Benvenuto had a fiery temper, and when still very young he became
+involved in so serious a quarrel that he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> obliged to flee from
+Florence. He went first to Siena, and thence to Bologna, and at last
+back to Florence, where he resumed his work. It was not long, however,
+before he became angry again because his best clothes were given to his
+brother, and he walked off to Pisa, where he remained a year. He had
+even then become so skilful in his art that some of his works done there
+have never been excelled either in design or execution.</p>
+
+<p>When Cellini was eighteen years old Torrigiano came to Florence to
+engage artists to go to England to aid him in some works he was to
+execute. He wished to have Cellini in the number; but Torrigiano so
+disgusted Benvenuto by his boasting of the blow that he had given
+Michael Angelo, that though he had the natural youthful desire to
+travel, he refused to be employed by such a man as Torrigiano. We can
+safely assume that this predisposed Michael Angelo in Cellini's favor,
+and was the foundation of the friendship which he afterward showed to
+the younger sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>From his eighteenth to his fortieth year Cellini lived mostly at Rome.
+He was employed by Pope Clement VII., the cardinals and Roman nobles.
+The Pope desired to have a cope button made and a magnificent diamond
+set in it. This jewel had cost Julius II. thirty-six thousand ducats.
+Many artists sent in designs for this button, and Clement chose that by
+Cellini. He used the diamond as a throne, and placed a figure of the
+Almighty upon it; the hand was raised as if in blessing, and many angels
+fluttered about the folds of the drapery, while various jewels were set
+around the whole. When other artists saw the design they did not believe
+that it could be executed successfully; but Cellini made it a perfect
+work of art and of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Cellini writes of himself as being very active in the siege of Rome, May
+5th, 1527. He says that he killed the Constable de Bourbon, who led the
+siege, and that he wounded the Prince of Orange, who was chosen in
+Bourbon's place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> No one else saw him perform these feats. Cellini went
+to the Pope, who was in the Castle of St. Angelo, and he there rendered
+such services to the cause of the Church that the Holy Father pardoned
+him for all the sins into which his temper had led him&mdash;"for all the
+homicides he had committed or might commit in the service of the
+Apostolic Church." A few years later, when Cellini was called upon to
+take part in the defence of his own city, he put all his property into
+the care of a friend, and stole away to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In 1534 Cellini killed a fellow-goldsmith, called Pompeo; Paul III. was
+now Pope; and as he needed the services of Benvenuto very much he
+pardoned him. But the sculptor felt that he was in ill favor with all
+about him, and went to France. In about a year he returned to find that
+he had been accused of stealing some jewels which the pope had commanded
+him to take out of their settings. Cellini was held a prisoner nearly
+two years, but his guilt was never proved.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of this time the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este obtained his
+release in order that he might go to France to execute some work for
+Francis I. Cellini remained in France five years, and received many
+honors and gifts; but as Madame d'&Eacute;tampes and other persons to whose
+advice the king listened were enemies of Cellini, he never was treated
+as his artistic qualities merited. Francis I. really admired Cellini,
+and presented him with the H&ocirc;tel de Petit Nesle, which was on the site
+of the present H&ocirc;tel de la Monnaie; he also made him a lord, and on one
+occasion expressed his fear of losing him, when Madame d'&Eacute;tampes
+replied, "The surest way of keeping him would be to hang him on a
+gibbet."</p>
+
+<p>Of all the objects which Cellini made during his five years in France
+but two remain. One is a splendid salt-cellar, and the other is a nymph
+in bronze, which was made for the Palace of Fontainebleau, and is now in
+the Renais<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>sance Museum of the Louvre. This salt-cellar is now in the
+Ambraser Gallery at Vienna. The frieze around the base has figures in
+relief which represent the hours of the day and the winds. The upper
+part is made like the surface of the sea, and from it rise figures of
+Neptune and Cybele. The first is a symbol of the salt of the sea, and
+the second of the spices which the earth gives. The god is placing his
+arm on a small ship intended for the salt, and a vessel for pepper, in
+the form of a triumphal arch, is near the goddess. All this is made of
+fine embossed gold, and has some touches of enamel-work. It is one of
+the finest pieces of the goldsmith's art which remains from the
+sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1545 Cellini returned to Florence, and remained there, with short
+absences, until his death. Duke Cosmo de' Medici became his patron, and
+commissioned him to make a statue of Perseus for the Loggia de' Lanzi.
+The ambition of the artist was much excited by the thought of having his
+work placed by those of Donatello and Michael Angelo, and all care was
+taken from his mind, as the Duke provided him with a comfortable house
+and gave him a salary sufficient for his support.</p>
+
+<p>It was nine years before the statue was completed and in its place, and
+in this time Cellini had suffered much. Baccio Bandinelli and others
+were his enemies, and at times the Duke had been under their influence,
+and would not furnish the money necessary to the work. But at last all
+was ready for the casting; and just at this unfortunate moment for
+Cellini to leave it he was seized with a severe illness; he was
+suffering much, and believed himself about to die, when some one ran in
+shouting, "Oh, Benvenuto, your work is ruined past earthly remedy!"</p>
+
+<p>Ill as he was he rushed out to the furnace, to find that the fire was
+too low, and the metal, being cool, had ceased flowing into the mould.
+By almost superhuman efforts he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> remedied the evil, and again the bronze
+flowed; he prayed earnestly, and when the mould was filled he writes: "I
+fell on my knees and thanked God with all my heart, after which I ate a
+hearty meal with my assistants, and it being then two hours before dawn,
+went to bed with a light heart, and slept as sweetly as if I had never
+been ill in all my life."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;">
+<img src="images/illus103.jpg" width="191" height="500" alt="Fig. 103" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 103.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Perseus</span>.<br /><i>By Benvenuto Cellini.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the statue was unveiled Cellini's prediction that it would please
+all the world except Bandinelli and his friends was fulfilled. Perseus
+is represented just at the moment when he has cut off the head of
+Medusa, who was one of the Gorgons, and had turned to stone every one
+who looked at her. (Fig. 103.)</p>
+
+
+<p>After the completion of the Perseus, Cellini went to Rome for a short
+time. While there he made a bust of Bindo Altoviti; when Michael Angelo
+saw this he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> wrote: "My Benvenuto, I have long known you as the best
+goldsmith in the world, and I now know you as an equally good sculptor,
+through the bust of Messer Bindo Altoviti." Cellini did no more
+important works, though he was always industrious. He made a crucifix
+which he intended for his own grave, but he gave it to the Duchess
+Eleanora; this was afterward sent to Philip II. of Spain, and is now in
+the Escurial.</p>
+
+<p>Cellini's life was by no means a model one, but he had his good
+qualities. He took a widowed sister with six children to his home, and
+made them welcome and happy. At his death he was buried in the Church of
+the Annunziata, beneath the chapel of the Company of St. Luke, and many
+honors were paid to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>His autobiography was so rich in its use of the Florentine manner of
+speech and so fine in its diction that it was honored as an authority by
+the Accademia della Crusca. He also wrote valuable works on the
+goldsmith's art and on bronze-casting and sculpture. He wrote poems and
+various kinds of verses, but his large acquaintance with popes,
+cardinals, kings, artists, and men of letters makes his story of his
+life far more interesting than his other writings.</p>
+
+<p>The artists of Upper Italy were much influenced by Florentine art, as
+they had formerly been, and we can speak of no very great sculptor of
+this century who belonged to this part of the country. <span class="smcap">Alfonso Lombardo</span>
+(1488-1537) was a native of Lucca; his principal works are seen in
+Ferrara, Bologna, and Cesena.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Properzia de' Rossi</span> (1490-1530) was born at Bologna, and is interesting
+as the one Italian sculptress of that time. She was born about a year
+after her father had returned from the galleys, where he had worked out
+a sentence of eighteen years for the crime of manslaughter. Properzia
+seems to have inherited her father's violent temper, and was twice
+arraigned in court. She was very beautiful in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> person, and had a devoted
+lover in Antonio Galeazzo Malvasia de' Bottigari, who did not marry
+until many years after the death of Properzia.</p>
+
+<p>Properzia studied drawing under Marc Antonio Raimondi, the famous
+engraver. She first devoted herself to the cutting of intaglios, which
+demanded an immense amount of patient labor. There is in the cabinet of
+gems in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence, a cherry-stone carved by
+Properzia, on which sixty heads may be counted; the subject is a Glory
+of Saints. Other like works of hers exist in the Palazzo Grassi, in
+Bologna. Her next work was in arabesques, marble ornaments, lions,
+griffins, vases, eagles, and similar objects.</p>
+
+<p>Finally she essayed a bust of Count Guido Pepoli; it is now in the
+Sacristy of San Petronio, in Bologna. In the same place are two
+bas-reliefs by her hand, Solomon receiving the Queen of Sheba, and
+Joseph and Potiphar's Wife. In the chapel Zambeccari in San Petronio
+there are two large figures of angels by Properzia, which are near the
+Ascension of the Virgin by Il Tribolo. Her manner was much influenced by
+her contact with this sculptor. Properzia was employed, with other
+artists, to finish the sculpture of the portal of San Petronio, left
+unfinished by Jacopo della Quercia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Begarelli</span> (1499-1565), called also <span class="smcap">Antonio da Modena</span>, from the
+place of his birth, was a celebrated modeller in clay. It is said that
+when Michael Angelo visited Modena in 1529 he saw Begarelli and his
+works, and exclaimed, "Alas for the statues of the ancients, if this
+clay were changed to marble!" Begarelli had a school for teaching design
+and modelling, and he greatly influenced the manner of the Lombard
+school of painting. Its foreshortening, its relief and grace are largely
+due to him and his teaching.</p>
+
+<p>Begarelli and Correggio were fast friends, and resembled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> each other in
+their conception of the grand and beautiful. When Correggio was
+decorating the cupola of the Cathedral of Parma, Begarelli was at work
+in the same place, and made many models from which Correggio painted his
+floating figures. Some works by Begarelli may be seen in the Berlin
+Museum. His Descent from the Cross, in the Church of San Francesco, at
+Modena, is one of his best works. He was also employed in the Church of
+San Benedetto, in Mantua, and in San Giovanni, at Parma.</p>
+
+<p>During the sixteenth century the works at the Certosa at Pavia and in
+various edifices in Milan were constantly carried on. Frequently the
+same sculptors worked in both cities, but there is no one artist of
+great excellence among them of whom we can give an account. The same is
+true of the works in Venice and in Southern Italy. The traveller sees
+many pieces of sculpture belonging to this period, but there are no
+great and interesting men whose story we can tell in connection with
+them, and I shall now pass to an account of the great Florentine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Michael Angelo Buonarroti</span> (1475-1564) was born in the Castle of Caprese,
+where his father, Ludovico Buonarroti, was stationed at that time,
+holding the office of Podesta, or Governor, of the towns of Caprese and
+Chiusi. The Buonarroti family held good rank in Florence, and the mother
+of the great artist was also a woman of good position. When his father
+returned to Florence the child Michael was left at Settignano upon an
+estate of the family, and was in the care of the wife of a stone-mason.
+As soon as the boy could use his hands he drew pictures everywhere that
+it was possible, and his nurse could show many of these childish
+drawings with which he adorned the walls of her house.</p>
+
+<p>At a proper time Michael Angelo was removed to Florence and placed in a
+school, where he became intimate with Francesco Granacci, who was a
+pupil of the artist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> Ghirlandajo. Michael Angelo's father and his uncles
+were firmly opposed to his being an artist; they wished him to follow
+the traditions of his family, and carry on the silk and woollen trade.
+But the boy was firm in his determination, and after many trials was at
+length, in 1488, apprenticed to the Ghirlandaji for three years.</p>
+
+<p>Domenico Ghirlandajo was at this time engaged in the restoration of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella, and Michael Angelo came into the midst of
+great artistic works. One day at the dinner hour he drew a picture of
+the scaffolding and all its belongings, with the men at work on it; it
+was a remarkable drawing for a boy, and when the master saw it he
+exclaimed, "He understands more than I do myself!" The master really
+became jealous of his pupil, more especially when Michael Angelo
+corrected the drawings which Ghirlandajo gave his scholars for models.</p>
+
+<p>About this time Michael Angelo was brought to the notice of Lorenzo de'
+Medici, who was at that time at the head of the government of Florence,
+and from him the boy-artist obtained admission for himself and Granacci
+to study in the gardens of San Marco. The art treasures of the Medici
+were placed in these gardens; works of sculpture were there, and
+cartoons and pictures were hung in buildings erected for the purpose,
+and art-students were admitted to study there and proper instructors
+provided for them.</p>
+
+<p>The master in sculpture was old Bertoldo, and Michael Angelo, forsaking
+painting, obtained some instruments and a piece of marble, and copied a
+mask of a faun. He changed his own work somewhat from the model, and
+opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When Lorenzo saw this
+he praised the work, but said, "You have made your faun old, and yet you
+have left all his teeth; you should have known that at such an age there
+are generally some teeth wanting." When he came again he saw that a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> gap
+had been made in the teeth, and so well done that he was delighted. This
+work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.</p>
+
+<p>Very soon Lorenzo sent for Michael Angelo's father, who had been sad
+enough at the thought that his son might be a painter, and was now in
+despair when he found that he inclined also to be a stone-mason. At
+first he refused to see the duke, but Granacci persuaded him to go. He
+went with a firm determination to yield to nothing, but once in presence
+of Lorenzo he yielded everything, and returned home declaring that not
+only Michael, but he himself, and all that he had were at the nobleman's
+service.</p>
+
+<p>Lorenzo at once took Michael Angelo into his palace; he clothed the boy
+properly, and gave him five ducats a month for spending money. Each day
+Lorenzo gave an entertainment, and it was the rule that the first person
+who came should sit next the duke at the head of the table. Michael
+Angelo often had this place, and he soon became a great favorite with
+Lorenzo, and obtained besides the greatest advantages from the life in
+the palace; for many eminent men from all parts of the world came to
+visit there, and all sorts of subjects were discussed in such a manner
+that a young man could learn much of the world and what was in it, and
+acquire a feeling of ease with strangers and in society such as few
+young persons possess.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;">
+<img src="images/illus104.jpg" width="418" height="600" alt="Fig. 104" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 104.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Michael Angelo's Angel</span>.<br /><i>Bologna.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p>Michael Angelo was but seventeen years old when Poliziano advised him to
+attempt an original work, and gave him the marble for a relief of the
+contest between Hercules and the Centaurs. This work surprised every
+one, and is still preserved in the collection of the Buonarroti family.
+In the year 1492 he also made a relief of the Madonna Suckling the Child
+Jesus, which is also in the same place. In the same year Lorenzo de'
+Medici died, and Michael Angelo, full of grief, went to his father's
+house and arranged a studio there. After a time Piero de Medici invited
+him to come back to the palace, and he went; but it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> no more the
+same place as formerly, and he was unhappy there. Soon political
+troubles drove the Medici from power, and in 1494, in the midst of the
+confusion, Michael Angelo escaped to Venice. There he made friends with
+Gian Francesco Aldovrandi of Bologna, and was persuaded by that nobleman
+to accompany him to his own city.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>While at Bologna he executed an angel holding a candelabra, which is one
+of the most lovely and pleasing things he ever made (Fig. 104). When he
+received the commission to ornament the sarcophagus which contained the
+remains of San Domenico in the Church of San Petronio, the Bolognese
+artists were so angry at being thus set aside for a stranger, and a
+youth of twenty, that they threatened vengeance on him, and he returned
+to Florence.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time that he executed a Cupid, which was the means of
+leading him to Rome. The story is that when he had the statue completed
+Lorenzo de' Medici, a relative of his first patron, advised him to give
+it the appearance of an antique marble, and added that he would then
+sell it in Rome and get a good price for it. Michael Angelo consented to
+this plan, and in the end he received thirty ducats for the work. The
+secret of its origin was not kept, and the cardinal who had bought it
+sent an agent to Florence to find out the truth about it. This agent
+pretended to be in search of a sculptor; and when he saw Michael Angelo
+he asked him what works he had done. When he mentioned a Sleeping Cupid,
+and the agent asked questions, the young sculptor found that the
+cardinal had paid two hundred ducats for it, and that he had been
+greatly deceived when attempting to deceive others.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 503px;">
+<img src="images/illus105.jpg" width="503" height="650" alt="Fig. 105" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 105.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Piet&agrave;</span>.<br /><i>By Michael Angelo.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Michael Angelo consented to go to Rome with this man, who promised to
+receive him into his own house, and assured him that he would be fully
+occupied in the Eternal City. The oldest writing by the hand of Michael
+Angelo is the letter which he wrote to Lorenzo telling him of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+arrival in Rome; when this was written he was twenty-one years old. The
+first work which he did after he reached Rome was the "Drunken Bacchus,"
+now in the Uffizi Gallery; it shows a great knowledge of anatomy in one
+so young, and the expression of drunkenness is given in the most natural
+manner.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>But the work that established his fame as a great sculptor is the Piet&agrave;,
+now in St. Peter's at Rome (Fig. 105). He was twenty-five years old when
+he executed this work, and from that time was acknowledged to be the
+greatest sculptor of Italy&mdash;a decision which has never been reversed.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this Michael Angelo returned to Florence, and his first
+important work was a Madonna, now at Bruges; it is life-size, and one of
+his finest sculptures. There was at this time an immense block of marble
+which had lain many years in the yard to the workshops of the cathedral.
+Several sculptors had talked of making something from it, and now
+Michael Angelo was asked by the consuls to make something good of it. He
+had just taken an order for fifteen statues for the Piccolomini tomb at
+Siena; but when he saw the immense block he gave up the Siena work, and
+contracted to make a statue in two years. He was to be paid six gold
+florins a month, and as much more as could be agreed upon when the work
+was done. He first made a model in wax of his David; it was very small,
+and is now in the Uffizi. In the beginning of 1504, after about two
+years and a half had been spent upon it, the work was done, and a
+discussion then arose as to where it should be placed.</p>
+
+<p>At length it was decided to put it where Michael Angelo himself wished
+it to be, next the gate of the palace where the Judith of Donatello then
+stood. The statue weighed eighteen thousand pounds, and its removal was
+a work of great importance. I shall not give all the details of it here,
+but shall quote what Grimm says: "The erection of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> David was like
+an occurrence in nature from which people are accustomed to reckon. We
+find events dated so many years after the erection of the giant. It was
+mentioned in records in which there was not a line respecting art."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;">
+<img src="images/illus106.jpg" width="173" height="400" alt="Fig. 106" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 106.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Michael Angelo's David.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In 1527 the statue was injured by a stone thrown in a riot. At length it
+began to show the effect of time and weather, and the people of Florence
+talked of removing it for better preservation. There was much feeling
+against this; the Florentines feared that misfortunes would fall upon
+them if this great work were disturbed; but at last, in 1873, it was
+placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. It represents the youthful David at
+the moment when he declares to Goliath, "I come unto thee in the name of
+the Lord of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> Hosts." The beautiful figure is muscular and pliant, and
+the face is full of courage. (Fig. 106.)</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the year 1505 Pope Julius II. summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome, and after a time gave him a commission to build a
+colossal mausoleum to be erected for himself. The design was made and
+accepted, and then Michael Angelo went to Carrara to select marble;
+after much trouble he succeeded in getting it to Rome, where all who saw
+it were astonished at the size of the blocks. Pope Julius was delighted,
+and had a passage made from the palace to the workshop of the sculptor,
+so that he could visit the artist without being seen. Other sculptors
+now became jealous of Michael Angelo, and when he went a second time to
+Carrara, Bramante persuaded the pope that it was a bad sign to build his
+tomb while he was still living. When Michael Angelo returned and the
+workmen he had hired arrived from Florence, he found the pope much
+changed toward him. He no longer hastened the work, neither would he
+furnish money to carry it on.</p>
+
+<p>Michael Angelo sought the pope for an explanation, and was refused an
+audience. He wrote a letter thus: "Most Holy Father, I was this morning
+driven from the palace by the order of your Holiness. If you require me
+in future you can seek me elsewhere than in Rome." He ordered a Jew to
+sell all he possessed in Rome, and started for Florence, and stopped not
+until he was on the ground of Tuscany. The pope sent after him, but as
+he was a citizen of Florence he threatened the messengers if they
+touched him. He said he had been treated as a criminal, and he
+considered himself free from his engagements, and would not return then
+or ever.</p>
+
+<p>When he reached home a letter came to the Signory of Florence urging his
+return, and saying that he should be safe. But Michael waited until the
+third letter was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> received, and only consented to go when it was
+arranged that he should be sent as an ambassador of Florence, and be
+under the protection of the Florentine Republic.</p>
+
+<p>In November, 1506, when the pope had taken Bologna, he sent for Michael
+Angelo to come to him there. Michael Angelo had not yet seen the pope
+since he left Rome in anger. When he reached Bologna he went first to
+San Petronio to hear mass. A servant of the pope recognized him and led
+him to his Holiness. Julius was at table, but ordered that Michael
+Angelo should come in, and said to him, "You have waited thus long, it
+seems, till we should ourselves come to seek you." Michael Angelo
+kneeled down and begged his pardon, but added that he had remained away
+because he had been offended. The pope looked at him doubtfully, when
+one of the priests, fearing what would happen, advised the pope not to
+judge an ignorant artist as he would another man. Then the pope turned
+upon him in great anger, and declaring that he himself was ignorant and
+miserable, ordered him out of his sight. The poor ecclesiastic was so
+terrified that the attendants were obliged to carry him out, and then
+the pope spoke graciously to the sculptor, and commanded him not to
+leave Bologna without his permission. The pope soon gave him an order
+for a colossal statue in bronze to be erected in Bologna.</p>
+
+<p>The first cast of this statue failed, and the work was not ready to be
+put in its place until February, 1508. This being done, Michael Angelo
+returned to Florence, where he had much to do; but Julius soon sent for
+him to go to Rome, and insisted that he should paint the roof of the
+Sistine Chapel, which occupied him a long time.</p>
+
+<p>In 1513 Julius II. died, and Michael Angelo resumed his work upon his
+mausoleum. The pope had mentioned it in his will, and his heirs wished
+it to be completed. At this time he probably worked upon the statue of
+Moses and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> upon the two chained youths. He devoted himself to the
+mausoleum during three years.</p>
+
+<p>Leo X., who was now pope, demanded the services of Michael Angelo to
+erect a fa&ccedil;ade to the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. The artist
+objected to this great work, and declared that he was bound to complete
+the tomb for which he had already received money. But Leo insisted upon
+his going to Florence. He had much trouble to get his marble from the
+quarries&mdash;the men were ill there. He was ill himself, and he passed a
+year of great anxiety and trouble, when there came word from Rome that
+the work must be given up; the building was postponed, and no payment
+was made to Michael Angelo! He was much disheartened, but returned to
+his work on the mausoleum.</p>
+
+<p>About 1523, when, after many changes, Cardinal Medici was pope, the work
+at San Lorenzo was resumed. But in 1525 the pope again summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome. The heirs of Julius were complaining of delay, but at
+last the pope insisted upon his great need of the artist, and again he
+was sent back to Florence, where the cupola of the new Sacristy to San
+Lorenzo was soon finished. Great political confusion now ensued, and
+little can be said of Michael Angelo as a sculptor until 1530, when he
+again resumed his work on the Sacristy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<img src="images/illus107.jpg" width="326" height="600" alt="Fig. 107" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 107.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Giuliano de' Medici</span>.<br /><i>By Michael Angelo.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He worked with the greatest industry and rapidity, and in a few months
+had nearly finished the four colossal figures which rest upon the
+sarcophagi of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici. The pope was forced to
+command the sculptor to rest. His health was so broken by the sorrow
+which the political condition of Florence caused him, and by his anxiety
+about the mausoleum of Julius, that there was much danger of his killing
+himself with work and worry. He went to Rome, and matters were more
+satisfactorily arranged. He returned to Florence, and labored there
+until 1534, when Clement VII. died, and Michael Angelo left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> his work
+in San Lorenzo, never to resume it. Unfinished as these sculptures are,
+they make a grand part of the wonderful works of this great man. The
+statues of the two Medici and those of Morning, Evening, Day, and Night
+would be sufficient to establish the fame of an artist if he had done
+nothing more. (Fig. 107.)</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Under the new pope, Paul III., he was constantly employed as a painter,
+and architectural labors were put upon him, so that as a sculptor we
+have no more works of his to mention except an unfinished group which
+was in his studio at the time of his death. It represents the dead
+Christ upon his mother's lap, with Joseph of Arimathea standing by. This
+group is now in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Cathedral of
+Florence. The mausoleum of Julius II. caused Michael Angelo and others
+so much trouble and vexation that the whole affair came to be known as
+the "tragedy of the sepulchre." When Julius first ordered it he intended
+to place it in St. Peter's, but in the end it was erected in the Church
+of San Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been the titular cardinal.
+Of all the monument but three figures can really be called the work of
+Michael Angelo. These are the Leah and Rachel upon the lower stage, and
+the Moses, which is one of the most famous statues in the world. Paul
+III., with eight cardinals, once visited the studio of the sculptor when
+he was at work upon this statue, and they declared that this alone was
+sufficient for the pope's monument (Fig. 108).</p>
+
+<p>The life of Michael Angelo was a sad one; indeed, it is scarcely
+possible to recount a more pathetic story than was his. The misfortunes
+which came to the Medici were sharp griefs to him, and his temperament
+was such that he could not forget his woes. His family, too, looked to
+him for large sums of money, and while he lived most frugally they spent
+his earnings. In his old age he said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived
+like a poor man."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;">
+<img src="images/illus108.jpg" width="383" height="600" alt="Fig. 108" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 108.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Statue of Moses</span>.<br /><i>By Michael Angelo.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1529, when Florence was under great political excitement, Michael
+Angelo was appointed superintendent of all the fortifications of the
+Florentine territory. In the midst of his duties he became aware of
+facts which determined him to fly. He went to Venice, and was proscribed
+as a rebel. We cannot stay here to inquire as to his wisdom in this, but
+must go on to say that at length he was so much needed that he was
+persuaded to return. Then he had the dreadful experiences of hope and
+fear, sickness and famine, and all the horrors of a siege, only to see
+his beloved home deprived of its freedom, and in the possession of those
+whom he despised and hated. To Michael Angelo this was far more bitter
+than any personal sorrow; he never recovered from its effects, and it
+was immediately after this that he worked in the Sacristy of San Lorenzo
+as if trying to kill himself.</p>
+
+<p>He was bold as he was angry. He was treated kindly, and advised to
+forget the past; but he never concealed his views. When his statue of
+Night was exhibited, verses were put upon it, according to the custom of
+the time; one verse read, "Night, whom you see slumbering here so
+charmingly, has been carved by an angel, in marble. She sleeps, she
+lives; waken her, if you will not believe it, and she will speak."</p>
+
+<p>To this Michael Angelo replied, "Sleep is dear to me, and still more
+that I am stone, so long as dishonor and shame last among us; the
+happiest fate is to see, to hear nothing; for this reason waken me not.
+I pray you, speak gently." He had great courage to speak his anger thus
+publicly in the midst of those who could easily destroy him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1537 or 1538 his father died, and the artist suffered terribly from
+his grief. He wrote a sonnet beginning:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"Already had I wept and sighed so much.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">I thought all grief forever at an end,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Exhaled in sighs, shed forth in bitter tears."</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The religious views of Michael Angelo were very broad, and he had a
+trustful and obedient dependence upon God, in whose mercy and love he
+gratefully rested with the simple faith of a child. It was not far from
+the time when his father died that Michael Angelo first met Vittoria
+Colonna. He was now more than sixty years old; and though his poems show
+that he had loved children and women all his life, yet he had allowed
+himself no attachments; his life had been lonely and alone. Now, at this
+late hour, he yielded his heart to this beautiful, gifted woman, who
+returned his friendship with the fullest esteem. During these years he
+was happier than he had ever been. But in 1541 she fell under the
+suspicion of the Inquisition, and was obliged to leave Rome.</p>
+
+<p>During two years they wrote constantly to each other, and each sent to
+the other the sonnets they wrote. At this time all Italy read the poems
+of Vittoria, and those of Michael Angelo still stand the test of time.
+In them he shows the blessed effect of her influence over him. At length
+she returned to Rome and entered a convent, where she died in 1547.
+Michael Angelo was with her to the last, and years later he declared
+that he regretted nothing so much as that he had only kissed her hand,
+and not her forehead or cheeks in that last hour. His loss was far too
+great to be told. (An engraving of a portrait of Michael Angelo can be
+seen in Mrs. Clement's "Painting," p. 95.)</p>
+
+<p>In the year following Vittoria's death all the hopes which he had
+cherished for the freedom of Florence were crushed. High honors were
+offered him to induce him to return there, but he would not go. His
+health failed, his sadness increased, and his writings show how
+constantly he mourned for Vittoria. After this he did much work as an
+architect, and held the post of director of the building of St. Peter's.
+He superintended the erection of the statue of Marcus Aurelius, and
+completed the Farnese Palace, and had many improvements in mind.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, in his old age, he was authority itself in Rome. He had no rival,
+and his advice was sought by artists as well as others. He lived very
+simply: he dined alone, and received his visitors in the plainest
+manner. Anatomy, which had always been a passion with him, was now his
+chief pursuit. He made many dissections of animals, and was grateful
+when a human subject could be allowed him.</p>
+
+<p>When he could not sleep he would get up at night and work upon the group
+of which we have spoken; he had a cap with a candle in it, so that it
+cast a light upon his work. Vasari once entered when he was at work upon
+this group, and had a lantern in his hand; he dropped it purposely, so
+that the sculpture should not be seen, and said: "I am so old that death
+often pulls me by the coat to come to him, and some day I shall fall
+down like this lantern, and my last spark of life will be extinguished."</p>
+
+<p>There are many very interesting circumstances told of his last years and
+his strength of mind, and the work which he did was wonderful; but we
+have not space to recount it here.</p>
+
+<p>At length, in February, 1564, when almost ninety years old, he died. He
+had asked to be buried in Florence. His friends feared that this would
+be opposed, so they held burial-services in Rome, and his body was
+afterward carried through the gates as merchandise. In Florence the body
+was first laid in San Piero Maggiore, and on Sunday, at evening, the
+artists assembled, and forming a procession, proceeded to Santa Croce,
+where he was buried. The younger artists bore the bier upon their
+shoulders, and the older ones carried torches to light the way. A great
+multitude followed the procession, and in the Sacristy of Santa Croce
+the coffin was opened; though three weeks had passed since his death,
+his face appeared as if he had just died; the crowd was very great, but
+all was quiet, and before morning it had dispersed. The Duke had thought
+that a public funeral would recall old memories, and might cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> a
+disturbance; but Michael Angelo had left Florence thirty years before
+his death, and his connection with the city was forgotten by many.</p>
+
+<p>The July following was appointed for a memorial service in his honor;
+San Lorenzo was splendidly decorated; Varchi delivered an oration.
+Leonardo, his nephew, erected a monument to him in Santa Croce, for
+which the Duke gave the marble. His statue stands in the court of the
+Uffizi with those of other great Florentines, but with no especial
+prominence. His house in the Ghibelline Street is preserved as a museum,
+and visitors there see many mementos of this great man.</p>
+
+<p>In 1875 a grand festival was held in Florence to celebrate the four
+hundredth anniversary of his birth. The ceremonies were impressive, and
+certain documents relating to his life which had never been opened, by
+command of the king, were given to suitable persons for examination. Mr.
+Heath Wilson, an English artist, then residing at Florence, wrote a new
+life of Michael Angelo, and the last signature which Victor Emmanuel
+wrote before his death was upon the paper which conferred on Mr. Wilson
+the Order of the <i>Corona d'Italia</i>, given as a recognition of his
+services in writing this book.</p>
+
+<p>The national pride in Michael Angelo is very strong. "All Italians feel
+that he occupies the third place by the side of Dante and Raphael, and
+forms with them a triumvirate of the greatest men produced by their
+country&mdash;a poet, a painter, and one who was great in all arts. Who would
+place a general or a statesman by their side as equal to them? It is art
+alone which marks the prime of nations."</p>
+
+<p>The genius of Michael Angelo and his spirit were powerful forces. They
+pervaded the whole art of Italy to such an extent that it may be said
+that all sculptors were his imitators, both while he lived and after his
+death. He loved to treat strong subjects, such as demanded violent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+movement and unusual positions. It was only a man of his genius who
+could raise such subjects above grotesqueness and the one effect of
+strange and unnatural exaggeration. As we look over all his works it
+seems as if the idea of beauty and such things as are pleasing to the
+ordinary mind rarely, if ever, came to his mind. Noble feeling, depth of
+thought, strength, and grandeur are the associations which we have with
+him, and in the hands of weaker men, as his imitators were, these
+subjects became barren, hollow displays of distorted limbs and soulless
+heads and faces.</p>
+
+<p>The result is, that there is little to be said of the immediate
+followers of this great man. <span class="smcap">Guglielmo della Porta</span> was one of his most
+able scholars, and his chief work was a monument to Pope Paul III. in
+the Church of St. Peter's. The figure of the pope is in bronze, is
+seated, and holding the right hand in benediction. It is dignified and
+well designed. The figures of Justice and Prudence are not as good, and
+two others, Peace and Abundance, which were a part of this work, but are
+now in the Farnese Palace, lack power, and show an attempt at a
+representation of mere physical beauty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Baccio Bandinelli</span> (1487-1559) is more noticeable for his hatred of
+Michael Angelo than for any other characteristic. He was a native of
+Florence and a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. He was powerful in his
+design and bold in his treatment of his subjects, but he was full of
+affectation and mannerisms in his execution of his works. He was false
+and envious, and his one good quality was that of industry. His best
+works are on the screen of the high-altar in the Cathedral of Florence,
+a relief on a pedestal in the Piazza of San Lorenzo, in Florence, and a
+group in the Church of the Annunziata, which he intended for his own
+monument; the subject is Nicodemus supporting Christ, and the Nicodemus
+is a portrait of Bandinelli himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-rabbitdog.jpg" width="500" height="76" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Not only Italian artists attempted to follow the great sculptor of
+Italy, but those of other nations flocked to Rome, and whatever ideas
+they may have had before reaching that city they seemed to lose them all
+and to aim simply at one thing&mdash;to be Michaelangeloesque.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni da Bologna</span> (1529-1608) was born in Douai, in Flanders, and was
+called Il Fiammingo for this reason. Giovanni was intended for a notary
+by his father, who planned his education with that end in view; but the
+boy's passion for sculpture was so great that the father was obliged to
+yield to it, and placed him under the instruction of a sculptor named
+Beuch, who had studied in Italy. Later Giovanni went to Rome, and
+finally settled in Florence, where his most important works remain.</p>
+
+<p>He was an imitator of Michael Angelo, and one of his best imitators; but
+when his works are compared with those of the great master, or with the
+masterpieces of the fifteenth century, we see a decline in them. In
+religious subjects Giovanni was not at home; his most successful works
+were those which represented sentiment or abstract ideas, because on
+them he could lavish his skill in execution, and use ornaments that did
+not suit the simplicity of religious subjects. In the Loggia de' Lanzi,
+at Florence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> there are two groups by him, the Rape of the Sabines and
+Hercules and Nessus. In the Piazza della Signoria is his excellent
+statue of Duke Cosmo I., and in the Uffizi Gallery a bronze statue of
+Mercury. The Rape of the Sabines is his masterpiece, and the Mercury is
+one of the best works of its kind since the days of classic art. It is
+the favorite Mercury of the world, and has been frequently copied. It is
+seen in many galleries and collections in its original size, and a small
+copy is much used in private houses. (Fig. 109.)</p>
+
+<p>Giovanni was especially happy in his designs for fountains, and that
+which he erected in Bologna, in 1564, in front of the Palazzo Pubblico,
+is a splendid work of this kind. The statue of Neptune at its summit is
+stately and free in its action; the children are charming and life-like,
+and the Sirens at the base give an harmonious finish and complete the
+outline with easy grace.</p>
+
+<p>He also erected a magnificent fountain in the island of the Boboli
+Gardens. In the Palazzo Vecchio is a marble group by Giovanni
+representing Virtue conquering Vice. At Petraja there is a beautiful
+Venus crowning a fountain remarkable for grace and delicacy, and, all in
+all, his works prove him to have been the best sculptor of his own time.
+Tuscany may claim him and be proud of him, for he was far more her son
+than that of his native Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>Giovanni da Bologna was far less successful in reliefs than in statues,
+as may be seen in the bronze gates to the Cathedral of Pisa, which he
+made in the last years of his life. In his character this master was
+attractive and much beloved by his friends. One of them wrote of him:
+"The best fellow in the world, not in the least covetous, as he shows by
+his poverty; filled with a love of glory, and ambitious of rivalling
+Michael Angelo."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;">
+<img src="images/illus109.jpg" width="228" height="600" alt="Fig. 109" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 109.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mercury</span>.<br /><i>By Giovanni da Bologna.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Giovanni decorated a chapel in the Church of the Annunziata with several
+reliefs in bronze and with a crucifix;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> he not only wished to be buried
+here himself, as he was, but he also desired to provide a place of
+burial for any of his countrymen who might die in Florence. The chapel
+is called that of the Madonna del Soccorso.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The decline of sculpture in Italy at this period makes its study so
+unpromising that it is a pleasure to turn to France, where the works of
+<span class="smcap">Jean Goujon</span> show that he had the true idea of sculpture in relief. From
+1555 to 1562 this sculptor was employed on the works at the Louvre, and
+during the massacre of St. Bartholomew he was shot while on a scaffold
+quietly working at a bas-relief on that palace.</p>
+
+<p>Goujon was an architect as well as a sculptor, and also a medal
+engraver, as is shown by the curious and rare medal which he made for
+Catherine de' Medici. Many of his works are preserved in different parts
+of France, and some bas-reliefs in the Museum of the Louvre are
+excellent specimens of his style.</p>
+
+<p>One also sees in France many works by <span class="smcap">Germain Pilon</span>, who died in 1590.
+He executed the monument to Francis I., and took a part in that of Henry
+II. and Catherine de' Medici at the Church of St. Denis. He was the
+sculptor of the group of the three Graces in the Louvre, which formerly
+bore an urn containing the heart of Henry II., and was in the Church of
+the Celestines.</p>
+
+<p>But the sculptors of France at this time are not of such interest as to
+hold our attention long. There was a certain amount of spirit in their
+decorations of palaces and tombs, but there were no men of great genius,
+and no splendid works upon which we can dwell with pleasure or profit.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, too, while there was much activity in sculpture, and public
+fountains and luxurious palaces and rich ornaments employed many
+artists, yet there was no originality or freshness in these works, and
+they fell below those of the past. Bronzes are still made at Nuremberg,
+but they only serve to make one regret that they are so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> inferior to
+those of earlier days; and nowhere in all Germany does any one artist
+stand out and present a man to be studied in his works or remembered as
+one of the gifted of the earth. And yet a list of the names of German
+sculptors of this time would be very long, for all over the land
+churches were being decorated, monuments built, and statues and
+fountains erected.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus110.jpg" width="500" height="497" alt="Fig. 110" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 110.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Relief by Berruguete</span>.<br /><i>Valladolid.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In England the best sculpture of the sixteenth century was seen in the
+portrait statues on monuments, and we find no great artists there of
+whom to give an account.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>In Spain <span class="smcap">Alonso Berruguete</span> (1480-1561), who was the most eminent artist
+of his time, had introduced the Italian manner. He went to Italy about
+1503, and studied in Rome and Florence during seventeen years. This was
+at the time when Italian sculpture was at the height of its excellence;
+and Berruguete returned to Spain filled with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> the purest and best
+conceptions of what art should be, and the ends it should serve. He has
+been called the Michael Angelo of Spain, because he was an architect,
+painter, and sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to Spain he was appointed painter and sculptor to
+Charles V. Among his most celebrated works in sculpture are the reliefs
+in the choir of the Cathedral at Toledo; the altar in the Church of San
+Benito el Real at Valladolid (Fig. 110), for which he was paid
+forty-four hundred ducats, and his sculptures in the Collegio Mayor at
+Salamanca. His final work was a monument to the Cardinal and Grand
+Inquisitor, Don Juan de Tavera, which is in the Church of the Hospital
+of St. John at Toledo. The sarcophagus is ornamented by reliefs from the
+story of John the Baptist, which are executed in an excellent manner,
+simple and expressive.</p>
+
+<p>Other Spanish sculptors were <span class="smcap">Esteban Jordan</span>, an eminent wood-carver,
+<span class="smcap">Gregorio Hernandez</span> (1566-1636), who has been called "the sculptor of
+religion." His works are so full of a spirit of devotion that they seem
+to have been executed under an inspiration. Hernandez was very devout in
+his life, and did many works of charity; he often provided decent burial
+for the very poor who died without friends who could bury them.</p>
+
+<p>Many of his works have been removed from the chapels for which they were
+designed, and are now in the Museum of Valladolid, where they are not as
+effective as when placed in their original positions. He is superior to
+other Spanish sculptors in his representation of nude figures and in the
+grandeur of his expression.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juan de Juni</span> (died 1614) studied in Italy, and acquired much mannerism;
+his works are seen in Valladolid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juan Martinez Monta&ntilde;es</span> (died 1650) was a famous sculptor, and excelled
+in figures of children and cherubs. His conceptions had much beauty and
+depth of feeling, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> his draperies were most graceful; and to this
+power of thinking out clearly and well the subject he wished to
+represent he added the ability to do his work in an artistic manner, and
+to give it an elegance of finish without taking away its strength. A
+Conception by him, in the Cathedral of Seville, is a noble work, and in
+the university church of the same city there is an altar which is one of
+his important works. Other sculptures by Monta&ntilde;es are in the Museum of
+Seville.</p>
+
+<p>The great <span class="smcap">Alonso Cano</span> (1601-1667) was a pupil of Monta&ntilde;es in sculpture,
+and, like so many other artists of his time, was a painter and architect
+as well as a sculptor. His personal history is very peculiar. He was a
+man of violent temper, and was often involved in serious quarrels. He
+was obliged to flee from Granada to Madrid on account of a duel, and
+when his wife was found murdered in her bed he was suspected of the
+crime. In spite of all this he took priest's orders, and was appointed
+to a canonry in the Cathedral of Granada; but on account of his temper
+he was deprived of this office by the chapter of the cathedral. He was
+so angry at this that he would do no more work for the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>He devoted the remainder of his life to religious and charitable works.
+He gave away the money he earned as soon as he received it, and when he
+had no money to give away he was in the habit of making drawings, which
+he signed and marked with a suitable price; these he gave to the person
+he desired to assist, and recommended some person to whom application to
+buy the work could be made. After his death a large number of these
+charitable works was collected.</p>
+
+<p>He hated Jews with such hatred that he could not endure to look at one,
+and many strange stories are told of him in connection with these
+people.</p>
+
+<p>He loved his chisel better than his brush, and was ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>customed to say
+that when weary he carved for rest. One of his pupils expressed great
+surprise at this, when Cano answered, "Blockhead, don't you perceive
+that to create form and relief on a flat surface is a greater service
+than to fashion one shape into another?"</p>
+
+<p>The most beautiful sculpture by Cano which remains is a Virgin about a
+foot high in the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Granada, where there are
+several other statuettes by him. These are colored in a manner which the
+Spaniards call "estofado;" it has the effect to soften the whole
+appearance of the works, like an enamel. At the entrance of the choir of
+the cathedral there are two colossal busts by Cano; they are grand
+works, and are called Adam and Eve.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pedro Roldan</span> (1624-1700), born at Seville, is an interesting sculptor
+because of his work, and on account of his being the last one whose
+manner was like that of Juni and Hernandez. His first celebrated work
+was the high-altar in the chapel of the Biscayans in the Franciscan
+convent. When the Caridad, or Hospital of Charity, was restored, Roldan
+executed the last great work in painted sculpture; it was an immense
+piece for the centre of the retablo of the high-altar of the church, and
+represented the Entombment of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Seville abounds in his works, and he executed bas-reliefs in stone for
+the exterior of the Cathedral at Jaen. He was so devoted to his art that
+he felt every moment to be lost that was not spent in its service. He
+married a lady of good family, and lived in the country; when obliged to
+go to Seville he was accustomed to carry a lump of clay, and model from
+it as he rode along. Roldan was not by any means the best of Spanish
+sculptors, but he had great skill in the composition of his works, and
+the draperies and all the details were carefully studied. His daughter,
+Do&ntilde;a Luisa Roldan, studied sculpture under her father's instruction, and
+became a good artist; he was accustomed to allow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> her to superintend her
+studio and his pupils. She often aided him by her suggestions, and on
+one occasion, when a statue that he had made was rejected, she pointed
+out to him certain anatomical defects, which he remedied, and the whole
+appearance of the work was so changed that it was thought to be new, and
+was accepted for the place for which it had been ordered.</p>
+
+<p>The works executed by Do&ntilde;a Luisa were principally small figures of the
+Virgin, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and kindred subjects. Several of
+these were presented to King Charles II., and he was so pleased by them
+that he ordered a life-size statue of St. Michael for the Church of the
+Escorial. She executed this to his satisfaction, and he then appointed
+her sculptress in ordinary to the king. She died at Madrid in 1704,
+surviving her father but four years. She left works in various convents
+and churches.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century a new era in
+sculpture was inaugurated. Art was now required to serve the Church in
+the way of appealing to sentiments and feeling in a far coarser and more
+sensational a manner than formerly. Painting was suited to these
+purposes far more than sculpture, and it had been raised to great
+heights, in Spain, by Murillo, in the North by Rubens and his followers,
+and in Italy by numerous masters.</p>
+
+<p>L&uuml;bke says of this period: "All that was now demanded of art was effect
+and feeling at any price. The one was attained through the other. A
+passionate excitement pulsates throughout all artistic works; the ideal
+repose of the former altar-pieces no longer satisfied. Longing,
+devotional ardor, passionate rapture, enthusiastic ecstasy&mdash;these are
+the aims of the new art. No longer the solemn dignity of the saint, but
+the nervous visions of enraptured monks, are its ideal. It delights in
+thrilling delineations of martyrdom, seeking to render such scenes as
+effective and touching as possible. A desire for substantial power, a
+political-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>religious tendency, had taken possession of art, and had
+adapted it to its own objects. That, under such circumstances, painting
+reaches a new and truly artistic importance may be traced above all to
+the great masters who now cultivated the art, and still more to the tone
+of the age, which promoted it in a rare measure.... The same spirit,
+however, which imparted such genuine importance to painting produced the
+ruin of sculpture. This epoch, more than any other, is a proof that the
+greatest men of talent, appearing in a perverted age, are carried by
+their very genius all the more certainly to ruin. All that, in a more
+favorable period, would have raised them to be stars in the art
+firmament, now made them fall like some <i>ignis fatuus</i>, the brilliant
+light of which owes its illusory existence only to miasma. This striking
+fact appears, at first sight, inexplicable; but it is easy to
+understand, if we consider the different character of the two arts.
+Plastic art had formerly emulated painting, and thus, especially in
+relief, had suffered unmistakable injury to its own peculiar nature. At
+that time, however, painting itself was full of architectural severity
+and plastic nobleness of form. Now, when everything depended on striking
+effect and speaking delineation of passionate emotions, it was compelled
+to have recourse to naturalistic representation, to freer arrangements
+and to more striking forms that emulated reality. If, however,
+sculpture, which could not keep pace with its rival in the enamelled
+coloring and mysterious charm of the <i>chiaro-oscuro</i> which it brought
+into the field, would, in anywise, do the same as painting, it was
+compelled to plunge regardlessly into the same naturalism of forms and
+into the same bold display of passion with which painting produced such
+grand effects. And this sculpture did without the slightest scruple, and
+in this lack of an artistic conscience its whole glory perished. It is
+true in this passion for excited compositions an excess of splendid
+works were pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>duced; it is true immense resources were expended, and
+able artists were employed; but such inner hollowness stares at us with
+inanimate eye from the greater number of these works that we turn from
+them with repugnance, and even often with disgust."</p>
+
+<p>The artist who first met this new demand upon sculpture, and may be
+called the founder of a new style, was <span class="smcap">Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini</span>
+(1598-1680), a very gifted man. When but ten years old this remarkable
+genius was known as a prodigy in art, and it was at this early age that
+his father took him to Rome. Pope Paul V. was soon interested in him,
+and Cardinal Barberini assisted him in his studies; from this fortunate
+beginning all through his life good fortune attended his steps. He lived
+through the pontificate of nine popes, and was always in favor with the
+reigning head of the Church. This gave him the opportunity to fill Rome
+with his works, and he imprinted himself upon the art of the Eternal
+City; no artist since the time of Michael Angelo held such sway, and
+Bernini acquired his power easily, while the grand Michael Angelo was
+disputed at every step, and fought a long, hard battle before he was
+allowed to take the place which was so clearly his by right.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of Bernini extended to other lands, and he was invited to
+France, where he went when sixty-eight years old, accompanied by one of
+his sons and a numerous retinue. He was loaded with favors, and received
+large sums of money and many valuable presents. In Rome, too, he was
+much favored; he held several church benefices, and his son was made a
+Canon of Santa Maria Maggiore; and it was in this church that Bernini
+was buried with great magnificence, as became his position and his
+wealth, for he left the immense fortune of four hundred thousand Roman
+crowns.</p>
+
+<p>Bernini had great versatility of talent, a remarkable imagination and
+power of conceiving his subjects clearly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> and, more than all, he had
+marvellous power of execution and compelling his marble to show forth
+his thought. It has been said that marble was like wax or clay beneath
+his hand. He was subject to no rules; indeed, he believed that an artist
+must set aside all rules if he would excel. This sounds very
+fascinating, but a study of Bernini's works will show that it is a
+deceitful maxim. A man of small talent could do nothing in this way, and
+even Bernini, who without doubt had great gifts, often failed to make up
+in any way for the sins against rules of which he was guilty.
+Westmacott, in his writing upon sculpture, says it would have been
+better for art if Bernini had never lived; and it is true that in his
+struggle for effect he was an injury rather than a benefit to the art of
+his own day and the succeeding years.</p>
+
+<p>The worst defect in the sculpture of Bernini is his treatment of the
+human body. At times he exaggerates the muscular power beyond all
+resemblance to nature, and again he seems to leave out all anatomy and
+soften the body to a point that far exceeds possibility. This softness
+is seen in his Apollo and Daphne, which shows the moment when she is
+suddenly changed into a laurel-tree in order to escape the pursuit of
+the young god. This group is in the Villa Borghese, at Rome; it was
+executed when Bernini was but eighteen years old, and near the close of
+his life he declared that he had made little progress after its
+production.</p>
+
+<p>But he reached the height of this objectionable manner in his
+representation of the Rape of Proserpine, which is in the Villa
+Ludovisi. The Pluto is a rough, repulsive man, with whom no association
+of a god can be made, and the Proserpine is made a soulless, sensual
+figure, so far from attractive in a pure sense that we are almost
+willing that Pluto should carry her to some region from which she is not
+likely to come back. At the same time we are sorry not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> provide her
+with an ointment for the blue marks which the big hands of Pluto are
+making on her soft flesh. The plain truth is, that this work makes a low
+and common thing of a subject which could be so treated as to be a
+"thing of beauty" in a charming sense. (Fig. 111.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;">
+<img src="images/illus111.jpg" width="199" height="400" alt="Fig. 111" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 111.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rape of Proserpine</span>.<br /><i>By Bernini.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Bernini executed a statue of St. Bibiana for the church of that saint at
+Rome, and one of St. Longinus in one of the niches to the dome of St.
+Peter's; he also made the designs for the one hundred and sixty-two
+statues in the colonnades of St. Peter's, and for the decorations of the
+bridge of St. Angelo; in such works, almost without exception, he chose
+some moment in the lives of the persons represented that called for a
+striking attitude and gave an opportunity for an effect that is often
+theatrical. As a mere decoration such statues have a certain value of an
+inferior sort; but as works of art, as intellectual efforts, they are
+worthless. However, this decorative effect, as it is seen on the fa&ccedil;ade
+of the Lateran, where the figures stand out against the sky, or on the
+bridge of St. Angelo, is not by any means to be despised; only we cannot
+call a sculptor a great artist when he can do nothing finer than this.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Some of Bernini's works in which he shows intense suffering have more
+genuine feeling, and are finer in artistic qualities. One of these is
+Piet&agrave;, in the chapel of St. Andreas Corsini in the Lateran. But he
+frequently goes beyond the bounds of good taste, as, for example, on the
+monument to Pope Urban VIII., in St. Peter's, where he represents Death
+with his bony hand writing the inscription on the panel; this is truly
+terrible, and not less so is another Death upon the monument of
+Alexander VII., raising the marble curtain before the entrance to the
+vault, as if he were inviting one to walk in. Many objections can be
+made to his draperies. He exaggerated the small curtains seen on some
+ancient tombs until they were huge objects of ugliness; the drapery upon
+his figures is so prominently treated that instead of being a minor
+object it sometimes seems like the principal one; it no longer serves to
+conceal forms, and at the same time show their grace and motion, but it
+is inflated, fluttering, grotesque in form and quite absurd when
+compared with statues in which it answers its true purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I. of England heard so much of Bernini that he desired to have a
+statue of himself executed by this sculptor; three of Vandyck's
+portraits of the king were sent to him, and the likeness of the statue
+was so satisfactory to the monarch that he sent the artist six thousand
+crowns and a ring worth as much more.</p>
+
+<p>Bernini executed a colossal equestrian statue of Constantine for the
+portico of St. Peter's; he made another of Louis XIV., which was changed
+into a Marcus Curtius, and sent to Versailles. He also executed the
+fountain in the Piazza Navona, at Rome, which is one of his exaggerated
+works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois Duquesnoy</span> (1594-1646) was born at Brussels, and was known in
+Rome as Il Fiammingo. The Archduke Albert sent him to Rome to study, and
+he was a contemporary of Bernini. When his patron died Duques<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>noy was
+left without means, and was forced to carve small figures in ivory for
+his support. His figures of children, which were full of life and
+child-like expression, became quite famous. An important work of his in
+this way is the fountain of the Manneken-Pis, at Brussels.</p>
+
+<p>His masterpiece is a colossal statue of St. Andrew in the Church of St.
+Peter's; it occupied him five years, and is one of the best works of
+modern art. His statue of St. Susanna in the Church of Santa Maria di
+Loreto, in Rome, is simple and noble, and is much admired. Little is
+known of this artist's life, and it is said that he was poisoned by his
+brother when on his way to France.</p>
+
+<p>There was a goodly company of sculptors following Bernini, but none
+whose works or life was of sufficient importance or interest to demand
+our attention here, and we will pass to the sculpture of France, where
+the arts were less devoted to the service of the Church and more to the
+uses of kings, princes, and noblemen. The court of France was devoted to
+pomp and pleasure, and sculpture was used for the glorification of the
+leaders in all its follies. In one sense this is more agreeable than the
+art in Italy which we have been considering, for nothing can be more
+disagreeable than a false religious sentiment in art; it is only when
+the artist is filled with true devotion and feels deeply in his own soul
+all that he tries to express in his work that religious representations
+can appeal to us agreeably or benefit us by their influence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simon Guillain</span> (1581-1658) is especially interesting as the sculptor of
+the statue of Louis XIV. as a boy, which is in the Louvre; those of his
+parents are also there; formerly they decorated the Pont au Change.
+Other works by this master are in the same museum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jacques Sarrazin</span> (1588-1660) is only known by his works, which are now
+in the Louvre, of which a bronze bust of the Chancellor Pierre S&eacute;guier
+is worthy of notice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois Anguier</span> (1604-1669) was born at Eu, in Normandy, and was the
+son of a carpenter, who taught his son to carve in wood at an early age.
+When still quite young Fran&ccedil;ois went to Paris to study, and later to
+Rome. He became one of the first artists of his time in France, and was
+a favorite of the king, Louis XIII., who made him keeper of the gallery
+of antiquities, and gave him apartments in the Louvre. Most of his
+important works were monuments to illustrious men. His copies of antique
+sculptures were very fine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Michel Anguier</span> (1612-1686) was a brother of the preceding, with whom he
+studied until they both went to Rome. Michel remained there ten years,
+and was employed with other artists in St. Peter's and in some palaces.
+In 1651 he returned to Paris, and assisted Fran&ccedil;ois in the great work of
+the tomb of the Duke de Montmorenci at Moulins.</p>
+
+<p>Michel executed a statue of Louis XIII., which was cast in bronze. He
+adorned the apartments of Queen Anne of Austria in the Louvre, and for
+her executed the principal sculptures in the Church of Val de Grace; a
+Nativity in this church is his best work. His sculptures are seen in
+various churches, and he also executed statues of ancient gods and vases
+for garden ornaments. He was a professor in the Academy of Arts in
+Paris, and wrote lectures on sculpture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois Girardon</span> (1630-1715), born at Troyes, was a <i>prot&eacute;g&eacute;</i> of the
+Chancellor S&eacute;guier. Louis XIV. gave him a pension, by which he was
+enabled to study in Rome, and after his return to France the king gave
+him many commissions. The monument to Cardinal Richelieu in the Church
+of the Sorbonne is from the hand of this sculptor. Perhaps his
+best-known work is the Rape of Proserpine at Versailles. He made an
+equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in the Revolution;
+a model of it in bronze is in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the Louvre. His bust of Boileau is a
+strong, fine work. Many of his sculptures were destroyed by the
+revolutionists.</p>
+
+<p>A devoted follower of Bernini was <span class="smcap">Pierre Puget</span> (1622-1694). His works
+are seen at the Louvre and at Versailles. His group of Milo of Crotona
+endeavoring to free himself from the claws of the lion is full of life
+and is natural, but the subject is too repulsive to be long examined;
+his Perseus liberating Andromeda is more agreeable, and is noble in its
+forms and animated in expression. His Alexander and Diogenes is in
+relief, and is effective and picturesque.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antoine Coysevox</span> (1640-1720) was born at Lyons, and manifested his
+artistic talent very early in life. Before he was seventeen years old he
+had distinguished himself by a statue of the Virgin, and progressed
+rapidly in his studies, which he made in Paris. In 1667 he was engaged
+by Cardinal Furstenburg to go to Alsace to decorate his palace; this
+occupied him four years. When he again went to Paris he became a very
+eminent artist. He executed a statue of Louis XIV., and received a
+commission from the province of Bretagne for an equestrian statue of the
+same monarch.</p>
+
+<p>Among his best works are the tomb of Cardinal Mazarin; the tomb of the
+great Colbert in the Church of St. Eustache; the monument of Charles le
+Brun in the Church of St. Nicolas; the statue of the great Cond&eacute;; the
+marble statue of Louis XIV., in the Church of Notre Dame, and others. In
+the tomb of Mazarin he showed fine powers of construction and excellence
+of design. The kneeling figure of the minister is a dignified statue and
+well executed; the statues in bronze of Prudence, Peace, and Fidelity,
+and the marble figures of Charity and Religion are each and all noble
+works, and free to a remarkable degree from the mannerisms and faults of
+his time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nicolas Coustou</span> (1658-1733) was a nephew and pupil of Coysevox. He took
+the grand prize at Paris, and went to Rome to study when he was
+twenty-three years old. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> made many copies of the antique. After his
+return to France he was much employed. His chief work was a colossal
+representation of the Junction of the Seine and the Marne. He also made
+for the city of Lyons a bronze statue representing the river Saone. Some
+of his sculptures are in the Church of Notre Dame.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Guillaume Coustou</span> (1678-1746), brother of Nicolas, also gained the grand
+prize and went to Rome, and on his return made a fine reputation. Much
+of his best work was for the gardens of Marly; he executed a bronze
+statue of the Rhone at Lyons; a bas-relief of Christ with the Doctors,
+at Versailles, and statues of Louis XIV. and Cardinal Dubois, in the
+Museum of French Monuments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jean Baptiste Pigalle</span> (1714-1785) is the last French sculptor of whom I
+shall speak here. He was born in Paris, and gained his first fame by a
+statue of Mercury; but his masterpiece was the tomb of Marshal Moritz of
+Saxony, in the Church of St. Thomas, at Strasburg. The soldier is
+represented in his own costume, just as he wore it in life, about to
+enter a tomb, on one side of which stands a skeleton Death, and on the
+other a mourning Hercules. A statue representing France tries to hold
+him back, and a Genius attends on him with an inverted torch. There are
+many accessories of military emblems and trophies. There have been
+several engravings made from this tomb, the best part of which is the
+figure of the Marshal.</p>
+
+<p>Pigalle was a favorite with Mme. Pompadour, of whom he made a portrait
+statue. She employed him to do many works for her. His best monument in
+Paris is that of the Comte d'Harcourt, in the Church of Notre Dame.</p>
+
+<p>In the Netherlands, as in Italy, the painting of the time had a great
+effect upon sculpture, and it was full of energy, like the pictures of
+the Rubens school; at the same time there remained traces of the
+traditions of former days, and while a great change had come since the
+days of Vischer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> there was still a firm adherence to nature, and no
+such affectations and mannerisms existed here as were seen in the works
+of Bernini and his followers in Italy and France.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 113px;">
+<img src="images/illus112.jpg" width="113" height="350" alt="Fig. 112" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.<br />Caryatide.</span><br /><i>Quellinus.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the ablest sculptors of his day was <span class="smcap">Arthur Quellinus</span>, who was
+born at Antwerp in 1607. He studied under Duquesnoy, and was especially
+happy in his manner of imagining his subjects, and of avoiding the
+imitation of others or a commonplace treatment of his own. The
+magnificent Town Hall of Antwerp was commenced in 1648, and Quellinus
+received the commission to decorate it with plastic works. His
+sculptures are numerous, both on the interior and exterior of the
+edifice. In the two pediments he introduced allegorical representations
+of the power of the city of Antwerp, especially in her commerce. These
+compositions are picturesque in their arrangement, but the treatment is
+such as belongs to sculpture; in one of these a figure which represents
+the city is enthroned like a queen, and is surrounded by fantastic
+sea-gods, who offer their homage to her. (Fig. 112.)</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We cannot give a list of many detached works by Quellinus, but one of
+the best of the old monuments in Berlin is attributed to him. It is the
+tomb of Count Sparr in the Marienkirche.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day Berlin is a city of much artistic importance, and the
+beginning of its present architectural and sculptural prominence may be
+dated at about the end of the seventeenth century, not quite two hundred
+years ago. One of the most influential artists of that time was <span class="smcap">Andreas
+Schl&uuml;ter</span> (1662-1714), who was born in Hamburg. His father was a sculptor
+of no prominence, but he took his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> son with him to Dantzig, where many
+Netherlandish artists were employed upon the buildings being constructed
+there. Andreas Schl&uuml;ter was naturally gifted, and he devoted himself to
+the study of both architecture and sculpture, at home and later in
+Italy. Before he was thirty years old he was employed in important
+affairs in Warsaw, and in 1694 he was summoned to Berlin, where he
+executed the plastic ornaments of the Arsenal; the heads of the Dying
+Warriors above the windows in the court-yard are remarkable works. They
+are very fine when regarded only as excellent examples of good
+sculpture, and they are very effective placed as they are, for they seem
+to tell the whole tragic story of what a soldier's life and fate must
+often be (Fig. 113).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/illus113.jpg" width="550" height="454" alt="Fig. 113" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.&mdash;Heads of Dying Warriors.</span><br /><i>By Schl&uuml;ter.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>However, the masterpiece of this sculptor is the equestrian statue of
+the Great Elector for the long bridge at Berlin, which was completed in
+1703 (Fig. 114). L&uuml;bke says of this: "Although biassed as regards form
+by the age which prescribed the Roman costume to ideal portraits of this
+kind, the horseman on his mighty charger is conceived with so much
+energy, he is filled with such power of will, he is so noble in bearing
+and so steady in his course, that no other equestrian statue can be
+compared with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> in fiery majesty. Equally masterly is the
+arrangement of the whole, especially the four chained slaves on the
+base, in whom we gladly pardon a certain crowding of movements and
+forms."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 462px;">
+<img src="images/illus114.jpg" width="462" height="650" alt="Fig. 114" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.&mdash;The Great Elector.</span><br /><i>By Schl&uuml;ter.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Schl&uuml;ter also made a statue of the Elector Frederic III., which is now
+in K&ouml;nigsberg. Besides his works in sculpture he was the architect of
+the royal palaces at Potsdam, Charlottenburg, and Berlin, and there are
+many sculptures by him at these places. When he was thus in an important
+position and at the height of professional prosperity he met with a sad
+misfortune, from the effects of which he never recovered. A chime of
+bells had been purchased in Holland, and Schl&uuml;ter was commissioned to
+arrange an old tower for their reception. He carried it higher than it
+had been, and was proceeding to finish it, when it threatened to fall,
+and had to be pulled down. On account of this Schl&uuml;ter was dismissed
+from his position as court architect; and though his office of sculptor
+was left to him his power was gone, and he was broken down in spirit. He
+was called to St. Petersburg by Peter the Great, and died soon after.
+Now, the verdict of judges is that he was one of the greatest artists of
+his age, and that his works, both in sculpture and architecture, belong
+to the noblest productions of his century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/dec-rabbits.jpg" width="500" height="121" alt="" title="Chapter decoration" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a
+feeble state that a true artistic work&mdash;one conceived and executed in an
+artist spirit&mdash;was not to be looked for. As in the Middle Ages, too,
+thought seemed to be sleeping. Both art and letters were largely
+prostrated to the service of those in high places; they were scarcely
+used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made
+them to be feared, and because they were feared they were flattered
+openly and despised secretly.</p>
+
+<p>But about the end of the century another spirit arose; a second
+Renaissance took place, which may be traced in literature and in art, as
+it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of
+thought everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models
+was an important one, and as before in various epochs in art the antique
+had been the "only help in time of trouble," so it proved again. In 1764
+Winckelmann published his "History of Ancient Art," in which the rich
+significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student. The
+service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be
+over-estimated, coming, as it did, at a time when the genius of art
+seemed to have turned his back upon the world, and all true inspiration
+was lost. At about the same time the monuments of Athens were recalled
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> the European world by Stuart and Revett in their architectural
+designs, and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done
+its transforming work, and artists were striving for more worthy ends
+than the favor of kings and powerful patrons. This new study of classic
+art did not show its full and best results until the Danish sculptor
+Thorwaldsen executed his works; but before his time others were striving
+for that which it was his privilege to perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers
+was the Venetian, <span class="smcap">Antonio Canova</span> (1757-1822). He was born in Possagno,
+and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters. His father died when he
+was very young, and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his
+grandfather, the old Pasino Canova, who lost no time in accustoming the
+boy to the use of the chisel, for there are cuttings in existence which
+were executed by Canova in his ninth year. Signor Giovanni Faliero dwelt
+near Possagno, and was in the habit of employing Pasino Canova
+frequently; he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he
+sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa. On these visits
+the old man was accompanied by Antonio, who soon became a favorite with
+all the family of Faliero, and a friend of the young Giuseppe.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion when Pasino and the boy attended a festival at Villa
+Faliero, the ornament for the dessert was forgotten. When the servants
+remembered it at the last moment they went to the old Pasino in
+distress, and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the
+master. The old man could do nothing for them, but the young Tonin, as
+he was called, asked for some butter, and from it quickly carved a lion.
+At table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the
+guests, and Tonin was called in to receive their praises; from this time
+the Senator Faliero<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> became his patron, and he placed the boy under the
+instruction of Giuseppe Bernardi, called Toretto, a Venetian sculptor
+who had settled at Pagnano.</p>
+
+<p>At this time Canova was twelve years old; he studied two years under
+Toretto, and made many statues and models, which are still preserved by
+the Faliero family, or in other collections. His first really original
+work was the modelling of two angels in clay; he did these during an
+absence of his master's; he placed them in a prominent place, and then
+awaited Toretto's opinion with great anxiety. When the master saw them
+he was filled with surprise, and exclaimed that they were truly
+marvellous; from these models the grandfather cut two angels in <i>pietra
+dura</i> for the high-altar at Monfumo. At this same period Canova made his
+first representations of the human form; he was accustomed to make small
+statues and give them to his friends.</p>
+
+<p>When he was fifteen years old Faliero sent for him, and received him
+into his own family. Canova wished to earn something for himself, and
+engaged to work half of the day for Giuseppe Ferrari, who was a nephew
+of his former master, Toretto. Of this time Canova afterward wrote: "I
+labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of
+my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of
+more honorable rewards." This circumstance proves how remarkable he must
+have been; it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work
+instead of paying for instruction. In Venice he was able to learn much
+from observation. He divided his time systematically, spending his
+mornings in the Academy or some gallery, his afternoons in the shop
+where he was employed, and his evenings in studies for which he had had
+no opportunity as a child.</p>
+
+<p>The first commission which was given to Canova was from the Commendatore
+Farsetti for a pair of baskets filled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> with fruit and flowers, to be
+sculptured in marble, and placed on a staircase which led to the picture
+gallery in the Farsetti Palace, where Canova spent much time in study.
+These works have no special excellence.</p>
+
+<p>After a year in Venice he went to Asolo with the Faliero family. Some
+time before this his patron had asked Canova to make for him a group of
+Orpheus and Eurydice, taking the moment when Eurydice beholds her lover
+torn away from her forever. Canova had been busy with this in his
+leisure hours in Venice, and he took with him to Asolo everything
+necessary to the work. He completed the Eurydice in his sixteenth year;
+it was life-size, and cut from <i>pietra di Costosa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With this first attempt Canova became convinced that the small models
+such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work,
+and he determined that his models should be of the size which the
+finished work would have, even when colossal.</p>
+
+<p>After this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the
+Augustine friars attached to the Church of San Stefano, in Venice.
+During the next three years he was occupied with his Orpheus and a bust
+of the Doge Renier. At this time he studied entirely from nature; he
+devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy, and after a time was
+accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from
+important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular
+instances.</p>
+
+<p>In 1776 his Orpheus was finished and exhibited, and it chanced to be at
+the annual festival of the Ascension, when the opera of Orpheus was
+brought out in Venice. Canova was accustomed to say that the praise he
+then received was "that which made him a sculptor;" and so grateful was
+he for it that later, when he became Marquis of Ischia, he chose for his
+armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols
+of Orpheus and Eurydice. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> Senator Grimani ordered a copy of the
+Orpheus, and this was the first work of Canova in Carrara marble.</p>
+
+<p>He soon found his workshop too small, and removed to one in the street
+of San Maurizio, where he remained until he left his native country. His
+next work was a statue of &AElig;sculapius, larger than life; a short time
+before his death, when he saw this statue, he sorrowfully declared that
+"his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of
+excellence in this performance of his youth." About this time he
+executed an Apollo and Daphne which was never entirely finished, and
+when twenty-two years old he completed a group of D&aelig;dalus and Icarus for
+the Senator Pisani. This was intended for an exterior decoration of his
+palace; but when it was done Pisani considered it worthy of a place in
+his gallery, already famous on account of the painting of Darius and his
+Family, by Paul Veronese, and other fine works. This may be called
+Canova's last work in Venice, as he went to Rome soon after his
+twenty-third birthday.</p>
+
+<p>The Cavaliere Zuliani was then the representative of Venice in Rome, and
+Faliero gave Canova letters to him. Zuliani was an enlightened patron of
+art, and he received the young sculptor with great kindness, and soon
+arranged to have his model of D&aelig;dalus and Icarus exhibited to the best
+artists and judges of art in Rome. We can fancy the anxiety with which
+Canova went to this exhibition; but the praise which he there received
+secured for him a place among the artists then in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important
+subject, and Zuliani was his friend in this; for he gave him the marble,
+and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value
+of the work when completed. He also gave him a workshop in the Venetian
+Palace, to which no one had access, where he could be entirely free and
+undisturbed. The subject chosen for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> group was Theseus vanquishing
+the Minotaur, and the size was to be colossal. Canova now worked with
+untiring devotion; he was often seen before the statues on Monte
+Cavallo, with sketch-book in hand, as soon as it was light enough for
+him to see, and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of
+Rome. His friends in Venice had secured for him a pension of three
+hundred ducats, which placed him above want, and he was free to devote
+himself to his Theseus, although while at work on that he made a statue
+of Apollo, which was exhibited with Angelini's Minerva, and received
+much praise.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime no one knew of the Theseus save the ambassador. When it was
+finished Zuliani prepared it for exhibition, and invited all the most
+distinguished men in Rome to an entertainment. A model of the head of
+Theseus was put in a prominent place, and the guests were busy in
+discussing it; they asked questions and expressed opinions, and when
+their interest was well awakened Zuliani said: "Come, let us end this
+discussion by seeing the original," and the statue was unveiled before
+their eyes. Canova often declared that death itself could not have been
+more terrible to him than were those moments. But he and all else were
+forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited; in
+that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere
+praise. From that day the fame of Canova was established.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
+<img src="images/illus115.jpg" width="403" height="600" alt="Fig. 115" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.&mdash;The Three Graces.</span><br /><i>By Canova.</i></span>
+</div>
+<p>Very soon he was selected to erect a monument to Clement XIV. This pope
+was a famous man; he was the collector of the Clementine Museum, the
+author of the elegant letters known by his family name of Ganganelli,
+and, above all, he was the suppressor of the Jesuits. While Canova felt
+the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to
+consult those who had conferred his pension upon him, and thus helped
+him to become the artist that he was. He went, therefore, to Venice
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> sought direction from the Senate; he was told to employ his time
+as should be most profitable to himself. He therefore gave up his studio
+in Venice, and as his patron, Zuliani, had now left Rome, he fitted up
+the studio in the Strada Babbuino, which became so well known to lovers
+of art of all nations who visited Rome. In 1787 the above monument was
+exhibited, and was much admired. An engraving was made from it and
+dedicated to Zuliani; but Canova desired to do something more worthy for
+his patron, and made a statue of Psyche as a gift to him; Zuliani
+hesitated to accept it, but finally consented to do so if Canova would
+in turn accept a number of silver medals with the Psyche on one side and
+a head of Canova on the other, which he could give to his friends. In
+the midst of all this Zuliani died, and his heirs were so angry because
+he had left works of art to the Public Library that they refused to
+carry out his plans. In the end the Psyche was bought by Napoleon and
+presented to the Queen of Bavaria.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>Canova executed a second papal monument to Pope Clement XIII. It was
+erected in St. Peter's by his nephews. The mourning genius upon it is
+frequently mentioned as one of Canova's happiest figures. The execution
+of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of
+this sculptor's life.</p>
+
+<p>Canova's fame had extended over all Europe, and he was asked to go to
+St. Petersburg, and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so;
+but he declined, and executed the monument of Admiral Emo, on a
+commission from the Venetian Senate. For this work he received a gold
+medal and an annuity for life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1798, during the revolutionary excitement at Rome, Canova went to
+Possagno, his native town. Here, in his retirement, he painted more than
+twenty pictures, which were by no means to be despised. His masterpiece
+represented the Saviour just taken from the cross, and sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>rounded by
+the Marys, St. John, Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea. This was the
+first of the many gifts which he made to this little church, by which it
+became a splendid temple and the expression of Canova's love for his
+birthplace and early home.</p>
+
+<p>After he returned to Rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his
+usual close application to work, and he went to Berlin and Vienna in
+company with Prince Rezzonico, and this so benefited him that he was
+able to resume his labors with new energy. He soon achieved a proud
+triumph, for his Perseus was placed in one of the Stanze of the Vatican
+by a public decree; this was the first modern work which had been thus
+honored.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802-1803 Napoleon requested Canova to go to Paris to model a
+portrait bust for a colossal statue; the work was finished six years
+later. In 1805 the artist went again to Vienna, where he modelled a bust
+of the Emperor of Austria; in 1810 again to Paris to prepare a model for
+the statue of Maria Louisa. With the exception of these short journeys
+he was constantly at work in his Roman studio until 1815, when he was
+sent in an official capacity to France by the pope, for the purpose of
+reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from Italy in times
+of war, and which really belonged to the patrimony of the Church. Canova
+executed his commission with rare judgment, and then continued his
+journey to England. In London he received many honors; the king gave him
+an order for a group, held several conversations with him, made him
+valuable gifts, and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope.</p>
+
+<p>Canova returned to Rome on January 5th, 1816. His entry might almost be
+called a triumphal one, for the people of Rome were so grateful for the
+restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in
+demonstrations to Canova. He had been President of St. Luke's Academy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
+before; he was now made President of the Commission to purchase works of
+art, and of the Academy of Arch&aelig;ology. In full consistory of all the
+high officers of the Church, the pope caused his name to be inscribed
+upon the "golden volume of the Capitol," and conferred upon him the
+title of Marquis of Ischia, with a pension of three thousand crowns a
+year.</p>
+
+<p>Canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of Religion, which
+should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment. He endeavored
+to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed; this
+was not done, and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the
+idea. But he determined that from this time he would devote his life and
+fortune to religion, and resolved to erect a church at Possagno, to
+adorn it with works of art, and to make it his own burial-place.</p>
+
+<p>On July 8th, 1819, Canova assembled his workmen in his native town, and
+gave them a <i>f&ecirc;te</i>; many peasant girls joined in the festivities and
+assisted in the breaking of the ground; at evening, as they all passed
+before Canova to bid him farewell, each one received a gift from him.
+Three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of
+the future church took place. An immense number of people from the
+surrounding country and from Venice were present; Canova, in his robes
+as a Knight of Christ, and wearing the insignia of other orders, led the
+procession; all who had seen Canova when a poor boy in their midst were
+much impressed by this occasion. Here, in a public manner, he
+consecrated his life and fortune to the service of God and the benefit
+of his birthplace. Every autumn Canova went to Possagno to encourage the
+workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done.
+Between these visits he worked devotedly, for he was forced to earn all
+he could in order to pay for his great undertaking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At this time he executed a statue of Washington, and was making an
+equestrian statue of Ferdinand of Naples, and in the month of May, 1822,
+went to that city, where he fell ill; he returned to Rome, and revived
+somewhat, and resumed his work. On September 17th he went to Possagno,
+in October to Villa Faliero, where, fifty years before, he had spent
+such happy days. From here he went to Venice, and on the 13th of the
+same month he died.</p>
+
+<p>Solemn services were held in the cathedral, and his remains were then
+intrusted to the priests of Possagno, who bore them to their temple,
+where he was buried on the 25th of the month; the crowd was so great
+that the oration was delivered in the open air. Canova's heart was given
+to the Academy of Venice, and an elegant little monument was erected in
+the Palace of Arts to contain this relic of the sculptor. The Venetian
+artists arranged to erect to him a monument, and chose the design which
+he himself had made for the tomb of Titian; it is in the Church of Santa
+Maria de' Frari. In Rome a statue was decreed to him, and he was
+declared the perpetual President of her chief academy.</p>
+
+<p>In personal appearance Canova was not grand or very attractive. His head
+was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders, and the loose manner in
+which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen; his forehead was a
+noble one, his hair black, and his whole manner and dress was modest and
+simple. His habits were very orderly and quiet; he rose early to work,
+and went little into public society; but he welcomed a few friends to
+dinner almost daily. He entertained them cordially, but without display,
+and led the conversation to light, cheerful topics that did not touch
+upon art, or demand mental exertion. At eleven o'clock he retired to his
+own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping. Some
+of his best drawings were made at this hour, and have been published
+with the title of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> "Pensieri," or thoughts. To describe one day was to
+give a picture of all, so regular were his habits of life.</p>
+
+<p>In his professional life he was just and generous to others, and though
+he would have no pupils, he would leave everything to advise an artist
+or visit his works. He was also a patron of art, and had executed, at
+his own expense, the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the
+Capitoline Museum.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<img src="images/illus116.jpg" width="161" height="400" alt="Fig. 116" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.&mdash;Hebe.</span><br /><i>By Canova.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>There is a story of a romance in his life. It is said that when he first
+arrived in Venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older
+than himself, who went to draw in the Farsetti Gallery. Day by day he
+watched her until she came no more; at length her attendant returned,
+and Canova inquired for her mistress; she burst into tears and answered,
+"La Signora Julia is dead." He asked no more, and never knew who Julia
+was or any circumstances of her history; but all his life he treasured
+her image, and when he endeavored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> to unite the purity of an angel with
+the earthly beauty of a woman, the remembrance of Julia was always in
+his mind.</p>
+
+<p>Canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of
+praise and the benefits of their labors while alive. Without doubt he
+was a great sculptor, and coming as he did, at a time when art was at
+its worst, he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him. But
+the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends
+and patrons. His statues lack the repose which makes the grandest
+feature of the best sculpture; his female figures have a sentimental
+sort of air that is not all we could wish, and does not elevate them
+above what we may call pleasing art. His male figures are better, more
+natural and simple, though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse
+and brutal, as in the two fencers, Kreugas and Damoxenes, or Hercules
+and Lichas. But in his religious subjects he is much finer, and in some
+of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness, while his composition
+is in the true artistic spirit. Taken on the whole, he was a wonderful
+artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud.</p>
+
+<p>Other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at Rome,
+and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm. One of these was
+<span class="smcap">Antoine Denis Chaudet</span> (1763-1810), who was born at Paris. His talent was
+so early developed that he was admitted to the Royal Academy when
+fourteen years old, and when twenty-one he gained the first prize, and
+with the royal pension went to Rome, where he remained five years. He
+soon took good rank among artists of that time, for he was a designer
+and painter as well as sculptor. He adhered strictly to the antique
+style, and attained much purity, though he was always cold in treatment.
+He was made a Professor of Sculpture in the French Academy, and made
+valuable contributions to the "Dictionary of Fine Arts."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of Peace
+in the Tuileries; a statue of Cincinnatus in the Senate Chamber; a
+statue of &OElig;dipus; a bas-relief of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, in the Mus&eacute;e Napol&eacute;on, and many busts and smaller works.</p>
+
+<p>He also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a
+fine edition of Racine, and painted a picture of &AElig;neas and Anchises in
+the Burning of Troy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Johann Heinrich Dannecker</span> (1758-1841) was born at Stuttgart. By a statue
+of Milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by Duke Charles
+Eugene, and with the royal pension he went first to Paris and then to
+Rome, where he studied seven years. He then returned to W&uuml;rtemberg, and
+was made Director of the Royal Academy, with a salary of fifteen
+thousand francs a year. During fifteen years Dannecker maintained a high
+rank in his art, but his health became so feeble that he was forced to
+see others excel him. One of his works has a wide reputation, and is
+known to many people the world over, through the generosity of Herr
+Bethmann of Frankfort, who admits visitors to his gallery, and from the
+models and pictures which have been made from it; it is the Ariadne on a
+Panther (Fig. 117).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;">
+<img src="images/illus117.jpg" width="482" height="650" alt="Fig. 117" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.&mdash;Ariadne and the Panther.</span><br /><i>By Dannecker.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature; his figures were light and
+graceful, and his heads were noble in expression. He labored eight years
+upon a figure of Christ, which belongs to the Emperor of Russia; in
+Stuttgart a nymph pouring water on Neckar Street and two nymphs on a
+reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural
+sculpture. Among his other works are a statue of Alexander, a monument
+to Count Zeppelin, a Cupid, and a Maiden lamenting a Dead Bird. Some of
+his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture; his
+portraits are noble and true to nature; the works named here are by no
+means all that he did, and we should add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> that his efforts in religious
+subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful, and a true conception of
+Christian ideas.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We come now, for the first time, to a great English sculptor. <span class="smcap">John
+Flaxman</span> (1755-1826) was born in York, but while he was still an infant
+his father removed to London, where he kept a plaster-cast shop. The boy
+began to draw and even to model very early; when but five years old he
+kept some soft wax, with which he could take an impression from any seal
+or ring or coin which pleased him. He was very delicate in health, and
+was once thought to be dead, and was prepared for burial, when animation
+returned; his parents tried to gratify all his wishes, and while a child
+he modelled a great number of figures in wax, clay, and plaster.</p>
+
+<p>By the time he was ten years old he was much stronger, and was able to
+use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and
+imagination. About this time he read "Don Quixote," and was so moved by
+the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed
+with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel; he went
+to Hyde Park and wandered about all day, not finding any one who was in
+need of his services. At night he returned home, very hungry and weary,
+to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence.</p>
+
+<p>He now spent all his time in drawing and modelling, and never had more
+than two lessons from a master; at eleven years of age he began to gain
+various prizes, and at fourteen was admitted to study at the Royal
+Academy, and gained the silver medal there that same year. About this
+time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to
+learn more of history, all of which was of great use to him in his art.
+He was also fortunate in having the friendship of Mr. Wedgwood, for whom
+he made many models. He also painted a few pictures in oil.</p>
+
+<p>Among his earliest sculptures were a group of Venus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> and Cupid and a
+monument to Mrs. Morley, who, with her baby, died at sea. Flaxman
+represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received
+by descending angels.</p>
+
+<p>In 1782 Flaxman married Miss Ann Denman, whose intelligence and love of
+art were of great assistance to her husband. In 1787 he went to Rome,
+where he remained seven years. During this time he made a group for Lord
+Bristol, representing the Fury of Athamas, from the Metamorphoses of
+Ovid; this work cost him much labor, for which he received but small
+pay; it was carried to Ireland and then to Ickworth House, in Suffolk,
+where but few people see it. In Rome Flaxman also made a group of
+Cephalus and Aurora for Mr. Thomas Hope, and the designs from Homer,
+&AElig;schylus, and Dante, which have such a world-wide fame.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 he returned to England, where he was constantly employed on
+important works until his death. We cannot give a list of his numerous
+works. Many of his monuments are seen in the churches of England. In
+Glasgow are his statues of Mr. Pitt and Sir John Moore, in bronze; in
+Edinburgh is that of Robert Burns. Flaxman executed much sculpture for
+the East Indies, one of these works being unfinished when he died. Some
+critics consider his Archangel Michael and Satan his best work; it was
+made for the Earl of Egremont, who had his life-size Apollo also.</p>
+
+<p>In 1797 Flaxman was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1800
+an Academician, and in 1810, when a Professor of Sculpture was added to
+the other professors of the Academy, he was appointed to the office. His
+lectures have been published. The friezes on the Covent Garden Theatre
+were all designed by Flaxman, and he executed the figure of Comedy
+himself. His last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of
+Buckingham Palace,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> which would have been entirely under his direction
+and partly executed by him if he had lived.</p>
+
+<p>His wife died in 1820, and her loss was a grief from which he could not
+recover; she had been a great advantage to him, and he had depended much
+upon her sympathy and counsel. Flaxman was a singularly pure man, and so
+attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Richard Westmacott succeeded Flaxman as Professor at the Royal
+Academy; he said: "But the greatest of modern sculptors was our
+illustrious countryman, John Flaxman, who not only had all the fine
+feeling of the ancient Greeks (which Canova in a degree possessed), but
+united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly
+astonishing. Though Canova was his superior in the manual part, high
+finishing, yet in the higher qualities, poetical feeling and invention,
+Flaxman was as superior to Canova as was Shakespeare to the dramatists
+of his day."</p>
+
+<p>But the perfection of the results of the study of Canova and others who
+endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the Dane,
+<span class="smcap">Bertel Thorwaldsen</span> (1770-1844), who was born in Copenhagen. The descent
+of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite
+distinct ways. Those who claim that the Norsemen discovered America
+relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born, from
+whom Thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed. The learned
+genealogists of Iceland say that his ancestors were descended from
+Harald Hildetand, King of Denmark, who, in the eighth century, was
+obliged to flee, first to Norway and then to Iceland, and that one of
+his descendants, Oluf Paa, in the twelfth century, was a famous
+wood-carver. But this much is certain: in the fourteenth century there
+lived in Southern Iceland a wealthy man, whose family and descendants
+were much hon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>ored. One of these, Thorvald Gottskalken, a pastor, had
+two sons and but a small fortune; so he sent his sons to Copenhagen,
+where one became a jeweller and died young; the other, who was a
+wood-carver, was the father of the artist, whose mother was Karen
+Gr&ouml;ulund, the daughter of a Jutland peasant.</p>
+
+<p>The father was employed in a shipyard, and carved only the rude
+ornaments of vessels and boats; but these served to lead the mind of the
+little Bertel to the art he later followed. His father could not have
+dreamed of such a future as came to his son, but he was wise enough to
+know that the boy might do more and better than he had done, and he sent
+him, when eleven years old, to the free school of the Royal Academy to
+study drawing; and very soon the works of the father showed the gain
+which the son had made, for his designs were those now used by the old
+wood-carver.</p>
+
+<p>Bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of Charlottenburg,
+and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class.
+When Bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the
+school at Charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize
+was his brother. He looked up with surprise, and blushing, said, "It is
+myself, Herr Chaplain." The priest was astounded at this, and said,
+"Herr Thorwaldsen, please to pass up to the first class."</p>
+
+<p>The boy was amazed at these honors, and from this day retained the title
+of "Herr," which gave him much distinction. When, after many years, the
+sculptor had been loaded with honors, and stood on the heights of fame,
+he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as
+that first rapture which came from the words of the Chaplain H&ouml;yer when
+he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> ambition, and
+he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness. Two years later
+he made a bas-relief of Love in Repose, which took the large silver
+medal. His father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a
+ship's carver, and Bertel made no objection to doing so; but the painter
+Abildgaard, who had been his teacher in the academy, had grown very fond
+of him, and saw how much talent he had, and could not think of his being
+but a common tradesman without deep regret. He went, therefore, to the
+old carver, and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son
+should spend half his time in study at the academy, and the other half
+in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side.</p>
+
+<p>In 1790, when twenty years old, Thorwaldsen made a medallion of the
+Princess of Denmark, which was so good a likeness that a number of
+copies was sold. A year later he gained the small gold medal of the
+academy by a bas-relief of the Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple.
+The Minister of State now became interested in the young artist, and
+measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies. His patrons
+desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures, and he
+chose that of Priam begging the Body of Hector from Achilles. Later in
+life he repeated this subject, and it is interesting to notice the
+strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of
+the first. And yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of
+Thorwaldsen's future greatness. In 1793 he gained the prize which
+entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the
+academy. The work he presented was a bas-relief of Saint Peter healing
+the Paralytic. In these works this sculptor already showed two qualities
+which remained the same through his life; in his subjects from antiquity
+he showed a Greek spirit, which has led some writers to speak of him as
+a "posthumous Greek," or a true Greek artist born after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> other Greek
+artists had died; on the other hand, when he treated religious subjects
+his spirit was like that of the best masters of the Renaissance, and
+these works remind us of Raphael. All this excellence came entirely from
+his artistic nature, for outside of that he was ignorant; he knew
+nothing of history or literature, and was never a man of culture as long
+as he lived. Outside of the work connected with his profession
+Thorwaldsen was indolent, and only acquired knowledge of other matters
+through observation or from the conversation of others.</p>
+
+<p>Although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in 1793, he did
+not leave Copenhagen until May, 1796. In the mean time he had done what
+he could to earn something: he had made designs for book-publishers,
+given lessons in drawing and modelling, and made some bust and medallion
+portraits, reliefs, and so on. The vessel in which the young sculptor
+sailed for Naples was called the Thetis, and the captain engaged to
+watch over him; the voyage was long, and all on board became fond of
+Thorwaldsen, though the captain wrote, "He is an honest boy, but a lazy
+rascal." This opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous
+amount of labor he performed. At Naples he remained for some time, and
+saw and admired all its works of art. He did not reach Rome until about
+nine months after leaving Copenhagen, but from that time his whole
+thought and life were changed. He was accustomed to say, "I was born on
+the 8th of March, 1797; before then I did not exist."</p>
+
+<p>While in Naples Thorwaldsen had been ill, and suffered from a malarial
+affection, which compelled him to be idle much of the time. But he was
+always studying the antique statues, and made many copies. Some of the
+first original works which he attempted were failures, when, at last, he
+modelled a colossal statue of Jason, which was well received by those
+who saw it, and made him somewhat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> famous in Rome (Fig. 118). Canova
+praised it, and other critics did the same; but Thorwaldsen had no
+money; the academy had supported him six years; what could he do? Quite
+discouraged, he was engaged in his preparations for leaving Rome, when
+Mr. Thomas Hope, the English banker, gave him an order for the Jason in
+marble. In an hour his life was changed. He was living in Rome not as a
+student on charity, but as an artist gaining his living. We are forced
+to add that Mr. Hope did not receive this statue until 1828, and
+Thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude; but we
+cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;">
+<img src="images/illus118.jpg" width="229" height="400" alt="Fig. 118" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.&mdash;Jason.</span><br /><i>By Thorwaldsen.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in Rome, the arch&aelig;ologist
+Zo&euml;ga; at his house the young Dane had met a beautiful Italian girl,
+Anna Maria Magnani, whom he loved devotedly. She was too ambitious to
+marry a poor sculptor, so she married a rich M. d'Uhden; but she
+persuaded Thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to
+take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should
+leave him; this was just what happened in 1803, and the sculptor
+received her into his house, where she remained sixteen years, when she
+disappears from his life. He provided an honorable marriage for their
+daughter.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In 1803 Thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the Baron von
+Schubart, the Danish Minister, who presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> the sculptor to Baron von
+Humboldt; and through the friendship of these two men, and the persons
+to whom they presented him, Thorwaldsen received many orders. In 1804
+his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all
+countries, and from this time, during the rest of his life, he was never
+able to do all that was required of him. He was much courted in society,
+where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and
+pleasing manner. In this same year he was made a Professor of the Royal
+Academy of Florence; and though the Academy of Copenhagen expected his
+return, they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs, and
+sent him a gift of four hundred crowns. A few months later he was made a
+member of the Academy of Bologna and of that of his native city, in
+which last he was also appointed a Professor.</p>
+
+<p>Many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite
+the popular interest in him, when, in 1805, he produced the bas-relief
+of the Abduction of Briseis, which still remains one of his most
+celebrated works. His Jason had put him on a level with Canova, who was
+then at the height of his fame; now the Briseis was said by many to
+excel the same type of works by Canova, and there is no question that in
+bas-relief the Dane was the better sculptor of the two. This relief and
+his group of Cupid and Psyche, which was completed in 1805, mark the era
+at which Thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor. In this
+same year he modelled his first statue of Venus; it was less than
+life-size; and though two copies of it were finished in marble, he was
+not pleased with it, and destroyed the model: later he made the same
+statue in full size.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806 he received his first commission for religious subjects, which
+consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of Fionia.
+But he was devoted to mythological subjects, and preferred them before
+all others,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> and in this same year modelled a Hebe while engaged upon
+the fonts. His industry was great, but he found time to receive many
+visitors at his studio, and went frequently into society. At the house
+of Baron von Humboldt, then Prussian Ambassador at Rome, Thorwaldsen was
+always welcome and happy; here he met all persons of note who lived in
+or who visited Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this period that the young Prince Louis of Bavaria entered
+into a correspondence with Thorwaldsen, which ended only with the
+sculptor's life. Louis was collecting objects for his Glyptothek at
+Munich, and he frequently consulted Thorwaldsen in these matters; his
+advice was of value, and he more than once saved Louis from imposition
+by dealers. Louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine Adonis, now
+in the Glyptothek; it was modelled in 1808, but was not completed until
+1832; this splendid work was executed entirely by Thorwaldsen's own
+hands. In 1808 he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be
+used in the restoration of the Palace of Christiansborg, which had been
+injured by fire. This was the year, too, when he was made an honorary
+member of the Academy of St. Luke.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1809 brought deep sorrows to Thorwaldsen in the death of his
+two friends, Stanley and Zo&euml;ga. He interested himself in the settlement
+of the affairs of the latter, and had much trouble and anxiety; but he
+managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year, in
+spite of the disturbed state of Rome on account of the pope's departure,
+and in spite of the hindrances in his own life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1810 the King of Denmark made Thorwaldsen a Knight of Danebrog, and
+he was then known in Italy as the <i>Cavaliere Alberto</i>. His work this
+year was in bas-reliefs, and in 1811 he modelled a colossal statue of
+Mars, the bust of Mademoiselle Ida Brun, a lovely statue of Psyche, and
+his own portrait as a colossal Hermes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The people of Denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged
+absence of their artist. He had left home a mere boy, and was now famous
+over all the world. They wished for his return; a marble quarry had been
+discovered in Norway, and even Prince Christian Frederick wrote to
+Thorwaldsen to urge his going home. The sculptor wished to go, and even
+made some preparations to do so, when he received so important a
+commission that it was impossible to leave Rome. This new work was a
+frieze for one of the great halls in the Quirinal Palace. He chose the
+Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon for his subject, and it
+proved to be one of the most important works of his life. It was
+completed in June, 1812; and though it had been somewhat criticised as
+too rough in its finish, when it was elevated to its proper height it
+was all that had been expected by the artist's friends; later he
+repeated this frieze for his own countrymen. In Rome he was now
+frequently called the "Patriarch of Bas-relief." Soon after this he was
+made a member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>In 1813 Thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever, and visited
+the baths of Lucca, in company with the Baron and Baroness von Schubart,
+for the benefit of his health. He met many people and received much
+honor, especially from the Grand Duchess of Tuscany. His health was
+improved, but his old and tried friend, the Baroness von Schubart, died
+the winter following; he felt her loss deeply, for she had been his
+friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>He was always busy, and one after another of his almost numberless works
+was finished. In 1815 he made the Achilles and Priam, a relief which is
+sometimes called his masterpiece; in the same year he made the famous
+and familiar medallions of Night and Morning; it is said that he
+conceived the first while awake in a sleepless, rest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>less condition, and
+modelled it entirely on the following day; these medallions have been
+reproduced in all possible forms&mdash;in engravings, on cameos, gems, in
+metals, and a variety of marble, plaster, and porcelain.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<img src="images/illus119.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="Fig. 119" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.&mdash;Ganymede and the Eagle.</span><br /><i>By Thorwaldsen</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About this time Thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens,
+and received pupils, and was overwhelmed with orders, so that he could
+not yet go to Denmark, in spite of the urgent letters he received. He
+executed many important original works, and also restored the marbles of
+&AElig;gina, now at Munich; this was a great task, but his study of the
+antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern
+sculptor.</p>
+
+
+<p>The exquisite group of Ganymede and the Eagle (Fig. 119) shows the
+effect of his study of the antique, and the same may be said of his
+statue of Hope, a small copy of which was afterward placed above the
+tomb of the Baroness von Humboldt. The Three Graces (Fig. 120) belongs
+to the year 1817; the Mercury was of about this date, as well as the
+elegant statue of the Princess Baryatinska, which is his finest portrait
+statue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After an absence from Denmark of twenty-three years he left Rome in
+July, 1819, and turned his face toward home. His model for the famous
+Lion of Lucerne had already been sent on before him, and the work
+commenced by one of his pupils, Bienaim&eacute;. Thorwaldsen first went to
+Lucerne, where he gave all necessary advice in this work, and then
+proceeding on his journey reached Copenhagen on the 3d of October.
+Apartments had been prepared for him in the Academy of Fine Arts, and as
+soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction
+and importance. Crowds went to welcome him to his home. A great
+reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor, and he was lauded
+to the skies in speeches, and was made a Counsellor of State, in order
+that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the
+court etiquette.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;">
+<img src="images/illus120.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="Fig. 120" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.&mdash;The Three Graces.</span><br /><i>By Thorwaldsen.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All this must have gratified the artist, who had earned such proud
+honors by the force of his genius; but it interests us much more to know
+that he received commissions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> for some very important works, among which
+those of the Church of Our Lady are very interesting. The orders for all
+the work which he did here were not given at once, but in the end it
+became a splendid monument to this sculptor, and embraces almost all his
+religious works of any importance. There are the figures of Christ and
+the Twelve Apostles; the Angel of Baptism, which is an exquisite font;
+the Preaching of St. John the Baptist, which is a group in terra-cotta
+on the pediment of the church; a bas-relief in marble of the
+Institution of the Lord's Supper; another in plaster of Christ's Entry
+into Jerusalem; one of Christ Bearing the Cross; one of the Baptism of
+Christ; another of the Guardian Angel, and one of Christian Charity.</p>
+
+<p>He did not remain very long in Denmark, but went to Warsaw, where he had
+been summoned to arrange for some important works. He was presented to
+the Emperor Alexander, who gave him sittings for a portrait bust; this
+was so successful that for some years Thorwaldsen employed skilled
+workmen to constantly repeat it, in order to fill the demand for it
+which was made upon him. While at Warsaw he received an order for a
+monument to Copernicus, which was dedicated in 1830; other important
+commissions were given him, and after visiting Cracow, Troppau, and
+Vienna, he reached Rome in December, 1820, where he was heartily
+welcomed by the artists, who gave him a banquet, on which occasion the
+Prince Royal of Denmark sat next to the sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>Before this a correspondence had established a friendship between
+Thorwaldsen and Prince Louis of Bavaria; but from the year 1821 intimate
+personal relations existed between them. He took up work with great
+energy; he had returned to Rome with so much to do that he required much
+room, and employed a large company of workmen. In the summer of 1822 he
+was able to secure a large build<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>ing which had been used for a stable to
+the Barberini Palace, and here he was able to set up all his large
+models.</p>
+
+<p>In 1824 Thorwaldsen was summoned by the Cardinal Consalvi, who gave him
+the commission for the monument to Pius VII., now in the Clementine
+Chapel of St. Peter's at Rome; this work was not completed when the
+cardinal himself died, and his own monument by Thorwaldsen was placed in
+the Pantheon before that of Pius VII. was put in its place. He also made
+a cross for the Capuchins for which he would accept no reward, though
+they were entirely satisfied with it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected President of the Academy of St. Luke
+with the advice and consent of Pope Leo XII., who paid him a visit in
+his studio. Many delays occurred, and the monument to Pius VII. was not
+erected until 1831.</p>
+
+<p>The works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far
+too numerous to be mentioned; he was at the very height of fame and
+popularity, and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him.
+In 1830 he went to Munich to superintend the setting up of his monument
+to Eug&egrave;ne Beauharnais, the Duke of Leuchtenberg. This gave Louis of
+Bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor, which he did
+in every possible way. Soon after the monument was unveiled Thorwaldsen
+received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor.</p>
+
+<p>Thorwaldsen's place in Rome was a very important one, not only as an
+artist, but as a man. He had the respect and esteem of many good men of
+all nations; he also suffered some things from the envy of those who
+were jealous of him, as is the case with all successful men; but he was
+a fearless person, and did not trouble himself on account of these
+things. The frequent agitations of a political nature, however, did
+disturb him, and he began to think seriously of returning to Denmark. In
+1837, when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> cholera broke out in Rome, he determined to leave; his
+countrymen were delighted, and a government frigate was sent to take him
+home; he sailed from Leghorn in August, 1838. His arrival was hailed
+with joy in Denmark, and wherever he went his progress was marked by
+tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him. As soon as it was
+known in Copenhagen, on September 17th, that the "Rota," which brought
+the sculptor, was in the harbor, a flag was run up from St. Nicolas
+Church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been
+arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Although it rained heavily, boats filled with artists, poets, students,
+physicians, mechanics, and naval officers went out to meet him; each
+boat had a flag with an appropriate device, that of the artists having
+Thorwaldsen's Three Graces, the poets, a Pegasus, and so on. The meeting
+with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the
+artist, who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts
+of joyous demonstrations, a vast number of boats rowing after that in
+which he was seated. His carriage was drawn by the people from the quay
+to Charlottenburg, where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him.
+His form was tall and erect, his step firm; his long white hair fell on
+his shoulders, and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with
+intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him. He was led out
+on a balcony, where, uncovered, he saluted the people, who greeted him
+with wild applause. Thorwaldsen smiled and said, "Would not any one
+think that we were in Rome, and I were the pope about to give the
+benediction <i>urbi et orbi</i> from the balcony of St. Peter's?"</p>
+
+<p>One ovation after another followed, day by day, and such crowds of
+visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his
+possessions which he had brought from Italy, or to work at all, which
+was worse to him. At last he began to do as he had done in Rome, and to
+receive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand. He
+lived frugally, and continued many of his Roman habits of life; but he
+was forced to dine out every evening.</p>
+
+<p>He was now sixty-eight years old, but he did a vast amount of work in
+one way and another, and was so pursued by all sorts of people who
+wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects, that he
+seriously considered the question of leaving Copenhagen. He became very
+fond of certain families where he visited, among which was that of the
+Baron von Stampe, who, with his wife and children, were soon treated by
+the sculptor as if they were his own kindred. He went with them to their
+summer home at Nyso&euml;, and while there the baroness persuaded him to
+model his own statue. He did this imperfectly, as he had no suitable
+workshop; and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an
+ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the
+castle. She took the time to do this when Thorwaldsen was absent for
+eight days, and in this short space the whole was completed, so that
+when he returned it seemed to him like magic. This studio was dedicated
+in July, 1839.</p>
+
+<p>He then began the proper modelling of his own statue, and was
+progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet
+Oehlenschlaeger, who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of
+himself. Thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when
+thus wanted for other work, and he threw down his tools, and would have
+broken the model. But the baroness succeeded in getting him away, and
+locked the studio, keeping the key. However, no argument or entreaty
+would move the sculptor, and she could do nothing with him until she
+happened to think of crying. When she began to weep and to accuse him of
+having no affection for her, and reminded him of the proofs of her
+devotion which she had given him, he was taken in by her mock tears, and
+exclaimed, "Well,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> they may think what they like. My statue is not for
+posterity, but I cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such
+pleasure." He then resumed his work, and completed his statue in
+seventeen days. He represented himself standing with one arm resting
+upon his statue of Hope.</p>
+
+<p>After this summer Thorwaldsen divided his time between Copenhagen and
+Stampeborg, and worked with the same industry in one place as in the
+other. The life in the country was a great delight to him; he played
+games, listened to fairy tales from the poet Andersen, or to music from
+the young girls of the house, all with equal pleasure; and if he were
+allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day
+in the woods or pay visits, and was perfectly happy in this succession
+of labor and leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Baroness Stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist, for she
+found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument. He had
+promised to execute a statue of Christian IV. for Christian VIII., the
+reigning king; he put it off until the king was impatient. One day, when
+he had gone for a walk, the baroness went to the studio and began a
+sketch in clay as well as she could. When Thorwaldsen returned he asked
+what she was doing, and she answered, "I am making the statue of the
+king. Since you will not do it, and I have pledged my word, I must do it
+myself." The artist laughed, and began to criticise her work; she
+insisted it was all right, and at last said, "Do it better, then,
+yourself; you make fun of me; I defy you to find anything to change in
+my work." Thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model, and when
+once he had begun he finished it.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous
+incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor; of the honors
+he received, of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do,
+of the visits he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> paid and received from persons of note; few lives are
+as full as was his, and the detailed accounts of it are very
+interesting.</p>
+
+<p>He had always desired to go again to Rome, and in 1841, when the Baron
+von Stampe decided to go there with his family, Thorwaldsen travelled
+with them. They went through Germany, and were everywhere received as
+honorably as if he were a royal person: he was invited to visit royal
+families; court carriages were at his service; Mendelssohn gave a
+musical <i>f&ecirc;te</i> for him; in all the great cities he was shown the places
+and objects worthy of his attention; poets and orators paid him respect,
+and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and
+his works was omitted.</p>
+
+<p>In Rome it was the same; he remained there almost a year, and upon his
+arrival at Copenhagen, in October, 1842, he experienced the crowning
+glory of his life. During his absence the Thorwaldsen Museum had been
+completed, and here, the day after he reached home, he was received. The
+building was decorated with garlands, and he went over the whole of it;
+at last he entered the inner court, where he was to be buried; here he
+stood for some time with bowed head, while all about him kept silence.
+Can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him? Here he must
+be buried, and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which
+would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers.</p>
+
+<p>He lived three years more, and was always busy. His mind was strong and
+his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing, but his ability to
+execute his works was less; his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning.
+He went much into society, was fond of the theatre, and under the
+devoted care of his servant, Wilkens, he enjoyed all that was possible
+to a man of his age. On the 24th of March 1844, the Baroness von Stampe
+went to ask him to dine at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> her house; he said he was not well and would
+not go out; but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he
+decided to go. He was modelling a bust of Luther, and threw down before
+it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it; just so, as he left it,
+this now stands in the museum, preserved under glass, with the print of
+his hand in the clay.</p>
+
+<p>He was merry at dinner, and in speaking of the museum said he could die
+now, whenever he chose, since the architect Bindesb&ouml;ll had finished his
+tomb. After dinner he went to the theatre, and there it was seen that he
+was really ill; he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa, when
+it was found that he was already dead. The Charlottenburg joined the
+theatre, and there, in the hall of antique sculpture, he was laid. He
+was first buried in the Frue Kirke, which he had so splendidly
+decorated; four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of
+the Thorwaldsen Museum, where above him grows the evergreen ivy, a
+fitting emblem of his unfading fame.</p>
+
+<p>Thiele, in his splendid book called "Thorwaldsen and his Works," gives a
+list of two hundred and sixty works by this master; and as one journeys
+from Rome, where are some of his sculptures in St. Peter's and the
+Quirinal, to Copenhagen, with the Frue Kirke and the Museum, one passes
+through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs.
+Among his most important works are the frieze of Alexander's entrance
+into Babylon, at the Quirinal; the Lion of Lucerne; the many statues,
+groups, and bas-reliefs in the Frue Kirke; more than thirty sepulchral
+and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries; sixteen
+bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche; twenty
+bas-reliefs of Genii; twenty-two figures from antique fables, and many
+portrait busts and statues, and various other subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man. No circum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>stance of his youth
+indicated his success, and a certain indolence which he had would have
+seemed to forbid it; but the power was within him, and was of that
+genuine quality which will declare itself; and a man who has it becomes
+great without intending to be so, and almost without believing that he
+is remarkable beyond others. The true antique spirit seems to have been
+revived in him. His characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity,
+perfect beauty in form, distinctness, and repose. Thiele says of him:
+"He has challenged and has received the decision of the world's Supreme
+Court, that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality. And if his
+life might be embodied in a single emblem, perhaps it should be that of
+a young lion, with an eye that glows and flashes fire, while he is bound
+with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces."</p>
+
+<p>The sculpture of Germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the
+early years of the present century was very interesting. The architect
+Schinkel was a great lover of antique art, and he had much influence
+over all arts, as well as in his special department. Thorwaldsen himself
+so admired the sculptor <span class="smcap">John Rudolph Schadow</span> (1786-1822) that when the
+King of Prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied: "Sire,
+there is at this moment in Rome one of your faithful subjects who is
+more capable than I of performing to your satisfaction the task with
+which you deign to honor me; permit me to solicit for him your royal
+favor." The commission was given to Schadow, and he made his charming
+work, The Spinner. John Rudolph was the son of <span class="smcap">John Gottfried Schadow</span>
+(1764-1850), who was court sculptor, and long survived his gifted son.
+The chief works of the father were the statues of Count von der Mark, at
+Berlin; that of Frederick the Great, at Stettin; Luther's monument in
+the market-place at Wittenberg, and Bl&uuml;cher's statue at Rostock.</p>
+
+<p>John Rudolph Schadow studied under both Canova and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> Thorwaldsen, and was
+a very gifted artist. He was engaged upon a group of Achilles protecting
+the body of Penthesilea at the time of his death; it was finished by
+Wolff.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus121.jpg" width="650" height="391" alt="Fig. 121" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.&mdash;Statue of Queen Louise.</span><br /><i>By Rauch.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Christian Frederic Tieck</span> (1776-1851) was an eminent sculptor of his
+time, and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at
+Berlin by Schinkel. He was very active in establishing a gallery of
+models from the antique at Berlin, and was a Director of the Sculptures
+in the Museum as well as a member of the Academy. His most successful
+original works were portrait busts, and he had many notable people among
+his sitters. Among them were the Emperor of Germany, the King of
+Bavaria, Schelling, Goethe, Lessing, and many others.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Christian Rauch</span> (1777-1857). This eminent sculptor was born at Waldeck,
+and followed the manner of Schadow, which he carried to its perfection.
+His statue of Queen Louise (Fig. 121) is one of the finest works of
+modern sculpture, and his statues of the Generals Scharnhorst and B&uuml;low,
+in Ber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>lin, are very fine; the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic
+beauty. But his masterpiece is the grand Friedrichs monument. Rauch
+executed many excellent busts; he made good portraits, and yet he
+elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of
+which they were capable. As a rule Rauch avoided religious subjects, but
+late in life he modelled the group of Moses supported in prayer by Aaron
+and Hur.</p>
+
+<p>Among his important works are the statue of Bl&uuml;cher, at Breslau; that of
+August Hermann Franke, at Halle; D&uuml;rer, at Nuremberg; monument to
+Maximilian I., at Munich; and six marble Victories for the Walhalla. His
+works are numerous, and in them we feel that this artist had not a great
+imaginative power; he rarely conceived imaginary subjects, but he took
+some fact or personality as his motive, and elevated it to the highest
+point to which it could be brought, and under his masterly style of
+execution produced splendid results.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ernst Rietschel</span> (1804-1860) was a gifted pupil of Rauch. After spending
+some time in Rome he settled in Dresden, and executed the statue of
+Friederich August of Saxony, for the Zwingerhof, when but twenty-seven
+years old. His chief excellence was in portrait statues, and those of
+Lessing and Luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the
+intellectual and moral force of those men. His religious subjects were
+full of deep feeling, and his lighter works have a charming grace about
+them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Schwanthaler</span> (1802-1848) studied much in Rome, and was as devoted
+to the antique as was Thorwaldsen. He executed many works in Munich, the
+principal ones being the interior decoration of the Glyptothek; also
+that of the K&ouml;nigsbau and two groups for the Walhalla. A prominent work
+by this master is the bronze statue of Bavaria, which is fifty-four feet
+high and stands in front of the Ruhmeshalle. He also made twelve
+gilt-bronze statues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> of Bavarian sovereigns. Schwanthaler had remarkable
+powers of invention and a fruitful imagination; in these points he ranks
+with the first of modern sculptors; but his works rarely rise above what
+we call decorative art, and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked
+the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with
+modern sculpture in Germany. Nowhere have the monuments and portrait
+statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call,
+in general terms, the Berlin school. Profound attention has been given
+to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects,
+while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or
+commonplaceness. Nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of
+our own day than in the sculpture of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>But there are exceptions to this rule; some such artists as <span class="smcap">Theodore
+Kalide</span> and <span class="smcap">Ludwig Wichmann</span> are wanting in the serious qualities of
+Schadow, Rauch, and their followers, and sometimes fall into a coarse
+realism; but in spite of this, the revival of love for the antique,
+which began with Canova and his time, has borne rich fruit in the works
+of modern German sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>In France the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the
+severe classic style, and it has shown many of the same qualities that
+we have seen in modern German sculpture; but the different
+characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in
+everything else. In France the artist has aimed at a fine
+effect&mdash;flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic
+motives&mdash;far more than the northern sculptors have done. There is less
+thought and depth of feeling, more outward attraction and striking
+effect. The classic taste which asserted itself in the time of Canova
+was adopted in France, but in a French manner; and one of the earliest
+artists who showed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> its effects was <span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois Joseph Bosio</span> (1769-1845),
+who was much honored. He was made a member of the Institute of France
+and of the Royal Academy of Berlin: he was chief sculptor to the King of
+France, and executed many public works. He made many portrait busts of
+the royal family and other prominent persons, but his chief works were
+the reliefs on the column of the Place Vend&ocirc;me, the Chariot on the arch
+of the Place du Carrousel, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> monument to the Countess Demidoff, and
+statues of mythological heroes and heroines. For the Chapelle
+Expiatoire, Bosio executed a group representing Louis XVII. receiving
+comfort from an angel; the design is not as good as in some of his
+classic works, but the conception is pure and noble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 478px;">
+<img src="images/illus122.jpg" width="478" height="500" alt="Fig. 122" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.&mdash;Nymph.</span><br /><i>By Bosio.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">James Pradier</span> (1790-1832), though born in Geneva, was essentially a
+French sculptor, and excelled the artists of his day in his
+representations of feminine beauty. His masterpiece is a fountain at
+Nimes, in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct
+in treatment. The serious and comic Muses of the Fountain Moli&egrave;re are
+excellent works. He made several separate statues which are well known;
+his Psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm; Atalanta
+is fastening her sandals; Sappho is in despair. His Niobe group showed
+his power to represent bold action, and his Prometheus chained, erected
+in the garden of the Tuileries, is grand and spirited.</p>
+
+<p>We could name a great number of French sculptors belonging to this
+period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn, but
+whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the
+world's artists, or make the accounts of them anything more than a list
+of works which has little meaning, except when one stands before them.
+Perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had <span class="smcap">Pierre
+Jean David</span> (1793-1856), who is called David of Angers, which was his
+birthplace, in order to distinguish him from Jacques Louis David, the
+great painter, who was like a father to this sculptor, though in no way
+connected with him by ties of kindred, as far as we know. But when the
+sculptor went to Paris, a very poor boy, David the painter, whose
+attention was called to him in some way, was his friend, and gave him
+lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways. In 1811 David of Angers
+obtained the prize which enabled him to go to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> Rome, and after his
+return to Paris he was constantly employed. The amount of his work was
+enormous; many of his statues were colossal, and he executed a great
+number of busts and more than ninety medallions.</p>
+
+<p>He made the statue of Mme. de Sta&euml;l; one of Talma for the Th&eacute;&acirc;tre
+Fran&ccedil;ais; the colossal statue of King Ren&eacute; at Aix; monument to F&eacute;nelon
+at Cambray; the statue of the great Cond&eacute; at Versailles; the Gutenberg
+memorial at Strasburg, which is one of his most successful works, and a
+large number of other sculptures.</p>
+
+<p>His chief characteristic is realism, and he carried this so far that it
+frequently became coarseness. David designed the relief for the pediment
+of the Pantheon. The inscription on the building declares that it is
+dedicated by a grateful country to its great men, and the sculptor seems
+to have had this in mind, for he represented in his group a figure of
+France surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and
+days of peace. It is too realistic to be pleasing, and is far less
+creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works.</p>
+
+<p>If little can be said of the modern French sculpture prior to our
+immediate time, there is still less to be told of that of England. There
+are many public monuments there, but they do not show forth any high
+artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare
+instances. There is but one English sculptor of whom I shall speak. <span class="smcap">John
+Gibson</span> (1791-1866) was born near Conway, in Wales. When he was nine
+years old his parents went to Liverpool with the intention of sailing
+for America; but they gave up the idea, and the boy was sent to school
+in Liverpool. Before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of
+making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with; he now
+studied the prints in the shop windows, and made pictures, which he sold
+to his fellow-pupils. He attracted the attention of a print-seller, who
+was so interested in him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> that he allowed him to draw from studies and
+casts from the antique which he had. When fourteen years old the boy was
+apprenticed to a cabinet-maker, but after a year he persuaded his
+employer to allow him to leave his shop, and was then apprenticed to a
+wood-carver. He did not stop at this, however, for when he became
+acquainted with the Messrs. Francis, who had a marble-yard, he persuaded
+his second master to release him, and was apprenticed for the third
+time, and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should
+be that of his life.</p>
+
+<p>He was now very happy, and his improvement in drawing, modelling, and
+working in marble was very rapid. After a few months he made the
+acquaintance of William Roscoe, who became his friend and patron. He
+remained in Liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old; he had
+improved every advantage within his reach, but he was very desirous of
+travelling. In 1817, armed with a few letters of introduction, he went
+to London, where he obtained several orders, and in October of that year
+went to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>He had a letter to Canova, who took him under his care and gave him
+admission to the classes in the Academy, in which he could draw from
+living models. In 1819 he received his first important commission; it
+was from the Duke of Devonshire for a group of Mars and Cupid. From this
+time he advanced steadily in his profession, and was always busy. He
+lived twenty-seven years in Rome, and passed his summers in Innsbr&uuml;ck.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844 he went to Liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of
+Mr. Huskisson; he was received with enthusiasm, and when he went to
+Glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of Mr. Finlay in the
+Merchants' Hall his reception was even more flattering, as it was given
+him simply as an artist, and not connected with any former associations,
+as in Liverpool. During this visit to England Gibson was summoned to
+Windsor to make a statue of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> Queen Victoria, which he completed after
+his return to Rome. The queen was represented in a classical costume,
+and the diadem, sandals, and borders of the drapery were colored. This
+was very much criticised and much was written and said about it; Gibson
+took little notice of all this, and simply answered it by saying,
+"Whatever the Greeks did was right."</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 Gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother Ben,
+who had lived with him in Rome for fourteen years. Five years later,
+when in perfect health, the sculptor was attacked by paralysis, and
+lived but a short time. He was buried in the English cemetery at Rome,
+and Lord Lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument. It says: "His
+native genius strengthened by careful study, he infused the spirit of
+Grecian art into masterpieces all his own. His character as a man was in
+unison with his attributes as an artist&mdash;beautiful in its simplicity and
+truthfulness, noble in its dignity and elevation." A monument was also
+raised to Gibson in the church at Conway.</p>
+
+<p>The master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his
+fortune to the Royal Academy in London. Among his works are Mars and
+Cupid, at Chatsworth; Psyche borne by Zephyrs, in the Palazzo Torlonia,
+at Rome, and a replica at St. Petersburg; Hylas surprised by Nymphs, in
+the National Gallery, London; Sleeping Shepherd Boy, in the Lenox
+collection in New York; Cupid disguised as a Shepherd, which he often
+repeated; portraits of Queen Victoria, at Buckingham Palace and Osborne;
+Sir Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey; George Stephenson, in St.
+George's Hall, Liverpool; eighteen portrait busts; sixteen bas-reliefs
+of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead. A large
+part of these are in the chapel of the Liverpool Cemetery. He modelled a
+bas-relief of Christ blessing little children.</p>
+
+<p>Gibson found his entire happiness in his art. In his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> own words, he
+worked on "happily and with ever new pleasure, avoiding evil and with a
+calm soul, making images, not for worship, but for the love of the
+beautiful. The beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world; the
+ideal, higher&mdash;yes, higher still, to celestial beauty, the fountain of
+all. Socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward; in
+the life of a man, as in an image, every part should be beautiful."</p>
+
+<p>He was never elated by praise; he was glad of tributes which proved that
+he was respected, but he received all honors with a simplicity of
+self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature.</p>
+
+<p>There are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about
+everything not connected with his art. Miss Harriet Hosmer was his only
+pupil, and she said of him: "He is a god in his studio, but God help him
+when he is out of it." He never could master the ins and outs of
+railroad travelling, and even when put in the right train at the right
+time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time.</p>
+
+<p>On one of his journeys, when he supposed he was at the right place, he
+got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral. In
+his own account he said: "But the scoundrel would have it there was no
+cathedral in the place, and at last had the impudence to ask me if I
+knew where I was. Then I discovered that instead of being in Chichester,
+where I had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter, I was
+safe in Portsmouth, where there was no cathedral at all."</p>
+
+<p>The time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of
+our own country. So many of our artists are still living that it would
+be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is
+complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history. We have no
+right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+height, and even after death a certain period must elapse before the
+true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its
+just place upon the roll of fame. So, in leaving this subject, we will
+turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern
+sculpture. In Italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which
+Canova and Thorwaldsen brought it; for though the last was a Dane, his
+work may truly be said to belong to the Roman school. We must regard
+Italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense, but it is easy to
+understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered
+an advance in artistic life could not be made. Now, when a new spirit is
+active there, and a freer thought prevails in other directions, may we
+not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best
+inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty?</p>
+
+<p>As we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an
+immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Schools and
+academies are multiplied everywhere, and the interest in works of art is
+universal. Many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of
+artists as were the princes and nobles of the past. It is as if there
+were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested,
+and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold
+must come forth.</p>
+
+<p>As we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the
+present, we are compelled to linger lovingly with the Greek or classic
+art. The period in which it existed was a blessed period for the
+sculptor. We all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art
+is the study and reproduction of <i>nature</i>, and in the times of the
+Greeks there was no reason why the human form, the most beautiful object
+in nature, should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the
+temple, for the statues of the public square or theatre, or for any
+position in which sculpture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> could be used at all. The customs of modern
+life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms, and the
+difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact
+are almost more than we can realize; and the task of draping a figure
+and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and
+action is one before which even a Greek sculptor would have reason to
+doubt himself.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped
+figure which satisfies artistic taste, he has achieved much, and merits
+the highest praise. A drapery which has gracefully composed masses and
+flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a
+prophet, and there are numerous subjects, religious and monumental, in
+which a full, graceful drapery is requisite; but when, as is often the
+case, the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the
+day, what can we look for? The truth is, it has no grace in itself;
+what, then, must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble?
+Yet where is the remedy for this? We do not wish to see the men whom we
+have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put
+into an antique disguise by the sculptor; the incongruity of this is too
+apparent. Much has been written and said upon these points, and no
+solution of the difficulty has been found; but it is only just that when
+we judge of the statues made under such difficulties, we should remember
+them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the
+hindrances that exist for him.</p>
+
+<p>Westmacott, in his "Handbook of Sculpture," gives as his "Conclusion" an
+account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor, and I believe that I
+can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a
+quotation from that author.</p>
+
+<p>"The artist, having invented or conceived his subject, usually begins by
+making a small sketch of it in some soft<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> and obedient substance, as
+clay or wax. He can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is
+satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition, and the
+proportions it will command of light and shadow. He then proceeds to
+copy this small but useful sketch, as his guide, in its general
+arrangement, for his full-sized model. Before commencing the larger
+model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron
+and wood, with joints made of wire, to support the great mass of clay in
+which the figure or group is now to be executed. This iron frame is
+firmly fixed upon a turning bench, or banker, so that the model may be
+constantly moved without difficulty, so as to be seen in different
+lights and in various points of view. As the clay is likely to shrink as
+it gets dry, it is necessary occasionally to wet it. This is done by
+sprinkling water over it with a brush, or from a large syringe, and by
+laying damp cloths upon it. This is the ordinary process for making a
+model in the 'round.'</p>
+
+<p>"In modelling in <i>rilievo</i> of either kind, <i>alto</i> or <i>basso</i>, a plane or
+ground is prepared upon which the design is, or should be, carefully
+drawn. This may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board, or the
+ground may be of slate, or even of wood, though the latter is
+objectionable, in large works especially, from its liability to shrink
+and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture. The clay is then
+laid in small quantities upon this ground, the outline being bounded by
+the drawing, which should be carefully preserved; and the bulk or
+projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the
+sculptor desires to give to his design.</p>
+
+<p>"If the final work is to be baked in clay (<i>terra-cotta</i>) there must be
+no iron or wooden nucleus, as it would interfere with the model drying
+regularly and uniformly, and probably cause it to crack in shrinking.
+The model is therefore prepared for drying without such support. When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked
+slowly, by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar
+brownish-red color seen in these works. This art has been brought to
+great perfection in England in modern days.</p>
+
+<p>"If the final work is to be in marble, or bronze, or only in plaster,
+the next process after finishing the model is to mould it, in
+preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving
+about without risk of injury to the design. This is done by covering it
+with a mixture of plaster of Paris with water, which quickly sets or
+becomes consistent, forming a hard and thick coating over the whole. The
+clay is then carefully picked out, and an exact matrix, or form,
+remains. This is washed clean, and the interior is then brushed over
+with any greasy substance, usually a composition of soap and oil, to
+prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too
+firmly to it. The fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of
+cream and then poured into the mould, which is gently moved about till
+the inner surface is entirely filled or covered, so that all parts may
+be reached. The thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the
+size of the work and the degree of strength required.</p>
+
+<p>"When the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked
+away with chisels, and a true cast appears beneath, giving an entire
+fac-simile of the original model. Some skill is required in making
+moulds, in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings;
+practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties
+when they occur. The above general instructions sufficiently explain the
+ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster.</p>
+
+<p>"In metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the
+strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal; but the
+principle described in plaster-moulding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> applies also to the preparation
+for metal-casting. The mixture of metals to form bronze, the proper
+heating of the furnace, burning and uniting parts, chasing and other
+processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place. They
+belong to a distinct practice, and to be well understood must be studied
+in the foundry.</p>
+
+<p>"If the model&mdash;now reproduced in plaster&mdash;is to be copied in marble or
+stone, the first step is to procure a block of the required size. Two
+stones, called <i>scale-stones</i>, are then prepared, upon one of which the
+model or plaster cast is placed, and upon the other the rough block of
+marble. The fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales,' to
+use the technical term, exactly corresponding. An instrument capable of
+being easily moved, and which is fitted up with socket-joints and
+movable arms, is then applied to the scale-stone of the model, and a
+projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the
+model itself. This is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough
+block, and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into
+the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model. A
+pencil-mark is then made to show that the <i>point</i> is found and
+registered. This process is repeated all over the model and block,
+alternately, till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made.
+These 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms,
+but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all. The
+statue being thus rudely shaped out, the block is placed in the hands of
+a superior workman, called a 'carver,' who, having the plastic model
+near at hand to refer to, copies the more minute portions of the work by
+means of chisels, rasps, and files, the pencil-marks made by the
+'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit
+beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble. When the carver has
+carried the work as far as the sculptor desires, he proceeds himself to
+give it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> the finishing touches, improving the details of form and
+expression, managing the different effects produced by two different
+materials&mdash;one, the plastic model, being opaque; the other, the marble,
+being considerably diaphanous; giving the proper varieties of texture in
+the flesh, hair, and drapery, and, more especially, harmonizing the
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>"The rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of
+marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other
+substances, and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their
+work by a process which is called '<i>circumlitio</i>,' and may mean not only
+rubbing or polishing, but applying some composition, such as hot wax, to
+give a soft, glowing color to the surface. Many of the ancient statues
+certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having
+slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an
+inch, and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it; a
+process, be it observed, quite distinct from and not to be confounded
+with <i>polychromy</i>, or what is usually understood by painting sculpture
+with various tints, in imitation of the natural color of the complexion,
+hair, and eyes. Its object, probably, with the ancients as with modern
+sculptors, has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of
+appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work, by
+giving a general warmth to the color of the marble."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Abildgaard, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Abraham and Isaac," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Abundance" (della Porta), <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Michael Angelo's David in, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Achilles, story of, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Priam (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Penthesilea (Schadow), <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Acropolis, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Action in Egyptian sculpture, <a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Act&aelig;on and his Dogs," <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Adam" (Cano), <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Adam and Eve," reliefs of, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Rizzo, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Adonis" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Adoring Madonna," <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&AElig;gina, marbles of, and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&AElig;milius Paulus, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&AElig;neas and Anchises" (Chaudet), <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&AElig;sculapius. <i>See</i> Asclepius</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&AElig;tolians, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agamemnon, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agesander and the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agnello, Fra Guglielmo d', <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agoracritus, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agrippa and the Apoxyomenos, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agrippina, statue of, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aix, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alaric and Minerva Promachos, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Albert, Archduke, and Duquesnoy, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alcamenes, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aldovrandi, Gian Francesco, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alexander the Great;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statues of, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">decline after, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">portrait statues of, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Diogenes, by Puget, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Dannecker, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Entrance into Babylon of, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alexander, Emperor of Russia, and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alexander VII., monument of, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alexandros, sculptor of Venus of Milo, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alto-rilievo, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Altoviti, statue of (Cellini), <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Amboise Monument, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ambraser Gallery, Vienna, Cellini's salt-cellar in, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Amiens Cathedral, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ancient Italian sculpture, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ancona, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Andersen, Hans, and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Androsphinx, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Angel of Baptism" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Angel's Salutation" (Stoss), <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Anguier, Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Anguier, Michael, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Animals in Egyptian sculpture, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Anne of Austria, and Anguier, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Anne of Brittany, monument of, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Annunciation" (Donatello), <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Annunziata, church of, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Antigonus, father of Poliorcetes, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Antium, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Antonelli, Cardinal, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Antwerp, town hall of, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aphrodite. <i>See</i> Venus</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Apollo;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sosianus, temple of, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Leochares, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">the Belvedere, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>,</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">theories concerning, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">the Steinh&auml;user, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">the Stroganoff, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Daphne, by Bernini, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Daphne, by Canova, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Flaxman, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Apollodorus, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Apollonius, of the Toro Farnese, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Apostles (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Apoxyomenos" (Lysippus), <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Archaic period, <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Archaistic period, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Arches in Rome, <a href='#Page_97'><b>97</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Architecture, close connection with Egyptian sculpture, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Archangel Michael and Satan" (Flaxman), <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Areobrudus, diptych of, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Arezzo, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Argos, school of, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Ariadne" (Dannecker), <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Arrezzo, Niccol&ograve; of, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Artemis, archaistic statue of, <a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a>, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Diana)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aschaffenburg Vischer's works in, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Asclepius, by Alcamenes, <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Assos, reliefs from, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Assyria, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Assyrian influence on Etruscan art, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Atalanta, by Pradier, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Athena;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Promachos (Phidias), <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">birth of, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">attributes of, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">representations of, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Phidias, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of the Capitol, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Minerva and Pallas)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Athenodorus and the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Athens, statue from, at Rome, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Attalus I., statues of, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Augsburg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Augustio, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Augustus, Emperor;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and archaistic period, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Grecian spoils, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Babylonians, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bacchus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Tyrrhenian robbers, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">tripod of, by Lysicrates, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>; <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Baldachin, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Balier, Heinrich den, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bamberg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">carvings in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Krafft, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bandinelli, Baccio, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cellini, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Baptistery of Pisa, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Baptistery of Florence, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">gates of, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Barberini, Cardinal, and Bernini, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Barberini Faun," <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bargello, museum of the, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Baryatinska, Princess, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Basle, Steinh&auml;user Apollo in, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bas-relief;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Egyptian, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Assyrian, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">the first, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Basso-rilievo, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Battle of Athenians and Amazons," <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Battle of Marathon," <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Battle of the Gods and Giants," <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bavaria;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">King of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sovereigns of, Schwanthaler's statues of, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Beata Villana, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Beauharnais, monument to, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Beautiful Fountain," Nuremberg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Beauty, Greek love of, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Begarelli, Antonio, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Berengaria," statue of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Berlin Museum, works of Pythagoras in, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Begarelli's works in, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Berlin school, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bernardi, Giuseppe, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Berne, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bernini, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Berruguete, Alonso, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bertoldo and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bethmann, Herr, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Beuch, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bienaim&eacute;, pupil of Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bindesb&ouml;ll, architect, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Birth of St. John" (D&uuml;rer), <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bl&uuml;cher, Schadow's statue of, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boboli Gardens, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boethus of Chalcedon, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boileau, bust of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bologna; <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">works of Lombardo in, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Michael Angelo in, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bologna, Giovanni da, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bon family, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bontemps, Pierre, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bosio, Fran&ccedil;ois Joseph, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bottigari, de', <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bourges, Cathedral of, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bourgtherroulde, Hotel, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Boy and Dolphin" (Verocchio), <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Boy and Goose," <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Braccini, Nicolo, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bramante and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Braye, Cardinal de, monument of, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bregno, Antonio Giovanni, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Breslau, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Briseis, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bristol, Lord, and Flaxman, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">British Museum;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Harpy monument in, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Elgin marbles in, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Pericles in, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Mausolus in, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Etruscan table-ware in, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">D&uuml;rer's carvings in, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bronzes, Etruscan, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Brother and Sister," Niobe group, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bruges, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Brugsch-Bey concerning Martisen, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Brun, Charles le, monument of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Brun, Ida, Thorwaldsen's statue of, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Brunelleschi, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bruni, Lionardo, statue of, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Brunswick Museum, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Buckingham Palace, and Flaxman, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Gibson, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Buonarroti, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Buoni, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Burgkapelle, and Veit Stoss, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Burgos, Altars of, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Burial of Christ" (Krafft), <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Burns, Flaxman's statue of, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">B&uuml;low, Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Byzantium, early Christian sculpture in, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ivory carving in, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Cain and Abel," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Calabria, Duke of, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Calamis, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Caligula, and the Thespian Cupid, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Grecian spoils, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Callimachus, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Callon of &AElig;gina, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cambio, Arnolfo di, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cambray, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Campanile at Florence, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Campo Santo of Pisa, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cano, Alonso, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canon of Polycleitus, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canova, Antonio, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Gibson, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canova, Pasino, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canterbury Cathedral, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Capitol at Rome;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Helios in, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Minerva in, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Capitoline Museum, busts by Canova in, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Capuchins and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Caracalla, Baths of;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and "Farnese Bull," <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and "Farnesian Hercules," <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Caridad of Seville, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Carlovingians, statues of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Carrousel, Place du, Chariot of, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Carthusian Chapel, Dijon, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Carver, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Casa Santa, Loreto, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Castellani collection, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cavaliere Alberto, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cellini, Benvenuto, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Centaurs and Lapith&aelig;" (Alcamenes), <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Cephalus and Aurora" (Flaxman), <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cephisodotus, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ceres;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Roman temple of, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Livia as, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Certosa of Pavia, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Omodeo, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cesena, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Lombardo, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chapelle Expiatoire, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chares of Lindos, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Charity" (Coysevox), <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Charles I. and Bernini, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Charles VIII., <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Charmidas, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chartres, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chaudet, Antoine Denis, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Choragic monument of Lysicrates, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Choragus, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christ;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">early statues of, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">figure of, at Rheims, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Vischer, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Coustou, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Dannecker, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">various statues of, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">by Gibson, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christian IV., Thorwaldsen's statue of, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christian VIII. and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christian Art, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Christian Charity" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christian Frederick, Prince, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christian sculpture, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christiansborg palace and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chryselephantine statues, <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chur, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Church of Our Lady, Thorwaldsen's works in, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cimon, patron of Phidias, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cincinnatus, by Chaudet, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cione, Andrea Arcagnuolo di, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Circumlitio, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Civitali, Matteo, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Claudius;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Thespian Cupid, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">arch of, in Rome, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Clement VII. and Cellini, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Clement XIII., Canova's monument of, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Clement XIV., monument of, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cleomenes, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cnidos, Venus of, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Coins, Athenian, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Elis, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colbert, tomb of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colleoni;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Leopardo, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colleoni Chapel, Bergamo, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cologne, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colonna, Vittoria, and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Color;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in Assyrian bas-reliefs, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in &AElig;ginetan statues, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in thirteenth century sculptures, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colossi, Egyptian, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Thebes, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Colossus of Rhodes, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Comedy" (Flaxman), <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Como, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Conception" (Monta&ntilde;es), <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cond&eacute;, statues of, by Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by David, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Consalvi, Cardinal, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Constance, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Constantine, arch of, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">column of, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Bernini's statue of, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Conway, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Copernicus, Thorwaldsen's monument to, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Corinthian capital, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cornacini, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Corneto, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Correggio and Begarelli, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cortona, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cosmo I., and Donatello, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Giovanni da Bologna's statue of, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cosmo III. and "Venus de' Medici," <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Coustou, Guillaume, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Coustou, Nicolas, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Covent Garden Theatre, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cow, Myron's statue of, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Coysevox, Antoine, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cracow and Veit Stoss, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cresilas, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Crowning of the Virgin" (Stoss), <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cupid;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Praxiteles, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Dannecker, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Psyche (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">as a shepherd (Gibson), <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Eros)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cybele, by Cellini, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dacians on Trajan's Pillar, <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">D&aelig;dalus, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Icarus (Canova), <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Damophilus, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Da Siena, Ugolino, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">David, by Donatello, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Verocchio, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"David and Goliath," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">David of Angers, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">David, Jacques Louis, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">David, Pierre Jean, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Day" (Michael Angelo), <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Death," by Bernini, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Pigalle, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Death of the Virgin" (Strasburg), <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Delphi, bronzes from, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Demetrius Poliorcetes, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Demidoff, Countess, Bosio's statue of, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Denman, Ann, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Deposition from the Cross," by Pisano, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Omodeo, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Descent from the Cross" (Begarelli), <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Destruction of the Gauls in Mysia," <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Devonshire, Duke of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Diadochi, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Diana;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, at Ephesus, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>&agrave; la Biche</i>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Artemis)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dibutades, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dijon, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Diomed, by Myron, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Diptychs, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Discobolus" of Myron, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Donatello, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Donato di Betto Bardi, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dortmund, wood-carvings in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Doryphorus," by Polycleitus, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dubois, Cardinal, Coustou's statue of, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Duquesnoy, Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">D&uuml;rer, Albrecht; <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Dying Gaul," <a href='#Page_79'><b>79</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Dying Warriors" (Schl&uuml;ter), <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Egremont, Earl of, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Egyptians;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ancient sculpture of, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">influence of, on Etruscan art, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Eldest Daughter," Niobe group, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Elector Frederic III., Schl&uuml;ter's statue of, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eleventh century, metal work in, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Elgin, Lord, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Elgin marbles, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a>, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Emo, Admiral, monument of, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Emperor of Austria, Canova's bust of, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">England; sculpture introduced into, in fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in sixteenth century, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Entombment of Christ" (Roldan), <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Erinnyes, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ernst, Vischer's monument of, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eros, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Centocelle, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Cupid)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Escorial, church of, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Esquiline, Discobolos found on, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Estofado, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&Eacute;tampes, Mme. d', <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Etruscans originated Italian sculpture, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eurydice, by Canova, <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eurythmy, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eustathius of Rome, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eve, by Cano, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Evening" (Michael Angelo), <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Expulsion of Heliodorus" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eyck, van, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fabbriche Nuova, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Faliero, Giovanni, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Farnese Palace;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">della Porta's statues in, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Farnesian Bull," <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Farnesian Hercules," <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Farsetti, Commendatore and Canova, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">F&eacute;nelon, David's statue of, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ferdinand and Isabella, monument of, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ferrara, Quercia's works in, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Lombardo's works in, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ferrari, Giuseppe, and Canova, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ferrucci, Andrea, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fiammingo, Il, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Fidelity" (Coysevox), <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fiesole, Mino da, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fifteenth century, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Finlay, Gibson's statue of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fionia, Island of, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fiorino, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Fischkasten" (Syrlin), <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Flaccus, Fulvius, and statues from Volsinii, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Flaminius, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Flaxman, John, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Flora, Julia as, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Florence;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Giovanni Pisano, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Pietro di Giovanni, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Ghiberti's works in, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Florence, Baptistery of, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Florence, cathedral of, high altar in, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Forum Trajani, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fountain;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Labenwolf, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Giovanni da Bologna, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Bernini, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of the Manneken-Pis, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Moli&egrave;re, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">France in fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Francis I., <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Rustici, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cellini, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument of, by Pilon, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Franke, Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frankfort, wood-carvings in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frari, church of, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frauenkirche, Nuremberg; <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Krafft's works in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frederic II., <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frederick the Great, Schadow's statue of, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Freiburg, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French monuments, Museum of, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Friedrich August, Rietschel's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Friedrichs monument, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frue Kirche, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fulvius Nobilior, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Furstenburg, Cardinal, and Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Fury of Athamas" (Flaxman), <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Gallic theory" concerning Apollo, Diana, and Minerva, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Gallic Warrior" in Venice, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gambarelli, The, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ganymede, by Leochares, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gattamelata, statue of, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Genii, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Genoa, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Genre;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Apoxyomenos as example of, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sculpture, <a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germany, Emperor of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ghibelline Street, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ghiberti, Lorenzo, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ghirlandajo, Domenico, and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gibson, John, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Giovanni, Luca di, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Giovanni, Pietro di, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Girardon, Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Glycon, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Glyptothek, Munich;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">groups from &AElig;gina in, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Barberini Faun in, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Thorwaldsen's Adonis in, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Schwanthaler's decoration of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Gobbo, Il." <i>See</i> Solari</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Goethe, Tieck's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Golden House of Nero, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Venus Callipiga" in, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gorgasus, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gothic style, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in German art, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">hindrances of, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gottfried of Strasburg, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gottskalken, Thorvald, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Goujon, Jean, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Graces, The, by Pilon, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Granacci, Francesco, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Granada, cathedral of, Virgin by Cano in, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Great Elector, Schl&uuml;ter's statue of, <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Greece;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ancient sculpture of, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">religion of, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">influence of, on Etruscan art, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">portrait sculpture in, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gregory XVI., Pope, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Grimani, Senator, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Grimm;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Donatello's St. George, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Michael Angelo's David, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gr&ouml;ulund, Karen, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Grumbach, statue of (Krafft), <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Guardian Angel, church of, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Guardian Angel" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Guido Reni, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Guillain, Simon, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Guillaume de Sens, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Guinifort and Omodeo, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gutenberg memorial, Strasburg, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hadrian, Emperor;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and archaistic period, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Glycon, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Halle;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">wood-carvings in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Franke in, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hamilton, Gavin, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Harald Hildetand, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Harcourt, Comte d', Pigalle's statue of, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Harpy Monument," <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hartmann of Aue, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hayder, Simon, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hebe, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Heinrich II., Krafft's statue of, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Helios, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Henry II., monument of, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Henry III. of England, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Henry VII., monument of, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Heph&aelig;stus (Vulcan) by Alcamenes, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hera;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, by Polycleitus, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, at Argos, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Juno)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Heracles (Hercules);</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Triton, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cecrops, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Hercules)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hercules;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Scopas, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Lysippus, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">caricature of, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">the Farnesian, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Vischer, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Nessus, by Giovanni da Bologna, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">by Pigalle, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Lichas, by Canova, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Heracles)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hermes, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hernandez, Gregorio, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a>, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hesperides, apples of, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hieracosphinx, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hildesheim, bronze gate at, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">History shown by Assyrian bas-reliefs, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Honor and Valor, temple of, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hope, Thomas, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Hope," Thorwaldsen's statue of, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hosmer, Harriet, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">H&ouml;yer, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Humboldt, Baron von, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Huskisson, Gibson's statue of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Hylas and Nymphs" (Gibson), <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Iliad, selection from, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Intarsiatore, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Iphigenia, relief of, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Isabella of Aragon, statue of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ischia, Marquis of, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Isocephalism, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Italian classic sculpture, time of, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Italy in fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ivory carving;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in Byzantium, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in Germany, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Jacob and Esau," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jacopo della Fonte, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jaen, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Janina, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jason, by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_255'><b>255</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Johannis Cemetery, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"John the Baptist," by Andrea Pisano, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Berruguete, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jordan, Esteban, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Joseph;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">history of, by Ghiberti, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Potiphar's wife, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Joseph of Arimathea, by Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Joshua before Jericho," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Julia as Flora, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Julia and Canova, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Julius II., Pope;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Sansovino, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">mausoleum of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Junction of the Seine and Marne" (Coustou), <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Juni, Juan de, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a>, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Juno, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Hera)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jupiter;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Otricoli, <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, at Olympia, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Tonans" on Trajan's Pillar, <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">as St. Peter, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Zeus)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Juste, Jean, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Justice," by Krafft, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Vischer, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by della Porta, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Justinian, monument of, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kalide, Theodore, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">King of Prussia and Schadow, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">K&ouml;nigsbau, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">K&ouml;nigsberg, statue in, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kora, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Krafft, Adam, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Kreugas and Damoxenes" (Canova), <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kriosphinx, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kunigunde, by Krafft, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">K&uuml;nz, Nicolaus, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Labenwolf, Pankraz, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lamberger, Simon, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Lamentation" (Krafft), <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lamp of Minerva, by Callimachus, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Last Judgment," of Rheims cathedral, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lateran;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Myron's Marsyas in, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">antique statue of Nemesis in, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Sophocles in, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of St. Hippolitus in, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sarcophagi in, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Bernini's "Piet&agrave;" in, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leah, by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Le Mans, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lenox Gallery, New York, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leo I., Pope, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leo X., Pope, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leo XII. and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leochares, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leopardo, Alessandro, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lessing, Tieck's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rietschel's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leuchtenberg, Duke of, monument to, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Liebfrauenkirche, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Lion of Lucerne" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Liverpool Cemetery, chapel, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Livia, wife of Augustus, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loggia de' Lanzi, Florence, groups in, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loggietta of the Campanile, Venice, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lombardi, The, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lombardo, Alfonso, <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Lord's Supper" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loreto, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louis of Bavaria and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louis XII., monument of, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louis XIII., Anguier's statue of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louis XIV.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Guillain's statue of, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Girardon, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Coysevox's statue of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Coustou's statue of, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louis XVIII.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Venus of Milo, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Bosio's statue of, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louise, Queen, Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louvre, Paris;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Egyptian collection in, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">archaic reliefs in, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Venus of Milo" in, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Artemis in, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Museum of Modern Sculpture in, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument by Juste in, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Cellini's nymph in, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Pilon's "Graces" in, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">bas-reliefs by Goujon in, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sarrazin's works in, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Guillain's Louis XIV. in, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Girardon's works in, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Puget's works in, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Love in Repose" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">L&uuml;bke, Wilhelm;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Apollo Belvedere, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning fourteenth century, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Schl&uuml;ter, <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lucca, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lucian, concerning Calamis, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ludovico Moro and Omodeo, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Luther, bust of (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Schadow's monument to, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rietschel's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lysippus, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">school of, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Hercules by, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">power of, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lytton, Lord, concerning Gibson, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Madonna, statue of (Freiburg), <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">repetition of, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Arnolfo di Cambio, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Stoss, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Madonna del Soccorso, chapel of, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Magnani, Anna Maria, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Maidbrunn, Krafft's work in, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Maiden and Bird" (Dannecker), <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Majano, Benedetto da, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Manuel, Nicolaus, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marburg, wood-carvings in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marcellus, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marcus Aurelius;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">arch of, in Rome, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Maria Louisa, Canova's statue of, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marienkirche, Count Sparr's monument in, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mark, Count von der, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mars;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Romans, by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cupid, by Gibson, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marsyas, by Myron, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Martisen, Egyptian sculptor, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mary of Aragon, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marys, The, by Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Massegne, The, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Massimi Villa, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Matthias Corvinus, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mausoleum, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mausolus, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Maximianus, cathedra of, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Maximilian I., Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mazarin, Cardinal, tomb of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medemet Haboo, sculpture in, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medes, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medici, Catherine de', <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medici, Cosmo de', <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cellini, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medici, Giuliano de', <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medici, Lorenzo de', <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Medici, Piero de', <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Melos, <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mendelsohn and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Menides of Antiocheia, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mercury, by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Giovanni da Bologna, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Pigalle, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Merovingians, statues of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Metal work;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Assyrian, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in tenth century, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in eleventh century, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Michael Angelo;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">attempted to restore the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Ghiberti's gates, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cellini, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>, <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Milan, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">cathedral of, and Omodeo, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Milo (Melos), <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Milo, by Puget, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Dannecker, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Minerva;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, in &AElig;gina, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of the Capitol, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, in the Forum, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Athena and Pallas)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mocenigo, Doge Pietro, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Modena, Antonio da, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Moderation" (Vischer), <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Monta&ntilde;es, Juan Martinez, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Monte Oliveto, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Montmorenci, Duke de, tomb of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Montorsoli attempted to restore the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Monumental sculpture of thirteenth century, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Moore, Sir John, Flaxman's statue of, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Moritz, statue of (Pigalle), <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Morley, Mrs., monument of, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Morning" (Michael Angelo), <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Moses;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">on Mount Sinai, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Aaron, and Hur (Rauch), <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Moses Fountain," <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mount Cith&aelig;ron and "Farnese Bull," <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mummius and Grecian spoils, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Munich, group by Cephisodotus in, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Murillo, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Music" (della Robbia), <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mycen&aelig;, Lion Gate of, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Myron of Eleuther&aelig;, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">followers of, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Naples;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Laocoon group in, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">historical statues in, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Naples, Museum of;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Venus Callipiga" in, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and "Farnese Bull", <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Farnesian Hercules" in, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Napoleon and Canova, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">National Gallery, London, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Nativity," by Rossellino, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Anguier, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nemesis of Agoracritus, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Neptune;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Cellini, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Giovanni da Bologna, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nero, and the Thespian Cupid, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Grecian spoils, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Niccol&ograve; of Arezzo, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nicodemus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Krafft, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Bandinelli, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Night," by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Nile of the Vatican," <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nimes, Pradier's fountain at, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nimrud, bas-reliefs at, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Niobe;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Mount Sipylus, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">group, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">myth of, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Noah, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Noceto, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Notre Dame, church of;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Louis XIV. in, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Coustou's sculptures in, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">d'Harcourt's monument in, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nuremberg;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sculptures of, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Veit Stoss, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Wohlgemuth, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of D&uuml;rer in, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Nymph," by Dannecker, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Bosio, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nyso&euml; and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Obelisks, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Octavia, portico of, and Venus de' Medici, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">&OElig;dipus, by Chaudet, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Oehlenschlager, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Oluf Paa, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Olympiad, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Olympic games, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Omodeo. <i>See</i> Amadeo</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Or San Michele, church of, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a>, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Orcagna, Andrea, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Orpheus and Eurydice" (Canova), <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Orvieto, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Osborne, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Othman IV., Caliph, and Colossus of Rhodes, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Our Lady, church of, Nuremberg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Padua, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture," relief of, by Chaudet, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palais de Justice (Bruges), <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palazzo Grassi, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palazzo Pubblico, fountain in front of, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palazzo Torlonia (Rome), <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palazzo Vecchio, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pallajuolo, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pallas, by Sansovino, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Athena and Minerva)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Panathenaic Procession, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pandareus, King, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Panhellenic games, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pantheon, influence of, upon sculpture, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pantheon, Paris, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Paris;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">historic statue in, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">cathedrals of, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Paros, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Parthenon, frieze of; <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a>; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">groups of seven on, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">central group in, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">historical value of, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">inequality of work in, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Paul III. and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument of, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Paul V. and Bernini, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pavia, Omodeo in, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Peace," by della Porta, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Chaudet, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peel, Sir Robert, Gibson's statue of, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peleus, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peloponnesus, school of, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peloponnesian war, effect of, on sculpture, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Pensieri," by Canova, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peplos, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pepoli, bust of, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pergamon, school of, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Dying Gaul, <a href='#Page_79'><b>79</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Periclean age, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pericles;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">patron of Phidias, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">portrait statue of, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">qualities of, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Perkins, Mr.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Nicola Pisano, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Amadeo, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Perry, Walter Copeland;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Athena, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning "Venus of Milo," <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Perseus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Vischer, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Cellini, <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Andromeda, by Puget, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Perseus of Macedon, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Persians, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Perugia;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">fountain of, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Giovanni Pisano's works in, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Peter the Great and Schl&uuml;ter, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Phalereus, Demetrius, statues to, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Phidias;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">forerunners of, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Pericles, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Praxiteles, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Lysippus, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Athena by, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">superiority of, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and thirteenth century, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Philip, Elector, and Vischer, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Philip the Bold;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Sluter, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Phrixos and Helle," <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Phryne and Praxiteles, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Piazza della Signoria, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Piazza Navona, fountain in, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Piazza of San Lorenzo (Florence), <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Piccolomini tomb, Siena, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Piet&agrave;;"</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Bernini, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pilon, Germain, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisa;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Baptistery of, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Giovanni Pisano, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Nino Pisano's works in, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">cathedral of, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisani, Senator, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisano, Andrea, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisano, Giovanni, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisano, Nicola, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pisano, Nino, <a href='#Page_134'><b>134</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pistoja, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pitt, Flaxman's statue of, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pius VII., monument of, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pliny;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning the first bas-relief, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Cresilas, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning the Niobe group, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Boethus, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Plutarch, concerning the Pericleian age, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Plutus, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Point, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pointer, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Poliorcetes, Demetrius, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Poliziano, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pollio, Asinius, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Polychromy, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Polycleitus, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">canon of, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Peloponnesian school, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Polydorus and the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pompadour, Mme., <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pompeii, <a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Poncher monument, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Porta, Guglielmo della, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Porta Prima, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Portogallo, Cardinal, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Portrait sculpture;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">archaic, <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in Greece and Rome, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Possagno and Canova, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pradier, James, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Prague, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Prato, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Praxiteles, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Preller, Ludwig, and Apollo Belvedere, <a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Priam begging Hector's body" (Thorwaldsen), <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Proconsolo, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Prometheus, by Pradier, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Proven&ccedil;al Poets, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Prudence;"</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Vischer, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by della Porta, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Psyche;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Pradier, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Zephyrs, by Gibson, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ptolemy, Alexander's general, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Puget, Pierre, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pythagoras of Rhegium, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quellinus, Arthur, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quercia, Jacopo della, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quintilian, concerning Timanthes, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quirinal Palace;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Thorwaldsen's frieze in, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Thorwaldsen's works in, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Quoit-thrower" of Myron, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Rachel," by Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Racine, illustrated by Chaudet, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Raimondi, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rameses II., colossus of, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Rape of Proserpine," by Bernini, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Girardon, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Rape of the Sabines" (Giovanni da Bologna), <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rauch, Christian, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ravenna, ivory carving in, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Religion," by Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Renaissance, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ren&eacute;, King, statue of, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Resurrection of&nbsp; the Dead" (Rheims), <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rezzonico, Prince, and Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rhamnus and Nemesis of Agoracritus, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rheims, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rhodes;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">colossus of, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">undisturbed by death of Alexander, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Farnese Bull, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">school of, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Rhone," by Coustou, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Richelieu, monument of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Riemenschneider, Tilman, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rietschel, Ernst, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rilievo, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rimini, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rivi&egrave;re, Marquis of, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rizzo, or Riccio, Antonio, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Robbia, Luca della, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Robbia ware, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rodari, The, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Roldan, Louisa, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Roldan, Pedro, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Romanesque period, <a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rome, lack of artists in, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">portrait sculpture of, <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">decline of art in, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">R&ouml;sch, Jacob, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Roscoe, William, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rossellini, The, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rossellino, Antonio, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rossi, Properzia de', <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Roux, Roulland de, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rovere, monument of, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Royal Academy, London, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rubens, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ruhmeshalle, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Rustici, Giovanni Francesco, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Sacrifice of Isaac," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sacristy of St. Mark's, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Andrew, by Duquesnoy, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Angelo, bridge of, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Bibiana, by Bernini, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Denis, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">reliefs of, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Sluter, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument in, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Dominick, sarcophagus of, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. George, by Donatello, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. George's Hall (Liverpool), <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Germain l'Auxerrois, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Hippolytus, statue of, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Jacques, church of, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. John;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Bernardo Rossellino, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Canova, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. John the Baptist;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">chapel of, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Rustici, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Laurence, church of, Nuremberg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Krafft's works in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Longinus, by Bernini, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Mark's, library of, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Michael, by Luisa Roldan, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Nicolas, church of, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Peter;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, on Trajan's Pillar, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of, in St. Peter's, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Paralytic, Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Peter's;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Cathedral (Rome), <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Piet&agrave; in, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument of Paul III. in, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Bernini's sculptures in, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Duquesnoy's St. Andrew in, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument of Pius VII., <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Thorwaldsen's works in, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Sebald, church of (Nuremberg), <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Krafft's works in, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">shrine of (Vischer), <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Sebastian, by Civitali, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Susanna, by Duquesnoy, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Thomas, church of (Strasburg), <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">St. Zenobius, sarcophagus of, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ste. Chapelle, church of, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">SS. Giovanni e Paolo, church of, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Salt-cellar, by Cellini, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Antonio, church of (Padua), relief in, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Benedetto, church of (Mantua), <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Benito el Real, church of, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Domenico, church of (Orvieto), <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Domenico, sarcophagus of, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Francesco, church of (Ancona), <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Francesco, church of (Modena), <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Francesco, church of (Rimini), <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Francesco della Vigna, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Giovanni Crisostomo, relief in, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Lorenzo, church of, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Martino, cathedral of (Lucca), <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Miniato, church of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Petronio, church of (Bologna), <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Piero Maggiore, church of (Florence), <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">San Pietro in Vincoli, church of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Croce, church of, and Donatello, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Brunelleschi, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">monument of Bruni in, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">pulpit in, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Michael Angelo buried in, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria de' Frari, church of (Florence), Canova's tomb in, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria del Fiore, church of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria del Popolo, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria della Spina, church of, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria di Loreto, church of, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Santa Maria Novella, church of, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sangallo, Francesco, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sansovino (San Savino), Andrea, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sansovino, Jacopo, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Saone," by Coustou, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sappho, by Pradier, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sardanapalus I., statue of, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sarrazin, Jacques, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Satyr, by Praxiteles, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Saviour, by Canova, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scale-stones, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schadow, John Gottfried, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schadow, John Rudolph, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scharnhorst, Rauch's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schelling, Tieck's statue of, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schinkel, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schliemann, Dr., and the metope of Ilium, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schl&uuml;ter, Andreas, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schubart, Baron von, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schwabach and Wohlgemuth, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Schwanthaler, Ludwig, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scopas, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Leochares, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scorgola, la, abbey of, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scuola della Misericordia, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sebenico, Giorgio da, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">S&eacute;guier, Pierre, bust of, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Girardon, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Selene on Trajan's Pillar, <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Selinus, reliefs from, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Senate Chamber, Chaudet's Cincinnatus in, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Septimius Severus, arch of (Rome), <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Serra family, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Settignano, Desiderio da, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Seven Sorrows of the Virgin," <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Seven Stages" (Krafft), <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Seventeenth century, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Seville, altars of, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sforza, Battista, bust of, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sforza, Cardinal, monument of, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sicyon, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">school of, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Siena, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Giovanni Pisano, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Quercia, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Ghiberti, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Sirens" (Giovanni da Bologna), <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sistine Chapel and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sixteenth century, <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sixtus V., Pope, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Sleeping Shepherd" (Gibson), <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sluter, Claux, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">influence of, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Socrates, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Solari, Cristoforo, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Solomon and Queen of Sheba," <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sophocles, statue of, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sorbonne, church of the, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sosius, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">South Kensington Museum, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sparr, Count, monument of, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sphinx, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Spinario," <a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Spinner" (Schadow), <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Squarcione, Francesco, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sta&euml;l, Mme. de, David's statue of, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stampe, Baron von, and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Statuettes, Assyrian, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Steinbach, Sabina von, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Steinh&auml;user, Apollo," <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stephani and "Apollo Belvedere," <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stephenson, Gibson's statue of, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stettin, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stoss, Veit, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Strada Babbuino, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Strasburg, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Gutenberg memorial in, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Strength" (Vischer), <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Stroganoff Apollo," <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Strozzi, Filippo, monument of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Strozzi Palace, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stuart and Revett, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Stuttgart, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sulla and Grecian spoils, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Swabian School, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Syrlin, J&ouml;rg, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Talma, David's statue of, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tatti, Jacopo, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tauriscus, of the Toro Farnese, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tavera, Juan de, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tedesco, Pietro, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Temperance" (Giovanni Pisano), <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Temple Church, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tenth century, metal work in, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Terra-cotta, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Terra-cottas in Milan, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Th&eacute;&acirc;tre Fran&ccedil;ais, Talma's statue in, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Theodosius, column and obelisk of, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Theseion, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Theseus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">temple of, by Phidias, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">torso of, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Minotaur, Canova, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thetis, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thiele, concerning Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thirteenth century, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thorwaldsen, Bertel;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and reliefs from &AElig;gina, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and classic art, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">life and works, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thorwaldsen Museum, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a>, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tiberius and the Apoxyomenos, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tieck, Christian Frederic, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Timanthes, <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Titus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Laocoon, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">arch of (Rome), <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Toledo;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">altars of, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">cathedral of, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Toretto, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Toro Farnese," <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Torrigiano, Pietro;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in England, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and Cellini, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tours, cathedral of, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Trajan;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">arch of, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">pillar of, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tralles, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Trastevere, Apoxyomenos found in, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tribolo, Il, (Braccini), <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Trojan war in &AElig;ginetan reliefs, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tuileries;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Chaudet's "Peace" in, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Prometheus in, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tuscany, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Twelfth century, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Uffizi;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Niobe group in, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Venus de' Medici" in, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Donatello's works in, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">della Robbia's works in, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>, <a href='#Page_147'><b>147</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rossellino's works in, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sansovino's Bacchus in, <a href='#Page_185'><b>185</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">carved cherry-stone in, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">model of Michael Angelo's David in, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Michael Angelo in, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Uhden, M. d', <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulm, wood-carvings in, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Urban VIII., monument of, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Usurtasen, Egyptian sculptor, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Val de Grace, church of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Valladolid, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Varchi, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vasari and Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vatican;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Eros of Centocelle in, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Apoxyomenos in, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">copy of the Laocoon in, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">historic statue in, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Etruscan table-ware in, <a href='#Page_83'><b>83</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Chigi Venus in, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Apollo Belvedere in, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Young Augustus" in, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Augustus in, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sarcophagi in, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">statue of Perseus in, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vend&ocirc;me Column, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Venice;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">historic statues in, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sansovino in, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Canova's heart in, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Venus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Alcamenes, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Scopas, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Cnidos, <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and the Romans, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">de' Medici, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Cnidian, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of the Capitol, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Milo (Melos), <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">of Chigi, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Callipiga, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Giovanni da Bologna, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Aphrodite)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Verocchio, Andrea del, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Verona, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Versailles, Puget's works in, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Victoria;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Gibson's statue of, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">portraits of, by Gibson, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Victories," by Rauch, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Victors, statues of, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Villa Borghese;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and arch of Claudius, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Bernini's "Apollo and Daphne" in, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Villa Ludovisi, Bernini's "Rape of Proserpine" in, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Virgin;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Cano, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Coysevox, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Virtue and Vice" (Giovanni), <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vischer, Hermann, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vischer, Peter, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vischers, The, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Visconti Monument, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Volsinii, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Volto Santo, temple of, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Vulcan. <i>See</i> Heph&aelig;stus</span></li>
+
+
+<li><br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Walhalla, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Victories" by Rauch in, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Walther von der Vogelweid, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Washington, Canova's statue of, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wedgwood and Flaxman, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wells Cathedral, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Westmacott;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Bernini, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning Flaxman, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">concerning mechanical methods, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Westminster Abbey, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wichmann, Ludwig, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wilkens, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wilson, Heath, <a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Winckelmann, <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Wise Virgins," by Krafft, <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wittenberg, monument in, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Luther's statue in, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wohlgemuth, Michael, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wolff, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wolfram of Strasburg, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wood-carving in fifteenth century, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wounded Lion, Assyrian, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">W&uuml;rzburg, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span><br /></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zecca, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zeppelin, Count, monument of, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zeus;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Phidias's statue of, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">by Leochares, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a> (and <i>see</i> Jupiter)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zo&euml;ga and Thorwaldsen, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zuliani, Cavaliere, and Canova, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zwickau and Wohlgemuth, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Zwingerhof, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students, by Clara Erskine Clement
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@@ -0,0 +1,10561 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by
+Clara Erskine Clement
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students
+       Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
+
+Author: Clara Erskine Clement
+
+Release Date: May 29, 2008 [EBook #25632]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE VENUS OF MILO. (_See page 87._)]
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+HISTORY OF ART
+
+FOR
+
+BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
+
+PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE
+
+WITH
+
+_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+BY
+
+CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
+
+AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS,
+SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE
+NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
+
+NEW YORK
+
+FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1887,
+
+BY FREDERICK A. STOKES,
+
+SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+   CHAPTER I.
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+   ANCIENT SCULPTURE:
+
+   EGYPT,                                                              1
+
+   ASSYRIA,                                                           10
+
+
+   CHAPTER II.
+
+   GREEK SCULPTURE,                                                   18
+
+
+   CHAPTER III.
+
+   ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE,                                         82
+
+
+   CHAPTER IV.
+
+   MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH
+   CENTURY,                                                          105
+
+
+   CHAPTER V.
+
+   ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY,                       136
+
+
+   CHAPTER VI.
+
+   SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN,
+   FROM 1450 TO 1550,                                                160
+
+
+   CHAPTER VII.
+
+   ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI,
+   MICHAEL ANGELO, AND OTHERS,                                       181
+
+
+   CHAPTER VIII.
+
+   EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA,                 213
+
+
+   CHAPTER IX.
+
+   CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS,                  235
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+   Venus of Milo,                                         _Frontispiece_
+
+   Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo,                           3
+
+   Various Kinds of Dogs,                                              5
+
+   Androsphinx,                                                        6
+
+   Kriosphinx,                                                         6
+
+   The Great Sphinx,                                                   7
+
+   Hieracosphinx,                                                      8
+
+   The Colossi at Thebes,                                              9
+
+   Polishing a Colossal Statue,                                       10
+
+   Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a
+    lithographic Drawing),                                            11
+
+   Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud),                           12
+
+   Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud),                                           13
+
+   Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel,                               15
+
+   Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad),                                   16
+
+   Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik),                                17
+
+   Lion Devouring Deer,                                               22
+
+   Heracles, Triton, and Nereids,                                     23
+
+   Heracles and the Cecrops,                                          23
+
+   Actaeon and his Dogs,                                               24
+
+   From the Harpy Monument, London,                                   25
+
+   Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at AEgina,      27
+
+   Archaistic Artemis at Naples,                                      28
+
+   The Discobolus (Myron),                                            30
+
+   Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos,                         34
+
+   Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus,                               36
+
+   Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli,                                 37
+
+   Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?),                                  38
+
+   From the Frieze of the Parthenon,                                  43
+
+   The Five Central Figures,                                          44
+
+   Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade,                            45
+
+   Horsemen Starting,                                                 46
+
+   Procession of Cavalry,                                             46
+
+   Procession of Chariots,                                            47
+
+   Train of Musicians and Youths,                                     47
+
+   Cows for Sacrifice,                                                48
+
+   Train of Noble Maidens,                                            48
+
+   Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum),                         50
+
+   A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas),                                       52
+
+   Statue of Pericles (Cresilas),                                     52
+
+   Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus),                        56
+
+   Portrait of Mausolus,                                              57
+
+   From the Frieze of the Mausoleum,                                  58
+
+   The Eros of Centocelle,                                            60
+
+   Niobe and her Youngest Daughter,                                   62
+
+   Brother and Sister,                                                63
+
+   The Eldest Daughter,                                               64
+
+   A Niobid,                                                          65
+
+   Ganymede (after Leochares),                                        66
+
+   Monument of Lysicrates (Athens),                                   67
+
+   Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument),                   68
+
+   The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus,                                       69
+
+   The Laocoon Group,                                                 75
+
+   The Farnese Bull,                                                  77
+
+   Gallic Warrior (Venice),                                           78
+
+   The Dying Gaul,                                                    79
+
+   Boy and Goose,                                                     80
+
+   Spinario,                                                          81
+
+   Venus de' Medici,                                                  86
+
+   The Farnesian Hercules,                                            89
+
+   The Apollo Belvedere,                                              90
+
+   Head of Apollo Belvedere,                                          91
+
+   The Steinhaeuser Head,                                              91
+
+   The Stroganoff Apollo,                                             92
+
+   _Diane a la Biche_,                                                95
+
+   Athena of the Capitol,                                             96
+
+   Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus,                           97
+
+   From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column,                               99
+
+   Portrait of Sophocles,                                            101
+
+   Statue of Augustus,                                               102
+
+   Agrippina the Elder,                                              103
+
+   Statue of St. Peter,                                              106
+
+   From the Cathedra of Maximianus,                                  109
+
+   Diptych (Zurich),                                                 110
+
+   From the Facade of Chartres Cathedral,                            113
+
+   From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral,                      118
+
+   From the West Facade of Strasburg Cathedral,                      120
+
+   Duke Robert of Normandy,                                          121
+
+   Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene),                                     124
+
+   Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca),                                  128
+
+   Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano),                   129
+
+   Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano),                            132
+
+   Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna),                         138
+
+   From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10),       141
+
+   The Annunciation (Donatello),                                     143
+
+   Statue of St. George (Donatello),                                 144
+
+   Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia),                                 147
+
+   Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio),                                     149
+
+   Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio),                                   150
+
+   Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan),                    156
+
+   Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar),                             169
+
+   Justice,                                                          170
+
+   The Three Wise Virgins,                                           170
+
+   Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg),                                   172
+
+   Peter Vischer's Statue,                                           173
+
+   St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer),                     174
+
+   Peter (Vischer),                                                  175
+
+   John (Vischer),                                                   175
+
+   Man and Geese (Labenwolf),                                        176
+
+   Pharisee, Levite (Rustici),                                       183
+
+   Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino),                                       185
+
+   Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini),                                      191
+
+   Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna),                                 197
+
+   Pieta (Michael Angelo),                                           199
+
+   Michael Angelo's David,                                           201
+
+   Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo),                             205
+
+   Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),                                 207
+
+   Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna),                                    215
+
+   Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid),                                217
+
+   Rape of Proserpine (Bernini),                                     225
+
+   Caryatide (Quellinus),                                            231
+
+   Heads of Dying Warriors (Schlueter),                               232
+
+   The Great Elector (Schlueter),                                     233
+
+   The Three Graces (Canova),                                        241
+
+   Hebe (Canova),                                                    246
+
+   Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker),                              249
+
+   Jason (Thorwaldsen),                                              256
+
+   Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen),                             260
+
+   The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen),                                   261
+
+   Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch),                                   270
+
+   Nymph (by Bosio),                                                 273
+
+
+
+
+SCULPTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ANCIENT SCULPTURE.
+
+EGYPT.
+
+
+No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first
+practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time
+ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates
+from 2466 B.C., sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as
+could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training
+and practice in this art.
+
+In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the
+memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that
+reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which
+Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke
+to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he
+lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer
+on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand
+art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He
+relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every
+position, according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward,
+as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly
+understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor
+washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that
+'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and
+the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen
+able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in
+masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to
+ivory and ebony.'"
+
+There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named
+Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its
+highest point.
+
+The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in
+the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and
+they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though
+more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The
+subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried
+in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus
+represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the
+stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of
+arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it
+should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their
+minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the
+contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure,
+and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the
+fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the
+whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as
+if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one
+sense really have no relation to each other.
+
+The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different
+parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors,
+and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to
+think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position
+of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed
+close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the
+legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery,
+and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great
+advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture.
+
+One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact
+that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures
+moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed:
+they were _statues_, and no one can forget this for a moment while
+looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if
+in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting
+statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees
+or held across the breast (Fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STATUE OF CEPHREN IN THE MUSEUM AT CAIRO.]
+
+There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had
+more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife
+sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their
+arms around one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal
+figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller
+and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few
+attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as
+if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of
+positions after which all sculptured figures were made.
+
+In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is
+remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by
+prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture
+and painting.
+
+The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were
+covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars
+and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The
+sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or
+even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor
+it required to make them are simply marvellous.
+
+I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the
+palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt
+and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct
+the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the
+back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
+foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer
+counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll;
+each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the
+returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one
+thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above,
+where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war
+was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or
+green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses
+give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of Assyria
+and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he
+places near the Caspian." ...
+
+The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The
+king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car,
+conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and
+before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend
+as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
+corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in
+regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany
+their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra
+and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the
+victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled
+beneath his feet."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--VARIOUS KINDS OF DOGS.]
+
+This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will
+give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors.
+
+The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful
+as any part of them. There being no intellectual expression required,
+they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging
+features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and
+the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the
+sculptures--No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7,
+greyhounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANDROSPHINX.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--KRIOSPHINX.]
+
+One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the
+Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the
+great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head.
+It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is _the_ Sphinx of the
+world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in
+Egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered
+by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express
+some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are
+very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and
+mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the
+great Sphinx is called the _androsphinx_ (Fig. 3). Another has the body
+of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the _kriosphinx_
+(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this
+is called the _hieracosphinx_ (Fig. 6). They all typified the king,
+without doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given
+to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the
+heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in
+place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but
+it is rare.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE GREAT SPHINX.]
+
+The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their
+vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west
+bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from
+a single block of stone such as is not found within several days'
+journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high,
+and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is
+still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was
+of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It
+was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and
+thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast
+weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also
+how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given
+(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one
+(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These
+representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly
+just what we wish to know about these things.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HIERACOSPHINX.]
+
+I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture,
+and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that
+in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of
+Egyptian architecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the
+decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while
+at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the
+nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true--though the
+reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are,
+as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The
+obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand
+buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we
+may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was
+essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for
+that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt
+that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the
+natural result of its earliest attainments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE COLOSSI AT THEBES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8--POLISHING A COLOSSAL STATUE.]
+
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs,
+statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller
+works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger
+works in sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MODE OF TRANSPORTING A COLOSSUS FROM THE
+QUARRIES. _From a Lithographic Drawing._
+
+In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh.
+
+1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private
+individual, not of a king, or a deity.
+
+2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of
+a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to
+throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala.
+
+4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase.
+
+5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs.
+
+6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue.
+
+10. Men carrying water, or grease.
+
+11. Some implements.
+
+12. Taskmasters.
+
+13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.]
+
+The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our
+idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian
+works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the
+weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which
+they were originally finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STATUE OF SARDANAPALUS I.
+_From Nimrud._]
+
+The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one
+given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of
+preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about
+forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic
+than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking,
+and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always
+of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They
+also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way
+than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are
+also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and
+ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most
+unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their
+greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can
+be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the
+Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It
+was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression
+to their religious feeling; they told the history of their nation, and
+glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now
+make the subjects of _genre_ pictures; and even imitated vegetables and
+fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these
+pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs
+that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures
+are even more important than when they are considered merely from an
+artistic view.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LION-HUNT. _From Nimrud._]
+
+The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of
+bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century B.C. One
+striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and
+animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of
+position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt
+given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you
+will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the
+human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In
+these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these
+are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are
+all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of
+this art was reached about 650 B.C. At this period the various forms
+seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The
+human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an
+air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far
+better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more
+beautiful than before.
+
+The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period.
+I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion,
+probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in
+Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his
+agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The
+drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares
+favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art,
+either classic or modern (Fig. 12).
+
+There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of
+color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color
+remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we
+know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs
+belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what
+extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the
+Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the
+ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria
+are white, black, red and blue.
+
+Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most
+important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole
+figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low
+bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but
+finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal
+forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of
+them have a ring fastened to the back, which indicates that they were
+used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but
+we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal
+castings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--WOUNDED LION BITING A CHARIOT-WHEEL. _From the
+North Palace, Koyunjik._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARM-CHAIR OR THRONE.
+_Khorsabad._]
+
+The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and
+perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small
+nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the
+contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls
+and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of
+sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other
+ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables,
+chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals.
+All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to
+have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are
+coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea
+of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various
+designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great
+many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and
+interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn
+by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were
+carried on, and what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were.
+Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits,
+food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is
+plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole
+history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one
+source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig.
+13).
+
+Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their
+arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians;
+but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians,
+though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing
+as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have
+considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of
+Greece.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--MODE OF DRAWING THE BOW. _Koyunjik._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GREEK SCULPTURE.
+
+
+We have seen that the Egyptians and Assyrians were skilful in sculpture,
+but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be
+moved by art; there is always something beyond them to be desired, and
+it remained for the Greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture
+which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of
+beauty and grace. In truth, in Greece alone has this perfection in
+plastic art existed, and since the time of its highest excellence there
+no other nation has equalled the examples of Greek sculpture which still
+exist, though we have reason to believe that its finest works have
+perished, and that those remaining are of the second grade.
+
+There are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the Greeks,
+and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an
+essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book; but I will
+speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect
+Greek art--that is, the unbounded love of beauty, which was an essential
+part of the Greek nature. To the Greek, in fact, beauty and good had the
+same meaning--_beauty was good_, and the good must be beautiful.
+
+Sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man, and the other
+features in it have some relation to the human element of the design;
+and it would have been impossible for a true Greek to represent the
+human form otherwise than beautiful. A writer on this point says: "The
+chief aim of the enlightened Greek, his highest ambition and his
+greatest joy, was to be a _man_ in the fullest sense of the word--man in
+the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty, in the
+active exercise of the keenest senses, in the greatest because tempered
+enjoyment of sensual pleasure, in the free and joyous play of an
+intellect strong by nature, graced and guided by the most exquisite
+taste, and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy." Thus, beauty was so
+important to the Greek that every parent prayed that his children might
+have this gift, and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon
+pillars set where all could read them; and at times there were
+competitions for the prize of beauty.
+
+The religion of the Greek, too, taught that the body was the beautiful
+and godlike temple of his soul; and the truth that human beings have
+something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great
+respect for humanity, and, in truth, he felt that if he could escape
+death he should be content and almost, if not quite, a god. For we must
+remember that the gods of the Greek were not all-wise, all-powerful, and
+all-good, as we believe our God to be. If you read their mythology you
+will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness
+were mingled. They did not believe that Zeus had been the greatest god
+from the beginning, but that there was a time when he had no power. He
+was not omniscient nor omnipresent, and was himself subject to the
+decrees of Fate, as when he could not save his loved Sarpedon from
+death. Not knowing all things, even the gods are sometimes represented
+as depending upon mortals for information, and all these religious views
+tended to make the human form far more noble to the Greek than it can be
+to the Christian, with his different views of the relations of God and
+man.
+
+Greek sculpture existed in very early days, and we have vague accounts
+of a person called DAEDALUS, who seems to have been a wood-carver. Many
+cities claimed to have been his birthplace, and no one can give any
+clear account of this ancient artist. He is called the inventor of the
+axe, saw, gimlet, plummet-line, and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass. He
+is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from
+the bodies of his statues, or made the feet to step out; he also opened
+their eyes, and there is a legend that the statues of Daedalus were so
+full of life that they were chained lest they should run away.
+
+We call the time to which Daedalus belonged the prehistoric period, and
+his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished. Two
+very ancient specimens of sculpture remain--the Lion Gate of Mycenae and
+the Niobe of Mount Sipylus; but as their origin is not known, and they
+may not be the work of Greek artists, it is best for us to pass on to
+about 700 B.C., when the records of individual artists begin.
+
+Among the earliest of these was DIBUTADES, of whom Pliny said that he
+was the first who made likenesses in clay. This author also adds that
+Dibutades first mixed red earth with clay, and made the masks which were
+fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples.
+Pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in
+bas-relief.
+
+Dibutades lived in Sicyon, and had a daughter called sometimes Kora, and
+again Callirhoe. She could not aid her father very much in his work as a
+sculptor, but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home
+flowers, which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little
+shop. Kora was very beautiful, and many young Greeks visited her father
+for the sake of seeing the daughter. At length one of these youths asked
+Dibutades to take him as an apprentice; and when this request was
+granted the young man made one of the family of the sculptor. Their
+life was one of simple content. The young man could play upon the reed,
+and his education fitted him to be the instructor of Kora. After a time,
+for some reason that Pliny does not mention, it was best for the youth
+to go away from the artist's home, and he then asked Kora if she would
+be his wife. She consented, and vows of betrothal were exchanged, while
+they were sad at the thought of parting.
+
+The last evening of his stay, as they sat together, Kora seized a coal
+from the brazier, and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that
+was so dear to her; and she did this so correctly that when her father
+saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn. Then he
+wished to do his part, for he also loved the young man. So he brought
+his clay and filled in the outline which Kora had drawn, and so went on
+to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made. Thus did
+this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of Sicyon,
+about twenty-five hundred years ago.
+
+After this beginning Dibutades went on to perfect his art. He made
+medallions and busts, and decorated the beautiful Grecian structures
+with his work, and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful
+ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of Greece. He also
+founded a school for modelling at Sicyon, and became so famous an artist
+that several Greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace.
+
+The bas-relief made from Kora's outline was preserved in the Nymphaeum at
+Corinth for almost two hundred years, but was then destroyed by fire.
+She married her lover, and he became a famous artist at Corinth.
+
+We have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about 700
+B.C.; but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in
+detail that I shall pass on about two hundred years, after saying a few
+words of the advance made in the arts of sculpture, and mentioning a
+few of the examples which remain from that early time, which is called
+the Archaic period. This expression not only means an ancient period of
+art, but carries also the idea of an obsolete art--of something that is
+not only ancient, but something that is no longer practised in the same
+manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time.
+During this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of
+plastic art. There were statues in metal and marble, bas-reliefs in
+various kinds of stone and marble, as well as some chryselephantine
+statues. This kind of work is often said to have been invented by
+Phidias, but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor, but
+carried it to great perfection. These chryselephantine statues were made
+of wood and then covered with ivory and gold; the ivory was used for the
+flesh parts of the statue, and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the
+figure, and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--LION DEVOURING DEER.]
+
+The principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic
+period were connected with the religion of the Greeks, which is known to
+us as mythology. Most statues were of the gods, but portrait statues
+were not unknown, and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in
+the Greek games dates back to this very early time. This was a custom
+which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in, and must have had
+a great influence to give life and progress to their art.
+
+Of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written,
+but I shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be
+given to aid you in understanding about them. Among the earliest reliefs
+that have been preserved are those now in the Museum of the Louvre, at
+Paris, which were found in the ruins of a Doric temple at Assos (Fig.
+15).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HERACLES, TRITON, AND NEREIDS.]
+
+The various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with
+each other, and are executed in a rude manner. The most interesting one
+represents Heracles, or Hercules, struggling with a Triton (Fig. 16).
+
+The female figures represent Nereids, who are terrified by seeing
+Heracles in contest with the sea-monster. There are many proofs that
+these reliefs belong to a very ancient day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--HERACLES AND THE CECROPS.]
+
+An interesting relief from the temple of Selinus represents Heracles
+striding off with a pole across his shoulders, to which are hung two
+Cecrops who had robbed and tormented him (Fig. 17).
+
+A very fine work is also from Selinus, and represents Actaeon torn by his
+dogs. The mythological story was that Zeus, or Jupiter, was angry with
+Actaeon because he wished to marry Semele, and the great god commanded
+Artemis, or Diana, to throw a stag's skin over Actaeon, so that his own
+dogs would tear him. In the relief Artemis stands at the left (Fig. 18).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ACTAEON AND HIS DOGS.]
+
+There is in the British Museum a monument which was discovered at
+Xanthos in 1838. It is thought to have been made about 500 B.C., and is
+called "The Harpy Monument," It is a tower, round the four sides of
+which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the
+ground. The frieze is of white marble, and is let into the frieze which
+is of sandstone. The Lycians, in whose country it was found, were
+accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers.
+
+There is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics
+concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures; and as
+all their writing is speculation, and no one knows the truth about it, I
+shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of
+art, and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of
+the frieze, from which the whole work takes its name. The Harpies are
+very curious; they had wings, and arms like human arms, with claws for
+hands, and feathered tails. Their bodies are egg-shaped, which is a very
+strange feature in their formation. We cannot explain all these
+different things, but there is little doubt that, with the little forms
+which they have in their arms, they represent the messengers of death
+bearing away the souls of the deceased. In the Odyssey, Homer represents
+the Harpies as carrying off the daughters of King Pandareus and giving
+them to the cruel Erinnyes for servants. For this reason the Harpies
+were considered as robbers, and whenever a person suddenly disappeared
+it was said that they had been carried off by Harpies (Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_From the Harpy Monument, London._]
+
+Before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth
+century B.C., I will speak of the two groups which belonged to the
+temple of Minerva in AEgina, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The
+city of AEgina was the principal city of the island of AEgina, which was
+in the gulf of the same name, near the south-west coast of Greece. This
+city was at the height of its prosperity about 475 B.C., at which time a
+beautiful temple was built, of which many columns are still standing,
+though much of it has fallen down. In 1811 some English and German
+architects visited this place, and the marbles they obtained are the
+most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period.
+Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, restored these reliefs, and the King
+of Bavaria bought them.
+
+Upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an
+episode in the Trojan war; it was the struggle of Ajax, Ulysses, and
+other Greek warriors to obtain the dead body of Achilles, which was held
+by the Trojans. The story is that the goddess Thetis had dipped her son
+Achilles in the river Styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable,
+or safe from wounds by weapons. But as she held him by the ankles they
+were not wetted, and so he could be wounded in them. During the siege of
+Troy Apollo guided the arrow of Paris to this spot, and the great leader
+of the Greeks was killed. It is believed that the warrior in this
+picture who is about to send his arrow is Paris. In the central or
+highest part of the pediment the goddess Minerva stands and tries to
+cover the fallen body of Achilles with her shield. These figures are on
+the side where the space grows narrower. You can judge of what the
+action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have
+so much. We are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as
+must carry death to its victim, and the second warrior, who braces
+himself on his feet and knee, will thrust his lance with equal power
+(Fig. 20).
+
+There are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these AEginetan
+statues; the weapons, helmets, shields, and quivers were red or blue;
+the eyes, hair, and lips were painted, and there are marks upon the
+garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze
+ornaments. There was a famous sculptor of AEgina named Callon, who lived
+about the time that this temple was built; and though it is not known to
+be so, yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the
+sculptor of these works, because they resemble the written descriptions
+of his statues and reliefs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of
+Minerva, at AEgina._]
+
+There was a period which we call archaistic, and by this we indicate a
+time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as
+possible the works of the true archaic period. It has constantly
+happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same
+thing, though the objects of imitation have varied with the different
+ages and nations. This archaistic "craze" to imitate old sculptures was
+at its height in the times of the Roman emperors Augustus and Hadrian;
+but here in America we have seen the same passion manifested in the
+desire to have such furniture as Queen Anne and her people admired, or
+such as "came over in the Mayflower;" and when the true original
+articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way
+places, then manufacturers began to imitate the old in the new, and one
+can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just
+from the workmen's hands.
+
+But among the Greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works
+of the earlier artists, which was the fact that the images of the gods
+and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their
+earliest forms, and were venerated by the people. Thus it followed that
+the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the
+artists was more suited to other subjects, while the religious images
+were made as nearly as possible like the older ones. If it happened that
+a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and
+more beautiful statue of the same deity, the pious Greek would prefer
+the ugly one, while he could well admire the most lovely. You should
+remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship.
+
+Many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ARCHAISTIC ARTEMIS AT NAPLES.]
+
+This is a very beautiful temple image, and was discovered at Pompeii in
+1760. It was found in a small temple or chapel, of which it must have
+been the principal deity. It is in excellent preservation; the only
+parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object
+which it held. Like many of these statues, it is less than
+life-size--four feet and two inches in height. When it was first
+discovered there were many traces of color about it. The hair was gilded
+to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to Artemis
+(Diana). There was considerable red about the garments, and some flowers
+were upon the border of the drapery. There is an archaic stiffness
+about this statue, but the flowing hair, the form of the eyes, and the
+free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic
+period (Fig. 21).
+
+It would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the
+progress of Greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the
+Periclean age, or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of AEgina to
+the perfections of the reliefs of the Parthenon. This we cannot do; but
+we know some of the causes that led to this progress, and can give
+accounts of a few sculptors who, while they did not equal the great
+Phidias, were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his.
+
+The chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the
+artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects. So long as the
+subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in
+the manner of treating them. Each god or goddess had its own attributes,
+which must be rendered with exact care; and any new mode of portraying
+them was almost a sacrilege. But as time passed on and the Panhellenic
+games and the national Pantheon at Olympia grew into their great
+importance, new subjects were furnished for the artists, which allowed
+them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic
+imaginations to their fullest extent. The victors in the games were
+heroes, and regarded even as demi-gods, and statues were allowed to be
+erected to them, although this had hitherto been considered a divine
+honor and was accorded to the gods alone. When these heroes were
+represented, the artists, not being bound by any laws, could study their
+subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to
+do. This exaltation of the Olympian victors gave an opportunity for the
+development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its
+influence and results.
+
+Another characteristic of the art of the time we are now considering
+was the almost universal use of bronze. This metal is excellent for
+displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues, but it is
+not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving
+expression to the face. PYTHAGORAS OF RHEGIUM was a famous artist who
+worked entirely in bronze. The only copies from his works of which we
+know are on two gems, one of which is in the Berlin Museum. He made
+exact studies of the body in action, and gave new importance to the
+reproduction of the veins and muscles. It is also claimed that
+Pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or
+proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules.
+
+MYRON OF ELEUTHERAE flourished about 500 to 440 B.C., and was reckoned
+among Athenian artists because, though not born at Athens, he did most
+of his works there, and his most famous work, the statue of a cow, stood
+on the Acropolis of that city. This cow was represented as in the act of
+lowing, and was elevated upon a marble base. It was carried from Athens
+to Rome, where it stood in the Forum of Peace. Many writers mentioned
+this work of Myron's, and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning
+it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE DISCOBOLUS.]
+
+Though the cow was so much talked of, the artistic fame of Myron rests
+more upon the "Discobolus," or quoit-thrower. The original statue does
+not exist, but there are several copies of it. That in the Massimi Villa
+is a very accurate one, and was found on the Esquiline Hill at Rome in
+A.D. 1782; our illustration is made from this statue. Myron's great
+skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown
+in the quoit-thrower. To make such a figure as this requires great power
+in a sculptor. No model could constantly repeat this action, and if he
+could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the
+position he reproduces. This figure, however, is so true to life that
+one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies (Fig.
+22). There are several other existing works attributed to Myron: they
+are a marble copy of his statue of Marsyas, in the Lateran at Rome; two
+torsi in the gallery at Florence; a figure called Diomed, and a bronze
+in the gallery at Munich.
+
+Myron made statues of gods and heroes, but he excelled in representing
+athletes. His works were very numerous, and a list of those which are
+only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of
+little value here. While Myron reproduced the form and action of the
+body with marvellous effect, he made no advance in representing the
+expression of the face, nor in the treatment of the hair. He was daring
+in his art, for he not only imitated what he saw in life, but he also
+represented grotesque imaginary creatures, and in many ways proved that
+he had a rich creative fancy.
+
+A third sculptor of this time was CALAMIS, who was in his prime about
+B.C. 450. He was not born in Athens, but he worked there. Calamis added
+to the exact representations of Pythagoras and Myron the element of
+grace beyond their powers in that direction. He made a greater variety
+of figures than they, for to gods and heroes he added heroines, boys and
+horses. His works were in bronze, gold and ivory, as well as marble. But
+what we know of Calamis is gathered from the writings of Greek authors
+rather than from works, or copies of works, by him still existing;
+indeed, no statue remains known to be his own, though there are some
+which critics fancy may be so. But we may be certain of his great
+excellence from the many praises sung and said of him, and Lucian, who
+knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of Greece, puts
+Calamis before them all for elegance and grace, and for the finer
+expression of faces; when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl
+he declares that he would go to Calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty
+and give it a sweet and unaffected smile.
+
+PHIDIAS is the most famous of all Greek sculptors, and as Greek
+sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge, it
+follows that Phidias was the first sculptor of the world. And yet, in
+spite of his fame, we do not know the time of his birth. We know that he
+was the son of Charmidas, but we know nothing of the father except that
+he had a brother who was a painter, and this makes it probable that the
+family of Phidias were artists.
+
+As nearly as can be told, Phidias was born about B.C. 500. This would
+have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of Marathon and
+twenty years old when Salamis was fought, while he came of age at the
+time of Plataea. He seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter,
+and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the
+administration of Cimon, about B.C. 471. But his finest works belong to
+the time of Pericles, who was his friend as well as patron, and made him
+the master over all the great public works at Athens during what we
+speak of as the Periclean age.
+
+It seems that the favor of Pericles was a dear privilege to Phidias, for
+it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred; and those who feared to attack
+Pericles himself avenged themselves upon Phidias, and accused him of
+dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of Minerva
+which he made for the Parthenon. He proved himself innocent of this,
+but he was accused of other crimes, and one account says that he was
+thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison. Another account
+relates that the great sculptor went into exile at Elis, where he made
+his most famous statue, the Olympian Zeus, and that he was there
+convicted of theft and put to death. With such contradictory stories we
+cannot know the exact truth; but we do know that he went to Elis
+accompanied by distinguished artists. He was received with honor, and
+for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to
+strangers. The Olympians also allowed him an honor which the Athenians
+never extended to him--that is, to inscribe his name upon the base of
+the statue of Zeus, which he was not permitted to do in the case of the
+Minerva (or Athena) of the Parthenon.
+
+It often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which
+have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in
+so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at
+any other time, and that he could not avoid being so, when everything
+had been shaped to his advantage. This was true of Phidias. When he came
+to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged Greece were over, and
+the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the
+rebuilding of Athens. Large quantities of "marble, bronze, ivory, gold,
+ebony and cypress wood" were there, and a great number of skilful
+workmen were at hand to work under his command. The Athenians were
+ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods, who,
+as they believed, had led them to their victories, and not only the
+public, but the private means were used to make Athens the grandest and
+most beautiful city of the world.
+
+The first great work with which the name of Phidias was connected was
+the building of the temple of Theseus, called also the Theseion. This
+was a very important temple, and was constructed in obedience to the
+command of an oracle in this wise: In B.C. 470 the island of Scyros had
+been taken by the Athenians, and upon this island Theseus had been
+buried. After the battle of Marathon, in which he had aided the
+Athenians, Theseus was much regarded by them, and in B.C. 476 they were
+directed to remove his bones to Athens and build over them a shrine
+worthy of so great a champion. Just then a gigantic skeleton was
+discovered at Scyros by Cimon, and was brought to Athens with great
+ceremony, and laid to rest with pompous respect, and the splendid temple
+dedicated to Theseus was begun, and Phidias was commissioned to make its
+plastic ornaments. The precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary
+where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ATHENIAN COINS WITH THE MINERVA PROMACHOS.]
+
+Phidias executed many works under the patronage of Cimon, the greatest
+of which was the colossal statue of Minerva, which stood on the
+Acropolis. It was called the "Minerva Promachos," and was so gigantic
+that "the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen
+by the mariner off the promontory of Sunium glittering in the sunlight
+as a welcome to her own chosen people, and an awful warning to her
+foes." The meaning of Promachos may be given as champion or guardian,
+and we know from existing descriptions that, with its pedestal, it must
+have been at least seventy feet in height. It was made from the spoils
+taken at Marathon; its pedestal was found, in 1840, standing between the
+Parthenon and the Erechtheium. It has been called the "Pallas with the
+golden spear," for this goddess was known as Athena, Minerva, and
+Pallas, and it is said that Alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect
+that he shrank from it in horror. The only representations of this
+statue now in existence are upon Athenian coins, and the position of the
+goddess differs in these, as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 23);
+there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests
+upon the ground is correct, one of which is that some years after the
+death of Phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of
+the battle of the Centaurs.
+
+Though Phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of
+Cimon, it was not until the time of Pericles that he reached the
+glorious height of his genius. Pericles and Phidias seem to have been
+two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic
+grandeur of Athens, and, indeed, of all Attica, for within a period of
+twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and
+completed. Plutarch writes of these wonders in these words: "Hence we
+have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by Pericles
+should be built in so short a time, and yet built for ages. For as each
+of them, as soon as it was finished, had the venerable air of antiquity,
+so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building. A
+bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by
+time, as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and
+unfading elegance."
+
+It is quite impossible that I should speak here of the works of Phidias
+in detail, and I have decided to speak only of the frieze of the
+Parthenon, because the Elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations
+from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great
+masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice. But,
+first, I will give a picture of a coin which shows the great Olympian
+Zeus, or Jupiter, which Phidias made at Elis, after he was an exile from
+Athens (Fig. 24). When Phidias was asked how he had found a model for
+this Jupiter, he quoted the lines from Homer:
+
+   "He said, and nodded with his shadowy brows,
+   Waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks,
+   And all Olympus trembled at the nod."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--COIN OF ELIS WITH THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS.]
+
+The writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this
+statue, and its praise is unending. It was colossal in size and made of
+ivory and gold, and one historian says that though the temple had great
+height, yet the Jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his
+throne he must have carried the roof away. It is related that when the
+work was completed Phidias prayed to Jupiter to give him a sign from
+heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god
+or not. This prayer was answered, and a flash of lightning came which
+struck the pavement in front of the statue. This statue was reckoned
+among the seven wonders of the world, and it is believed that the
+magnificent bust called the "Jupiter Otricoli" is a copy from the
+Olympian statue (Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--BUST OF JUPITER FOUND AT OTRICOLI.]
+
+I shall speak in another volume (upon Architecture) of the former glory
+and the present ruin of the Parthenon at Athens, and tell how upon its
+decoration Phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in
+beauty any other structure of which we have knowledge. Early in the
+present century Lord Elgin, the English Ambassador to the Porte,
+interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to
+England. In 1812 eighty chests containing these priceless works of the
+greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in Burlington House, and a
+few years later Parliament purchased them for L35,000, and they were
+placed in the British Museum, where they now are. There is a great
+number of them, and all are of great interest; but I shall pass over the
+metopes and the pediments, and shall pass to the frieze after speaking
+of this one figure of Theseus, which is from the sculptures of the
+eastern pediment. The sculptures upon this pediment represented the
+story of the birth of Athena, and it was proper that Theseus should be
+present, as he was king over Athens, of which city Athena, or Minerva,
+was the protecting goddess. Torso is a term used in sculpture to denote
+a mutilated figure, and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist
+which are so beautiful, even in their ruin, that they are the pride of
+the museums where they are, and serve as studies for the artists of all
+time. This figure of Theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of
+its attitude, for perfection of its anatomical accuracy, and for the
+appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one, even
+though made of marble. It really seems as if the skin could be moved
+upon it, so soft does its surface look to be. It is ranked as the
+greatest miracle of sculpture. Though it is called a Theseus, I ought to
+state that some critics take exceptions to this name, and believe it to
+be Hercules or Bacchus; but by almost general consent it is called a
+Theseus (Fig. 26).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--TORSO OF A STATUE OF THESEUS (?).]
+
+We may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must
+have been magnificent. Of course the chosen goddess of Athens would be
+made to appear with great glory. The myth relates that Athena was born
+in an instant, by springing forth from the head of Zeus, or Jupiter,
+fully armed. It is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a
+moment after birth when she appeared in full, colossal majesty, shouting
+her war-cry and waving her lance--something as these lines represent the
+scene:
+
+                 "Wonder strange possessed
+   The everlasting gods, that shape to see
+   Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously
+   Rush from the crest of aegis-bearing Jove.
+   Fearfully Heaven was shaken, and did move
+   Beneath the might of the Caerulean-eyed
+   Earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide,
+   And lifted from its depths; the sea swelled high
+   In purple billows."
+
+It is very important, when considering the sculpture at Athens, to know
+something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence
+was so great there. I shall give an extract from an English writer on
+Greek sculpture, Mr. Walter Copeland Perry:
+
+"It is a very remarkable fact, and one which gives us a deep insight
+into the character of the Athenians, that the central figure in their
+religion, the most perfect representative of their feelings, thoughts,
+and aspirations, was not Zeus or Hera (Juno), nor the most popular gods
+of all times and nations, Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus), but Athena,
+the virgin, the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed! She was
+enthroned in the very heart of their citadel; and she stood in colossal
+grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes, and to give the first
+welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and
+beautiful home, which reposed in safety under the protection of her
+lance and shield."
+
+The attributes of this goddess, as given in Greek literature and shown
+forth in Greek art, are very varied and hard to be understood as
+belonging to one person. She is the patroness of war, and in Homer's
+Iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise:
+
+   "The cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force
+   And stood accoutred for the bloody fray.
+   Her tasselled aegis round her shoulders next
+   She threw, with terror circled all around,
+   And on its face were figured deeds of arms
+   And Strife and Courage high, and panic Rout.
+   There too a Gorgon's head of monstrous size
+   Frown'd terrible, portent of angry Jove.
+   . . . . . . . In her hand
+   A spear she bore, long, weighty, tough, wherewith
+   The mighty daughter of a mighty sire
+   Sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues."
+
+But this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who
+restrains Achilles from rash action; and though she does not shrink from
+war and danger, yet the most precious gift to her people was not the
+war-horse, but the olive, the emblem of peace, and to her honor was this
+sacred tree planted. "She stands in full armor, with brandished lance,
+on the highest point of the Acropolis, and yet she is the patroness of
+all household and female work, in which she herself excels."
+
+It is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of
+Athena, while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in
+her right hand, she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle
+and the lamp of knowledge. In the later art of Phidias she is still
+stern and severe, but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of
+thought and character. Later still, her warlike attributes are made less
+prominent: the shield rests on the ground, and the lance is more like a
+sceptre, until, in the decline of art, she is represented as lovely and
+gentle, and all her grand power is lost, and she is not above a great
+number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft, lovely
+grace, but have no selfhood, no individuality to command our admiration
+or respect.
+
+We come now to speak of the Elgin marbles from the frieze of the
+Parthenon. It was about thirty-five feet above the floor, three feet
+three inches broad, and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long. It
+represented a continuous procession, and the subject is called the
+great Panathenaic Procession. About four hundred feet of this frieze
+remains, so that a good judgment can be formed of it. First I must tell
+you what this procession means. The festival of the Panathenaea was the
+most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at
+Athens. It is probable that this festival was held every year about the
+middle of August, but _the great Panathenaic_ occurred only in the third
+year of each olympiad; an olympiad was a period of four years, extending
+from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, which was an event
+of great importance in reckoning time with the Greeks; thus we see that
+the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every
+four years. This festival continued several days, and all were filled
+with horse-racing, cock-fighting, gymnastic and musical contests, and a
+great variety of games; poets also recited their verses, and
+philosophers held arguments in public places.[A] But the most important
+day was that on which a procession went up to the Parthenon and carried
+the peplos, or garment for the great goddess, which had been woven by
+the maidens of Athens. This peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff, on
+which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants
+appeared in beautiful, rich embroidery. In later years, after the
+Athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity, they
+sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they
+wished to flatter, as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a
+very great compliment.
+
+[Footnote A: In the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes, B.C. 480, that
+monarch was surprised to learn that the Olympic games were not suspended
+at the approach of his army.]
+
+The procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the Potters'
+Quarter of the city, and passed to the Dromos, then to the market-place,
+onward to the temple of Demeter, round the Acropolis along the Pelasgic
+wall, through the Propylaea to the temple of Athena Polias. The
+procession was as splendid as all the wealth, nobility, youth and beauty
+of Athens could make it. Of the vast multitude which joined it some were
+in chariots, others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot.
+After the most important officers of the government come the envoys of
+the Attic colonies with the noble Athenian maidens, the basket-bearers,
+the aliens who resided in Athens dressed in red instead of white, and a
+chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive.
+
+The peplos was not borne by hands, but was suspended from the mast of a
+ship, upon wheels, which some writers say was moved by machinery placed
+underground. When the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed
+upon the sacred statue, which was believed to have fallen from heaven.
+During the festival of the Panathenaea prisoners were permitted to enjoy
+their freedom, men whose services to the public merited recognition
+received gifts of gold crowns, and their names were announced by heralds
+in public places, and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time. We
+do not know the exact order in which all these things happened; but it
+is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of
+it all, and was celebrated on the final day.
+
+The plan of the Parthenon frieze which represented this great procession
+was as follows: On the eastern side above the main entrance to the
+temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the
+many gods of the Greek religion. Each of these groups had six gods and
+an attendant, so that there were seven figures in each of these groups,
+as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 27).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+There has been much study of these sculptures, and many scholars have
+written about them. There is still a difference of opinion as to which
+gods are here represented, but I shall give you the most generally
+accepted opinion, which calls _a_, Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of
+the gods; _b_, Apollo; _c_, Artemis, or Diana; _d_, Ares, or Mars; _e_,
+Iris, who is attending upon _f_, Hera, or Juno; _g_, Zeus, or Jupiter;
+h__, Athena, Minerva, or Pallas; _i_, Hephaestus, or Vulcan; _j_,
+Poseidon, or Neptune; _k_, Dionysus, or Bacchus; _l_, _m_, _n_ are more
+doubtful, but are probably Aphrodite, or Venus, Demeter, or Ceres, and
+Triptolemus, the boy who was a favorite with Ceres, who invented the
+plough and first sowed corn.
+
+Now, these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular
+group containing five figures (Fig. 28).
+
+There has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are
+doing. They seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to
+them on either side. The greater number of critics consider that the two
+maidens, _e_ and _d_, are of the number who have embroidered the
+peplos; the central figure, _c_, a priestess of Athena; _a_, the Archon
+Basileus; and _b_, a consecrated servant-boy, who is delivering up the
+peplos. Other critics believe, however, that these figures are all
+preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin, and that the priest
+is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off. Other
+theories may arise, and we can only listen to them all, and yet not know
+the truth; but the more we study the more we shall admire these
+exquisite figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE FIVE CENTRAL FIGURES.]
+
+Just here I will call your attention to one feature of these antique
+bas-reliefs which is called _Isocephalism_, and means that all the heads
+are at an equal height. You will see that all figures, whether standing
+or sitting, walking, in chariots, or on horseback, have the heads on the
+same level.
+
+These three groups, the five central figures and the two groups of gods,
+are approached on each side by long, continuous processions, and these
+processions each start out from the south-west corner of the Parthenon,
+so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side, and
+the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and
+north, and a portion of the east side. I shall give here a series of
+pictures which are all explained by their titles, and will give you an
+excellent idea of this magnificent frieze, and doubtless many of my
+readers have studied or will study and admire it in the British Museum
+(Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--YOUTHS PREPARING TO JOIN THE CAVALCADE.]
+
+Though all this frieze was the conception of the great Phidias, it must
+have been the work of many hands, and close examination shows that some
+portions of it are done much better than others. These sculptures have a
+double value; for while they are so priceless as treasures of art, they
+tell us much of that prosperous, glorious Athens of which we love to
+read and hear stories. These figures show us how the people dressed and
+moved, and we see in them the "stately" magistrates and venerable seers
+of Athens, the sacred envoys of dependent states, the victors in their
+chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but
+priceless garland, the full-armed warriors, the splendid cavalry, and
+the noble youths of 'horse-loving' Athens on their favorite steeds,
+in the flush and pride of their young life; and last, not least, the
+train of high-born Athenian maidens, marching with bowed heads and quiet
+gait, for they are engaged in holy work, with modest mien, and gentle
+dignity and grace. All that was sacred, powerful, and grand--all that
+was beautiful, graceful, and joyous in Athenian life, is represented
+there, in ideal form, of course, but in strict conformity with the
+realities of life.... It is by the study of such works as these that we
+get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical
+antiquity; and they help us better to understand all that we may read in
+history or poetry concerning the ancient, classic Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--HORSEMEN STARTING.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PROCESSION OF CAVALRY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--PROCESSION OF CHARIOTS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--TRAIN OF MUSICIANS AND YOUTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--COWS FOR SACRIFICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--TRAIN OF NOBLE MAIDENS.]
+
+We must now leave Phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his
+contemporaries and pupils. Among the last ALCAMENES was the most
+celebrated. He was born in Lemnos, but was a citizen of Athens; so he is
+sometimes called an Athenian, and again a Lemnian. His statues were
+numerous, and most of them represented the gods. One of Hephaestus, or
+Vulcan, was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed
+so skilfully that no deformity appeared.
+
+His most famous statue was a Venus, or Aphrodite, concerning which it is
+related that Agoracritus, another celebrated pupil of Phidias, contended
+with Alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess. The preference was
+given to Alcamenes, and Agoracritus believed this to have been done on
+account of his being an Athenian citizen, and not solely for the merit
+of the statue. The Venus of Alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess
+in a garden beyond the eastern wall of Athens. This statue was very much
+praised for its beauty by ancient writers, who all mention with especial
+pride the _eurythmy_ of the action of the wrist. This is a term
+frequently used in regard to sculpture, and is somewhat difficult to
+explain. It means a harmony and proportion of action which corresponds
+to rhythm in music. When a statue has the effect it should have it
+appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment, and
+would be resumed immediately. That is what we mean when we say a statue
+has life; and, as in life, the motion of a statue may be awkward or it
+may be graceful; it may be harmonious to the eye, just as music is
+harmonious to the ear, or it may seem out of tune and time, just as
+inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound; so
+when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent
+motion is in accord with the laws of proportion, and is harmonious and
+graceful to the eye.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--HEAD OF ASCLEPIUS. _In the British Museum._]
+
+While Alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues, he
+also approached Phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness, which was the
+sweetness of great strength. In truth, he is recognized as the sculptor
+who most nearly approached the great Phidias. He represented also for
+the first time the god Asclepius, or AEsculapius, who was very important
+to the Greeks, who placed great value upon physical health. Alcamenes
+represented him as a sort of humanized Zeus or Jupiter. Of the Asclepius
+heads found at Melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of
+the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of
+medicine and health to be (Fig. 36).
+
+Alcamenes was also the principal assistant of Phidias in his decoration
+of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, and is said to have himself
+executed the relief upon the western pediment, in which the battle of
+the Centaurs and Lapithae was represented with great spirit.
+
+AGORACRITUS of Paros, who has been mentioned as the rival of Alcamenes,
+is called the favorite pupil of Phidias, and it is said that the master
+even gave Agoracritus some of his works, and allowed the pupil to
+inscribe his name upon them. For this reason the ancient writers were
+often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names
+of these sculptors. It is said that when the Venus of Alcamenes was
+preferred before that of Agoracritus the latter changed his mark, and
+made it to represent a Nemesis, or the goddess who sent suffering to
+those who were blessed with too many gifts. It is said that this statue
+was cut from a block of marble which the Persians brought with them to
+Marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set
+up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining; in their
+flight and adversity it was left, and at last served a Greek sculptor in
+making a statue of an avenging goddess. This seems to be a striking
+illustration of "poetic justice."
+
+Agoracritus sold the Nemesis to the people of Rhamnus, who had a temple
+dedicated to that goddess, and made a condition that it should never be
+set up in Athens. In the museum of the Lateran at Rome there is a small
+but very beautiful antique statue of Nemesis, which is thought to be a
+copy of this famous work. As Nemesis was the goddess who meted out
+fortune according to her idea of right, a measure was her symbol, and
+the Greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand. The word
+cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist, and
+in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very
+prominent, and the measure itself is omitted.
+
+The sculptor Myron also had pupils and followers who executed many
+works, and of this school was CRESILAS of Cydonia, in Crete. We are
+interested in him because two copies from his works exist, of which I
+give pictures here. Pliny, in speaking of the portrait statue of
+Pericles, said it was a marvel of the art "which makes illustrious men
+still more illustrious." The cut given here is from a bust in the
+British Museum. There is reason to believe that Cresilas excelled Myron
+in the expression of his faces (Figs. 37, 38).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A WOUNDED AMAZON. _Cresilas._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--STATUE OF PERICLES. _Cresilas._]
+
+CALLIMACHUS is an artist of whom we know little, but that little is
+interesting. We do not know where he was born, but as he was employed to
+make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred
+statue of Athena Polias, we may suppose that he was an Athenian. Some
+writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without
+going out, and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the
+temple of Minerva. Callimachus lived between B.C. 550 and 396, and is
+credited with having invented the Corinthian capital in this wise: A
+young girl of Corinth died, and her nurse, according to custom, placed a
+basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life. It
+chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant, and
+the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when Callimachus
+saw it the design for the capital which we know as Corinthian was
+suggested to him, and was thus named from the city in which all this had
+occurred.
+
+While the plastic art of Athens, or the Attic school of sculpture,
+reached its greatest excellence in Phidias, there was in the
+Peloponnesus another school of much importance. Argos was the chief city
+of this school, and its best master was POLYCLEITUS of Sicyon, who was
+born about B.C. 482. He was thus about twelve years younger than
+Phidias. Polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient
+writers couple his name with that of Phidias. He was employed in the
+decoration of the Heraion, or temple of Hera, at Argos. But his greatest
+work was a statue of Hera, or Juno, for a temple on Mount Euboea,
+between Argos and Mycenae. This statue was chryselephantine, and as Juno
+was the majestic, white-armed, ox-eyed goddess consort of Jupiter, it is
+a striking coincidence that Phidias at Olympia and Polycleitus on Mount
+Euboea should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this
+renowned pair, who reigned over the mythical world of the Greek
+religion. There are several copies of heads of Juno in various museums,
+and some of them have been ascribed to Polycleitus; but the proof of the
+truth of this is far from being satisfactory. This master made other
+statues of divinities, but he excelled in representing athletes; and
+however fine his other works may have been, it was in the reproduction
+of strong, youthful, manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors.
+Some of his statues of this sort, especially a Doryphorus, or
+spear-bearer, were considered as models from which all other artists
+could work.
+
+Polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact
+rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body. This was
+called "the canon" of Polycleitus, and there is good reason to believe
+that the Doryphorus was called by the same name, "the canon," because it
+was fashioned according to the rules laid down by Polycleitus in his
+treatise. His pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the Greek
+authors of his time, but I need not mention them here.
+
+The art of Phidias and Polycleitus was the art of Greece at its best
+period. After the close of the Persian wars the people of Greece were a
+religious and patriotic people. The Persian wars developed the best
+quality of character, for these wars were waged against a foreign foe,
+and the Greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization, and
+at the end of the struggle Pericles, who guided them to their greatest
+prosperity, was a statesman and a man of high aims; he was a gentleman
+as well as a strong ruler. The Peloponnesian war, on the contrary, was a
+civil war, and it divided the Greeks among themselves and roused the
+evil passions of friend against friend all over their country. It was
+the cause of selfishness, treachery, and immorality, and one of its
+worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people:
+their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone; every man
+thought only of himself, and the nation began to sink into the condition
+which at last made it an easy prey to the Macedonians. We have studied
+all these wars in our histories, but perhaps we have not thought how
+much they affected sculpture and the other arts, and brought them down
+from the lofty heights of the Periclean age.
+
+But there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and
+in intellect, and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on
+account of the decline they saw about them. Few countries in any age
+have had more splendid men than Socrates, Plato, Euripides,
+Aristophanes, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Demosthenes, Dion, and Timoleon,
+and these all lived between the Peloponnesian and the Macedonian wars.
+And while the arts were less grand than before, they did not fall into
+decline for some years, though they took on new features. The gods who
+had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the
+sculptor, and when they were so they were softened and made less awful
+in their effect. Other gods were more freely taken for models, such as
+came nearer to human life and thought, because less sublime in their
+attributes and characters. Among these were Venus as a lovely woman
+rather than as the great mother of all living creatures, and Eros, or
+Love; while Plutus, or Wealth, and satyrs, nymphs, and tritons were
+multiplied in great numbers.
+
+When the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their
+character, it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled
+men and women, and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed
+to grace, beauty, and mirth. Many people would prefer these works
+because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world; but
+earnest, thoughtful minds look for something more noble in
+art--something that will not come down to us as we are, but will help us
+to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things.
+
+CEPHISODOTUS was a sculptor who lived until about B.C. 385, or a little
+later, and stood between the old and the new schools of Greek art. The
+cut given here is from a group at Munich, which is believed to be a copy
+of a work by him, and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the
+art of Phidias (which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge
+of its folds) and the later Attic style (which is seen in the dreamy,
+gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god). (Fig. 39.) We
+know very little of the life of Cephisodotus, and as little is said of
+his works by ancient writers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EIRENE AND THE YOUNG PLUTUS. _Cephisodotus._]
+
+SCOPAS of Paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later Attic
+school. The island of Paros, where he was born, was the place where the
+finest Greek marble was found; but he worked so much at Athens that he
+is spoken of as an Athenian. He was an architect as well as a sculptor,
+and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures, which he
+also ornamented with his sculptures. I shall speak especially of the
+tomb of Mausolus, the King of Caria. Scopas executed the sculptures of
+the east side, and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed
+there, it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the
+work. This mausoleum was reckoned as one of the "seven wonders of the
+world," and has given a name to fine tombs the world over.
+
+The most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in
+the British Museum seems to me to be the statue of Mausolus himself. It
+is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king, and it is so
+designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as
+he was when alive, more than twenty-two hundred years ago (Fig. 40).
+
+A part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the Greeks
+and the Amazons, and this illustration from it gives an idea of the
+boldness of action and the correctness of the design (Fig. 41). This
+picture is from a slab in the possession of the Serra family in Genoa.
+On the right a warrior holds down an Amazon whom he has forced to her
+knees and is about to kill, while she stretches out her right hand in
+supplication. The figures to the left are full of spirit, and absolutely
+seem to be in motion. We do not know that any of these figures were
+executed by the hand of Scopas, but it is probable that they were, and
+they give us an idea of the art of his time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--PORTRAIT OF MAUSOLUS.]
+
+Scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of Diana at
+Ephesus, and did much architectural decoration, as well as to execute
+many statues and groups of figures. The ancient writers say very little
+of the art of Scopas, but when all that we can learn is brought
+together, it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own
+ideas, that his genius was creative and his works original. He
+represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their
+works in quite a new manner, and he was the first to show the goddess
+Venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her. His
+representations of nymphs of wood and sea, of monsters, and all sorts of
+strange, imaginary beings were numberless, and he made his sculptured
+figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt, from the
+tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--FROM THE FRIEZE OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
+
+His works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown
+by some superhuman beings; he never portrayed a hero, with the
+exception of Hercules, and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with
+realities about him. He worked in marble only, which is far more suited
+to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory.
+
+We are accustomed to call PRAXITELES the greatest sculptor of the second
+school of Greek art, just as we give that place to Phidias in the first.
+We have no fixed dates concerning Praxiteles. We know that he was the
+son of a Cephisodotus, who was a bronze worker, and was thought to be a
+son of Alcamenes, thus making Praxiteles a grandson of the latter.
+Praxiteles was first instructed by his father. Later he came under the
+influence of Scopas, who was much older than he; and by Scopas he was
+persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble.
+Perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by
+Pliny, who says that he was in his prime from B.C. 364-360.
+
+It is impossible to praise a sculptor more than Praxiteles was praised
+by the Greek authors; and, although Athens was the place where he lived
+and labored most, yet he was known to all Greece, and even to other
+countries, and the number of his works was marvellous. There are
+trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups, reliefs, and statues by his
+hand, and it is not probable that these are all that he executed.
+
+Praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most
+pleasing to popular taste. Thus it happened that his male figures were
+the young Apollo, Eros, and youthful satyrs, while a large proportion of
+his statues represented lovely women. Venus was frequently repeated by
+him, and there is a story that he made two statues of her, one being
+draped and the other nude. The people of Cos bought the first, and the
+last was purchased by the Cnidians, who placed it in the midst of an
+open temple, where it could be seen from all sides. It became so famous
+that many people went to Cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it, and
+the "Cnidian Venus" acquired a reputation wherever art was known. When
+the oppressor of the Cnidians, King Nicodemus of Bithynia, offered to
+release them from a debt of one hundred talents (about $100,000) if they
+would give him the Venus, they refused, and declared that it was the
+chief glory of their State.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--THE EROS OF CENTOCELLE.]
+
+Another story relates that Phryne, a friend of Praxiteles, had been told
+by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his
+workshop. She wished to have the one which the artist himself considered
+the best. In order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant
+to tell him that his workshop was on fire. He exclaimed, "All is lost if
+my Satyr and Cupid are not saved!" Then Phryne told him of her trick,
+and chose the Cupid, or Eros, for her gift. Phryne then offered the
+statue to the temple of Thespiae, in Boeotia, where it was placed
+between a statue of Venus and one of Phryne herself. This Cupid was
+almost as celebrated as the Cnidian Venus, and was visited by many
+people. The head given here (Fig. 42), which was found in Centocelle by
+Gavin Hamilton, and is now in the Vatican, is thought by many to be a
+copy of a Cupid by Praxiteles, and even of the Thespian statue; but we
+have no proof of this. The Cupid, or Eros, of the art of Scopas and
+Praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later
+art; he is a youth just coming into manhood, with a dreamy, melancholy
+face, the tender beauty of which makes him one of the most attractive
+subjects in sculpture. Caligula carried the Thespian Cupid to Rome;
+Claudius restored it to its original place, but Nero again bore it to
+Rome, where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of Titus.
+
+I shall say no more of Praxiteles personally, because I wish to describe
+to you the largest and grandest group of Greek statues which exists, or,
+as I should say, of which we have any copies. We do not know whether
+Scopas or Praxiteles made these famous figures, since they are
+attributed to both these sculptors; perhaps we can never positively know
+to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work. The historian Pliny
+tells us that they stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome.
+Sosius was the legate of Antony in Syria and Cilicia; he erected this
+temple in his own honor, and brought many beautiful works from the East
+for its decoration. It is believed that he brought the Niobe group from
+Cilicia, and displayed it when celebrating his victory over Judea, B.C.
+35.
+
+In A.D. 1583 a large number of statues representing this subject were
+found in Rome, and were purchased by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who
+placed them in the Villa Medici. In 1775 they were removed to the Palace
+of the Uffizi, in Florence, where an apartment was assigned to them. The
+figures were restored, and each one placed on its own pedestal, which
+work was not completed until 1794.
+
+The group must have had originally seventeen figures--Niobe and fourteen
+children, a pedagogue and a female nurse. Now there are but
+twelve--Niobe, six sons, four daughters, and the pedagogue. At first it
+was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment, but it
+is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base, with a
+background at a little distance. Niobe is the central figure, in any
+case, and the children were fleeing toward her from either side; she is
+the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to
+the beholder (Fig. 43). But we shall better understand our subject if I
+recount as concisely as possible the story of Niobe, which, as you know,
+is a Grecian myth. Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, and was born on
+Mount Sipylus. When a child Niobe played with Lato, or Latona, who
+afterward married the great god Jupiter, or Zeus. Niobe became the wife
+of Amphion, and had a very happy life; she was the mother of seven sons
+and seven daughters, and all this prosperity made her forget that she
+was mortal, and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves.
+Lato had but two children, the beautiful Apollo and the archer-queen of
+heaven, called Diana, or Artemis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BROTHER AND SISTER.]
+
+Amphion and Niobe were the King and Queen of Thebes, and when the
+worship of Lato was established in that city Niobe was very angry. She
+thought of Lato as her playmate and not a goddess, and was so imprudent
+as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the Theban women
+not to join in this worship. Niobe also asserted that she was superior
+to this Lato, who had but two children, while she had fourteen lovely
+sons and daughters, any one of which was worthy of honor. All this so
+enraged Lato that she begged Apollo, who was the god of the silver bow,
+and Diana, her huntress daughter, to take revenge on Niobe. Obedient to
+her commands, Apollo and Artemis descended to earth, and in one day slew
+all the children of Niobe. Then this proud mother, left alone, could do
+nothing but weep, and this she did continually until Jupiter took pity
+on her and turned her into stone, and whirled her away from Thebes to
+Mount Sipylus, the scene of her happy childhood. In this picture of
+Niobe she clasps her youngest child, who has fled to her for
+protection.
+
+I cannot give pictures of all the figures, but one of the most
+interesting is this brother and sister. She is wounded, and he endeavors
+to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly
+arrows which pursue them (Fig. 44).
+
+This figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful. An arrow has
+pierced her neck, and the right hand is bent back to the wound. The face
+is noble and simple, and has been a favorite model to Guido Reni and
+other Italian masters (Fig. 45).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE ELDEST DAUGHTER.]
+
+Fig. 46 shows one of the older sons, who, though wounded and fallen on
+one knee, still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance. There
+is a world of interest connected with these statues, and they move us
+with a variety of emotions. The poor mother, so prosperous a moment
+before, and now seeing her children dying around her, slain by the sure
+arrows of the unseen gods--how can we pity her enough! and then the
+brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the
+suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for; the old
+pedagogue, to whom the youngest boy has run for protection--and,
+indeed, all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for
+their beauty, which is still theirs in spite of their woe.
+
+One of the young sculptors who was employed with Scopas in the work on
+the mausoleum was LEOCHARES. We read of several statues of Zeus and
+Apollo by this master, but his most celebrated work was the group of
+Ganymede borne upward by the eagle of Zeus. There are several copies of
+this sculpture, but that given here, from the Vatican figure, is the
+best of all, and is very beautiful. We know very few facts concerning
+Leochares, and cannot even say whether he was an Athenian or not (Fig.
+47).
+
+There is still standing at Athens, in its original place, the Choragic
+monument of Lysicrates; and though we do not know the names of the
+architects and sculptors who made it, there are traces upon it which
+indicate that it belonged to the school of Scopas (Fig. 48).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A NIOBID.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GANYMEDE. _After Leochares._]
+
+This monument was erected B.C. 334, when Lysicrates was _choragus_--that
+is, when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays
+represented at Athens. This was an expensive office, and one that
+demanded much labor and care. He had first to find the choristers, and
+then bring them together to be instructed, and provide them with proper
+food while they studied. The choragus who gave the best musical
+entertainment received a tripod as his reward, and it was the custom to
+build a monument upon which to place the tripod, so that it should be a
+lasting honor to the choragus and his family. The street in which these
+monuments were erected was called "the street of the Tripods."
+
+It was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity,
+and this of Lysicrates was dedicated to Bacchus, and had a frieze with
+sculptures telling the story of that god and the Tyrrhenian robbers who
+bore him off to their ship. In order to revenge himself he changed the
+oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion; music was heard,
+and ivy grew all over the vessel; the robbers went mad and leaped into
+the sea, and changed into dolphins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. _Athens._]
+
+In the frieze, however, it is represented that the god is on shore
+quietly amusing himself with the lion (Fig. 49), while satyrs and sileni
+punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with
+fury, while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into
+the sea. The design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one
+of the best sculptors; but the execution is careless, and this is not
+strange when we remember that it was all done at the expense of one
+man, and he a private citizen.
+
+We will return now to the Peloponnesian school, of which Polycleitus was
+the head in its earliest period. After his time the sculptors of his
+school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled, and
+represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the
+artists of Athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and
+beauty. The subjects of the Peloponnesian school were especially suited
+to the use of bronze, and the chief sculptor of his time, LYSIPPUS,
+whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred, worked entirely
+in bronze. In order to keep a record of the number of his works, he
+adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every
+statue, and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above
+number of these coins thus laid away. His home was at Sicyon, and his
+time of work is given as B.C. 372-316. This seems a long period for
+active employment as a sculptor; but the number of his works accords
+well with this estimate of his working years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BACCHUS AND LION. _From the Lysicrates
+Monument._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE APOXYOMENOS OF LYSIPPUS.]
+
+Lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school; he was original,
+and this trait made him prominent, for he was not bound by old customs,
+but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age, which came
+to Greece with the reign of Alexander. This sculptor made a great number
+of statues of Hercules; and as Alexander loved to regard himself as a
+modern Hercules, Lysippus also represented the monarch in many different
+ways, and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of
+the hero-god. For example, he made a statue of "Alexander with his
+Spear," "Alexander at a Lion Hunt," "Alexander as the Sun-God," and so
+on through many changes of expression and attributes, but all being
+likenesses of the great king. There is in the Capitol at Rome a head of
+Alexander called _Helios_, which is thought by many critics to be the
+best bust of him in existence. There are metal rays fastened to the
+head; it has a wild, Bacchus-like air, and the hair is thrown back, as
+if he had shaken his head furiously; and the defect of a wry neck, which
+the monarch had, is cleverly concealed by this motion. Alexander was a
+very handsome man, his faults being this twist in his neck and a
+peculiar shape of the eye.
+
+We cannot here give the long list of works by Lysippus, but will speak
+of that which interests us most, because we have a beautiful copy of it.
+I mean the Apoxyomenos, which is in the Vatican. It represents a youth
+scraping himself (as the name denotes) with the strigil after a contest
+in the arena (Fig. 50). The Vatican copy was found in the Trastevere at
+Rome in 1849, and is well preserved. Without doubt it is a faithful
+reproduction of the original, which was probably brought from Greece to
+Rome by Agrippa, who set it up in front of his public baths. Here it
+became such a favorite with the people that when Tiberius removed it to
+his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre, and so violent a
+demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not
+refuse. This statue may be called an example of a grand _genre_ style.
+It represents a scene from common life in Greece, but it is so simply
+natural, so graceful and free from restraint, that one could not weary
+of it. The expression of the face is that of quiet content--his task has
+been faithfully done, and the remembrance of it is pleasant. The hair is
+finely executed; this was a point in which Lysippus excelled; but the
+great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure. In his occupation
+of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly
+change his position, and this one, in which he can rest but a moment,
+seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make,
+while it is full of easy grace in itself. The art of Lysippus was not as
+elevated as that of Phidias, who tried to represent the highest ideal
+which a mortal may form of a god; but there was nothing mean or vulgar
+in the works of the former; on the contrary, it was with a pure and
+noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of
+youthful, manly beauty, and his naturalism was of a healthy and
+dignified sort.
+
+The most important pupil of Lysippus was CHARES OF LINDOS, who was
+prominent not only on account of his own works, but also because he
+introduced the art of Sicyon into his native island of Rhodes. This
+island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its
+broadest part, and yet its art became second only to that of Athens.
+
+At the city of Rhodes alone there were three thousand statues, besides
+many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects. Chares is best
+known for the sun-god which he erected here; it was called the "Colossus
+of Rhodes," and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world.
+One hundred statues of the sun were erected at Rhodes, and Pliny says
+that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous; but that
+of Chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest.
+
+It stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, but we have no
+reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that
+ships sailed between them, as has often been said, although its size was
+almost beyond our imagination. The statue was one hundred and five feet
+high, and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms,
+while each finger was as large as most statues. Twelve years were
+occupied in its erection, from B.C. 292 to 280, and it cost three
+hundred talents, or about $300,000 of our money, according to its usual
+estimate, though there are those who name its cost as more than four
+times that amount. The men of Rhodes obtained this great sum by selling
+the engines of war which Demetrius Poliorcetes left behind him when he
+abandoned the siege of Rhodes in B.C. 303. We have no copy of this
+statue, but there are coins of Rhodes which bear a face that is believed
+with good reason to be that of the Colossus.
+
+Fifty-six years after its completion, in B.C. 224, the Colossus was
+overthrown by an earthquake, and an oracle forbade the restoration of it
+by the Rhodians. In A.D. 672, nearly a thousand years after its fall,
+its fragments were sold to a Jew of Emesa by the command of the Caliph
+Othman IV. It is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds,
+and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away. When we
+consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in
+bronze, and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy
+the standard of art at Rhodes, we are not surprised that it should have
+been reckoned among the seven wonders, and that Chares should have
+become a famous master.
+
+Chares also founded a school of art which became very important, and,
+indeed, it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the
+Peloponnesus; for after the time of Lysippus the sculpture of Argos and
+Sicyon came to an end, and we may add that with Lysippus and his school
+the growth of art in Greece ceased; it had reached the highest point to
+which it ever attained, and all its later works were of its decline, and
+foreshadowed its death.
+
+The reign of Alexander the Great was so brilliant that it is difficult
+to realize that it was a time of decline to the Greeks; and during the
+life of Alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness; but at
+the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among
+his generals that everything in Greece suffered, and with the rest Greek
+art was degraded. In the time of Pericles it was thought to be a crime
+in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the
+Parthenon, and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a
+privilege which belonged to the gods alone. Alexander, on the contrary,
+claimed to be a god, and was represented by painters and sculptors until
+his portraits and statues were almost numberless.
+
+Soon after the death of Alexander the humiliation of Athens and its old
+Periclean spirit was complete. If you read the history of Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, who was even allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred
+part of the Parthenon--the temple of Minerva--you will see that Athens
+was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the
+arts of peace, as they were no longer the brave men who could stand
+first in war. In their degraded state the Athenians suffered three
+hundred and sixty statues to be erected to Demetrius Phalereus, and
+these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering
+freebooter Poliorcetes. This last was hailed by the debased people as a
+god and a saviour. His name and that of his father, Antigonus, were
+woven into the sacred peplos.
+
+At length, under the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander, order was
+restored, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus divided the
+kingdom of Alexander into four Graeco-Oriental monarchies. The dynasty of
+the Ptolemies in Egypt was the most reputable of these, and gave much
+encouragement to art and letters. But the sacred fire seems to have died
+out, or did not burn clearly when transplanted from Athens to
+Alexandria. The Alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what
+had gone before, and there is nothing to be said of them that is of
+importance enough for us to linger over it. Very few works remain from
+this Diadochean period. The Metope of Ilium, which Dr. Schliemann has in
+his garden in Athens, the Barberini Faun, in the Glyptothek at Munich,
+and the Nile of the Vatican are the most important remnants of
+Alexandrine sculpture.
+
+Amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of Alexander
+the island of Rhodes remained undisturbed, and when the division of the
+monarchies was made the Rhodians still retained their independence. They
+were neutral, and so had a commerce with all the monarchies, and thus
+gained great wealth; and theirs was the only independent State of the
+old Hellenic world which was able to found and maintain a school of
+art. Among the great works of the Rhodian artists none is more familiar
+to us than the group of the Laocoon.
+
+In the time of Pliny this work stood in the palace of Titus, and the
+historian called it "preferable to all other works of pictorial or
+plastic art." There is a difference of opinion as to the period when it
+was made, and many date it in the time of Titus, who lived A.D. 40 to
+81. But the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who
+believe that it was made at Rhodes in the time of the Diadochi.
+
+The group in the Vatican is probably a copy, because Pliny says that the
+original was made of one block, and that of the Vatican is composed of
+six pieces. Pliny also tells us that the Laocoon was the work of three
+sculptors, AGESANDER, POLYDORUS, and ATHENODORUS. The Vatican group was
+found in 1506 in the excavation of the Baths of Titus, in Rome, and was
+placed in its present position by Pope Julius II. (Fig. 51). The right
+arm of Laocoon was missing, and Michael Angelo attempted to restore it,
+but left it incomplete; Montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for
+its restoration, and the arm as it now is was made by Cornacini, and
+more straight than it should be.
+
+The story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of
+the AEneid, and says that Laocoon was a priest of Apollo at Troy, who,
+when the Greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to
+sail away, warned the Trojans against taking the horse inside the walls;
+he also struck his spear into the side of the monster. But Sinon, who
+had been left behind by the Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse
+would prove a blessing to them, and they drew it into the city, and
+ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the
+occasion. Laocoon had much offended Pallas Athene by his words and acts,
+and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to Neptune that goddess sent two
+huge serpents up out of the sea to destroy him and his two sons, who
+were with him by the altar. When the three victims were dead the fearful
+creatures went to the Acropolis and disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE LAOCOON GROUP.]
+
+In the Laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself,
+and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the
+account of Virgil; but we see that it must be the same story that is
+illustrated, and we know that it was told with some variation by other
+poets. This group is a wonderful piece of sculpture, but it is not of
+the highest art, and it is far from pleasant to look at. The same is
+true of another famous group which is in Naples, and which is also from
+the Rhodian school.
+
+I mean the Farnesian Bull, or the Toro Farnese. This group was made by
+APOLLONIUS and TAURISCUS, who are believed to have been brothers. It was
+probably made at Tralles, in Caria, which was their native place, and
+sent by them to Rhodes, the great art-centre; from Rhodes it was sent to
+Rome, where it was in the possession of Asinius Pollio. This splendid
+group, which is probably the original work, was found in the Baths of
+Caracalla, in 1546, and was first placed in the Farnese Palace, from
+which it was removed to the National Museum in Naples, in 1786 (Fig.
+52).
+
+This group tells a part of the story of Dirce, who had incurred the
+hatred and displeasure of Antiope, the mother of Amphion, who was King
+of Thebes and the husband of Niobe. In order to appease the wrath of his
+mother, Amphion, with the aid of his twin-brother Zethus, bound Dirce to
+the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces. All this takes place on
+Mount Cithaeron, and it is said that after Dirce had suffered horrible
+agonies the god Dionysus changed her into a fountain, which always
+remains upon this mountain.
+
+In this piece of sculpture, dreadful as the idea is, there is less of
+horror than in the Laocoon, for the reason that the moment chosen is
+that just before the climax of the catastrophe, while in the Laocoon it
+is in its midst. The latter group is made to be seen from but one side,
+and was probably intended for a niche; but the Farnese Bull is perfect,
+and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of
+view. There are numerous accessories and much attention to detail, while
+the rocky base represents Mount Cithaeron and the wildness of the scene
+in a manner not before known in sculpture. The group has been much
+restored, but its excellences support the theory of its being the
+original work of the Greek artists, and the skill with which the various
+figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great
+praise and admiration; it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture
+tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--THE FARNESE BULL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--GALLIC WARRIOR. _Venice._]
+
+After the art of Rhodes that of Pergamon was important. When Attalus I.,
+King of Pergamon, gained his victory over the Gauls, in B.C. 229, the
+Greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the
+great deeds of Attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious
+heroes of their nation who had preceded him. It is recorded that the
+conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at Athens, and that
+they stood on the southern wall of the Acropolis. The subjects were:
+"The Battle of the Gods and Giants," "The Battle of Athenians and
+Amazons," "The Battle of Marathon," and "The Destruction of the Gauls in
+Mysia by Attalus." Thus the different epochs of Greek history were
+represented, and Attalus placed himself near the other great warriors
+who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation. These groups
+consisted of many figures, and are estimated to have been from sixty to
+eighty in number. It is believed that at least ten of them are now in
+European collections--that is, three in Venice, four in Naples, one in
+Paris, one in the Vatican, and the last in the Castellani collection in
+Rome. This picture of one of those in Venice seems to represent a
+warrior who has been suddenly thrown down; his weapons and shield--which
+last was probably held in the left hand--have been dropped in the
+violence of the shock which has prostrated him (Fig. 53). His face and
+hair are of the barbarian type, and the power and elasticity of his
+powerful frame are manifest even in this moment of his defeat. He is
+yet unwounded, but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes,
+and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE DYING GAUL.]
+
+It is now believed that the statue of the Dying Gaul, often called the
+Dying Gladiator, was the work of a sculptor of Pergamon, and represents
+a Gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his
+conquerors. The moment had come when he could not escape, and he chose
+death rather than humiliation. We learn from history that when these
+barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and
+children and then themselves, to avoid being taken as prisoners, which
+really meant being made slaves. This warrior has thrown himself upon his
+shield; his battle-horn is broken, and the sword which has given him the
+freedom of death has fallen from his hand. His eye is already dim, his
+right arm can scarce sustain him, his brow is contracted with pain, and
+it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips. He has not the noble form of the
+Greeks; we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death
+scenes of some of the Periclean statue heroes; here it is only a rude,
+barbarous Gaul, suffering death as a brute might; it is very realistic,
+and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the
+skin, the hardened soles of the feet, the coarse hand, and we are sure
+the artist must have made a true representation of this wild, savage
+man, who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be
+enslaved (Fig. 54).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BOY AND GOOSE.]
+
+These illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of
+Pergamon, and I shall now leave the subject of Greek sculpture after
+some account of BOETHUS OF CHALCEDON. His date is very uncertain, though
+we have accounts of his works by ancient writers. Some scholars believe
+that he lived about B.C. 275. Many works in chased silver made by
+Boethus were in the temple of Athena in Lindus in the time of the
+historian Pliny; there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold
+and one of the youthful Asclepius; but the Boy Strangling a Goose, in
+the gallery of the Louvre, is his most interesting work for us (Fig.
+55). You will remember that even the ancient Egyptians made caricatures
+and playful, mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day. This boy
+and goose are of the same spirit, and is intended as a parody on the
+representations of Hercules struggling with the Nemean lion, which had
+been represented many times by Greek artists. The boy seems to be
+working as hard as any giant could do. The execution of this work is
+fine. It was probably made for a fountain, the water coming through the
+beak of the goose. There are several works of ancient sculpture which
+are of the same spirit, and for this reason are attributed to Boethus.
+The Spinario, or Thorn-extractor, in the museum of the Capitol, at Rome,
+is one of the most charming pieces of _genre_ statuary in existence
+(Fig. 56).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--SPINARIO.]
+
+It represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot. His attitude is
+natural and graceful, and the purity and simplicity of its style places
+it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture. The
+expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is
+doing, and is given with great skill and truthfulness. The treatment of
+the hair is like that of the archaic period, and there will always be
+some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the
+sculpture of what we call the Alexandrian age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE.
+
+
+Ancient Italian sculpture was essentially Greek in its spirit, and
+originated with the Etruscans, a very ancient people in Italy. There are
+traces of an Oriental influence in the art of Etruria--a suggestion of
+the sculpture of Egypt and Assyria, just as there is in Greek archaic
+art; but the real feeling and spirit of it is Greek, and must have been
+borrowed from Greece in some way.
+
+The different theories and opinions about the Etruscans and their origin
+do not concern us here; we have to do only with their sculpture as it is
+seen in the remnants of it now in existence. In the beginning the
+Etruscans made their statues of clay; marble was very rarely used. Later
+on they learned the art of working in bronze, and carried it to great
+perfection. Their bronze works were so numerous that in B.C. 295 Fulvius
+Flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from Volsinii
+alone. Some of their figures were colossal, but the greater number were
+statuettes.
+
+There are some Etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of Europe. The
+Etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists; but they
+copied such excellent things, and did it so well, that their productions
+are by no means to be despised, and the skill which they acquired caused
+their bronze and metal work to be highly valued, even in Athens itself.
+
+The Etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the Greeks,
+as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs
+of Corneto and other places. They gave much attention to luxury of
+living, and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table
+furniture which they made may be seen in the Vatican and British Museum,
+while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is
+still much admired and copied diligently.
+
+The Romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists. They
+seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other
+nations; but of Romans themselves there were very few sculptors; their
+artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the
+lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius. At first, as we have
+said, they relied upon the Etruscans, who built their earliest temples
+and adorned them with sculptures, and the first record which we have of
+Greek artists working in Rome gives us the names of Damophilus and
+Gorgasus, who decorated the temple of Ceres with paintings and
+sculptures. This temple was consecrated in B.C. 493; if its adornment
+was of the same date, the knowledge of Greek art was brought to Rome at
+a very early period--at least fifty-six years before the completion of
+the Parthenon.
+
+But the means by which the whole Roman people were made familiar with
+the beauties of Greek art are to be found in another direction. It was
+not the building of their own temples, or any work done by Greek artists
+in Rome, that gave the Romans their love and appreciation for art; it
+was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought
+home to adorn and beautify every portion of the Eternal City. In B.C.
+212 Marcellus carried to Rome the spoils he had taken at Syracuse; he
+exhibited them in his triumphal procession, and afterward consecrated
+them in the temple of Honor and Valor which he built. From this time it
+was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that Roman
+conquerors could seize, and the number of beautiful objects thus gained
+for Rome was marvellous.
+
+When Flaminius defeated Philip of Macedon it required two days to gather
+up the spoils. After Fulvius Nobilior conquered the AEtolians he brought
+Greek artists to Rome to arrange his festivities, and he exhibited five
+hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from
+the defeated people. When Perseus of Macedon was overcome by AEmilius
+Paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures
+and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession; among
+these treasures there was a statue of Athena by Phidias himself. This
+work of spoiling the Grecian cities which came into their power was
+diligently carried on by Mummius, Sulla, and others, until at length the
+Emperor Augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to Rome. But the
+works which best pleased the Romans were those of the later school of
+Athens. The ruling gods at Rome were Mars, Bacchus, and Venus, and the
+statues of these deities were much valued.
+
+So far, to the time of Augustus, the statues and other objects removed
+had been the spoils of war; but Caligula and Nero did not hesitate to go
+in times of peace and act the part of robbers. The first sent a consul
+in A.D. 31 with orders to bring the best works of art from Greece to
+Rome to adorn his villas; Nero went so far as to send his agents to
+bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples,
+together with the offerings made to them, for the decoration of his
+Golden House; it is said that from Delphi alone he received five hundred
+statues of bronze.
+
+At first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be
+constantly seen by the whole Roman people, and there is no doubt that
+their influence was very great and went far to refine their ideas and
+to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the Augustan age. Very
+soon the individual desire for works of art was felt, and wealthy men
+began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues; and at last
+these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of
+life.
+
+From all these causes there came about a revival of Greek art under the
+Romans, and in it many beautiful works were produced. Indeed, the
+greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the
+collections all over Europe belong to this period. It cannot be said
+that the artists of this date originated much, but they followed the
+greatest masters that ever lived; and if they repeated their subjects
+they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave
+their works a certain effect of being something new, and threw their own
+individuality about them.
+
+The list of names which can be given as belonging to Greek sculptors who
+worked at Rome is long, and would have little interest here. Instead of
+speaking of the artists I shall speak of the most famous works of the
+time which remain; most of these are so placed that they are seen by
+travellers, and have become familiar to all the world.
+
+The beautiful statue which is known as the Venus de' Medici is so called
+because after its discovery it rested for a time in the Medici Palace in
+Rome. It was found in the seventeenth century in the Portico of Octavia
+at Rome, and was broken into eleven fragments. The arms from the elbows
+down are restored; when it was found it had traces of gilding on the
+hair; the ears are pierced, as if gold rings had sometimes been placed
+in them. In 1680 Duke Cosmo III. removed it to Florence, where it is the
+chief glory of the famous Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. Many persons
+believe this to have been a copy of the renowned Cnidian Venus by
+Praxiteles, of which I have told you. This Venus de' Medici was the
+work of an Athenian artist named Cleomenes. He was the son of
+Apollodorus, a sculptor who lived in Rome in the first or second century
+of the Christian era. (Fig. 57.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
+
+The aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess, and his work lacks
+the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of Venus.
+Cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her
+beauty. Some critics believe that this Venus is intended to represent
+the moment when that goddess stood before Paris for judgment. If this
+story is not well known I will tell how when Peleus and Thetis were
+married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess
+Discordia, and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into
+the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words, "To
+the fairest." Juno, Minerva, and Venus all claimed it, and Jupiter sent
+Mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to Paris, that he
+might decide to which it belonged. His decision gave the apple to Venus;
+and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long
+list of serious troubles arose until Paris was driven out of Greece,
+and, going to the house of Menelaus, he saw and loved Helen, carried her
+off to Troy, and thus brought on the Trojan war of which the world has
+heard so much ever since. If I were writing a Sunday-school book I could
+draw many lessons from this story; but as I am only writing about art, I
+will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old
+statues and to find out exactly what they mean; some such students say
+that the moment when Paris pronounced Venus to be the most lovely of the
+goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the Venus de'
+Medici.
+
+As Venus was the goddess of Love and Beauty, it was natural that statues
+of her should be multiplied. The Chigi Venus in the Vatican has much the
+same pose as the Venus de' Medici, but she holds the end of a fringed
+garment in her hand. The Venus of the Capitol, in Rome, is larger than
+these; the Venus Callipiga, which was found in the Golden House of Nero,
+and is now in the Museum of Naples, is also worthy of being mentioned in
+company with these other exquisite sculptures.
+
+However, there is yet another Venus more admirable and more praised than
+these. She is called the Venus of Milo, or Melos, and is in the gallery
+of the Louvre, at Paris. This statue is probably of a later date than
+those of which we have spoken, and is thought to be the work of
+Alexandros, the son of Menides of Antiocheia, or one of those sculptors
+who are called Asiatic Greeks. It is said that the base of this statue
+with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed, for the purpose of
+leading the King of France to believe it to be more ancient than it
+really is (Fig. 58, _frontispiece_).
+
+This magnificent statue was discovered in 1820 by a peasant of the town
+of Melos, or Milo, on the island of the same name. It was in a niche of
+a wall which had long been buried. The Marquis of Riviere, who was the
+French Ambassador at Constantinople, purchased it and presented it to
+King Louis XVIII., who placed it in the Louvre. It is made from two
+blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs. As
+the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which
+projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern
+artists.
+
+This is the only Venus which has come down to us from the past which
+represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman. The form has beauty
+of the highest type, but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above
+mere beauty. The pure, majestic expression of the head and face speak
+the calm dignity of a superior being. I shall quote from Perry, who
+says: "The Venus de Milo is justly admired, not only for the grandeur of
+its design, the perfection of its proportion, and the exquisite moulding
+of the superb and luxuriant form, but for the vivid freshness of the
+flesh and the velvet softness of the skin, in which it stands unrivalled
+in ancient and modern art. The extraordinary skill with which minute
+details, such as the folds of the skin in the neck, are harmonized with
+the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise.
+The life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced
+by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the
+beautiful warm, yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given
+to the marble."
+
+In the Museum at Naples is the Farnesian Hercules, which was found in
+the Baths of Caracalla, in Rome, in 1540. It was first placed in the
+Farnese Palace, and from that circumstance received the name by which it
+is known. It is the work of Glycon, an Athenian, and his name is
+inscribed upon it. There is little doubt that this is a copy of a more
+ancient statue by the great Lysippus; that master created
+representations of Hercules in all ages and forms. Glycon probably
+worked in the time of Hadrian; and though he copied the design and form
+of Lysippus, he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of
+the whole. For example, the head is small in proportion to the breadth
+of the breast and shoulders; and because Hercules was a swift runner the
+sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural. It is in such
+particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced, even in
+works that command admiration (Fig. 59).
+
+The moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately
+followed his securing the apples of the Hesperides, the wedding present
+of Ge to Juno. Of all the labors of Hercules, perhaps this was the most
+arduous. Juno had left these apples with the Hesperides for safekeeping.
+These goddesses lived on Mount Atlas, and the serpent Ladon helped them
+to guard their precious trust. Hercules did not know just where the
+apples were kept, and this made his task all the more difficult. When,
+therefore, he arrived at Mount Atlas he offered to hold up the world for
+Atlas if he would go and fetch the apples. This Atlas did, but refused
+to take the weight from Hercules again. However, Hercules took the
+apples and hastened to his master, Eurystheus, with them. While
+performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with Ladon, and some
+accounts say that he killed the monster.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FARNESIAN HERCULES.]
+
+Now, the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand,
+the world held on his back, while he leans heavily on his club covered
+with a lion's skin. All the muscles of his body are swollen from his
+struggle; his head droops, his whole expression of face and form is that
+of sadness and weariness. The youthfulness and strength with which the
+older sculptors invested him is not here. It is a splendid work, but it
+is not of the best; it belongs to an age when there was too much
+straining after effect, when the moderation of the best Greek masters
+did not satisfy the spirit of the time; and no sculptor lived whose
+power equalled that of Phidias or Lysippus.
+
+There are some reliefs and vases of this Roman period that are very
+interesting. I shall speak of but one relief--the Sacrifice of
+Iphigenia, which is in Florence. It is called the work of Cleomenes, and
+his name is inscribed upon it; but there is some doubt as to the
+genuineness of the inscription. This relief is very beautiful. It
+represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a
+preparation for her sacrifice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--THE APOLLO BELVEDERE.]
+
+The story runs that Iphigenia was the daughter of Agamemnon, who killed
+a hart sacred to Diana. To revenge this act the goddess becalmed the
+Greek fleet on its way to Aulis. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon to
+sacrifice his daughter to appease Diana; this he consented to do, but
+Diana put a hart in the place of the maiden, whom she bore to Tauris and
+made a priestess. In this relief the maiden has an air of resigned
+grief; her father stands by himself with his head covered. The sculptor
+of this relief was not the first who had represented Agamemnon thus, for
+a painter, Timanthes, had made a picture of this subject about B.C. 400,
+and in describing it Quintilian said that "when he had painted Calchas
+sad, Ulysses sadder, and had represented in the face of Menelaus the
+most poignant grief that art can express, having exhausted the deepest
+feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of
+_the father_, he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart
+to estimate his sufferings."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
+
+I come now to the Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of all
+the statues in the Vatican, and the best known and most universally
+admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us. It was found at
+about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of Antium,
+where it probably made one of the ornaments of the Imperial Palace. The
+authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the
+marble from which it is cut is a marble of Greece or of Italy (Fig. 60).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--THE STEINHAeUSER HEAD.]
+
+This statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world, and
+nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise; and yet all
+who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible. A few years ago
+another head of Apollo, of Greek marble, was found in a magazine in
+Rome, by Herr Steinhaeuser, by whose name it is known; it is now in the
+museum at Basle (Figs. 61, 62).
+
+Though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet
+been satisfactorily explained, and there are several important questions
+about it which cannot be answered with certainty. Nothing is known of
+its age or of the name of its sculptor. It is not described by any
+ancient writer, neither can any one say whether it is an original or a
+copy; and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful
+young god is doing--what is the meaning of it?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE STROGANOFF APOLLO.]
+
+The answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here I
+shall only mention the theory which I love, and which is accepted by
+many. When the statue was found the left hand was missing, and a bow was
+believed to have been the article which it held; and it was said that
+Apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight, and was watching
+for its effect. This theory was the principal one until 1860, when a
+scholar, Stephani, called attention to the fact that in St. Petersburg
+there is a bronze statuette, less than two feet high, which is almost
+exactly the same as the Apollo Belvedere--too nearly the same to be an
+accidental likeness. Now, as this is an antique bronze, it seems to
+prove that both it and the marble of the Vatican are copies of an
+ancient work. The statuette is called the Stroganoff Apollo, because it
+belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name. It is believed to
+be one of a number of bronzes which were found near Janina in 1792, and
+given by the son of Ali Pasha to his physician, Dr. Frank (Fig. 63).
+
+The chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand
+was perfect, and did not hold a bow, but some soft, elastic substance
+which Stephani believes to be the aegis, or shield, of Jupiter, on which
+was the head of Medusa. The sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw
+it; and though it belonged to Jupiter and Minerva, Jupiter sometimes
+lent it to his son Apollo to aid him in his warfare; such instances are
+recorded by Homer. After Stephani had told his idea of it, the German
+scholar Ludwig Preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of
+it by suggesting that Apollo was extending this dreadful _aegis_ before
+the sight of the Gauls at Delphi, in B.C. 279. History relates that when
+the Gauls approached Delphi the people asked the oracle if they should
+carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple. The oracle replied,
+"I myself and the White Maidens (meaning Athena and Artemis) will take
+care of that." Then four thousand Greeks stood by ready to defend the
+sacred place; but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down
+through the roof of the temple, and the White Maidens left their own
+altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe. A great tempest
+arose, and rocks fell from Parnassus on the heads of the Gauls, and it
+seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain
+the Greeks against their enemies. It is also written that the spectres
+of Greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the
+battle dealing death upon the Gauls. But above all the fury of the
+tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of
+Athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of Artemis were
+heard, while the flash of the awful shield of Apollo was seen to be even
+more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves.
+
+It is recorded that after this victory two statues of Apollo and one
+each of Athena and Artemis were offered in the temple of Apollo as
+thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the Gauls. It
+is delightful to regard the Apollo Belvedere as a copy of one of these,
+and this view of it is most satisfying. Luebke, in speaking of this
+theory, says: "Not till now have we understood the Apollo Belvedere. In
+unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure, the left
+shoulder only being covered by the chlamys, which falls down over the
+arm, which, far outstretched, holds the aegis with its Medusa head. The
+right arm is slightly turned aside, but both hands have been unskilfully
+restored. The attitude of the god is full of pathos, and is conceived at
+a dramatic moment. Ardently excited and filled with divine anger, with
+which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn, the intellectual head is
+turned sideward, while the figure, with elastic step, is hastening
+forward. The eye seems to shoot forth lightning; there is an expression
+of contempt in the corners of the mouth, and the distended nostrils seem
+to breathe forth divine anger. It is a bold attitude thus transfixed in
+marble, full of life-like and excited action."
+
+In the Iliad Homer describes the scene when Jupiter gave the aegis to
+Apollo, that he might put the Achaeans to flight with it. In connection
+with the Apollo Belvedere it is well to recall that description which is
+thus translated by Lord Derby
+
+   "While Phoebus motionless his aegis held,
+   Thick flew the shafts, and fast the people fell
+   On either side; but when he turned its flash
+   Full in the faces of the astonished Greeks,
+   And shouted loud, their spirits within them quailed,
+   Their fiery courage borne in mind no more."
+
+It is very interesting to know that many who believe that the Apollo
+Belvedere represents that god when terrifying the Gauls, believe also
+that the statues of the "White Maidens" rushing forth from their temples
+to aid him are in existence, the Artemis being the statue at the Louvre
+known as "_Diane a la Biche_" and the Minerva being the Athena with
+spear and shield in the museum of the Capitol at Rome.
+
+This statue of Artemis, or Diana, has been in France since the time of
+Henry IV. Formerly it was at Versailles, but is now one of the treasures
+of the Louvre. The left hand with the bow is restored. The effect of the
+figure is that of lightness combined with strength. She is going forward
+rapidly, with her eyes fixed on some distant object, and draws an arrow
+from her quiver even as she flies. This figure corresponds to the Apollo
+Belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose; it is of
+the same proportions, and in such details of treatment as the rich
+sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the
+Apollo--indeed, there is no reason why it might not have formed a part
+of a group in which the Apollo stood. (Fig. 64.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--DIANE A LA BICHE.]
+
+If we think of this Diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the
+chase the statue is very beautiful, and a remarkable example of such a
+subject; but when she is regarded as one of the "White Maidens" rushing
+forth to aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous
+enemy she is invested with a deeper interest; she becomes an important
+actor in a terrible drama, and those of us who could have no sympathy
+with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she
+will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the
+sacred hill of Pytho, and thus preserve its temple and its treasures.
+
+The statue of Athena, advancing with spear and shield, is supposed to be
+a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the
+Gauls. The position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were
+represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the Apollo
+Belvedere, the central figure of the whole. The whole bearing of this
+statue carries out the impression which Homer gives of the delight with
+which Athena led the Greeks to battle; she is full of eagerness, and
+rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of
+one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause (Fig. 65).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ATHENA OF THE CAPITOL.]
+
+
+Whether this "Gallic theory," as it is called, concerning the Apollo,
+Diana, and Athena be correct or no, it is the most satisfactory in
+sentiment of any that has been advanced, and certainly, when we consider
+the three statues in this connection, there is nothing inharmonious in
+the supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may
+have had many other figures of lesser importance in it.
+
+There are many other statues of the Roman period in various museums, but
+I shall leave this part of our subject here, and speak briefly of the
+historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the
+Eternal City. In an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man,
+and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest
+honors, it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place
+some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the
+eyes of the people, and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant
+deeds and their great successes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION FROM ARCH OF TITUS.]
+
+We read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were
+displayed in public places in Rome at a very early date. We cannot find
+records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors,
+but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly.
+The principal historical reliefs in Rome were upon the arches of
+Claudius, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus, and on
+the architrave of the temple of Minerva in the Forum.
+
+Of the arch of Claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture,
+now in the Villa Borghese. The arch of Titus was erected to celebrate
+the taking of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. It was restored in 1822. The frieze
+represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice. The picture
+we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace, who bear
+articles of booty taken from the conquered city. They have the
+candelabra with seven branches, the table of the shew-bread, the silver
+trumpets, etc. This will give you a good idea of these reliefs. (Fig.
+66.)
+
+The arch of Trajan no longer stands, and its reliefs are now on the arch
+of Constantine; but Trajan's Pillar is one of the best preserved of all
+the antique monuments of Rome, and with some account of this column and
+a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of Rome. The
+Senate and people of Rome decreed that this column should be erected to
+the memory of Trajan, and it was in the centre of the Forum which bore
+the same name--the Forum Trajani. The column is about one hundred and
+six feet high, and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of
+Trajan, which was replaced by one of St. Peter by Pope Sixtus V. A band
+of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form; this band is six
+hundred feet long, and the sculptures represent Trajan's campaign
+against the Dacians. Many of the figures lose their effect on account of
+the height at which they are placed. There are more than a hundred
+scenes upon it, in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures,
+besides many horses and other objects. The whole is executed with the
+greatest care.
+
+The real object of the whole work was to glorify the Emperor Trajan, and
+he is represented in many of the scenes; sometimes he is conducting
+engagements, storming a fort, or encouraging his troops; again he is
+holding an audience, protecting the women of a conquered city, or
+sitting in judgment on captives. Fig. 67 represents the Dacians
+assaulting a Roman fort. It is winter, and while some have crossed the
+ice in safety, others have broken through. Everything about it is
+represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner, and this
+shows distinctly the principal difference between the Greek and the
+Roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former. It is pure,
+realistic, historical sculpture, and this pillar shows this at its very
+best estate; it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art. In all these
+many scenes there are but two mythological figures: one is Selene, used
+to represent Night, and the other is _Jupiter tonans,_ who indicates
+Storm. But the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the
+Greek teaching did for the Romans; for it was to the Greeks that the
+latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render
+it properly in sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FROM THE RELIEFS OF TRAJAN'S COLUMN.]
+
+The last sort of ancient sculpture of which I shall speak is portrait
+sculpture, and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture, for it
+is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of
+many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of
+the world through all the centuries, because they were concerned in the
+events which make up what we call the history of the world. We have said
+that in Greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures;
+gradually they were introduced until, in the time of Alexander, portrait
+statues were almost numberless, and these and busts were used for the
+decoration of libraries and public buildings, as well as for the
+adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air.
+
+The finest life-size statue which remains from the Greeks is that of
+Sophocles, of which we give a picture (Fig. 68). It was not found until
+about 1839, and was presented to Pope Gregory XVI. by Cardinal
+Antonelli; it is in the museum of the Lateran. This engraving from it
+shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in
+detail. This statue is valuable not only as a portrait of Sophocles, but
+as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of
+Athenian civilization and culture; of an elegant, aristocratic man who
+was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his
+physical parts, as well as in science, philosophy, and music--in various
+deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and
+scholarly, and at the same time elegant and graceful. "The attitude,
+though simple, is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the
+figure; and the position of the arms--the one gracefully enveloped in
+the himation, and the other firmly planted on the hip--gives to the
+whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity. The face is handsome and
+full of winning grace, and bears the stamp not only of the creative
+genius of the poet, but of the experience of the active citizen; of one
+who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot, and
+preserved amid them the constitutional calmness, the gentle benevolence,
+the tranquil, meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by
+the people among whom he lived and sang."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--PORTRAIT STATUE OF SOPHOCLES.]
+
+Among the Romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance. This
+people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead,
+and from the earliest times had used different means of making them. In
+the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks
+of the faces of the dead in wax, and these masks were worn in the
+funeral procession by one of the mourners, who also wore the dress and
+insignia of the departed. The first aim in these masks was to have an
+exact resemblance to the dead; and this idea was carried on through all
+the eras of Roman art, and is a strong distinguishing feature between
+Greek and Roman sculpture; for while the Greeks wished to reproduce the
+face of one of whom they made a bust or statue, they did not hesitate to
+idealize that face; but the Romans labored to make an exact likeness of
+the man, leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be.
+This manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model, for
+the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation
+often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty; therefore the
+aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be
+imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--STATUE OF AUGUSTUS.]
+
+I can speak of but a few of the almost numberless Roman portrait
+sculptures.
+
+This statue of Augustus was found in 1863 in a villa built by his wife,
+Livia, about nine miles from Rome, at Porta Prima. It is a noble work,
+and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning
+that can be explained. At the same time the whole work is full of
+strength and dignity, which comes from the character of the man himself,
+and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power,
+with which the dress is loaded (Fig. 69). This statue is in the Vatican,
+and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the "Young
+Augustus" and with the statue of the emperor when aged, in which he is
+veiled as a priest. The study of these three sculptures, thus
+fortunately near each other, is most interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--AGRIPPINA THE ELDER.]
+
+The Roman women who held important positions were frequently honored
+with statues. Among those that remain none is more interesting than this
+of the elder Agrippina. She was a woman of great strength and equally
+great purity of character, and as we study this statue we can easily
+understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion
+demanded this service, and when that necessity was past could nurse the
+sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature. It is
+in every way a noble work of art, combining grace, dignity, and the
+aristocratic refinement of a high-born lady. The drapery of this and
+other similar statues is very beautiful, and fully satisfies all
+artistic demands. We have full proof that such garments were in actual
+use by the women of Greece and Rome (Fig. 70).
+
+It was not unusual for the great men and women of Rome to be represented
+in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses. Livia
+appears as Ceres, Julia as Flora, and so on; and during the best days of
+Roman art these statues were very beautiful. But at last they, like all
+other sculptures, grew less and less worthy, until they became
+positively absurd, and lacked any power to command our admiration.
+
+What is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all Roman art. Its
+decline kept step with the decline of the nation, and both fell at
+length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption. From this we
+are glad to turn to the study of Christian art, which, even in its
+primary struggles, when groping its way through ignorance and
+helplessness, was still a living thing, and held the promise of a new
+life--a _renaissance_ of that which had gradually died in Greece and
+Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be
+said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the
+Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and
+is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon
+it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries
+earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of
+Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence
+of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by
+side.
+
+After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced
+to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of
+their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with
+the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with
+horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed
+that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the
+commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
+image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in
+the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened
+that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they
+employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than
+sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early
+Christian art.
+
+The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St.
+Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there
+are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were
+found in the catacombs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--STATUE OF ST. PETER.]
+
+The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is
+held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they
+enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads
+against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some
+antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as
+to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from
+the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was
+made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century
+as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian
+Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This
+statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable
+excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).
+
+The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the
+decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in
+bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken
+from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such
+as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As
+time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the
+Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were
+crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the
+meaning of the whole more clear.
+
+The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the
+museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the
+finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who
+were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour
+before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses
+the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the
+shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of
+the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing
+of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses
+causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of
+Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the
+Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will
+show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the
+subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or
+apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of
+Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.
+
+In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by
+the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city
+with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the
+Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to
+decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a
+column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also
+erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and
+about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of
+himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of
+brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have
+of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called
+the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St.
+Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in
+pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the
+Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this
+purpose.
+
+But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of
+statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which
+long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into
+special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to
+making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these
+carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the
+episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and
+552 (Fig. 72).
+
+This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from
+the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these
+are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of
+framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds
+among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic
+manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater
+number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups
+and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of
+which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.
+
+Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for
+writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the
+ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul
+Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon
+it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where--the
+circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be
+slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from
+the life of Christ and other religious themes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROM THE CATHEDRA OF MAXIMIANUS.]
+
+About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for
+church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels
+used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for
+church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given
+to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to
+the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from
+Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it
+went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been
+practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--DIPTYCH. _Zurich._]
+
+During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the
+different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of
+this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which
+were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming
+antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth
+are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief,
+ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and
+even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also
+made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and
+smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the
+church--incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or
+caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches
+and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved,
+and are of great interest in the study of art.
+
+Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even
+grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the
+subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner.
+Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons,
+cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces
+represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case
+the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can
+understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that
+gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In
+truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in
+many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the
+industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to
+understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had
+attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of
+the world so completely, for in these mediaeval days it existed nowhere
+on the face of the earth.
+
+About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold
+an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now
+received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze
+figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the
+decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the
+medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again
+brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the
+principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in
+various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind
+are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or
+wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.
+
+The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its
+uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every
+department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of
+zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the
+Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the
+nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had
+before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more
+individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had
+done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world
+seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with
+strength and activity.
+
+With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and
+sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be
+separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with
+the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention,
+and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with
+statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon
+extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the
+altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved
+stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly
+ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess
+the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and
+the period known as the _Romanesque_ was thus ushered in.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FROM THE FACADE OF CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.]
+
+We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the
+faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic
+sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which
+had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which
+followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in
+sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful,
+yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a
+hopeful and important change.
+
+Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic
+progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral
+of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals
+of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque.
+In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the
+head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the
+classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had
+degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)
+
+Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid
+examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took
+the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange
+that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first
+works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had
+come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or
+in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both
+the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great
+revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.
+
+However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any
+other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to
+have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than
+did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer;
+but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength
+by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from
+northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different
+spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering
+summits of the Alps.
+
+About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the
+northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language
+had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own
+tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the
+Provencal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it
+was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national
+feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it
+resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of
+Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle
+which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets
+and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram
+and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing
+centuries.
+
+At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in
+North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had
+the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the
+importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both
+architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so
+arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its
+turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.
+
+Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference
+to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were
+fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited
+to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as
+one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one
+side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the
+costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment
+fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the
+figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the
+classic robes of the Greeks.
+
+The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by
+the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and
+painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately
+tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the
+defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color
+was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown
+upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this
+polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.
+
+The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than
+formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central
+and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the
+saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to
+whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New
+symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and
+months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits
+of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous
+representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts
+were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with
+grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of
+this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For
+example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of
+sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers
+and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a
+charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.
+
+The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the
+first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development.
+Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff,
+perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions,
+had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief
+from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.
+
+The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of
+thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church
+building of its time, and its facade the most beautiful structure of the
+Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great
+portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various
+other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a
+forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the
+architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast
+amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the
+statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and
+awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant
+figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural
+folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite
+unknown before this time.
+
+In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ
+which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every
+portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember
+that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic
+times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in
+the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the
+fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.
+
+It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the
+statues of mediaeval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if
+the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures
+were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last
+Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among
+the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the
+Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section
+of it is here given (Fig. 75).
+
+There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and
+the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions
+are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good
+proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and
+supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the
+Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of
+mediaeval art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FROM THE NORTH TRANSEPT OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of
+the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two
+periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from
+the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work
+with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the
+union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of
+sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure.
+Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great
+variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian
+cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in
+the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to
+show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the
+supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.
+
+But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental
+sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues
+still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were
+many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the
+statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Coeur de Lion, who died in
+1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to
+the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue;
+the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the
+emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something
+about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been
+sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.
+
+But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis
+were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were
+sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French
+sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the
+Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the
+heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of
+Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who
+died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and
+they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all
+France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.
+
+In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which
+went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new
+Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France.
+Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about
+the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end
+of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in
+the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon
+France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In
+Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was
+one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that
+could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French
+manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are
+still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed
+architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig.
+76.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--FROM THE WEST FACADE, STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
+
+There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin,
+at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the
+architect of the west facade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and
+the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in
+antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.
+
+In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270,
+there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in
+spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues
+of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this
+cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of
+the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the
+progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.
+
+Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was
+the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic
+art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient
+in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--DUKE ROBERT OF NORMANDY.]
+
+The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century,
+when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new
+choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was
+erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry
+III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king
+summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and
+portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that
+day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries,
+it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble
+those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had
+done. The illustration given here, with its air of life--almost of
+motion--is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).
+
+The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the
+interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but
+in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of
+sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward
+the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.
+
+With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in
+the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer
+held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the
+imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects
+in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a
+development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an
+improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features
+which were attractive.
+
+In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper
+meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the
+citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to
+art along with others.
+
+This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they
+attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their
+works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated
+that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which
+the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had
+already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of
+Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism,
+more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of
+himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout
+feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that
+art was elevated in its tone.
+
+There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted
+details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from
+suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects.
+For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits
+or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and
+burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these
+powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with
+such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of
+eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century,
+that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the
+thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.
+
+In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at
+Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the
+Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the
+art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works
+of the Nuremberg sculptors.
+
+At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den
+Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the
+city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the
+dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the
+most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.
+
+We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time;
+Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Cologne, and many other
+German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its
+character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a
+tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.
+
+In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used
+for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and
+freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very
+attractive (Fig. 78).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--IVORY RELIEF. HUNTING SCENE.]
+
+In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of
+art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done
+in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older
+ones remodelled--is one reason for this change. In this direction there
+was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed
+by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However,
+there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already
+begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was
+accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet
+completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank
+and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased
+in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.
+
+During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in
+France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes
+of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.
+
+Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was CLAUX SLUTER, who was the
+favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that
+duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of
+the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other
+works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had
+a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have
+established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.
+
+In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century.
+Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine.
+Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the
+principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to
+the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been
+confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the
+monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to
+mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced;
+but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the
+monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The
+costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque
+air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline
+which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It
+compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and
+the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a
+monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.
+
+As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of
+the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was
+that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than
+in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle
+Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art
+as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget
+themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his
+works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and
+not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the
+northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in
+them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.
+
+In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches.
+Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the
+Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not
+give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings
+which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view,
+and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and
+sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of
+the merits of each art.
+
+So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the
+church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and
+tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered
+with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly
+sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for
+Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored;
+sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and
+sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.
+
+However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other
+lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were
+employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of
+the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important;
+but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of
+the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and
+other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the
+many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The
+council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great
+opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the
+sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones
+with great clearness.
+
+As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the
+progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of
+separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our
+attention is NICOLA PISANO, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207,
+and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and
+sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment
+as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served
+this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed
+as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.
+
+In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief
+representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its
+place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at
+Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist,
+and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian
+sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--RELIEF BY NICOLA PISANO. _Lucca._]
+
+During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly
+employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established
+his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the
+Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have
+given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca;
+and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied
+the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful
+advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of
+his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism
+when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its
+sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)
+
+Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains
+of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was
+completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art
+of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit
+for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to
+live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits
+to Pisa--four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was
+completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great
+influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had
+amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano
+had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the
+south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--RELIEF FROM THE PULPIT AT PISA. _Nicola
+Pisano._]
+
+In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La
+Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last
+work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that
+city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of
+the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the
+figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that
+laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most
+valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that
+it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has
+suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.
+
+In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an
+untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his
+associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty.
+Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were
+the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow
+to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles;
+founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the
+degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study;
+so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all
+profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an
+ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in
+selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an
+indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience
+to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now
+in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to
+design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace
+or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in
+both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his
+edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his
+bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models
+long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all
+classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man--one to
+whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in
+gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the
+same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."
+
+FRA GUGLIELMO D'AGNELLO (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of
+Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be
+said of his works after his master's death.
+
+GIOVANNI PISANO (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil
+of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under
+some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred
+the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic
+action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an
+architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when
+twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for
+the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace
+there.
+
+After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni
+in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in
+the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina,
+because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown
+of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of
+architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many
+shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to
+make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred
+earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with
+walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it
+could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most
+beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own
+hand. (Fig. 81.)
+
+This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making
+large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The
+city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her
+arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four
+statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a
+very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the
+originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of
+expression.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. _Giovanni Pisano._]
+
+From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Giovanni became famous,
+and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people
+of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by
+freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to
+Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After
+this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a
+variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In
+1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato.
+
+We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo
+has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its
+character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more
+than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an
+independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the
+feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in
+the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and
+dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any
+man who had not an uncommon genius.
+
+ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and
+though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an
+independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are
+some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are
+uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to
+discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico,
+a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and
+the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal,
+is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only
+well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the
+most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite
+sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor.
+
+ANDREA PISANO (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and
+his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of
+Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When
+these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to
+view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the
+Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most
+important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor
+of citizenship upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John
+the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity,
+while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the
+execution of the whole almost perfect.
+
+NINO PISANO was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not
+known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially
+excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches
+of Pisa.
+
+But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the
+most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was
+ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE, commonly called ANDREA ORCAGNA (1329-1376?).
+This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence.
+Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and
+poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he
+executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we
+shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the
+tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold
+the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle
+is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up
+toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief,
+statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her
+birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios,
+enamels, gilded glass, _pietra dura_, and all of these arranged in a
+whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of
+architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and
+whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who
+conceived and executed so difficult a task.
+
+During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many
+sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names.
+They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of
+which is still to be seen. One of these, of whom few personal facts are
+known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his
+industry were almost marvellous. He was called PIETRO DI GIOVANNI and
+PIETRO TEDESCO, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not
+known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence
+from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work
+and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of
+leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He
+also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of
+different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions,
+bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies,
+and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches,
+while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works
+is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music
+hall or a theatre as they are for a church.
+
+The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be
+taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but
+NICCOLO OF ARREZZO, the MASSEGNE, and the BON or BUONI family, and many
+others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the
+stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic
+and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of
+the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting
+its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days
+of sculpture in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+There was no one great influence or circumstance which led up to the
+revival of art and letters which took place in the fifteenth century,
+and which is known under the general name of the Renaissance. Its causes
+were many, and may be traced in every department of the life of the
+Middle Ages--in religion, politics, learning, and the habits of the
+people. This is far too great a topic for us to enter on here, and we
+must keep to the one matter which we have in hand.
+
+In Italy, heretofore, as we have shown, sculpture had been almost
+entirely separated from other arts, and stood by itself. Its works had
+been the smaller objects of which we have spoken; and though these were
+oftentimes splendid in their design and execution, they did not afford
+the sculptor the same broad field for his work as he has when his
+productions are combined with architecture. Now all this was changed.
+The French and German artists had brought out a style of architecture of
+their own, the Italians pursued another course, and went back to classic
+art for their teaching, and now every opportunity was given for
+sculpture to assume its utmost importance; and the art of ancient Greece
+was studied with all the enthusiasm of the Italian nature.
+
+The masters of Florence, or, rather, of Tuscany, were of great
+importance in the beginning of the new movement, and I shall speak
+first of them. FRANCESCO SQUARCIONE, who lived from 1396 to 1474, was a
+painter, and travelled into Greece to collect antique objects, and made
+many drawings from the monuments which he saw. He established a school
+in Padua, and his museum was of advantage to sculptors as well as to
+painters. Other Tuscan artists who were in love with classic art
+wandered among its remains in Rome and other parts of Italy, and brought
+back to their homes a greater knowledge of sculpture, as well as the
+drawings which they had made; and in this part of Italy the Renaissance
+early made itself a living, active power.
+
+Among the very first of these sculptors was JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA
+(1374-1438), who was so called from the little market town of Quercia,
+near Siena, in which he was born. His father was a goldsmith, and
+instructed his son in his art; but the boy loved sculpture, and studied
+it under one Luca di Giovanni. When but nineteen years old he made an
+equestrian statue of wood, and covered it with cloth, and painted it to
+represent marble in a manner which proved him to be an artist. About
+this time he left his home, and the next that we know of him was about
+ten years later, when his design for the gates of the Baptistery of
+Florence was pronounced to be next in merit to those of Ghiberti and
+Brunelleschi.
+
+In 1408 Quercia went to Ferrara, where he did several works. While there
+he was called by the Signory of Siena to make a new fountain in the
+Piazza del Campo. This was a beautiful work, and even in this century,
+though much injured, its remaining sculptures prove that it must have
+been a wonder in its day. It has been restored after the original model
+by Quercia, who was often called Jacopo della Fonte on account of this
+work. He executed some sculptures in Lucca, but his masterpiece was the
+decoration of the great portal of the Basilica of San Petronio, at
+Bologna. (Fig. 82.)
+
+The fifteen reliefs here represent the history of Adam and Eve, and
+other stories from the creation to the deluge. They show the full
+freedom and power of Quercia's style, and are among the most attractive
+of all the Tuscan sculptures of this period. Duringd the last years of
+his life this artist was employed as superintendent of the works upon
+the Cathedral of Siena, in which city he died.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--RELIEF BY JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA. _Bologna._]
+
+We come now to speak of the famous LORENZO GHIBERTI (1378-1455), who was
+born in Florence, and was both a goldsmith and sculptor; and though his
+fame rests upon his bas-reliefs, yet the exquisite detail and careful
+finish in them came from his practice of the goldsmith's art. In 1398 a
+plague broke out in Florence, and Ghiberti fled to Rimini for safety.
+While there he painted a few pictures; but his name is so linked with
+the splendid gates which he made for the Baptistery of Florence that it
+is of those that one naturally thinks when his name is heard.
+
+We have spoken of the gates which Andrea Pisano had made to this
+Baptistery long before; these were for the south side; and when, in
+1400, the plague again visited Florence the people believed that the
+wrath of Heaven should be appeased by a thank-offering. Accordingly the
+Guild of Wool-merchants promised to add gates on the north and east of
+the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist.
+
+A time was appointed for the examination of designs, and many artists
+entered into the competition, and sent in their drawings and models. A
+great number of these represented the Sacrifice of Isaac. At length all
+the models were set aside but two, and these were made by Brunelleschi
+and Ghiberti; then the former declared that he thought his rival's
+design the best, thus showing a nobility of character which cannot be
+too much praised.
+
+The commission was thus given to Ghiberti, who first executed the
+northern gates. He began them in 1403, and finished them twenty-one
+years later. They illustrate the life of Christ in twenty scenes; they
+have also the figures of the evangelists and the four Fathers of the
+Church in a beautiful framework of foliage, animals, and other
+ornamental figures, which divides and incloses the larger compositions.
+These gates are done in a manner much in advance of that of Pisano, and
+yet they retain some features of an earlier style which are not found in
+Ghiberti's later works. But from the first he showed original talent, as
+one may see by his model of the Sacrifice of Isaac, which is preserved
+in the Museum of the Bargello, beside that of Brunelleschi.
+
+These northern gates are very beautiful, but those on the east are far
+more so; it is of these last that Michael Angelo declared, "They are
+worthy to be the gates of Paradise!" These are divided into ten
+compartments, representing: 1, Creation of Adam and Eve; 2, History of
+Cain and Abel; 3, Noah; 4, Abraham and Isaac; 5, Jacob and Esau; 6,
+History of Joseph; 7, Moses on Mount Sinai; 8, Joshua before Jericho; 9,
+David and Goliath; 10, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Fig. 83).
+
+This sculptor showed great skill for one in his age, but to us there is
+some disappointment in them on account of the crowded appearance of the
+figures. Familiarity with them, however, reveals their beauty, and we
+find that, in truth, the stories Ghiberti wished to tell are brought out
+with much distinctness. They will ever remain one of the great monuments
+of the sculpture of the Renaissance.
+
+Ghiberti endeavored to introduce fine backgrounds to his reliefs, which
+gave him an opportunity to add figures illustrating other incidents than
+the principal one of the work. His sculptures show the influence of the
+Gothic style, the study of nature and that of the antique all combined;
+with these are united his own power of conception, his ability in
+design, and his wonderful delicacy of execution. These gates have been
+continually studied by the artists of his own and succeeding
+generations.
+
+The next work of importance by Ghiberti is the sarcophagus of St.
+Zenobius in the Cathedral of Florence. Other lesser sculptures are in
+other churches in Florence and in the Cathedral of Siena.
+
+We come now to one of the most interesting sculptors of the fifteenth
+century. DONATELLO he was called, but his real name was DONATO DI BETTO
+BARDI (1386-1468). He was born in Florence, and from his boyhood was a
+member of the family of the rich banker Ruberto Martelli, who was the
+firm friend of the sculptor for life, and when he died he provided in
+his will that the works by Donatello which he bequeathed to his family
+should never be pledged, sold, or given away, but kept as a perpetual
+inheritance for his heirs. Donatello was a realist, and followed nature
+with great exactness. This was not always productive of beauty in his
+works; indeed, some of them are very ugly, and a story which illustrates
+this is told of himself and Brunelleschi. Donatello had made a crucifix,
+carved from wood, for the Church of Santa Croce, and when it was
+finished he asked Brunelleschi's opinion of it. This latter artist was
+principally an architect; but as he had learned the goldsmith's trade,
+he executed some sculptures, and a close friendship existed between
+himself and Donatello. Relying on their love for each other,
+Brunelleschi frankly told Donatello that his crucifix was very ugly, and
+his figure of Christ like that of a day-laborer, whereas it should
+represent a person of the greatest possible beauty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--FROM THE EASTERN GATES. _Showing compartments
+6, 8, and 10._]
+
+Donatello was very angry at this, and exclaimed, "It is easier to
+criticise than to execute; do you take a piece of wood and make a better
+crucifix!" Brunelleschi determined to do this, and when his work was
+finished he invited Donatello to sup with him. He placed the crucifix in
+a conspicuous place in his house, and then took Donatello with him to
+the market to buy their food. He gave the parcels to Donatello, and
+asked him to go before to the house, saying that he would soon follow.
+When Donatello entered and saw the crucifix he was so delighted at the
+sight that he forgot everything else, and dropped the eggs, cheese, and
+all on the floor, and stood gazing at the carving as motionless as if he
+were a statue himself. When Brunelleschi came he said, "What are we to
+do now? You have spoiled all the dinner!"
+
+"I have had dinner enough for to-day," replied Donatello. "You may have
+a better appetite. To you, I confess, belongs the power of carving the
+figure of Christ; to me that of representing day-laborers."
+
+This famous crucifix by Brunelleschi is now in the Gondi Chapel of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella; that by Donatello is in the chapel of
+Saints Ludovico and Bartolommeo in the Church of Santa Croce.
+
+The Annunciation cut from sandstone, which is in Santa Croce, is one of
+his earliest works, and is full of grace and nobleness (Fig. 84). He
+made some beautiful groups of dancing children, which are now in the
+Uffizi Gallery; but he considered his David, which is in the same
+gallery, as his masterpiece. He was so proud of it that he swore by it,
+saying, "By the faith I have in my Zuccone!" This word means bald-head,
+and had come to be used as the usual name for the David.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _By Donatello._]
+
+But in spite of his liking for the David, it is generally thought that
+his St. George, on the exterior of the Church of Or San Michele, is far
+better. The German art-writer Grimm thus speaks of this work: "What a
+man is the St. George in the niche of the Church of Or San Michele! He
+stands there in complete armor, sturdily, with his legs somewhat
+striding apart, resting on both with equal weight, as if he meant to
+stand so that no power could move him from his post. Straight before him
+he holds up his high shield; both hands touch its edge, partly for the
+sake of holding it, partly in order to rest on it; the eyes and brows
+are full of expectant boldness.... We approach this St. George, and the
+mere artistic interest is transformed suddenly into a more lively
+sympathy with the person of the master.... Who is it, we ask, who has
+placed such a man there, so ready for battle?" (Fig. 85.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--STATUE OF ST. GEORGE. _By Donatello._]
+
+Donatello's impetuosity led him into many rash acts. Among other
+instances of this it is related that a rich Genoese merchant gave an
+order for a portrait bust of himself in bronze; when it was finished the
+great Duke Cosimo de' Medici, who was a friend of Donatello, admired the
+work so much that he placed it on his balcony, so that all Florentines
+who passed by could see it. When the merchant was given the price of the
+bust he objected to it, and it was referred to Duke Cosimo for
+settlement. In the conversation the Genoese said that the bust could be
+made in a month, and that he was willing to pay the artist a dollar a
+day for his time and labor.
+
+When Donatello heard this he exclaimed, "I know how to destroy the
+result of the study of years in the twinkling of an eye!" and he threw
+the bust into the street below, where it was broken into fragments. Then
+the merchant was deeply mortified, and offered the sculptor double the
+price he had asked if he would repeat the work; but though Donatello
+sadly needed the money he would not do this, and persisted in his
+refusal, even when Cosimo de' Medici tried to persuade him to consent.
+
+When Donatello was old Duke Cosimo gave him an allowance which would
+support himself and four workmen; but in spite of this Donatello wore
+such shabby clothes that Cosimo sent him a red surcoat, a mantle and
+hood. These Donatello returned, saying they were far too fine for him.
+When the sculptor at length became feeble and bedridden his benefactor
+had died, but Piero de' Medici, the son of Cosimo, was careful to keep
+him in comfort; and when he died his funeral was attended with much
+ceremony. He was buried near Duke Cosimo, in the Church of San Lorenzo.
+
+Several of Donatello's works are in this church, and are a more suitable
+monument to his memory than any that could be made by other hands.
+
+The works of Donatello are numerous, both in marble and bronze, and in
+both these substances he made statues and reliefs. We cannot speak in
+detail of all that he accomplished; but as he lived in an age when every
+advance in art was an event in history, we must not forget to say that
+he made the first equestrian statue which had been produced since the
+time of the Romans. This statue is in Padua, in front of the Church of
+San Antonio; it is of colossal size, and represents the Venetian General
+Gattamelata; and though it does not satisfy our conception as an
+equestrian statue, it is worthy of some praise when we remember all the
+circumstances of its origin. It is not probable that Donatello had ever
+seen an antique equestrian statue, unless it might have been that of
+Marcus Aurelius, which was found in the Forum in 1187; no modern statues
+existed as examples for him; he was not familiar with the modelling of
+horses, and for every reason it was a bold thing for him to undertake
+such a work.
+
+Donatello had more influence upon the art of his time than any other
+Tuscan sculptor, with the single exception of Michael Angelo. As a man
+he was honest, simple, and upright in all his dealings; as a friend he
+was loyal and faithful; as a Christian he was humble and charitable, and
+left behind him a name which has been handed down through more than four
+centuries with respect and honor.
+
+LUCA DELLA ROBBIA (1400-1481) is another native of Florence, whose name
+is widely known. Like many others, he began life as a goldsmith, and in
+this way gained a mastery over detail and a finish of style that are
+remarkable in all his works. He turned his attention to sculpture early
+in life, and was so enthusiastic in his pursuit of this art that he
+worked night and day, minding neither cold nor hunger and fatigue; in
+the beginning he made numerous wax models, which have perished, and with
+all his industry we have no work of his before he was forty-five years
+old, except the reliefs of Music, Philosophy, Geometry, Grammar and
+Astronomy, Plato and Aristotle, Ptolemy and Euclid, and a man playing a
+lute, which are set into the side of the Campanile at Florence, and two
+scenes from the life of St. Peter, which are in the Uffizi.
+
+In the same gallery are also the series of reliefs which Luca began when
+forty-five years old for the balustrade of an organ in the cathedral.
+These reliefs represent boys singing, dancing, and playing on musical
+instruments (Fig. 86). The attitudes are so graceful and so varied, and
+the expressions on the faces are so many, that there is much to admire
+in a subject which in unskilful hands would be very monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--DANCING BOYS. _By Luca della Robbia._]
+
+No sculptures since the classic days represent child-life with such
+freshness and charming qualities, and these alone would have raised Luca
+to a high rank as a sculptor. In the Uffizi one is able to examine these
+works closely, and they gain by this nearness to the eye, which enables
+one to see the minuteness of his finish. There are various works of his
+in bronze and marble still to be seen in the churches of Florence, but
+the special art to which he gave his attention was to the perfecting of
+enamel upon terra-cotta--on the making of what is known as the Robbia
+ware. In this he achieved a great success, and his bas-reliefs are very
+beautiful. At first he used but few colors, but later he increased their
+number, and was able to produce a combined effect of painting and relief
+that is very pleasing.
+
+These works were used for altar-pieces, medallions on exteriors,
+fountains, wall decoration, and a great variety of purposes. Twelve
+medallions representing the months, which are in the South Kensington
+Museum, are said to have been made by Luca to decorate a writing cabinet
+for one of the Medici.
+
+Luca worked with his nephew, Andrea, who had four sons; and when Luca
+died his secrets belonged to them, and made their fortunes. They were
+occupied eleven years in making a frieze to a hospital in Pistoja; it
+represented the Seven Acts of Mercy. One of them went to France and
+decorated the Chateau of Madrid for Francis I. Pope Leo X. employed
+another to pave the Loggie of the Vatican with Robbia tiles, and these
+wares, in one form and another, were used in numberless ways, both
+useful and decorative.
+
+The Robbia family was followed by other workers in glazed ware, and
+during about a century it was a prominent feature in art, and then was
+gradually given up.
+
+The most noted pupil of Donatello was ANDREA DEL VEROCCHIO (1432-1488).
+He was born at Florence, and was early apprenticed to a goldsmith called
+Verocchio, from whom the sculptor took his surname. It is said that this
+name came from the fact that the elder Verocchio had remarkable
+exactness of sight.
+
+Neither the metal works nor the paintings which Verocchio did remain,
+and after about 1466 he devoted himself entirely to sculpture. It is
+difficult to associate him with Donatello; his execution is finished
+like most sculptors who were also metal-workers; his nude parts are true
+to nature, but not graceful or attractive, and his draperies are in
+small folds, which give a tumbled, crumpled effect rather than that of
+the easy, graceful falling of soft material.
+
+His best works are a David in the Museum of the Bargello, Florence; a
+bronze Genius pressing a Dolphin to itself on a fountain in the court of
+the Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 87); an equestrian statue of Colleoni before
+the Church of San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (Fig. 88); and a group of St.
+Thomas examining the Wounds of Christ at the Church of Or San Michele,
+Florence. This last work is in his best and latest manner; the
+expression is powerful, but the drapery is still very faulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--BOY WITH DOLPHIN. _By Verocchio._]
+
+Although this equestrian statue is called by Verocchio's name, he did
+not live to see it completed; and though it was without doubt made from
+his design, still some credit for its execution is due to Alessandro
+Leopardo, who finished it. When Colleoni died he left all his large
+fortune to the Republic of Venice on condition that they should erect
+an equestrian monument to him in the square of St. Mark. As it was
+forbidden by the laws of Venice to place such things in the Piazza of
+St. Mark, it was placed in its present position, before the Church of
+San Giovanni e Paolo, on the square of the School of St. Mark, and it
+was thought that this answered the requirements of the will.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--STATUE OF COLLEONI. _By Verocchio._]
+
+When Verocchio had gone to Venice and had modelled the horse, he was
+told that the Signory intended to have the rider made by another
+sculptor. He felt this to be an insult, and broke off the head and legs
+of the horse, and left Venice for Florence. The Signory issued a decree
+forbidding him to set foot again on Venetian soil under pain of death.
+The sculptor replied that he should not take the risk, as he well knew
+that the Signory could take off his head, and he could not put it on,
+while he could replace his horse's head with a better one. The Venetians
+knew that this was true, and repealed their decree, and doubling his
+pay, asked him to come to complete his work. Verocchio consented to do
+so, but had not been long in Venice when he died. Verocchio is said to
+have spent much time in drawing from the antique, and his works prove
+him to have been diligent and painstaking; these qualities made him the
+sculptor that he was; but we see no traces in his work of the
+heaven-born genius which makes the artist great, and so inspires himself
+that his works fill all beholders with an enthusiasm in a degree akin to
+his own; the works of such artists as Verocchio, who have only the
+excellencies which come from patient industry, interest us, but they
+cannot move our hearts.
+
+It often happened in Italy that a number of artists belonged to the same
+family, as in the case of the Robbias. One such family had the name of
+GAMBARELLI, but were known in art as the ROSSELLINI. There were five
+sculptors of this name, all brothers. Two of them had great ability,
+Bernardo and Antonio. Bernardo was most distinguished as an architect,
+and some very celebrated edifices were built from his designs; he also
+executed some excellent sculptures, among which are the fine monument of
+Lionardo Bruni in the Church of Santa Croce, and that of the Beata
+Villana in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. The first is one of the best
+monuments in Tuscany. In the Uffizi are a bust of St. John, a charming
+work, and a portrait bust of Battista Sforza.
+
+ANTONIO ROSSELLINO (1427-1490), called PROCONSOLO, from the quarter of
+Florence in which he was born, was by far the best sculptor of the
+family. He is called a pupil of Donatello, but his work very closely
+resembles that of Ghiberti. Among his best works are the monument to
+Cardinal Portogallo, in the Church of San Miniato, near Florence; that
+of Mary of Aragon in Monte Oliveto at Naples; a relief of the Nativity
+in the same church, and a relief of the Adoring Madonna in the Uffizi
+Gallery. His characteristics were grace, delicacy of treatment,
+sweetness of expression, and all these combined with a noble dignity.
+
+Other Tuscan sculptors of this period were DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO, MINO
+DA FIESOLE (1400-1486), ANDREA FERRUCCI (1465-1526), and BENEDETTO DA
+MAJANO (1442-1498), who was eminent as an architect as well as for his
+sculpture. His father was a stone-cutter, and two other sons in the
+family were artists. Benedetto began life as a worker in wooden mosaics,
+or intarsiatore, as it is called. He made two beautiful inlaid chests,
+and carried them to Hungary as a gift to King Matthias Corvinus, whose
+fame as a patron of art had reached his ears. But the young artist was
+doomed to a dreadful disappointment, for when he unpacked his chests in
+the presence of the king it was found that the sea-damp had spoiled
+them, and the mosaics had fallen apart. Benedetto then determined to
+work in more durable materials, and executed some sculptures in marble
+and terra-cotta while he remained in Hungary.
+
+After his return to Florence, Benedetto worked as an architect, and the
+Strozzi Palace was built after his design. His masterpiece in sculpture
+was the monument to Filippo Strozzi, in the Strozzi Chapel in Santa
+Maria Novella, and it also merits mention among the best works of the
+fifteenth century. A pulpit in Santa Croce, by Benedetto, is also very
+fine, and his skill was shown here in his supporting the pulpit against
+a column and putting the staircase by which the pulpit is entered inside
+the column; thus it was concealed, and the building in no wise weakened,
+while the pulpit is far more beautiful than it would be were the
+staircase in sight.
+
+Benedetto was summoned to Naples by the Duke of Calabria, who gave him
+commissions which occupied him for two years. Few Tuscan sculptors have
+produced more pleasing works than Benedetto's; though not profound they
+are pleasing and unaffected, and in whatever frame of mind one may be,
+they do not disturb, but rather soothe and charm, as they could not do
+if they were false in sentiment or executed in an affected manner.
+
+MATTEO CIVITALI DI GIOVANNI (1435-1501) was born in Lucca, but studied
+art in Florence. His statue of St. Sebastian in the Cathedral of Lucca
+was so much admired by the painter Perugino that he copied it in his
+picture of the Entombment.
+
+Civitali's chief work in sculpture was the tomb of Pietro da Noceto in
+the same cathedral. In Genoa, in the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, he
+executed six statues and five bas-reliefs. A bas-relief of Faith by
+Civitali in the Uffizi Gallery is a fine work, full of earnestness and
+deep religious feeling.
+
+Civitali was also an accomplished architect, and did much to improve the
+style of building in Lucca. The beautiful temple of the Volto Santo in
+the cathedral was designed by him.
+
+This sculptor may be said to have had four different styles of work. The
+St. Sebastian was in his earliest manner, and is simply realistic; his
+second manner was the best; it is pure and dignified in conception,
+while deep feeling pervades all; the tomb of Noceto was in this second
+style; his third manner was more free and less pure, while the fourth,
+as seen in his work at Genoa, is full of extravagant exaggeration.
+
+Next to the sculptors of the Tuscan or Florentine school of this period
+were those of Venice in importance and independence of manner. This
+school was much influenced by that of Tuscany because of the nearness of
+the two cities and the constant communication between them, as well as
+by the fact that Tuscan sculptors were more or less employed in Venice.
+One of the earliest Venetian sculptors was ANTONIO GIOVANNI BREGNO,
+called ANTONIO RIZZO or RICCIO (about 1430-1498?). Although he was born
+in Verona, and there had the opportunity to study the Roman ruins which
+are the pride of the city, he is yet essentially an artist of Venice,
+since he spent most of his life there, and was even at the head of the
+workshop for the sculptors who worked upon the palace. One little
+episode in the life of this artist was an expedition to Scutari with the
+Venetian soldiers, who went to its defence against the Turks. Rizzo
+showed himself so brave in action, and was so severely wounded, that
+after his return to Venice the Senate gave him a pension which lasted
+through twenty years. Rizzo so won the confidence of the Venetians that
+he was appointed to important offices with large salaries, and it is sad
+to be forced to add that he proved to be a dishonest man, and when his
+accounts were examined he fled to Foligno, where he soon died. We will
+not speak of him as an architect; as a sculptor he is known by statues
+of Adam and Eve in niches opposite the Giant's Staircase in the Ducal
+Palace, and by sepulchral monuments in the Church of the Frari. While
+his works cannot be highly praised for beauty, they do show the style of
+the Renaissance distinctly.
+
+LOMBARDO is the family name of three sculptors of this period in Venice.
+They were PIETRO and his two sons, TULLIO and ANTONIO, and the three
+together are spoken of as the Lombardi. Pietro, the father, was as much
+an architect as a sculptor, and the works of the father and son are so
+associated that it is difficult to speak of them separately. We know
+that Tullio was the superior artist of the three, but there are no works
+of theirs that command a detailed description here. The monument to the
+Doge Pietro Mocenigo, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, the angels
+of the font in San Martino, an altar-relief in the altar of San Giovanni
+Crisostomo, reliefs on the front of the Scuola di San Marco, and two
+reliefs in the Church of San Antonio at Padua, are the principal
+sculptures of the Lombardi.
+
+ALESSANDRO LEOPARDO, who flourished about 1490, was the most eminent
+bronze-caster of his time, and was distinguished for the happy manner in
+which he adapted classic ideas to his needs in his works.
+
+Very little is known of the life of this sculptor, and that little is
+not to his credit. He lived in Venice, and had a studio in the Piazza
+del Cavallo, and in 1487 committed a forgery, for which he was banished
+from the city. But when Verocchio died, leaving the Colleoni statue
+unfinished, the Senate desired to have it completed by Leopardo, so they
+sent him a safe-conduct for six months, and he returned to Venice. As
+there is no account of his again leaving the city, it is supposed that
+he was allowed to remain as long as he chose. There has been much
+difference of opinion as to which artist--Verocchio or Leopardo--should
+be credited with the excellence of the Colleoni statue. The truth, as
+near as it can be told, seems to be that Verocchio designed and modelled
+it, that Leopardo completed and cast it, and made the lofty pedestal
+upon which it stands, and which, taken by itself, is a splendid work. It
+is of fine proportions, and has six Corinthian columns, in the capitals
+of which there are dolphins, while the frieze is composed of trophies
+and marine animals, all of which are symbols of the City on the Sea
+which erected the monument.
+
+After the Colleoni statue was unveiled the Senate gave Leopardo an order
+for three standard bases of bronze to be placed in the Piazza of St.
+Mark's. He also made three splendid candelabra for the Venetian Academy.
+Leopardo was also an architect. The time of his death is very
+uncertain, but a writer speaks of him in 1541 as "the new glory of our
+age, who shines like a star in the Venetian waters."
+
+Although an immense amount of sculpture of this period remains in
+various parts of Italy, it is very difficult to trace the story of
+separate artists and to give a satisfactory account of those whose works
+are worthy of high praise. There is scarcely an Italian city of any size
+which has not some splendid remains of this morning of the Renaissance.
+In Ancona there are the portal of San Francesco and the front of
+Mercanzia, with which the name of Giorgio da Sebenico is associated. At
+Rimini the Church of San Francesco, with its wealth of plastic ornament,
+cannot be ascribed to any one artist or to any number with surety; it is
+in the style of Luca della Robbia and Donatello, but in the execution
+does not reach their standard. In Cesena, Padua, and Verona there are
+fifteenth-century sculptures, and in the Milanese territory the plastic
+art of this period is very interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 89, 90.--TERRA-COTTAS FROM THE OSPEDALE GRANDE.
+_Milan._]
+
+In Milan, in the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, in the Ospedale
+Grande, and in the cathedral there is a wealth of sculpture to reward
+the student of this art who visits them; and in the Museum of the Breda
+there are many interesting works. The terra-cotta decoration of the
+Ospedale excels all other works of this sort in upper Italy, and the
+immense facade of this edifice is a marvel in its way (Figs. 89, 90).
+The differences between this hospital and the wonderful Milan Cathedral
+afford a remarkable contrast in works of the same period.
+
+GIOVANNI ANTONIO AMADEO, or OMODEO (1447-1520), was born on a farm near
+the Certosa of Pavia. When but nineteen years old his name appears as
+one of those who were employed upon this splendid edifice, and the
+records of his payments show that his work was well considered, even
+then. Omodeo was undoubtedly the best sculptor of his time in all
+Lombardy, and his sculptures in the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo would be
+sufficient to make any artist famous. The whole work may be called his,
+for he designed the building and the sculptures of the facade, which are
+in the richest style of the Renaissance; there are statuettes,
+colonettes, busts, medallions, and bas-reliefs, and wherever a flat
+surface exists it is divided into diamond-shaped slabs of colored
+marbles. The portal is very much ornamented: on each side of the rose
+window above this entrance there are busts of Caesar and Augustus in
+contrast with numbers of angels' heads not far away. There are
+bas-reliefs representing children playing upon musical instruments, and
+the whole front of the chapel, with its numerous pilasters and
+colonettes, has been compared to a gigantic organ, by Mr. Perkins, in
+his "Italian Sculptors".
+
+Of the interior decoration we can only say that it is much in Omodeo's
+style, though the monument to Colleoni, the founder of the chapel, is
+said to be the work of German sculptors, and to have been done after
+Omodeo left Bergamo.
+
+At Pavia, Omodeo succeeded Guiniforte as chief architect of the Certosa,
+and designed the facade, which was made by him and his successors. The
+bas-relief of the Deposition from the Cross, which is on the front of
+the high-altar here, is the work of Omodeo. At Cremona and at Isola
+Bella he executed some monuments, but at length, in 1490, he began his
+work on the Cathedral of Milan. Here a cupola was commenced after his
+model and under his direction; but when it was partly done doubts of its
+solidity were expressed, and Omodeo was commanded to leave it and design
+the north door to the cathedral. He also constructed the spiral
+staircase leading to the roof through an elegant Gothic turret, where
+the medallion portrait of Omodeo may be seen. It has since been proved
+that the cupola of Omodeo was solid enough, for it has sustained the
+spire which was put upon it in 1772; but he was tormented concerning it
+in many ways, and died without justification.
+
+Omodeo stands at the head of northern Italian sculptors in his dexterous
+use of his chisel; his ease in composition and his skill in the
+management of drapery would have made him eminent; but the effect of all
+these good qualities was injured by his mannerism, and the fact that his
+standard of beauty was not a high one. This may be partly accounted for
+by the fact that in Lombardy an artist had no opportunity to study the
+remains of classic art, and this one circumstance very largely excuses
+the inferiority of the northern sculptors to those of Tuscany, whose
+taste had been much improved by close study of ancient plastic art.
+
+There are many sculptors mentioned as having done some part of the work
+upon the Milan Cathedral, but very few are known, except by casual
+remark. CRISTOFORO SOLARI, called "IL GOBBO, or DEL GOBBO," was one of
+the most prominent, and yet we know almost nothing of his history until,
+in 1490, he was so disappointed when Omodeo was made architect of the
+cathedral instead of himself that he went to Venice, and remained there
+during several years.
+
+After a time Solari was appointed ducal sculptor to Ludovico Moro, and
+the monument which he erected to Beatrice d'Este was one of his
+principal works. When Ludovico lost his power Solari went to Rome, and
+remained until he was recalled to Milan to execute sculptures for the
+cathedral. He was very independent in his reply, and refused to go
+unless his conditions were complied with; one of these conditions was
+that he should not be under the direction of any one, but should select
+his marbles and his subjects to please himself. The statues he made are
+not as fine as we might expect them to be after this beginning; however,
+he was at length appointed head architect. Soon after this he was
+engaged in making a new model for a cupola, and then suddenly his name
+ceases to appear upon the registers.
+
+The Cathedral of Como is another of those vast edifices which afforded
+opportunities for artists to make themselves famous. The principal part
+of the facade to this cathedral was ornamented by TOMMASO and JACOPO
+RODARI. The first was at one time architect of the cathedral, and
+together they executed a large portion of the sculptures. Their best
+work was in the ornamental parts.
+
+In the southern parts of Italy, both in the states of the Church and in
+Naples, there are many works of the fifteenth century which were
+executed by artists from Florence and other parts of Italy. Thus there
+is nothing new to be said concerning sculpture in Southern Italy during
+this period, since the works which are not by foreign artists are in the
+same style as theirs; for the native sculptors copied those from Central
+and Northern Italy, and no great progress or original manner can be
+found in these southern districts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN, FROM 1450 TO 1550.
+
+
+In Italy, as we have seen, the sculpture of the Renaissance was much
+advanced by the fact that in the beginning of its growth the
+architecture of the country was largely an imitation of Greek
+architecture; and as the same artist was frequently an architect,
+sculptor, and painter, edifices were designed with the purpose of
+placing the works of the sculptor in the most favorable positions.
+
+In the countries north of Italy sculpture had no such aid or advantages.
+The Gothic style of architecture was a hindrance to the sculptor, whose
+works were combined with it. The Gothic construction afforded no broad,
+generous spaces for sculpture; all plastic work must be confined in
+limited spaces between columns and baldachins, or in arched niches, or
+between narrow flutings; and though something had been done to vary the
+upright stiffness of the statues of its earliest days, there was no
+freedom for the realistic and natural tendencies of the Renaissance art
+to develop in.
+
+Another advantage on the side of Italian art was the fact that Italy was
+a land of grace and beauty; its people were more refined in manner, more
+elegant and picturesque in their costumes than were those of Northern
+Europe, and all the influences surrounding the Italian artist were far
+more favorable to a development of his artistic nature than were those
+of France or Germany. Then, too, the remains of antique art which were
+within reach of the Italian sculptor were quite shut off from others.
+For all these and other reasons the sculpture of the north was more
+tardy in taking on the better spirit and form of the Renaissance, and as
+a whole it never became as pleasing to most people as was the sculpture
+of Italy.
+
+In a former chapter we have spoken of the sculptor Claux Sluter and his
+work at Dijon in the fourteenth century; the desire which he showed to
+make his figures like the men they represented, and a general study of
+nature rather than of older works of sculpture, had much effect upon the
+sculpture of his time, and gradually became much exaggerated. German
+sculptors tried not only to make exact portraits of the faces and heads
+of their figures, but they gave the same attention to imitating every
+detail of costume and every personal peculiarity of the model from which
+they worked. This tended to weaken and narrow their own designs, and the
+whole effect of their work is fantastic and exaggerated--an effect quite
+opposed to the noble and harmonious treatment of the whole which the
+best Italian masters strove to attain.
+
+The attempt to produce startling effects in German art made such
+subjects as the Passion of Christ, the Temptation of St. Anthony, and
+the Martyrdoms of the Saints to be constantly repeated, and many reliefs
+are overloaded with such details as may very properly be used in
+painting, and which belong to _picturesque_ art, but which take away the
+dignity and calm grandeur which should make the spirit of sculpture. But
+there is one feature of German sculpture at this time which appeals to
+our sympathy--that is, the deep, earnest feeling which pervades it, and
+which constantly tried new methods of expression.
+
+In Germany there were guilds or trade-associations, and the members of
+these guilds were allowed to work in the special branch only of
+sculpture which belonged to their company, so that this art was divided
+by more fixed lines than in Italy, where, in truth, at the period of
+which we speak, the Florentine school was a supreme power, and its
+sculptors, as we have seen, worked in as many sorts of sculpture as
+pleased them.
+
+The schools of Germany were far more independent of each other, and the
+entire organization of art in Germany was very different from that of
+Italy.
+
+One of the most prominent effects of the architecture of Germany was to
+drive the sculptors to seek for such work as had no relation to
+architecture, and an important result from this was the great attention
+which they paid to wood-carving; indeed, this was the favorite pursuit
+of the German sculptors for many years. About the middle of the
+fifteenth century the importance of this art in Germany was far greater
+than those of bronze-casting or stone sculpture.
+
+The principal works in wood-carving were the altars, which finally came
+to be colossal in size, and with their multitude of reliefs, statuettes,
+and ornaments were marvellous monuments to the industry and skill of the
+wood-carvers. The reliefs in these works are usually arranged on
+landscape backgrounds, and so much resemble pictures in many ways that
+the colors and gilding which were freely used on them do not seem out of
+place, and it appears to be quite natural that wood-carvers should often
+have been painters also.
+
+The Swabian school, the principal seat of which was Ulm, was the
+earliest to adopt the new, realistic style. There are works by Swabian
+artists which show this tendency as early as 1431. JOeRG SYRLIN, who
+flourished during the last half of the fifteenth century, was an eminent
+wood-carver, and as he did not color his works he can be better judged
+as a sculptor than he could be if the effect of the whole depended
+partly upon painting. The choir-stalls in the Cathedral of Ulm and the
+fountain in the market-place, called "Fischkasten," are his most
+important works; but a singing-desk, now in the museum, and other lesser
+pieces are also excellent examples of his style. The choir-stalls have
+an immense number of figures and a mass of ornament, which made them far
+richer than any such work of an earlier date, and none that have since
+been made have equalled them. It is almost incredible that they were
+completed in four years, and yet there are no marks of haste upon the
+work. The figures are dignified and graceful, the faces delicate and
+expressive, the hands well formed, and a beauty of design and execution
+marks the whole. The lower figures, which come nearest the eye, are
+finer than those which are higher up, so that a unity of effect is
+preserved throughout the whole. He sometimes took occasion to give
+touches of humor in his works, and in these stalls he introduced his own
+portrait and that of his wife.
+
+The "Fischkasten" is sculptured in stone, and has three knights upon it
+which appear to be boldly advancing, as if about to step off and walk
+away. Other works by this master are less important, and it is doubtful
+if all that are called by his name are really his own. Joerg Syrlin, the
+younger, trained by his father, adopted his style, and became an
+excellent artist.
+
+We have not space to speak of the Swabian sculptures in detail. Fine
+works exist in Tiefenbronn, Rothenburg, Blaubeuren, Herrenberg, Gmuend,
+Ravensburg, and many other places.
+
+The influence of the Swabian school was very wide; it can be traced in
+many parts of Germany, in Hungary and Transylvania, and even in
+Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria. Swabian artists were often summoned
+to adjacent provinces, and thus did much work away from their homes. The
+reliefs upon the door of the Cathedral of Constance were executed by
+Simon Hayder, a Swabian, in 1470. The altar of the cathedral at Chur
+was the work of Jacob Roesch, another Swabian master, who thus labored on
+the very boundary of Italy. The school at Augsburg was the second
+Swabian school in importance, and much influence went out from that
+centre, though its sculptures were not as fine as those of Ulm.
+
+In some cases fine old sculptures still exist in the churches and other
+places for which they were intended. Again we find them either whole, or
+in parts, in museums to which they have been removed when they were no
+longer required for the uses for which they were made, or when they were
+replaced by more modern works. So few facts are known concerning them
+that it is almost impossible to do more than repeat descriptions of the
+subjects they represent; and this is neither profitable nor entertaining
+in a book of this kind; therefore I shall now speak only of such artists
+as have left some record behind them, and of works whose authorship can
+be given.
+
+VEIT STOSS, who flourished about the middle of the fifteenth century,
+was an eminent wood-carver. Very little is known about him. His name is
+sometimes said to be Wit Stwosz, and Cracow and Nuremberg both claim to
+have been his birthplace. But it is now believed that he was born in
+Nuremberg, as it is known that in 1477 he gave up his citizenship there
+and went to Cracow, and in 1496 he paid a small sum to be again made a
+citizen of Nuremberg.
+
+We also know that his reputation as a man was not good. In a Nuremberg
+decree he is called a "reckless and graceless citizen, who has caused
+much uneasiness to the honorable council and the whole town." He was
+convicted of crimes for which he should have suffered death, but the
+sentence was changed, and he was branded: both cheeks were pierced with
+a hot iron. After this he broke the oath he had taken to the city, and
+joined her enemies in plotting against her; he was subsequently
+imprisoned, and at his death, in 1533, he was very old and perfectly
+blind.
+
+It seems almost like a contradiction to say that this master was one of
+the most tender in feeling of all the wood-carvers of his time. He was
+especially successful in representing the purity of the Madonna and of
+youthful saints. His principal works are in the churches of Cracow and
+Nuremberg. In the Frauenkirche at Cracow the high-altar, a part of the
+stalls in the choir, and some other sculptures are his. In Nuremberg his
+best works are a bas-relief of the Crowning of the Virgin, which is
+preserved in the Burgkapelle; the great Madonna statue, which was placed
+in the Frauenkirche in 1504; and the colossal Angel's Salutation, which
+is suspended in the choir of the Church of St. Laurence. This last is an
+unusual and important work. The angel appears as if flying, and the
+drapery is much inflated; the Virgin is queenly and majestic, yet
+graceful; all around are medallions in which are represented the Seven
+Sorrows of the Virgin. The style of these reliefs is charming if we
+except the drapery; that has the faults of the time, and is bad in
+style; but the female heads are all that we could ask; the whole design
+is distinct, and few reliefs could surpass these in simple beauty and
+genuine artistic feeling.
+
+Another remarkable work of his is a panel of roses, now in the
+Burgkapelle. The panel is seven feet high by five wide; more than half
+of this is covered by a wreath of roses; there are besides four rows of
+small half-length figures arranged round a cross of St. Anthony, a
+representation of the Last Judgment, scenes in the history of man from
+the creation to the death of the Virgin, and many other saints and like
+subjects in bits of reliefs, which fill up all spare spaces. The style
+is very distinct, and the draperies better in this work than in others
+from his hand.
+
+There are other works in Nuremberg and elsewhere which are attributed
+to Veit Stoss, but these that are known to be his are quite enough to
+establish his fame as a gifted artist and a remarkable sculptor for his
+time.
+
+Though Stoss is among the early masters of Nuremberg, it is yet true
+that others had been at work while he was in Cracow, and the way had
+been prepared for him and his work when he returned to his native city
+in 1496. Among the most active artists in Nuremberg was MICHAEL
+WOHLGEMUTH (1434-1519), who is generally considered as a painter only;
+but we know that he made contracts for entire works in which sculpture
+and painting are combined, and must have had the oversight of the whole;
+and in this view it is proper to mention this master's name. The altars
+at Haller Cross Chapel, Nuremberg, one at Zwickau, another at Schwabach,
+and that of the Heilsbronn Monastery, near Nuremberg, are all ascribed
+to Wohlgemuth.
+
+ALBRECHT DUeRER (1471-1528), who was one of the great masters of the
+world, was an architect, painter, and sculptor. He was a pupil of
+Michael Wohlgemuth, and sculpture was less practised by him than other
+arts; yet the few works of his which remain are much valued.
+
+Duerer probably executed his carvings about 1510-1520. In the British
+Museum there is a relief of the Birth of St. John the Baptist, which was
+purchased in the Netherlands more than eighty years since for $2500. It
+is cut in a block of cream-colored stone, seven and one half by five and
+one half inches in size, and is a wonderful work. The companion piece,
+which represents the same saint Preaching in the Wilderness, is in the
+Brunswick Museum, where there is also an "Ecce Homo" carved in wood.
+
+Duerer executed many little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and
+the existing ones are seen in various collections in Germany. It is
+quite probable that others are in private hands.
+
+There are in Nuremberg many most excellent wood-carvings by unknown
+masters; one who cares for this art is well repaid for a visit to this
+old city, and, indeed, this is true of other old German towns. Bamberg,
+Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dortmund, Halle, and many other towns
+have riches in this kind of art.
+
+The stone sculpture of Germany in the fifteenth century was of less
+importance than the wood-carving until toward the close of the period.
+The exteriors of the churches and other edifices erected at this time
+had but little sculptural ornament, and that consisted principally of
+traceries and figures in geometric designs. Some small detached works,
+such as fonts, pulpits, or fountains, were made in stone, but the chief
+use of stone sculpture was for monuments to the dead.
+
+ADAM KRAFFT (about 1430-1507), of whose early history almost nothing is
+known, is a very important master of this time, and his principal works
+add another charm to the city of Nuremberg. A remarkable series of works
+by Krafft are the Seven Stages, or seven bas-reliefs placed on the way
+to the Johannis Cemetery, the designs representing the seven falls of
+Christ on his way to Golgotha.
+
+These reliefs are much crowded, and the only part that is at all
+idealized is the figure of Christ; that is noble and calm in effect, and
+the drapery is simple and dignified. The other figures are coarse and
+dressed like the Nurembergers of the time in which Krafft lived.
+
+In the churches of St. Sebald and St. Laurence and in the Frauenkirche
+there are other splendid works of Krafft, and in some dwelling-houses of
+Nuremberg there are sculptures of his. A Madonna on the houses, 1306, in
+the Hirschelgasse, is one of the finest, perhaps the very best in all
+Germany. We do not know whether this was by Krafft or not, but it has a
+purity and nobleness that scarcely any other German sculptor attained.
+
+That Krafft had a sense of humor is shown by a bas-relief above the
+entrance to the Public Scales. The weigher stands observing the beam,
+and beneath it is written, "To thyself as to others." Another man adds a
+weight to one scale, and the man who is to be taxed puts his hand into
+his money-bag very reluctantly.
+
+Perhaps his most artistic work was the tabernacle in the Church of St.
+Laurence. It is sixty-four feet high; the lower part is supported by the
+kneeling figures of Krafft and two of his associates. Above this rises a
+slender Gothic pyramid ornamented with bas-reliefs and statuettes. He
+was employed upon this tabernacle from 1496 to 1500. It is believed that
+a "Burial of Christ," in the chapel of the Johannis Cemetery, was his
+latest work, and executed in 1507, the year in which he died, in the
+hospital of Schwabach. Krafft led a most industrious life, and was so
+skilful a workman that he could work with his left hand as readily as
+with his right.
+
+TILMAN RIEMENSCHNEIDER was an important sculptor, born at Osterode, in
+the Hartz Mountains, probably about 1460. In 1483 he went to Wuerzburg,
+and was elected to one honorable office after another, until, in 1520,
+he was head burgomaster. After the Peasants' War, in 1525, he was
+deprived of his office; he lived but six years after this, and kept
+himself in close retirement, not even practising his art.
+
+His sculptures are mostly in stone, and are quite numerous in Wuerzburg
+and its vicinity. His monument to the Knight Eberhard von Grumbach, in
+the church at Rimpar, was probably his earliest important work. In it he
+has contrived to express strength and bravery of character in spite of
+the stiff costume, every detail of which is worked out (Fig. 91).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--COUNT EBERHARD VON GRUMBACH. _Rimpar._]
+
+In 1495 Riemenschneider received the important commission to erect in
+Bamberg Cathedral a splendid monument to the Emperor Heinrich II. and
+his wife Kunigunde. This occupied him until 1513, and is a splendid
+example of his skill. The figures of the two royal personages lie upon a
+large sarcophagus; the statues are more than life-size, and are dressed
+in the fantastic costume of the fifteenth century. Upon the sides of the
+sarcophagus are five reliefs, representing as many scenes from the lives
+of the emperor and empress. The monuments and religious subjects
+executed by this sculptor are very numerous. In the church at Maidbrunn
+there is a relief representing the "Lamentation over the Dead Body of
+Christ," which is probably his latest work. It is cut from sandstone,
+and the figure of Nicodemus is believed to be the sculptor's own
+portrait.
+
+We give here four figures from the portal of the cathedral at Berne, in
+Switzerland. The really splendid sculptures were the work of Nicolaus
+Kuenz, and from their style seem to belong to about 1520. They show the
+influence of such artists as the painters Nicolaus Manuel (1484-1531)
+and Hans Holbein (about 1459-1524). The statues of the Wise and Foolish
+Virgins are fine, and that of Justice, whose pose is full of grace, and
+whose almost transparent garment is an exquisite work, affords an
+excellent illustration of the most pleasing sculpture of this period
+(Figs. 92, 93).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--JUSTICE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE THREE WISE VIRGINS.]
+
+Another art, which had its headquarters at Nuremberg in the fifteenth
+century, is bronze-casting, and its chief master was the famous PETER
+VISCHER, who was the son of another brasier, HERMANN VISCHER. The date
+of Peter Vischer's birth is given as 1460, and he was admitted to be a
+master in his art in 1489. Five years later than this he was summoned to
+Heidelberg together with a sculptor, Simon Lamberger, to aid the Elector
+Philip with advice and skill. Nothing is known of any work which Vischer
+did there.
+
+Vischer's foundry at Nuremberg enjoyed a great fame, and orders were
+sent to it from far and near. No doubt a great many monuments were cast
+here which were not designed by Vischer at all. His works were numerous,
+but I shall only describe his masterpiece, which was the shrine or tomb
+of St. Sebald, and occupied Peter Vischer from 1508 to 1519, he being
+assisted by his five sons. The son Peter was admitted as a master in the
+thimble trade in 1527. Hans was called "the caster," and seems to have
+superintended the carving of models; Hermann went to Italy and brought
+home designs and models; and Jacob and Paul seem to have had no special
+departments. Between 1495 and 1508 so little was recorded of Peter
+Vischer that it leads to the belief that these years must have been
+given to study and to the improvement which the tomb of St. Sebald shows
+over the work of the monument to Archbishop Ernst, in the Magdeburg
+Cathedral, which was done in 1495.
+
+The bones of St. Sebald had been inclosed in a sarcophagus of the Middle
+Ages, and the work required of Vischer was a fitting tomb for such
+precious and honored relics, for St. Sebald is the special patron saint
+of Nuremberg, and dwelt in a cell near that city. His legend relates
+that he was the son of a Danish king, who came to Germany as a
+missionary and settled at Nuremberg, where he did many miraculous works
+of charity. On one occasion, during very cold weather, he is said to
+have found a family nearly frozen and without fuel; he commanded them to
+bring the icicles hanging from the roof and make a fire of them. They
+obeyed, and were thus warmed. Many such wonders are told of him, and
+Vischer in his statue makes him to appear as a pilgrim, with shell in
+hat, staff, rosary and wallet, while in his hand he holds a model of a
+church intended to represent that in which the tomb is erected. This
+Church of St. Sebald is now used for the Lutheran service, and the
+shrine still stands in the centre of the choir. (Fig. 94.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--TOMB OF ST. SEBALD. _By Peter Vischer._
+_Nuremberg._]
+
+The architecture of this remarkable work is of the richest style of
+Gothic, and the whole of it is in bronze, except that the oaken
+sarcophagus is encased in silver plates. This rests beneath a fret-work
+canopy supported on slender pillars. There is an abundance of ornament
+everywhere, but the close examination of its detail shows beauty and
+fitness in every part. For example, if we compare the statue of the
+saint, of which we have spoken, which stands at the end of the shrine
+most exposed, with the statue of Vischer himself, which is at the
+opposite end, we shall see how the saint, with his symbols and his
+flowing drapery, is an ideal work, and seems to be advancing with
+authority and the air which befits the son of a king, while Vischer,
+with his round cap, leather apron, and German face, is simply the
+representation of a worker bent upon doing his best (Fig. 95).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--PETER VISCHER'S STATUE.]
+
+The sarcophagus rests upon a base on which are four reliefs of scenes
+from the life of the saint, all in the purest manner of the time. One of
+these represents the burning of the icicles recounted above (Fig. 96).
+
+This base and sarcophagus and the fret-work above it form the centre of
+the tomb. Then outside of this are eight pillars supporting a
+baldachin, or canopy, in the richly ornamented Romanesque style, and the
+combinations of the Gothic and the decorative architecture are so
+skilfully made as not to offend our taste. But it is generally
+acknowledged that the chief beauty of this work is the series of the
+figures of the apostles, which are upon the pillars. They are slender in
+proportion, gracefully draped, and bear their distinctive symbols. They
+are perfectly free from the realism of the earlier works of Vischer, and
+have more of the purity and nobleness of the works of Ghiberti than are
+seen in the statues of any other German artist of this age (Figs. 97,
+98).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--ST. SEBALD AND THE BURNING ICICLES. _Vischer._]
+
+Above the apostles are figures of prophets and other Biblical
+personages; Perseus and Hercules are also represented, and other statues
+typify Strength, Justice, Prudence, and Moderation. The figure of the
+Infant Christ is upon the centre of the highest, or middle dome. Between
+the pillars at their bases stand graceful candelabra, and the base
+itself rests upon snails. Besides all these principal figures there are
+almost numberless others and many ornamental designs. There are
+harpies, sirens, satyrs, fawns, and all sorts of fantastic creatures.
+The whole work is full of the deep feeling of the north and the beauty
+and richness of the south, and is a most remarkable production.
+
+We are told that Vischer was but poorly paid for this labor, with all
+its thought and skill. He inscribed upon it these words: "... He
+completed it for the praise of God Almighty alone, and for the honor of
+St. Sebald, Prince of Heaven, by the aid of pious persons, paid by their
+voluntary contributions." There is a satisfaction in remembering that
+Vischer lived ten years after this tomb was completed, and must have
+heard many praises of his work.
+
+The later works of Vischer were a few reliefs and two important
+monuments at Aschaffenburg and Wittenberg. His sons Hans and Hermann
+executed a few monuments, which are done in the manner of their father,
+but do not equal him in design or finish. There are numerous works which
+must be regarded as productions of Vischer's studio and foundry of which
+we cannot give clear accounts, not knowing whether they were the earlier
+works of the father, or were executed by the sons or other pupils, of
+which he had many.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--PETER. _By Peter Vischer._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--JOHN. _By Peter Vischer._]
+
+PANKRAZ LABENWOLF was one of Vischer's pupils, and completed the
+splendid lattice-work over the Town-hall which the master left
+unfinished; Labenwolf added some ornaments and coats-of-arms to it. In
+1550 he cast the fountain in the court-yard of the same building, which
+is a graceful and creditable work; but another fountain in the vegetable
+market, behind the Frauenkirche, is truly original; the water flows from
+the mouths of two geese held under the arms of a peasant; the whole
+effect is droll and unique (Fig. 99).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--MAN AND GEESE. _By Labenwolf._]
+
+You will remember how, about 1390, Claux Sluter, by his works in Dijon,
+had a great influence upon French sculpture. A century and more later
+this art in France was largely under the influence of Italian masters,
+who had been called into France by Francis I. and other patrons of art.
+Splendid works of sculpture were also imported from Italy, and the
+effect of the Italian Renaissance, which was so plainly seen upon the
+painting of France, was also at work upon its sculpture.
+
+Where the sculptures were a part of an architectural decoration, as in
+the case of the choir screen in the cathedral at Amiens, and other like
+works, the change was not as complete as in cases where the work was one
+of independent sculpture, as in monuments and statues to commemorate the
+dead, or in portrait sculpture.
+
+The wealth and power of the nobility of France at this period enabled
+them to gratify their desire to leave fine monuments of themselves, in
+order to keep their names in memory in future centuries. In these the
+Italian manner was adopted, and the works when completed were far more
+splendid and elegant than were the corresponding works in Germany. But
+they have a grave fault, which makes them much less interesting than are
+the German sculptures: they are more conventional, less expressive, and
+far less artistic in spirit. They impress one as if the soft, luxurious
+court atmosphere had passed over them, and taking away their strong
+points, had left them only a general air of being well-bred and
+well-kept persons, of little importance to the real life of the world.
+
+In the Louvre, in the Museum of Modern Sculpture, all this change can be
+traced, and the traveller in France may see such monuments as we refer
+to in all the cathedrals and most of the churches all over the country.
+Many of them cannot be traced to any one master. A fine specimen is the
+Amboise Monument in Rouen Cathedral, which is said to have been the work
+of one Roulland de Roux and his assistants.
+
+JEAN JUSTE of Tours was one of the best French artists of his day. In
+the Cathedral of Tours is a monument to two young children of Charles
+VIII., which proves him to have had much delicacy and tenderness of
+execution. The sarcophagus is covered with graceful designs, and on the
+lid lie the two babies, for the eldest was but three years old. The
+whole work is exquisite, and gives one a feeling of satisfaction.
+
+About 1530 Juste erected the splendid monument to Louis XII. and Anne of
+Brittany in the Church of St. Denis. While the general form of the
+monument is much like that of the Visconti in the Certosa at Pavia, the
+figures of the dead couple are quite different from the Italian manner.
+Below on a bier the two nude bodies are stretched in all the realism
+possible, and the heads are noble and touching in expression. Above, on
+the upper part of the monument, where in Italy the patron saint or some
+other figure usually is placed, the king and queen again appear; they
+are kneeling, with full drapery about them, while the faces are
+characteristic and very expressive. This monument, taken all in all, is
+in the perfection of the French art of the time. Another work by Juste
+now in the Louvre is the monument to Louis de Poncher, one of the
+ministers of Francis I., and his wife, Roberta. These statues are in
+alabaster, and were formerly in the Church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois,
+which was built by Poncher.
+
+PIERRE BONTEMPS must have been a famous sculptor, as he was chosen to
+erect the monument to Francis I., his wife Claude and their three
+children. This is also at St. Denis, and is even more grand than that to
+Louis XII. On the upper platform the five figures are kneeling; they are
+noble and simple, with an air of great repose. These examples serve to
+give an idea of the religious sculpture of the time.
+
+Secular subjects were unusual. A house in Bourges is decorated with the
+figures of the master and mistress above the entrance, as if they would
+speak a welcome, while reliefs of industrial scenes, such as might be
+seen outside and inside of the house, are placed in various positions
+over the building and in the court-yard. Something of a like sort is
+upon the Hotel Bourgtheroulde at Rouen, where the friezes show scenes
+between Francis I. and Henry VIII. Biblical scenes are also distributed
+over the building.
+
+Bruges is almost the only city of the Netherlands that has any
+sculptures of this period of which one would speak. Just at this time
+the art of that country was painting preeminently, and the Van Eycks and
+their followers had done such things as held the attention of all to the
+neglect of other arts. At Bruges in the cathedral, the Church of St.
+Jacques, and the Liebfrauenkirche there are some fine monuments, and the
+Palais de Justice has a carved chimney-piece which is magnificent, and
+a work of the highest rank.
+
+In England sculpture was of less account even than in the Netherlands.
+One circumstance is worthy of notice. Pietro Torrigiano, after
+quarrelling with Michael Angelo and breaking his nose, fled to England,
+and his monument of Henry VII. and his queen in Westminster Abbey,
+erected in 1519, marks the introduction of the style of the Italian
+Renaissance into England. The structure is of black marble; the statues
+of the king and queen are in gilt bronze, and are grandly noble in
+design and finished in execution. The smaller figures and all the
+details of the monument are fine. The master received L1000 for this
+work. Torrigiano executed other works, and entered into an agreement to
+make a monument to Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but for some
+reason he went to Spain in 1519 and never returned, as he was destroyed
+by the Inquisition three years later.
+
+It is probable that Torrigiano may have been led to Spain by hearing of
+the revival of art which was taking place there. Flemish and Italian
+artists went there, and the influence of their styles was felt by the
+native masters. The result was that they brought forth a manner of their
+own, combining certain features of northern and of southern art, and
+used to express the thoughts of the Spaniards themselves. The carved
+altars of Seville, Toledo, and Burgos show how splendid this art was;
+and though we cannot trace the lives and works of Spanish sculptors as
+we should like to do, we can be sure that there were men among them
+equal to any demand that could be made upon decorative sculptors.
+
+This is proved by the portals and fronts of the churches, by the highly
+ornamented chapels, the wall niches and choir screens of the interiors,
+while the monuments are also equal to those of other nations. That of
+Ferdinand and Isabella in the Church of the Guardian Angel, at Granada,
+is noble and magnificent. It is believed to have been erected before the
+death of Ferdinand in 1516, and was probably the work of an Italian
+sculptor. This monument has a large marble sarcophagus, with a structure
+above it in the Renaissance style. At the corners of the sarcophagus
+there are griffins of excellent workmanship, and on the sides reliefs
+and statuettes of the Four Fathers of the Church; on the lid repose the
+figures of the royal pair, executed in a grand and dignified
+simplicity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI, MICHAEL ANGELO, AND
+OTHERS.
+
+
+By the beginning of the sixteenth century sculpture occupied a different
+place with relation to architecture from that which it had held in the
+previous centuries which we have just considered. The architecture of
+Italy became much more plain, and its union with sculpture in any large
+degree was rare.
+
+Painting, too, had now an effect to lessen the sphere of sculpture. This
+art was always preferred by the Christians, as has been shown before,
+and now, when it had reached most satisfactory heights, it was used in
+many places where sculpture had before been placed. One important
+example of this is seen in the decoration of altars; where bas-reliefs
+had been used paintings were now preferred, and the end of all was that
+sculpture was limited to monuments and to separate pieces--reliefs or
+single statues or groups of figures.
+
+In some ways this separation of the arts was a benefit to all. Under the
+old rule sculptors had often been forced to sacrifice their design to
+the needs of the architecture their work adorned. At other times they
+were compelled to put aside their own feeling and their artistic ideas
+as to how a subject should be treated, and suit themselves to such forms
+as were approved by the particular priest or bishop whose church they
+decorated. Now, when left to itself, sculpture became more individual
+in its expression, and far more free and interesting in itself. In the
+beginning of the sixteenth century the works of Italian sculpture were
+splendid in the extreme. It was delicate and beautiful; the drapery was
+made to show the figure and its natural motion, while it added an
+exquisite grace to the whole; many works of this period were fine in
+conception, good in their arrangement, and executed in a noble, spirited
+manner. Some critics believe that during the first four decades of this
+era Italian sculpture equalled the antique art of the Romans. Others
+make 1520, or the time of Raphael, the limit to the best epoch of this
+art; but it is scarcely possible thus to fix an exact bound; the
+important point is that this excellence was reached, and the regret
+follows that it could not endure for a longer period.
+
+A far greater variety of subjects was represented in this age of
+sculpture than before. Formerly the rule was the production of religious
+effects. Scenes from the life of Christ and his disciples, others from
+those of the saints, or the illustration of scriptural stories, with the
+portrait tomb-sculpture, had been the sculptor's work. Now all the
+stories of mythology were studied as diligently as they had been in
+classic days, and artists studied to clothe the pagan personages with
+new forms; and in all this effort much appeared that was original. It is
+easy to see that such sculpture from the hand of a Christian artist must
+lack the important element of pure sincerity. An artist who believed in
+Jesus Christ could not conceive a statue of Jupiter, with all the
+glorious attributes, that an ancient Greek would have given to his god
+of gods. In this view the sculpture of classic subjects of this
+sixteenth century may be said to have been two-sided--the work
+illustrated a religion in which the artist pleased his imagination, but
+for which he had no reverence or love. But in spite of all it was a
+golden age, and many of its works are a "joy forever."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100. PHARISEE.
+FIG. 101. LEVITE. _By Rustici._]
+
+Although the first public work which Leonardo Da Vinci did at Milan was
+to model an equestrian statue, we can scarcely speak of him as a
+sculptor. But the first Florentine of this period whom I shall mention
+is GIOVANNI FRANCESCO RUSTICI (1476-1550), who was a fellow-pupil with
+Leonardo under Verocchio. Very few works by this master remain, but a
+prominent and important one is the bronze group above the northern
+portal to the baptistery at Florence. It represents the "preaching of
+St. John The Baptist," and is grand in the free action of its figures.
+The Drapery is in a pure style, very much like that of Ghiberti (figs.
+100, 101). This work was ordered by a guild of merchants, and they
+failed to pay the price which had been fixed for it. Rustici was so
+embarrassed by this that he undertook no more large works, and after the
+Medici were expelled from florence he went into the service of Francis
+I. in France he had executed various works, and was finally commissioned
+to model an equestrian statue of the king in colossal size, when the
+sovereign died. Rustici survived but three years, and we are told that
+he only executed small works, and those "for the most part for the sake
+of kindness."
+
+ANDREA CONTUCCI DAL MONTE SAN SAVINO, called SANSOVINO (1460-1529), was
+a very important sculptor, because large works were committed to him,
+and his name must remain associated with them. Like Giotto, Sansovino
+was a shepherd-boy, and drew pictures upon the stones of the fields.
+Like Giotto, too, he was sent to Florence to study, and in the school of
+Pallajuolo made good progress. When thirty years old he was appointed
+architect and sculptor to the King of Portugal. After an absence of ten
+years he returned to Florence, and later to Rome, where Pope Julius II.
+commissioned him to erect monuments to the Cardinals Rovere and Sforza,
+in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo.
+
+These monuments were his best works, but they cannot be praised. The
+statues are in positions which seem to be uncomfortable, and there is
+such a mass of ornament and so many statuettes that the whole has an
+effect of confusion.
+
+In 1513 Leo X. sent Sansovino to Loreto to adorn the temple which
+incloses the "Casa Santa" with bas-reliefs. This Casa Santa is believed
+to be the house in which the Virgin Mary was born at Nazareth; and when
+the Saracens invaded the land four angels are said to have borne the
+house to the coast of Dalmatia, and later to a spot near Loreto; but
+here some brigands entered it, and again it was removed to its present
+position in the Church of Loreto; this is said to have been done in
+1295. Naturally this "Casa Santa" is a sacred object to all Roman
+Catholics, and it is visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims each
+year.
+
+The decoration of this shrine was very important, and an honorable work
+for any artist. Sansovino did not execute all the reliefs, and the
+highest praise that can be given to those he did is to say that they are
+superior to the others that are beside them. He was a most skilful
+workman, and it seems as if marble became like wax under his hand; but
+this very skill led him to multiply his ornaments, and to repeat
+acanthus leaves and honeysuckle vines until the whole was a weariness
+and confusion, and conveyed no meaning or sentiment whatever.
+
+Sansovino's most important pupil was JACOPO TATTI, who, on account of
+his master, is called JACOPO SANSOVINO (1477-1570). He was born at
+Florence, and when Andrea Sansovino returned from Portugal Jacopo became
+his pupil. Early in life he went to Rome, and there studied and copied
+the works of antiquity; among other things he made a copy of the
+Laocoon, which was cast in bronze at a later time. Soon after his return
+to Florence, in 1511, Jacopo received orders for some works, but the
+most important statue which he made about this time is the Bacchus, now
+in the Uffizi. In this work he showed how completely he was in sympathy
+with the classic spirit; this Bacchus is a triumph in this manner, and
+has been called "the most beautiful and spirited pagan statue of the
+Renaissance period." It is full of gladness, and is simple, delicate,
+and beautiful. The young god is advancing and holding up a cup, which he
+regards with an expression of delight; in his right hand he has a bunch
+of grapes, from which a Pan is eating stealthily (Fig. 102).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--BACCHUS.
+_By Jacopo Sansovino._]
+
+In 1514 Jacopo Sansovino was employed upon the decorations for the visit
+of Leo X. to Florence. Soon after this he went again to Rome and
+submitted plans for the Church of San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, which the
+Florentines were about to erect--for this master was an architect as
+well as a sculptor. The taking of Rome by Constable de Bourbon, in 1527,
+drove Sansovino away; he went to Venice, intending to go to France, but
+Venice charmed him, and his work pleased the Venetians, and the result
+was that from 1529 he served the Venetians as long as he lived. He was
+appointed Protomastro of the Republic of Venice, and had the care of St.
+Mark's, the Campanile, the Piazza, and the surrounding buildings. He
+received a good salary, and was provided with a handsome house to live
+in.
+
+He first restored the cupolas of St. Mark's; then completed the Scuola
+della Misericordia; he next made the interior of San Francesco della
+Vigna; then the Zecca, the Fabbriche Nuove, and the Loggietta of the
+Campanile. He also erected other churches and palaces, besides smaller
+sculptural works. But his architectural masterpiece was the Library of
+St. Mark's. The bronze gate to the Sacristy of St. Mark's was one of his
+principal works. It is subject to criticism as being too crowded; but it
+is a fine work and full of strong feeling.
+
+His statues are numerous and seen all over Venice; indeed, it is proper
+to speak of him as a Venetian, so thoroughly did he adopt that city, and
+so industriously did he work for it during forty years. Had he remained
+in Florence he might have been a better artist; the splendor and luxury
+of the Venetians brought out corresponding traits in Jacopo, and he fell
+short of the purity which the influence of Florence might have given
+him. He is one of the masters in whom the sensual influence of the study
+of pagan art was fully manifested. Many of his subjects were
+mythological; among them were the story of Phrixos and Helle, Mercury,
+Apollo, Pallas, Mars, and Neptune, the last two being colossal figures
+on the steps of the Doge's Palace.
+
+Among the pupils and associates of Sansovino were NICCOLO BRACCINI
+(1485-1550), called IL TRIBOLO, and FRANCESCO SANGALLO (1498-1570),
+neither of whom were important artists, though many works by them are
+seen in various places in Italy.
+
+BENVENUTO CELLINI (1500-1572) is a far more interesting study than were
+many sculptors of his time. His life was an eventful one, and his own
+account of it is one of the most interesting books of its class in
+existence. His statement of the origin of his family is that "Julius
+Caesar had a chief and valorous captain named Fiorino da Cellino, from a
+castle situated four miles from Monte Fiascone. This Fiorino having
+pitched his camp below Fiesole, where Florence now stands, in order to
+be near the river Arno, for the convenience of the army, the soldiers
+and other persons, when they had the occasion to visit him, said to each
+other, 'Let us go to Fiorenza,' which name they gave to the place where
+they were encamped, partly from their captain's name of Fiorino, and
+partly from the abundance of flowers which grew there; wherefore Caesar,
+thinking it a beautiful name, and considering flowers to be of good
+augury, and also wishing to honor his captain, whom he had raised from
+an humble station, and to whom he was greatly attached, gave it to the
+city which he founded on that spot."
+
+When this artist was born his father was quite old, and named him
+Benvenuto, which means welcome, on account of his pleasure in the child
+of his old age. The father had a passion for music, and from the first
+wished that his son should study this art; but the boy loved drawing,
+and was determined to be an artist; thus his time was divided between
+these two pursuits until he was fifteen years old, when he was
+apprenticed to a goldsmith.
+
+Benvenuto had a fiery temper, and when still very young he became
+involved in so serious a quarrel that he was obliged to flee from
+Florence. He went first to Siena, and thence to Bologna, and at last
+back to Florence, where he resumed his work. It was not long, however,
+before he became angry again because his best clothes were given to his
+brother, and he walked off to Pisa, where he remained a year. He had
+even then become so skilful in his art that some of his works done there
+have never been excelled either in design or execution.
+
+When Cellini was eighteen years old Torrigiano came to Florence to
+engage artists to go to England to aid him in some works he was to
+execute. He wished to have Cellini in the number; but Torrigiano so
+disgusted Benvenuto by his boasting of the blow that he had given
+Michael Angelo, that though he had the natural youthful desire to
+travel, he refused to be employed by such a man as Torrigiano. We can
+safely assume that this predisposed Michael Angelo in Cellini's favor,
+and was the foundation of the friendship which he afterward showed to
+the younger sculptor.
+
+From his eighteenth to his fortieth year Cellini lived mostly at Rome.
+He was employed by Pope Clement VII., the cardinals and Roman nobles.
+The Pope desired to have a cope button made and a magnificent diamond
+set in it. This jewel had cost Julius II. thirty-six thousand ducats.
+Many artists sent in designs for this button, and Clement chose that by
+Cellini. He used the diamond as a throne, and placed a figure of the
+Almighty upon it; the hand was raised as if in blessing, and many angels
+fluttered about the folds of the drapery, while various jewels were set
+around the whole. When other artists saw the design they did not believe
+that it could be executed successfully; but Cellini made it a perfect
+work of art and of beauty.
+
+Cellini writes of himself as being very active in the siege of Rome, May
+5th, 1527. He says that he killed the Constable de Bourbon, who led the
+siege, and that he wounded the Prince of Orange, who was chosen in
+Bourbon's place. No one else saw him perform these feats. Cellini went
+to the Pope, who was in the Castle of St. Angelo, and he there rendered
+such services to the cause of the Church that the Holy Father pardoned
+him for all the sins into which his temper had led him--"for all the
+homicides he had committed or might commit in the service of the
+Apostolic Church." A few years later, when Cellini was called upon to
+take part in the defence of his own city, he put all his property into
+the care of a friend, and stole away to Rome.
+
+In 1534 Cellini killed a fellow-goldsmith, called Pompeo; Paul III. was
+now Pope; and as he needed the services of Benvenuto very much he
+pardoned him. But the sculptor felt that he was in ill favor with all
+about him, and went to France. In about a year he returned to find that
+he had been accused of stealing some jewels which the pope had commanded
+him to take out of their settings. Cellini was held a prisoner nearly
+two years, but his guilt was never proved.
+
+At the end of this time the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este obtained his
+release in order that he might go to France to execute some work for
+Francis I. Cellini remained in France five years, and received many
+honors and gifts; but as Madame d'Etampes and other persons to whose
+advice the king listened were enemies of Cellini, he never was treated
+as his artistic qualities merited. Francis I. really admired Cellini,
+and presented him with the Hotel de Petit Nesle, which was on the site
+of the present Hotel de la Monnaie; he also made him a lord, and on one
+occasion expressed his fear of losing him, when Madame d'Etampes
+replied, "The surest way of keeping him would be to hang him on a
+gibbet."
+
+Of all the objects which Cellini made during his five years in France
+but two remain. One is a splendid salt-cellar, and the other is a nymph
+in bronze, which was made for the Palace of Fontainebleau, and is now in
+the Renaissance Museum of the Louvre. This salt-cellar is now in the
+Ambraser Gallery at Vienna. The frieze around the base has figures in
+relief which represent the hours of the day and the winds. The upper
+part is made like the surface of the sea, and from it rise figures of
+Neptune and Cybele. The first is a symbol of the salt of the sea, and
+the second of the spices which the earth gives. The god is placing his
+arm on a small ship intended for the salt, and a vessel for pepper, in
+the form of a triumphal arch, is near the goddess. All this is made of
+fine embossed gold, and has some touches of enamel-work. It is one of
+the finest pieces of the goldsmith's art which remains from the
+sixteenth century.
+
+In 1545 Cellini returned to Florence, and remained there, with short
+absences, until his death. Duke Cosmo de' Medici became his patron, and
+commissioned him to make a statue of Perseus for the Loggia de' Lanzi.
+The ambition of the artist was much excited by the thought of having his
+work placed by those of Donatello and Michael Angelo, and all care was
+taken from his mind, as the Duke provided him with a comfortable house
+and gave him a salary sufficient for his support.
+
+It was nine years before the statue was completed and in its place, and
+in this time Cellini had suffered much. Baccio Bandinelli and others
+were his enemies, and at times the Duke had been under their influence,
+and would not furnish the money necessary to the work. But at last all
+was ready for the casting; and just at this unfortunate moment for
+Cellini to leave it he was seized with a severe illness; he was
+suffering much, and believed himself about to die, when some one ran in
+shouting, "Oh, Benvenuto, your work is ruined past earthly remedy!"
+
+Ill as he was he rushed out to the furnace, to find that the fire was
+too low, and the metal, being cool, had ceased flowing into the mould.
+By almost superhuman efforts he remedied the evil, and again the bronze
+flowed; he prayed earnestly, and when the mould was filled he writes: "I
+fell on my knees and thanked God with all my heart, after which I ate a
+hearty meal with my assistants, and it being then two hours before dawn,
+went to bed with a light heart, and slept as sweetly as if I had never
+been ill in all my life."
+
+When the statue was unveiled Cellini's prediction that it would please
+all the world except Bandinelli and his friends was fulfilled. Perseus
+is represented just at the moment when he has cut off the head of
+Medusa, who was one of the Gorgons, and had turned to stone every one
+who looked at her. (Fig. 103.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--PERSEUS. _By Benvenuto Cellini._]
+
+After the completion of the Perseus, Cellini went to Rome for a short
+time. While there he made a bust of Bindo Altoviti; when Michael Angelo
+saw this he wrote: "My Benvenuto, I have long known you as the best
+goldsmith in the world, and I now know you as an equally good sculptor,
+through the bust of Messer Bindo Altoviti." Cellini did no more
+important works, though he was always industrious. He made a crucifix
+which he intended for his own grave, but he gave it to the Duchess
+Eleanora; this was afterward sent to Philip II. of Spain, and is now in
+the Escurial.
+
+Cellini's life was by no means a model one, but he had his good
+qualities. He took a widowed sister with six children to his home, and
+made them welcome and happy. At his death he was buried in the Church of
+the Annunziata, beneath the chapel of the Company of St. Luke, and many
+honors were paid to his memory.
+
+His autobiography was so rich in its use of the Florentine manner of
+speech and so fine in its diction that it was honored as an authority by
+the Accademia della Crusca. He also wrote valuable works on the
+goldsmith's art and on bronze-casting and sculpture. He wrote poems and
+various kinds of verses, but his large acquaintance with popes,
+cardinals, kings, artists, and men of letters makes his story of his
+life far more interesting than his other writings.
+
+The artists of Upper Italy were much influenced by Florentine art, as
+they had formerly been, and we can speak of no very great sculptor of
+this century who belonged to this part of the country. ALFONSO LOMBARDO
+(1488-1537) was a native of Lucca; his principal works are seen in
+Ferrara, Bologna, and Cesena.
+
+PROPERZIA DE' ROSSI (1490-1530) was born at Bologna, and is interesting
+as the one Italian sculptress of that time. She was born about a year
+after her father had returned from the galleys, where he had worked out
+a sentence of eighteen years for the crime of manslaughter. Properzia
+seems to have inherited her father's violent temper, and was twice
+arraigned in court. She was very beautiful in person, and had a devoted
+lover in Antonio Galeazzo Malvasia de' Bottigari, who did not marry
+until many years after the death of Properzia.
+
+Properzia studied drawing under Marc Antonio Raimondi, the famous
+engraver. She first devoted herself to the cutting of intaglios, which
+demanded an immense amount of patient labor. There is in the cabinet of
+gems in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence, a cherry-stone carved by
+Properzia, on which sixty heads may be counted; the subject is a Glory
+of Saints. Other like works of hers exist in the Palazzo Grassi, in
+Bologna. Her next work was in arabesques, marble ornaments, lions,
+griffins, vases, eagles, and similar objects.
+
+Finally she essayed a bust of Count Guido Pepoli; it is now in the
+Sacristy of San Petronio, in Bologna. In the same place are two
+bas-reliefs by her hand, Solomon receiving the Queen of Sheba, and
+Joseph and Potiphar's Wife. In the chapel Zambeccari in San Petronio
+there are two large figures of angels by Properzia, which are near the
+Ascension of the Virgin by Il Tribolo. Her manner was much influenced by
+her contact with this sculptor. Properzia was employed, with other
+artists, to finish the sculpture of the portal of San Petronio, left
+unfinished by Jacopo della Quercia.
+
+ANTONIO BEGARELLI (1499-1565), called also ANTONIO DA MODENA, from the
+place of his birth, was a celebrated modeller in clay. It is said that
+when Michael Angelo visited Modena in 1529 he saw Begarelli and his
+works, and exclaimed, "Alas for the statues of the ancients, if this
+clay were changed to marble!" Begarelli had a school for teaching design
+and modelling, and he greatly influenced the manner of the Lombard
+school of painting. Its foreshortening, its relief and grace are largely
+due to him and his teaching.
+
+Begarelli and Correggio were fast friends, and resembled each other in
+their conception of the grand and beautiful. When Correggio was
+decorating the cupola of the Cathedral of Parma, Begarelli was at work
+in the same place, and made many models from which Correggio painted his
+floating figures. Some works by Begarelli may be seen in the Berlin
+Museum. His Descent from the Cross, in the Church of San Francesco, at
+Modena, is one of his best works. He was also employed in the Church of
+San Benedetto, in Mantua, and in San Giovanni, at Parma.
+
+During the sixteenth century the works at the Certosa at Pavia and in
+various edifices in Milan were constantly carried on. Frequently the
+same sculptors worked in both cities, but there is no one artist of
+great excellence among them of whom we can give an account. The same is
+true of the works in Venice and in Southern Italy. The traveller sees
+many pieces of sculpture belonging to this period, but there are no
+great and interesting men whose story we can tell in connection with
+them, and I shall now pass to an account of the great Florentine.
+
+MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI (1475-1564) was born in the Castle of Caprese,
+where his father, Ludovico Buonarroti, was stationed at that time,
+holding the office of Podesta, or Governor, of the towns of Caprese and
+Chiusi. The Buonarroti family held good rank in Florence, and the mother
+of the great artist was also a woman of good position. When his father
+returned to Florence the child Michael was left at Settignano upon an
+estate of the family, and was in the care of the wife of a stone-mason.
+As soon as the boy could use his hands he drew pictures everywhere that
+it was possible, and his nurse could show many of these childish
+drawings with which he adorned the walls of her house.
+
+At a proper time Michael Angelo was removed to Florence and placed in a
+school, where he became intimate with Francesco Granacci, who was a
+pupil of the artist Ghirlandajo. Michael Angelo's father and his uncles
+were firmly opposed to his being an artist; they wished him to follow
+the traditions of his family, and carry on the silk and woollen trade.
+But the boy was firm in his determination, and after many trials was at
+length, in 1488, apprenticed to the Ghirlandaji for three years.
+
+Domenico Ghirlandajo was at this time engaged in the restoration of the
+Church of Santa Maria Novella, and Michael Angelo came into the midst of
+great artistic works. One day at the dinner hour he drew a picture of
+the scaffolding and all its belongings, with the men at work on it; it
+was a remarkable drawing for a boy, and when the master saw it he
+exclaimed, "He understands more than I do myself!" The master really
+became jealous of his pupil, more especially when Michael Angelo
+corrected the drawings which Ghirlandajo gave his scholars for models.
+
+About this time Michael Angelo was brought to the notice of Lorenzo de'
+Medici, who was at that time at the head of the government of Florence,
+and from him the boy-artist obtained admission for himself and Granacci
+to study in the gardens of San Marco. The art treasures of the Medici
+were placed in these gardens; works of sculpture were there, and
+cartoons and pictures were hung in buildings erected for the purpose,
+and art-students were admitted to study there and proper instructors
+provided for them.
+
+The master in sculpture was old Bertoldo, and Michael Angelo, forsaking
+painting, obtained some instruments and a piece of marble, and copied a
+mask of a faun. He changed his own work somewhat from the model, and
+opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When Lorenzo saw this
+he praised the work, but said, "You have made your faun old, and yet you
+have left all his teeth; you should have known that at such an age there
+are generally some teeth wanting." When he came again he saw that a gap
+had been made in the teeth, and so well done that he was delighted. This
+work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.
+
+Very soon Lorenzo sent for Michael Angelo's father, who had been sad
+enough at the thought that his son might be a painter, and was now in
+despair when he found that he inclined also to be a stone-mason. At
+first he refused to see the duke, but Granacci persuaded him to go. He
+went with a firm determination to yield to nothing, but once in presence
+of Lorenzo he yielded everything, and returned home declaring that not
+only Michael, but he himself, and all that he had were at the nobleman's
+service.
+
+Lorenzo at once took Michael Angelo into his palace; he clothed the boy
+properly, and gave him five ducats a month for spending money. Each day
+Lorenzo gave an entertainment, and it was the rule that the first person
+who came should sit next the duke at the head of the table. Michael
+Angelo often had this place, and he soon became a great favorite with
+Lorenzo, and obtained besides the greatest advantages from the life in
+the palace; for many eminent men from all parts of the world came to
+visit there, and all sorts of subjects were discussed in such a manner
+that a young man could learn much of the world and what was in it, and
+acquire a feeling of ease with strangers and in society such as few
+young persons possess.
+
+Michael Angelo was but seventeen years old when Poliziano advised him to
+attempt an original work, and gave him the marble for a relief of the
+contest between Hercules and the Centaurs. This work surprised every
+one, and is still preserved in the collection of the Buonarroti family.
+In the year 1492 he also made a relief of the Madonna Suckling the Child
+Jesus, which is also in the same place. In the same year Lorenzo de'
+Medici died, and Michael Angelo, full of grief, went to his father's
+house and arranged a studio there. After a time Piero de Medici invited
+him to come back to the palace, and he went; but it was no more the
+same place as formerly, and he was unhappy there. Soon political
+troubles drove the Medici from power, and in 1494, in the midst of the
+confusion, Michael Angelo escaped to Venice. There he made friends with
+Gian Francesco Aldovrandi of Bologna, and was persuaded by that nobleman
+to accompany him to his own city.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S ANGEL. _Bologna._]
+
+While at Bologna he executed an angel holding a candelabra, which is one
+of the most lovely and pleasing things he ever made (Fig. 104). When he
+received the commission to ornament the sarcophagus which contained the
+remains of San Domenico in the Church of San Petronio, the Bolognese
+artists were so angry at being thus set aside for a stranger, and a
+youth of twenty, that they threatened vengeance on him, and he returned
+to Florence.
+
+It was at this time that he executed a Cupid, which was the means of
+leading him to Rome. The story is that when he had the statue completed
+Lorenzo de' Medici, a relative of his first patron, advised him to give
+it the appearance of an antique marble, and added that he would then
+sell it in Rome and get a good price for it. Michael Angelo consented to
+this plan, and in the end he received thirty ducats for the work. The
+secret of its origin was not kept, and the cardinal who had bought it
+sent an agent to Florence to find out the truth about it. This agent
+pretended to be in search of a sculptor; and when he saw Michael Angelo
+he asked him what works he had done. When he mentioned a Sleeping Cupid,
+and the agent asked questions, the young sculptor found that the
+cardinal had paid two hundred ducats for it, and that he had been
+greatly deceived when attempting to deceive others.
+
+Michael Angelo consented to go to Rome with this man, who promised to
+receive him into his own house, and assured him that he would be fully
+occupied in the Eternal City. The oldest writing by the hand of Michael
+Angelo is the letter which he wrote to Lorenzo telling him of his
+arrival in Rome; when this was written he was twenty-one years old. The
+first work which he did after he reached Rome was the "Drunken Bacchus,"
+now in the Uffizi Gallery; it shows a great knowledge of anatomy in one
+so young, and the expression of drunkenness is given in the most natural
+manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--PIETA. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+But the work that established his fame as a great sculptor is the Pieta,
+now in St. Peter's at Rome (Fig. 105). He was twenty-five years old when
+he executed this work, and from that time was acknowledged to be the
+greatest sculptor of Italy--a decision which has never been reversed.
+
+Soon after this Michael Angelo returned to Florence, and his first
+important work was a Madonna, now at Bruges; it is life-size, and one of
+his finest sculptures. There was at this time an immense block of marble
+which had lain many years in the yard to the workshops of the cathedral.
+Several sculptors had talked of making something from it, and now
+Michael Angelo was asked by the consuls to make something good of it. He
+had just taken an order for fifteen statues for the Piccolomini tomb at
+Siena; but when he saw the immense block he gave up the Siena work, and
+contracted to make a statue in two years. He was to be paid six gold
+florins a month, and as much more as could be agreed upon when the work
+was done. He first made a model in wax of his David; it was very small,
+and is now in the Uffizi. In the beginning of 1504, after about two
+years and a half had been spent upon it, the work was done, and a
+discussion then arose as to where it should be placed.
+
+At length it was decided to put it where Michael Angelo himself wished
+it to be, next the gate of the palace where the Judith of Donatello then
+stood. The statue weighed eighteen thousand pounds, and its removal was
+a work of great importance. I shall not give all the details of it here,
+but shall quote what Grimm says: "The erection of this David was like
+an occurrence in nature from which people are accustomed to reckon. We
+find events dated so many years after the erection of the giant. It was
+mentioned in records in which there was not a line respecting art."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S DAVID.]
+
+In 1527 the statue was injured by a stone thrown in a riot. At length it
+began to show the effect of time and weather, and the people of Florence
+talked of removing it for better preservation. There was much feeling
+against this; the Florentines feared that misfortunes would fall upon
+them if this great work were disturbed; but at last, in 1873, it was
+placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. It represents the youthful David at
+the moment when he declares to Goliath, "I come unto thee in the name of
+the Lord of Hosts." The beautiful figure is muscular and pliant, and
+the face is full of courage. (Fig. 106.)
+
+About the beginning of the year 1505 Pope Julius II. summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome, and after a time gave him a commission to build a
+colossal mausoleum to be erected for himself. The design was made and
+accepted, and then Michael Angelo went to Carrara to select marble;
+after much trouble he succeeded in getting it to Rome, where all who saw
+it were astonished at the size of the blocks. Pope Julius was delighted,
+and had a passage made from the palace to the workshop of the sculptor,
+so that he could visit the artist without being seen. Other sculptors
+now became jealous of Michael Angelo, and when he went a second time to
+Carrara, Bramante persuaded the pope that it was a bad sign to build his
+tomb while he was still living. When Michael Angelo returned and the
+workmen he had hired arrived from Florence, he found the pope much
+changed toward him. He no longer hastened the work, neither would he
+furnish money to carry it on.
+
+Michael Angelo sought the pope for an explanation, and was refused an
+audience. He wrote a letter thus: "Most Holy Father, I was this morning
+driven from the palace by the order of your Holiness. If you require me
+in future you can seek me elsewhere than in Rome." He ordered a Jew to
+sell all he possessed in Rome, and started for Florence, and stopped not
+until he was on the ground of Tuscany. The pope sent after him, but as
+he was a citizen of Florence he threatened the messengers if they
+touched him. He said he had been treated as a criminal, and he
+considered himself free from his engagements, and would not return then
+or ever.
+
+When he reached home a letter came to the Signory of Florence urging his
+return, and saying that he should be safe. But Michael waited until the
+third letter was received, and only consented to go when it was
+arranged that he should be sent as an ambassador of Florence, and be
+under the protection of the Florentine Republic.
+
+In November, 1506, when the pope had taken Bologna, he sent for Michael
+Angelo to come to him there. Michael Angelo had not yet seen the pope
+since he left Rome in anger. When he reached Bologna he went first to
+San Petronio to hear mass. A servant of the pope recognized him and led
+him to his Holiness. Julius was at table, but ordered that Michael
+Angelo should come in, and said to him, "You have waited thus long, it
+seems, till we should ourselves come to seek you." Michael Angelo
+kneeled down and begged his pardon, but added that he had remained away
+because he had been offended. The pope looked at him doubtfully, when
+one of the priests, fearing what would happen, advised the pope not to
+judge an ignorant artist as he would another man. Then the pope turned
+upon him in great anger, and declaring that he himself was ignorant and
+miserable, ordered him out of his sight. The poor ecclesiastic was so
+terrified that the attendants were obliged to carry him out, and then
+the pope spoke graciously to the sculptor, and commanded him not to
+leave Bologna without his permission. The pope soon gave him an order
+for a colossal statue in bronze to be erected in Bologna.
+
+The first cast of this statue failed, and the work was not ready to be
+put in its place until February, 1508. This being done, Michael Angelo
+returned to Florence, where he had much to do; but Julius soon sent for
+him to go to Rome, and insisted that he should paint the roof of the
+Sistine Chapel, which occupied him a long time.
+
+In 1513 Julius II. died, and Michael Angelo resumed his work upon his
+mausoleum. The pope had mentioned it in his will, and his heirs wished
+it to be completed. At this time he probably worked upon the statue of
+Moses and upon the two chained youths. He devoted himself to the
+mausoleum during three years.
+
+Leo X., who was now pope, demanded the services of Michael Angelo to
+erect a facade to the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. The artist
+objected to this great work, and declared that he was bound to complete
+the tomb for which he had already received money. But Leo insisted upon
+his going to Florence. He had much trouble to get his marble from the
+quarries--the men were ill there. He was ill himself, and he passed a
+year of great anxiety and trouble, when there came word from Rome that
+the work must be given up; the building was postponed, and no payment
+was made to Michael Angelo! He was much disheartened, but returned to
+his work on the mausoleum.
+
+About 1523, when, after many changes, Cardinal Medici was pope, the work
+at San Lorenzo was resumed. But in 1525 the pope again summoned Michael
+Angelo to Rome. The heirs of Julius were complaining of delay, but at
+last the pope insisted upon his great need of the artist, and again he
+was sent back to Florence, where the cupola of the new Sacristy to San
+Lorenzo was soon finished. Great political confusion now ensued, and
+little can be said of Michael Angelo as a sculptor until 1530, when he
+again resumed his work on the Sacristy.
+
+He worked with the greatest industry and rapidity, and in a few months
+had nearly finished the four colossal figures which rest upon the
+sarcophagi of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici. The pope was forced to
+command the sculptor to rest. His health was so broken by the sorrow
+which the political condition of Florence caused him, and by his anxiety
+about the mausoleum of Julius, that there was much danger of his killing
+himself with work and worry. He went to Rome, and matters were more
+satisfactorily arranged. He returned to Florence, and labored there
+until 1534, when Clement VII. died, and Michael Angelo left his work
+in San Lorenzo, never to resume it. Unfinished as these sculptures are,
+they make a grand part of the wonderful works of this great man. The
+statues of the two Medici and those of Morning, Evening, Day, and Night
+would be sufficient to establish the fame of an artist if he had done
+nothing more. (Fig. 107.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--GIULIANO DE' MEDICI. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+Under the new pope, Paul III., he was constantly employed as a painter,
+and architectural labors were put upon him, so that as a sculptor we
+have no more works of his to mention except an unfinished group which
+was in his studio at the time of his death. It represents the dead
+Christ upon his mother's lap, with Joseph of Arimathea standing by. This
+group is now in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Cathedral of
+Florence. The mausoleum of Julius II. caused Michael Angelo and others
+so much trouble and vexation that the whole affair came to be known as
+the "tragedy of the sepulchre." When Julius first ordered it he intended
+to place it in St. Peter's, but in the end it was erected in the Church
+of San Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been the titular cardinal.
+Of all the monument but three figures can really be called the work of
+Michael Angelo. These are the Leah and Rachel upon the lower stage, and
+the Moses, which is one of the most famous statues in the world. Paul
+III., with eight cardinals, once visited the studio of the sculptor when
+he was at work upon this statue, and they declared that this alone was
+sufficient for the pope's monument (Fig. 108).
+
+The life of Michael Angelo was a sad one; indeed, it is scarcely
+possible to recount a more pathetic story than was his. The misfortunes
+which came to the Medici were sharp griefs to him, and his temperament
+was such that he could not forget his woes. His family, too, looked to
+him for large sums of money, and while he lived most frugally they spent
+his earnings. In his old age he said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived
+like a poor man."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--STATUE OF MOSES. _By Michael Angelo._]
+
+In 1529, when Florence was under great political excitement, Michael
+Angelo was appointed superintendent of all the fortifications of the
+Florentine territory. In the midst of his duties he became aware of
+facts which determined him to fly. He went to Venice, and was proscribed
+as a rebel. We cannot stay here to inquire as to his wisdom in this, but
+must go on to say that at length he was so much needed that he was
+persuaded to return. Then he had the dreadful experiences of hope and
+fear, sickness and famine, and all the horrors of a siege, only to see
+his beloved home deprived of its freedom, and in the possession of those
+whom he despised and hated. To Michael Angelo this was far more bitter
+than any personal sorrow; he never recovered from its effects, and it
+was immediately after this that he worked in the Sacristy of San Lorenzo
+as if trying to kill himself.
+
+He was bold as he was angry. He was treated kindly, and advised to
+forget the past; but he never concealed his views. When his statue of
+Night was exhibited, verses were put upon it, according to the custom of
+the time; one verse read, "Night, whom you see slumbering here so
+charmingly, has been carved by an angel, in marble. She sleeps, she
+lives; waken her, if you will not believe it, and she will speak."
+
+To this Michael Angelo replied, "Sleep is dear to me, and still more
+that I am stone, so long as dishonor and shame last among us; the
+happiest fate is to see, to hear nothing; for this reason waken me not.
+I pray you, speak gently." He had great courage to speak his anger thus
+publicly in the midst of those who could easily destroy him.
+
+In 1537 or 1538 his father died, and the artist suffered terribly from
+his grief. He wrote a sonnet beginning:
+
+   "Already had I wept and sighed so much.
+   I thought all grief forever at an end,
+   Exhaled in sighs, shed forth in bitter tears."
+
+The religious views of Michael Angelo were very broad, and he had a
+trustful and obedient dependence upon God, in whose mercy and love he
+gratefully rested with the simple faith of a child. It was not far from
+the time when his father died that Michael Angelo first met Vittoria
+Colonna. He was now more than sixty years old; and though his poems show
+that he had loved children and women all his life, yet he had allowed
+himself no attachments; his life had been lonely and alone. Now, at this
+late hour, he yielded his heart to this beautiful, gifted woman, who
+returned his friendship with the fullest esteem. During these years he
+was happier than he had ever been. But in 1541 she fell under the
+suspicion of the Inquisition, and was obliged to leave Rome.
+
+During two years they wrote constantly to each other, and each sent to
+the other the sonnets they wrote. At this time all Italy read the poems
+of Vittoria, and those of Michael Angelo still stand the test of time.
+In them he shows the blessed effect of her influence over him. At length
+she returned to Rome and entered a convent, where she died in 1547.
+Michael Angelo was with her to the last, and years later he declared
+that he regretted nothing so much as that he had only kissed her hand,
+and not her forehead or cheeks in that last hour. His loss was far too
+great to be told. (An engraving of a portrait of Michael Angelo can be
+seen in Mrs. Clement's "Painting," p. 95.)
+
+In the year following Vittoria's death all the hopes which he had
+cherished for the freedom of Florence were crushed. High honors were
+offered him to induce him to return there, but he would not go. His
+health failed, his sadness increased, and his writings show how
+constantly he mourned for Vittoria. After this he did much work as an
+architect, and held the post of director of the building of St. Peter's.
+He superintended the erection of the statue of Marcus Aurelius, and
+completed the Farnese Palace, and had many improvements in mind.
+
+Now, in his old age, he was authority itself in Rome. He had no rival,
+and his advice was sought by artists as well as others. He lived very
+simply: he dined alone, and received his visitors in the plainest
+manner. Anatomy, which had always been a passion with him, was now his
+chief pursuit. He made many dissections of animals, and was grateful
+when a human subject could be allowed him.
+
+When he could not sleep he would get up at night and work upon the group
+of which we have spoken; he had a cap with a candle in it, so that it
+cast a light upon his work. Vasari once entered when he was at work upon
+this group, and had a lantern in his hand; he dropped it purposely, so
+that the sculpture should not be seen, and said: "I am so old that death
+often pulls me by the coat to come to him, and some day I shall fall
+down like this lantern, and my last spark of life will be extinguished."
+
+There are many very interesting circumstances told of his last years and
+his strength of mind, and the work which he did was wonderful; but we
+have not space to recount it here.
+
+At length, in February, 1564, when almost ninety years old, he died. He
+had asked to be buried in Florence. His friends feared that this would
+be opposed, so they held burial-services in Rome, and his body was
+afterward carried through the gates as merchandise. In Florence the body
+was first laid in San Piero Maggiore, and on Sunday, at evening, the
+artists assembled, and forming a procession, proceeded to Santa Croce,
+where he was buried. The younger artists bore the bier upon their
+shoulders, and the older ones carried torches to light the way. A great
+multitude followed the procession, and in the Sacristy of Santa Croce
+the coffin was opened; though three weeks had passed since his death,
+his face appeared as if he had just died; the crowd was very great, but
+all was quiet, and before morning it had dispersed. The Duke had thought
+that a public funeral would recall old memories, and might cause a
+disturbance; but Michael Angelo had left Florence thirty years before
+his death, and his connection with the city was forgotten by many.
+
+The July following was appointed for a memorial service in his honor;
+San Lorenzo was splendidly decorated; Varchi delivered an oration.
+Leonardo, his nephew, erected a monument to him in Santa Croce, for
+which the Duke gave the marble. His statue stands in the court of the
+Uffizi with those of other great Florentines, but with no especial
+prominence. His house in the Ghibelline Street is preserved as a museum,
+and visitors there see many mementos of this great man.
+
+In 1875 a grand festival was held in Florence to celebrate the four
+hundredth anniversary of his birth. The ceremonies were impressive, and
+certain documents relating to his life which had never been opened, by
+command of the king, were given to suitable persons for examination. Mr.
+Heath Wilson, an English artist, then residing at Florence, wrote a new
+life of Michael Angelo, and the last signature which Victor Emmanuel
+wrote before his death was upon the paper which conferred on Mr. Wilson
+the Order of the _Corona d'Italia_, given as a recognition of his
+services in writing this book.
+
+The national pride in Michael Angelo is very strong. "All Italians feel
+that he occupies the third place by the side of Dante and Raphael, and
+forms with them a triumvirate of the greatest men produced by their
+country--a poet, a painter, and one who was great in all arts. Who would
+place a general or a statesman by their side as equal to them? It is art
+alone which marks the prime of nations."
+
+The genius of Michael Angelo and his spirit were powerful forces. They
+pervaded the whole art of Italy to such an extent that it may be said
+that all sculptors were his imitators, both while he lived and after his
+death. He loved to treat strong subjects, such as demanded violent
+movement and unusual positions. It was only a man of his genius who
+could raise such subjects above grotesqueness and the one effect of
+strange and unnatural exaggeration. As we look over all his works it
+seems as if the idea of beauty and such things as are pleasing to the
+ordinary mind rarely, if ever, came to his mind. Noble feeling, depth of
+thought, strength, and grandeur are the associations which we have with
+him, and in the hands of weaker men, as his imitators were, these
+subjects became barren, hollow displays of distorted limbs and soulless
+heads and faces.
+
+The result is, that there is little to be said of the immediate
+followers of this great man. GUGLIELMO DELLA PORTA was one of his most
+able scholars, and his chief work was a monument to Pope Paul III. in
+the Church of St. Peter's. The figure of the pope is in bronze, is
+seated, and holding the right hand in benediction. It is dignified and
+well designed. The figures of Justice and Prudence are not as good, and
+two others, Peace and Abundance, which were a part of this work, but are
+now in the Farnese Palace, lack power, and show an attempt at a
+representation of mere physical beauty.
+
+BACCIO BANDINELLI (1487-1559) is more noticeable for his hatred of
+Michael Angelo than for any other characteristic. He was a native of
+Florence and a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. He was powerful in his
+design and bold in his treatment of his subjects, but he was full of
+affectation and mannerisms in his execution of his works. He was false
+and envious, and his one good quality was that of industry. His best
+works are on the screen of the high-altar in the Cathedral of Florence,
+a relief on a pedestal in the Piazza of San Lorenzo, in Florence, and a
+group in the Church of the Annunziata, which he intended for his own
+monument; the subject is Nicodemus supporting Christ, and the Nicodemus
+is a portrait of Bandinelli himself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA.
+
+
+Not only Italian artists attempted to follow the great sculptor of
+Italy, but those of other nations flocked to Rome, and whatever ideas
+they may have had before reaching that city they seemed to lose them all
+and to aim simply at one thing--to be Michaelangeloesque.
+
+GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA (1529-1608) was born in Douai, in Flanders, and was
+called Il Fiammingo for this reason. Giovanni was intended for a notary
+by his father, who planned his education with that end in view; but the
+boy's passion for sculpture was so great that the father was obliged to
+yield to it, and placed him under the instruction of a sculptor named
+Beuch, who had studied in Italy. Later Giovanni went to Rome, and
+finally settled in Florence, where his most important works remain.
+
+He was an imitator of Michael Angelo, and one of his best imitators; but
+when his works are compared with those of the great master, or with the
+masterpieces of the fifteenth century, we see a decline in them. In
+religious subjects Giovanni was not at home; his most successful works
+were those which represented sentiment or abstract ideas, because on
+them he could lavish his skill in execution, and use ornaments that did
+not suit the simplicity of religious subjects. In the Loggia de' Lanzi,
+at Florence, there are two groups by him, the Rape of the Sabines and
+Hercules and Nessus. In the Piazza della Signoria is his excellent
+statue of Duke Cosmo I., and in the Uffizi Gallery a bronze statue of
+Mercury. The Rape of the Sabines is his masterpiece, and the Mercury is
+one of the best works of its kind since the days of classic art. It is
+the favorite Mercury of the world, and has been frequently copied. It is
+seen in many galleries and collections in its original size, and a small
+copy is much used in private houses. (Fig. 109.)
+
+Giovanni was especially happy in his designs for fountains, and that
+which he erected in Bologna, in 1564, in front of the Palazzo Pubblico,
+is a splendid work of this kind. The statue of Neptune at its summit is
+stately and free in its action; the children are charming and life-like,
+and the Sirens at the base give an harmonious finish and complete the
+outline with easy grace.
+
+He also erected a magnificent fountain in the island of the Boboli
+Gardens. In the Palazzo Vecchio is a marble group by Giovanni
+representing Virtue conquering Vice. At Petraja there is a beautiful
+Venus crowning a fountain remarkable for grace and delicacy, and, all in
+all, his works prove him to have been the best sculptor of his own time.
+Tuscany may claim him and be proud of him, for he was far more her son
+than that of his native Flanders.
+
+Giovanni da Bologna was far less successful in reliefs than in statues,
+as may be seen in the bronze gates to the Cathedral of Pisa, which he
+made in the last years of his life. In his character this master was
+attractive and much beloved by his friends. One of them wrote of him:
+"The best fellow in the world, not in the least covetous, as he shows by
+his poverty; filled with a love of glory, and ambitious of rivalling
+Michael Angelo."
+
+Giovanni decorated a chapel in the Church of the Annunziata with several
+reliefs in bronze and with a crucifix; he not only wished to be buried
+here himself, as he was, but he also desired to provide a place of
+burial for any of his countrymen who might die in Florence. The chapel
+is called that of the Madonna del Soccorso.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--MERCURY. _By Giovanni da Bologna._]
+
+The decline of sculpture in Italy at this period makes its study so
+unpromising that it is a pleasure to turn to France, where the works of
+JEAN GOUJON show that he had the true idea of sculpture in relief. From
+1555 to 1562 this sculptor was employed on the works at the Louvre, and
+during the massacre of St. Bartholomew he was shot while on a scaffold
+quietly working at a bas-relief on that palace.
+
+Goujon was an architect as well as a sculptor, and also a medal
+engraver, as is shown by the curious and rare medal which he made for
+Catherine de' Medici. Many of his works are preserved in different parts
+of France, and some bas-reliefs in the Museum of the Louvre are
+excellent specimens of his style.
+
+One also sees in France many works by GERMAIN PILON, who died in 1590.
+He executed the monument to Francis I., and took a part in that of Henry
+II. and Catherine de' Medici at the Church of St. Denis. He was the
+sculptor of the group of the three Graces in the Louvre, which formerly
+bore an urn containing the heart of Henry II., and was in the Church of
+the Celestines.
+
+But the sculptors of France at this time are not of such interest as to
+hold our attention long. There was a certain amount of spirit in their
+decorations of palaces and tombs, but there were no men of great genius,
+and no splendid works upon which we can dwell with pleasure or profit.
+
+In Germany, too, while there was much activity in sculpture, and public
+fountains and luxurious palaces and rich ornaments employed many
+artists, yet there was no originality or freshness in these works, and
+they fell below those of the past. Bronzes are still made at Nuremberg,
+but they only serve to make one regret that they are so inferior to
+those of earlier days; and nowhere in all Germany does any one artist
+stand out and present a man to be studied in his works or remembered as
+one of the gifted of the earth. And yet a list of the names of German
+sculptors of this time would be very long, for all over the land
+churches were being decorated, monuments built, and statues and
+fountains erected.
+
+In England the best sculpture of the sixteenth century was seen in the
+portrait statues on monuments, and we find no great artists there of
+whom to give an account.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--RELIEF BY BERRUGUETE. _Valladolid._]
+
+In Spain ALONSO BERRUGUETE (1480-1561), who was the most eminent artist
+of his time, had introduced the Italian manner. He went to Italy about
+1503, and studied in Rome and Florence during seventeen years. This was
+at the time when Italian sculpture was at the height of its excellence;
+and Berruguete returned to Spain filled with the purest and best
+conceptions of what art should be, and the ends it should serve. He has
+been called the Michael Angelo of Spain, because he was an architect,
+painter, and sculptor.
+
+Upon his return to Spain he was appointed painter and sculptor to
+Charles V. Among his most celebrated works in sculpture are the reliefs
+in the choir of the Cathedral at Toledo; the altar in the Church of San
+Benito el Real at Valladolid (Fig. 110), for which he was paid
+forty-four hundred ducats, and his sculptures in the Collegio Mayor at
+Salamanca. His final work was a monument to the Cardinal and Grand
+Inquisitor, Don Juan de Tavera, which is in the Church of the Hospital
+of St. John at Toledo. The sarcophagus is ornamented by reliefs from the
+story of John the Baptist, which are executed in an excellent manner,
+simple and expressive.
+
+Other Spanish sculptors were ESTEBAN JORDAN, an eminent wood-carver,
+GREGORIO HERNANDEZ (1566-1636), who has been called "the sculptor of
+religion." His works are so full of a spirit of devotion that they seem
+to have been executed under an inspiration. Hernandez was very devout in
+his life, and did many works of charity; he often provided decent burial
+for the very poor who died without friends who could bury them.
+
+Many of his works have been removed from the chapels for which they were
+designed, and are now in the Museum of Valladolid, where they are not as
+effective as when placed in their original positions. He is superior to
+other Spanish sculptors in his representation of nude figures and in the
+grandeur of his expression.
+
+JUAN DE JUNI (died 1614) studied in Italy, and acquired much mannerism;
+his works are seen in Valladolid.
+
+JUAN MARTINEZ MONTANES (died 1650) was a famous sculptor, and excelled
+in figures of children and cherubs. His conceptions had much beauty and
+depth of feeling, and his draperies were most graceful; and to this
+power of thinking out clearly and well the subject he wished to
+represent he added the ability to do his work in an artistic manner, and
+to give it an elegance of finish without taking away its strength. A
+Conception by him, in the Cathedral of Seville, is a noble work, and in
+the university church of the same city there is an altar which is one of
+his important works. Other sculptures by Montanes are in the Museum of
+Seville.
+
+The great ALONSO CANO (1601-1667) was a pupil of Montanes in sculpture,
+and, like so many other artists of his time, was a painter and architect
+as well as a sculptor. His personal history is very peculiar. He was a
+man of violent temper, and was often involved in serious quarrels. He
+was obliged to flee from Granada to Madrid on account of a duel, and
+when his wife was found murdered in her bed he was suspected of the
+crime. In spite of all this he took priest's orders, and was appointed
+to a canonry in the Cathedral of Granada; but on account of his temper
+he was deprived of this office by the chapter of the cathedral. He was
+so angry at this that he would do no more work for the cathedral.
+
+He devoted the remainder of his life to religious and charitable works.
+He gave away the money he earned as soon as he received it, and when he
+had no money to give away he was in the habit of making drawings, which
+he signed and marked with a suitable price; these he gave to the person
+he desired to assist, and recommended some person to whom application to
+buy the work could be made. After his death a large number of these
+charitable works was collected.
+
+He hated Jews with such hatred that he could not endure to look at one,
+and many strange stories are told of him in connection with these
+people.
+
+He loved his chisel better than his brush, and was accustomed to say
+that when weary he carved for rest. One of his pupils expressed great
+surprise at this, when Cano answered, "Blockhead, don't you perceive
+that to create form and relief on a flat surface is a greater service
+than to fashion one shape into another?"
+
+The most beautiful sculpture by Cano which remains is a Virgin about a
+foot high in the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Granada, where there are
+several other statuettes by him. These are colored in a manner which the
+Spaniards call "estofado;" it has the effect to soften the whole
+appearance of the works, like an enamel. At the entrance of the choir of
+the cathedral there are two colossal busts by Cano; they are grand
+works, and are called Adam and Eve.
+
+PEDRO ROLDAN (1624-1700), born at Seville, is an interesting sculptor
+because of his work, and on account of his being the last one whose
+manner was like that of Juni and Hernandez. His first celebrated work
+was the high-altar in the chapel of the Biscayans in the Franciscan
+convent. When the Caridad, or Hospital of Charity, was restored, Roldan
+executed the last great work in painted sculpture; it was an immense
+piece for the centre of the retablo of the high-altar of the church, and
+represented the Entombment of Christ.
+
+Seville abounds in his works, and he executed bas-reliefs in stone for
+the exterior of the Cathedral at Jaen. He was so devoted to his art that
+he felt every moment to be lost that was not spent in its service. He
+married a lady of good family, and lived in the country; when obliged to
+go to Seville he was accustomed to carry a lump of clay, and model from
+it as he rode along. Roldan was not by any means the best of Spanish
+sculptors, but he had great skill in the composition of his works, and
+the draperies and all the details were carefully studied. His daughter,
+Dona Luisa Roldan, studied sculpture under her father's instruction, and
+became a good artist; he was accustomed to allow her to superintend her
+studio and his pupils. She often aided him by her suggestions, and on
+one occasion, when a statue that he had made was rejected, she pointed
+out to him certain anatomical defects, which he remedied, and the whole
+appearance of the work was so changed that it was thought to be new, and
+was accepted for the place for which it had been ordered.
+
+The works executed by Dona Luisa were principally small figures of the
+Virgin, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and kindred subjects. Several of
+these were presented to King Charles II., and he was so pleased by them
+that he ordered a life-size statue of St. Michael for the Church of the
+Escorial. She executed this to his satisfaction, and he then appointed
+her sculptress in ordinary to the king. She died at Madrid in 1704,
+surviving her father but four years. She left works in various convents
+and churches.
+
+In Italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century a new era in
+sculpture was inaugurated. Art was now required to serve the Church in
+the way of appealing to sentiments and feeling in a far coarser and more
+sensational a manner than formerly. Painting was suited to these
+purposes far more than sculpture, and it had been raised to great
+heights, in Spain, by Murillo, in the North by Rubens and his followers,
+and in Italy by numerous masters.
+
+Luebke says of this period: "All that was now demanded of art was effect
+and feeling at any price. The one was attained through the other. A
+passionate excitement pulsates throughout all artistic works; the ideal
+repose of the former altar-pieces no longer satisfied. Longing,
+devotional ardor, passionate rapture, enthusiastic ecstasy--these are
+the aims of the new art. No longer the solemn dignity of the saint, but
+the nervous visions of enraptured monks, are its ideal. It delights in
+thrilling delineations of martyrdom, seeking to render such scenes as
+effective and touching as possible. A desire for substantial power, a
+political-religious tendency, had taken possession of art, and had
+adapted it to its own objects. That, under such circumstances, painting
+reaches a new and truly artistic importance may be traced above all to
+the great masters who now cultivated the art, and still more to the tone
+of the age, which promoted it in a rare measure.... The same spirit,
+however, which imparted such genuine importance to painting produced the
+ruin of sculpture. This epoch, more than any other, is a proof that the
+greatest men of talent, appearing in a perverted age, are carried by
+their very genius all the more certainly to ruin. All that, in a more
+favorable period, would have raised them to be stars in the art
+firmament, now made them fall like some _ignis fatuus_, the brilliant
+light of which owes its illusory existence only to miasma. This striking
+fact appears, at first sight, inexplicable; but it is easy to
+understand, if we consider the different character of the two arts.
+Plastic art had formerly emulated painting, and thus, especially in
+relief, had suffered unmistakable injury to its own peculiar nature. At
+that time, however, painting itself was full of architectural severity
+and plastic nobleness of form. Now, when everything depended on striking
+effect and speaking delineation of passionate emotions, it was compelled
+to have recourse to naturalistic representation, to freer arrangements
+and to more striking forms that emulated reality. If, however,
+sculpture, which could not keep pace with its rival in the enamelled
+coloring and mysterious charm of the _chiaro-oscuro_ which it brought
+into the field, would, in anywise, do the same as painting, it was
+compelled to plunge regardlessly into the same naturalism of forms and
+into the same bold display of passion with which painting produced such
+grand effects. And this sculpture did without the slightest scruple, and
+in this lack of an artistic conscience its whole glory perished. It is
+true in this passion for excited compositions an excess of splendid
+works were produced; it is true immense resources were expended, and
+able artists were employed; but such inner hollowness stares at us with
+inanimate eye from the greater number of these works that we turn from
+them with repugnance, and even often with disgust."
+
+The artist who first met this new demand upon sculpture, and may be
+called the founder of a new style, was GIOVANNI LORENZO BERNINI
+(1598-1680), a very gifted man. When but ten years old this remarkable
+genius was known as a prodigy in art, and it was at this early age that
+his father took him to Rome. Pope Paul V. was soon interested in him,
+and Cardinal Barberini assisted him in his studies; from this fortunate
+beginning all through his life good fortune attended his steps. He lived
+through the pontificate of nine popes, and was always in favor with the
+reigning head of the Church. This gave him the opportunity to fill Rome
+with his works, and he imprinted himself upon the art of the Eternal
+City; no artist since the time of Michael Angelo held such sway, and
+Bernini acquired his power easily, while the grand Michael Angelo was
+disputed at every step, and fought a long, hard battle before he was
+allowed to take the place which was so clearly his by right.
+
+The fame of Bernini extended to other lands, and he was invited to
+France, where he went when sixty-eight years old, accompanied by one of
+his sons and a numerous retinue. He was loaded with favors, and received
+large sums of money and many valuable presents. In Rome, too, he was
+much favored; he held several church benefices, and his son was made a
+Canon of Santa Maria Maggiore; and it was in this church that Bernini
+was buried with great magnificence, as became his position and his
+wealth, for he left the immense fortune of four hundred thousand Roman
+crowns.
+
+Bernini had great versatility of talent, a remarkable imagination and
+power of conceiving his subjects clearly, and, more than all, he had
+marvellous power of execution and compelling his marble to show forth
+his thought. It has been said that marble was like wax or clay beneath
+his hand. He was subject to no rules; indeed, he believed that an artist
+must set aside all rules if he would excel. This sounds very
+fascinating, but a study of Bernini's works will show that it is a
+deceitful maxim. A man of small talent could do nothing in this way, and
+even Bernini, who without doubt had great gifts, often failed to make up
+in any way for the sins against rules of which he was guilty.
+Westmacott, in his writing upon sculpture, says it would have been
+better for art if Bernini had never lived; and it is true that in his
+struggle for effect he was an injury rather than a benefit to the art of
+his own day and the succeeding years.
+
+The worst defect in the sculpture of Bernini is his treatment of the
+human body. At times he exaggerates the muscular power beyond all
+resemblance to nature, and again he seems to leave out all anatomy and
+soften the body to a point that far exceeds possibility. This softness
+is seen in his Apollo and Daphne, which shows the moment when she is
+suddenly changed into a laurel-tree in order to escape the pursuit of
+the young god. This group is in the Villa Borghese, at Rome; it was
+executed when Bernini was but eighteen years old, and near the close of
+his life he declared that he had made little progress after its
+production.
+
+But he reached the height of this objectionable manner in his
+representation of the Rape of Proserpine, which is in the Villa
+Ludovisi. The Pluto is a rough, repulsive man, with whom no association
+of a god can be made, and the Proserpine is made a soulless, sensual
+figure, so far from attractive in a pure sense that we are almost
+willing that Pluto should carry her to some region from which she is not
+likely to come back. At the same time we are sorry not to provide her
+with an ointment for the blue marks which the big hands of Pluto are
+making on her soft flesh. The plain truth is, that this work makes a low
+and common thing of a subject which could be so treated as to be a
+"thing of beauty" in a charming sense. (Fig. 111.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--RAPE OF PROSERPINE. _By Bernini._]
+
+Bernini executed a statue of St. Bibiana for the church of that saint at
+Rome, and one of St. Longinus in one of the niches to the dome of St.
+Peter's; he also made the designs for the one hundred and sixty-two
+statues in the colonnades of St. Peter's, and for the decorations of the
+bridge of St. Angelo; in such works, almost without exception, he chose
+some moment in the lives of the persons represented that called for a
+striking attitude and gave an opportunity for an effect that is often
+theatrical. As a mere decoration such statues have a certain value of an
+inferior sort; but as works of art, as intellectual efforts, they are
+worthless. However, this decorative effect, as it is seen on the facade
+of the Lateran, where the figures stand out against the sky, or on the
+bridge of St. Angelo, is not by any means to be despised; only we cannot
+call a sculptor a great artist when he can do nothing finer than this.
+
+Some of Bernini's works in which he shows intense suffering have more
+genuine feeling, and are finer in artistic qualities. One of these is
+Pieta, in the chapel of St. Andreas Corsini in the Lateran. But he
+frequently goes beyond the bounds of good taste, as, for example, on the
+monument to Pope Urban VIII., in St. Peter's, where he represents Death
+with his bony hand writing the inscription on the panel; this is truly
+terrible, and not less so is another Death upon the monument of
+Alexander VII., raising the marble curtain before the entrance to the
+vault, as if he were inviting one to walk in. Many objections can be
+made to his draperies. He exaggerated the small curtains seen on some
+ancient tombs until they were huge objects of ugliness; the drapery upon
+his figures is so prominently treated that instead of being a minor
+object it sometimes seems like the principal one; it no longer serves to
+conceal forms, and at the same time show their grace and motion, but it
+is inflated, fluttering, grotesque in form and quite absurd when
+compared with statues in which it answers its true purpose.
+
+Charles I. of England heard so much of Bernini that he desired to have a
+statue of himself executed by this sculptor; three of Vandyck's
+portraits of the king were sent to him, and the likeness of the statue
+was so satisfactory to the monarch that he sent the artist six thousand
+crowns and a ring worth as much more.
+
+Bernini executed a colossal equestrian statue of Constantine for the
+portico of St. Peter's; he made another of Louis XIV., which was changed
+into a Marcus Curtius, and sent to Versailles. He also executed the
+fountain in the Piazza Navona, at Rome, which is one of his exaggerated
+works.
+
+FRANCOIS DUQUESNOY (1594-1646) was born at Brussels, and was known in
+Rome as Il Fiammingo. The Archduke Albert sent him to Rome to study, and
+he was a contemporary of Bernini. When his patron died Duquesnoy was
+left without means, and was forced to carve small figures in ivory for
+his support. His figures of children, which were full of life and
+child-like expression, became quite famous. An important work of his in
+this way is the fountain of the Manneken-Pis, at Brussels.
+
+His masterpiece is a colossal statue of St. Andrew in the Church of St.
+Peter's; it occupied him five years, and is one of the best works of
+modern art. His statue of St. Susanna in the Church of Santa Maria di
+Loreto, in Rome, is simple and noble, and is much admired. Little is
+known of this artist's life, and it is said that he was poisoned by his
+brother when on his way to France.
+
+There was a goodly company of sculptors following Bernini, but none
+whose works or life was of sufficient importance or interest to demand
+our attention here, and we will pass to the sculpture of France, where
+the arts were less devoted to the service of the Church and more to the
+uses of kings, princes, and noblemen. The court of France was devoted to
+pomp and pleasure, and sculpture was used for the glorification of the
+leaders in all its follies. In one sense this is more agreeable than the
+art in Italy which we have been considering, for nothing can be more
+disagreeable than a false religious sentiment in art; it is only when
+the artist is filled with true devotion and feels deeply in his own soul
+all that he tries to express in his work that religious representations
+can appeal to us agreeably or benefit us by their influence.
+
+SIMON GUILLAIN (1581-1658) is especially interesting as the sculptor of
+the statue of Louis XIV. as a boy, which is in the Louvre; those of his
+parents are also there; formerly they decorated the Pont au Change.
+Other works by this master are in the same museum.
+
+JACQUES SARRAZIN (1588-1660) is only known by his works, which are now
+in the Louvre, of which a bronze bust of the Chancellor Pierre Seguier
+is worthy of notice.
+
+FRANCOIS ANGUIER (1604-1669) was born at Eu, in Normandy, and was the
+son of a carpenter, who taught his son to carve in wood at an early age.
+When still quite young Francois went to Paris to study, and later to
+Rome. He became one of the first artists of his time in France, and was
+a favorite of the king, Louis XIII., who made him keeper of the gallery
+of antiquities, and gave him apartments in the Louvre. Most of his
+important works were monuments to illustrious men. His copies of antique
+sculptures were very fine.
+
+MICHEL ANGUIER (1612-1686) was a brother of the preceding, with whom he
+studied until they both went to Rome. Michel remained there ten years,
+and was employed with other artists in St. Peter's and in some palaces.
+In 1651 he returned to Paris, and assisted Francois in the great work of
+the tomb of the Duke de Montmorenci at Moulins.
+
+Michel executed a statue of Louis XIII., which was cast in bronze. He
+adorned the apartments of Queen Anne of Austria in the Louvre, and for
+her executed the principal sculptures in the Church of Val de Grace; a
+Nativity in this church is his best work. His sculptures are seen in
+various churches, and he also executed statues of ancient gods and vases
+for garden ornaments. He was a professor in the Academy of Arts in
+Paris, and wrote lectures on sculpture.
+
+FRANCOIS GIRARDON (1630-1715), born at Troyes, was a _protege_ of the
+Chancellor Seguier. Louis XIV. gave him a pension, by which he was
+enabled to study in Rome, and after his return to France the king gave
+him many commissions. The monument to Cardinal Richelieu in the Church
+of the Sorbonne is from the hand of this sculptor. Perhaps his
+best-known work is the Rape of Proserpine at Versailles. He made an
+equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in the Revolution;
+a model of it in bronze is in the Louvre. His bust of Boileau is a
+strong, fine work. Many of his sculptures were destroyed by the
+revolutionists.
+
+A devoted follower of Bernini was PIERRE PUGET (1622-1694). His works
+are seen at the Louvre and at Versailles. His group of Milo of Crotona
+endeavoring to free himself from the claws of the lion is full of life
+and is natural, but the subject is too repulsive to be long examined;
+his Perseus liberating Andromeda is more agreeable, and is noble in its
+forms and animated in expression. His Alexander and Diogenes is in
+relief, and is effective and picturesque.
+
+ANTOINE COYSEVOX (1640-1720) was born at Lyons, and manifested his
+artistic talent very early in life. Before he was seventeen years old he
+had distinguished himself by a statue of the Virgin, and progressed
+rapidly in his studies, which he made in Paris. In 1667 he was engaged
+by Cardinal Furstenburg to go to Alsace to decorate his palace; this
+occupied him four years. When he again went to Paris he became a very
+eminent artist. He executed a statue of Louis XIV., and received a
+commission from the province of Bretagne for an equestrian statue of the
+same monarch.
+
+Among his best works are the tomb of Cardinal Mazarin; the tomb of the
+great Colbert in the Church of St. Eustache; the monument of Charles le
+Brun in the Church of St. Nicolas; the statue of the great Conde; the
+marble statue of Louis XIV., in the Church of Notre Dame, and others. In
+the tomb of Mazarin he showed fine powers of construction and excellence
+of design. The kneeling figure of the minister is a dignified statue and
+well executed; the statues in bronze of Prudence, Peace, and Fidelity,
+and the marble figures of Charity and Religion are each and all noble
+works, and free to a remarkable degree from the mannerisms and faults of
+his time.
+
+NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was a nephew and pupil of Coysevox. He took
+the grand prize at Paris, and went to Rome to study when he was
+twenty-three years old. He made many copies of the antique. After his
+return to France he was much employed. His chief work was a colossal
+representation of the Junction of the Seine and the Marne. He also made
+for the city of Lyons a bronze statue representing the river Saone. Some
+of his sculptures are in the Church of Notre Dame.
+
+GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1678-1746), brother of Nicolas, also gained the grand
+prize and went to Rome, and on his return made a fine reputation. Much
+of his best work was for the gardens of Marly; he executed a bronze
+statue of the Rhone at Lyons; a bas-relief of Christ with the Doctors,
+at Versailles, and statues of Louis XIV. and Cardinal Dubois, in the
+Museum of French Monuments.
+
+JEAN BAPTISTE PIGALLE (1714-1785) is the last French sculptor of whom I
+shall speak here. He was born in Paris, and gained his first fame by a
+statue of Mercury; but his masterpiece was the tomb of Marshal Moritz of
+Saxony, in the Church of St. Thomas, at Strasburg. The soldier is
+represented in his own costume, just as he wore it in life, about to
+enter a tomb, on one side of which stands a skeleton Death, and on the
+other a mourning Hercules. A statue representing France tries to hold
+him back, and a Genius attends on him with an inverted torch. There are
+many accessories of military emblems and trophies. There have been
+several engravings made from this tomb, the best part of which is the
+figure of the Marshal.
+
+Pigalle was a favorite with Mme. Pompadour, of whom he made a portrait
+statue. She employed him to do many works for her. His best monument in
+Paris is that of the Comte d'Harcourt, in the Church of Notre Dame.
+
+In the Netherlands, as in Italy, the painting of the time had a great
+effect upon sculpture, and it was full of energy, like the pictures of
+the Rubens school; at the same time there remained traces of the
+traditions of former days, and while a great change had come since the
+days of Vischer, there was still a firm adherence to nature, and no
+such affectations and mannerisms existed here as were seen in the works
+of Bernini and his followers in Italy and France.
+
+One of the ablest sculptors of his day was ARTHUR QUELLINUS, who was
+born at Antwerp in 1607. He studied under Duquesnoy, and was especially
+happy in his manner of imagining his subjects, and of avoiding the
+imitation of others or a commonplace treatment of his own. The
+magnificent Town Hall of Antwerp was commenced in 1648, and Quellinus
+received the commission to decorate it with plastic works. His
+sculptures are numerous, both on the interior and exterior of the
+edifice. In the two pediments he introduced allegorical representations
+of the power of the city of Antwerp, especially in her commerce. These
+compositions are picturesque in their arrangement, but the treatment is
+such as belongs to sculpture; in one of these a figure which represents
+the city is enthroned like a queen, and is surrounded by fantastic
+sea-gods, who offer their homage to her. (Fig. 112.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--CARYATIDE. _Quellinus._]
+
+We cannot give a list of many detached works by Quellinus, but one of
+the best of the old monuments in Berlin is attributed to him. It is the
+tomb of Count Sparr in the Marienkirche.
+
+At the present day Berlin is a city of much artistic importance, and the
+beginning of its present architectural and sculptural prominence may be
+dated at about the end of the seventeenth century, not quite two hundred
+years ago. One of the most influential artists of that time was ANDREAS
+SCHLUeTER (1662-1714), who was born in Hamburg. His father was a sculptor
+of no prominence, but he took his son with him to Dantzig, where many
+Netherlandish artists were employed upon the buildings being constructed
+there. Andreas Schlueter was naturally gifted, and he devoted himself to
+the study of both architecture and sculpture, at home and later in
+Italy. Before he was thirty years old he was employed in important
+affairs in Warsaw, and in 1694 he was summoned to Berlin, where he
+executed the plastic ornaments of the Arsenal; the heads of the Dying
+Warriors above the windows in the court-yard are remarkable works. They
+are very fine when regarded only as excellent examples of good
+sculpture, and they are very effective placed as they are, for they seem
+to tell the whole tragic story of what a soldier's life and fate must
+often be (Fig. 113).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--HEADS OF DYING WARRIORS. _By Schlueter._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE GREAT ELECTOR. _By Schlueter._]
+
+However, the masterpiece of this sculptor is the equestrian statue of
+the Great Elector for the long bridge at Berlin, which was completed in
+1703 (Fig. 114). Luebke says of this: "Although biassed as regards form
+by the age which prescribed the Roman costume to ideal portraits of this
+kind, the horseman on his mighty charger is conceived with so much
+energy, he is filled with such power of will, he is so noble in bearing
+and so steady in his course, that no other equestrian statue can be
+compared with this in fiery majesty. Equally masterly is the
+arrangement of the whole, especially the four chained slaves on the
+base, in whom we gladly pardon a certain crowding of movements and
+forms."
+
+Schlueter also made a statue of the Elector Frederic III., which is now
+in Koenigsberg. Besides his works in sculpture he was the architect of
+the royal palaces at Potsdam, Charlottenburg, and Berlin, and there are
+many sculptures by him at these places. When he was thus in an important
+position and at the height of professional prosperity he met with a sad
+misfortune, from the effects of which he never recovered. A chime of
+bells had been purchased in Holland, and Schlueter was commissioned to
+arrange an old tower for their reception. He carried it higher than it
+had been, and was proceeding to finish it, when it threatened to fall,
+and had to be pulled down. On account of this Schlueter was dismissed
+from his position as court architect; and though his office of sculptor
+was left to him his power was gone, and he was broken down in spirit. He
+was called to St. Petersburg by Peter the Great, and died soon after.
+Now, the verdict of judges is that he was one of the greatest artists of
+his age, and that his works, both in sculpture and architecture, belong
+to the noblest productions of his century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS.
+
+
+In the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a
+feeble state that a true artistic work--one conceived and executed in an
+artist spirit--was not to be looked for. As in the Middle Ages, too,
+thought seemed to be sleeping. Both art and letters were largely
+prostrated to the service of those in high places; they were scarcely
+used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made
+them to be feared, and because they were feared they were flattered
+openly and despised secretly.
+
+But about the end of the century another spirit arose; a second
+Renaissance took place, which may be traced in literature and in art, as
+it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of
+thought everywhere.
+
+Naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models
+was an important one, and as before in various epochs in art the antique
+had been the "only help in time of trouble," so it proved again. In 1764
+Winckelmann published his "History of Ancient Art," in which the rich
+significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student. The
+service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be
+over-estimated, coming, as it did, at a time when the genius of art
+seemed to have turned his back upon the world, and all true inspiration
+was lost. At about the same time the monuments of Athens were recalled
+to the European world by Stuart and Revett in their architectural
+designs, and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done
+its transforming work, and artists were striving for more worthy ends
+than the favor of kings and powerful patrons. This new study of classic
+art did not show its full and best results until the Danish sculptor
+Thorwaldsen executed his works; but before his time others were striving
+for that which it was his privilege to perfect.
+
+Among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers
+was the Venetian, ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822). He was born in Possagno,
+and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters. His father died when he
+was very young, and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his
+grandfather, the old Pasino Canova, who lost no time in accustoming the
+boy to the use of the chisel, for there are cuttings in existence which
+were executed by Canova in his ninth year. Signor Giovanni Faliero dwelt
+near Possagno, and was in the habit of employing Pasino Canova
+frequently; he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he
+sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa. On these visits
+the old man was accompanied by Antonio, who soon became a favorite with
+all the family of Faliero, and a friend of the young Giuseppe.
+
+On one occasion when Pasino and the boy attended a festival at Villa
+Faliero, the ornament for the dessert was forgotten. When the servants
+remembered it at the last moment they went to the old Pasino in
+distress, and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the
+master. The old man could do nothing for them, but the young Tonin, as
+he was called, asked for some butter, and from it quickly carved a lion.
+At table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the
+guests, and Tonin was called in to receive their praises; from this time
+the Senator Faliero became his patron, and he placed the boy under the
+instruction of Giuseppe Bernardi, called Toretto, a Venetian sculptor
+who had settled at Pagnano.
+
+At this time Canova was twelve years old; he studied two years under
+Toretto, and made many statues and models, which are still preserved by
+the Faliero family, or in other collections. His first really original
+work was the modelling of two angels in clay; he did these during an
+absence of his master's; he placed them in a prominent place, and then
+awaited Toretto's opinion with great anxiety. When the master saw them
+he was filled with surprise, and exclaimed that they were truly
+marvellous; from these models the grandfather cut two angels in _pietra
+dura_ for the high-altar at Monfumo. At this same period Canova made his
+first representations of the human form; he was accustomed to make small
+statues and give them to his friends.
+
+When he was fifteen years old Faliero sent for him, and received him
+into his own family. Canova wished to earn something for himself, and
+engaged to work half of the day for Giuseppe Ferrari, who was a nephew
+of his former master, Toretto. Of this time Canova afterward wrote: "I
+labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of
+my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of
+more honorable rewards." This circumstance proves how remarkable he must
+have been; it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work
+instead of paying for instruction. In Venice he was able to learn much
+from observation. He divided his time systematically, spending his
+mornings in the Academy or some gallery, his afternoons in the shop
+where he was employed, and his evenings in studies for which he had had
+no opportunity as a child.
+
+The first commission which was given to Canova was from the Commendatore
+Farsetti for a pair of baskets filled with fruit and flowers, to be
+sculptured in marble, and placed on a staircase which led to the picture
+gallery in the Farsetti Palace, where Canova spent much time in study.
+These works have no special excellence.
+
+After a year in Venice he went to Asolo with the Faliero family. Some
+time before this his patron had asked Canova to make for him a group of
+Orpheus and Eurydice, taking the moment when Eurydice beholds her lover
+torn away from her forever. Canova had been busy with this in his
+leisure hours in Venice, and he took with him to Asolo everything
+necessary to the work. He completed the Eurydice in his sixteenth year;
+it was life-size, and cut from _pietra di Costosa_.
+
+With this first attempt Canova became convinced that the small models
+such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work,
+and he determined that his models should be of the size which the
+finished work would have, even when colossal.
+
+After this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the
+Augustine friars attached to the Church of San Stefano, in Venice.
+During the next three years he was occupied with his Orpheus and a bust
+of the Doge Renier. At this time he studied entirely from nature; he
+devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy, and after a time was
+accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from
+important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular
+instances.
+
+In 1776 his Orpheus was finished and exhibited, and it chanced to be at
+the annual festival of the Ascension, when the opera of Orpheus was
+brought out in Venice. Canova was accustomed to say that the praise he
+then received was "that which made him a sculptor;" and so grateful was
+he for it that later, when he became Marquis of Ischia, he chose for his
+armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols
+of Orpheus and Eurydice. The Senator Grimani ordered a copy of the
+Orpheus, and this was the first work of Canova in Carrara marble.
+
+He soon found his workshop too small, and removed to one in the street
+of San Maurizio, where he remained until he left his native country. His
+next work was a statue of AEsculapius, larger than life; a short time
+before his death, when he saw this statue, he sorrowfully declared that
+"his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of
+excellence in this performance of his youth." About this time he
+executed an Apollo and Daphne which was never entirely finished, and
+when twenty-two years old he completed a group of Daedalus and Icarus for
+the Senator Pisani. This was intended for an exterior decoration of his
+palace; but when it was done Pisani considered it worthy of a place in
+his gallery, already famous on account of the painting of Darius and his
+Family, by Paul Veronese, and other fine works. This may be called
+Canova's last work in Venice, as he went to Rome soon after his
+twenty-third birthday.
+
+The Cavaliere Zuliani was then the representative of Venice in Rome, and
+Faliero gave Canova letters to him. Zuliani was an enlightened patron of
+art, and he received the young sculptor with great kindness, and soon
+arranged to have his model of Daedalus and Icarus exhibited to the best
+artists and judges of art in Rome. We can fancy the anxiety with which
+Canova went to this exhibition; but the praise which he there received
+secured for him a place among the artists then in Rome.
+
+Canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important
+subject, and Zuliani was his friend in this; for he gave him the marble,
+and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value
+of the work when completed. He also gave him a workshop in the Venetian
+Palace, to which no one had access, where he could be entirely free and
+undisturbed. The subject chosen for the group was Theseus vanquishing
+the Minotaur, and the size was to be colossal. Canova now worked with
+untiring devotion; he was often seen before the statues on Monte
+Cavallo, with sketch-book in hand, as soon as it was light enough for
+him to see, and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of
+Rome. His friends in Venice had secured for him a pension of three
+hundred ducats, which placed him above want, and he was free to devote
+himself to his Theseus, although while at work on that he made a statue
+of Apollo, which was exhibited with Angelini's Minerva, and received
+much praise.
+
+Meantime no one knew of the Theseus save the ambassador. When it was
+finished Zuliani prepared it for exhibition, and invited all the most
+distinguished men in Rome to an entertainment. A model of the head of
+Theseus was put in a prominent place, and the guests were busy in
+discussing it; they asked questions and expressed opinions, and when
+their interest was well awakened Zuliani said: "Come, let us end this
+discussion by seeing the original," and the statue was unveiled before
+their eyes. Canova often declared that death itself could not have been
+more terrible to him than were those moments. But he and all else were
+forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited; in
+that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere
+praise. From that day the fame of Canova was established.
+
+Very soon he was selected to erect a monument to Clement XIV. This pope
+was a famous man; he was the collector of the Clementine Museum, the
+author of the elegant letters known by his family name of Ganganelli,
+and, above all, he was the suppressor of the Jesuits. While Canova felt
+the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to
+consult those who had conferred his pension upon him, and thus helped
+him to become the artist that he was. He went, therefore, to Venice
+and sought direction from the Senate; he was told to employ his time
+as should be most profitable to himself. He therefore gave up his studio
+in Venice, and as his patron, Zuliani, had now left Rome, he fitted up
+the studio in the Strada Babbuino, which became so well known to lovers
+of art of all nations who visited Rome. In 1787 the above monument was
+exhibited, and was much admired. An engraving was made from it and
+dedicated to Zuliani; but Canova desired to do something more worthy for
+his patron, and made a statue of Psyche as a gift to him; Zuliani
+hesitated to accept it, but finally consented to do so if Canova would
+in turn accept a number of silver medals with the Psyche on one side and
+a head of Canova on the other, which he could give to his friends. In
+the midst of all this Zuliani died, and his heirs were so angry because
+he had left works of art to the Public Library that they refused to
+carry out his plans. In the end the Psyche was bought by Napoleon and
+presented to the Queen of Bavaria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Canova._]
+
+Canova executed a second papal monument to Pope Clement XIII. It was
+erected in St. Peter's by his nephews. The mourning genius upon it is
+frequently mentioned as one of Canova's happiest figures. The execution
+of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of
+this sculptor's life.
+
+Canova's fame had extended over all Europe, and he was asked to go to
+St. Petersburg, and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so;
+but he declined, and executed the monument of Admiral Emo, on a
+commission from the Venetian Senate. For this work he received a gold
+medal and an annuity for life.
+
+In 1798, during the revolutionary excitement at Rome, Canova went to
+Possagno, his native town. Here, in his retirement, he painted more than
+twenty pictures, which were by no means to be despised. His masterpiece
+represented the Saviour just taken from the cross, and surrounded by
+the Marys, St. John, Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea. This was the
+first of the many gifts which he made to this little church, by which it
+became a splendid temple and the expression of Canova's love for his
+birthplace and early home.
+
+After he returned to Rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his
+usual close application to work, and he went to Berlin and Vienna in
+company with Prince Rezzonico, and this so benefited him that he was
+able to resume his labors with new energy. He soon achieved a proud
+triumph, for his Perseus was placed in one of the Stanze of the Vatican
+by a public decree; this was the first modern work which had been thus
+honored.
+
+In 1802-1803 Napoleon requested Canova to go to Paris to model a
+portrait bust for a colossal statue; the work was finished six years
+later. In 1805 the artist went again to Vienna, where he modelled a bust
+of the Emperor of Austria; in 1810 again to Paris to prepare a model for
+the statue of Maria Louisa. With the exception of these short journeys
+he was constantly at work in his Roman studio until 1815, when he was
+sent in an official capacity to France by the pope, for the purpose of
+reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from Italy in times
+of war, and which really belonged to the patrimony of the Church. Canova
+executed his commission with rare judgment, and then continued his
+journey to England. In London he received many honors; the king gave him
+an order for a group, held several conversations with him, made him
+valuable gifts, and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope.
+
+Canova returned to Rome on January 5th, 1816. His entry might almost be
+called a triumphal one, for the people of Rome were so grateful for the
+restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in
+demonstrations to Canova. He had been President of St. Luke's Academy
+before; he was now made President of the Commission to purchase works of
+art, and of the Academy of Archaeology. In full consistory of all the
+high officers of the Church, the pope caused his name to be inscribed
+upon the "golden volume of the Capitol," and conferred upon him the
+title of Marquis of Ischia, with a pension of three thousand crowns a
+year.
+
+Canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of Religion, which
+should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment. He endeavored
+to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed; this
+was not done, and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the
+idea. But he determined that from this time he would devote his life and
+fortune to religion, and resolved to erect a church at Possagno, to
+adorn it with works of art, and to make it his own burial-place.
+
+On July 8th, 1819, Canova assembled his workmen in his native town, and
+gave them a _fete_; many peasant girls joined in the festivities and
+assisted in the breaking of the ground; at evening, as they all passed
+before Canova to bid him farewell, each one received a gift from him.
+Three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of
+the future church took place. An immense number of people from the
+surrounding country and from Venice were present; Canova, in his robes
+as a Knight of Christ, and wearing the insignia of other orders, led the
+procession; all who had seen Canova when a poor boy in their midst were
+much impressed by this occasion. Here, in a public manner, he
+consecrated his life and fortune to the service of God and the benefit
+of his birthplace. Every autumn Canova went to Possagno to encourage the
+workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done.
+Between these visits he worked devotedly, for he was forced to earn all
+he could in order to pay for his great undertaking.
+
+At this time he executed a statue of Washington, and was making an
+equestrian statue of Ferdinand of Naples, and in the month of May, 1822,
+went to that city, where he fell ill; he returned to Rome, and revived
+somewhat, and resumed his work. On September 17th he went to Possagno,
+in October to Villa Faliero, where, fifty years before, he had spent
+such happy days. From here he went to Venice, and on the 13th of the
+same month he died.
+
+Solemn services were held in the cathedral, and his remains were then
+intrusted to the priests of Possagno, who bore them to their temple,
+where he was buried on the 25th of the month; the crowd was so great
+that the oration was delivered in the open air. Canova's heart was given
+to the Academy of Venice, and an elegant little monument was erected in
+the Palace of Arts to contain this relic of the sculptor. The Venetian
+artists arranged to erect to him a monument, and chose the design which
+he himself had made for the tomb of Titian; it is in the Church of Santa
+Maria de' Frari. In Rome a statue was decreed to him, and he was
+declared the perpetual President of her chief academy.
+
+In personal appearance Canova was not grand or very attractive. His head
+was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders, and the loose manner in
+which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen; his forehead was a
+noble one, his hair black, and his whole manner and dress was modest and
+simple. His habits were very orderly and quiet; he rose early to work,
+and went little into public society; but he welcomed a few friends to
+dinner almost daily. He entertained them cordially, but without display,
+and led the conversation to light, cheerful topics that did not touch
+upon art, or demand mental exertion. At eleven o'clock he retired to his
+own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping. Some
+of his best drawings were made at this hour, and have been published
+with the title of "Pensieri," or thoughts. To describe one day was to
+give a picture of all, so regular were his habits of life.
+
+In his professional life he was just and generous to others, and though
+he would have no pupils, he would leave everything to advise an artist
+or visit his works. He was also a patron of art, and had executed, at
+his own expense, the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the
+Capitoline Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--HEBE. _By Canova._]
+
+There is a story of a romance in his life. It is said that when he first
+arrived in Venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older
+than himself, who went to draw in the Farsetti Gallery. Day by day he
+watched her until she came no more; at length her attendant returned,
+and Canova inquired for her mistress; she burst into tears and answered,
+"La Signora Julia is dead." He asked no more, and never knew who Julia
+was or any circumstances of her history; but all his life he treasured
+her image, and when he endeavored to unite the purity of an angel with
+the earthly beauty of a woman, the remembrance of Julia was always in
+his mind.
+
+Canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of
+praise and the benefits of their labors while alive. Without doubt he
+was a great sculptor, and coming as he did, at a time when art was at
+its worst, he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him. But
+the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends
+and patrons. His statues lack the repose which makes the grandest
+feature of the best sculpture; his female figures have a sentimental
+sort of air that is not all we could wish, and does not elevate them
+above what we may call pleasing art. His male figures are better, more
+natural and simple, though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse
+and brutal, as in the two fencers, Kreugas and Damoxenes, or Hercules
+and Lichas. But in his religious subjects he is much finer, and in some
+of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness, while his composition
+is in the true artistic spirit. Taken on the whole, he was a wonderful
+artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud.
+
+Other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at Rome,
+and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm. One of these was
+ANTOINE DENIS CHAUDET (1763-1810), who was born at Paris. His talent was
+so early developed that he was admitted to the Royal Academy when
+fourteen years old, and when twenty-one he gained the first prize, and
+with the royal pension went to Rome, where he remained five years. He
+soon took good rank among artists of that time, for he was a designer
+and painter as well as sculptor. He adhered strictly to the antique
+style, and attained much purity, though he was always cold in treatment.
+He was made a Professor of Sculpture in the French Academy, and made
+valuable contributions to the "Dictionary of Fine Arts."
+
+Chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of Peace
+in the Tuileries; a statue of Cincinnatus in the Senate Chamber; a
+statue of OEdipus; a bas-relief of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, in the Musee Napoleon, and many busts and smaller works.
+
+He also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a
+fine edition of Racine, and painted a picture of AEneas and Anchises in
+the Burning of Troy.
+
+JOHANN HEINRICH DANNECKER (1758-1841) was born at Stuttgart. By a statue
+of Milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by Duke Charles
+Eugene, and with the royal pension he went first to Paris and then to
+Rome, where he studied seven years. He then returned to Wuertemberg, and
+was made Director of the Royal Academy, with a salary of fifteen
+thousand francs a year. During fifteen years Dannecker maintained a high
+rank in his art, but his health became so feeble that he was forced to
+see others excel him. One of his works has a wide reputation, and is
+known to many people the world over, through the generosity of Herr
+Bethmann of Frankfort, who admits visitors to his gallery, and from the
+models and pictures which have been made from it; it is the Ariadne on a
+Panther (Fig. 117).
+
+Dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature; his figures were light and
+graceful, and his heads were noble in expression. He labored eight years
+upon a figure of Christ, which belongs to the Emperor of Russia; in
+Stuttgart a nymph pouring water on Neckar Street and two nymphs on a
+reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural
+sculpture. Among his other works are a statue of Alexander, a monument
+to Count Zeppelin, a Cupid, and a Maiden lamenting a Dead Bird. Some of
+his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture; his
+portraits are noble and true to nature; the works named here are by no
+means all that he did, and we should add that his efforts in religious
+subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful, and a true conception of
+Christian ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--ARIADNE AND THE PANTHER. _By Dannecker._]
+
+We come now, for the first time, to a great English sculptor. JOHN
+FLAXMAN (1755-1826) was born in York, but while he was still an infant
+his father removed to London, where he kept a plaster-cast shop. The boy
+began to draw and even to model very early; when but five years old he
+kept some soft wax, with which he could take an impression from any seal
+or ring or coin which pleased him. He was very delicate in health, and
+was once thought to be dead, and was prepared for burial, when animation
+returned; his parents tried to gratify all his wishes, and while a child
+he modelled a great number of figures in wax, clay, and plaster.
+
+By the time he was ten years old he was much stronger, and was able to
+use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and
+imagination. About this time he read "Don Quixote," and was so moved by
+the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed
+with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel; he went
+to Hyde Park and wandered about all day, not finding any one who was in
+need of his services. At night he returned home, very hungry and weary,
+to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence.
+
+He now spent all his time in drawing and modelling, and never had more
+than two lessons from a master; at eleven years of age he began to gain
+various prizes, and at fourteen was admitted to study at the Royal
+Academy, and gained the silver medal there that same year. About this
+time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to
+learn more of history, all of which was of great use to him in his art.
+He was also fortunate in having the friendship of Mr. Wedgwood, for whom
+he made many models. He also painted a few pictures in oil.
+
+Among his earliest sculptures were a group of Venus and Cupid and a
+monument to Mrs. Morley, who, with her baby, died at sea. Flaxman
+represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received
+by descending angels.
+
+In 1782 Flaxman married Miss Ann Denman, whose intelligence and love of
+art were of great assistance to her husband. In 1787 he went to Rome,
+where he remained seven years. During this time he made a group for Lord
+Bristol, representing the Fury of Athamas, from the Metamorphoses of
+Ovid; this work cost him much labor, for which he received but small
+pay; it was carried to Ireland and then to Ickworth House, in Suffolk,
+where but few people see it. In Rome Flaxman also made a group of
+Cephalus and Aurora for Mr. Thomas Hope, and the designs from Homer,
+AEschylus, and Dante, which have such a world-wide fame.
+
+In 1794 he returned to England, where he was constantly employed on
+important works until his death. We cannot give a list of his numerous
+works. Many of his monuments are seen in the churches of England. In
+Glasgow are his statues of Mr. Pitt and Sir John Moore, in bronze; in
+Edinburgh is that of Robert Burns. Flaxman executed much sculpture for
+the East Indies, one of these works being unfinished when he died. Some
+critics consider his Archangel Michael and Satan his best work; it was
+made for the Earl of Egremont, who had his life-size Apollo also.
+
+In 1797 Flaxman was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1800
+an Academician, and in 1810, when a Professor of Sculpture was added to
+the other professors of the Academy, he was appointed to the office. His
+lectures have been published. The friezes on the Covent Garden Theatre
+were all designed by Flaxman, and he executed the figure of Comedy
+himself. His last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of
+Buckingham Palace, which would have been entirely under his direction
+and partly executed by him if he had lived.
+
+His wife died in 1820, and her loss was a grief from which he could not
+recover; she had been a great advantage to him, and he had depended much
+upon her sympathy and counsel. Flaxman was a singularly pure man, and so
+attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike.
+
+Sir Richard Westmacott succeeded Flaxman as Professor at the Royal
+Academy; he said: "But the greatest of modern sculptors was our
+illustrious countryman, John Flaxman, who not only had all the fine
+feeling of the ancient Greeks (which Canova in a degree possessed), but
+united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly
+astonishing. Though Canova was his superior in the manual part, high
+finishing, yet in the higher qualities, poetical feeling and invention,
+Flaxman was as superior to Canova as was Shakespeare to the dramatists
+of his day."
+
+But the perfection of the results of the study of Canova and others who
+endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the Dane,
+BERTEL THORWALDSEN (1770-1844), who was born in Copenhagen. The descent
+of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite
+distinct ways. Those who claim that the Norsemen discovered America
+relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born, from
+whom Thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed. The learned
+genealogists of Iceland say that his ancestors were descended from
+Harald Hildetand, King of Denmark, who, in the eighth century, was
+obliged to flee, first to Norway and then to Iceland, and that one of
+his descendants, Oluf Paa, in the twelfth century, was a famous
+wood-carver. But this much is certain: in the fourteenth century there
+lived in Southern Iceland a wealthy man, whose family and descendants
+were much honored. One of these, Thorvald Gottskalken, a pastor, had
+two sons and but a small fortune; so he sent his sons to Copenhagen,
+where one became a jeweller and died young; the other, who was a
+wood-carver, was the father of the artist, whose mother was Karen
+Groeulund, the daughter of a Jutland peasant.
+
+The father was employed in a shipyard, and carved only the rude
+ornaments of vessels and boats; but these served to lead the mind of the
+little Bertel to the art he later followed. His father could not have
+dreamed of such a future as came to his son, but he was wise enough to
+know that the boy might do more and better than he had done, and he sent
+him, when eleven years old, to the free school of the Royal Academy to
+study drawing; and very soon the works of the father showed the gain
+which the son had made, for his designs were those now used by the old
+wood-carver.
+
+Bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of Charlottenburg,
+and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class.
+When Bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the
+school at Charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize
+was his brother. He looked up with surprise, and blushing, said, "It is
+myself, Herr Chaplain." The priest was astounded at this, and said,
+"Herr Thorwaldsen, please to pass up to the first class."
+
+The boy was amazed at these honors, and from this day retained the title
+of "Herr," which gave him much distinction. When, after many years, the
+sculptor had been loaded with honors, and stood on the heights of fame,
+he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as
+that first rapture which came from the words of the Chaplain Hoeyer when
+he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy.
+
+The effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his ambition, and
+he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness. Two years later
+he made a bas-relief of Love in Repose, which took the large silver
+medal. His father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a
+ship's carver, and Bertel made no objection to doing so; but the painter
+Abildgaard, who had been his teacher in the academy, had grown very fond
+of him, and saw how much talent he had, and could not think of his being
+but a common tradesman without deep regret. He went, therefore, to the
+old carver, and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son
+should spend half his time in study at the academy, and the other half
+in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side.
+
+In 1790, when twenty years old, Thorwaldsen made a medallion of the
+Princess of Denmark, which was so good a likeness that a number of
+copies was sold. A year later he gained the small gold medal of the
+academy by a bas-relief of the Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple.
+The Minister of State now became interested in the young artist, and
+measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies. His patrons
+desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures, and he
+chose that of Priam begging the Body of Hector from Achilles. Later in
+life he repeated this subject, and it is interesting to notice the
+strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of
+the first. And yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of
+Thorwaldsen's future greatness. In 1793 he gained the prize which
+entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the
+academy. The work he presented was a bas-relief of Saint Peter healing
+the Paralytic. In these works this sculptor already showed two qualities
+which remained the same through his life; in his subjects from antiquity
+he showed a Greek spirit, which has led some writers to speak of him as
+a "posthumous Greek," or a true Greek artist born after other Greek
+artists had died; on the other hand, when he treated religious subjects
+his spirit was like that of the best masters of the Renaissance, and
+these works remind us of Raphael. All this excellence came entirely from
+his artistic nature, for outside of that he was ignorant; he knew
+nothing of history or literature, and was never a man of culture as long
+as he lived. Outside of the work connected with his profession
+Thorwaldsen was indolent, and only acquired knowledge of other matters
+through observation or from the conversation of others.
+
+Although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in 1793, he did
+not leave Copenhagen until May, 1796. In the mean time he had done what
+he could to earn something: he had made designs for book-publishers,
+given lessons in drawing and modelling, and made some bust and medallion
+portraits, reliefs, and so on. The vessel in which the young sculptor
+sailed for Naples was called the Thetis, and the captain engaged to
+watch over him; the voyage was long, and all on board became fond of
+Thorwaldsen, though the captain wrote, "He is an honest boy, but a lazy
+rascal." This opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous
+amount of labor he performed. At Naples he remained for some time, and
+saw and admired all its works of art. He did not reach Rome until about
+nine months after leaving Copenhagen, but from that time his whole
+thought and life were changed. He was accustomed to say, "I was born on
+the 8th of March, 1797; before then I did not exist."
+
+While in Naples Thorwaldsen had been ill, and suffered from a malarial
+affection, which compelled him to be idle much of the time. But he was
+always studying the antique statues, and made many copies. Some of the
+first original works which he attempted were failures, when, at last, he
+modelled a colossal statue of Jason, which was well received by those
+who saw it, and made him somewhat famous in Rome (Fig. 118). Canova
+praised it, and other critics did the same; but Thorwaldsen had no
+money; the academy had supported him six years; what could he do? Quite
+discouraged, he was engaged in his preparations for leaving Rome, when
+Mr. Thomas Hope, the English banker, gave him an order for the Jason in
+marble. In an hour his life was changed. He was living in Rome not as a
+student on charity, but as an artist gaining his living. We are forced
+to add that Mr. Hope did not receive this statue until 1828, and
+Thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude; but we
+cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair.
+
+Thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in Rome, the archaeologist
+Zoega; at his house the young Dane had met a beautiful Italian girl,
+Anna Maria Magnani, whom he loved devotedly. She was too ambitious to
+marry a poor sculptor, so she married a rich M. d'Uhden; but she
+persuaded Thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to
+take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should
+leave him; this was just what happened in 1803, and the sculptor
+received her into his house, where she remained sixteen years, when she
+disappears from his life. He provided an honorable marriage for their
+daughter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--JASON. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+In 1803 Thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the Baron von
+Schubart, the Danish Minister, who presented the sculptor to Baron von
+Humboldt; and through the friendship of these two men, and the persons
+to whom they presented him, Thorwaldsen received many orders. In 1804
+his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all
+countries, and from this time, during the rest of his life, he was never
+able to do all that was required of him. He was much courted in society,
+where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and
+pleasing manner. In this same year he was made a Professor of the Royal
+Academy of Florence; and though the Academy of Copenhagen expected his
+return, they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs, and
+sent him a gift of four hundred crowns. A few months later he was made a
+member of the Academy of Bologna and of that of his native city, in
+which last he was also appointed a Professor.
+
+Many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite
+the popular interest in him, when, in 1805, he produced the bas-relief
+of the Abduction of Briseis, which still remains one of his most
+celebrated works. His Jason had put him on a level with Canova, who was
+then at the height of his fame; now the Briseis was said by many to
+excel the same type of works by Canova, and there is no question that in
+bas-relief the Dane was the better sculptor of the two. This relief and
+his group of Cupid and Psyche, which was completed in 1805, mark the era
+at which Thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor. In this
+same year he modelled his first statue of Venus; it was less than
+life-size; and though two copies of it were finished in marble, he was
+not pleased with it, and destroyed the model: later he made the same
+statue in full size.
+
+In 1806 he received his first commission for religious subjects, which
+consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of Fionia.
+But he was devoted to mythological subjects, and preferred them before
+all others, and in this same year modelled a Hebe while engaged upon
+the fonts. His industry was great, but he found time to receive many
+visitors at his studio, and went frequently into society. At the house
+of Baron von Humboldt, then Prussian Ambassador at Rome, Thorwaldsen was
+always welcome and happy; here he met all persons of note who lived in
+or who visited Rome.
+
+It was at this period that the young Prince Louis of Bavaria entered
+into a correspondence with Thorwaldsen, which ended only with the
+sculptor's life. Louis was collecting objects for his Glyptothek at
+Munich, and he frequently consulted Thorwaldsen in these matters; his
+advice was of value, and he more than once saved Louis from imposition
+by dealers. Louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine Adonis, now
+in the Glyptothek; it was modelled in 1808, but was not completed until
+1832; this splendid work was executed entirely by Thorwaldsen's own
+hands. In 1808 he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be
+used in the restoration of the Palace of Christiansborg, which had been
+injured by fire. This was the year, too, when he was made an honorary
+member of the Academy of St. Luke.
+
+The year 1809 brought deep sorrows to Thorwaldsen in the death of his
+two friends, Stanley and Zoega. He interested himself in the settlement
+of the affairs of the latter, and had much trouble and anxiety; but he
+managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year, in
+spite of the disturbed state of Rome on account of the pope's departure,
+and in spite of the hindrances in his own life.
+
+In 1810 the King of Denmark made Thorwaldsen a Knight of Danebrog, and
+he was then known in Italy as the _Cavaliere Alberto_. His work this
+year was in bas-reliefs, and in 1811 he modelled a colossal statue of
+Mars, the bust of Mademoiselle Ida Brun, a lovely statue of Psyche, and
+his own portrait as a colossal Hermes.
+
+The people of Denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged
+absence of their artist. He had left home a mere boy, and was now famous
+over all the world. They wished for his return; a marble quarry had been
+discovered in Norway, and even Prince Christian Frederick wrote to
+Thorwaldsen to urge his going home. The sculptor wished to go, and even
+made some preparations to do so, when he received so important a
+commission that it was impossible to leave Rome. This new work was a
+frieze for one of the great halls in the Quirinal Palace. He chose the
+Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon for his subject, and it
+proved to be one of the most important works of his life. It was
+completed in June, 1812; and though it had been somewhat criticised as
+too rough in its finish, when it was elevated to its proper height it
+was all that had been expected by the artist's friends; later he
+repeated this frieze for his own countrymen. In Rome he was now
+frequently called the "Patriarch of Bas-relief." Soon after this he was
+made a member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna.
+
+In 1813 Thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever, and visited
+the baths of Lucca, in company with the Baron and Baroness von Schubart,
+for the benefit of his health. He met many people and received much
+honor, especially from the Grand Duchess of Tuscany. His health was
+improved, but his old and tried friend, the Baroness von Schubart, died
+the winter following; he felt her loss deeply, for she had been his
+friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in Rome.
+
+He was always busy, and one after another of his almost numberless works
+was finished. In 1815 he made the Achilles and Priam, a relief which is
+sometimes called his masterpiece; in the same year he made the famous
+and familiar medallions of Night and Morning; it is said that he
+conceived the first while awake in a sleepless, restless condition, and
+modelled it entirely on the following day; these medallions have been
+reproduced in all possible forms--in engravings, on cameos, gems, in
+metals, and a variety of marble, plaster, and porcelain.
+
+About this time Thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens,
+and received pupils, and was overwhelmed with orders, so that he could
+not yet go to Denmark, in spite of the urgent letters he received. He
+executed many important original works, and also restored the marbles of
+AEgina, now at Munich; this was a great task, but his study of the
+antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern
+sculptor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.--GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+The exquisite group of Ganymede and the Eagle (Fig. 119) shows the
+effect of his study of the antique, and the same may be said of his
+statue of Hope, a small copy of which was afterward placed above the
+tomb of the Baroness von Humboldt. The Three Graces (Fig. 120) belongs
+to the year 1817; the Mercury was of about this date, as well as the
+elegant statue of the Princess Baryatinska, which is his finest portrait
+statue.
+
+After an absence from Denmark of twenty-three years he left Rome in
+July, 1819, and turned his face toward home. His model for the famous
+Lion of Lucerne had already been sent on before him, and the work
+commenced by one of his pupils, Bienaime. Thorwaldsen first went to
+Lucerne, where he gave all necessary advice in this work, and then
+proceeding on his journey reached Copenhagen on the 3d of October.
+Apartments had been prepared for him in the Academy of Fine Arts, and as
+soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction
+and importance. Crowds went to welcome him to his home. A great
+reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor, and he was lauded
+to the skies in speeches, and was made a Counsellor of State, in order
+that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the
+court etiquette.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Thorwaldsen._]
+
+All this must have gratified the artist, who had earned such proud
+honors by the force of his genius; but it interests us much more to know
+that he received commissions for some very important works, among which
+those of the Church of Our Lady are very interesting. The orders for all
+the work which he did here were not given at once, but in the end it
+became a splendid monument to this sculptor, and embraces almost all his
+religious works of any importance. There are the figures of Christ and
+the Twelve Apostles; the Angel of Baptism, which is an exquisite font;
+the Preaching of St. John the Baptist, which is a group in terra-cotta
+on the pediment of the church; a bas-relief in marble of the
+Institution of the Lord's Supper; another in plaster of Christ's Entry
+into Jerusalem; one of Christ Bearing the Cross; one of the Baptism of
+Christ; another of the Guardian Angel, and one of Christian Charity.
+
+He did not remain very long in Denmark, but went to Warsaw, where he had
+been summoned to arrange for some important works. He was presented to
+the Emperor Alexander, who gave him sittings for a portrait bust; this
+was so successful that for some years Thorwaldsen employed skilled
+workmen to constantly repeat it, in order to fill the demand for it
+which was made upon him. While at Warsaw he received an order for a
+monument to Copernicus, which was dedicated in 1830; other important
+commissions were given him, and after visiting Cracow, Troppau, and
+Vienna, he reached Rome in December, 1820, where he was heartily
+welcomed by the artists, who gave him a banquet, on which occasion the
+Prince Royal of Denmark sat next to the sculptor.
+
+Before this a correspondence had established a friendship between
+Thorwaldsen and Prince Louis of Bavaria; but from the year 1821 intimate
+personal relations existed between them. He took up work with great
+energy; he had returned to Rome with so much to do that he required much
+room, and employed a large company of workmen. In the summer of 1822 he
+was able to secure a large building which had been used for a stable to
+the Barberini Palace, and here he was able to set up all his large
+models.
+
+In 1824 Thorwaldsen was summoned by the Cardinal Consalvi, who gave him
+the commission for the monument to Pius VII., now in the Clementine
+Chapel of St. Peter's at Rome; this work was not completed when the
+cardinal himself died, and his own monument by Thorwaldsen was placed in
+the Pantheon before that of Pius VII. was put in its place. He also made
+a cross for the Capuchins for which he would accept no reward, though
+they were entirely satisfied with it.
+
+In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected President of the Academy of St. Luke
+with the advice and consent of Pope Leo XII., who paid him a visit in
+his studio. Many delays occurred, and the monument to Pius VII. was not
+erected until 1831.
+
+The works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far
+too numerous to be mentioned; he was at the very height of fame and
+popularity, and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him.
+In 1830 he went to Munich to superintend the setting up of his monument
+to Eugene Beauharnais, the Duke of Leuchtenberg. This gave Louis of
+Bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor, which he did
+in every possible way. Soon after the monument was unveiled Thorwaldsen
+received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor.
+
+Thorwaldsen's place in Rome was a very important one, not only as an
+artist, but as a man. He had the respect and esteem of many good men of
+all nations; he also suffered some things from the envy of those who
+were jealous of him, as is the case with all successful men; but he was
+a fearless person, and did not trouble himself on account of these
+things. The frequent agitations of a political nature, however, did
+disturb him, and he began to think seriously of returning to Denmark. In
+1837, when the cholera broke out in Rome, he determined to leave; his
+countrymen were delighted, and a government frigate was sent to take him
+home; he sailed from Leghorn in August, 1838. His arrival was hailed
+with joy in Denmark, and wherever he went his progress was marked by
+tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him. As soon as it was
+known in Copenhagen, on September 17th, that the "Rota," which brought
+the sculptor, was in the harbor, a flag was run up from St. Nicolas
+Church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been
+arranged.
+
+Although it rained heavily, boats filled with artists, poets, students,
+physicians, mechanics, and naval officers went out to meet him; each
+boat had a flag with an appropriate device, that of the artists having
+Thorwaldsen's Three Graces, the poets, a Pegasus, and so on. The meeting
+with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the
+artist, who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts
+of joyous demonstrations, a vast number of boats rowing after that in
+which he was seated. His carriage was drawn by the people from the quay
+to Charlottenburg, where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him.
+His form was tall and erect, his step firm; his long white hair fell on
+his shoulders, and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with
+intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him. He was led out
+on a balcony, where, uncovered, he saluted the people, who greeted him
+with wild applause. Thorwaldsen smiled and said, "Would not any one
+think that we were in Rome, and I were the pope about to give the
+benediction _urbi et orbi_ from the balcony of St. Peter's?"
+
+One ovation after another followed, day by day, and such crowds of
+visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his
+possessions which he had brought from Italy, or to work at all, which
+was worse to him. At last he began to do as he had done in Rome, and to
+receive his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand. He
+lived frugally, and continued many of his Roman habits of life; but he
+was forced to dine out every evening.
+
+He was now sixty-eight years old, but he did a vast amount of work in
+one way and another, and was so pursued by all sorts of people who
+wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects, that he
+seriously considered the question of leaving Copenhagen. He became very
+fond of certain families where he visited, among which was that of the
+Baron von Stampe, who, with his wife and children, were soon treated by
+the sculptor as if they were his own kindred. He went with them to their
+summer home at Nysoe, and while there the baroness persuaded him to
+model his own statue. He did this imperfectly, as he had no suitable
+workshop; and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an
+ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the
+castle. She took the time to do this when Thorwaldsen was absent for
+eight days, and in this short space the whole was completed, so that
+when he returned it seemed to him like magic. This studio was dedicated
+in July, 1839.
+
+He then began the proper modelling of his own statue, and was
+progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet
+Oehlenschlaeger, who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of
+himself. Thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when
+thus wanted for other work, and he threw down his tools, and would have
+broken the model. But the baroness succeeded in getting him away, and
+locked the studio, keeping the key. However, no argument or entreaty
+would move the sculptor, and she could do nothing with him until she
+happened to think of crying. When she began to weep and to accuse him of
+having no affection for her, and reminded him of the proofs of her
+devotion which she had given him, he was taken in by her mock tears, and
+exclaimed, "Well, they may think what they like. My statue is not for
+posterity, but I cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such
+pleasure." He then resumed his work, and completed his statue in
+seventeen days. He represented himself standing with one arm resting
+upon his statue of Hope.
+
+After this summer Thorwaldsen divided his time between Copenhagen and
+Stampeborg, and worked with the same industry in one place as in the
+other. The life in the country was a great delight to him; he played
+games, listened to fairy tales from the poet Andersen, or to music from
+the young girls of the house, all with equal pleasure; and if he were
+allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day
+in the woods or pay visits, and was perfectly happy in this succession
+of labor and leisure.
+
+Baroness Stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist, for she
+found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument. He had
+promised to execute a statue of Christian IV. for Christian VIII., the
+reigning king; he put it off until the king was impatient. One day, when
+he had gone for a walk, the baroness went to the studio and began a
+sketch in clay as well as she could. When Thorwaldsen returned he asked
+what she was doing, and she answered, "I am making the statue of the
+king. Since you will not do it, and I have pledged my word, I must do it
+myself." The artist laughed, and began to criticise her work; she
+insisted it was all right, and at last said, "Do it better, then,
+yourself; you make fun of me; I defy you to find anything to change in
+my work." Thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model, and when
+once he had begun he finished it.
+
+It would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous
+incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor; of the honors
+he received, of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do,
+of the visits he paid and received from persons of note; few lives are
+as full as was his, and the detailed accounts of it are very
+interesting.
+
+He had always desired to go again to Rome, and in 1841, when the Baron
+von Stampe decided to go there with his family, Thorwaldsen travelled
+with them. They went through Germany, and were everywhere received as
+honorably as if he were a royal person: he was invited to visit royal
+families; court carriages were at his service; Mendelssohn gave a
+musical _fete_ for him; in all the great cities he was shown the places
+and objects worthy of his attention; poets and orators paid him respect,
+and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and
+his works was omitted.
+
+In Rome it was the same; he remained there almost a year, and upon his
+arrival at Copenhagen, in October, 1842, he experienced the crowning
+glory of his life. During his absence the Thorwaldsen Museum had been
+completed, and here, the day after he reached home, he was received. The
+building was decorated with garlands, and he went over the whole of it;
+at last he entered the inner court, where he was to be buried; here he
+stood for some time with bowed head, while all about him kept silence.
+Can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him? Here he must
+be buried, and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which
+would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers.
+
+He lived three years more, and was always busy. His mind was strong and
+his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing, but his ability to
+execute his works was less; his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning.
+He went much into society, was fond of the theatre, and under the
+devoted care of his servant, Wilkens, he enjoyed all that was possible
+to a man of his age. On the 24th of March 1844, the Baroness von Stampe
+went to ask him to dine at her house; he said he was not well and would
+not go out; but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he
+decided to go. He was modelling a bust of Luther, and threw down before
+it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it; just so, as he left it,
+this now stands in the museum, preserved under glass, with the print of
+his hand in the clay.
+
+He was merry at dinner, and in speaking of the museum said he could die
+now, whenever he chose, since the architect Bindesboell had finished his
+tomb. After dinner he went to the theatre, and there it was seen that he
+was really ill; he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa, when
+it was found that he was already dead. The Charlottenburg joined the
+theatre, and there, in the hall of antique sculpture, he was laid. He
+was first buried in the Frue Kirke, which he had so splendidly
+decorated; four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of
+the Thorwaldsen Museum, where above him grows the evergreen ivy, a
+fitting emblem of his unfading fame.
+
+Thiele, in his splendid book called "Thorwaldsen and his Works," gives a
+list of two hundred and sixty works by this master; and as one journeys
+from Rome, where are some of his sculptures in St. Peter's and the
+Quirinal, to Copenhagen, with the Frue Kirke and the Museum, one passes
+through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs.
+Among his most important works are the frieze of Alexander's entrance
+into Babylon, at the Quirinal; the Lion of Lucerne; the many statues,
+groups, and bas-reliefs in the Frue Kirke; more than thirty sepulchral
+and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries; sixteen
+bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche; twenty
+bas-reliefs of Genii; twenty-two figures from antique fables, and many
+portrait busts and statues, and various other subjects.
+
+Thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man. No circumstance of his youth
+indicated his success, and a certain indolence which he had would have
+seemed to forbid it; but the power was within him, and was of that
+genuine quality which will declare itself; and a man who has it becomes
+great without intending to be so, and almost without believing that he
+is remarkable beyond others. The true antique spirit seems to have been
+revived in him. His characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity,
+perfect beauty in form, distinctness, and repose. Thiele says of him:
+"He has challenged and has received the decision of the world's Supreme
+Court, that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality. And if his
+life might be embodied in a single emblem, perhaps it should be that of
+a young lion, with an eye that glows and flashes fire, while he is bound
+with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces."
+
+The sculpture of Germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the
+early years of the present century was very interesting. The architect
+Schinkel was a great lover of antique art, and he had much influence
+over all arts, as well as in his special department. Thorwaldsen himself
+so admired the sculptor JOHN RUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822) that when the
+King of Prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied: "Sire,
+there is at this moment in Rome one of your faithful subjects who is
+more capable than I of performing to your satisfaction the task with
+which you deign to honor me; permit me to solicit for him your royal
+favor." The commission was given to Schadow, and he made his charming
+work, The Spinner. John Rudolph was the son of JOHN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW
+(1764-1850), who was court sculptor, and long survived his gifted son.
+The chief works of the father were the statues of Count von der Mark, at
+Berlin; that of Frederick the Great, at Stettin; Luther's monument in
+the market-place at Wittenberg, and Bluecher's statue at Rostock.
+
+John Rudolph Schadow studied under both Canova and Thorwaldsen, and was
+a very gifted artist. He was engaged upon a group of Achilles protecting
+the body of Penthesilea at the time of his death; it was finished by
+Wolff.
+
+CHRISTIAN FREDERIC TIECK (1776-1851) was an eminent sculptor of his
+time, and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at
+Berlin by Schinkel. He was very active in establishing a gallery of
+models from the antique at Berlin, and was a Director of the Sculptures
+in the Museum as well as a member of the Academy. His most successful
+original works were portrait busts, and he had many notable people among
+his sitters. Among them were the Emperor of Germany, the King of
+Bavaria, Schelling, Goethe, Lessing, and many others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--STATUE OF QUEEN LOUISE. _By Rauch._]
+
+CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857). This eminent sculptor was born at Waldeck,
+and followed the manner of Schadow, which he carried to its perfection.
+His statue of Queen Louise (Fig. 121) is one of the finest works of
+modern sculpture, and his statues of the Generals Scharnhorst and Buelow,
+in Berlin, are very fine; the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic
+beauty. But his masterpiece is the grand Friedrichs monument. Rauch
+executed many excellent busts; he made good portraits, and yet he
+elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of
+which they were capable. As a rule Rauch avoided religious subjects, but
+late in life he modelled the group of Moses supported in prayer by Aaron
+and Hur.
+
+Among his important works are the statue of Bluecher, at Breslau; that of
+August Hermann Franke, at Halle; Duerer, at Nuremberg; monument to
+Maximilian I., at Munich; and six marble Victories for the Walhalla. His
+works are numerous, and in them we feel that this artist had not a great
+imaginative power; he rarely conceived imaginary subjects, but he took
+some fact or personality as his motive, and elevated it to the highest
+point to which it could be brought, and under his masterly style of
+execution produced splendid results.
+
+ERNST RIETSCHEL (1804-1860) was a gifted pupil of Rauch. After spending
+some time in Rome he settled in Dresden, and executed the statue of
+Friederich August of Saxony, for the Zwingerhof, when but twenty-seven
+years old. His chief excellence was in portrait statues, and those of
+Lessing and Luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the
+intellectual and moral force of those men. His religious subjects were
+full of deep feeling, and his lighter works have a charming grace about
+them.
+
+LUDWIG SCHWANTHALER (1802-1848) studied much in Rome, and was as devoted
+to the antique as was Thorwaldsen. He executed many works in Munich, the
+principal ones being the interior decoration of the Glyptothek; also
+that of the Koenigsbau and two groups for the Walhalla. A prominent work
+by this master is the bronze statue of Bavaria, which is fifty-four feet
+high and stands in front of the Ruhmeshalle. He also made twelve
+gilt-bronze statues of Bavarian sovereigns. Schwanthaler had remarkable
+powers of invention and a fruitful imagination; in these points he ranks
+with the first of modern sculptors; but his works rarely rise above what
+we call decorative art, and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked
+the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues.
+
+There are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with
+modern sculpture in Germany. Nowhere have the monuments and portrait
+statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call,
+in general terms, the Berlin school. Profound attention has been given
+to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects,
+while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or
+commonplaceness. Nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of
+our own day than in the sculpture of Germany.
+
+But there are exceptions to this rule; some such artists as THEODORE
+KALIDE and LUDWIG WICHMANN are wanting in the serious qualities of
+Schadow, Rauch, and their followers, and sometimes fall into a coarse
+realism; but in spite of this, the revival of love for the antique,
+which began with Canova and his time, has borne rich fruit in the works
+of modern German sculptors.
+
+In France the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the
+severe classic style, and it has shown many of the same qualities that
+we have seen in modern German sculpture; but the different
+characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in
+everything else. In France the artist has aimed at a fine
+effect--flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic
+motives--far more than the northern sculptors have done. There is less
+thought and depth of feeling, more outward attraction and striking
+effect. The classic taste which asserted itself in the time of Canova
+was adopted in France, but in a French manner; and one of the earliest
+artists who showed its effects was FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOSIO (1769-1845),
+who was much honored. He was made a member of the Institute of France
+and of the Royal Academy of Berlin: he was chief sculptor to the King of
+France, and executed many public works. He made many portrait busts of
+the royal family and other prominent persons, but his chief works were
+the reliefs on the column of the Place Vendome, the Chariot on the arch
+of the Place du Carrousel, the monument to the Countess Demidoff, and
+statues of mythological heroes and heroines. For the Chapelle
+Expiatoire, Bosio executed a group representing Louis XVII. receiving
+comfort from an angel; the design is not as good as in some of his
+classic works, but the conception is pure and noble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--NYMPH. _By Bosio._]
+
+JAMES PRADIER (1790-1832), though born in Geneva, was essentially a
+French sculptor, and excelled the artists of his day in his
+representations of feminine beauty. His masterpiece is a fountain at
+Nimes, in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct
+in treatment. The serious and comic Muses of the Fountain Moliere are
+excellent works. He made several separate statues which are well known;
+his Psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm; Atalanta
+is fastening her sandals; Sappho is in despair. His Niobe group showed
+his power to represent bold action, and his Prometheus chained, erected
+in the garden of the Tuileries, is grand and spirited.
+
+We could name a great number of French sculptors belonging to this
+period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn, but
+whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the
+world's artists, or make the accounts of them anything more than a list
+of works which has little meaning, except when one stands before them.
+Perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had PIERRE
+JEAN DAVID (1793-1856), who is called David of Angers, which was his
+birthplace, in order to distinguish him from Jacques Louis David, the
+great painter, who was like a father to this sculptor, though in no way
+connected with him by ties of kindred, as far as we know. But when the
+sculptor went to Paris, a very poor boy, David the painter, whose
+attention was called to him in some way, was his friend, and gave him
+lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways. In 1811 David of Angers
+obtained the prize which enabled him to go to Rome, and after his
+return to Paris he was constantly employed. The amount of his work was
+enormous; many of his statues were colossal, and he executed a great
+number of busts and more than ninety medallions.
+
+He made the statue of Mme. de Stael; one of Talma for the Theatre
+Francais; the colossal statue of King Rene at Aix; monument to Fenelon
+at Cambray; the statue of the great Conde at Versailles; the Gutenberg
+memorial at Strasburg, which is one of his most successful works, and a
+large number of other sculptures.
+
+His chief characteristic is realism, and he carried this so far that it
+frequently became coarseness. David designed the relief for the pediment
+of the Pantheon. The inscription on the building declares that it is
+dedicated by a grateful country to its great men, and the sculptor seems
+to have had this in mind, for he represented in his group a figure of
+France surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and
+days of peace. It is too realistic to be pleasing, and is far less
+creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works.
+
+If little can be said of the modern French sculpture prior to our
+immediate time, there is still less to be told of that of England. There
+are many public monuments there, but they do not show forth any high
+artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare
+instances. There is but one English sculptor of whom I shall speak. JOHN
+GIBSON (1791-1866) was born near Conway, in Wales. When he was nine
+years old his parents went to Liverpool with the intention of sailing
+for America; but they gave up the idea, and the boy was sent to school
+in Liverpool. Before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of
+making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with; he now
+studied the prints in the shop windows, and made pictures, which he sold
+to his fellow-pupils. He attracted the attention of a print-seller, who
+was so interested in him that he allowed him to draw from studies and
+casts from the antique which he had. When fourteen years old the boy was
+apprenticed to a cabinet-maker, but after a year he persuaded his
+employer to allow him to leave his shop, and was then apprenticed to a
+wood-carver. He did not stop at this, however, for when he became
+acquainted with the Messrs. Francis, who had a marble-yard, he persuaded
+his second master to release him, and was apprenticed for the third
+time, and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should
+be that of his life.
+
+He was now very happy, and his improvement in drawing, modelling, and
+working in marble was very rapid. After a few months he made the
+acquaintance of William Roscoe, who became his friend and patron. He
+remained in Liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old; he had
+improved every advantage within his reach, but he was very desirous of
+travelling. In 1817, armed with a few letters of introduction, he went
+to London, where he obtained several orders, and in October of that year
+went to Rome.
+
+He had a letter to Canova, who took him under his care and gave him
+admission to the classes in the Academy, in which he could draw from
+living models. In 1819 he received his first important commission; it
+was from the Duke of Devonshire for a group of Mars and Cupid. From this
+time he advanced steadily in his profession, and was always busy. He
+lived twenty-seven years in Rome, and passed his summers in Innsbrueck.
+
+In 1844 he went to Liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of
+Mr. Huskisson; he was received with enthusiasm, and when he went to
+Glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of Mr. Finlay in the
+Merchants' Hall his reception was even more flattering, as it was given
+him simply as an artist, and not connected with any former associations,
+as in Liverpool. During this visit to England Gibson was summoned to
+Windsor to make a statue of Queen Victoria, which he completed after
+his return to Rome. The queen was represented in a classical costume,
+and the diadem, sandals, and borders of the drapery were colored. This
+was very much criticised and much was written and said about it; Gibson
+took little notice of all this, and simply answered it by saying,
+"Whatever the Greeks did was right."
+
+In 1851 Gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother Ben,
+who had lived with him in Rome for fourteen years. Five years later,
+when in perfect health, the sculptor was attacked by paralysis, and
+lived but a short time. He was buried in the English cemetery at Rome,
+and Lord Lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument. It says: "His
+native genius strengthened by careful study, he infused the spirit of
+Grecian art into masterpieces all his own. His character as a man was in
+unison with his attributes as an artist--beautiful in its simplicity and
+truthfulness, noble in its dignity and elevation." A monument was also
+raised to Gibson in the church at Conway.
+
+The master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his
+fortune to the Royal Academy in London. Among his works are Mars and
+Cupid, at Chatsworth; Psyche borne by Zephyrs, in the Palazzo Torlonia,
+at Rome, and a replica at St. Petersburg; Hylas surprised by Nymphs, in
+the National Gallery, London; Sleeping Shepherd Boy, in the Lenox
+collection in New York; Cupid disguised as a Shepherd, which he often
+repeated; portraits of Queen Victoria, at Buckingham Palace and Osborne;
+Sir Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey; George Stephenson, in St.
+George's Hall, Liverpool; eighteen portrait busts; sixteen bas-reliefs
+of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead. A large
+part of these are in the chapel of the Liverpool Cemetery. He modelled a
+bas-relief of Christ blessing little children.
+
+Gibson found his entire happiness in his art. In his own words, he
+worked on "happily and with ever new pleasure, avoiding evil and with a
+calm soul, making images, not for worship, but for the love of the
+beautiful. The beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world; the
+ideal, higher--yes, higher still, to celestial beauty, the fountain of
+all. Socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward; in
+the life of a man, as in an image, every part should be beautiful."
+
+He was never elated by praise; he was glad of tributes which proved that
+he was respected, but he received all honors with a simplicity of
+self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature.
+
+There are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about
+everything not connected with his art. Miss Harriet Hosmer was his only
+pupil, and she said of him: "He is a god in his studio, but God help him
+when he is out of it." He never could master the ins and outs of
+railroad travelling, and even when put in the right train at the right
+time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time.
+
+On one of his journeys, when he supposed he was at the right place, he
+got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral. In
+his own account he said: "But the scoundrel would have it there was no
+cathedral in the place, and at last had the impudence to ask me if I
+knew where I was. Then I discovered that instead of being in Chichester,
+where I had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter, I was
+safe in Portsmouth, where there was no cathedral at all."
+
+The time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of
+our own country. So many of our artists are still living that it would
+be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is
+complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history. We have no
+right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full
+height, and even after death a certain period must elapse before the
+true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its
+just place upon the roll of fame. So, in leaving this subject, we will
+turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern
+sculpture. In Italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which
+Canova and Thorwaldsen brought it; for though the last was a Dane, his
+work may truly be said to belong to the Roman school. We must regard
+Italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense, but it is easy to
+understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered
+an advance in artistic life could not be made. Now, when a new spirit is
+active there, and a freer thought prevails in other directions, may we
+not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best
+inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty?
+
+As we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an
+immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Schools and
+academies are multiplied everywhere, and the interest in works of art is
+universal. Many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of
+artists as were the princes and nobles of the past. It is as if there
+were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested,
+and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold
+must come forth.
+
+As we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the
+present, we are compelled to linger lovingly with the Greek or classic
+art. The period in which it existed was a blessed period for the
+sculptor. We all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art
+is the study and reproduction of _nature_, and in the times of the
+Greeks there was no reason why the human form, the most beautiful object
+in nature, should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the
+temple, for the statues of the public square or theatre, or for any
+position in which sculpture could be used at all. The customs of modern
+life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms, and the
+difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact
+are almost more than we can realize; and the task of draping a figure
+and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and
+action is one before which even a Greek sculptor would have reason to
+doubt himself.
+
+On the other hand, when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped
+figure which satisfies artistic taste, he has achieved much, and merits
+the highest praise. A drapery which has gracefully composed masses and
+flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a
+prophet, and there are numerous subjects, religious and monumental, in
+which a full, graceful drapery is requisite; but when, as is often the
+case, the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the
+day, what can we look for? The truth is, it has no grace in itself;
+what, then, must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble?
+Yet where is the remedy for this? We do not wish to see the men whom we
+have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put
+into an antique disguise by the sculptor; the incongruity of this is too
+apparent. Much has been written and said upon these points, and no
+solution of the difficulty has been found; but it is only just that when
+we judge of the statues made under such difficulties, we should remember
+them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the
+hindrances that exist for him.
+
+Westmacott, in his "Handbook of Sculpture," gives as his "Conclusion" an
+account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor, and I believe that I
+can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a
+quotation from that author.
+
+"The artist, having invented or conceived his subject, usually begins by
+making a small sketch of it in some soft and obedient substance, as
+clay or wax. He can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is
+satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition, and the
+proportions it will command of light and shadow. He then proceeds to
+copy this small but useful sketch, as his guide, in its general
+arrangement, for his full-sized model. Before commencing the larger
+model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron
+and wood, with joints made of wire, to support the great mass of clay in
+which the figure or group is now to be executed. This iron frame is
+firmly fixed upon a turning bench, or banker, so that the model may be
+constantly moved without difficulty, so as to be seen in different
+lights and in various points of view. As the clay is likely to shrink as
+it gets dry, it is necessary occasionally to wet it. This is done by
+sprinkling water over it with a brush, or from a large syringe, and by
+laying damp cloths upon it. This is the ordinary process for making a
+model in the 'round.'
+
+"In modelling in _rilievo_ of either kind, _alto_ or _basso_, a plane or
+ground is prepared upon which the design is, or should be, carefully
+drawn. This may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board, or the
+ground may be of slate, or even of wood, though the latter is
+objectionable, in large works especially, from its liability to shrink
+and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture. The clay is then
+laid in small quantities upon this ground, the outline being bounded by
+the drawing, which should be carefully preserved; and the bulk or
+projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the
+sculptor desires to give to his design.
+
+"If the final work is to be baked in clay (_terra-cotta_) there must be
+no iron or wooden nucleus, as it would interfere with the model drying
+regularly and uniformly, and probably cause it to crack in shrinking.
+The model is therefore prepared for drying without such support. When
+perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked
+slowly, by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar
+brownish-red color seen in these works. This art has been brought to
+great perfection in England in modern days.
+
+"If the final work is to be in marble, or bronze, or only in plaster,
+the next process after finishing the model is to mould it, in
+preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving
+about without risk of injury to the design. This is done by covering it
+with a mixture of plaster of Paris with water, which quickly sets or
+becomes consistent, forming a hard and thick coating over the whole. The
+clay is then carefully picked out, and an exact matrix, or form,
+remains. This is washed clean, and the interior is then brushed over
+with any greasy substance, usually a composition of soap and oil, to
+prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too
+firmly to it. The fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of
+cream and then poured into the mould, which is gently moved about till
+the inner surface is entirely filled or covered, so that all parts may
+be reached. The thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the
+size of the work and the degree of strength required.
+
+"When the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked
+away with chisels, and a true cast appears beneath, giving an entire
+fac-simile of the original model. Some skill is required in making
+moulds, in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings;
+practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties
+when they occur. The above general instructions sufficiently explain the
+ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster.
+
+"In metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the
+strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal; but the
+principle described in plaster-moulding applies also to the preparation
+for metal-casting. The mixture of metals to form bronze, the proper
+heating of the furnace, burning and uniting parts, chasing and other
+processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place. They
+belong to a distinct practice, and to be well understood must be studied
+in the foundry.
+
+"If the model--now reproduced in plaster--is to be copied in marble or
+stone, the first step is to procure a block of the required size. Two
+stones, called _scale-stones_, are then prepared, upon one of which the
+model or plaster cast is placed, and upon the other the rough block of
+marble. The fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales,' to
+use the technical term, exactly corresponding. An instrument capable of
+being easily moved, and which is fitted up with socket-joints and
+movable arms, is then applied to the scale-stone of the model, and a
+projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the
+model itself. This is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough
+block, and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into
+the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model. A
+pencil-mark is then made to show that the _point_ is found and
+registered. This process is repeated all over the model and block,
+alternately, till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made.
+These 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms,
+but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all. The
+statue being thus rudely shaped out, the block is placed in the hands of
+a superior workman, called a 'carver,' who, having the plastic model
+near at hand to refer to, copies the more minute portions of the work by
+means of chisels, rasps, and files, the pencil-marks made by the
+'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit
+beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble. When the carver has
+carried the work as far as the sculptor desires, he proceeds himself to
+give it the finishing touches, improving the details of form and
+expression, managing the different effects produced by two different
+materials--one, the plastic model, being opaque; the other, the marble,
+being considerably diaphanous; giving the proper varieties of texture in
+the flesh, hair, and drapery, and, more especially, harmonizing the
+whole.
+
+"The rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of
+marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other
+substances, and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their
+work by a process which is called '_circumlitio_,' and may mean not only
+rubbing or polishing, but applying some composition, such as hot wax, to
+give a soft, glowing color to the surface. Many of the ancient statues
+certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having
+slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an
+inch, and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it; a
+process, be it observed, quite distinct from and not to be confounded
+with _polychromy_, or what is usually understood by painting sculpture
+with various tints, in imitation of the natural color of the complexion,
+hair, and eyes. Its object, probably, with the ancients as with modern
+sculptors, has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of
+appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work, by
+giving a general warmth to the color of the marble."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+   "Abduction of Briseis" (Thorwaldsen), 257
+
+   Abildgaard, 254
+
+   "Abraham and Isaac," 139
+
+   "Abundance" (della Porta), 212
+
+   Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Michael Angelo's David in, 201
+
+   Achilles, story of, 26;
+     and Priam (Thorwaldsen), 299;
+     and Penthesilea (Schadow), 270
+
+   Acropolis, 78
+
+   Action in Egyptian sculpture, 3
+
+   "Actaeon and his Dogs," 24
+
+   "Adam" (Cano), 220
+
+   "Adam and Eve," reliefs of, 138, 139;
+     by Rizzo, 154
+
+   "Adonis" (Thorwaldsen), 258
+
+   "Adoring Madonna," 152
+
+   AEgina, marbles of, and Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   AEmilius Paulus, 84
+
+   "AEneas and Anchises" (Chaudet), 248
+
+   AEsculapius. _See_ Asclepius
+
+   AEtolians, 84
+
+   Agamemnon, 90
+
+   Agesander and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Agnello, Fra Guglielmo d', 130
+
+   Agoracritus, 49, 51
+
+   Agrippa and the Apoxyomenos, 70
+
+   Agrippina, statue of, 103
+
+   Aix, 275
+
+   Alaric and Minerva Promachos, 35
+
+   Albert, Archduke, and Duquesnoy, 226
+
+   Alcamenes, 49
+
+   Aldovrandi, Gian Francesco, 198
+
+   Alexander the Great;
+     statues of, 69, 72;
+     decline after, 72;
+     portrait statues of, 100;
+     and Diogenes, by Puget, 229;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 259;
+     Entrance into Babylon of, 268
+
+   Alexander, Emperor of Russia, and Thorwaldsen, 262
+
+   Alexander VII., monument of, 226
+
+   Alexandros, sculptor of Venus of Milo, 87
+
+   Alto-rilievo, 281
+
+   Altoviti, statue of (Cellini), 191
+
+   Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, 157
+
+   Amboise Monument, 177
+
+   Ambraser Gallery, Vienna, Cellini's salt-cellar in, 190
+
+   Amiens Cathedral, 176
+
+   Ancient Italian sculpture, 82
+
+   Ancona, 156
+
+   Andersen, Hans, and Thorwaldsen, 266
+
+   Androsphinx, 6
+
+   "Angel of Baptism" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   "Angel's Salutation" (Stoss), 165
+
+   Anguier, Francois, 228
+
+   Anguier, Michael, 228
+
+   Animals in Egyptian sculpture, 5
+
+   Anne of Austria, and Anguier, 228
+
+   Anne of Brittany, monument of, 177
+
+   "Annunciation" (Donatello), 142
+
+   Annunziata, church of, 212
+
+   Antigonus, father of Poliorcetes, 73
+
+   Antium, 91
+
+   Antonelli, Cardinal, 100
+
+   Antwerp, town hall of, 231
+
+   Aphrodite. _See_ Venus
+
+   Apollo;
+     Sosianus, temple of, 61;
+     by Leochares, 65;
+     the Belvedere, 91,
+       theories concerning, 92, 95;
+     the Steinhaeuser, 91;
+     the Stroganoff, 92;
+     by Sansovino, 186;
+     and Daphne, by Bernini, 224;
+     and Daphne, by Canova, 239;
+     by Canova, 240;
+     by Flaxman, 251
+
+   Apollodorus, 86
+
+   Apollonius, of the Toro Farnese, 76
+
+   Apostles (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   "Apoxyomenos" (Lysippus), 70
+
+   Archaic period, 22
+
+   Archaistic period, 27
+
+   Arches in Rome, 97
+
+   Architecture, close connection with Egyptian sculpture, 10
+
+   "Archangel Michael and Satan" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Areobrudus, diptych of, 109
+
+   Arezzo, 132
+
+   Argos, school of, 72
+
+   "Ariadne" (Dannecker), 248
+
+   Arrezzo, Niccolo of, 135
+
+   Artemis, archaistic statue of, 28, 94, 95 (and _see_ Diana)
+
+   Aschaffenburg Vischer's works in, 175
+
+   Asclepius, by Alcamenes, 50;
+     by Canova, 239
+
+   Assos, reliefs from, 23
+
+   Assyria, 10
+
+   Assyrian influence on Etruscan art, 82
+
+   Atalanta, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Athena;
+     Promachos (Phidias), 34;
+     birth of, 38;
+     attributes of, 39;
+     representations of, 40;
+     by Phidias, 84;
+     of the Capitol, 94, 95, 96 (and _see_ Minerva and Pallas)
+
+   Athenodorus and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Athens, statue from, at Rome, 84
+
+   Attalus I., statues of, 78
+
+   Augsburg, 123, 164
+
+   Augustio, 108
+
+   Augustus, Emperor;
+     and archaistic period, 27;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84;
+     statue of, 102
+
+
+   Babylonians, 17
+
+   Bacchus;
+     and the Tyrrhenian robbers, 67;
+     tripod of, by Lysicrates, 67; 84;
+     by Sansovino, 185;
+     by Michael Angelo, 200
+
+   Baldachin, 174
+
+   Balier, Heinrich den, 123
+
+   Bamberg, 123;
+     carvings in, 167;
+     and Krafft, 168
+
+   Bandinelli, Baccio, 212;
+     and Cellini, 190
+
+   Baptistery of Pisa, 128
+
+   Baptistery of Florence, 137, 138;
+     gates of, 133
+
+   Barberini, Cardinal, and Bernini, 223
+
+   "Barberini Faun," 73
+
+   Bargello, museum of the, 139
+
+   Baryatinska, Princess, 260
+
+   Basle, Steinhaeuser Apollo in, 91
+
+   Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna, 137
+
+   Bas-relief;
+     Egyptian, 2;
+     Assyrian, 12;
+     the first, 20
+
+   Basso-rilievo, 281
+
+   "Battle of Athenians and Amazons," 78
+
+   "Battle of Marathon," 78
+
+   "Battle of the Gods and Giants," 78
+
+   Bavaria;
+     King of, 270;
+     statue of, 271;
+     sovereigns of, Schwanthaler's statues of, 272
+
+   Beata Villana, 151
+
+   Beauharnais, monument to, 263
+
+   "Beautiful Fountain," Nuremberg, 123
+
+   Beauty, Greek love of, 18
+
+   Begarelli, Antonio, 193
+
+   "Berengaria," statue of, 119
+
+   Berlin Museum, works of Pythagoras in, 30;
+     Begarelli's works in, 194
+
+   Berlin school, 272
+
+   Bernardi, Giuseppe, 237
+
+   Berne, cathedral of, 170
+
+   Bernini, 223
+
+   Berruguete, Alonso, 217
+
+   Bertoldo and Michael Angelo, 195
+
+   Bethmann, Herr, 248
+
+   Beuch, 213
+
+   Bienaime, pupil of Thorwaldsen, 261
+
+   Bindesboell, architect, 268
+
+   "Birth of St. John" (Duerer), 166
+
+   Bluecher, Schadow's statue of, 269;
+     Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Boboli Gardens, 214
+
+   Boethus of Chalcedon, 80
+
+   Boileau, bust of, 229
+
+   Bologna; 128;
+     works of Lombardo in, 192;
+     Michael Angelo in, 198
+
+   Bologna, Giovanni da, 213
+
+   Bon family, 135
+
+   Bontemps, Pierre, 178
+
+   Bosio, Francois Joseph, 273
+
+   Bottigari, de', 193
+
+   Bourges, Cathedral of, 114, 178
+
+   Bourgtherroulde, Hotel, 178
+
+   "Boy and Dolphin" (Verocchio), 149
+
+   "Boy and Goose," 80
+
+   Braccini, Nicolo, 187
+
+   Bramante and Michael Angelo, 202
+
+   Braye, Cardinal de, monument of, 133
+
+   Bregno, Antonio Giovanni, 154
+
+   Breslau, 271
+
+   Briseis, by Thorwaldsen, 257
+
+   Bristol, Lord, and Flaxman, 251
+
+   British Museum;
+     Harpy monument in, 24;
+     Elgin marbles in, 37;
+     statue of Pericles in, 52;
+     statue of Mausolus in, 57;
+     Etruscan table-ware in, 83;
+     Duerer's carvings in, 166
+
+   Bronzes, Etruscan, 82
+
+   "Brother and Sister," Niobe group, 64
+
+   Bruges, 178
+
+   Brugsch-Bey concerning Martisen, 1
+
+   Brun, Charles le, monument of, 229
+
+   Brun, Ida, Thorwaldsen's statue of, 258
+
+   Brunelleschi, 139, 140
+
+   Bruni, Lionardo, statue of, 151
+
+   Brunswick Museum, 166
+
+   Buckingham Palace, and Flaxman, 251;
+     and Gibson, 277
+
+   Buonarroti, 194
+
+   Buoni, 135
+
+   Burgkapelle, and Veit Stoss, 165
+
+   Burgos, Altars of, 179
+
+   "Burial of Christ" (Krafft), 168
+
+   Burns, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Buelow, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Byzantium, early Christian sculpture in, 108;
+     ivory carving in, 108
+
+
+   "Cain and Abel," 139
+
+   Calabria, Duke of, 153
+
+   Calamis, 31
+
+   Caligula, and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Callimachus, 52
+
+   Callon of AEgina, 27
+
+   Cambio, Arnolfo di, 133
+
+   Cambray, 275
+
+   Campanile at Florence, 146
+
+   Campo Santo of Pisa, 131
+
+   Cano, Alonso, 219
+
+   Canon of Polycleitus, 54
+
+   Canova, Antonio, 236;
+     and Gibson, 276
+
+   Canova, Pasino, 236
+
+   Canterbury Cathedral, 121
+
+   Capitol at Rome;
+     Helios in, 69;
+     Minerva in, 95
+
+   Capitoline Museum, busts by Canova in, 246
+
+   Capuchins and Thorwaldsen, 263
+
+   Caracalla, Baths of;
+     and "Farnese Bull," 76;
+     and "Farnesian Hercules," 88
+
+   Caridad of Seville, 220
+
+   Carlovingians, statues of, 119
+
+   Carrousel, Place du, Chariot of, 273
+
+   Carthusian Chapel, Dijon, 125
+
+   Carver, 283
+
+   Casa Santa, Loreto, 184
+
+   Castellani collection, 78
+
+   Cavaliere Alberto, 258
+
+   Cellini, Benvenuto, 187
+
+   "Centaurs and Lapithae" (Alcamenes), 51
+
+   "Cephalus and Aurora" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Cephisodotus, 55
+
+   Ceres;
+     Roman temple of, 83;
+     Livia as, 104
+
+   Certosa of Pavia, 177; 194;
+     and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Cesena, 156;
+     and Lombardo, 192
+
+   Chapelle Expiatoire, 274
+
+   Chares of Lindos, 71
+
+   "Charity" (Coysevox), 229
+
+   Charles I. and Bernini, 226
+
+   Charles VIII., 177
+
+   Charmidas, 32
+
+   Chartres, cathedral of, 114
+
+   Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 247
+
+   Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 65
+
+   Choragus, 65
+
+   Christ;
+     early statues of, 106;
+     figure of, at Rheims, 117;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Michael Angelo, 206;
+     by Coustou, 230;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     various statues of, by Thorwaldsen, 262;
+       by Gibson, 277
+
+   Christian IV., Thorwaldsen's statue of, 266
+
+   Christian VIII. and Thorwaldsen, 266
+
+   Christian Art, 104
+
+   "Christian Charity" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Christian Frederick, Prince, 259
+
+   Christian sculpture, 105
+
+   Christiansborg palace and Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Chryselephantine statues, 22
+
+   Chur, cathedral of, 164
+
+   Church of Our Lady, Thorwaldsen's works in, 262
+
+   Cimon, patron of Phidias, 34
+
+   Cincinnatus, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Cione, Andrea Arcagnuolo di, 134
+
+   Circumlitio, 284
+
+   Civitali, Matteo, 153
+
+   Claudius;
+     and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     arch of, in Rome, 98
+
+   Clement VII. and Cellini, 187
+
+   Clement XIII., Canova's monument of, 242
+
+   Clement XIV., monument of, 240
+
+   Cleomenes, 86, 90
+
+   Cnidos, Venus of, 60
+
+   Coins, Athenian, 35;
+     of Elis, 35
+
+   Colbert, tomb of, 229
+
+   Colleoni;
+     statue of, 149;
+     and Leopardo, 155
+
+   Colleoni Chapel, Bergamo, 157
+
+   Cologne, 123
+
+   Colonna, Vittoria, and Michael Angelo, 209
+
+   Color;
+     in Assyrian bas-reliefs, 14;
+     in AEginetan statues, 26;
+     in thirteenth century sculptures, 115
+
+   Colossi, Egyptian, 8;
+     of Thebes, 8
+
+   Colossus of Rhodes, 71
+
+   "Comedy" (Flaxman), 251
+
+   Como, cathedral of, 159
+
+   "Conception" (Montanes), 219
+
+   Conde, statues of, by Coysevox, 229;
+     by David, 275
+
+   Consalvi, Cardinal, 263
+
+   Constance, cathedral of, 163
+
+   Constantine, arch of, 105;
+     column of, 108;
+     Bernini's statue of, 226
+
+   Conway, 277
+
+   Copernicus, Thorwaldsen's monument to, 262
+
+   Corinthian capital, 53
+
+   Cornacini, 74
+
+   Corneto, 83
+
+   Correggio and Begarelli, 193
+
+   Cortona, 132
+
+   Cosmo I., and Donatello, 144;
+     Giovanni da Bologna's statue of, 214
+
+   Cosmo III. and "Venus de' Medici," 85
+
+   Coustou, Guillaume, 230
+
+   Coustou, Nicolas, 229
+
+   Covent Garden Theatre, 251
+
+   Cow, Myron's statue of, 30
+
+   Coysevox, Antoine, 229
+
+   Cracow and Veit Stoss, 164
+
+   Cresilas, 52
+
+   "Crowning of the Virgin" (Stoss), 165
+
+   Cupid;
+     by Praxiteles, 60;
+     by Michael Angelo, 198;
+     by Dannecker, 248;
+     and Psyche (Thorwaldsen), 257;
+     as a shepherd (Gibson), 183 (and _see_ Eros)
+
+   Cybele, by Cellini, 190
+
+
+   Dacians on Trajan's Pillar, 99
+
+   Daedalus, 20;
+     and Icarus (Canova), 239
+
+   Damophilus, 83
+
+   Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248
+
+   Da Siena, Ugolino, 134
+
+   David, by Donatello, 142;
+     by Verocchio, 149;
+     by Michael Angelo, 200
+
+   "David and Goliath," 139
+
+   David of Angers, 274
+
+   David, Jacques Louis, 274
+
+   David, Pierre Jean, 274
+
+   "Day" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   "Death," by Bernini, 226;
+     by Pigalle, 230
+
+   "Death of the Virgin" (Strasburg), 120
+
+   Delphi, bronzes from, 84
+
+   Demetrius Poliorcetes, 71
+
+   Demidoff, Countess, Bosio's statue of, 274
+
+   Denman, Ann, 251
+
+   "Deposition from the Cross," by Pisano, 127;
+     by Omodeo, 158
+
+   "Descent from the Cross" (Begarelli), 194
+
+   "Destruction of the Gauls in Mysia," 78
+
+   Devonshire, Duke of, 276
+
+   Diadochi, 73
+
+   Diana;
+     temple of, at Ephesus, 57;
+     _a la Biche_, 95 (and _see_ Artemis)
+
+   Dibutades, 20
+
+   Dijon, 125
+
+   Diomed, by Myron, 31
+
+   Diptychs, 109
+
+   "Discobolus" of Myron, 30
+
+   Donatello, 140
+
+   Donato di Betto Bardi, 140
+
+   Dortmund, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   "Doryphorus," by Polycleitus, 54
+
+   Dubois, Cardinal, Coustou's statue of, 230
+
+   Duquesnoy, Francois, 226, 231
+
+   Duerer, Albrecht; 166;
+     Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   "Dying Gaul," 79
+
+   "Dying Warriors" (Schlueter), 232
+
+
+   Egremont, Earl of, 251
+
+   Egyptians;
+     ancient sculpture of, 1;
+     influence of, on Etruscan art, 82
+
+   "Eldest Daughter," Niobe group, 64
+
+   Elector Frederic III., Schlueter's statue of, 234
+
+   Eleventh century, metal work in, 111
+
+   Elgin, Lord, 37
+
+   Elgin marbles, 35, 40
+
+   Emo, Admiral, monument of, 242
+
+   Emperor of Austria, Canova's bust of, 243
+
+   England; sculpture introduced into, in fourteenth century, 125;
+     in sixteenth century, 179
+
+   "Entombment of Christ" (Roldan), 220
+
+   Erinnyes, 25
+
+   Ernst, Vischer's monument of, 171
+
+   Eros, 55;
+     of Centocelle, 60 (and _see_ Cupid)
+
+   Escorial, church of, 221
+
+   Esquiline, Discobolos found on, 31
+
+   Estofado, 220
+
+   Etampes, Mme. d', 189
+
+   Etruscans originated Italian sculpture, 82
+
+   Eurydice, by Canova, 238
+
+   Eurythmy, 49
+
+   Eustathius of Rome, 108
+
+   Eve, by Cano, 220
+
+   "Evening" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   "Expulsion of Heliodorus" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Eyck, van, 178
+
+
+   Fabbriche Nuova, 186
+
+   Faliero, Giovanni, 236
+
+   Farnese Palace;
+     and Michael Angelo, 209;
+     della Porta's statues in, 212
+
+   "Farnesian Bull," 76
+
+   "Farnesian Hercules," 88
+
+   Farsetti, Commendatore and Canova, 237
+
+   Fenelon, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Ferdinand and Isabella, monument of, 180
+
+   Ferrara, Quercia's works in, 137;
+     Lombardo's works in, 192
+
+   Ferrari, Giuseppe, and Canova, 237
+
+   Ferrucci, Andrea, 152
+
+   Fiammingo, Il, 213
+
+   "Fidelity" (Coysevox), 229
+
+   Fiesole, Mino da, 152
+
+   Fifteenth century, 136
+
+   Finlay, Gibson's statue of, 276
+
+   Fionia, Island of, 257
+
+   Fiorino, 187
+
+   "Fischkasten" (Syrlin), 163
+
+   Flaccus, Fulvius, and statues from Volsinii, 82
+
+   Flaminius, 84
+
+   Flaxman, John, 250
+
+   Flora, Julia as, 104
+
+   Florence;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 132;
+     and Pietro di Giovanni, 135;
+     Ghiberti's works in, 140
+
+   Florence, Baptistery of, 133
+
+   Florence, cathedral of, high altar in, 212
+
+   Forum Trajani, 98
+
+   Fountain;
+     by Labenwolf, 176;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Bernini, 226;
+     of the Manneken-Pis, 227;
+     Moliere, 274
+
+   Fourteenth century, 122
+
+   Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello, 130
+
+   France in fourteenth century, 124
+
+   Francis I., 148, 176;
+     and Rustici, 183;
+     and Cellini, 189;
+     monument of, by Pilon, 216
+
+   Franke, Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Frankfort, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   Frari, church of, 154
+
+   Frauenkirche, Nuremberg; 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167
+
+   Frederic II., 127
+
+   Frederick the Great, Schadow's statue of, 269
+
+   Freiburg, cathedral of, 121
+
+   French monuments, Museum of, 230
+
+   Friedrich August, Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Friedrichs monument, 271
+
+   Frue Kirche, 268
+
+   Fulvius Nobilior, 84
+
+   Furstenburg, Cardinal, and Coysevox, 229
+
+   "Fury of Athamas" (Flaxman), 251
+
+
+   "Gallic theory" concerning Apollo, Diana, and Minerva, 96
+
+   "Gallic Warrior" in Venice, 78
+
+   Gambarelli, The, 151
+
+   Ganymede, by Leochares, 65;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Gattamelata, statue of, 145
+
+   Genii, by Thorwaldsen, 268
+
+   Genoa, 153
+
+   Genre;
+     Apoxyomenos as example of, 70;
+     sculpture, 81
+
+   Germany, Emperor of, 270
+
+   Ghibelline Street, 211
+
+   Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 133, 138
+
+   Ghirlandajo, Domenico, and Michael Angelo, 195
+
+   Gibson, John, 275
+
+   Giovanni, Luca di, 137
+
+   Giovanni, Pietro di, 135
+
+   Girardon, Francois, 228
+
+   Glycon, 88
+
+   Glyptothek, Munich;
+     groups from AEgina in, 25;
+     Barberini Faun in, 73;
+     Thorwaldsen's Adonis in, 258;
+     Schwanthaler's decoration of, 271
+
+   "Gobbo, Il." _See_ Solari
+
+   Goethe, Tieck's statue of, 270
+
+   Golden House of Nero, 84;
+     "Venus Callipiga" in, 87
+
+   Gorgasus, 83
+
+   Gothic style, 114, 115;
+     in German art, 120;
+     hindrances of, 160
+
+   Gottfried of Strasburg, 115
+
+   Gottskalken, Thorvald, 253
+
+   Goujon, Jean, 216
+
+   Graces, The, by Pilon, 216;
+     by Canova, 241;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Granacci, Francesco, 194
+
+   Granada, cathedral of, Virgin by Cano in, 220
+
+   Great Elector, Schlueter's statue of, 233.
+
+   Greece;
+     ancient sculpture of, 18;
+     religion of, 19;
+     influence of, on Etruscan art, 82;
+     portrait sculpture in, 100
+
+   Gregory XVI., Pope, 100
+
+   Grimani, Senator, 239
+
+   Grimm;
+     concerning Donatello's St. George, 143;
+     concerning Michael Angelo's David, 200
+
+   Groeulund, Karen, 253
+
+   Grumbach, statue of (Krafft), 168
+
+   Guardian Angel, church of, 180
+
+   "Guardian Angel" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Guido Reni, 64
+
+   Guillain, Simon, 227
+
+   Guillaume de Sens, 121
+
+   Guinifort and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Gutenberg memorial, Strasburg, 275
+
+   Hadrian, Emperor;
+     and archaistic period, 27;
+     and Glycon, 88
+
+   Halle;
+     wood-carvings in, 167;
+     statue of Franke in, 271
+
+   Hamilton, Gavin, 60
+
+   Harald Hildetand, 252
+
+   Harcourt, Comte d', Pigalle's statue of, 230
+
+   "Harpy Monument," 24
+
+   Hartmann of Aue, 115
+
+   Hayder, Simon, 163
+
+   Hebe, by Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Heinrich II., Krafft's statue of, 168
+
+   Helios, 69
+
+   Henry II., monument of, 216
+
+   Henry III. of England, 121
+
+   Henry VII., monument of, 179
+
+   Hephaestus (Vulcan) by Alcamenes, 49
+
+   Hera;
+     statue of, by Polycleitus, 53;
+     temple of, at Argos, 53 (and _see_ Juno)
+
+   Heracles (Hercules);
+     and Triton, 23;
+     and Cecrops, 23 (and _see_ Hercules)
+
+   Hercules;
+     by Scopas, 59;
+     by Lysippus, 69;
+     caricature of, 80;
+     the Farnesian, 88;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Michael Angelo, 196;
+     and Nessus, by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+       by Pigalle, 230;
+     and Lichas, by Canova, 247 (and _see_ Heracles)
+
+   Hermes, by Thorwaldsen, 258
+
+   Hernandez, Gregorio, 218, 220
+
+   Hesperides, apples of, 89
+
+   Hieracosphinx, 6
+
+   Hildesheim, bronze gate at, 112
+
+   History shown by Assyrian bas-reliefs, 16
+
+   Honor and Valor, temple of, 83
+
+   Hope, Thomas, 251, 256
+
+   "Hope," Thorwaldsen's statue of, 260
+
+   Hosmer, Harriet, 278
+
+   Hoeyer, 253
+
+   Humboldt, Baron von, 257, 258
+
+   Huskisson, Gibson's statue of, 276
+
+   "Hylas and Nymphs" (Gibson), 277
+
+
+   Iliad, selection from, 94
+
+   Intarsiatore, 152
+
+   Iphigenia, relief of, 90
+
+   Isabella of Aragon, statue of, 119
+
+   Ischia, Marquis of, 244
+
+   Isocephalism, 44
+
+   Italian classic sculpture, time of, 105
+
+   Italy in fourteenth century, 126
+
+   Ivory carving;
+     in Byzantium, 108;
+     in Germany, 110;
+     in fourteenth century, 123
+
+
+   "Jacob and Esau," 139
+
+   Jacopo della Fonte, 137
+
+   Jaen, cathedral of, 220
+
+   Janina, 92
+
+   Jason, by Thorwaldsen, 255
+
+   Johannis Cemetery, 167, 168
+
+   "John the Baptist," by Andrea Pisano, 134;
+     by Berruguete, 218
+
+   Jordan, Esteban, 218
+
+   Joseph;
+     history of, by Ghiberti, 139;
+     and Potiphar's wife, 193
+
+   Joseph of Arimathea, by Canova, 243
+
+   "Joshua before Jericho," 139
+
+   Julia as Flora, 104
+
+   Julia and Canova, 246
+
+   Julius II., Pope;
+     and the Laocoon, 74;
+     and Sansovino, 184;
+     and Michael Angelo, 202;
+     mausoleum of, 206
+
+   "Junction of the Seine and Marne" (Coustou), 230
+
+   Juni, Juan de, 218, 220
+
+   Juno, 86 (and _see_ Hera)
+
+   Jupiter;
+     Otricoli, 36;
+     temple of, at Olympia, 51;
+     "Tonans" on Trajan's Pillar, 99;
+     as St. Peter, 107 (and _see_ Zeus)
+
+   Juste, Jean, 177
+
+   "Justice," by Krafft, 170;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by della Porta, 212
+
+   Justinian, monument of, 108
+
+
+   Kalide, Theodore, 272
+
+   King of Prussia and Schadow, 269
+
+   Koenigsbau, 271
+
+   Koenigsberg, statue in, 234
+
+   Kora, 20
+
+   Krafft, Adam, 167
+
+   "Kreugas and Damoxenes" (Canova), 247
+
+   Kriosphinx, 6
+
+   Kunigunde, by Krafft, 168
+
+   Kuenz, Nicolaus, 170
+
+
+   Labenwolf, Pankraz, 175
+
+   Lamberger, Simon, 171
+
+   "Lamentation" (Krafft), 170
+
+   Lamp of Minerva, by Callimachus, 53
+
+   Laocoon, 74;
+     by Sansovino, 185
+
+   "Last Judgment," of Rheims cathedral, 117
+
+   Lateran;
+     Myron's Marsyas in, 31;
+     antique statue of Nemesis in, 51;
+     statue of Sophocles in, 100;
+     statue of St. Hippolitus in, 106;
+     Sarcophagi in, 107;
+     Bernini's "Pieta" in, 226
+
+   Leah, by Michael Angelo, 206
+
+   Le Mans, cathedral of, 114
+
+   Lenox Gallery, New York, 277
+
+   Leo I., Pope, 107
+
+   Leo X., Pope, 148, 184;
+     and Michael Angelo, 204
+
+   Leo XII. and Thorwaldsen, 263
+
+   Leochares, 65
+
+   Leopardo, Alessandro, 149, 155
+
+   Lessing, Tieck's statue of, 270;
+     Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Leuchtenberg, Duke of, monument to, 263
+
+   Liebfrauenkirche, 178
+
+   "Lion of Lucerne" (Thorwaldsen), 261
+
+   Liverpool Cemetery, chapel, 277
+
+   Livia, wife of Augustus, 102, 104
+
+   Loggia de' Lanzi, Florence, groups in, 213
+
+   Loggietta of the Campanile, Venice, 186
+
+   Lombardi, The, 154
+
+   Lombardo, Alfonso, 192
+
+   "Lord's Supper" (Thorwaldsen), 262
+
+   Loreto, 184
+
+   Louis of Bavaria and Thorwaldsen, 258, 262, 263
+
+   Louis XII., monument of, 177
+
+   Louis XIII., Anguier's statue of, 228
+
+   Louis XIV.;
+     Guillain's statue of, 227;
+     and Girardon, 228;
+     Coysevox's statue of, 229;
+     Coustou's statue of, 230
+
+   Louis XVIII.;
+     and Venus of Milo, 87;
+     Bosio's statue of, 274
+
+   Louise, Queen, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Louvre, Paris;
+     Egyptian collection in, 1;
+     archaic reliefs in, 23;
+     "Venus of Milo" in, 87;
+     statue of Artemis in, 95;
+     Museum of Modern Sculpture in, 177;
+     monument by Juste in, 178;
+     Cellini's nymph in, 190;
+     Pilon's "Graces" in, 216;
+     bas-reliefs by Goujon in, 216;
+     Sarrazin's works in, 227;
+     Guillain's Louis XIV. in, 227;
+     Girardon's works in, 228;
+     Puget's works in, 229
+
+   "Love in Repose" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Luebke, Wilhelm;
+     concerning Apollo Belvedere, 94;
+     concerning fourteenth century, 221;
+     concerning Schlueter, 233
+
+   Lucca, 128, 137
+
+   Lucian, concerning Calamis, 32
+
+   Ludovico Moro and Omodeo, 159
+
+   Luther, bust of (Thorwaldsen), 268;
+     Schadow's monument to, 269;
+     Rietschel's statue of, 271
+
+   Lysippus, 68;
+     school of, 72;
+     Hercules by, 88;
+     power of, 89
+
+   Lytton, Lord, concerning Gibson, 277
+
+
+   Madonna, statue of (Freiburg), 121;
+     repetition of, 122;
+     by Arnolfo di Cambio, 133;
+     by Stoss, 165;
+     by Michael Angelo, 196, 200
+
+   Madonna del Soccorso, chapel of, 216
+
+   Magnani, Anna Maria, 256
+
+   Maidbrunn, Krafft's work in, 170
+
+   "Maiden and Bird" (Dannecker), 248
+
+   Majano, Benedetto da, 152
+
+   Manuel, Nicolaus, 170
+
+   Marburg, wood-carvings in, 167
+
+   Marcellus, 83
+
+   Marcus Aurelius;
+     arch of, in Rome, 98;
+     statue of, 209
+
+   Maria Louisa, Canova's statue of, 243
+
+   Marienkirche, Count Sparr's monument in, 231
+
+   Mark, Count von der, 269
+
+   Mars;
+     and the Romans, by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 258;
+     and Cupid, by Gibson, 276, 277
+
+   Marsyas, by Myron, 31
+
+   Martisen, Egyptian sculptor, 1
+
+   Mary of Aragon, 152
+
+   Marys, The, by Canova, 243
+
+   Massegne, The, 135
+
+   Massimi Villa, 30
+
+   Matthias Corvinus, 152
+
+   Mausoleum, 57
+
+   Mausolus, 56
+
+   Maximianus, cathedra of, 108
+
+   Maximilian I., Rauch's statue of, 271
+
+   Mazarin, Cardinal, tomb of, 229
+
+   Medemet Haboo, sculpture in, 4
+
+   Medes, 17
+
+   Medici, Catherine de', 216
+
+   Medici, Cosmo de', 144;
+     and Cellini, 190
+
+   Medici, Giuliano de', 204
+
+   Medici, Lorenzo de', 195, 204
+
+   Medici, Piero de', 144;
+     and Michael Angelo, 196
+
+   Melos, 50
+
+   Mendelsohn and Thorwaldsen, 267
+
+   Menides of Antiocheia, 87
+
+   Mercury, by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Pigalle, 230;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 260
+
+   Merovingians, statues of, 119
+
+   Metal work;
+     Assyrian, 14;
+     in tenth century, 110;
+     in eleventh century, 111
+
+   Michael Angelo;
+     attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74;
+     concerning Ghiberti's gates, 139;
+     and Cellini, 187, 191, 194
+
+   Milan, 156;
+     cathedral of, and Omodeo, 158
+
+   Milo (Melos), 87
+
+   Milo, by Puget, 229;
+     by Dannecker, 248
+
+   Minerva;
+     temple of, in AEgina, 25;
+     of the Capitol, 95;
+     temple of, in the Forum, 98 (and _see_ Athena and Pallas)
+
+   Mocenigo, Doge Pietro, 155
+
+   Modena, Antonio da, 193
+
+   "Moderation" (Vischer), 174
+
+   Montanes, Juan Martinez, 218
+
+   Monte Oliveto, 152
+
+   Montmorenci, Duke de, tomb of, 228
+
+   Montorsoli attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Monumental sculpture of thirteenth century, 119
+
+   Moore, Sir John, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Moritz, statue of (Pigalle), 230
+
+   Morley, Mrs., monument of, 251
+
+   "Morning" (Michael Angelo), 206
+
+   Moses;
+     on Mount Sinai, 139;
+     by Michael Angelo, 206, 207;
+     Aaron, and Hur (Rauch), 271
+
+   "Moses Fountain," 125
+
+   Mount Cithaeron and "Farnese Bull," 76
+
+   Mummius and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Munich, group by Cephisodotus in, 55
+
+   Murillo, 221
+
+   "Music" (della Robbia), 146
+
+   Mycenae, Lion Gate of, 20
+
+   Myron of Eleutherae, 30;
+     followers of, 51
+
+
+   Naples;
+     Laocoon group in, 76;
+     historical statues in, 78
+
+   Naples, Museum of;
+     "Venus Callipiga" in, 87;
+     and "Farnese Bull", 76;
+     "Farnesian Hercules" in, 88
+
+   Napoleon and Canova, 242, 243
+
+   National Gallery, London, 277
+
+   "Nativity," by Rossellino, 152;
+     by Anguier, 228
+
+   Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51
+
+   Neptune;
+     by Sansovino, 186;
+     by Cellini, 190;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214
+
+   Nero, and the Thespian Cupid, 61;
+     and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Niccolo of Arezzo, 135
+
+   Nicodemus;
+     by Krafft, 170;
+     by Bandinelli, 212;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   "Night," by Michael Angelo, 206, 208
+
+   "Nile of the Vatican," 73
+
+   Nimes, Pradier's fountain at, 274
+
+   Nimrud, bas-reliefs at, 13
+
+   Niobe;
+     of Mount Sipylus, 20;
+     group, 61;
+     myth of, 62
+
+   Noah, 139
+
+   Noceto, 153
+
+   Notre Dame, church of;
+     statue of Louis XIV. in, 229;
+     Coustou's sculptures in, 230;
+     d'Harcourt's monument in, 230
+
+   Nuremberg;
+     sculptures of, 123;
+     and Veit Stoss, 164;
+     and Wohlgemuth, 166;
+     statue of Duerer in, 271
+
+   "Nymph," by Dannecker, 248;
+     by Bosio, 273
+
+   Nysoe and Thorwaldsen, 265
+
+
+   Obelisks, 4
+
+   Octavia, portico of, and Venus de' Medici, 85
+
+   OEdipus, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Oehlenschlager, 265
+
+   Oluf Paa, 252
+
+   Olympiad, 41
+
+   Olympic games, 41
+
+   Omodeo. _See_ Amadeo
+
+   Or San Michele, church of, 134, 143, 149
+
+   Orcagna, Andrea, 134
+
+   "Orpheus and Eurydice" (Canova), 238
+
+   Orvieto, 133
+
+   Osborne, 277
+
+   Othman IV., Caliph, and Colossus of Rhodes, 72
+
+   Our Lady, church of, Nuremberg, 123
+
+
+   Padua, 137, 156
+
+   "Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture," relief of, by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Palais de Justice (Bruges), 178
+
+   Palazzo Grassi, 193
+
+   Palazzo Pubblico, fountain in front of, 214
+
+   Palazzo Torlonia (Rome), 277
+
+   Palazzo Vecchio, 149, 214
+
+   Pallajuolo, 184
+
+   Pallas, by Sansovino, 186 (and _see_ Athena and Minerva)
+
+   Panathenaic Procession, 41
+
+   Pandareus, King, 25
+
+   Panhellenic games, 29
+
+   Pantheon, influence of, upon sculpture, 29
+
+   Pantheon, Paris, 275
+
+   Paris;
+     historic statue in, 78;
+     cathedrals of, 114
+
+   Paros, 56
+
+   Parthenon, frieze of; 35; 40;
+     groups of seven on, 42;
+     central group in, 43;
+     historical value of, 45;
+     inequality of work in, 45
+
+   Paul III. and Michael Angelo, 206;
+     monument of, 212
+
+   Paul V. and Bernini, 223
+
+   Pavia, Omodeo in, 158
+
+   "Peace," by della Porta, 212;
+     by Coysevox, 229;
+     by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Peel, Sir Robert, Gibson's statue of, 277
+
+   Peleus, 86
+
+   Peloponnesus, school of, 53, 68
+
+   Peloponnesian war, effect of, on sculpture, 54
+
+   "Pensieri," by Canova, 246
+
+   Peplos, 41
+
+   Pepoli, bust of, 193
+
+   Pergamon, school of, 78;
+     and the Dying Gaul, 79
+
+   Periclean age, 29
+
+   Pericles;
+     patron of Phidias, 32;
+     portrait statue of, 52;
+     qualities of, 54
+
+   Perkins, Mr.;
+     concerning Nicola Pisano, 130;
+     concerning Amadeo, 157
+
+   Perry, Walter Copeland;
+     concerning Athena, 39;
+     concerning "Venus of Milo," 88
+
+   Perseus;
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by Cellini, 190;
+     and Andromeda, by Puget, 229;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   Perseus of Macedon, 84
+
+   Persians, 17
+
+   Perugia;
+     fountain of, 129;
+     Giovanni Pisano's works in, 132
+
+   Peter the Great and Schlueter, 234
+
+   Phalereus, Demetrius, statues to, 73
+
+   Phidias;
+     forerunners of, 29;
+     and Pericles, 32;
+     and Praxiteles, 56;
+     and Lysippus, 70;
+     statue of Athena by, 84;
+     superiority of, 89;
+     and thirteenth century, 118
+
+   Philip, Elector, and Vischer, 171
+
+   Philip the Bold;
+     statue of, 119;
+     and Sluter, 125
+
+   "Phrixos and Helle," 186
+
+   Phryne and Praxiteles, 60
+
+   Piazza della Signoria, 214
+
+   Piazza Navona, fountain in, 226
+
+   Piazza of San Lorenzo (Florence), 212
+
+   Piccolomini tomb, Siena, 200
+
+   "Pieta;"
+     by Michael Angelo, 200;
+     by Bernini, 226
+
+   Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 230
+
+   Pilon, Germain, 216
+
+   Pisa;
+     Baptistery of, 128;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 131;
+     Nino Pisano's works in, 134;
+     cathedral of, 214
+
+   Pisani, Senator, 239
+
+   Pisano, Andrea, 133, 134
+
+   Pisano, Giovanni, 131
+
+   Pisano, Nicola, 127, 133
+
+   Pisano, Nino, 134
+
+   Pistoja, 132, 148
+
+   Pitt, Flaxman's statue of, 251
+
+   Pius VII., monument of, 263
+
+   Pliny;
+     concerning the first bas-relief, 20;
+     concerning Cresilas, 52;
+     concerning the Niobe group, 61;
+     concerning the Laocoon, 74;
+     and Boethus, 80
+
+   Plutarch, concerning the Pericleian age, 35
+
+   Plutus, 58
+
+   Point, 283
+
+   Pointer, 283
+
+   Poliorcetes, Demetrius, 72
+
+   Poliziano, 196
+
+   Pollio, Asinius, 76
+
+   Polychromy, 284
+
+   Polycleitus, 53;
+     canon of, 54;
+     and Peloponnesian school, 68
+
+   Polydorus and the Laocoon, 74
+
+   Pompadour, Mme., 230
+
+   Pompeii, 28
+
+   Poncher monument, 178
+
+   Porta, Guglielmo della, 212
+
+   Porta Prima, 102
+
+   Portogallo, Cardinal, 152
+
+   Portrait sculpture;
+     archaic, 22;
+     in Greece and Rome, 100
+
+   Possagno and Canova, 244
+
+   Pradier, James, 274
+
+   Prague, 123
+
+   Prato, cathedral of, 132
+
+   Praxiteles, 85
+
+   Preller, Ludwig, and Apollo Belvedere, 93
+
+   "Priam begging Hector's body" (Thorwaldsen), 254
+
+   Proconsolo, 151
+
+   Prometheus, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Provencal Poets, 114
+
+   "Prudence;"
+     by Vischer, 174;
+     by della Porta, 212;
+     by Coysevox, 229
+
+   Psyche;
+     by Canova, 242;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 258;
+     by Pradier, 274;
+     and Zephyrs, by Gibson, 277
+
+   Ptolemy, Alexander's general, 73
+
+   Puget, Pierre, 229
+
+   Pythagoras of Rhegium, 30
+
+
+   Quellinus, Arthur, 231
+
+   Quercia, Jacopo della, 137
+
+   Quintilian, concerning Timanthes, 91
+
+   Quirinal Palace;
+     Thorwaldsen's frieze in, 259;
+     Thorwaldsen's works in, 268
+
+   "Quoit-thrower" of Myron, 30
+
+
+   "Rachel," by Michael Angelo, 206
+
+   Racine, illustrated by Chaudet, 248
+
+   Raimondi, 193
+
+   Rameses II., colossus of, 8
+
+   "Rape of Proserpine," by Bernini, 224;
+     by Girardon, 228
+
+   "Rape of the Sabines" (Giovanni da Bologna), 213
+
+   Rauch, Christian, 270
+
+   Ravenna, ivory carving in, 108
+
+   "Religion," by Coysevox, 229;
+     by Canova, 244
+
+   Renaissance, 136
+
+   Rene, King, statue of, 275
+
+   "Resurrection of  the Dead" (Rheims), 117
+
+   Rezzonico, Prince, and Canova, 243
+
+   Rhamnus and Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51
+
+   Rheims, cathedral of, 116
+
+   Rhodes;
+     colossus of, 71;
+     undisturbed by death of Alexander, 73;
+     and the Farnese Bull, 76;
+     school of, 78
+
+   "Rhone," by Coustou, 230
+
+   Richelieu, monument of, 228
+
+   Riemenschneider, Tilman, 168
+
+   Rietschel, Ernst, 271
+
+   Rilievo, 281
+
+   Rimini, 156
+
+   Riviere, Marquis of, 87
+
+   Rizzo, or Riccio, Antonio, 154
+
+   Robbia, Luca della, 146
+
+   Robbia ware, 148
+
+   Rodari, The, 159
+
+   Roldan, Louisa, 220
+
+   Roldan, Pedro, 220
+
+   Romanesque period, 113
+
+   Rome, lack of artists in, 83;
+     portrait sculpture of, 101;
+     decline of art in, 104
+
+   Roesch, Jacob, 164
+
+   Roscoe, William, 276
+
+   Rossellini, The, 151
+
+   Rossellino, Antonio, 151
+
+   Rossi, Properzia de', 192
+
+   Roux, Roulland de, 177
+
+   Rovere, monument of, 184
+
+   Royal Academy, London, 277
+
+   Rubens, 221
+
+   Ruhmeshalle, 271
+
+   Rustici, Giovanni Francesco, 183
+
+
+   "Sacrifice of Isaac," 139
+
+   Sacristy of St. Mark's, 186
+
+   St. Andrew, by Duquesnoy, 227
+
+   St. Angelo, bridge of, 225
+
+   St. Bibiana, by Bernini, 225
+
+   St. Denis, cathedral of, 114;
+     reliefs of, 119;
+     and Sluter, 125;
+     monument in, 178
+
+   St. Dominick, sarcophagus of, 128
+
+   St. George, by Donatello, 143
+
+   St. George's Hall (Liverpool), 277
+
+   St. Germain l'Auxerrois, 178
+
+   St. Hippolytus, statue of, 106
+
+   St. Jacques, church of, 178
+
+   St. John;
+     by Bernardo Rossellino, 151;
+     by Canova, 243
+
+   St. John the Baptist;
+     chapel of, 153;
+     by Rustici, 183;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 262
+
+   St. Laurence, church of, Nuremberg, 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167
+
+   St. Longinus, by Bernini, 225
+
+   St. Mark's, library of, 186
+
+   St. Michael, by Luisa Roldan, 221
+
+   St. Nicolas, church of, 229
+
+   St. Peter;
+     statue of, on Trajan's Pillar, 98;
+     statue of, in St. Peter's, 106;
+     and the Paralytic, Thorwaldsen, 254
+
+   St. Peter's;
+     Cathedral (Rome), 106;
+     Pieta in, 200;
+     monument of Paul III. in, 212;
+     Bernini's sculptures in, 225;
+     Duquesnoy's St. Andrew in, 227;
+     monument of Pius VII., 263;
+     Thorwaldsen's works in, 268
+
+   St. Sebald, church of (Nuremberg), 123;
+     Krafft's works in, 167;
+     shrine of (Vischer), 171
+
+   St. Sebastian, by Civitali, 153
+
+   St. Susanna, by Duquesnoy, 227
+
+   St. Thomas, church of (Strasburg), 230
+
+   St. Zenobius, sarcophagus of, 140
+
+   Ste. Chapelle, church of, 116
+
+   SS. Giovanni e Paolo, church of, 149, 155
+
+   Salt-cellar, by Cellini, 189
+
+   San Antonio, church of (Padua), relief in, 155
+
+   San Benedetto, church of (Mantua), 194
+
+   San Benito el Real, church of, 217
+
+   San Domenico, church of (Orvieto), 133
+
+   San Domenico, sarcophagus of, 198
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Ancona), 156
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Modena), 194
+
+   San Francesco, church of (Rimini), 156
+
+   San Francesco della Vigna, 186
+
+   San Giovanni Crisostomo, relief in, 155
+
+   San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, 186
+
+   San Lorenzo, church of, 204
+
+   San Martino, cathedral of (Lucca), 127
+
+   San Miniato, church of, 152
+
+   San Petronio, church of (Bologna), 193, 198
+
+   San Piero Maggiore, church of (Florence), 210
+
+   San Pietro in Vincoli, church of, 206
+
+   Santa Croce, church of, and Donatello, 140;
+     and Brunelleschi, 142;
+     monument of Bruni in, 151;
+     pulpit in, 152;
+     Michael Angelo buried in, 210
+
+   Santa Maria de' Frari, church of (Florence), Canova's tomb in, 245
+
+   Santa Maria del Fiore, church of, 206
+
+   Santa Maria del Popolo, 184
+
+   Santa Maria della Spina, church of, 131
+
+   Santa Maria di Loreto, church of, 227
+
+   Santa Maria Novella, church of, 142, 152
+
+   Sangallo, Francesco, 187
+
+   Sansovino (San Savino), Andrea, 183
+
+   Sansovino, Jacopo, 185
+
+   "Saone," by Coustou, 230
+
+   Sappho, by Pradier, 274
+
+   Sardanapalus I., statue of, 12
+
+   Sarrazin, Jacques, 227
+
+   Satyr, by Praxiteles, 60
+
+   Saviour, by Canova, 242
+
+   Scale-stones, 283
+
+   Schadow, John Gottfried, 269
+
+   Schadow, John Rudolph, 269
+
+   Scharnhorst, Rauch's statue of, 270
+
+   Schelling, Tieck's statue of, 270
+
+   Schinkel, 269, 270
+
+   Schliemann, Dr., and the metope of Ilium, 73
+
+   Schlueter, Andreas, 231
+
+   Schubart, Baron von, 256
+
+   Schwabach and Wohlgemuth, 166
+
+   Schwanthaler, Ludwig, 271
+
+   Scopas, 56;
+     and Leochares, 65
+
+   Scorgola, la, abbey of, 129
+
+   Scuola della Misericordia, 186
+
+   Sebenico, Giorgio da, 156
+
+   Seguier, Pierre, bust of, 227;
+     and Girardon, 228
+
+   Selene on Trajan's Pillar, 99
+
+   Selinus, reliefs from, 23, 24
+
+   Senate Chamber, Chaudet's Cincinnatus in, 248
+
+   Septimius Severus, arch of (Rome), 98
+
+   Serra family, 57
+
+   Settignano, Desiderio da, 152
+
+   "Seven Sorrows of the Virgin," 165
+
+   "Seven Stages" (Krafft), 167
+
+   Seventeenth century, 221
+
+   Seville, altars of, 179
+
+   Sforza, Battista, bust of, 151
+
+   Sforza, Cardinal, monument of, 184
+
+   Sicyon, 68;
+     school of, 72
+
+   Siena, cathedral of, 128;
+     and Giovanni Pisano, 132;
+     and Quercia, 138;
+     and Ghiberti, 140
+
+   "Sirens" (Giovanni da Bologna), 214
+
+   Sistine Chapel and Michael Angelo, 203
+
+   Sixteenth century, 181
+
+   Sixtus V., Pope, 98
+
+   "Sleeping Shepherd" (Gibson), 277
+
+   Sluter, Claux, 125;
+     influence of, 161
+
+   Socrates, 55, 278
+
+   Solari, Cristoforo, 158
+
+   "Solomon and Queen of Sheba," 139, 193
+
+   Sophocles, statue of, 100
+
+   Sorbonne, church of the, 228
+
+   Sosius, 61
+
+   South Kensington Museum, 148
+
+   Sparr, Count, monument of, 231
+
+   Sphinx, 6
+
+   "Spinario," 81
+
+   "Spinner" (Schadow), 269
+
+   Squarcione, Francesco, 137
+
+   Stael, Mme. de, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Stampe, Baron von, and Thorwaldsen, 265
+
+   Statuettes, Assyrian, 12
+
+   Steinbach, Sabina von, 120
+
+   "Steinhaeuser, Apollo," 91
+
+   Stephani and "Apollo Belvedere," 92
+
+   Stephenson, Gibson's statue of, 277
+
+   Stettin, 269
+
+   Stoss, Veit, 164
+
+   Strada Babbuino, 242
+
+   Strasburg, cathedral of, 120;
+     Gutenberg memorial in, 275
+
+   "Strength" (Vischer), 174
+
+   "Stroganoff Apollo," 92
+
+   Strozzi, Filippo, monument of, 152
+
+   Strozzi Palace, 152
+
+   Stuart and Revett, 236
+
+   Stuttgart, 123
+
+   Sulla and Grecian spoils, 84
+
+   Swabian School, 162
+
+   Syrlin, Joerg, 162
+
+
+   Talma, David's statue of, 275
+
+   Tatti, Jacopo, 185
+
+   Tauriscus, of the Toro Farnese, 76
+
+   Tavera, Juan de, 218
+
+   Tedesco, Pietro, 135
+
+   "Temperance" (Giovanni Pisano), 131
+
+   Temple Church, 121
+
+   Tenth century, metal work in, 110
+
+   Terra-cotta, 281
+
+   Terra-cottas in Milan, 157
+
+   Theatre Francais, Talma's statue in, 275
+
+   Theodosius, column and obelisk of, 108
+
+   Theseion, 33
+
+   Theseus;
+     temple of, by Phidias, 33;
+     torso of, 37;
+     and the Minotaur, Canova, 240
+
+   Thetis, 86
+
+   Thiele, concerning Thorwaldsen, 268, 269
+
+   Thirteenth century, 114
+
+   Thorwaldsen, Bertel;
+     and reliefs from AEgina, 26;
+     and classic art, 236;
+     life and works, 252
+
+   Thorwaldsen Museum, 267, 268
+
+   Tiberius and the Apoxyomenos, 70
+
+   Tieck, Christian Frederic, 270
+
+   Timanthes, 90
+
+   Titus;
+     and the Laocoon, 74;
+     arch of (Rome), 98
+
+   Toledo;
+     altars of, 179;
+     cathedral of, 217
+
+   Toretto, 237
+
+   "Toro Farnese," 76
+
+   Torrigiano, Pietro;
+     in England, 179;
+     and Cellini, 188
+
+   Tours, cathedral of, 177
+
+   Trajan;
+     arch of, 98, 105;
+     pillar of, 98
+
+   Tralles, 76
+
+   Trastevere, Apoxyomenos found in, 70
+
+   Tribolo, Il, (Braccini), 187
+
+   Trojan war in AEginetan reliefs, 26
+
+   Tuileries;
+     Chaudet's "Peace" in, 248;
+     statue of Prometheus in, 274
+
+   Tuscany, 136
+
+   Twelfth century, 112
+
+   Uffizi;
+     Niobe group in, 61;
+     "Venus de' Medici" in, 85;
+     Donatello's works in, 142;
+     della Robbia's works in, 146, 147;
+     Rossellino's works in, 151, 152;
+     Sansovino's Bacchus in, 185;
+     carved cherry-stone in, 193;
+     model of Michael Angelo's David in, 200;
+     statue of Michael Angelo in, 211
+
+   Uhden, M. d', 256
+
+   Ulm, wood-carvings in, 162
+
+   Urban VIII., monument of, 226
+
+   Usurtasen, Egyptian sculptor, 2
+
+
+   Val de Grace, church of, 228
+
+   Valladolid, 218
+
+   Varchi, 211
+
+   Vasari and Michael Angelo, 210
+
+   Vatican;
+     Eros of Centocelle in, 60;
+     Apoxyomenos in, 70;
+     copy of the Laocoon in, 74;
+     historic statue in, 78;
+     Etruscan table-ware in, 83;
+     Chigi Venus in, 87;
+     Apollo Belvedere in, 91;
+     "Young Augustus" in, 103;
+     statue of Augustus in, 103;
+     sarcophagi in, 107;
+     statue of Perseus in, 243
+
+   Vendome Column, 273
+
+   Venice;
+     historic statues in, 78;
+     Sansovino in, 186;
+     Canova's heart in, 245
+
+   Venus;
+     by Alcamenes, 49;
+     by Scopas, 58;
+     of Cnidos, 60;
+     and the Romans, 84;
+     de' Medici, 85;
+     Cnidian, 85;
+     of the Capitol, 87;
+     of Milo (Melos), 87;
+     of Chigi, 87;
+     Callipiga, 87;
+     by Giovanni da Bologna, 214;
+     by Thorwaldsen, 257 (and _see_ Aphrodite)
+
+   Verocchio, Andrea del, 148, 155
+
+   Verona, 156
+
+   Versailles, Puget's works in, 229
+
+   Victoria;
+     Gibson's statue of, 277;
+     portraits of, by Gibson, 277
+
+   "Victories," by Rauch, 271
+
+   Victors, statues of, 29
+
+   Villa Borghese;
+     and arch of Claudius, 98;
+     Bernini's "Apollo and Daphne" in, 224
+
+   Villa Ludovisi, Bernini's "Rape of Proserpine" in, 224
+
+   Vinci, Leonardo da, 183
+
+   Virgin;
+     by Cano, 220;
+     by Coysevox, 229
+
+   "Virtue and Vice" (Giovanni), 214
+
+   Vischer, Hermann, 171
+
+   Vischer, Peter, 171
+
+   Vischers, The, 171
+
+   Visconti Monument, 177
+
+   Volsinii, 82
+
+   Volto Santo, temple of, 153
+
+   Vulcan. _See_ Hephaestus
+
+
+   Walhalla, 271;
+     "Victories" by Rauch in, 271
+
+   Walther von der Vogelweid, 115
+
+   Washington, Canova's statue of, 245
+
+   Wedgwood and Flaxman, 250
+
+   Wells Cathedral, 122
+
+   Westmacott;
+     concerning Bernini, 224;
+     concerning Flaxman, 252;
+     concerning mechanical methods, 280
+
+   Westminster Abbey, 121, 277
+
+   Wichmann, Ludwig, 272
+
+   Wilkens, 267
+
+   Wilson, Heath, 211
+
+   Winckelmann, 235
+
+   "Wise Virgins," by Krafft, 170
+
+   Wittenberg, monument in, 175;
+     Luther's statue in, 269
+
+   Wohlgemuth, Michael, 166
+
+   Wolff, 270
+
+   Wolfram of Strasburg, 115
+
+   Wood-carving in fifteenth century, 162
+
+   Wounded Lion, Assyrian, 15
+
+   Wuerzburg, 123, 168
+
+
+   Zecca, 186
+
+   Zeppelin, Count, monument of, 248
+
+   Zeus;
+     Phidias's statue of, 33;
+     by Leochares, 65 (and _see_ Jupiter)
+
+   Zoega and Thorwaldsen, 256, 258
+
+   Zuliani, Cavaliere, and Canova, 239, 240
+
+   Zwickau and Wohlgemuth, 166
+
+   Zwingerhof, 271
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students, by Clara Erskine Clement
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART ***
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