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diff --git a/25632.txt b/25632.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b2dc821 --- /dev/null +++ b/25632.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10561 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by +Clara Erskine Clement + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students + Painting, Sculpture, Architecture + +Author: Clara Erskine Clement + +Release Date: May 29, 2008 [EBook #25632] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE VENUS OF MILO. (_See page 87._)] + + + + +A + +HISTORY OF ART + +FOR + +BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS + +PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE + +WITH + +_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_ + +BY + +CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT + +AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS, +SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE +NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC. + +NEW YORK + +FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI + +COPYRIGHT, 1887, + +BY FREDERICK A. STOKES, + +SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + PAGE + + ANCIENT SCULPTURE: + + EGYPT, 1 + + ASSYRIA, 10 + + + CHAPTER II. + + GREEK SCULPTURE, 18 + + + CHAPTER III. + + ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE, 82 + + + CHAPTER IV. + + MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH + CENTURY, 105 + + + CHAPTER V. + + ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 136 + + + CHAPTER VI. + + SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN, + FROM 1450 TO 1550, 160 + + + CHAPTER VII. + + ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI, + MICHAEL ANGELO, AND OTHERS, 181 + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA, 213 + + + CHAPTER IX. + + CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS, 235 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + PAGE + + Venus of Milo, _Frontispiece_ + + Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo, 3 + + Various Kinds of Dogs, 5 + + Androsphinx, 6 + + Kriosphinx, 6 + + The Great Sphinx, 7 + + Hieracosphinx, 8 + + The Colossi at Thebes, 9 + + Polishing a Colossal Statue, 10 + + Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a + lithographic Drawing), 11 + + Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud), 12 + + Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud), 13 + + Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel, 15 + + Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad), 16 + + Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik), 17 + + Lion Devouring Deer, 22 + + Heracles, Triton, and Nereids, 23 + + Heracles and the Cecrops, 23 + + Actaeon and his Dogs, 24 + + From the Harpy Monument, London, 25 + + Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at AEgina, 27 + + Archaistic Artemis at Naples, 28 + + The Discobolus (Myron), 30 + + Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos, 34 + + Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus, 36 + + Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli, 37 + + Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?), 38 + + From the Frieze of the Parthenon, 43 + + The Five Central Figures, 44 + + Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade, 45 + + Horsemen Starting, 46 + + Procession of Cavalry, 46 + + Procession of Chariots, 47 + + Train of Musicians and Youths, 47 + + Cows for Sacrifice, 48 + + Train of Noble Maidens, 48 + + Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum), 50 + + A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas), 52 + + Statue of Pericles (Cresilas), 52 + + Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus), 56 + + Portrait of Mausolus, 57 + + From the Frieze of the Mausoleum, 58 + + The Eros of Centocelle, 60 + + Niobe and her Youngest Daughter, 62 + + Brother and Sister, 63 + + The Eldest Daughter, 64 + + A Niobid, 65 + + Ganymede (after Leochares), 66 + + Monument of Lysicrates (Athens), 67 + + Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument), 68 + + The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, 69 + + The Laocoon Group, 75 + + The Farnese Bull, 77 + + Gallic Warrior (Venice), 78 + + The Dying Gaul, 79 + + Boy and Goose, 80 + + Spinario, 81 + + Venus de' Medici, 86 + + The Farnesian Hercules, 89 + + The Apollo Belvedere, 90 + + Head of Apollo Belvedere, 91 + + The Steinhaeuser Head, 91 + + The Stroganoff Apollo, 92 + + _Diane a la Biche_, 95 + + Athena of the Capitol, 96 + + Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus, 97 + + From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column, 99 + + Portrait of Sophocles, 101 + + Statue of Augustus, 102 + + Agrippina the Elder, 103 + + Statue of St. Peter, 106 + + From the Cathedra of Maximianus, 109 + + Diptych (Zurich), 110 + + From the Facade of Chartres Cathedral, 113 + + From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral, 118 + + From the West Facade of Strasburg Cathedral, 120 + + Duke Robert of Normandy, 121 + + Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene), 124 + + Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca), 128 + + Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano), 129 + + Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano), 132 + + Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna), 138 + + From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10), 141 + + The Annunciation (Donatello), 143 + + Statue of St. George (Donatello), 144 + + Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia), 147 + + Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio), 149 + + Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio), 150 + + Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan), 156 + + Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar), 169 + + Justice, 170 + + The Three Wise Virgins, 170 + + Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg), 172 + + Peter Vischer's Statue, 173 + + St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer), 174 + + Peter (Vischer), 175 + + John (Vischer), 175 + + Man and Geese (Labenwolf), 176 + + Pharisee, Levite (Rustici), 183 + + Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino), 185 + + Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini), 191 + + Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna), 197 + + Pieta (Michael Angelo), 199 + + Michael Angelo's David, 201 + + Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo), 205 + + Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo), 207 + + Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna), 215 + + Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid), 217 + + Rape of Proserpine (Bernini), 225 + + Caryatide (Quellinus), 231 + + Heads of Dying Warriors (Schlueter), 232 + + The Great Elector (Schlueter), 233 + + The Three Graces (Canova), 241 + + Hebe (Canova), 246 + + Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker), 249 + + Jason (Thorwaldsen), 256 + + Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen), 260 + + The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen), 261 + + Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch), 270 + + Nymph (by Bosio), 273 + + + + +SCULPTURE. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +ANCIENT SCULPTURE. + +EGYPT. + + +No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first +practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time +ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates +from 2466 B.C., sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as +could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training +and practice in this art. + +In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the +memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that +reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which +Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke +to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he +lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer +on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand +art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He +relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every +position, according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward, +as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly +understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor +washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that +'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and +the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen +able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in +masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to +ivory and ebony.'" + +There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named +Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its +highest point. + +The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in +the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and +they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though +more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The +subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried +in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus +represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the +stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of +arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it +should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their +minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the +contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure, +and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the +fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the +whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as +if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one +sense really have no relation to each other. + +The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different +parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors, +and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to +think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position +of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed +close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the +legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery, +and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great +advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture. + +One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact +that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures +moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed: +they were _statues_, and no one can forget this for a moment while +looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if +in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting +statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees +or held across the breast (Fig. 1). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STATUE OF CEPHREN IN THE MUSEUM AT CAIRO.] + +There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had +more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife +sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their +arms around one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal +figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller +and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few +attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as +if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of +positions after which all sculptured figures were made. + +In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is +remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by +prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture +and painting. + +The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were +covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars +and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The +sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or +even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor +it required to make them are simply marvellous. + +I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the +palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt +and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct +the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the +back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on +foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer +counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll; +each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the +returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one +thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above, +where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war +was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or +green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses +give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of Assyria +and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he +places near the Caspian." ... + +The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The +king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car, +conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and +before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend +as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a +corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in +regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany +their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra +and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the +victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled +beneath his feet." + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--VARIOUS KINDS OF DOGS.] + +This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will +give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors. + +The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful +as any part of them. There being no intellectual expression required, +they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging +features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and +the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the +sculptures--No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7, +greyhounds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANDROSPHINX.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--KRIOSPHINX.] + +One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the +Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the +great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head. +It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is _the_ Sphinx of the +world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in +Egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered +by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express +some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are +very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and +mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the +great Sphinx is called the _androsphinx_ (Fig. 3). Another has the body +of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the _kriosphinx_ +(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this +is called the _hieracosphinx_ (Fig. 6). They all typified the king, +without doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given +to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the +heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in +place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but +it is rare. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE GREAT SPHINX.] + +The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their +vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west +bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from +a single block of stone such as is not found within several days' +journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high, +and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is +still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was +of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It +was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and +thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast +weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also +how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given +(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one +(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These +representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly +just what we wish to know about these things. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HIERACOSPHINX.] + +I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture, +and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that +in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of +Egyptian architecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the +decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while +at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the +nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true--though the +reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are, +as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The +obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand +buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we +may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was +essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for +that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt +that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the +natural result of its earliest attainments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE COLOSSI AT THEBES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8--POLISHING A COLOSSAL STATUE.] + + +ASSYRIA. + +The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs, +statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller +works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger +works in sculpture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MODE OF TRANSPORTING A COLOSSUS FROM THE +QUARRIES. _From a Lithographic Drawing._ + +In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh. + +1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private +individual, not of a king, or a deity. + +2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of +a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to +throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala. + +4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase. + +5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs. + +6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue. + +10. Men carrying water, or grease. + +11. Some implements. + +12. Taskmasters. + +13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.] + +The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our +idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian +works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the +weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which +they were originally finished. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STATUE OF SARDANAPALUS I. +_From Nimrud._] + +The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one +given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of +preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about +forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic +than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking, +and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always +of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They +also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way +than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are +also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and +ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most +unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their +greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can +be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the +Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It +was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression +to their religious feeling; they told the history of their nation, and +glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now +make the subjects of _genre_ pictures; and even imitated vegetables and +fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these +pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs +that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures +are even more important than when they are considered merely from an +artistic view. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LION-HUNT. _From Nimrud._] + +The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of +bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century B.C. One +striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and +animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of +position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt +given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you +will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the +human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In +these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these +are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are +all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of +this art was reached about 650 B.C. At this period the various forms +seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The +human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an +air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far +better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more +beautiful than before. + +The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period. +I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion, +probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in +Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his +agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The +drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares +favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art, +either classic or modern (Fig. 12). + +There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of +color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color +remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we +know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs +belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what +extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the +Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the +ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria +are white, black, red and blue. + +Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most +important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole +figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low +bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but +finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal +forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of +them have a ring fastened to the back, which indicates that they were +used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but +we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal +castings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--WOUNDED LION BITING A CHARIOT-WHEEL. _From the +North Palace, Koyunjik._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARM-CHAIR OR THRONE. +_Khorsabad._] + +The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and +perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small +nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the +contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls +and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of +sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other +ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables, +chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals. +All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to +have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are +coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea +of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various +designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great +many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and +interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn +by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were +carried on, and what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were. +Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits, +food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is +plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole +history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one +source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig. +13). + +Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their +arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians; +but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians, +though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing +as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have +considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of +Greece. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--MODE OF DRAWING THE BOW. _Koyunjik._] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GREEK SCULPTURE. + + +We have seen that the Egyptians and Assyrians were skilful in sculpture, +but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be +moved by art; there is always something beyond them to be desired, and +it remained for the Greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture +which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of +beauty and grace. In truth, in Greece alone has this perfection in +plastic art existed, and since the time of its highest excellence there +no other nation has equalled the examples of Greek sculpture which still +exist, though we have reason to believe that its finest works have +perished, and that those remaining are of the second grade. + +There are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the Greeks, +and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an +essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book; but I will +speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect +Greek art--that is, the unbounded love of beauty, which was an essential +part of the Greek nature. To the Greek, in fact, beauty and good had the +same meaning--_beauty was good_, and the good must be beautiful. + +Sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man, and the other +features in it have some relation to the human element of the design; +and it would have been impossible for a true Greek to represent the +human form otherwise than beautiful. A writer on this point says: "The +chief aim of the enlightened Greek, his highest ambition and his +greatest joy, was to be a _man_ in the fullest sense of the word--man in +the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty, in the +active exercise of the keenest senses, in the greatest because tempered +enjoyment of sensual pleasure, in the free and joyous play of an +intellect strong by nature, graced and guided by the most exquisite +taste, and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy." Thus, beauty was so +important to the Greek that every parent prayed that his children might +have this gift, and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon +pillars set where all could read them; and at times there were +competitions for the prize of beauty. + +The religion of the Greek, too, taught that the body was the beautiful +and godlike temple of his soul; and the truth that human beings have +something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great +respect for humanity, and, in truth, he felt that if he could escape +death he should be content and almost, if not quite, a god. For we must +remember that the gods of the Greek were not all-wise, all-powerful, and +all-good, as we believe our God to be. If you read their mythology you +will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness +were mingled. They did not believe that Zeus had been the greatest god +from the beginning, but that there was a time when he had no power. He +was not omniscient nor omnipresent, and was himself subject to the +decrees of Fate, as when he could not save his loved Sarpedon from +death. Not knowing all things, even the gods are sometimes represented +as depending upon mortals for information, and all these religious views +tended to make the human form far more noble to the Greek than it can be +to the Christian, with his different views of the relations of God and +man. + +Greek sculpture existed in very early days, and we have vague accounts +of a person called DAEDALUS, who seems to have been a wood-carver. Many +cities claimed to have been his birthplace, and no one can give any +clear account of this ancient artist. He is called the inventor of the +axe, saw, gimlet, plummet-line, and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass. He +is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from +the bodies of his statues, or made the feet to step out; he also opened +their eyes, and there is a legend that the statues of Daedalus were so +full of life that they were chained lest they should run away. + +We call the time to which Daedalus belonged the prehistoric period, and +his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished. Two +very ancient specimens of sculpture remain--the Lion Gate of Mycenae and +the Niobe of Mount Sipylus; but as their origin is not known, and they +may not be the work of Greek artists, it is best for us to pass on to +about 700 B.C., when the records of individual artists begin. + +Among the earliest of these was DIBUTADES, of whom Pliny said that he +was the first who made likenesses in clay. This author also adds that +Dibutades first mixed red earth with clay, and made the masks which were +fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples. +Pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in +bas-relief. + +Dibutades lived in Sicyon, and had a daughter called sometimes Kora, and +again Callirhoe. She could not aid her father very much in his work as a +sculptor, but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home +flowers, which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little +shop. Kora was very beautiful, and many young Greeks visited her father +for the sake of seeing the daughter. At length one of these youths asked +Dibutades to take him as an apprentice; and when this request was +granted the young man made one of the family of the sculptor. Their +life was one of simple content. The young man could play upon the reed, +and his education fitted him to be the instructor of Kora. After a time, +for some reason that Pliny does not mention, it was best for the youth +to go away from the artist's home, and he then asked Kora if she would +be his wife. She consented, and vows of betrothal were exchanged, while +they were sad at the thought of parting. + +The last evening of his stay, as they sat together, Kora seized a coal +from the brazier, and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that +was so dear to her; and she did this so correctly that when her father +saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn. Then he +wished to do his part, for he also loved the young man. So he brought +his clay and filled in the outline which Kora had drawn, and so went on +to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made. Thus did +this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of Sicyon, +about twenty-five hundred years ago. + +After this beginning Dibutades went on to perfect his art. He made +medallions and busts, and decorated the beautiful Grecian structures +with his work, and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful +ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of Greece. He also +founded a school for modelling at Sicyon, and became so famous an artist +that several Greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace. + +The bas-relief made from Kora's outline was preserved in the Nymphaeum at +Corinth for almost two hundred years, but was then destroyed by fire. +She married her lover, and he became a famous artist at Corinth. + +We have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about 700 +B.C.; but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in +detail that I shall pass on about two hundred years, after saying a few +words of the advance made in the arts of sculpture, and mentioning a +few of the examples which remain from that early time, which is called +the Archaic period. This expression not only means an ancient period of +art, but carries also the idea of an obsolete art--of something that is +not only ancient, but something that is no longer practised in the same +manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time. +During this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of +plastic art. There were statues in metal and marble, bas-reliefs in +various kinds of stone and marble, as well as some chryselephantine +statues. This kind of work is often said to have been invented by +Phidias, but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor, but +carried it to great perfection. These chryselephantine statues were made +of wood and then covered with ivory and gold; the ivory was used for the +flesh parts of the statue, and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the +figure, and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--LION DEVOURING DEER.] + +The principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic +period were connected with the religion of the Greeks, which is known to +us as mythology. Most statues were of the gods, but portrait statues +were not unknown, and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in +the Greek games dates back to this very early time. This was a custom +which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in, and must have had +a great influence to give life and progress to their art. + +Of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written, +but I shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be +given to aid you in understanding about them. Among the earliest reliefs +that have been preserved are those now in the Museum of the Louvre, at +Paris, which were found in the ruins of a Doric temple at Assos (Fig. +15). + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HERACLES, TRITON, AND NEREIDS.] + +The various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with +each other, and are executed in a rude manner. The most interesting one +represents Heracles, or Hercules, struggling with a Triton (Fig. 16). + +The female figures represent Nereids, who are terrified by seeing +Heracles in contest with the sea-monster. There are many proofs that +these reliefs belong to a very ancient day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--HERACLES AND THE CECROPS.] + +An interesting relief from the temple of Selinus represents Heracles +striding off with a pole across his shoulders, to which are hung two +Cecrops who had robbed and tormented him (Fig. 17). + +A very fine work is also from Selinus, and represents Actaeon torn by his +dogs. The mythological story was that Zeus, or Jupiter, was angry with +Actaeon because he wished to marry Semele, and the great god commanded +Artemis, or Diana, to throw a stag's skin over Actaeon, so that his own +dogs would tear him. In the relief Artemis stands at the left (Fig. 18). + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ACTAEON AND HIS DOGS.] + +There is in the British Museum a monument which was discovered at +Xanthos in 1838. It is thought to have been made about 500 B.C., and is +called "The Harpy Monument," It is a tower, round the four sides of +which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the +ground. The frieze is of white marble, and is let into the frieze which +is of sandstone. The Lycians, in whose country it was found, were +accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers. + +There is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics +concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures; and as +all their writing is speculation, and no one knows the truth about it, I +shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of +art, and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of +the frieze, from which the whole work takes its name. The Harpies are +very curious; they had wings, and arms like human arms, with claws for +hands, and feathered tails. Their bodies are egg-shaped, which is a very +strange feature in their formation. We cannot explain all these +different things, but there is little doubt that, with the little forms +which they have in their arms, they represent the messengers of death +bearing away the souls of the deceased. In the Odyssey, Homer represents +the Harpies as carrying off the daughters of King Pandareus and giving +them to the cruel Erinnyes for servants. For this reason the Harpies +were considered as robbers, and whenever a person suddenly disappeared +it was said that they had been carried off by Harpies (Fig. 19). + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_From the Harpy Monument, London._] + +Before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth +century B.C., I will speak of the two groups which belonged to the +temple of Minerva in AEgina, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The +city of AEgina was the principal city of the island of AEgina, which was +in the gulf of the same name, near the south-west coast of Greece. This +city was at the height of its prosperity about 475 B.C., at which time a +beautiful temple was built, of which many columns are still standing, +though much of it has fallen down. In 1811 some English and German +architects visited this place, and the marbles they obtained are the +most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period. +Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, restored these reliefs, and the King +of Bavaria bought them. + +Upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an +episode in the Trojan war; it was the struggle of Ajax, Ulysses, and +other Greek warriors to obtain the dead body of Achilles, which was held +by the Trojans. The story is that the goddess Thetis had dipped her son +Achilles in the river Styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable, +or safe from wounds by weapons. But as she held him by the ankles they +were not wetted, and so he could be wounded in them. During the siege of +Troy Apollo guided the arrow of Paris to this spot, and the great leader +of the Greeks was killed. It is believed that the warrior in this +picture who is about to send his arrow is Paris. In the central or +highest part of the pediment the goddess Minerva stands and tries to +cover the fallen body of Achilles with her shield. These figures are on +the side where the space grows narrower. You can judge of what the +action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have +so much. We are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as +must carry death to its victim, and the second warrior, who braces +himself on his feet and knee, will thrust his lance with equal power +(Fig. 20). + +There are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these AEginetan +statues; the weapons, helmets, shields, and quivers were red or blue; +the eyes, hair, and lips were painted, and there are marks upon the +garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze +ornaments. There was a famous sculptor of AEgina named Callon, who lived +about the time that this temple was built; and though it is not known to +be so, yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the +sculptor of these works, because they resemble the written descriptions +of his statues and reliefs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of +Minerva, at AEgina._] + +There was a period which we call archaistic, and by this we indicate a +time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as +possible the works of the true archaic period. It has constantly +happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same +thing, though the objects of imitation have varied with the different +ages and nations. This archaistic "craze" to imitate old sculptures was +at its height in the times of the Roman emperors Augustus and Hadrian; +but here in America we have seen the same passion manifested in the +desire to have such furniture as Queen Anne and her people admired, or +such as "came over in the Mayflower;" and when the true original +articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way +places, then manufacturers began to imitate the old in the new, and one +can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just +from the workmen's hands. + +But among the Greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works +of the earlier artists, which was the fact that the images of the gods +and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their +earliest forms, and were venerated by the people. Thus it followed that +the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the +artists was more suited to other subjects, while the religious images +were made as nearly as possible like the older ones. If it happened that +a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and +more beautiful statue of the same deity, the pious Greek would prefer +the ugly one, while he could well admire the most lovely. You should +remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship. + +Many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ARCHAISTIC ARTEMIS AT NAPLES.] + +This is a very beautiful temple image, and was discovered at Pompeii in +1760. It was found in a small temple or chapel, of which it must have +been the principal deity. It is in excellent preservation; the only +parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object +which it held. Like many of these statues, it is less than +life-size--four feet and two inches in height. When it was first +discovered there were many traces of color about it. The hair was gilded +to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to Artemis +(Diana). There was considerable red about the garments, and some flowers +were upon the border of the drapery. There is an archaic stiffness +about this statue, but the flowing hair, the form of the eyes, and the +free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic +period (Fig. 21). + +It would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the +progress of Greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the +Periclean age, or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of AEgina to +the perfections of the reliefs of the Parthenon. This we cannot do; but +we know some of the causes that led to this progress, and can give +accounts of a few sculptors who, while they did not equal the great +Phidias, were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his. + +The chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the +artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects. So long as the +subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in +the manner of treating them. Each god or goddess had its own attributes, +which must be rendered with exact care; and any new mode of portraying +them was almost a sacrilege. But as time passed on and the Panhellenic +games and the national Pantheon at Olympia grew into their great +importance, new subjects were furnished for the artists, which allowed +them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic +imaginations to their fullest extent. The victors in the games were +heroes, and regarded even as demi-gods, and statues were allowed to be +erected to them, although this had hitherto been considered a divine +honor and was accorded to the gods alone. When these heroes were +represented, the artists, not being bound by any laws, could study their +subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to +do. This exaltation of the Olympian victors gave an opportunity for the +development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its +influence and results. + +Another characteristic of the art of the time we are now considering +was the almost universal use of bronze. This metal is excellent for +displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues, but it is +not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving +expression to the face. PYTHAGORAS OF RHEGIUM was a famous artist who +worked entirely in bronze. The only copies from his works of which we +know are on two gems, one of which is in the Berlin Museum. He made +exact studies of the body in action, and gave new importance to the +reproduction of the veins and muscles. It is also claimed that +Pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or +proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules. + +MYRON OF ELEUTHERAE flourished about 500 to 440 B.C., and was reckoned +among Athenian artists because, though not born at Athens, he did most +of his works there, and his most famous work, the statue of a cow, stood +on the Acropolis of that city. This cow was represented as in the act of +lowing, and was elevated upon a marble base. It was carried from Athens +to Rome, where it stood in the Forum of Peace. Many writers mentioned +this work of Myron's, and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning +it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE DISCOBOLUS.] + +Though the cow was so much talked of, the artistic fame of Myron rests +more upon the "Discobolus," or quoit-thrower. The original statue does +not exist, but there are several copies of it. That in the Massimi Villa +is a very accurate one, and was found on the Esquiline Hill at Rome in +A.D. 1782; our illustration is made from this statue. Myron's great +skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown +in the quoit-thrower. To make such a figure as this requires great power +in a sculptor. No model could constantly repeat this action, and if he +could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the +position he reproduces. This figure, however, is so true to life that +one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies (Fig. +22). There are several other existing works attributed to Myron: they +are a marble copy of his statue of Marsyas, in the Lateran at Rome; two +torsi in the gallery at Florence; a figure called Diomed, and a bronze +in the gallery at Munich. + +Myron made statues of gods and heroes, but he excelled in representing +athletes. His works were very numerous, and a list of those which are +only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of +little value here. While Myron reproduced the form and action of the +body with marvellous effect, he made no advance in representing the +expression of the face, nor in the treatment of the hair. He was daring +in his art, for he not only imitated what he saw in life, but he also +represented grotesque imaginary creatures, and in many ways proved that +he had a rich creative fancy. + +A third sculptor of this time was CALAMIS, who was in his prime about +B.C. 450. He was not born in Athens, but he worked there. Calamis added +to the exact representations of Pythagoras and Myron the element of +grace beyond their powers in that direction. He made a greater variety +of figures than they, for to gods and heroes he added heroines, boys and +horses. His works were in bronze, gold and ivory, as well as marble. But +what we know of Calamis is gathered from the writings of Greek authors +rather than from works, or copies of works, by him still existing; +indeed, no statue remains known to be his own, though there are some +which critics fancy may be so. But we may be certain of his great +excellence from the many praises sung and said of him, and Lucian, who +knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of Greece, puts +Calamis before them all for elegance and grace, and for the finer +expression of faces; when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl +he declares that he would go to Calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty +and give it a sweet and unaffected smile. + +PHIDIAS is the most famous of all Greek sculptors, and as Greek +sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge, it +follows that Phidias was the first sculptor of the world. And yet, in +spite of his fame, we do not know the time of his birth. We know that he +was the son of Charmidas, but we know nothing of the father except that +he had a brother who was a painter, and this makes it probable that the +family of Phidias were artists. + +As nearly as can be told, Phidias was born about B.C. 500. This would +have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of Marathon and +twenty years old when Salamis was fought, while he came of age at the +time of Plataea. He seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter, +and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the +administration of Cimon, about B.C. 471. But his finest works belong to +the time of Pericles, who was his friend as well as patron, and made him +the master over all the great public works at Athens during what we +speak of as the Periclean age. + +It seems that the favor of Pericles was a dear privilege to Phidias, for +it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred; and those who feared to attack +Pericles himself avenged themselves upon Phidias, and accused him of +dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of Minerva +which he made for the Parthenon. He proved himself innocent of this, +but he was accused of other crimes, and one account says that he was +thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison. Another account +relates that the great sculptor went into exile at Elis, where he made +his most famous statue, the Olympian Zeus, and that he was there +convicted of theft and put to death. With such contradictory stories we +cannot know the exact truth; but we do know that he went to Elis +accompanied by distinguished artists. He was received with honor, and +for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to +strangers. The Olympians also allowed him an honor which the Athenians +never extended to him--that is, to inscribe his name upon the base of +the statue of Zeus, which he was not permitted to do in the case of the +Minerva (or Athena) of the Parthenon. + +It often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which +have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in +so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at +any other time, and that he could not avoid being so, when everything +had been shaped to his advantage. This was true of Phidias. When he came +to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged Greece were over, and +the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the +rebuilding of Athens. Large quantities of "marble, bronze, ivory, gold, +ebony and cypress wood" were there, and a great number of skilful +workmen were at hand to work under his command. The Athenians were +ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods, who, +as they believed, had led them to their victories, and not only the +public, but the private means were used to make Athens the grandest and +most beautiful city of the world. + +The first great work with which the name of Phidias was connected was +the building of the temple of Theseus, called also the Theseion. This +was a very important temple, and was constructed in obedience to the +command of an oracle in this wise: In B.C. 470 the island of Scyros had +been taken by the Athenians, and upon this island Theseus had been +buried. After the battle of Marathon, in which he had aided the +Athenians, Theseus was much regarded by them, and in B.C. 476 they were +directed to remove his bones to Athens and build over them a shrine +worthy of so great a champion. Just then a gigantic skeleton was +discovered at Scyros by Cimon, and was brought to Athens with great +ceremony, and laid to rest with pompous respect, and the splendid temple +dedicated to Theseus was begun, and Phidias was commissioned to make its +plastic ornaments. The precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary +where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ATHENIAN COINS WITH THE MINERVA PROMACHOS.] + +Phidias executed many works under the patronage of Cimon, the greatest +of which was the colossal statue of Minerva, which stood on the +Acropolis. It was called the "Minerva Promachos," and was so gigantic +that "the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen +by the mariner off the promontory of Sunium glittering in the sunlight +as a welcome to her own chosen people, and an awful warning to her +foes." The meaning of Promachos may be given as champion or guardian, +and we know from existing descriptions that, with its pedestal, it must +have been at least seventy feet in height. It was made from the spoils +taken at Marathon; its pedestal was found, in 1840, standing between the +Parthenon and the Erechtheium. It has been called the "Pallas with the +golden spear," for this goddess was known as Athena, Minerva, and +Pallas, and it is said that Alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect +that he shrank from it in horror. The only representations of this +statue now in existence are upon Athenian coins, and the position of the +goddess differs in these, as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 23); +there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests +upon the ground is correct, one of which is that some years after the +death of Phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of +the battle of the Centaurs. + +Though Phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of +Cimon, it was not until the time of Pericles that he reached the +glorious height of his genius. Pericles and Phidias seem to have been +two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic +grandeur of Athens, and, indeed, of all Attica, for within a period of +twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and +completed. Plutarch writes of these wonders in these words: "Hence we +have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by Pericles +should be built in so short a time, and yet built for ages. For as each +of them, as soon as it was finished, had the venerable air of antiquity, +so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building. A +bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by +time, as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and +unfading elegance." + +It is quite impossible that I should speak here of the works of Phidias +in detail, and I have decided to speak only of the frieze of the +Parthenon, because the Elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations +from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great +masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice. But, +first, I will give a picture of a coin which shows the great Olympian +Zeus, or Jupiter, which Phidias made at Elis, after he was an exile from +Athens (Fig. 24). When Phidias was asked how he had found a model for +this Jupiter, he quoted the lines from Homer: + + "He said, and nodded with his shadowy brows, + Waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks, + And all Olympus trembled at the nod." + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--COIN OF ELIS WITH THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS.] + +The writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this +statue, and its praise is unending. It was colossal in size and made of +ivory and gold, and one historian says that though the temple had great +height, yet the Jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his +throne he must have carried the roof away. It is related that when the +work was completed Phidias prayed to Jupiter to give him a sign from +heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god +or not. This prayer was answered, and a flash of lightning came which +struck the pavement in front of the statue. This statue was reckoned +among the seven wonders of the world, and it is believed that the +magnificent bust called the "Jupiter Otricoli" is a copy from the +Olympian statue (Fig. 25). + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--BUST OF JUPITER FOUND AT OTRICOLI.] + +I shall speak in another volume (upon Architecture) of the former glory +and the present ruin of the Parthenon at Athens, and tell how upon its +decoration Phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in +beauty any other structure of which we have knowledge. Early in the +present century Lord Elgin, the English Ambassador to the Porte, +interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to +England. In 1812 eighty chests containing these priceless works of the +greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in Burlington House, and a +few years later Parliament purchased them for L35,000, and they were +placed in the British Museum, where they now are. There is a great +number of them, and all are of great interest; but I shall pass over the +metopes and the pediments, and shall pass to the frieze after speaking +of this one figure of Theseus, which is from the sculptures of the +eastern pediment. The sculptures upon this pediment represented the +story of the birth of Athena, and it was proper that Theseus should be +present, as he was king over Athens, of which city Athena, or Minerva, +was the protecting goddess. Torso is a term used in sculpture to denote +a mutilated figure, and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist +which are so beautiful, even in their ruin, that they are the pride of +the museums where they are, and serve as studies for the artists of all +time. This figure of Theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of +its attitude, for perfection of its anatomical accuracy, and for the +appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one, even +though made of marble. It really seems as if the skin could be moved +upon it, so soft does its surface look to be. It is ranked as the +greatest miracle of sculpture. Though it is called a Theseus, I ought to +state that some critics take exceptions to this name, and believe it to +be Hercules or Bacchus; but by almost general consent it is called a +Theseus (Fig. 26). + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--TORSO OF A STATUE OF THESEUS (?).] + +We may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must +have been magnificent. Of course the chosen goddess of Athens would be +made to appear with great glory. The myth relates that Athena was born +in an instant, by springing forth from the head of Zeus, or Jupiter, +fully armed. It is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a +moment after birth when she appeared in full, colossal majesty, shouting +her war-cry and waving her lance--something as these lines represent the +scene: + + "Wonder strange possessed + The everlasting gods, that shape to see + Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously + Rush from the crest of aegis-bearing Jove. + Fearfully Heaven was shaken, and did move + Beneath the might of the Caerulean-eyed + Earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide, + And lifted from its depths; the sea swelled high + In purple billows." + +It is very important, when considering the sculpture at Athens, to know +something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence +was so great there. I shall give an extract from an English writer on +Greek sculpture, Mr. Walter Copeland Perry: + +"It is a very remarkable fact, and one which gives us a deep insight +into the character of the Athenians, that the central figure in their +religion, the most perfect representative of their feelings, thoughts, +and aspirations, was not Zeus or Hera (Juno), nor the most popular gods +of all times and nations, Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus), but Athena, +the virgin, the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed! She was +enthroned in the very heart of their citadel; and she stood in colossal +grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes, and to give the first +welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and +beautiful home, which reposed in safety under the protection of her +lance and shield." + +The attributes of this goddess, as given in Greek literature and shown +forth in Greek art, are very varied and hard to be understood as +belonging to one person. She is the patroness of war, and in Homer's +Iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise: + + "The cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force + And stood accoutred for the bloody fray. + Her tasselled aegis round her shoulders next + She threw, with terror circled all around, + And on its face were figured deeds of arms + And Strife and Courage high, and panic Rout. + There too a Gorgon's head of monstrous size + Frown'd terrible, portent of angry Jove. + . . . . . . . In her hand + A spear she bore, long, weighty, tough, wherewith + The mighty daughter of a mighty sire + Sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues." + +But this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who +restrains Achilles from rash action; and though she does not shrink from +war and danger, yet the most precious gift to her people was not the +war-horse, but the olive, the emblem of peace, and to her honor was this +sacred tree planted. "She stands in full armor, with brandished lance, +on the highest point of the Acropolis, and yet she is the patroness of +all household and female work, in which she herself excels." + +It is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of +Athena, while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in +her right hand, she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle +and the lamp of knowledge. In the later art of Phidias she is still +stern and severe, but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of +thought and character. Later still, her warlike attributes are made less +prominent: the shield rests on the ground, and the lance is more like a +sceptre, until, in the decline of art, she is represented as lovely and +gentle, and all her grand power is lost, and she is not above a great +number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft, lovely +grace, but have no selfhood, no individuality to command our admiration +or respect. + +We come now to speak of the Elgin marbles from the frieze of the +Parthenon. It was about thirty-five feet above the floor, three feet +three inches broad, and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long. It +represented a continuous procession, and the subject is called the +great Panathenaic Procession. About four hundred feet of this frieze +remains, so that a good judgment can be formed of it. First I must tell +you what this procession means. The festival of the Panathenaea was the +most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at +Athens. It is probable that this festival was held every year about the +middle of August, but _the great Panathenaic_ occurred only in the third +year of each olympiad; an olympiad was a period of four years, extending +from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, which was an event +of great importance in reckoning time with the Greeks; thus we see that +the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every +four years. This festival continued several days, and all were filled +with horse-racing, cock-fighting, gymnastic and musical contests, and a +great variety of games; poets also recited their verses, and +philosophers held arguments in public places.[A] But the most important +day was that on which a procession went up to the Parthenon and carried +the peplos, or garment for the great goddess, which had been woven by +the maidens of Athens. This peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff, on +which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants +appeared in beautiful, rich embroidery. In later years, after the +Athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity, they +sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they +wished to flatter, as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a +very great compliment. + +[Footnote A: In the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes, B.C. 480, that +monarch was surprised to learn that the Olympic games were not suspended +at the approach of his army.] + +The procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the Potters' +Quarter of the city, and passed to the Dromos, then to the market-place, +onward to the temple of Demeter, round the Acropolis along the Pelasgic +wall, through the Propylaea to the temple of Athena Polias. The +procession was as splendid as all the wealth, nobility, youth and beauty +of Athens could make it. Of the vast multitude which joined it some were +in chariots, others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot. +After the most important officers of the government come the envoys of +the Attic colonies with the noble Athenian maidens, the basket-bearers, +the aliens who resided in Athens dressed in red instead of white, and a +chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive. + +The peplos was not borne by hands, but was suspended from the mast of a +ship, upon wheels, which some writers say was moved by machinery placed +underground. When the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed +upon the sacred statue, which was believed to have fallen from heaven. +During the festival of the Panathenaea prisoners were permitted to enjoy +their freedom, men whose services to the public merited recognition +received gifts of gold crowns, and their names were announced by heralds +in public places, and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time. We +do not know the exact order in which all these things happened; but it +is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of +it all, and was celebrated on the final day. + +The plan of the Parthenon frieze which represented this great procession +was as follows: On the eastern side above the main entrance to the +temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the +many gods of the Greek religion. Each of these groups had six gods and +an attendant, so that there were seven figures in each of these groups, +as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 27). + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.] + +There has been much study of these sculptures, and many scholars have +written about them. There is still a difference of opinion as to which +gods are here represented, but I shall give you the most generally +accepted opinion, which calls _a_, Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of +the gods; _b_, Apollo; _c_, Artemis, or Diana; _d_, Ares, or Mars; _e_, +Iris, who is attending upon _f_, Hera, or Juno; _g_, Zeus, or Jupiter; +h__, Athena, Minerva, or Pallas; _i_, Hephaestus, or Vulcan; _j_, +Poseidon, or Neptune; _k_, Dionysus, or Bacchus; _l_, _m_, _n_ are more +doubtful, but are probably Aphrodite, or Venus, Demeter, or Ceres, and +Triptolemus, the boy who was a favorite with Ceres, who invented the +plough and first sowed corn. + +Now, these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular +group containing five figures (Fig. 28). + +There has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are +doing. They seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to +them on either side. The greater number of critics consider that the two +maidens, _e_ and _d_, are of the number who have embroidered the +peplos; the central figure, _c_, a priestess of Athena; _a_, the Archon +Basileus; and _b_, a consecrated servant-boy, who is delivering up the +peplos. Other critics believe, however, that these figures are all +preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin, and that the priest +is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off. Other +theories may arise, and we can only listen to them all, and yet not know +the truth; but the more we study the more we shall admire these +exquisite figures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE FIVE CENTRAL FIGURES.] + +Just here I will call your attention to one feature of these antique +bas-reliefs which is called _Isocephalism_, and means that all the heads +are at an equal height. You will see that all figures, whether standing +or sitting, walking, in chariots, or on horseback, have the heads on the +same level. + +These three groups, the five central figures and the two groups of gods, +are approached on each side by long, continuous processions, and these +processions each start out from the south-west corner of the Parthenon, +so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side, and +the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and +north, and a portion of the east side. I shall give here a series of +pictures which are all explained by their titles, and will give you an +excellent idea of this magnificent frieze, and doubtless many of my +readers have studied or will study and admire it in the British Museum +(Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35). + +[Illustration: FIG. 29--YOUTHS PREPARING TO JOIN THE CAVALCADE.] + +Though all this frieze was the conception of the great Phidias, it must +have been the work of many hands, and close examination shows that some +portions of it are done much better than others. These sculptures have a +double value; for while they are so priceless as treasures of art, they +tell us much of that prosperous, glorious Athens of which we love to +read and hear stories. These figures show us how the people dressed and +moved, and we see in them the "stately" magistrates and venerable seers +of Athens, the sacred envoys of dependent states, the victors in their +chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but +priceless garland, the full-armed warriors, the splendid cavalry, and +the noble youths of 'horse-loving' Athens on their favorite steeds, +in the flush and pride of their young life; and last, not least, the +train of high-born Athenian maidens, marching with bowed heads and quiet +gait, for they are engaged in holy work, with modest mien, and gentle +dignity and grace. All that was sacred, powerful, and grand--all that +was beautiful, graceful, and joyous in Athenian life, is represented +there, in ideal form, of course, but in strict conformity with the +realities of life.... It is by the study of such works as these that we +get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical +antiquity; and they help us better to understand all that we may read in +history or poetry concerning the ancient, classic Greeks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--HORSEMEN STARTING.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PROCESSION OF CAVALRY.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--PROCESSION OF CHARIOTS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--TRAIN OF MUSICIANS AND YOUTHS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--COWS FOR SACRIFICE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--TRAIN OF NOBLE MAIDENS.] + +We must now leave Phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his +contemporaries and pupils. Among the last ALCAMENES was the most +celebrated. He was born in Lemnos, but was a citizen of Athens; so he is +sometimes called an Athenian, and again a Lemnian. His statues were +numerous, and most of them represented the gods. One of Hephaestus, or +Vulcan, was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed +so skilfully that no deformity appeared. + +His most famous statue was a Venus, or Aphrodite, concerning which it is +related that Agoracritus, another celebrated pupil of Phidias, contended +with Alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess. The preference was +given to Alcamenes, and Agoracritus believed this to have been done on +account of his being an Athenian citizen, and not solely for the merit +of the statue. The Venus of Alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess +in a garden beyond the eastern wall of Athens. This statue was very much +praised for its beauty by ancient writers, who all mention with especial +pride the _eurythmy_ of the action of the wrist. This is a term +frequently used in regard to sculpture, and is somewhat difficult to +explain. It means a harmony and proportion of action which corresponds +to rhythm in music. When a statue has the effect it should have it +appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment, and +would be resumed immediately. That is what we mean when we say a statue +has life; and, as in life, the motion of a statue may be awkward or it +may be graceful; it may be harmonious to the eye, just as music is +harmonious to the ear, or it may seem out of tune and time, just as +inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound; so +when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent +motion is in accord with the laws of proportion, and is harmonious and +graceful to the eye. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--HEAD OF ASCLEPIUS. _In the British Museum._] + +While Alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues, he +also approached Phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness, which was the +sweetness of great strength. In truth, he is recognized as the sculptor +who most nearly approached the great Phidias. He represented also for +the first time the god Asclepius, or AEsculapius, who was very important +to the Greeks, who placed great value upon physical health. Alcamenes +represented him as a sort of humanized Zeus or Jupiter. Of the Asclepius +heads found at Melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of +the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of +medicine and health to be (Fig. 36). + +Alcamenes was also the principal assistant of Phidias in his decoration +of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, and is said to have himself +executed the relief upon the western pediment, in which the battle of +the Centaurs and Lapithae was represented with great spirit. + +AGORACRITUS of Paros, who has been mentioned as the rival of Alcamenes, +is called the favorite pupil of Phidias, and it is said that the master +even gave Agoracritus some of his works, and allowed the pupil to +inscribe his name upon them. For this reason the ancient writers were +often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names +of these sculptors. It is said that when the Venus of Alcamenes was +preferred before that of Agoracritus the latter changed his mark, and +made it to represent a Nemesis, or the goddess who sent suffering to +those who were blessed with too many gifts. It is said that this statue +was cut from a block of marble which the Persians brought with them to +Marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set +up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining; in their +flight and adversity it was left, and at last served a Greek sculptor in +making a statue of an avenging goddess. This seems to be a striking +illustration of "poetic justice." + +Agoracritus sold the Nemesis to the people of Rhamnus, who had a temple +dedicated to that goddess, and made a condition that it should never be +set up in Athens. In the museum of the Lateran at Rome there is a small +but very beautiful antique statue of Nemesis, which is thought to be a +copy of this famous work. As Nemesis was the goddess who meted out +fortune according to her idea of right, a measure was her symbol, and +the Greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand. The word +cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist, and +in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very +prominent, and the measure itself is omitted. + +The sculptor Myron also had pupils and followers who executed many +works, and of this school was CRESILAS of Cydonia, in Crete. We are +interested in him because two copies from his works exist, of which I +give pictures here. Pliny, in speaking of the portrait statue of +Pericles, said it was a marvel of the art "which makes illustrious men +still more illustrious." The cut given here is from a bust in the +British Museum. There is reason to believe that Cresilas excelled Myron +in the expression of his faces (Figs. 37, 38). + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A WOUNDED AMAZON. _Cresilas._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--STATUE OF PERICLES. _Cresilas._] + +CALLIMACHUS is an artist of whom we know little, but that little is +interesting. We do not know where he was born, but as he was employed to +make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred +statue of Athena Polias, we may suppose that he was an Athenian. Some +writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without +going out, and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the +temple of Minerva. Callimachus lived between B.C. 550 and 396, and is +credited with having invented the Corinthian capital in this wise: A +young girl of Corinth died, and her nurse, according to custom, placed a +basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life. It +chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant, and +the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when Callimachus +saw it the design for the capital which we know as Corinthian was +suggested to him, and was thus named from the city in which all this had +occurred. + +While the plastic art of Athens, or the Attic school of sculpture, +reached its greatest excellence in Phidias, there was in the +Peloponnesus another school of much importance. Argos was the chief city +of this school, and its best master was POLYCLEITUS of Sicyon, who was +born about B.C. 482. He was thus about twelve years younger than +Phidias. Polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient +writers couple his name with that of Phidias. He was employed in the +decoration of the Heraion, or temple of Hera, at Argos. But his greatest +work was a statue of Hera, or Juno, for a temple on Mount Euboea, +between Argos and Mycenae. This statue was chryselephantine, and as Juno +was the majestic, white-armed, ox-eyed goddess consort of Jupiter, it is +a striking coincidence that Phidias at Olympia and Polycleitus on Mount +Euboea should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this +renowned pair, who reigned over the mythical world of the Greek +religion. There are several copies of heads of Juno in various museums, +and some of them have been ascribed to Polycleitus; but the proof of the +truth of this is far from being satisfactory. This master made other +statues of divinities, but he excelled in representing athletes; and +however fine his other works may have been, it was in the reproduction +of strong, youthful, manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors. +Some of his statues of this sort, especially a Doryphorus, or +spear-bearer, were considered as models from which all other artists +could work. + +Polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact +rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body. This was +called "the canon" of Polycleitus, and there is good reason to believe +that the Doryphorus was called by the same name, "the canon," because it +was fashioned according to the rules laid down by Polycleitus in his +treatise. His pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the Greek +authors of his time, but I need not mention them here. + +The art of Phidias and Polycleitus was the art of Greece at its best +period. After the close of the Persian wars the people of Greece were a +religious and patriotic people. The Persian wars developed the best +quality of character, for these wars were waged against a foreign foe, +and the Greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization, and +at the end of the struggle Pericles, who guided them to their greatest +prosperity, was a statesman and a man of high aims; he was a gentleman +as well as a strong ruler. The Peloponnesian war, on the contrary, was a +civil war, and it divided the Greeks among themselves and roused the +evil passions of friend against friend all over their country. It was +the cause of selfishness, treachery, and immorality, and one of its +worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people: +their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone; every man +thought only of himself, and the nation began to sink into the condition +which at last made it an easy prey to the Macedonians. We have studied +all these wars in our histories, but perhaps we have not thought how +much they affected sculpture and the other arts, and brought them down +from the lofty heights of the Periclean age. + +But there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and +in intellect, and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on +account of the decline they saw about them. Few countries in any age +have had more splendid men than Socrates, Plato, Euripides, +Aristophanes, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Demosthenes, Dion, and Timoleon, +and these all lived between the Peloponnesian and the Macedonian wars. +And while the arts were less grand than before, they did not fall into +decline for some years, though they took on new features. The gods who +had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the +sculptor, and when they were so they were softened and made less awful +in their effect. Other gods were more freely taken for models, such as +came nearer to human life and thought, because less sublime in their +attributes and characters. Among these were Venus as a lovely woman +rather than as the great mother of all living creatures, and Eros, or +Love; while Plutus, or Wealth, and satyrs, nymphs, and tritons were +multiplied in great numbers. + +When the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their +character, it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled +men and women, and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed +to grace, beauty, and mirth. Many people would prefer these works +because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world; but +earnest, thoughtful minds look for something more noble in +art--something that will not come down to us as we are, but will help us +to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things. + +CEPHISODOTUS was a sculptor who lived until about B.C. 385, or a little +later, and stood between the old and the new schools of Greek art. The +cut given here is from a group at Munich, which is believed to be a copy +of a work by him, and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the +art of Phidias (which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge +of its folds) and the later Attic style (which is seen in the dreamy, +gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god). (Fig. 39.) We +know very little of the life of Cephisodotus, and as little is said of +his works by ancient writers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EIRENE AND THE YOUNG PLUTUS. _Cephisodotus._] + +SCOPAS of Paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later Attic +school. The island of Paros, where he was born, was the place where the +finest Greek marble was found; but he worked so much at Athens that he +is spoken of as an Athenian. He was an architect as well as a sculptor, +and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures, which he +also ornamented with his sculptures. I shall speak especially of the +tomb of Mausolus, the King of Caria. Scopas executed the sculptures of +the east side, and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed +there, it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the +work. This mausoleum was reckoned as one of the "seven wonders of the +world," and has given a name to fine tombs the world over. + +The most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in +the British Museum seems to me to be the statue of Mausolus himself. It +is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king, and it is so +designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as +he was when alive, more than twenty-two hundred years ago (Fig. 40). + +A part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the Greeks +and the Amazons, and this illustration from it gives an idea of the +boldness of action and the correctness of the design (Fig. 41). This +picture is from a slab in the possession of the Serra family in Genoa. +On the right a warrior holds down an Amazon whom he has forced to her +knees and is about to kill, while she stretches out her right hand in +supplication. The figures to the left are full of spirit, and absolutely +seem to be in motion. We do not know that any of these figures were +executed by the hand of Scopas, but it is probable that they were, and +they give us an idea of the art of his time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--PORTRAIT OF MAUSOLUS.] + +Scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of Diana at +Ephesus, and did much architectural decoration, as well as to execute +many statues and groups of figures. The ancient writers say very little +of the art of Scopas, but when all that we can learn is brought +together, it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own +ideas, that his genius was creative and his works original. He +represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their +works in quite a new manner, and he was the first to show the goddess +Venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her. His +representations of nymphs of wood and sea, of monsters, and all sorts of +strange, imaginary beings were numberless, and he made his sculptured +figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt, from the +tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41--FROM THE FRIEZE OF THE MAUSOLEUM.] + +His works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown +by some superhuman beings; he never portrayed a hero, with the +exception of Hercules, and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with +realities about him. He worked in marble only, which is far more suited +to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory. + +We are accustomed to call PRAXITELES the greatest sculptor of the second +school of Greek art, just as we give that place to Phidias in the first. +We have no fixed dates concerning Praxiteles. We know that he was the +son of a Cephisodotus, who was a bronze worker, and was thought to be a +son of Alcamenes, thus making Praxiteles a grandson of the latter. +Praxiteles was first instructed by his father. Later he came under the +influence of Scopas, who was much older than he; and by Scopas he was +persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble. +Perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by +Pliny, who says that he was in his prime from B.C. 364-360. + +It is impossible to praise a sculptor more than Praxiteles was praised +by the Greek authors; and, although Athens was the place where he lived +and labored most, yet he was known to all Greece, and even to other +countries, and the number of his works was marvellous. There are +trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups, reliefs, and statues by his +hand, and it is not probable that these are all that he executed. + +Praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most +pleasing to popular taste. Thus it happened that his male figures were +the young Apollo, Eros, and youthful satyrs, while a large proportion of +his statues represented lovely women. Venus was frequently repeated by +him, and there is a story that he made two statues of her, one being +draped and the other nude. The people of Cos bought the first, and the +last was purchased by the Cnidians, who placed it in the midst of an +open temple, where it could be seen from all sides. It became so famous +that many people went to Cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it, and +the "Cnidian Venus" acquired a reputation wherever art was known. When +the oppressor of the Cnidians, King Nicodemus of Bithynia, offered to +release them from a debt of one hundred talents (about $100,000) if they +would give him the Venus, they refused, and declared that it was the +chief glory of their State. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--THE EROS OF CENTOCELLE.] + +Another story relates that Phryne, a friend of Praxiteles, had been told +by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his +workshop. She wished to have the one which the artist himself considered +the best. In order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant +to tell him that his workshop was on fire. He exclaimed, "All is lost if +my Satyr and Cupid are not saved!" Then Phryne told him of her trick, +and chose the Cupid, or Eros, for her gift. Phryne then offered the +statue to the temple of Thespiae, in Boeotia, where it was placed +between a statue of Venus and one of Phryne herself. This Cupid was +almost as celebrated as the Cnidian Venus, and was visited by many +people. The head given here (Fig. 42), which was found in Centocelle by +Gavin Hamilton, and is now in the Vatican, is thought by many to be a +copy of a Cupid by Praxiteles, and even of the Thespian statue; but we +have no proof of this. The Cupid, or Eros, of the art of Scopas and +Praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later +art; he is a youth just coming into manhood, with a dreamy, melancholy +face, the tender beauty of which makes him one of the most attractive +subjects in sculpture. Caligula carried the Thespian Cupid to Rome; +Claudius restored it to its original place, but Nero again bore it to +Rome, where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of Titus. + +I shall say no more of Praxiteles personally, because I wish to describe +to you the largest and grandest group of Greek statues which exists, or, +as I should say, of which we have any copies. We do not know whether +Scopas or Praxiteles made these famous figures, since they are +attributed to both these sculptors; perhaps we can never positively know +to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work. The historian Pliny +tells us that they stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome. +Sosius was the legate of Antony in Syria and Cilicia; he erected this +temple in his own honor, and brought many beautiful works from the East +for its decoration. It is believed that he brought the Niobe group from +Cilicia, and displayed it when celebrating his victory over Judea, B.C. +35. + +In A.D. 1583 a large number of statues representing this subject were +found in Rome, and were purchased by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who +placed them in the Villa Medici. In 1775 they were removed to the Palace +of the Uffizi, in Florence, where an apartment was assigned to them. The +figures were restored, and each one placed on its own pedestal, which +work was not completed until 1794. + +The group must have had originally seventeen figures--Niobe and fourteen +children, a pedagogue and a female nurse. Now there are but +twelve--Niobe, six sons, four daughters, and the pedagogue. At first it +was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment, but it +is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base, with a +background at a little distance. Niobe is the central figure, in any +case, and the children were fleeing toward her from either side; she is +the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to +the beholder (Fig. 43). But we shall better understand our subject if I +recount as concisely as possible the story of Niobe, which, as you know, +is a Grecian myth. Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, and was born on +Mount Sipylus. When a child Niobe played with Lato, or Latona, who +afterward married the great god Jupiter, or Zeus. Niobe became the wife +of Amphion, and had a very happy life; she was the mother of seven sons +and seven daughters, and all this prosperity made her forget that she +was mortal, and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves. +Lato had but two children, the beautiful Apollo and the archer-queen of +heaven, called Diana, or Artemis. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BROTHER AND SISTER.] + +Amphion and Niobe were the King and Queen of Thebes, and when the +worship of Lato was established in that city Niobe was very angry. She +thought of Lato as her playmate and not a goddess, and was so imprudent +as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the Theban women +not to join in this worship. Niobe also asserted that she was superior +to this Lato, who had but two children, while she had fourteen lovely +sons and daughters, any one of which was worthy of honor. All this so +enraged Lato that she begged Apollo, who was the god of the silver bow, +and Diana, her huntress daughter, to take revenge on Niobe. Obedient to +her commands, Apollo and Artemis descended to earth, and in one day slew +all the children of Niobe. Then this proud mother, left alone, could do +nothing but weep, and this she did continually until Jupiter took pity +on her and turned her into stone, and whirled her away from Thebes to +Mount Sipylus, the scene of her happy childhood. In this picture of +Niobe she clasps her youngest child, who has fled to her for +protection. + +I cannot give pictures of all the figures, but one of the most +interesting is this brother and sister. She is wounded, and he endeavors +to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly +arrows which pursue them (Fig. 44). + +This figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful. An arrow has +pierced her neck, and the right hand is bent back to the wound. The face +is noble and simple, and has been a favorite model to Guido Reni and +other Italian masters (Fig. 45). + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE ELDEST DAUGHTER.] + +Fig. 46 shows one of the older sons, who, though wounded and fallen on +one knee, still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance. There +is a world of interest connected with these statues, and they move us +with a variety of emotions. The poor mother, so prosperous a moment +before, and now seeing her children dying around her, slain by the sure +arrows of the unseen gods--how can we pity her enough! and then the +brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the +suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for; the old +pedagogue, to whom the youngest boy has run for protection--and, +indeed, all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for +their beauty, which is still theirs in spite of their woe. + +One of the young sculptors who was employed with Scopas in the work on +the mausoleum was LEOCHARES. We read of several statues of Zeus and +Apollo by this master, but his most celebrated work was the group of +Ganymede borne upward by the eagle of Zeus. There are several copies of +this sculpture, but that given here, from the Vatican figure, is the +best of all, and is very beautiful. We know very few facts concerning +Leochares, and cannot even say whether he was an Athenian or not (Fig. +47). + +There is still standing at Athens, in its original place, the Choragic +monument of Lysicrates; and though we do not know the names of the +architects and sculptors who made it, there are traces upon it which +indicate that it belonged to the school of Scopas (Fig. 48). + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A NIOBID.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GANYMEDE. _After Leochares._] + +This monument was erected B.C. 334, when Lysicrates was _choragus_--that +is, when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays +represented at Athens. This was an expensive office, and one that +demanded much labor and care. He had first to find the choristers, and +then bring them together to be instructed, and provide them with proper +food while they studied. The choragus who gave the best musical +entertainment received a tripod as his reward, and it was the custom to +build a monument upon which to place the tripod, so that it should be a +lasting honor to the choragus and his family. The street in which these +monuments were erected was called "the street of the Tripods." + +It was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity, +and this of Lysicrates was dedicated to Bacchus, and had a frieze with +sculptures telling the story of that god and the Tyrrhenian robbers who +bore him off to their ship. In order to revenge himself he changed the +oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion; music was heard, +and ivy grew all over the vessel; the robbers went mad and leaped into +the sea, and changed into dolphins. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. _Athens._] + +In the frieze, however, it is represented that the god is on shore +quietly amusing himself with the lion (Fig. 49), while satyrs and sileni +punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with +fury, while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into +the sea. The design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one +of the best sculptors; but the execution is careless, and this is not +strange when we remember that it was all done at the expense of one +man, and he a private citizen. + +We will return now to the Peloponnesian school, of which Polycleitus was +the head in its earliest period. After his time the sculptors of his +school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled, and +represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the +artists of Athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and +beauty. The subjects of the Peloponnesian school were especially suited +to the use of bronze, and the chief sculptor of his time, LYSIPPUS, +whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred, worked entirely +in bronze. In order to keep a record of the number of his works, he +adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every +statue, and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above +number of these coins thus laid away. His home was at Sicyon, and his +time of work is given as B.C. 372-316. This seems a long period for +active employment as a sculptor; but the number of his works accords +well with this estimate of his working years. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BACCHUS AND LION. _From the Lysicrates +Monument._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE APOXYOMENOS OF LYSIPPUS.] + +Lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school; he was original, +and this trait made him prominent, for he was not bound by old customs, +but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age, which came +to Greece with the reign of Alexander. This sculptor made a great number +of statues of Hercules; and as Alexander loved to regard himself as a +modern Hercules, Lysippus also represented the monarch in many different +ways, and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of +the hero-god. For example, he made a statue of "Alexander with his +Spear," "Alexander at a Lion Hunt," "Alexander as the Sun-God," and so +on through many changes of expression and attributes, but all being +likenesses of the great king. There is in the Capitol at Rome a head of +Alexander called _Helios_, which is thought by many critics to be the +best bust of him in existence. There are metal rays fastened to the +head; it has a wild, Bacchus-like air, and the hair is thrown back, as +if he had shaken his head furiously; and the defect of a wry neck, which +the monarch had, is cleverly concealed by this motion. Alexander was a +very handsome man, his faults being this twist in his neck and a +peculiar shape of the eye. + +We cannot here give the long list of works by Lysippus, but will speak +of that which interests us most, because we have a beautiful copy of it. +I mean the Apoxyomenos, which is in the Vatican. It represents a youth +scraping himself (as the name denotes) with the strigil after a contest +in the arena (Fig. 50). The Vatican copy was found in the Trastevere at +Rome in 1849, and is well preserved. Without doubt it is a faithful +reproduction of the original, which was probably brought from Greece to +Rome by Agrippa, who set it up in front of his public baths. Here it +became such a favorite with the people that when Tiberius removed it to +his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre, and so violent a +demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not +refuse. This statue may be called an example of a grand _genre_ style. +It represents a scene from common life in Greece, but it is so simply +natural, so graceful and free from restraint, that one could not weary +of it. The expression of the face is that of quiet content--his task has +been faithfully done, and the remembrance of it is pleasant. The hair is +finely executed; this was a point in which Lysippus excelled; but the +great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure. In his occupation +of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly +change his position, and this one, in which he can rest but a moment, +seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make, +while it is full of easy grace in itself. The art of Lysippus was not as +elevated as that of Phidias, who tried to represent the highest ideal +which a mortal may form of a god; but there was nothing mean or vulgar +in the works of the former; on the contrary, it was with a pure and +noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of +youthful, manly beauty, and his naturalism was of a healthy and +dignified sort. + +The most important pupil of Lysippus was CHARES OF LINDOS, who was +prominent not only on account of his own works, but also because he +introduced the art of Sicyon into his native island of Rhodes. This +island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its +broadest part, and yet its art became second only to that of Athens. + +At the city of Rhodes alone there were three thousand statues, besides +many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects. Chares is best +known for the sun-god which he erected here; it was called the "Colossus +of Rhodes," and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world. +One hundred statues of the sun were erected at Rhodes, and Pliny says +that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous; but that +of Chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest. + +It stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, but we have no +reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that +ships sailed between them, as has often been said, although its size was +almost beyond our imagination. The statue was one hundred and five feet +high, and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms, +while each finger was as large as most statues. Twelve years were +occupied in its erection, from B.C. 292 to 280, and it cost three +hundred talents, or about $300,000 of our money, according to its usual +estimate, though there are those who name its cost as more than four +times that amount. The men of Rhodes obtained this great sum by selling +the engines of war which Demetrius Poliorcetes left behind him when he +abandoned the siege of Rhodes in B.C. 303. We have no copy of this +statue, but there are coins of Rhodes which bear a face that is believed +with good reason to be that of the Colossus. + +Fifty-six years after its completion, in B.C. 224, the Colossus was +overthrown by an earthquake, and an oracle forbade the restoration of it +by the Rhodians. In A.D. 672, nearly a thousand years after its fall, +its fragments were sold to a Jew of Emesa by the command of the Caliph +Othman IV. It is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds, +and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away. When we +consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in +bronze, and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy +the standard of art at Rhodes, we are not surprised that it should have +been reckoned among the seven wonders, and that Chares should have +become a famous master. + +Chares also founded a school of art which became very important, and, +indeed, it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the +Peloponnesus; for after the time of Lysippus the sculpture of Argos and +Sicyon came to an end, and we may add that with Lysippus and his school +the growth of art in Greece ceased; it had reached the highest point to +which it ever attained, and all its later works were of its decline, and +foreshadowed its death. + +The reign of Alexander the Great was so brilliant that it is difficult +to realize that it was a time of decline to the Greeks; and during the +life of Alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness; but at +the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among +his generals that everything in Greece suffered, and with the rest Greek +art was degraded. In the time of Pericles it was thought to be a crime +in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the +Parthenon, and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a +privilege which belonged to the gods alone. Alexander, on the contrary, +claimed to be a god, and was represented by painters and sculptors until +his portraits and statues were almost numberless. + +Soon after the death of Alexander the humiliation of Athens and its old +Periclean spirit was complete. If you read the history of Demetrius +Poliorcetes, who was even allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred +part of the Parthenon--the temple of Minerva--you will see that Athens +was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the +arts of peace, as they were no longer the brave men who could stand +first in war. In their degraded state the Athenians suffered three +hundred and sixty statues to be erected to Demetrius Phalereus, and +these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering +freebooter Poliorcetes. This last was hailed by the debased people as a +god and a saviour. His name and that of his father, Antigonus, were +woven into the sacred peplos. + +At length, under the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander, order was +restored, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus divided the +kingdom of Alexander into four Graeco-Oriental monarchies. The dynasty of +the Ptolemies in Egypt was the most reputable of these, and gave much +encouragement to art and letters. But the sacred fire seems to have died +out, or did not burn clearly when transplanted from Athens to +Alexandria. The Alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what +had gone before, and there is nothing to be said of them that is of +importance enough for us to linger over it. Very few works remain from +this Diadochean period. The Metope of Ilium, which Dr. Schliemann has in +his garden in Athens, the Barberini Faun, in the Glyptothek at Munich, +and the Nile of the Vatican are the most important remnants of +Alexandrine sculpture. + +Amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of Alexander +the island of Rhodes remained undisturbed, and when the division of the +monarchies was made the Rhodians still retained their independence. They +were neutral, and so had a commerce with all the monarchies, and thus +gained great wealth; and theirs was the only independent State of the +old Hellenic world which was able to found and maintain a school of +art. Among the great works of the Rhodian artists none is more familiar +to us than the group of the Laocoon. + +In the time of Pliny this work stood in the palace of Titus, and the +historian called it "preferable to all other works of pictorial or +plastic art." There is a difference of opinion as to the period when it +was made, and many date it in the time of Titus, who lived A.D. 40 to +81. But the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who +believe that it was made at Rhodes in the time of the Diadochi. + +The group in the Vatican is probably a copy, because Pliny says that the +original was made of one block, and that of the Vatican is composed of +six pieces. Pliny also tells us that the Laocoon was the work of three +sculptors, AGESANDER, POLYDORUS, and ATHENODORUS. The Vatican group was +found in 1506 in the excavation of the Baths of Titus, in Rome, and was +placed in its present position by Pope Julius II. (Fig. 51). The right +arm of Laocoon was missing, and Michael Angelo attempted to restore it, +but left it incomplete; Montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for +its restoration, and the arm as it now is was made by Cornacini, and +more straight than it should be. + +The story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of +the AEneid, and says that Laocoon was a priest of Apollo at Troy, who, +when the Greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to +sail away, warned the Trojans against taking the horse inside the walls; +he also struck his spear into the side of the monster. But Sinon, who +had been left behind by the Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse +would prove a blessing to them, and they drew it into the city, and +ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the +occasion. Laocoon had much offended Pallas Athene by his words and acts, +and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to Neptune that goddess sent two +huge serpents up out of the sea to destroy him and his two sons, who +were with him by the altar. When the three victims were dead the fearful +creatures went to the Acropolis and disappeared. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE LAOCOON GROUP.] + +In the Laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself, +and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the +account of Virgil; but we see that it must be the same story that is +illustrated, and we know that it was told with some variation by other +poets. This group is a wonderful piece of sculpture, but it is not of +the highest art, and it is far from pleasant to look at. The same is +true of another famous group which is in Naples, and which is also from +the Rhodian school. + +I mean the Farnesian Bull, or the Toro Farnese. This group was made by +APOLLONIUS and TAURISCUS, who are believed to have been brothers. It was +probably made at Tralles, in Caria, which was their native place, and +sent by them to Rhodes, the great art-centre; from Rhodes it was sent to +Rome, where it was in the possession of Asinius Pollio. This splendid +group, which is probably the original work, was found in the Baths of +Caracalla, in 1546, and was first placed in the Farnese Palace, from +which it was removed to the National Museum in Naples, in 1786 (Fig. +52). + +This group tells a part of the story of Dirce, who had incurred the +hatred and displeasure of Antiope, the mother of Amphion, who was King +of Thebes and the husband of Niobe. In order to appease the wrath of his +mother, Amphion, with the aid of his twin-brother Zethus, bound Dirce to +the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces. All this takes place on +Mount Cithaeron, and it is said that after Dirce had suffered horrible +agonies the god Dionysus changed her into a fountain, which always +remains upon this mountain. + +In this piece of sculpture, dreadful as the idea is, there is less of +horror than in the Laocoon, for the reason that the moment chosen is +that just before the climax of the catastrophe, while in the Laocoon it +is in its midst. The latter group is made to be seen from but one side, +and was probably intended for a niche; but the Farnese Bull is perfect, +and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of +view. There are numerous accessories and much attention to detail, while +the rocky base represents Mount Cithaeron and the wildness of the scene +in a manner not before known in sculpture. The group has been much +restored, but its excellences support the theory of its being the +original work of the Greek artists, and the skill with which the various +figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great +praise and admiration; it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture +tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--THE FARNESE BULL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--GALLIC WARRIOR. _Venice._] + +After the art of Rhodes that of Pergamon was important. When Attalus I., +King of Pergamon, gained his victory over the Gauls, in B.C. 229, the +Greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the +great deeds of Attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious +heroes of their nation who had preceded him. It is recorded that the +conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at Athens, and that +they stood on the southern wall of the Acropolis. The subjects were: +"The Battle of the Gods and Giants," "The Battle of Athenians and +Amazons," "The Battle of Marathon," and "The Destruction of the Gauls in +Mysia by Attalus." Thus the different epochs of Greek history were +represented, and Attalus placed himself near the other great warriors +who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation. These groups +consisted of many figures, and are estimated to have been from sixty to +eighty in number. It is believed that at least ten of them are now in +European collections--that is, three in Venice, four in Naples, one in +Paris, one in the Vatican, and the last in the Castellani collection in +Rome. This picture of one of those in Venice seems to represent a +warrior who has been suddenly thrown down; his weapons and shield--which +last was probably held in the left hand--have been dropped in the +violence of the shock which has prostrated him (Fig. 53). His face and +hair are of the barbarian type, and the power and elasticity of his +powerful frame are manifest even in this moment of his defeat. He is +yet unwounded, but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes, +and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE DYING GAUL.] + +It is now believed that the statue of the Dying Gaul, often called the +Dying Gladiator, was the work of a sculptor of Pergamon, and represents +a Gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his +conquerors. The moment had come when he could not escape, and he chose +death rather than humiliation. We learn from history that when these +barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and +children and then themselves, to avoid being taken as prisoners, which +really meant being made slaves. This warrior has thrown himself upon his +shield; his battle-horn is broken, and the sword which has given him the +freedom of death has fallen from his hand. His eye is already dim, his +right arm can scarce sustain him, his brow is contracted with pain, and +it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips. He has not the noble form of the +Greeks; we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death +scenes of some of the Periclean statue heroes; here it is only a rude, +barbarous Gaul, suffering death as a brute might; it is very realistic, +and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the +skin, the hardened soles of the feet, the coarse hand, and we are sure +the artist must have made a true representation of this wild, savage +man, who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be +enslaved (Fig. 54). + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BOY AND GOOSE.] + +These illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of +Pergamon, and I shall now leave the subject of Greek sculpture after +some account of BOETHUS OF CHALCEDON. His date is very uncertain, though +we have accounts of his works by ancient writers. Some scholars believe +that he lived about B.C. 275. Many works in chased silver made by +Boethus were in the temple of Athena in Lindus in the time of the +historian Pliny; there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold +and one of the youthful Asclepius; but the Boy Strangling a Goose, in +the gallery of the Louvre, is his most interesting work for us (Fig. +55). You will remember that even the ancient Egyptians made caricatures +and playful, mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day. This boy +and goose are of the same spirit, and is intended as a parody on the +representations of Hercules struggling with the Nemean lion, which had +been represented many times by Greek artists. The boy seems to be +working as hard as any giant could do. The execution of this work is +fine. It was probably made for a fountain, the water coming through the +beak of the goose. There are several works of ancient sculpture which +are of the same spirit, and for this reason are attributed to Boethus. +The Spinario, or Thorn-extractor, in the museum of the Capitol, at Rome, +is one of the most charming pieces of _genre_ statuary in existence +(Fig. 56). + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.--SPINARIO.] + +It represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot. His attitude is +natural and graceful, and the purity and simplicity of its style places +it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture. The +expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is +doing, and is given with great skill and truthfulness. The treatment of +the hair is like that of the archaic period, and there will always be +some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the +sculpture of what we call the Alexandrian age. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE. + + +Ancient Italian sculpture was essentially Greek in its spirit, and +originated with the Etruscans, a very ancient people in Italy. There are +traces of an Oriental influence in the art of Etruria--a suggestion of +the sculpture of Egypt and Assyria, just as there is in Greek archaic +art; but the real feeling and spirit of it is Greek, and must have been +borrowed from Greece in some way. + +The different theories and opinions about the Etruscans and their origin +do not concern us here; we have to do only with their sculpture as it is +seen in the remnants of it now in existence. In the beginning the +Etruscans made their statues of clay; marble was very rarely used. Later +on they learned the art of working in bronze, and carried it to great +perfection. Their bronze works were so numerous that in B.C. 295 Fulvius +Flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from Volsinii +alone. Some of their figures were colossal, but the greater number were +statuettes. + +There are some Etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of Europe. The +Etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists; but they +copied such excellent things, and did it so well, that their productions +are by no means to be despised, and the skill which they acquired caused +their bronze and metal work to be highly valued, even in Athens itself. + +The Etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the Greeks, +as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs +of Corneto and other places. They gave much attention to luxury of +living, and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table +furniture which they made may be seen in the Vatican and British Museum, +while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is +still much admired and copied diligently. + +The Romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists. They +seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other +nations; but of Romans themselves there were very few sculptors; their +artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the +lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius. At first, as we have +said, they relied upon the Etruscans, who built their earliest temples +and adorned them with sculptures, and the first record which we have of +Greek artists working in Rome gives us the names of Damophilus and +Gorgasus, who decorated the temple of Ceres with paintings and +sculptures. This temple was consecrated in B.C. 493; if its adornment +was of the same date, the knowledge of Greek art was brought to Rome at +a very early period--at least fifty-six years before the completion of +the Parthenon. + +But the means by which the whole Roman people were made familiar with +the beauties of Greek art are to be found in another direction. It was +not the building of their own temples, or any work done by Greek artists +in Rome, that gave the Romans their love and appreciation for art; it +was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought +home to adorn and beautify every portion of the Eternal City. In B.C. +212 Marcellus carried to Rome the spoils he had taken at Syracuse; he +exhibited them in his triumphal procession, and afterward consecrated +them in the temple of Honor and Valor which he built. From this time it +was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that Roman +conquerors could seize, and the number of beautiful objects thus gained +for Rome was marvellous. + +When Flaminius defeated Philip of Macedon it required two days to gather +up the spoils. After Fulvius Nobilior conquered the AEtolians he brought +Greek artists to Rome to arrange his festivities, and he exhibited five +hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from +the defeated people. When Perseus of Macedon was overcome by AEmilius +Paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures +and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession; among +these treasures there was a statue of Athena by Phidias himself. This +work of spoiling the Grecian cities which came into their power was +diligently carried on by Mummius, Sulla, and others, until at length the +Emperor Augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to Rome. But the +works which best pleased the Romans were those of the later school of +Athens. The ruling gods at Rome were Mars, Bacchus, and Venus, and the +statues of these deities were much valued. + +So far, to the time of Augustus, the statues and other objects removed +had been the spoils of war; but Caligula and Nero did not hesitate to go +in times of peace and act the part of robbers. The first sent a consul +in A.D. 31 with orders to bring the best works of art from Greece to +Rome to adorn his villas; Nero went so far as to send his agents to +bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples, +together with the offerings made to them, for the decoration of his +Golden House; it is said that from Delphi alone he received five hundred +statues of bronze. + +At first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be +constantly seen by the whole Roman people, and there is no doubt that +their influence was very great and went far to refine their ideas and +to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the Augustan age. Very +soon the individual desire for works of art was felt, and wealthy men +began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues; and at last +these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of +life. + +From all these causes there came about a revival of Greek art under the +Romans, and in it many beautiful works were produced. Indeed, the +greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the +collections all over Europe belong to this period. It cannot be said +that the artists of this date originated much, but they followed the +greatest masters that ever lived; and if they repeated their subjects +they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave +their works a certain effect of being something new, and threw their own +individuality about them. + +The list of names which can be given as belonging to Greek sculptors who +worked at Rome is long, and would have little interest here. Instead of +speaking of the artists I shall speak of the most famous works of the +time which remain; most of these are so placed that they are seen by +travellers, and have become familiar to all the world. + +The beautiful statue which is known as the Venus de' Medici is so called +because after its discovery it rested for a time in the Medici Palace in +Rome. It was found in the seventeenth century in the Portico of Octavia +at Rome, and was broken into eleven fragments. The arms from the elbows +down are restored; when it was found it had traces of gilding on the +hair; the ears are pierced, as if gold rings had sometimes been placed +in them. In 1680 Duke Cosmo III. removed it to Florence, where it is the +chief glory of the famous Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. Many persons +believe this to have been a copy of the renowned Cnidian Venus by +Praxiteles, of which I have told you. This Venus de' Medici was the +work of an Athenian artist named Cleomenes. He was the son of +Apollodorus, a sculptor who lived in Rome in the first or second century +of the Christian era. (Fig. 57.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.] + +The aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess, and his work lacks +the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of Venus. +Cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her +beauty. Some critics believe that this Venus is intended to represent +the moment when that goddess stood before Paris for judgment. If this +story is not well known I will tell how when Peleus and Thetis were +married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess +Discordia, and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into +the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words, "To +the fairest." Juno, Minerva, and Venus all claimed it, and Jupiter sent +Mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to Paris, that he +might decide to which it belonged. His decision gave the apple to Venus; +and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long +list of serious troubles arose until Paris was driven out of Greece, +and, going to the house of Menelaus, he saw and loved Helen, carried her +off to Troy, and thus brought on the Trojan war of which the world has +heard so much ever since. If I were writing a Sunday-school book I could +draw many lessons from this story; but as I am only writing about art, I +will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old +statues and to find out exactly what they mean; some such students say +that the moment when Paris pronounced Venus to be the most lovely of the +goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the Venus de' +Medici. + +As Venus was the goddess of Love and Beauty, it was natural that statues +of her should be multiplied. The Chigi Venus in the Vatican has much the +same pose as the Venus de' Medici, but she holds the end of a fringed +garment in her hand. The Venus of the Capitol, in Rome, is larger than +these; the Venus Callipiga, which was found in the Golden House of Nero, +and is now in the Museum of Naples, is also worthy of being mentioned in +company with these other exquisite sculptures. + +However, there is yet another Venus more admirable and more praised than +these. She is called the Venus of Milo, or Melos, and is in the gallery +of the Louvre, at Paris. This statue is probably of a later date than +those of which we have spoken, and is thought to be the work of +Alexandros, the son of Menides of Antiocheia, or one of those sculptors +who are called Asiatic Greeks. It is said that the base of this statue +with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed, for the purpose of +leading the King of France to believe it to be more ancient than it +really is (Fig. 58, _frontispiece_). + +This magnificent statue was discovered in 1820 by a peasant of the town +of Melos, or Milo, on the island of the same name. It was in a niche of +a wall which had long been buried. The Marquis of Riviere, who was the +French Ambassador at Constantinople, purchased it and presented it to +King Louis XVIII., who placed it in the Louvre. It is made from two +blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs. As +the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which +projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern +artists. + +This is the only Venus which has come down to us from the past which +represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman. The form has beauty +of the highest type, but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above +mere beauty. The pure, majestic expression of the head and face speak +the calm dignity of a superior being. I shall quote from Perry, who +says: "The Venus de Milo is justly admired, not only for the grandeur of +its design, the perfection of its proportion, and the exquisite moulding +of the superb and luxuriant form, but for the vivid freshness of the +flesh and the velvet softness of the skin, in which it stands unrivalled +in ancient and modern art. The extraordinary skill with which minute +details, such as the folds of the skin in the neck, are harmonized with +the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise. +The life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced +by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the +beautiful warm, yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given +to the marble." + +In the Museum at Naples is the Farnesian Hercules, which was found in +the Baths of Caracalla, in Rome, in 1540. It was first placed in the +Farnese Palace, and from that circumstance received the name by which it +is known. It is the work of Glycon, an Athenian, and his name is +inscribed upon it. There is little doubt that this is a copy of a more +ancient statue by the great Lysippus; that master created +representations of Hercules in all ages and forms. Glycon probably +worked in the time of Hadrian; and though he copied the design and form +of Lysippus, he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of +the whole. For example, the head is small in proportion to the breadth +of the breast and shoulders; and because Hercules was a swift runner the +sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural. It is in such +particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced, even in +works that command admiration (Fig. 59). + +The moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately +followed his securing the apples of the Hesperides, the wedding present +of Ge to Juno. Of all the labors of Hercules, perhaps this was the most +arduous. Juno had left these apples with the Hesperides for safekeeping. +These goddesses lived on Mount Atlas, and the serpent Ladon helped them +to guard their precious trust. Hercules did not know just where the +apples were kept, and this made his task all the more difficult. When, +therefore, he arrived at Mount Atlas he offered to hold up the world for +Atlas if he would go and fetch the apples. This Atlas did, but refused +to take the weight from Hercules again. However, Hercules took the +apples and hastened to his master, Eurystheus, with them. While +performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with Ladon, and some +accounts say that he killed the monster. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FARNESIAN HERCULES.] + +Now, the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand, +the world held on his back, while he leans heavily on his club covered +with a lion's skin. All the muscles of his body are swollen from his +struggle; his head droops, his whole expression of face and form is that +of sadness and weariness. The youthfulness and strength with which the +older sculptors invested him is not here. It is a splendid work, but it +is not of the best; it belongs to an age when there was too much +straining after effect, when the moderation of the best Greek masters +did not satisfy the spirit of the time; and no sculptor lived whose +power equalled that of Phidias or Lysippus. + +There are some reliefs and vases of this Roman period that are very +interesting. I shall speak of but one relief--the Sacrifice of +Iphigenia, which is in Florence. It is called the work of Cleomenes, and +his name is inscribed upon it; but there is some doubt as to the +genuineness of the inscription. This relief is very beautiful. It +represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a +preparation for her sacrifice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--THE APOLLO BELVEDERE.] + +The story runs that Iphigenia was the daughter of Agamemnon, who killed +a hart sacred to Diana. To revenge this act the goddess becalmed the +Greek fleet on its way to Aulis. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon to +sacrifice his daughter to appease Diana; this he consented to do, but +Diana put a hart in the place of the maiden, whom she bore to Tauris and +made a priestess. In this relief the maiden has an air of resigned +grief; her father stands by himself with his head covered. The sculptor +of this relief was not the first who had represented Agamemnon thus, for +a painter, Timanthes, had made a picture of this subject about B.C. 400, +and in describing it Quintilian said that "when he had painted Calchas +sad, Ulysses sadder, and had represented in the face of Menelaus the +most poignant grief that art can express, having exhausted the deepest +feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of +_the father_, he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart +to estimate his sufferings." + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.] + +I come now to the Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of all +the statues in the Vatican, and the best known and most universally +admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us. It was found at +about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of Antium, +where it probably made one of the ornaments of the Imperial Palace. The +authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the +marble from which it is cut is a marble of Greece or of Italy (Fig. 60). + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--THE STEINHAeUSER HEAD.] + +This statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world, and +nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise; and yet all +who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible. A few years ago +another head of Apollo, of Greek marble, was found in a magazine in +Rome, by Herr Steinhaeuser, by whose name it is known; it is now in the +museum at Basle (Figs. 61, 62). + +Though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet +been satisfactorily explained, and there are several important questions +about it which cannot be answered with certainty. Nothing is known of +its age or of the name of its sculptor. It is not described by any +ancient writer, neither can any one say whether it is an original or a +copy; and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful +young god is doing--what is the meaning of it? + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE STROGANOFF APOLLO.] + +The answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here I +shall only mention the theory which I love, and which is accepted by +many. When the statue was found the left hand was missing, and a bow was +believed to have been the article which it held; and it was said that +Apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight, and was watching +for its effect. This theory was the principal one until 1860, when a +scholar, Stephani, called attention to the fact that in St. Petersburg +there is a bronze statuette, less than two feet high, which is almost +exactly the same as the Apollo Belvedere--too nearly the same to be an +accidental likeness. Now, as this is an antique bronze, it seems to +prove that both it and the marble of the Vatican are copies of an +ancient work. The statuette is called the Stroganoff Apollo, because it +belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name. It is believed to +be one of a number of bronzes which were found near Janina in 1792, and +given by the son of Ali Pasha to his physician, Dr. Frank (Fig. 63). + +The chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand +was perfect, and did not hold a bow, but some soft, elastic substance +which Stephani believes to be the aegis, or shield, of Jupiter, on which +was the head of Medusa. The sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw +it; and though it belonged to Jupiter and Minerva, Jupiter sometimes +lent it to his son Apollo to aid him in his warfare; such instances are +recorded by Homer. After Stephani had told his idea of it, the German +scholar Ludwig Preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of +it by suggesting that Apollo was extending this dreadful _aegis_ before +the sight of the Gauls at Delphi, in B.C. 279. History relates that when +the Gauls approached Delphi the people asked the oracle if they should +carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple. The oracle replied, +"I myself and the White Maidens (meaning Athena and Artemis) will take +care of that." Then four thousand Greeks stood by ready to defend the +sacred place; but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down +through the roof of the temple, and the White Maidens left their own +altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe. A great tempest +arose, and rocks fell from Parnassus on the heads of the Gauls, and it +seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain +the Greeks against their enemies. It is also written that the spectres +of Greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the +battle dealing death upon the Gauls. But above all the fury of the +tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of +Athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of Artemis were +heard, while the flash of the awful shield of Apollo was seen to be even +more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves. + +It is recorded that after this victory two statues of Apollo and one +each of Athena and Artemis were offered in the temple of Apollo as +thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the Gauls. It +is delightful to regard the Apollo Belvedere as a copy of one of these, +and this view of it is most satisfying. Luebke, in speaking of this +theory, says: "Not till now have we understood the Apollo Belvedere. In +unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure, the left +shoulder only being covered by the chlamys, which falls down over the +arm, which, far outstretched, holds the aegis with its Medusa head. The +right arm is slightly turned aside, but both hands have been unskilfully +restored. The attitude of the god is full of pathos, and is conceived at +a dramatic moment. Ardently excited and filled with divine anger, with +which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn, the intellectual head is +turned sideward, while the figure, with elastic step, is hastening +forward. The eye seems to shoot forth lightning; there is an expression +of contempt in the corners of the mouth, and the distended nostrils seem +to breathe forth divine anger. It is a bold attitude thus transfixed in +marble, full of life-like and excited action." + +In the Iliad Homer describes the scene when Jupiter gave the aegis to +Apollo, that he might put the Achaeans to flight with it. In connection +with the Apollo Belvedere it is well to recall that description which is +thus translated by Lord Derby + + "While Phoebus motionless his aegis held, + Thick flew the shafts, and fast the people fell + On either side; but when he turned its flash + Full in the faces of the astonished Greeks, + And shouted loud, their spirits within them quailed, + Their fiery courage borne in mind no more." + +It is very interesting to know that many who believe that the Apollo +Belvedere represents that god when terrifying the Gauls, believe also +that the statues of the "White Maidens" rushing forth from their temples +to aid him are in existence, the Artemis being the statue at the Louvre +known as "_Diane a la Biche_" and the Minerva being the Athena with +spear and shield in the museum of the Capitol at Rome. + +This statue of Artemis, or Diana, has been in France since the time of +Henry IV. Formerly it was at Versailles, but is now one of the treasures +of the Louvre. The left hand with the bow is restored. The effect of the +figure is that of lightness combined with strength. She is going forward +rapidly, with her eyes fixed on some distant object, and draws an arrow +from her quiver even as she flies. This figure corresponds to the Apollo +Belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose; it is of +the same proportions, and in such details of treatment as the rich +sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the +Apollo--indeed, there is no reason why it might not have formed a part +of a group in which the Apollo stood. (Fig. 64.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--DIANE A LA BICHE.] + +If we think of this Diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the +chase the statue is very beautiful, and a remarkable example of such a +subject; but when she is regarded as one of the "White Maidens" rushing +forth to aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous +enemy she is invested with a deeper interest; she becomes an important +actor in a terrible drama, and those of us who could have no sympathy +with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she +will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the +sacred hill of Pytho, and thus preserve its temple and its treasures. + +The statue of Athena, advancing with spear and shield, is supposed to be +a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the +Gauls. The position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were +represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the Apollo +Belvedere, the central figure of the whole. The whole bearing of this +statue carries out the impression which Homer gives of the delight with +which Athena led the Greeks to battle; she is full of eagerness, and +rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of +one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause (Fig. 65). + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ATHENA OF THE CAPITOL.] + + +Whether this "Gallic theory," as it is called, concerning the Apollo, +Diana, and Athena be correct or no, it is the most satisfactory in +sentiment of any that has been advanced, and certainly, when we consider +the three statues in this connection, there is nothing inharmonious in +the supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may +have had many other figures of lesser importance in it. + +There are many other statues of the Roman period in various museums, but +I shall leave this part of our subject here, and speak briefly of the +historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the +Eternal City. In an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man, +and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest +honors, it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place +some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the +eyes of the people, and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant +deeds and their great successes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION FROM ARCH OF TITUS.] + +We read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were +displayed in public places in Rome at a very early date. We cannot find +records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors, +but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly. +The principal historical reliefs in Rome were upon the arches of +Claudius, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus, and on +the architrave of the temple of Minerva in the Forum. + +Of the arch of Claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture, +now in the Villa Borghese. The arch of Titus was erected to celebrate +the taking of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. It was restored in 1822. The frieze +represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice. The picture +we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace, who bear +articles of booty taken from the conquered city. They have the +candelabra with seven branches, the table of the shew-bread, the silver +trumpets, etc. This will give you a good idea of these reliefs. (Fig. +66.) + +The arch of Trajan no longer stands, and its reliefs are now on the arch +of Constantine; but Trajan's Pillar is one of the best preserved of all +the antique monuments of Rome, and with some account of this column and +a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of Rome. The +Senate and people of Rome decreed that this column should be erected to +the memory of Trajan, and it was in the centre of the Forum which bore +the same name--the Forum Trajani. The column is about one hundred and +six feet high, and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of +Trajan, which was replaced by one of St. Peter by Pope Sixtus V. A band +of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form; this band is six +hundred feet long, and the sculptures represent Trajan's campaign +against the Dacians. Many of the figures lose their effect on account of +the height at which they are placed. There are more than a hundred +scenes upon it, in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures, +besides many horses and other objects. The whole is executed with the +greatest care. + +The real object of the whole work was to glorify the Emperor Trajan, and +he is represented in many of the scenes; sometimes he is conducting +engagements, storming a fort, or encouraging his troops; again he is +holding an audience, protecting the women of a conquered city, or +sitting in judgment on captives. Fig. 67 represents the Dacians +assaulting a Roman fort. It is winter, and while some have crossed the +ice in safety, others have broken through. Everything about it is +represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner, and this +shows distinctly the principal difference between the Greek and the +Roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former. It is pure, +realistic, historical sculpture, and this pillar shows this at its very +best estate; it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art. In all these +many scenes there are but two mythological figures: one is Selene, used +to represent Night, and the other is _Jupiter tonans,_ who indicates +Storm. But the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the +Greek teaching did for the Romans; for it was to the Greeks that the +latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render +it properly in sculpture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FROM THE RELIEFS OF TRAJAN'S COLUMN.] + +The last sort of ancient sculpture of which I shall speak is portrait +sculpture, and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture, for it +is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of +many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of +the world through all the centuries, because they were concerned in the +events which make up what we call the history of the world. We have said +that in Greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures; +gradually they were introduced until, in the time of Alexander, portrait +statues were almost numberless, and these and busts were used for the +decoration of libraries and public buildings, as well as for the +adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air. + +The finest life-size statue which remains from the Greeks is that of +Sophocles, of which we give a picture (Fig. 68). It was not found until +about 1839, and was presented to Pope Gregory XVI. by Cardinal +Antonelli; it is in the museum of the Lateran. This engraving from it +shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in +detail. This statue is valuable not only as a portrait of Sophocles, but +as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of +Athenian civilization and culture; of an elegant, aristocratic man who +was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his +physical parts, as well as in science, philosophy, and music--in various +deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and +scholarly, and at the same time elegant and graceful. "The attitude, +though simple, is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the +figure; and the position of the arms--the one gracefully enveloped in +the himation, and the other firmly planted on the hip--gives to the +whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity. The face is handsome and +full of winning grace, and bears the stamp not only of the creative +genius of the poet, but of the experience of the active citizen; of one +who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot, and +preserved amid them the constitutional calmness, the gentle benevolence, +the tranquil, meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by +the people among whom he lived and sang." + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--PORTRAIT STATUE OF SOPHOCLES.] + +Among the Romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance. This +people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead, +and from the earliest times had used different means of making them. In +the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks +of the faces of the dead in wax, and these masks were worn in the +funeral procession by one of the mourners, who also wore the dress and +insignia of the departed. The first aim in these masks was to have an +exact resemblance to the dead; and this idea was carried on through all +the eras of Roman art, and is a strong distinguishing feature between +Greek and Roman sculpture; for while the Greeks wished to reproduce the +face of one of whom they made a bust or statue, they did not hesitate to +idealize that face; but the Romans labored to make an exact likeness of +the man, leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be. +This manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model, for +the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation +often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty; therefore the +aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be +imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--STATUE OF AUGUSTUS.] + +I can speak of but a few of the almost numberless Roman portrait +sculptures. + +This statue of Augustus was found in 1863 in a villa built by his wife, +Livia, about nine miles from Rome, at Porta Prima. It is a noble work, +and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning +that can be explained. At the same time the whole work is full of +strength and dignity, which comes from the character of the man himself, +and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power, +with which the dress is loaded (Fig. 69). This statue is in the Vatican, +and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the "Young +Augustus" and with the statue of the emperor when aged, in which he is +veiled as a priest. The study of these three sculptures, thus +fortunately near each other, is most interesting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--AGRIPPINA THE ELDER.] + +The Roman women who held important positions were frequently honored +with statues. Among those that remain none is more interesting than this +of the elder Agrippina. She was a woman of great strength and equally +great purity of character, and as we study this statue we can easily +understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion +demanded this service, and when that necessity was past could nurse the +sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature. It is +in every way a noble work of art, combining grace, dignity, and the +aristocratic refinement of a high-born lady. The drapery of this and +other similar statues is very beautiful, and fully satisfies all +artistic demands. We have full proof that such garments were in actual +use by the women of Greece and Rome (Fig. 70). + +It was not unusual for the great men and women of Rome to be represented +in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses. Livia +appears as Ceres, Julia as Flora, and so on; and during the best days of +Roman art these statues were very beautiful. But at last they, like all +other sculptures, grew less and less worthy, until they became +positively absurd, and lacked any power to command our admiration. + +What is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all Roman art. Its +decline kept step with the decline of the nation, and both fell at +length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption. From this we +are glad to turn to the study of Christian art, which, even in its +primary struggles, when groping its way through ignorance and +helplessness, was still a living thing, and held the promise of a new +life--a _renaissance_ of that which had gradually died in Greece and +Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. + + +The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be +said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the +Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and +is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon +it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries +earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of +Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence +of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by +side. + +After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced +to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of +their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with +the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with +horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed +that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the +commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven +image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in +the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened +that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they +employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than +sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early +Christian art. + +The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St. +Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there +are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were +found in the catacombs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--STATUE OF ST. PETER.] + +The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is +held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they +enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads +against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some +antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as +to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from +the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was +made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century +as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian +Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This +statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable +excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71). + +The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the +decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in +bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken +from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such +as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As +time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the +Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were +crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the +meaning of the whole more clear. + +The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the +museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the +finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who +were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour +before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses +the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the +shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of +the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing +of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses +causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of +Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the +Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will +show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the +subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or +apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of +Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums. + +In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by +the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city +with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the +Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to +decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a +column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also +erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and +about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of +himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of +brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have +of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called +the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St. +Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in +pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the +Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this +purpose. + +But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of +statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which +long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into +special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to +making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these +carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the +episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and +552 (Fig. 72). + +This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from +the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these +are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of +framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds +among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic +manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater +number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups +and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of +which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections. + +Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for +writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the +ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul +Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon +it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where--the +circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be +slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from +the life of Christ and other religious themes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROM THE CATHEDRA OF MAXIMIANUS.] + +About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for +church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels +used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for +church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given +to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to +the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from +Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it +went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been +practised somewhat by the earlier Christians. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--DIPTYCH. _Zurich._] + +During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the +different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of +this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which +were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming +antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth +are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief, +ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and +even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also +made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and +smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the +church--incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or +caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches +and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved, +and are of great interest in the study of art. + +Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even +grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the +subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner. +Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons, +cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces +represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case +the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can +understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that +gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In +truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in +many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the +industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to +understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had +attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of +the world so completely, for in these mediaeval days it existed nowhere +on the face of the earth. + +About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold +an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now +received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze +figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the +decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the +medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again +brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the +principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in +various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind +are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or +wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met. + +The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its +uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every +department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of +zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the +Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the +nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had +before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more +individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had +done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world +seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with +strength and activity. + +With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and +sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be +separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with +the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention, +and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with +statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon +extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the +altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved +stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly +ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess +the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and +the period known as the _Romanesque_ was thus ushered in. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FROM THE FACADE OF CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.] + +We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the +faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic +sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which +had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which +followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in +sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful, +yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a +hopeful and important change. + +Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic +progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral +of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals +of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque. +In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the +head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the +classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had +degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.) + +Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid +examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took +the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange +that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first +works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had +come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or +in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both +the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great +revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts. + +However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any +other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to +have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than +did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer; +but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength +by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from +northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different +spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering +summits of the Alps. + +About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the +northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language +had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own +tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the +Provencal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it +was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national +feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it +resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of +Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle +which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets +and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram +and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing +centuries. + +At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in +North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had +the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the +importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both +architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so +arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its +turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture. + +Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference +to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were +fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited +to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as +one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one +side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the +costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment +fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the +figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the +classic robes of the Greeks. + +The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by +the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and +painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately +tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the +defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color +was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown +upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this +polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called. + +The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than +formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central +and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the +saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to +whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New +symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and +months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits +of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous +representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts +were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with +grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of +this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For +example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of +sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers +and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a +charming variety of life-like ornament was the result. + +The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the +first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development. +Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff, +perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions, +had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief +from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time. + +The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of +thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church +building of its time, and its facade the most beautiful structure of the +Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great +portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various +other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a +forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the +architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast +amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the +statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and +awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant +figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural +folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite +unknown before this time. + +In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ +which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every +portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember +that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic +times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in +the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the +fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated. + +It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the +statues of mediaeval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if +the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures +were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last +Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among +the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the +Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section +of it is here given (Fig. 75). + +There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and +the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions +are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good +proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and +supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the +Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of +mediaeval art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FROM THE NORTH TRANSEPT OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.] + +Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of +the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two +periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from +the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work +with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the +union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of +sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure. +Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great +variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian +cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in +the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to +show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the +supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings. + +But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental +sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues +still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were +many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the +statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Coeur de Lion, who died in +1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to +the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue; +the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the +emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something +about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been +sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries. + +But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis +were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were +sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French +sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the +Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the +heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of +Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who +died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and +they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all +France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these. + +In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which +went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new +Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France. +Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about +the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end +of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in +the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon +France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In +Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was +one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that +could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French +manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are +still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed +architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig. +76.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--FROM THE WEST FACADE, STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.] + +There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin, +at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the +architect of the west facade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and +the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in +antique sculpture, is beautifully executed. + +In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270, +there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in +spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues +of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this +cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of +the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the +progress of art here was much less rapid than in France. + +Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was +the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic +art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient +in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.--DUKE ROBERT OF NORMANDY.] + +The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century, +when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new +choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was +erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry +III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king +summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and +portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that +day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries, +it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble +those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had +done. The illustration given here, with its air of life--almost of +motion--is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77). + +The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the +interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but +in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of +sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward +the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain. + +With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in +the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer +held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the +imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects +in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a +development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an +improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features +which were attractive. + +In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper +meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the +citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to +art along with others. + +This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they +attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their +works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated +that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which +the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had +already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of +Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism, +more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of +himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout +feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that +art was elevated in its tone. + +There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted +details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from +suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects. +For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits +or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and +burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these +powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with +such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of +eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century, +that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the +thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline. + +In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at +Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the +Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the +art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works +of the Nuremberg sculptors. + +At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den +Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the +city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the +dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the +most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art. + +We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time; +Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Cologne, and many other +German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its +character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a +tendency toward decline, are its prominent features. + +In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used +for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and +freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very +attractive (Fig. 78). + +[Illustration: FIG. 78.--IVORY RELIEF. HUNTING SCENE.] + +In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of +art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done +in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older +ones remodelled--is one reason for this change. In this direction there +was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed +by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However, +there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already +begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was +accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet +completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank +and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased +in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied. + +During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in +France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes +of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous. + +Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was CLAUX SLUTER, who was the +favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that +duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of +the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other +works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had +a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have +established a school the effects of which endured long after his time. + +In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century. +Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine. +Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the +principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to +the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been +confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the +monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to +mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced; +but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the +monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The +costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque +air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline +which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It +compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and +the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a +monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art. + +As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of +the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was +that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than +in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle +Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art +as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget +themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his +works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and +not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the +northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in +them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form. + +In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches. +Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the +Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not +give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings +which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view, +and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and +sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of +the merits of each art. + +So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the +church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and +tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered +with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly +sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for +Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored; +sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and +sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps. + +However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other +lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were +employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of +the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important; +but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of +the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and +other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the +many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The +council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great +opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the +sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones +with great clearness. + +As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the +progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of +separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our +attention is NICOLA PISANO, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207, +and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and +sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment +as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served +this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed +as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony. + +In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief +representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its +place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at +Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist, +and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian +sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 79.--RELIEF BY NICOLA PISANO. _Lucca._] + +During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly +employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established +his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the +Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have +given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca; +and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied +the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful +advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of +his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism +when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its +sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.) + +Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains +of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was +completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art +of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit +for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to +live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits +to Pisa--four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was +completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great +influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had +amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano +had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the +south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena. + +[Illustration: FIG. 80.--RELIEF FROM THE PULPIT AT PISA. _Nicola +Pisano._] + +In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La +Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last +work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that +city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of +the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the +figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that +laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most +valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that +it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has +suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration. + +In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an +untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his +associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty. +Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were +the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow +to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles; +founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the +degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study; +so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all +profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an +ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in +selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an +indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience +to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now +in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to +design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace +or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in +both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his +edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his +bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models +long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all +classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man--one to +whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in +gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the +same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature." + +FRA GUGLIELMO D'AGNELLO (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of +Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be +said of his works after his master's death. + +GIOVANNI PISANO (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil +of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under +some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred +the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic +action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an +architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when +twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for +the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace +there. + +After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni +in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in +the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina, +because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown +of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of +architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many +shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to +make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred +earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with +walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it +could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most +beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own +hand. (Fig. 81.) + +This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making +large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The +city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her +arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four +statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a +very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the +originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of +expression. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. _Giovanni Pisano._] + +From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Giovanni became famous, +and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people +of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by +freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to +Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After +this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a +variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In +1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato. + +We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo +has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its +character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more +than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an +independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the +feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in +the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and +dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any +man who had not an uncommon genius. + +ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and +though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an +independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are +some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are +uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to +discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico, +a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and +the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal, +is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only +well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the +most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite +sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor. + +ANDREA PISANO (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and +his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of +Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When +these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to +view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the +Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most +important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor +of citizenship upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John +the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity, +while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the +execution of the whole almost perfect. + +NINO PISANO was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not +known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially +excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches +of Pisa. + +But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the +most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was +ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE, commonly called ANDREA ORCAGNA (1329-1376?). +This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence. +Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and +poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he +executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we +shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the +tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold +the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle +is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up +toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief, +statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her +birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios, +enamels, gilded glass, _pietra dura_, and all of these arranged in a +whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of +architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and +whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who +conceived and executed so difficult a task. + +During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many +sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names. +They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of +which is still to be seen. One of these, of whom few personal facts are +known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his +industry were almost marvellous. He was called PIETRO DI GIOVANNI and +PIETRO TEDESCO, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not +known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence +from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work +and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of +leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He +also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of +different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions, +bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies, +and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches, +while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works +is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music +hall or a theatre as they are for a church. + +The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be +taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but +NICCOLO OF ARREZZO, the MASSEGNE, and the BON or BUONI family, and many +others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the +stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic +and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of +the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting +its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days +of sculpture in Italy. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. + + +There was no one great influence or circumstance which led up to the +revival of art and letters which took place in the fifteenth century, +and which is known under the general name of the Renaissance. Its causes +were many, and may be traced in every department of the life of the +Middle Ages--in religion, politics, learning, and the habits of the +people. This is far too great a topic for us to enter on here, and we +must keep to the one matter which we have in hand. + +In Italy, heretofore, as we have shown, sculpture had been almost +entirely separated from other arts, and stood by itself. Its works had +been the smaller objects of which we have spoken; and though these were +oftentimes splendid in their design and execution, they did not afford +the sculptor the same broad field for his work as he has when his +productions are combined with architecture. Now all this was changed. +The French and German artists had brought out a style of architecture of +their own, the Italians pursued another course, and went back to classic +art for their teaching, and now every opportunity was given for +sculpture to assume its utmost importance; and the art of ancient Greece +was studied with all the enthusiasm of the Italian nature. + +The masters of Florence, or, rather, of Tuscany, were of great +importance in the beginning of the new movement, and I shall speak +first of them. FRANCESCO SQUARCIONE, who lived from 1396 to 1474, was a +painter, and travelled into Greece to collect antique objects, and made +many drawings from the monuments which he saw. He established a school +in Padua, and his museum was of advantage to sculptors as well as to +painters. Other Tuscan artists who were in love with classic art +wandered among its remains in Rome and other parts of Italy, and brought +back to their homes a greater knowledge of sculpture, as well as the +drawings which they had made; and in this part of Italy the Renaissance +early made itself a living, active power. + +Among the very first of these sculptors was JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA +(1374-1438), who was so called from the little market town of Quercia, +near Siena, in which he was born. His father was a goldsmith, and +instructed his son in his art; but the boy loved sculpture, and studied +it under one Luca di Giovanni. When but nineteen years old he made an +equestrian statue of wood, and covered it with cloth, and painted it to +represent marble in a manner which proved him to be an artist. About +this time he left his home, and the next that we know of him was about +ten years later, when his design for the gates of the Baptistery of +Florence was pronounced to be next in merit to those of Ghiberti and +Brunelleschi. + +In 1408 Quercia went to Ferrara, where he did several works. While there +he was called by the Signory of Siena to make a new fountain in the +Piazza del Campo. This was a beautiful work, and even in this century, +though much injured, its remaining sculptures prove that it must have +been a wonder in its day. It has been restored after the original model +by Quercia, who was often called Jacopo della Fonte on account of this +work. He executed some sculptures in Lucca, but his masterpiece was the +decoration of the great portal of the Basilica of San Petronio, at +Bologna. (Fig. 82.) + +The fifteen reliefs here represent the history of Adam and Eve, and +other stories from the creation to the deluge. They show the full +freedom and power of Quercia's style, and are among the most attractive +of all the Tuscan sculptures of this period. Duringd the last years of +his life this artist was employed as superintendent of the works upon +the Cathedral of Siena, in which city he died. + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--RELIEF BY JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA. _Bologna._] + +We come now to speak of the famous LORENZO GHIBERTI (1378-1455), who was +born in Florence, and was both a goldsmith and sculptor; and though his +fame rests upon his bas-reliefs, yet the exquisite detail and careful +finish in them came from his practice of the goldsmith's art. In 1398 a +plague broke out in Florence, and Ghiberti fled to Rimini for safety. +While there he painted a few pictures; but his name is so linked with +the splendid gates which he made for the Baptistery of Florence that it +is of those that one naturally thinks when his name is heard. + +We have spoken of the gates which Andrea Pisano had made to this +Baptistery long before; these were for the south side; and when, in +1400, the plague again visited Florence the people believed that the +wrath of Heaven should be appeased by a thank-offering. Accordingly the +Guild of Wool-merchants promised to add gates on the north and east of +the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist. + +A time was appointed for the examination of designs, and many artists +entered into the competition, and sent in their drawings and models. A +great number of these represented the Sacrifice of Isaac. At length all +the models were set aside but two, and these were made by Brunelleschi +and Ghiberti; then the former declared that he thought his rival's +design the best, thus showing a nobility of character which cannot be +too much praised. + +The commission was thus given to Ghiberti, who first executed the +northern gates. He began them in 1403, and finished them twenty-one +years later. They illustrate the life of Christ in twenty scenes; they +have also the figures of the evangelists and the four Fathers of the +Church in a beautiful framework of foliage, animals, and other +ornamental figures, which divides and incloses the larger compositions. +These gates are done in a manner much in advance of that of Pisano, and +yet they retain some features of an earlier style which are not found in +Ghiberti's later works. But from the first he showed original talent, as +one may see by his model of the Sacrifice of Isaac, which is preserved +in the Museum of the Bargello, beside that of Brunelleschi. + +These northern gates are very beautiful, but those on the east are far +more so; it is of these last that Michael Angelo declared, "They are +worthy to be the gates of Paradise!" These are divided into ten +compartments, representing: 1, Creation of Adam and Eve; 2, History of +Cain and Abel; 3, Noah; 4, Abraham and Isaac; 5, Jacob and Esau; 6, +History of Joseph; 7, Moses on Mount Sinai; 8, Joshua before Jericho; 9, +David and Goliath; 10, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Fig. 83). + +This sculptor showed great skill for one in his age, but to us there is +some disappointment in them on account of the crowded appearance of the +figures. Familiarity with them, however, reveals their beauty, and we +find that, in truth, the stories Ghiberti wished to tell are brought out +with much distinctness. They will ever remain one of the great monuments +of the sculpture of the Renaissance. + +Ghiberti endeavored to introduce fine backgrounds to his reliefs, which +gave him an opportunity to add figures illustrating other incidents than +the principal one of the work. His sculptures show the influence of the +Gothic style, the study of nature and that of the antique all combined; +with these are united his own power of conception, his ability in +design, and his wonderful delicacy of execution. These gates have been +continually studied by the artists of his own and succeeding +generations. + +The next work of importance by Ghiberti is the sarcophagus of St. +Zenobius in the Cathedral of Florence. Other lesser sculptures are in +other churches in Florence and in the Cathedral of Siena. + +We come now to one of the most interesting sculptors of the fifteenth +century. DONATELLO he was called, but his real name was DONATO DI BETTO +BARDI (1386-1468). He was born in Florence, and from his boyhood was a +member of the family of the rich banker Ruberto Martelli, who was the +firm friend of the sculptor for life, and when he died he provided in +his will that the works by Donatello which he bequeathed to his family +should never be pledged, sold, or given away, but kept as a perpetual +inheritance for his heirs. Donatello was a realist, and followed nature +with great exactness. This was not always productive of beauty in his +works; indeed, some of them are very ugly, and a story which illustrates +this is told of himself and Brunelleschi. Donatello had made a crucifix, +carved from wood, for the Church of Santa Croce, and when it was +finished he asked Brunelleschi's opinion of it. This latter artist was +principally an architect; but as he had learned the goldsmith's trade, +he executed some sculptures, and a close friendship existed between +himself and Donatello. Relying on their love for each other, +Brunelleschi frankly told Donatello that his crucifix was very ugly, and +his figure of Christ like that of a day-laborer, whereas it should +represent a person of the greatest possible beauty. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--FROM THE EASTERN GATES. _Showing compartments +6, 8, and 10._] + +Donatello was very angry at this, and exclaimed, "It is easier to +criticise than to execute; do you take a piece of wood and make a better +crucifix!" Brunelleschi determined to do this, and when his work was +finished he invited Donatello to sup with him. He placed the crucifix in +a conspicuous place in his house, and then took Donatello with him to +the market to buy their food. He gave the parcels to Donatello, and +asked him to go before to the house, saying that he would soon follow. +When Donatello entered and saw the crucifix he was so delighted at the +sight that he forgot everything else, and dropped the eggs, cheese, and +all on the floor, and stood gazing at the carving as motionless as if he +were a statue himself. When Brunelleschi came he said, "What are we to +do now? You have spoiled all the dinner!" + +"I have had dinner enough for to-day," replied Donatello. "You may have +a better appetite. To you, I confess, belongs the power of carving the +figure of Christ; to me that of representing day-laborers." + +This famous crucifix by Brunelleschi is now in the Gondi Chapel of the +Church of Santa Maria Novella; that by Donatello is in the chapel of +Saints Ludovico and Bartolommeo in the Church of Santa Croce. + +The Annunciation cut from sandstone, which is in Santa Croce, is one of +his earliest works, and is full of grace and nobleness (Fig. 84). He +made some beautiful groups of dancing children, which are now in the +Uffizi Gallery; but he considered his David, which is in the same +gallery, as his masterpiece. He was so proud of it that he swore by it, +saying, "By the faith I have in my Zuccone!" This word means bald-head, +and had come to be used as the usual name for the David. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _By Donatello._] + +But in spite of his liking for the David, it is generally thought that +his St. George, on the exterior of the Church of Or San Michele, is far +better. The German art-writer Grimm thus speaks of this work: "What a +man is the St. George in the niche of the Church of Or San Michele! He +stands there in complete armor, sturdily, with his legs somewhat +striding apart, resting on both with equal weight, as if he meant to +stand so that no power could move him from his post. Straight before him +he holds up his high shield; both hands touch its edge, partly for the +sake of holding it, partly in order to rest on it; the eyes and brows +are full of expectant boldness.... We approach this St. George, and the +mere artistic interest is transformed suddenly into a more lively +sympathy with the person of the master.... Who is it, we ask, who has +placed such a man there, so ready for battle?" (Fig. 85.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 85.--STATUE OF ST. GEORGE. _By Donatello._] + +Donatello's impetuosity led him into many rash acts. Among other +instances of this it is related that a rich Genoese merchant gave an +order for a portrait bust of himself in bronze; when it was finished the +great Duke Cosimo de' Medici, who was a friend of Donatello, admired the +work so much that he placed it on his balcony, so that all Florentines +who passed by could see it. When the merchant was given the price of the +bust he objected to it, and it was referred to Duke Cosimo for +settlement. In the conversation the Genoese said that the bust could be +made in a month, and that he was willing to pay the artist a dollar a +day for his time and labor. + +When Donatello heard this he exclaimed, "I know how to destroy the +result of the study of years in the twinkling of an eye!" and he threw +the bust into the street below, where it was broken into fragments. Then +the merchant was deeply mortified, and offered the sculptor double the +price he had asked if he would repeat the work; but though Donatello +sadly needed the money he would not do this, and persisted in his +refusal, even when Cosimo de' Medici tried to persuade him to consent. + +When Donatello was old Duke Cosimo gave him an allowance which would +support himself and four workmen; but in spite of this Donatello wore +such shabby clothes that Cosimo sent him a red surcoat, a mantle and +hood. These Donatello returned, saying they were far too fine for him. +When the sculptor at length became feeble and bedridden his benefactor +had died, but Piero de' Medici, the son of Cosimo, was careful to keep +him in comfort; and when he died his funeral was attended with much +ceremony. He was buried near Duke Cosimo, in the Church of San Lorenzo. + +Several of Donatello's works are in this church, and are a more suitable +monument to his memory than any that could be made by other hands. + +The works of Donatello are numerous, both in marble and bronze, and in +both these substances he made statues and reliefs. We cannot speak in +detail of all that he accomplished; but as he lived in an age when every +advance in art was an event in history, we must not forget to say that +he made the first equestrian statue which had been produced since the +time of the Romans. This statue is in Padua, in front of the Church of +San Antonio; it is of colossal size, and represents the Venetian General +Gattamelata; and though it does not satisfy our conception as an +equestrian statue, it is worthy of some praise when we remember all the +circumstances of its origin. It is not probable that Donatello had ever +seen an antique equestrian statue, unless it might have been that of +Marcus Aurelius, which was found in the Forum in 1187; no modern statues +existed as examples for him; he was not familiar with the modelling of +horses, and for every reason it was a bold thing for him to undertake +such a work. + +Donatello had more influence upon the art of his time than any other +Tuscan sculptor, with the single exception of Michael Angelo. As a man +he was honest, simple, and upright in all his dealings; as a friend he +was loyal and faithful; as a Christian he was humble and charitable, and +left behind him a name which has been handed down through more than four +centuries with respect and honor. + +LUCA DELLA ROBBIA (1400-1481) is another native of Florence, whose name +is widely known. Like many others, he began life as a goldsmith, and in +this way gained a mastery over detail and a finish of style that are +remarkable in all his works. He turned his attention to sculpture early +in life, and was so enthusiastic in his pursuit of this art that he +worked night and day, minding neither cold nor hunger and fatigue; in +the beginning he made numerous wax models, which have perished, and with +all his industry we have no work of his before he was forty-five years +old, except the reliefs of Music, Philosophy, Geometry, Grammar and +Astronomy, Plato and Aristotle, Ptolemy and Euclid, and a man playing a +lute, which are set into the side of the Campanile at Florence, and two +scenes from the life of St. Peter, which are in the Uffizi. + +In the same gallery are also the series of reliefs which Luca began when +forty-five years old for the balustrade of an organ in the cathedral. +These reliefs represent boys singing, dancing, and playing on musical +instruments (Fig. 86). The attitudes are so graceful and so varied, and +the expressions on the faces are so many, that there is much to admire +in a subject which in unskilful hands would be very monotonous. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86.--DANCING BOYS. _By Luca della Robbia._] + +No sculptures since the classic days represent child-life with such +freshness and charming qualities, and these alone would have raised Luca +to a high rank as a sculptor. In the Uffizi one is able to examine these +works closely, and they gain by this nearness to the eye, which enables +one to see the minuteness of his finish. There are various works of his +in bronze and marble still to be seen in the churches of Florence, but +the special art to which he gave his attention was to the perfecting of +enamel upon terra-cotta--on the making of what is known as the Robbia +ware. In this he achieved a great success, and his bas-reliefs are very +beautiful. At first he used but few colors, but later he increased their +number, and was able to produce a combined effect of painting and relief +that is very pleasing. + +These works were used for altar-pieces, medallions on exteriors, +fountains, wall decoration, and a great variety of purposes. Twelve +medallions representing the months, which are in the South Kensington +Museum, are said to have been made by Luca to decorate a writing cabinet +for one of the Medici. + +Luca worked with his nephew, Andrea, who had four sons; and when Luca +died his secrets belonged to them, and made their fortunes. They were +occupied eleven years in making a frieze to a hospital in Pistoja; it +represented the Seven Acts of Mercy. One of them went to France and +decorated the Chateau of Madrid for Francis I. Pope Leo X. employed +another to pave the Loggie of the Vatican with Robbia tiles, and these +wares, in one form and another, were used in numberless ways, both +useful and decorative. + +The Robbia family was followed by other workers in glazed ware, and +during about a century it was a prominent feature in art, and then was +gradually given up. + +The most noted pupil of Donatello was ANDREA DEL VEROCCHIO (1432-1488). +He was born at Florence, and was early apprenticed to a goldsmith called +Verocchio, from whom the sculptor took his surname. It is said that this +name came from the fact that the elder Verocchio had remarkable +exactness of sight. + +Neither the metal works nor the paintings which Verocchio did remain, +and after about 1466 he devoted himself entirely to sculpture. It is +difficult to associate him with Donatello; his execution is finished +like most sculptors who were also metal-workers; his nude parts are true +to nature, but not graceful or attractive, and his draperies are in +small folds, which give a tumbled, crumpled effect rather than that of +the easy, graceful falling of soft material. + +His best works are a David in the Museum of the Bargello, Florence; a +bronze Genius pressing a Dolphin to itself on a fountain in the court of +the Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 87); an equestrian statue of Colleoni before +the Church of San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (Fig. 88); and a group of St. +Thomas examining the Wounds of Christ at the Church of Or San Michele, +Florence. This last work is in his best and latest manner; the +expression is powerful, but the drapery is still very faulty. + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--BOY WITH DOLPHIN. _By Verocchio._] + +Although this equestrian statue is called by Verocchio's name, he did +not live to see it completed; and though it was without doubt made from +his design, still some credit for its execution is due to Alessandro +Leopardo, who finished it. When Colleoni died he left all his large +fortune to the Republic of Venice on condition that they should erect +an equestrian monument to him in the square of St. Mark. As it was +forbidden by the laws of Venice to place such things in the Piazza of +St. Mark, it was placed in its present position, before the Church of +San Giovanni e Paolo, on the square of the School of St. Mark, and it +was thought that this answered the requirements of the will. + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--STATUE OF COLLEONI. _By Verocchio._] + +When Verocchio had gone to Venice and had modelled the horse, he was +told that the Signory intended to have the rider made by another +sculptor. He felt this to be an insult, and broke off the head and legs +of the horse, and left Venice for Florence. The Signory issued a decree +forbidding him to set foot again on Venetian soil under pain of death. +The sculptor replied that he should not take the risk, as he well knew +that the Signory could take off his head, and he could not put it on, +while he could replace his horse's head with a better one. The Venetians +knew that this was true, and repealed their decree, and doubling his +pay, asked him to come to complete his work. Verocchio consented to do +so, but had not been long in Venice when he died. Verocchio is said to +have spent much time in drawing from the antique, and his works prove +him to have been diligent and painstaking; these qualities made him the +sculptor that he was; but we see no traces in his work of the +heaven-born genius which makes the artist great, and so inspires himself +that his works fill all beholders with an enthusiasm in a degree akin to +his own; the works of such artists as Verocchio, who have only the +excellencies which come from patient industry, interest us, but they +cannot move our hearts. + +It often happened in Italy that a number of artists belonged to the same +family, as in the case of the Robbias. One such family had the name of +GAMBARELLI, but were known in art as the ROSSELLINI. There were five +sculptors of this name, all brothers. Two of them had great ability, +Bernardo and Antonio. Bernardo was most distinguished as an architect, +and some very celebrated edifices were built from his designs; he also +executed some excellent sculptures, among which are the fine monument of +Lionardo Bruni in the Church of Santa Croce, and that of the Beata +Villana in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. The first is one of the best +monuments in Tuscany. In the Uffizi are a bust of St. John, a charming +work, and a portrait bust of Battista Sforza. + +ANTONIO ROSSELLINO (1427-1490), called PROCONSOLO, from the quarter of +Florence in which he was born, was by far the best sculptor of the +family. He is called a pupil of Donatello, but his work very closely +resembles that of Ghiberti. Among his best works are the monument to +Cardinal Portogallo, in the Church of San Miniato, near Florence; that +of Mary of Aragon in Monte Oliveto at Naples; a relief of the Nativity +in the same church, and a relief of the Adoring Madonna in the Uffizi +Gallery. His characteristics were grace, delicacy of treatment, +sweetness of expression, and all these combined with a noble dignity. + +Other Tuscan sculptors of this period were DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO, MINO +DA FIESOLE (1400-1486), ANDREA FERRUCCI (1465-1526), and BENEDETTO DA +MAJANO (1442-1498), who was eminent as an architect as well as for his +sculpture. His father was a stone-cutter, and two other sons in the +family were artists. Benedetto began life as a worker in wooden mosaics, +or intarsiatore, as it is called. He made two beautiful inlaid chests, +and carried them to Hungary as a gift to King Matthias Corvinus, whose +fame as a patron of art had reached his ears. But the young artist was +doomed to a dreadful disappointment, for when he unpacked his chests in +the presence of the king it was found that the sea-damp had spoiled +them, and the mosaics had fallen apart. Benedetto then determined to +work in more durable materials, and executed some sculptures in marble +and terra-cotta while he remained in Hungary. + +After his return to Florence, Benedetto worked as an architect, and the +Strozzi Palace was built after his design. His masterpiece in sculpture +was the monument to Filippo Strozzi, in the Strozzi Chapel in Santa +Maria Novella, and it also merits mention among the best works of the +fifteenth century. A pulpit in Santa Croce, by Benedetto, is also very +fine, and his skill was shown here in his supporting the pulpit against +a column and putting the staircase by which the pulpit is entered inside +the column; thus it was concealed, and the building in no wise weakened, +while the pulpit is far more beautiful than it would be were the +staircase in sight. + +Benedetto was summoned to Naples by the Duke of Calabria, who gave him +commissions which occupied him for two years. Few Tuscan sculptors have +produced more pleasing works than Benedetto's; though not profound they +are pleasing and unaffected, and in whatever frame of mind one may be, +they do not disturb, but rather soothe and charm, as they could not do +if they were false in sentiment or executed in an affected manner. + +MATTEO CIVITALI DI GIOVANNI (1435-1501) was born in Lucca, but studied +art in Florence. His statue of St. Sebastian in the Cathedral of Lucca +was so much admired by the painter Perugino that he copied it in his +picture of the Entombment. + +Civitali's chief work in sculpture was the tomb of Pietro da Noceto in +the same cathedral. In Genoa, in the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, he +executed six statues and five bas-reliefs. A bas-relief of Faith by +Civitali in the Uffizi Gallery is a fine work, full of earnestness and +deep religious feeling. + +Civitali was also an accomplished architect, and did much to improve the +style of building in Lucca. The beautiful temple of the Volto Santo in +the cathedral was designed by him. + +This sculptor may be said to have had four different styles of work. The +St. Sebastian was in his earliest manner, and is simply realistic; his +second manner was the best; it is pure and dignified in conception, +while deep feeling pervades all; the tomb of Noceto was in this second +style; his third manner was more free and less pure, while the fourth, +as seen in his work at Genoa, is full of extravagant exaggeration. + +Next to the sculptors of the Tuscan or Florentine school of this period +were those of Venice in importance and independence of manner. This +school was much influenced by that of Tuscany because of the nearness of +the two cities and the constant communication between them, as well as +by the fact that Tuscan sculptors were more or less employed in Venice. +One of the earliest Venetian sculptors was ANTONIO GIOVANNI BREGNO, +called ANTONIO RIZZO or RICCIO (about 1430-1498?). Although he was born +in Verona, and there had the opportunity to study the Roman ruins which +are the pride of the city, he is yet essentially an artist of Venice, +since he spent most of his life there, and was even at the head of the +workshop for the sculptors who worked upon the palace. One little +episode in the life of this artist was an expedition to Scutari with the +Venetian soldiers, who went to its defence against the Turks. Rizzo +showed himself so brave in action, and was so severely wounded, that +after his return to Venice the Senate gave him a pension which lasted +through twenty years. Rizzo so won the confidence of the Venetians that +he was appointed to important offices with large salaries, and it is sad +to be forced to add that he proved to be a dishonest man, and when his +accounts were examined he fled to Foligno, where he soon died. We will +not speak of him as an architect; as a sculptor he is known by statues +of Adam and Eve in niches opposite the Giant's Staircase in the Ducal +Palace, and by sepulchral monuments in the Church of the Frari. While +his works cannot be highly praised for beauty, they do show the style of +the Renaissance distinctly. + +LOMBARDO is the family name of three sculptors of this period in Venice. +They were PIETRO and his two sons, TULLIO and ANTONIO, and the three +together are spoken of as the Lombardi. Pietro, the father, was as much +an architect as a sculptor, and the works of the father and son are so +associated that it is difficult to speak of them separately. We know +that Tullio was the superior artist of the three, but there are no works +of theirs that command a detailed description here. The monument to the +Doge Pietro Mocenigo, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, the angels +of the font in San Martino, an altar-relief in the altar of San Giovanni +Crisostomo, reliefs on the front of the Scuola di San Marco, and two +reliefs in the Church of San Antonio at Padua, are the principal +sculptures of the Lombardi. + +ALESSANDRO LEOPARDO, who flourished about 1490, was the most eminent +bronze-caster of his time, and was distinguished for the happy manner in +which he adapted classic ideas to his needs in his works. + +Very little is known of the life of this sculptor, and that little is +not to his credit. He lived in Venice, and had a studio in the Piazza +del Cavallo, and in 1487 committed a forgery, for which he was banished +from the city. But when Verocchio died, leaving the Colleoni statue +unfinished, the Senate desired to have it completed by Leopardo, so they +sent him a safe-conduct for six months, and he returned to Venice. As +there is no account of his again leaving the city, it is supposed that +he was allowed to remain as long as he chose. There has been much +difference of opinion as to which artist--Verocchio or Leopardo--should +be credited with the excellence of the Colleoni statue. The truth, as +near as it can be told, seems to be that Verocchio designed and modelled +it, that Leopardo completed and cast it, and made the lofty pedestal +upon which it stands, and which, taken by itself, is a splendid work. It +is of fine proportions, and has six Corinthian columns, in the capitals +of which there are dolphins, while the frieze is composed of trophies +and marine animals, all of which are symbols of the City on the Sea +which erected the monument. + +After the Colleoni statue was unveiled the Senate gave Leopardo an order +for three standard bases of bronze to be placed in the Piazza of St. +Mark's. He also made three splendid candelabra for the Venetian Academy. +Leopardo was also an architect. The time of his death is very +uncertain, but a writer speaks of him in 1541 as "the new glory of our +age, who shines like a star in the Venetian waters." + +Although an immense amount of sculpture of this period remains in +various parts of Italy, it is very difficult to trace the story of +separate artists and to give a satisfactory account of those whose works +are worthy of high praise. There is scarcely an Italian city of any size +which has not some splendid remains of this morning of the Renaissance. +In Ancona there are the portal of San Francesco and the front of +Mercanzia, with which the name of Giorgio da Sebenico is associated. At +Rimini the Church of San Francesco, with its wealth of plastic ornament, +cannot be ascribed to any one artist or to any number with surety; it is +in the style of Luca della Robbia and Donatello, but in the execution +does not reach their standard. In Cesena, Padua, and Verona there are +fifteenth-century sculptures, and in the Milanese territory the plastic +art of this period is very interesting. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 89, 90.--TERRA-COTTAS FROM THE OSPEDALE GRANDE. +_Milan._] + +In Milan, in the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, in the Ospedale +Grande, and in the cathedral there is a wealth of sculpture to reward +the student of this art who visits them; and in the Museum of the Breda +there are many interesting works. The terra-cotta decoration of the +Ospedale excels all other works of this sort in upper Italy, and the +immense facade of this edifice is a marvel in its way (Figs. 89, 90). +The differences between this hospital and the wonderful Milan Cathedral +afford a remarkable contrast in works of the same period. + +GIOVANNI ANTONIO AMADEO, or OMODEO (1447-1520), was born on a farm near +the Certosa of Pavia. When but nineteen years old his name appears as +one of those who were employed upon this splendid edifice, and the +records of his payments show that his work was well considered, even +then. Omodeo was undoubtedly the best sculptor of his time in all +Lombardy, and his sculptures in the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo would be +sufficient to make any artist famous. The whole work may be called his, +for he designed the building and the sculptures of the facade, which are +in the richest style of the Renaissance; there are statuettes, +colonettes, busts, medallions, and bas-reliefs, and wherever a flat +surface exists it is divided into diamond-shaped slabs of colored +marbles. The portal is very much ornamented: on each side of the rose +window above this entrance there are busts of Caesar and Augustus in +contrast with numbers of angels' heads not far away. There are +bas-reliefs representing children playing upon musical instruments, and +the whole front of the chapel, with its numerous pilasters and +colonettes, has been compared to a gigantic organ, by Mr. Perkins, in +his "Italian Sculptors". + +Of the interior decoration we can only say that it is much in Omodeo's +style, though the monument to Colleoni, the founder of the chapel, is +said to be the work of German sculptors, and to have been done after +Omodeo left Bergamo. + +At Pavia, Omodeo succeeded Guiniforte as chief architect of the Certosa, +and designed the facade, which was made by him and his successors. The +bas-relief of the Deposition from the Cross, which is on the front of +the high-altar here, is the work of Omodeo. At Cremona and at Isola +Bella he executed some monuments, but at length, in 1490, he began his +work on the Cathedral of Milan. Here a cupola was commenced after his +model and under his direction; but when it was partly done doubts of its +solidity were expressed, and Omodeo was commanded to leave it and design +the north door to the cathedral. He also constructed the spiral +staircase leading to the roof through an elegant Gothic turret, where +the medallion portrait of Omodeo may be seen. It has since been proved +that the cupola of Omodeo was solid enough, for it has sustained the +spire which was put upon it in 1772; but he was tormented concerning it +in many ways, and died without justification. + +Omodeo stands at the head of northern Italian sculptors in his dexterous +use of his chisel; his ease in composition and his skill in the +management of drapery would have made him eminent; but the effect of all +these good qualities was injured by his mannerism, and the fact that his +standard of beauty was not a high one. This may be partly accounted for +by the fact that in Lombardy an artist had no opportunity to study the +remains of classic art, and this one circumstance very largely excuses +the inferiority of the northern sculptors to those of Tuscany, whose +taste had been much improved by close study of ancient plastic art. + +There are many sculptors mentioned as having done some part of the work +upon the Milan Cathedral, but very few are known, except by casual +remark. CRISTOFORO SOLARI, called "IL GOBBO, or DEL GOBBO," was one of +the most prominent, and yet we know almost nothing of his history until, +in 1490, he was so disappointed when Omodeo was made architect of the +cathedral instead of himself that he went to Venice, and remained there +during several years. + +After a time Solari was appointed ducal sculptor to Ludovico Moro, and +the monument which he erected to Beatrice d'Este was one of his +principal works. When Ludovico lost his power Solari went to Rome, and +remained until he was recalled to Milan to execute sculptures for the +cathedral. He was very independent in his reply, and refused to go +unless his conditions were complied with; one of these conditions was +that he should not be under the direction of any one, but should select +his marbles and his subjects to please himself. The statues he made are +not as fine as we might expect them to be after this beginning; however, +he was at length appointed head architect. Soon after this he was +engaged in making a new model for a cupola, and then suddenly his name +ceases to appear upon the registers. + +The Cathedral of Como is another of those vast edifices which afforded +opportunities for artists to make themselves famous. The principal part +of the facade to this cathedral was ornamented by TOMMASO and JACOPO +RODARI. The first was at one time architect of the cathedral, and +together they executed a large portion of the sculptures. Their best +work was in the ornamental parts. + +In the southern parts of Italy, both in the states of the Church and in +Naples, there are many works of the fifteenth century which were +executed by artists from Florence and other parts of Italy. Thus there +is nothing new to be said concerning sculpture in Southern Italy during +this period, since the works which are not by foreign artists are in the +same style as theirs; for the native sculptors copied those from Central +and Northern Italy, and no great progress or original manner can be +found in these southern districts. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN, FROM 1450 TO 1550. + + +In Italy, as we have seen, the sculpture of the Renaissance was much +advanced by the fact that in the beginning of its growth the +architecture of the country was largely an imitation of Greek +architecture; and as the same artist was frequently an architect, +sculptor, and painter, edifices were designed with the purpose of +placing the works of the sculptor in the most favorable positions. + +In the countries north of Italy sculpture had no such aid or advantages. +The Gothic style of architecture was a hindrance to the sculptor, whose +works were combined with it. The Gothic construction afforded no broad, +generous spaces for sculpture; all plastic work must be confined in +limited spaces between columns and baldachins, or in arched niches, or +between narrow flutings; and though something had been done to vary the +upright stiffness of the statues of its earliest days, there was no +freedom for the realistic and natural tendencies of the Renaissance art +to develop in. + +Another advantage on the side of Italian art was the fact that Italy was +a land of grace and beauty; its people were more refined in manner, more +elegant and picturesque in their costumes than were those of Northern +Europe, and all the influences surrounding the Italian artist were far +more favorable to a development of his artistic nature than were those +of France or Germany. Then, too, the remains of antique art which were +within reach of the Italian sculptor were quite shut off from others. +For all these and other reasons the sculpture of the north was more +tardy in taking on the better spirit and form of the Renaissance, and as +a whole it never became as pleasing to most people as was the sculpture +of Italy. + +In a former chapter we have spoken of the sculptor Claux Sluter and his +work at Dijon in the fourteenth century; the desire which he showed to +make his figures like the men they represented, and a general study of +nature rather than of older works of sculpture, had much effect upon the +sculpture of his time, and gradually became much exaggerated. German +sculptors tried not only to make exact portraits of the faces and heads +of their figures, but they gave the same attention to imitating every +detail of costume and every personal peculiarity of the model from which +they worked. This tended to weaken and narrow their own designs, and the +whole effect of their work is fantastic and exaggerated--an effect quite +opposed to the noble and harmonious treatment of the whole which the +best Italian masters strove to attain. + +The attempt to produce startling effects in German art made such +subjects as the Passion of Christ, the Temptation of St. Anthony, and +the Martyrdoms of the Saints to be constantly repeated, and many reliefs +are overloaded with such details as may very properly be used in +painting, and which belong to _picturesque_ art, but which take away the +dignity and calm grandeur which should make the spirit of sculpture. But +there is one feature of German sculpture at this time which appeals to +our sympathy--that is, the deep, earnest feeling which pervades it, and +which constantly tried new methods of expression. + +In Germany there were guilds or trade-associations, and the members of +these guilds were allowed to work in the special branch only of +sculpture which belonged to their company, so that this art was divided +by more fixed lines than in Italy, where, in truth, at the period of +which we speak, the Florentine school was a supreme power, and its +sculptors, as we have seen, worked in as many sorts of sculpture as +pleased them. + +The schools of Germany were far more independent of each other, and the +entire organization of art in Germany was very different from that of +Italy. + +One of the most prominent effects of the architecture of Germany was to +drive the sculptors to seek for such work as had no relation to +architecture, and an important result from this was the great attention +which they paid to wood-carving; indeed, this was the favorite pursuit +of the German sculptors for many years. About the middle of the +fifteenth century the importance of this art in Germany was far greater +than those of bronze-casting or stone sculpture. + +The principal works in wood-carving were the altars, which finally came +to be colossal in size, and with their multitude of reliefs, statuettes, +and ornaments were marvellous monuments to the industry and skill of the +wood-carvers. The reliefs in these works are usually arranged on +landscape backgrounds, and so much resemble pictures in many ways that +the colors and gilding which were freely used on them do not seem out of +place, and it appears to be quite natural that wood-carvers should often +have been painters also. + +The Swabian school, the principal seat of which was Ulm, was the +earliest to adopt the new, realistic style. There are works by Swabian +artists which show this tendency as early as 1431. JOeRG SYRLIN, who +flourished during the last half of the fifteenth century, was an eminent +wood-carver, and as he did not color his works he can be better judged +as a sculptor than he could be if the effect of the whole depended +partly upon painting. The choir-stalls in the Cathedral of Ulm and the +fountain in the market-place, called "Fischkasten," are his most +important works; but a singing-desk, now in the museum, and other lesser +pieces are also excellent examples of his style. The choir-stalls have +an immense number of figures and a mass of ornament, which made them far +richer than any such work of an earlier date, and none that have since +been made have equalled them. It is almost incredible that they were +completed in four years, and yet there are no marks of haste upon the +work. The figures are dignified and graceful, the faces delicate and +expressive, the hands well formed, and a beauty of design and execution +marks the whole. The lower figures, which come nearest the eye, are +finer than those which are higher up, so that a unity of effect is +preserved throughout the whole. He sometimes took occasion to give +touches of humor in his works, and in these stalls he introduced his own +portrait and that of his wife. + +The "Fischkasten" is sculptured in stone, and has three knights upon it +which appear to be boldly advancing, as if about to step off and walk +away. Other works by this master are less important, and it is doubtful +if all that are called by his name are really his own. Joerg Syrlin, the +younger, trained by his father, adopted his style, and became an +excellent artist. + +We have not space to speak of the Swabian sculptures in detail. Fine +works exist in Tiefenbronn, Rothenburg, Blaubeuren, Herrenberg, Gmuend, +Ravensburg, and many other places. + +The influence of the Swabian school was very wide; it can be traced in +many parts of Germany, in Hungary and Transylvania, and even in +Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria. Swabian artists were often summoned +to adjacent provinces, and thus did much work away from their homes. The +reliefs upon the door of the Cathedral of Constance were executed by +Simon Hayder, a Swabian, in 1470. The altar of the cathedral at Chur +was the work of Jacob Roesch, another Swabian master, who thus labored on +the very boundary of Italy. The school at Augsburg was the second +Swabian school in importance, and much influence went out from that +centre, though its sculptures were not as fine as those of Ulm. + +In some cases fine old sculptures still exist in the churches and other +places for which they were intended. Again we find them either whole, or +in parts, in museums to which they have been removed when they were no +longer required for the uses for which they were made, or when they were +replaced by more modern works. So few facts are known concerning them +that it is almost impossible to do more than repeat descriptions of the +subjects they represent; and this is neither profitable nor entertaining +in a book of this kind; therefore I shall now speak only of such artists +as have left some record behind them, and of works whose authorship can +be given. + +VEIT STOSS, who flourished about the middle of the fifteenth century, +was an eminent wood-carver. Very little is known about him. His name is +sometimes said to be Wit Stwosz, and Cracow and Nuremberg both claim to +have been his birthplace. But it is now believed that he was born in +Nuremberg, as it is known that in 1477 he gave up his citizenship there +and went to Cracow, and in 1496 he paid a small sum to be again made a +citizen of Nuremberg. + +We also know that his reputation as a man was not good. In a Nuremberg +decree he is called a "reckless and graceless citizen, who has caused +much uneasiness to the honorable council and the whole town." He was +convicted of crimes for which he should have suffered death, but the +sentence was changed, and he was branded: both cheeks were pierced with +a hot iron. After this he broke the oath he had taken to the city, and +joined her enemies in plotting against her; he was subsequently +imprisoned, and at his death, in 1533, he was very old and perfectly +blind. + +It seems almost like a contradiction to say that this master was one of +the most tender in feeling of all the wood-carvers of his time. He was +especially successful in representing the purity of the Madonna and of +youthful saints. His principal works are in the churches of Cracow and +Nuremberg. In the Frauenkirche at Cracow the high-altar, a part of the +stalls in the choir, and some other sculptures are his. In Nuremberg his +best works are a bas-relief of the Crowning of the Virgin, which is +preserved in the Burgkapelle; the great Madonna statue, which was placed +in the Frauenkirche in 1504; and the colossal Angel's Salutation, which +is suspended in the choir of the Church of St. Laurence. This last is an +unusual and important work. The angel appears as if flying, and the +drapery is much inflated; the Virgin is queenly and majestic, yet +graceful; all around are medallions in which are represented the Seven +Sorrows of the Virgin. The style of these reliefs is charming if we +except the drapery; that has the faults of the time, and is bad in +style; but the female heads are all that we could ask; the whole design +is distinct, and few reliefs could surpass these in simple beauty and +genuine artistic feeling. + +Another remarkable work of his is a panel of roses, now in the +Burgkapelle. The panel is seven feet high by five wide; more than half +of this is covered by a wreath of roses; there are besides four rows of +small half-length figures arranged round a cross of St. Anthony, a +representation of the Last Judgment, scenes in the history of man from +the creation to the death of the Virgin, and many other saints and like +subjects in bits of reliefs, which fill up all spare spaces. The style +is very distinct, and the draperies better in this work than in others +from his hand. + +There are other works in Nuremberg and elsewhere which are attributed +to Veit Stoss, but these that are known to be his are quite enough to +establish his fame as a gifted artist and a remarkable sculptor for his +time. + +Though Stoss is among the early masters of Nuremberg, it is yet true +that others had been at work while he was in Cracow, and the way had +been prepared for him and his work when he returned to his native city +in 1496. Among the most active artists in Nuremberg was MICHAEL +WOHLGEMUTH (1434-1519), who is generally considered as a painter only; +but we know that he made contracts for entire works in which sculpture +and painting are combined, and must have had the oversight of the whole; +and in this view it is proper to mention this master's name. The altars +at Haller Cross Chapel, Nuremberg, one at Zwickau, another at Schwabach, +and that of the Heilsbronn Monastery, near Nuremberg, are all ascribed +to Wohlgemuth. + +ALBRECHT DUeRER (1471-1528), who was one of the great masters of the +world, was an architect, painter, and sculptor. He was a pupil of +Michael Wohlgemuth, and sculpture was less practised by him than other +arts; yet the few works of his which remain are much valued. + +Duerer probably executed his carvings about 1510-1520. In the British +Museum there is a relief of the Birth of St. John the Baptist, which was +purchased in the Netherlands more than eighty years since for $2500. It +is cut in a block of cream-colored stone, seven and one half by five and +one half inches in size, and is a wonderful work. The companion piece, +which represents the same saint Preaching in the Wilderness, is in the +Brunswick Museum, where there is also an "Ecce Homo" carved in wood. + +Duerer executed many little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and +the existing ones are seen in various collections in Germany. It is +quite probable that others are in private hands. + +There are in Nuremberg many most excellent wood-carvings by unknown +masters; one who cares for this art is well repaid for a visit to this +old city, and, indeed, this is true of other old German towns. Bamberg, +Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dortmund, Halle, and many other towns +have riches in this kind of art. + +The stone sculpture of Germany in the fifteenth century was of less +importance than the wood-carving until toward the close of the period. +The exteriors of the churches and other edifices erected at this time +had but little sculptural ornament, and that consisted principally of +traceries and figures in geometric designs. Some small detached works, +such as fonts, pulpits, or fountains, were made in stone, but the chief +use of stone sculpture was for monuments to the dead. + +ADAM KRAFFT (about 1430-1507), of whose early history almost nothing is +known, is a very important master of this time, and his principal works +add another charm to the city of Nuremberg. A remarkable series of works +by Krafft are the Seven Stages, or seven bas-reliefs placed on the way +to the Johannis Cemetery, the designs representing the seven falls of +Christ on his way to Golgotha. + +These reliefs are much crowded, and the only part that is at all +idealized is the figure of Christ; that is noble and calm in effect, and +the drapery is simple and dignified. The other figures are coarse and +dressed like the Nurembergers of the time in which Krafft lived. + +In the churches of St. Sebald and St. Laurence and in the Frauenkirche +there are other splendid works of Krafft, and in some dwelling-houses of +Nuremberg there are sculptures of his. A Madonna on the houses, 1306, in +the Hirschelgasse, is one of the finest, perhaps the very best in all +Germany. We do not know whether this was by Krafft or not, but it has a +purity and nobleness that scarcely any other German sculptor attained. + +That Krafft had a sense of humor is shown by a bas-relief above the +entrance to the Public Scales. The weigher stands observing the beam, +and beneath it is written, "To thyself as to others." Another man adds a +weight to one scale, and the man who is to be taxed puts his hand into +his money-bag very reluctantly. + +Perhaps his most artistic work was the tabernacle in the Church of St. +Laurence. It is sixty-four feet high; the lower part is supported by the +kneeling figures of Krafft and two of his associates. Above this rises a +slender Gothic pyramid ornamented with bas-reliefs and statuettes. He +was employed upon this tabernacle from 1496 to 1500. It is believed that +a "Burial of Christ," in the chapel of the Johannis Cemetery, was his +latest work, and executed in 1507, the year in which he died, in the +hospital of Schwabach. Krafft led a most industrious life, and was so +skilful a workman that he could work with his left hand as readily as +with his right. + +TILMAN RIEMENSCHNEIDER was an important sculptor, born at Osterode, in +the Hartz Mountains, probably about 1460. In 1483 he went to Wuerzburg, +and was elected to one honorable office after another, until, in 1520, +he was head burgomaster. After the Peasants' War, in 1525, he was +deprived of his office; he lived but six years after this, and kept +himself in close retirement, not even practising his art. + +His sculptures are mostly in stone, and are quite numerous in Wuerzburg +and its vicinity. His monument to the Knight Eberhard von Grumbach, in +the church at Rimpar, was probably his earliest important work. In it he +has contrived to express strength and bravery of character in spite of +the stiff costume, every detail of which is worked out (Fig. 91). + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--COUNT EBERHARD VON GRUMBACH. _Rimpar._] + +In 1495 Riemenschneider received the important commission to erect in +Bamberg Cathedral a splendid monument to the Emperor Heinrich II. and +his wife Kunigunde. This occupied him until 1513, and is a splendid +example of his skill. The figures of the two royal personages lie upon a +large sarcophagus; the statues are more than life-size, and are dressed +in the fantastic costume of the fifteenth century. Upon the sides of the +sarcophagus are five reliefs, representing as many scenes from the lives +of the emperor and empress. The monuments and religious subjects +executed by this sculptor are very numerous. In the church at Maidbrunn +there is a relief representing the "Lamentation over the Dead Body of +Christ," which is probably his latest work. It is cut from sandstone, +and the figure of Nicodemus is believed to be the sculptor's own +portrait. + +We give here four figures from the portal of the cathedral at Berne, in +Switzerland. The really splendid sculptures were the work of Nicolaus +Kuenz, and from their style seem to belong to about 1520. They show the +influence of such artists as the painters Nicolaus Manuel (1484-1531) +and Hans Holbein (about 1459-1524). The statues of the Wise and Foolish +Virgins are fine, and that of Justice, whose pose is full of grace, and +whose almost transparent garment is an exquisite work, affords an +excellent illustration of the most pleasing sculpture of this period +(Figs. 92, 93). + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--JUSTICE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE THREE WISE VIRGINS.] + +Another art, which had its headquarters at Nuremberg in the fifteenth +century, is bronze-casting, and its chief master was the famous PETER +VISCHER, who was the son of another brasier, HERMANN VISCHER. The date +of Peter Vischer's birth is given as 1460, and he was admitted to be a +master in his art in 1489. Five years later than this he was summoned to +Heidelberg together with a sculptor, Simon Lamberger, to aid the Elector +Philip with advice and skill. Nothing is known of any work which Vischer +did there. + +Vischer's foundry at Nuremberg enjoyed a great fame, and orders were +sent to it from far and near. No doubt a great many monuments were cast +here which were not designed by Vischer at all. His works were numerous, +but I shall only describe his masterpiece, which was the shrine or tomb +of St. Sebald, and occupied Peter Vischer from 1508 to 1519, he being +assisted by his five sons. The son Peter was admitted as a master in the +thimble trade in 1527. Hans was called "the caster," and seems to have +superintended the carving of models; Hermann went to Italy and brought +home designs and models; and Jacob and Paul seem to have had no special +departments. Between 1495 and 1508 so little was recorded of Peter +Vischer that it leads to the belief that these years must have been +given to study and to the improvement which the tomb of St. Sebald shows +over the work of the monument to Archbishop Ernst, in the Magdeburg +Cathedral, which was done in 1495. + +The bones of St. Sebald had been inclosed in a sarcophagus of the Middle +Ages, and the work required of Vischer was a fitting tomb for such +precious and honored relics, for St. Sebald is the special patron saint +of Nuremberg, and dwelt in a cell near that city. His legend relates +that he was the son of a Danish king, who came to Germany as a +missionary and settled at Nuremberg, where he did many miraculous works +of charity. On one occasion, during very cold weather, he is said to +have found a family nearly frozen and without fuel; he commanded them to +bring the icicles hanging from the roof and make a fire of them. They +obeyed, and were thus warmed. Many such wonders are told of him, and +Vischer in his statue makes him to appear as a pilgrim, with shell in +hat, staff, rosary and wallet, while in his hand he holds a model of a +church intended to represent that in which the tomb is erected. This +Church of St. Sebald is now used for the Lutheran service, and the +shrine still stands in the centre of the choir. (Fig. 94.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--TOMB OF ST. SEBALD. _By Peter Vischer._ +_Nuremberg._] + +The architecture of this remarkable work is of the richest style of +Gothic, and the whole of it is in bronze, except that the oaken +sarcophagus is encased in silver plates. This rests beneath a fret-work +canopy supported on slender pillars. There is an abundance of ornament +everywhere, but the close examination of its detail shows beauty and +fitness in every part. For example, if we compare the statue of the +saint, of which we have spoken, which stands at the end of the shrine +most exposed, with the statue of Vischer himself, which is at the +opposite end, we shall see how the saint, with his symbols and his +flowing drapery, is an ideal work, and seems to be advancing with +authority and the air which befits the son of a king, while Vischer, +with his round cap, leather apron, and German face, is simply the +representation of a worker bent upon doing his best (Fig. 95). + +[Illustration: FIG. 95.--PETER VISCHER'S STATUE.] + +The sarcophagus rests upon a base on which are four reliefs of scenes +from the life of the saint, all in the purest manner of the time. One of +these represents the burning of the icicles recounted above (Fig. 96). + +This base and sarcophagus and the fret-work above it form the centre of +the tomb. Then outside of this are eight pillars supporting a +baldachin, or canopy, in the richly ornamented Romanesque style, and the +combinations of the Gothic and the decorative architecture are so +skilfully made as not to offend our taste. But it is generally +acknowledged that the chief beauty of this work is the series of the +figures of the apostles, which are upon the pillars. They are slender in +proportion, gracefully draped, and bear their distinctive symbols. They +are perfectly free from the realism of the earlier works of Vischer, and +have more of the purity and nobleness of the works of Ghiberti than are +seen in the statues of any other German artist of this age (Figs. 97, +98). + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--ST. SEBALD AND THE BURNING ICICLES. _Vischer._] + +Above the apostles are figures of prophets and other Biblical +personages; Perseus and Hercules are also represented, and other statues +typify Strength, Justice, Prudence, and Moderation. The figure of the +Infant Christ is upon the centre of the highest, or middle dome. Between +the pillars at their bases stand graceful candelabra, and the base +itself rests upon snails. Besides all these principal figures there are +almost numberless others and many ornamental designs. There are +harpies, sirens, satyrs, fawns, and all sorts of fantastic creatures. +The whole work is full of the deep feeling of the north and the beauty +and richness of the south, and is a most remarkable production. + +We are told that Vischer was but poorly paid for this labor, with all +its thought and skill. He inscribed upon it these words: "... He +completed it for the praise of God Almighty alone, and for the honor of +St. Sebald, Prince of Heaven, by the aid of pious persons, paid by their +voluntary contributions." There is a satisfaction in remembering that +Vischer lived ten years after this tomb was completed, and must have +heard many praises of his work. + +The later works of Vischer were a few reliefs and two important +monuments at Aschaffenburg and Wittenberg. His sons Hans and Hermann +executed a few monuments, which are done in the manner of their father, +but do not equal him in design or finish. There are numerous works which +must be regarded as productions of Vischer's studio and foundry of which +we cannot give clear accounts, not knowing whether they were the earlier +works of the father, or were executed by the sons or other pupils, of +which he had many. + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--PETER. _By Peter Vischer._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--JOHN. _By Peter Vischer._] + +PANKRAZ LABENWOLF was one of Vischer's pupils, and completed the +splendid lattice-work over the Town-hall which the master left +unfinished; Labenwolf added some ornaments and coats-of-arms to it. In +1550 he cast the fountain in the court-yard of the same building, which +is a graceful and creditable work; but another fountain in the vegetable +market, behind the Frauenkirche, is truly original; the water flows from +the mouths of two geese held under the arms of a peasant; the whole +effect is droll and unique (Fig. 99). + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--MAN AND GEESE. _By Labenwolf._] + +You will remember how, about 1390, Claux Sluter, by his works in Dijon, +had a great influence upon French sculpture. A century and more later +this art in France was largely under the influence of Italian masters, +who had been called into France by Francis I. and other patrons of art. +Splendid works of sculpture were also imported from Italy, and the +effect of the Italian Renaissance, which was so plainly seen upon the +painting of France, was also at work upon its sculpture. + +Where the sculptures were a part of an architectural decoration, as in +the case of the choir screen in the cathedral at Amiens, and other like +works, the change was not as complete as in cases where the work was one +of independent sculpture, as in monuments and statues to commemorate the +dead, or in portrait sculpture. + +The wealth and power of the nobility of France at this period enabled +them to gratify their desire to leave fine monuments of themselves, in +order to keep their names in memory in future centuries. In these the +Italian manner was adopted, and the works when completed were far more +splendid and elegant than were the corresponding works in Germany. But +they have a grave fault, which makes them much less interesting than are +the German sculptures: they are more conventional, less expressive, and +far less artistic in spirit. They impress one as if the soft, luxurious +court atmosphere had passed over them, and taking away their strong +points, had left them only a general air of being well-bred and +well-kept persons, of little importance to the real life of the world. + +In the Louvre, in the Museum of Modern Sculpture, all this change can be +traced, and the traveller in France may see such monuments as we refer +to in all the cathedrals and most of the churches all over the country. +Many of them cannot be traced to any one master. A fine specimen is the +Amboise Monument in Rouen Cathedral, which is said to have been the work +of one Roulland de Roux and his assistants. + +JEAN JUSTE of Tours was one of the best French artists of his day. In +the Cathedral of Tours is a monument to two young children of Charles +VIII., which proves him to have had much delicacy and tenderness of +execution. The sarcophagus is covered with graceful designs, and on the +lid lie the two babies, for the eldest was but three years old. The +whole work is exquisite, and gives one a feeling of satisfaction. + +About 1530 Juste erected the splendid monument to Louis XII. and Anne of +Brittany in the Church of St. Denis. While the general form of the +monument is much like that of the Visconti in the Certosa at Pavia, the +figures of the dead couple are quite different from the Italian manner. +Below on a bier the two nude bodies are stretched in all the realism +possible, and the heads are noble and touching in expression. Above, on +the upper part of the monument, where in Italy the patron saint or some +other figure usually is placed, the king and queen again appear; they +are kneeling, with full drapery about them, while the faces are +characteristic and very expressive. This monument, taken all in all, is +in the perfection of the French art of the time. Another work by Juste +now in the Louvre is the monument to Louis de Poncher, one of the +ministers of Francis I., and his wife, Roberta. These statues are in +alabaster, and were formerly in the Church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois, +which was built by Poncher. + +PIERRE BONTEMPS must have been a famous sculptor, as he was chosen to +erect the monument to Francis I., his wife Claude and their three +children. This is also at St. Denis, and is even more grand than that to +Louis XII. On the upper platform the five figures are kneeling; they are +noble and simple, with an air of great repose. These examples serve to +give an idea of the religious sculpture of the time. + +Secular subjects were unusual. A house in Bourges is decorated with the +figures of the master and mistress above the entrance, as if they would +speak a welcome, while reliefs of industrial scenes, such as might be +seen outside and inside of the house, are placed in various positions +over the building and in the court-yard. Something of a like sort is +upon the Hotel Bourgtheroulde at Rouen, where the friezes show scenes +between Francis I. and Henry VIII. Biblical scenes are also distributed +over the building. + +Bruges is almost the only city of the Netherlands that has any +sculptures of this period of which one would speak. Just at this time +the art of that country was painting preeminently, and the Van Eycks and +their followers had done such things as held the attention of all to the +neglect of other arts. At Bruges in the cathedral, the Church of St. +Jacques, and the Liebfrauenkirche there are some fine monuments, and the +Palais de Justice has a carved chimney-piece which is magnificent, and +a work of the highest rank. + +In England sculpture was of less account even than in the Netherlands. +One circumstance is worthy of notice. Pietro Torrigiano, after +quarrelling with Michael Angelo and breaking his nose, fled to England, +and his monument of Henry VII. and his queen in Westminster Abbey, +erected in 1519, marks the introduction of the style of the Italian +Renaissance into England. The structure is of black marble; the statues +of the king and queen are in gilt bronze, and are grandly noble in +design and finished in execution. The smaller figures and all the +details of the monument are fine. The master received L1000 for this +work. Torrigiano executed other works, and entered into an agreement to +make a monument to Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but for some +reason he went to Spain in 1519 and never returned, as he was destroyed +by the Inquisition three years later. + +It is probable that Torrigiano may have been led to Spain by hearing of +the revival of art which was taking place there. Flemish and Italian +artists went there, and the influence of their styles was felt by the +native masters. The result was that they brought forth a manner of their +own, combining certain features of northern and of southern art, and +used to express the thoughts of the Spaniards themselves. The carved +altars of Seville, Toledo, and Burgos show how splendid this art was; +and though we cannot trace the lives and works of Spanish sculptors as +we should like to do, we can be sure that there were men among them +equal to any demand that could be made upon decorative sculptors. + +This is proved by the portals and fronts of the churches, by the highly +ornamented chapels, the wall niches and choir screens of the interiors, +while the monuments are also equal to those of other nations. That of +Ferdinand and Isabella in the Church of the Guardian Angel, at Granada, +is noble and magnificent. It is believed to have been erected before the +death of Ferdinand in 1516, and was probably the work of an Italian +sculptor. This monument has a large marble sarcophagus, with a structure +above it in the Renaissance style. At the corners of the sarcophagus +there are griffins of excellent workmanship, and on the sides reliefs +and statuettes of the Four Fathers of the Church; on the lid repose the +figures of the royal pair, executed in a grand and dignified +simplicity. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI, MICHAEL ANGELO, AND +OTHERS. + + +By the beginning of the sixteenth century sculpture occupied a different +place with relation to architecture from that which it had held in the +previous centuries which we have just considered. The architecture of +Italy became much more plain, and its union with sculpture in any large +degree was rare. + +Painting, too, had now an effect to lessen the sphere of sculpture. This +art was always preferred by the Christians, as has been shown before, +and now, when it had reached most satisfactory heights, it was used in +many places where sculpture had before been placed. One important +example of this is seen in the decoration of altars; where bas-reliefs +had been used paintings were now preferred, and the end of all was that +sculpture was limited to monuments and to separate pieces--reliefs or +single statues or groups of figures. + +In some ways this separation of the arts was a benefit to all. Under the +old rule sculptors had often been forced to sacrifice their design to +the needs of the architecture their work adorned. At other times they +were compelled to put aside their own feeling and their artistic ideas +as to how a subject should be treated, and suit themselves to such forms +as were approved by the particular priest or bishop whose church they +decorated. Now, when left to itself, sculpture became more individual +in its expression, and far more free and interesting in itself. In the +beginning of the sixteenth century the works of Italian sculpture were +splendid in the extreme. It was delicate and beautiful; the drapery was +made to show the figure and its natural motion, while it added an +exquisite grace to the whole; many works of this period were fine in +conception, good in their arrangement, and executed in a noble, spirited +manner. Some critics believe that during the first four decades of this +era Italian sculpture equalled the antique art of the Romans. Others +make 1520, or the time of Raphael, the limit to the best epoch of this +art; but it is scarcely possible thus to fix an exact bound; the +important point is that this excellence was reached, and the regret +follows that it could not endure for a longer period. + +A far greater variety of subjects was represented in this age of +sculpture than before. Formerly the rule was the production of religious +effects. Scenes from the life of Christ and his disciples, others from +those of the saints, or the illustration of scriptural stories, with the +portrait tomb-sculpture, had been the sculptor's work. Now all the +stories of mythology were studied as diligently as they had been in +classic days, and artists studied to clothe the pagan personages with +new forms; and in all this effort much appeared that was original. It is +easy to see that such sculpture from the hand of a Christian artist must +lack the important element of pure sincerity. An artist who believed in +Jesus Christ could not conceive a statue of Jupiter, with all the +glorious attributes, that an ancient Greek would have given to his god +of gods. In this view the sculpture of classic subjects of this +sixteenth century may be said to have been two-sided--the work +illustrated a religion in which the artist pleased his imagination, but +for which he had no reverence or love. But in spite of all it was a +golden age, and many of its works are a "joy forever." + +[Illustration: FIG. 100. PHARISEE. +FIG. 101. LEVITE. _By Rustici._] + +Although the first public work which Leonardo Da Vinci did at Milan was +to model an equestrian statue, we can scarcely speak of him as a +sculptor. But the first Florentine of this period whom I shall mention +is GIOVANNI FRANCESCO RUSTICI (1476-1550), who was a fellow-pupil with +Leonardo under Verocchio. Very few works by this master remain, but a +prominent and important one is the bronze group above the northern +portal to the baptistery at Florence. It represents the "preaching of +St. John The Baptist," and is grand in the free action of its figures. +The Drapery is in a pure style, very much like that of Ghiberti (figs. +100, 101). This work was ordered by a guild of merchants, and they +failed to pay the price which had been fixed for it. Rustici was so +embarrassed by this that he undertook no more large works, and after the +Medici were expelled from florence he went into the service of Francis +I. in France he had executed various works, and was finally commissioned +to model an equestrian statue of the king in colossal size, when the +sovereign died. Rustici survived but three years, and we are told that +he only executed small works, and those "for the most part for the sake +of kindness." + +ANDREA CONTUCCI DAL MONTE SAN SAVINO, called SANSOVINO (1460-1529), was +a very important sculptor, because large works were committed to him, +and his name must remain associated with them. Like Giotto, Sansovino +was a shepherd-boy, and drew pictures upon the stones of the fields. +Like Giotto, too, he was sent to Florence to study, and in the school of +Pallajuolo made good progress. When thirty years old he was appointed +architect and sculptor to the King of Portugal. After an absence of ten +years he returned to Florence, and later to Rome, where Pope Julius II. +commissioned him to erect monuments to the Cardinals Rovere and Sforza, +in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo. + +These monuments were his best works, but they cannot be praised. The +statues are in positions which seem to be uncomfortable, and there is +such a mass of ornament and so many statuettes that the whole has an +effect of confusion. + +In 1513 Leo X. sent Sansovino to Loreto to adorn the temple which +incloses the "Casa Santa" with bas-reliefs. This Casa Santa is believed +to be the house in which the Virgin Mary was born at Nazareth; and when +the Saracens invaded the land four angels are said to have borne the +house to the coast of Dalmatia, and later to a spot near Loreto; but +here some brigands entered it, and again it was removed to its present +position in the Church of Loreto; this is said to have been done in +1295. Naturally this "Casa Santa" is a sacred object to all Roman +Catholics, and it is visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims each +year. + +The decoration of this shrine was very important, and an honorable work +for any artist. Sansovino did not execute all the reliefs, and the +highest praise that can be given to those he did is to say that they are +superior to the others that are beside them. He was a most skilful +workman, and it seems as if marble became like wax under his hand; but +this very skill led him to multiply his ornaments, and to repeat +acanthus leaves and honeysuckle vines until the whole was a weariness +and confusion, and conveyed no meaning or sentiment whatever. + +Sansovino's most important pupil was JACOPO TATTI, who, on account of +his master, is called JACOPO SANSOVINO (1477-1570). He was born at +Florence, and when Andrea Sansovino returned from Portugal Jacopo became +his pupil. Early in life he went to Rome, and there studied and copied +the works of antiquity; among other things he made a copy of the +Laocoon, which was cast in bronze at a later time. Soon after his return +to Florence, in 1511, Jacopo received orders for some works, but the +most important statue which he made about this time is the Bacchus, now +in the Uffizi. In this work he showed how completely he was in sympathy +with the classic spirit; this Bacchus is a triumph in this manner, and +has been called "the most beautiful and spirited pagan statue of the +Renaissance period." It is full of gladness, and is simple, delicate, +and beautiful. The young god is advancing and holding up a cup, which he +regards with an expression of delight; in his right hand he has a bunch +of grapes, from which a Pan is eating stealthily (Fig. 102). + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--BACCHUS. +_By Jacopo Sansovino._] + +In 1514 Jacopo Sansovino was employed upon the decorations for the visit +of Leo X. to Florence. Soon after this he went again to Rome and +submitted plans for the Church of San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, which the +Florentines were about to erect--for this master was an architect as +well as a sculptor. The taking of Rome by Constable de Bourbon, in 1527, +drove Sansovino away; he went to Venice, intending to go to France, but +Venice charmed him, and his work pleased the Venetians, and the result +was that from 1529 he served the Venetians as long as he lived. He was +appointed Protomastro of the Republic of Venice, and had the care of St. +Mark's, the Campanile, the Piazza, and the surrounding buildings. He +received a good salary, and was provided with a handsome house to live +in. + +He first restored the cupolas of St. Mark's; then completed the Scuola +della Misericordia; he next made the interior of San Francesco della +Vigna; then the Zecca, the Fabbriche Nuove, and the Loggietta of the +Campanile. He also erected other churches and palaces, besides smaller +sculptural works. But his architectural masterpiece was the Library of +St. Mark's. The bronze gate to the Sacristy of St. Mark's was one of his +principal works. It is subject to criticism as being too crowded; but it +is a fine work and full of strong feeling. + +His statues are numerous and seen all over Venice; indeed, it is proper +to speak of him as a Venetian, so thoroughly did he adopt that city, and +so industriously did he work for it during forty years. Had he remained +in Florence he might have been a better artist; the splendor and luxury +of the Venetians brought out corresponding traits in Jacopo, and he fell +short of the purity which the influence of Florence might have given +him. He is one of the masters in whom the sensual influence of the study +of pagan art was fully manifested. Many of his subjects were +mythological; among them were the story of Phrixos and Helle, Mercury, +Apollo, Pallas, Mars, and Neptune, the last two being colossal figures +on the steps of the Doge's Palace. + +Among the pupils and associates of Sansovino were NICCOLO BRACCINI +(1485-1550), called IL TRIBOLO, and FRANCESCO SANGALLO (1498-1570), +neither of whom were important artists, though many works by them are +seen in various places in Italy. + +BENVENUTO CELLINI (1500-1572) is a far more interesting study than were +many sculptors of his time. His life was an eventful one, and his own +account of it is one of the most interesting books of its class in +existence. His statement of the origin of his family is that "Julius +Caesar had a chief and valorous captain named Fiorino da Cellino, from a +castle situated four miles from Monte Fiascone. This Fiorino having +pitched his camp below Fiesole, where Florence now stands, in order to +be near the river Arno, for the convenience of the army, the soldiers +and other persons, when they had the occasion to visit him, said to each +other, 'Let us go to Fiorenza,' which name they gave to the place where +they were encamped, partly from their captain's name of Fiorino, and +partly from the abundance of flowers which grew there; wherefore Caesar, +thinking it a beautiful name, and considering flowers to be of good +augury, and also wishing to honor his captain, whom he had raised from +an humble station, and to whom he was greatly attached, gave it to the +city which he founded on that spot." + +When this artist was born his father was quite old, and named him +Benvenuto, which means welcome, on account of his pleasure in the child +of his old age. The father had a passion for music, and from the first +wished that his son should study this art; but the boy loved drawing, +and was determined to be an artist; thus his time was divided between +these two pursuits until he was fifteen years old, when he was +apprenticed to a goldsmith. + +Benvenuto had a fiery temper, and when still very young he became +involved in so serious a quarrel that he was obliged to flee from +Florence. He went first to Siena, and thence to Bologna, and at last +back to Florence, where he resumed his work. It was not long, however, +before he became angry again because his best clothes were given to his +brother, and he walked off to Pisa, where he remained a year. He had +even then become so skilful in his art that some of his works done there +have never been excelled either in design or execution. + +When Cellini was eighteen years old Torrigiano came to Florence to +engage artists to go to England to aid him in some works he was to +execute. He wished to have Cellini in the number; but Torrigiano so +disgusted Benvenuto by his boasting of the blow that he had given +Michael Angelo, that though he had the natural youthful desire to +travel, he refused to be employed by such a man as Torrigiano. We can +safely assume that this predisposed Michael Angelo in Cellini's favor, +and was the foundation of the friendship which he afterward showed to +the younger sculptor. + +From his eighteenth to his fortieth year Cellini lived mostly at Rome. +He was employed by Pope Clement VII., the cardinals and Roman nobles. +The Pope desired to have a cope button made and a magnificent diamond +set in it. This jewel had cost Julius II. thirty-six thousand ducats. +Many artists sent in designs for this button, and Clement chose that by +Cellini. He used the diamond as a throne, and placed a figure of the +Almighty upon it; the hand was raised as if in blessing, and many angels +fluttered about the folds of the drapery, while various jewels were set +around the whole. When other artists saw the design they did not believe +that it could be executed successfully; but Cellini made it a perfect +work of art and of beauty. + +Cellini writes of himself as being very active in the siege of Rome, May +5th, 1527. He says that he killed the Constable de Bourbon, who led the +siege, and that he wounded the Prince of Orange, who was chosen in +Bourbon's place. No one else saw him perform these feats. Cellini went +to the Pope, who was in the Castle of St. Angelo, and he there rendered +such services to the cause of the Church that the Holy Father pardoned +him for all the sins into which his temper had led him--"for all the +homicides he had committed or might commit in the service of the +Apostolic Church." A few years later, when Cellini was called upon to +take part in the defence of his own city, he put all his property into +the care of a friend, and stole away to Rome. + +In 1534 Cellini killed a fellow-goldsmith, called Pompeo; Paul III. was +now Pope; and as he needed the services of Benvenuto very much he +pardoned him. But the sculptor felt that he was in ill favor with all +about him, and went to France. In about a year he returned to find that +he had been accused of stealing some jewels which the pope had commanded +him to take out of their settings. Cellini was held a prisoner nearly +two years, but his guilt was never proved. + +At the end of this time the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este obtained his +release in order that he might go to France to execute some work for +Francis I. Cellini remained in France five years, and received many +honors and gifts; but as Madame d'Etampes and other persons to whose +advice the king listened were enemies of Cellini, he never was treated +as his artistic qualities merited. Francis I. really admired Cellini, +and presented him with the Hotel de Petit Nesle, which was on the site +of the present Hotel de la Monnaie; he also made him a lord, and on one +occasion expressed his fear of losing him, when Madame d'Etampes +replied, "The surest way of keeping him would be to hang him on a +gibbet." + +Of all the objects which Cellini made during his five years in France +but two remain. One is a splendid salt-cellar, and the other is a nymph +in bronze, which was made for the Palace of Fontainebleau, and is now in +the Renaissance Museum of the Louvre. This salt-cellar is now in the +Ambraser Gallery at Vienna. The frieze around the base has figures in +relief which represent the hours of the day and the winds. The upper +part is made like the surface of the sea, and from it rise figures of +Neptune and Cybele. The first is a symbol of the salt of the sea, and +the second of the spices which the earth gives. The god is placing his +arm on a small ship intended for the salt, and a vessel for pepper, in +the form of a triumphal arch, is near the goddess. All this is made of +fine embossed gold, and has some touches of enamel-work. It is one of +the finest pieces of the goldsmith's art which remains from the +sixteenth century. + +In 1545 Cellini returned to Florence, and remained there, with short +absences, until his death. Duke Cosmo de' Medici became his patron, and +commissioned him to make a statue of Perseus for the Loggia de' Lanzi. +The ambition of the artist was much excited by the thought of having his +work placed by those of Donatello and Michael Angelo, and all care was +taken from his mind, as the Duke provided him with a comfortable house +and gave him a salary sufficient for his support. + +It was nine years before the statue was completed and in its place, and +in this time Cellini had suffered much. Baccio Bandinelli and others +were his enemies, and at times the Duke had been under their influence, +and would not furnish the money necessary to the work. But at last all +was ready for the casting; and just at this unfortunate moment for +Cellini to leave it he was seized with a severe illness; he was +suffering much, and believed himself about to die, when some one ran in +shouting, "Oh, Benvenuto, your work is ruined past earthly remedy!" + +Ill as he was he rushed out to the furnace, to find that the fire was +too low, and the metal, being cool, had ceased flowing into the mould. +By almost superhuman efforts he remedied the evil, and again the bronze +flowed; he prayed earnestly, and when the mould was filled he writes: "I +fell on my knees and thanked God with all my heart, after which I ate a +hearty meal with my assistants, and it being then two hours before dawn, +went to bed with a light heart, and slept as sweetly as if I had never +been ill in all my life." + +When the statue was unveiled Cellini's prediction that it would please +all the world except Bandinelli and his friends was fulfilled. Perseus +is represented just at the moment when he has cut off the head of +Medusa, who was one of the Gorgons, and had turned to stone every one +who looked at her. (Fig. 103.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--PERSEUS. _By Benvenuto Cellini._] + +After the completion of the Perseus, Cellini went to Rome for a short +time. While there he made a bust of Bindo Altoviti; when Michael Angelo +saw this he wrote: "My Benvenuto, I have long known you as the best +goldsmith in the world, and I now know you as an equally good sculptor, +through the bust of Messer Bindo Altoviti." Cellini did no more +important works, though he was always industrious. He made a crucifix +which he intended for his own grave, but he gave it to the Duchess +Eleanora; this was afterward sent to Philip II. of Spain, and is now in +the Escurial. + +Cellini's life was by no means a model one, but he had his good +qualities. He took a widowed sister with six children to his home, and +made them welcome and happy. At his death he was buried in the Church of +the Annunziata, beneath the chapel of the Company of St. Luke, and many +honors were paid to his memory. + +His autobiography was so rich in its use of the Florentine manner of +speech and so fine in its diction that it was honored as an authority by +the Accademia della Crusca. He also wrote valuable works on the +goldsmith's art and on bronze-casting and sculpture. He wrote poems and +various kinds of verses, but his large acquaintance with popes, +cardinals, kings, artists, and men of letters makes his story of his +life far more interesting than his other writings. + +The artists of Upper Italy were much influenced by Florentine art, as +they had formerly been, and we can speak of no very great sculptor of +this century who belonged to this part of the country. ALFONSO LOMBARDO +(1488-1537) was a native of Lucca; his principal works are seen in +Ferrara, Bologna, and Cesena. + +PROPERZIA DE' ROSSI (1490-1530) was born at Bologna, and is interesting +as the one Italian sculptress of that time. She was born about a year +after her father had returned from the galleys, where he had worked out +a sentence of eighteen years for the crime of manslaughter. Properzia +seems to have inherited her father's violent temper, and was twice +arraigned in court. She was very beautiful in person, and had a devoted +lover in Antonio Galeazzo Malvasia de' Bottigari, who did not marry +until many years after the death of Properzia. + +Properzia studied drawing under Marc Antonio Raimondi, the famous +engraver. She first devoted herself to the cutting of intaglios, which +demanded an immense amount of patient labor. There is in the cabinet of +gems in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence, a cherry-stone carved by +Properzia, on which sixty heads may be counted; the subject is a Glory +of Saints. Other like works of hers exist in the Palazzo Grassi, in +Bologna. Her next work was in arabesques, marble ornaments, lions, +griffins, vases, eagles, and similar objects. + +Finally she essayed a bust of Count Guido Pepoli; it is now in the +Sacristy of San Petronio, in Bologna. In the same place are two +bas-reliefs by her hand, Solomon receiving the Queen of Sheba, and +Joseph and Potiphar's Wife. In the chapel Zambeccari in San Petronio +there are two large figures of angels by Properzia, which are near the +Ascension of the Virgin by Il Tribolo. Her manner was much influenced by +her contact with this sculptor. Properzia was employed, with other +artists, to finish the sculpture of the portal of San Petronio, left +unfinished by Jacopo della Quercia. + +ANTONIO BEGARELLI (1499-1565), called also ANTONIO DA MODENA, from the +place of his birth, was a celebrated modeller in clay. It is said that +when Michael Angelo visited Modena in 1529 he saw Begarelli and his +works, and exclaimed, "Alas for the statues of the ancients, if this +clay were changed to marble!" Begarelli had a school for teaching design +and modelling, and he greatly influenced the manner of the Lombard +school of painting. Its foreshortening, its relief and grace are largely +due to him and his teaching. + +Begarelli and Correggio were fast friends, and resembled each other in +their conception of the grand and beautiful. When Correggio was +decorating the cupola of the Cathedral of Parma, Begarelli was at work +in the same place, and made many models from which Correggio painted his +floating figures. Some works by Begarelli may be seen in the Berlin +Museum. His Descent from the Cross, in the Church of San Francesco, at +Modena, is one of his best works. He was also employed in the Church of +San Benedetto, in Mantua, and in San Giovanni, at Parma. + +During the sixteenth century the works at the Certosa at Pavia and in +various edifices in Milan were constantly carried on. Frequently the +same sculptors worked in both cities, but there is no one artist of +great excellence among them of whom we can give an account. The same is +true of the works in Venice and in Southern Italy. The traveller sees +many pieces of sculpture belonging to this period, but there are no +great and interesting men whose story we can tell in connection with +them, and I shall now pass to an account of the great Florentine. + +MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI (1475-1564) was born in the Castle of Caprese, +where his father, Ludovico Buonarroti, was stationed at that time, +holding the office of Podesta, or Governor, of the towns of Caprese and +Chiusi. The Buonarroti family held good rank in Florence, and the mother +of the great artist was also a woman of good position. When his father +returned to Florence the child Michael was left at Settignano upon an +estate of the family, and was in the care of the wife of a stone-mason. +As soon as the boy could use his hands he drew pictures everywhere that +it was possible, and his nurse could show many of these childish +drawings with which he adorned the walls of her house. + +At a proper time Michael Angelo was removed to Florence and placed in a +school, where he became intimate with Francesco Granacci, who was a +pupil of the artist Ghirlandajo. Michael Angelo's father and his uncles +were firmly opposed to his being an artist; they wished him to follow +the traditions of his family, and carry on the silk and woollen trade. +But the boy was firm in his determination, and after many trials was at +length, in 1488, apprenticed to the Ghirlandaji for three years. + +Domenico Ghirlandajo was at this time engaged in the restoration of the +Church of Santa Maria Novella, and Michael Angelo came into the midst of +great artistic works. One day at the dinner hour he drew a picture of +the scaffolding and all its belongings, with the men at work on it; it +was a remarkable drawing for a boy, and when the master saw it he +exclaimed, "He understands more than I do myself!" The master really +became jealous of his pupil, more especially when Michael Angelo +corrected the drawings which Ghirlandajo gave his scholars for models. + +About this time Michael Angelo was brought to the notice of Lorenzo de' +Medici, who was at that time at the head of the government of Florence, +and from him the boy-artist obtained admission for himself and Granacci +to study in the gardens of San Marco. The art treasures of the Medici +were placed in these gardens; works of sculpture were there, and +cartoons and pictures were hung in buildings erected for the purpose, +and art-students were admitted to study there and proper instructors +provided for them. + +The master in sculpture was old Bertoldo, and Michael Angelo, forsaking +painting, obtained some instruments and a piece of marble, and copied a +mask of a faun. He changed his own work somewhat from the model, and +opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When Lorenzo saw this +he praised the work, but said, "You have made your faun old, and yet you +have left all his teeth; you should have known that at such an age there +are generally some teeth wanting." When he came again he saw that a gap +had been made in the teeth, and so well done that he was delighted. This +work is now in the Uffizi Gallery. + +Very soon Lorenzo sent for Michael Angelo's father, who had been sad +enough at the thought that his son might be a painter, and was now in +despair when he found that he inclined also to be a stone-mason. At +first he refused to see the duke, but Granacci persuaded him to go. He +went with a firm determination to yield to nothing, but once in presence +of Lorenzo he yielded everything, and returned home declaring that not +only Michael, but he himself, and all that he had were at the nobleman's +service. + +Lorenzo at once took Michael Angelo into his palace; he clothed the boy +properly, and gave him five ducats a month for spending money. Each day +Lorenzo gave an entertainment, and it was the rule that the first person +who came should sit next the duke at the head of the table. Michael +Angelo often had this place, and he soon became a great favorite with +Lorenzo, and obtained besides the greatest advantages from the life in +the palace; for many eminent men from all parts of the world came to +visit there, and all sorts of subjects were discussed in such a manner +that a young man could learn much of the world and what was in it, and +acquire a feeling of ease with strangers and in society such as few +young persons possess. + +Michael Angelo was but seventeen years old when Poliziano advised him to +attempt an original work, and gave him the marble for a relief of the +contest between Hercules and the Centaurs. This work surprised every +one, and is still preserved in the collection of the Buonarroti family. +In the year 1492 he also made a relief of the Madonna Suckling the Child +Jesus, which is also in the same place. In the same year Lorenzo de' +Medici died, and Michael Angelo, full of grief, went to his father's +house and arranged a studio there. After a time Piero de Medici invited +him to come back to the palace, and he went; but it was no more the +same place as formerly, and he was unhappy there. Soon political +troubles drove the Medici from power, and in 1494, in the midst of the +confusion, Michael Angelo escaped to Venice. There he made friends with +Gian Francesco Aldovrandi of Bologna, and was persuaded by that nobleman +to accompany him to his own city. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S ANGEL. _Bologna._] + +While at Bologna he executed an angel holding a candelabra, which is one +of the most lovely and pleasing things he ever made (Fig. 104). When he +received the commission to ornament the sarcophagus which contained the +remains of San Domenico in the Church of San Petronio, the Bolognese +artists were so angry at being thus set aside for a stranger, and a +youth of twenty, that they threatened vengeance on him, and he returned +to Florence. + +It was at this time that he executed a Cupid, which was the means of +leading him to Rome. The story is that when he had the statue completed +Lorenzo de' Medici, a relative of his first patron, advised him to give +it the appearance of an antique marble, and added that he would then +sell it in Rome and get a good price for it. Michael Angelo consented to +this plan, and in the end he received thirty ducats for the work. The +secret of its origin was not kept, and the cardinal who had bought it +sent an agent to Florence to find out the truth about it. This agent +pretended to be in search of a sculptor; and when he saw Michael Angelo +he asked him what works he had done. When he mentioned a Sleeping Cupid, +and the agent asked questions, the young sculptor found that the +cardinal had paid two hundred ducats for it, and that he had been +greatly deceived when attempting to deceive others. + +Michael Angelo consented to go to Rome with this man, who promised to +receive him into his own house, and assured him that he would be fully +occupied in the Eternal City. The oldest writing by the hand of Michael +Angelo is the letter which he wrote to Lorenzo telling him of his +arrival in Rome; when this was written he was twenty-one years old. The +first work which he did after he reached Rome was the "Drunken Bacchus," +now in the Uffizi Gallery; it shows a great knowledge of anatomy in one +so young, and the expression of drunkenness is given in the most natural +manner. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--PIETA. _By Michael Angelo._] + +But the work that established his fame as a great sculptor is the Pieta, +now in St. Peter's at Rome (Fig. 105). He was twenty-five years old when +he executed this work, and from that time was acknowledged to be the +greatest sculptor of Italy--a decision which has never been reversed. + +Soon after this Michael Angelo returned to Florence, and his first +important work was a Madonna, now at Bruges; it is life-size, and one of +his finest sculptures. There was at this time an immense block of marble +which had lain many years in the yard to the workshops of the cathedral. +Several sculptors had talked of making something from it, and now +Michael Angelo was asked by the consuls to make something good of it. He +had just taken an order for fifteen statues for the Piccolomini tomb at +Siena; but when he saw the immense block he gave up the Siena work, and +contracted to make a statue in two years. He was to be paid six gold +florins a month, and as much more as could be agreed upon when the work +was done. He first made a model in wax of his David; it was very small, +and is now in the Uffizi. In the beginning of 1504, after about two +years and a half had been spent upon it, the work was done, and a +discussion then arose as to where it should be placed. + +At length it was decided to put it where Michael Angelo himself wished +it to be, next the gate of the palace where the Judith of Donatello then +stood. The statue weighed eighteen thousand pounds, and its removal was +a work of great importance. I shall not give all the details of it here, +but shall quote what Grimm says: "The erection of this David was like +an occurrence in nature from which people are accustomed to reckon. We +find events dated so many years after the erection of the giant. It was +mentioned in records in which there was not a line respecting art." + +[Illustration: FIG. 106.--MICHAEL ANGELO'S DAVID.] + +In 1527 the statue was injured by a stone thrown in a riot. At length it +began to show the effect of time and weather, and the people of Florence +talked of removing it for better preservation. There was much feeling +against this; the Florentines feared that misfortunes would fall upon +them if this great work were disturbed; but at last, in 1873, it was +placed in the Academy of Fine Arts. It represents the youthful David at +the moment when he declares to Goliath, "I come unto thee in the name of +the Lord of Hosts." The beautiful figure is muscular and pliant, and +the face is full of courage. (Fig. 106.) + +About the beginning of the year 1505 Pope Julius II. summoned Michael +Angelo to Rome, and after a time gave him a commission to build a +colossal mausoleum to be erected for himself. The design was made and +accepted, and then Michael Angelo went to Carrara to select marble; +after much trouble he succeeded in getting it to Rome, where all who saw +it were astonished at the size of the blocks. Pope Julius was delighted, +and had a passage made from the palace to the workshop of the sculptor, +so that he could visit the artist without being seen. Other sculptors +now became jealous of Michael Angelo, and when he went a second time to +Carrara, Bramante persuaded the pope that it was a bad sign to build his +tomb while he was still living. When Michael Angelo returned and the +workmen he had hired arrived from Florence, he found the pope much +changed toward him. He no longer hastened the work, neither would he +furnish money to carry it on. + +Michael Angelo sought the pope for an explanation, and was refused an +audience. He wrote a letter thus: "Most Holy Father, I was this morning +driven from the palace by the order of your Holiness. If you require me +in future you can seek me elsewhere than in Rome." He ordered a Jew to +sell all he possessed in Rome, and started for Florence, and stopped not +until he was on the ground of Tuscany. The pope sent after him, but as +he was a citizen of Florence he threatened the messengers if they +touched him. He said he had been treated as a criminal, and he +considered himself free from his engagements, and would not return then +or ever. + +When he reached home a letter came to the Signory of Florence urging his +return, and saying that he should be safe. But Michael waited until the +third letter was received, and only consented to go when it was +arranged that he should be sent as an ambassador of Florence, and be +under the protection of the Florentine Republic. + +In November, 1506, when the pope had taken Bologna, he sent for Michael +Angelo to come to him there. Michael Angelo had not yet seen the pope +since he left Rome in anger. When he reached Bologna he went first to +San Petronio to hear mass. A servant of the pope recognized him and led +him to his Holiness. Julius was at table, but ordered that Michael +Angelo should come in, and said to him, "You have waited thus long, it +seems, till we should ourselves come to seek you." Michael Angelo +kneeled down and begged his pardon, but added that he had remained away +because he had been offended. The pope looked at him doubtfully, when +one of the priests, fearing what would happen, advised the pope not to +judge an ignorant artist as he would another man. Then the pope turned +upon him in great anger, and declaring that he himself was ignorant and +miserable, ordered him out of his sight. The poor ecclesiastic was so +terrified that the attendants were obliged to carry him out, and then +the pope spoke graciously to the sculptor, and commanded him not to +leave Bologna without his permission. The pope soon gave him an order +for a colossal statue in bronze to be erected in Bologna. + +The first cast of this statue failed, and the work was not ready to be +put in its place until February, 1508. This being done, Michael Angelo +returned to Florence, where he had much to do; but Julius soon sent for +him to go to Rome, and insisted that he should paint the roof of the +Sistine Chapel, which occupied him a long time. + +In 1513 Julius II. died, and Michael Angelo resumed his work upon his +mausoleum. The pope had mentioned it in his will, and his heirs wished +it to be completed. At this time he probably worked upon the statue of +Moses and upon the two chained youths. He devoted himself to the +mausoleum during three years. + +Leo X., who was now pope, demanded the services of Michael Angelo to +erect a facade to the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. The artist +objected to this great work, and declared that he was bound to complete +the tomb for which he had already received money. But Leo insisted upon +his going to Florence. He had much trouble to get his marble from the +quarries--the men were ill there. He was ill himself, and he passed a +year of great anxiety and trouble, when there came word from Rome that +the work must be given up; the building was postponed, and no payment +was made to Michael Angelo! He was much disheartened, but returned to +his work on the mausoleum. + +About 1523, when, after many changes, Cardinal Medici was pope, the work +at San Lorenzo was resumed. But in 1525 the pope again summoned Michael +Angelo to Rome. The heirs of Julius were complaining of delay, but at +last the pope insisted upon his great need of the artist, and again he +was sent back to Florence, where the cupola of the new Sacristy to San +Lorenzo was soon finished. Great political confusion now ensued, and +little can be said of Michael Angelo as a sculptor until 1530, when he +again resumed his work on the Sacristy. + +He worked with the greatest industry and rapidity, and in a few months +had nearly finished the four colossal figures which rest upon the +sarcophagi of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici. The pope was forced to +command the sculptor to rest. His health was so broken by the sorrow +which the political condition of Florence caused him, and by his anxiety +about the mausoleum of Julius, that there was much danger of his killing +himself with work and worry. He went to Rome, and matters were more +satisfactorily arranged. He returned to Florence, and labored there +until 1534, when Clement VII. died, and Michael Angelo left his work +in San Lorenzo, never to resume it. Unfinished as these sculptures are, +they make a grand part of the wonderful works of this great man. The +statues of the two Medici and those of Morning, Evening, Day, and Night +would be sufficient to establish the fame of an artist if he had done +nothing more. (Fig. 107.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 107.--GIULIANO DE' MEDICI. _By Michael Angelo._] + +Under the new pope, Paul III., he was constantly employed as a painter, +and architectural labors were put upon him, so that as a sculptor we +have no more works of his to mention except an unfinished group which +was in his studio at the time of his death. It represents the dead +Christ upon his mother's lap, with Joseph of Arimathea standing by. This +group is now in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Cathedral of +Florence. The mausoleum of Julius II. caused Michael Angelo and others +so much trouble and vexation that the whole affair came to be known as +the "tragedy of the sepulchre." When Julius first ordered it he intended +to place it in St. Peter's, but in the end it was erected in the Church +of San Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been the titular cardinal. +Of all the monument but three figures can really be called the work of +Michael Angelo. These are the Leah and Rachel upon the lower stage, and +the Moses, which is one of the most famous statues in the world. Paul +III., with eight cardinals, once visited the studio of the sculptor when +he was at work upon this statue, and they declared that this alone was +sufficient for the pope's monument (Fig. 108). + +The life of Michael Angelo was a sad one; indeed, it is scarcely +possible to recount a more pathetic story than was his. The misfortunes +which came to the Medici were sharp griefs to him, and his temperament +was such that he could not forget his woes. His family, too, looked to +him for large sums of money, and while he lived most frugally they spent +his earnings. In his old age he said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived +like a poor man." + +[Illustration: FIG. 108.--STATUE OF MOSES. _By Michael Angelo._] + +In 1529, when Florence was under great political excitement, Michael +Angelo was appointed superintendent of all the fortifications of the +Florentine territory. In the midst of his duties he became aware of +facts which determined him to fly. He went to Venice, and was proscribed +as a rebel. We cannot stay here to inquire as to his wisdom in this, but +must go on to say that at length he was so much needed that he was +persuaded to return. Then he had the dreadful experiences of hope and +fear, sickness and famine, and all the horrors of a siege, only to see +his beloved home deprived of its freedom, and in the possession of those +whom he despised and hated. To Michael Angelo this was far more bitter +than any personal sorrow; he never recovered from its effects, and it +was immediately after this that he worked in the Sacristy of San Lorenzo +as if trying to kill himself. + +He was bold as he was angry. He was treated kindly, and advised to +forget the past; but he never concealed his views. When his statue of +Night was exhibited, verses were put upon it, according to the custom of +the time; one verse read, "Night, whom you see slumbering here so +charmingly, has been carved by an angel, in marble. She sleeps, she +lives; waken her, if you will not believe it, and she will speak." + +To this Michael Angelo replied, "Sleep is dear to me, and still more +that I am stone, so long as dishonor and shame last among us; the +happiest fate is to see, to hear nothing; for this reason waken me not. +I pray you, speak gently." He had great courage to speak his anger thus +publicly in the midst of those who could easily destroy him. + +In 1537 or 1538 his father died, and the artist suffered terribly from +his grief. He wrote a sonnet beginning: + + "Already had I wept and sighed so much. + I thought all grief forever at an end, + Exhaled in sighs, shed forth in bitter tears." + +The religious views of Michael Angelo were very broad, and he had a +trustful and obedient dependence upon God, in whose mercy and love he +gratefully rested with the simple faith of a child. It was not far from +the time when his father died that Michael Angelo first met Vittoria +Colonna. He was now more than sixty years old; and though his poems show +that he had loved children and women all his life, yet he had allowed +himself no attachments; his life had been lonely and alone. Now, at this +late hour, he yielded his heart to this beautiful, gifted woman, who +returned his friendship with the fullest esteem. During these years he +was happier than he had ever been. But in 1541 she fell under the +suspicion of the Inquisition, and was obliged to leave Rome. + +During two years they wrote constantly to each other, and each sent to +the other the sonnets they wrote. At this time all Italy read the poems +of Vittoria, and those of Michael Angelo still stand the test of time. +In them he shows the blessed effect of her influence over him. At length +she returned to Rome and entered a convent, where she died in 1547. +Michael Angelo was with her to the last, and years later he declared +that he regretted nothing so much as that he had only kissed her hand, +and not her forehead or cheeks in that last hour. His loss was far too +great to be told. (An engraving of a portrait of Michael Angelo can be +seen in Mrs. Clement's "Painting," p. 95.) + +In the year following Vittoria's death all the hopes which he had +cherished for the freedom of Florence were crushed. High honors were +offered him to induce him to return there, but he would not go. His +health failed, his sadness increased, and his writings show how +constantly he mourned for Vittoria. After this he did much work as an +architect, and held the post of director of the building of St. Peter's. +He superintended the erection of the statue of Marcus Aurelius, and +completed the Farnese Palace, and had many improvements in mind. + +Now, in his old age, he was authority itself in Rome. He had no rival, +and his advice was sought by artists as well as others. He lived very +simply: he dined alone, and received his visitors in the plainest +manner. Anatomy, which had always been a passion with him, was now his +chief pursuit. He made many dissections of animals, and was grateful +when a human subject could be allowed him. + +When he could not sleep he would get up at night and work upon the group +of which we have spoken; he had a cap with a candle in it, so that it +cast a light upon his work. Vasari once entered when he was at work upon +this group, and had a lantern in his hand; he dropped it purposely, so +that the sculpture should not be seen, and said: "I am so old that death +often pulls me by the coat to come to him, and some day I shall fall +down like this lantern, and my last spark of life will be extinguished." + +There are many very interesting circumstances told of his last years and +his strength of mind, and the work which he did was wonderful; but we +have not space to recount it here. + +At length, in February, 1564, when almost ninety years old, he died. He +had asked to be buried in Florence. His friends feared that this would +be opposed, so they held burial-services in Rome, and his body was +afterward carried through the gates as merchandise. In Florence the body +was first laid in San Piero Maggiore, and on Sunday, at evening, the +artists assembled, and forming a procession, proceeded to Santa Croce, +where he was buried. The younger artists bore the bier upon their +shoulders, and the older ones carried torches to light the way. A great +multitude followed the procession, and in the Sacristy of Santa Croce +the coffin was opened; though three weeks had passed since his death, +his face appeared as if he had just died; the crowd was very great, but +all was quiet, and before morning it had dispersed. The Duke had thought +that a public funeral would recall old memories, and might cause a +disturbance; but Michael Angelo had left Florence thirty years before +his death, and his connection with the city was forgotten by many. + +The July following was appointed for a memorial service in his honor; +San Lorenzo was splendidly decorated; Varchi delivered an oration. +Leonardo, his nephew, erected a monument to him in Santa Croce, for +which the Duke gave the marble. His statue stands in the court of the +Uffizi with those of other great Florentines, but with no especial +prominence. His house in the Ghibelline Street is preserved as a museum, +and visitors there see many mementos of this great man. + +In 1875 a grand festival was held in Florence to celebrate the four +hundredth anniversary of his birth. The ceremonies were impressive, and +certain documents relating to his life which had never been opened, by +command of the king, were given to suitable persons for examination. Mr. +Heath Wilson, an English artist, then residing at Florence, wrote a new +life of Michael Angelo, and the last signature which Victor Emmanuel +wrote before his death was upon the paper which conferred on Mr. Wilson +the Order of the _Corona d'Italia_, given as a recognition of his +services in writing this book. + +The national pride in Michael Angelo is very strong. "All Italians feel +that he occupies the third place by the side of Dante and Raphael, and +forms with them a triumvirate of the greatest men produced by their +country--a poet, a painter, and one who was great in all arts. Who would +place a general or a statesman by their side as equal to them? It is art +alone which marks the prime of nations." + +The genius of Michael Angelo and his spirit were powerful forces. They +pervaded the whole art of Italy to such an extent that it may be said +that all sculptors were his imitators, both while he lived and after his +death. He loved to treat strong subjects, such as demanded violent +movement and unusual positions. It was only a man of his genius who +could raise such subjects above grotesqueness and the one effect of +strange and unnatural exaggeration. As we look over all his works it +seems as if the idea of beauty and such things as are pleasing to the +ordinary mind rarely, if ever, came to his mind. Noble feeling, depth of +thought, strength, and grandeur are the associations which we have with +him, and in the hands of weaker men, as his imitators were, these +subjects became barren, hollow displays of distorted limbs and soulless +heads and faces. + +The result is, that there is little to be said of the immediate +followers of this great man. GUGLIELMO DELLA PORTA was one of his most +able scholars, and his chief work was a monument to Pope Paul III. in +the Church of St. Peter's. The figure of the pope is in bronze, is +seated, and holding the right hand in benediction. It is dignified and +well designed. The figures of Justice and Prudence are not as good, and +two others, Peace and Abundance, which were a part of this work, but are +now in the Farnese Palace, lack power, and show an attempt at a +representation of mere physical beauty. + +BACCIO BANDINELLI (1487-1559) is more noticeable for his hatred of +Michael Angelo than for any other characteristic. He was a native of +Florence and a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. He was powerful in his +design and bold in his treatment of his subjects, but he was full of +affectation and mannerisms in his execution of his works. He was false +and envious, and his one good quality was that of industry. His best +works are on the screen of the high-altar in the Cathedral of Florence, +a relief on a pedestal in the Piazza of San Lorenzo, in Florence, and a +group in the Church of the Annunziata, which he intended for his own +monument; the subject is Nicodemus supporting Christ, and the Nicodemus +is a portrait of Bandinelli himself. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA. + + +Not only Italian artists attempted to follow the great sculptor of +Italy, but those of other nations flocked to Rome, and whatever ideas +they may have had before reaching that city they seemed to lose them all +and to aim simply at one thing--to be Michaelangeloesque. + +GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA (1529-1608) was born in Douai, in Flanders, and was +called Il Fiammingo for this reason. Giovanni was intended for a notary +by his father, who planned his education with that end in view; but the +boy's passion for sculpture was so great that the father was obliged to +yield to it, and placed him under the instruction of a sculptor named +Beuch, who had studied in Italy. Later Giovanni went to Rome, and +finally settled in Florence, where his most important works remain. + +He was an imitator of Michael Angelo, and one of his best imitators; but +when his works are compared with those of the great master, or with the +masterpieces of the fifteenth century, we see a decline in them. In +religious subjects Giovanni was not at home; his most successful works +were those which represented sentiment or abstract ideas, because on +them he could lavish his skill in execution, and use ornaments that did +not suit the simplicity of religious subjects. In the Loggia de' Lanzi, +at Florence, there are two groups by him, the Rape of the Sabines and +Hercules and Nessus. In the Piazza della Signoria is his excellent +statue of Duke Cosmo I., and in the Uffizi Gallery a bronze statue of +Mercury. The Rape of the Sabines is his masterpiece, and the Mercury is +one of the best works of its kind since the days of classic art. It is +the favorite Mercury of the world, and has been frequently copied. It is +seen in many galleries and collections in its original size, and a small +copy is much used in private houses. (Fig. 109.) + +Giovanni was especially happy in his designs for fountains, and that +which he erected in Bologna, in 1564, in front of the Palazzo Pubblico, +is a splendid work of this kind. The statue of Neptune at its summit is +stately and free in its action; the children are charming and life-like, +and the Sirens at the base give an harmonious finish and complete the +outline with easy grace. + +He also erected a magnificent fountain in the island of the Boboli +Gardens. In the Palazzo Vecchio is a marble group by Giovanni +representing Virtue conquering Vice. At Petraja there is a beautiful +Venus crowning a fountain remarkable for grace and delicacy, and, all in +all, his works prove him to have been the best sculptor of his own time. +Tuscany may claim him and be proud of him, for he was far more her son +than that of his native Flanders. + +Giovanni da Bologna was far less successful in reliefs than in statues, +as may be seen in the bronze gates to the Cathedral of Pisa, which he +made in the last years of his life. In his character this master was +attractive and much beloved by his friends. One of them wrote of him: +"The best fellow in the world, not in the least covetous, as he shows by +his poverty; filled with a love of glory, and ambitious of rivalling +Michael Angelo." + +Giovanni decorated a chapel in the Church of the Annunziata with several +reliefs in bronze and with a crucifix; he not only wished to be buried +here himself, as he was, but he also desired to provide a place of +burial for any of his countrymen who might die in Florence. The chapel +is called that of the Madonna del Soccorso. + +[Illustration: FIG. 109.--MERCURY. _By Giovanni da Bologna._] + +The decline of sculpture in Italy at this period makes its study so +unpromising that it is a pleasure to turn to France, where the works of +JEAN GOUJON show that he had the true idea of sculpture in relief. From +1555 to 1562 this sculptor was employed on the works at the Louvre, and +during the massacre of St. Bartholomew he was shot while on a scaffold +quietly working at a bas-relief on that palace. + +Goujon was an architect as well as a sculptor, and also a medal +engraver, as is shown by the curious and rare medal which he made for +Catherine de' Medici. Many of his works are preserved in different parts +of France, and some bas-reliefs in the Museum of the Louvre are +excellent specimens of his style. + +One also sees in France many works by GERMAIN PILON, who died in 1590. +He executed the monument to Francis I., and took a part in that of Henry +II. and Catherine de' Medici at the Church of St. Denis. He was the +sculptor of the group of the three Graces in the Louvre, which formerly +bore an urn containing the heart of Henry II., and was in the Church of +the Celestines. + +But the sculptors of France at this time are not of such interest as to +hold our attention long. There was a certain amount of spirit in their +decorations of palaces and tombs, but there were no men of great genius, +and no splendid works upon which we can dwell with pleasure or profit. + +In Germany, too, while there was much activity in sculpture, and public +fountains and luxurious palaces and rich ornaments employed many +artists, yet there was no originality or freshness in these works, and +they fell below those of the past. Bronzes are still made at Nuremberg, +but they only serve to make one regret that they are so inferior to +those of earlier days; and nowhere in all Germany does any one artist +stand out and present a man to be studied in his works or remembered as +one of the gifted of the earth. And yet a list of the names of German +sculptors of this time would be very long, for all over the land +churches were being decorated, monuments built, and statues and +fountains erected. + +In England the best sculpture of the sixteenth century was seen in the +portrait statues on monuments, and we find no great artists there of +whom to give an account. + +[Illustration: FIG. 110.--RELIEF BY BERRUGUETE. _Valladolid._] + +In Spain ALONSO BERRUGUETE (1480-1561), who was the most eminent artist +of his time, had introduced the Italian manner. He went to Italy about +1503, and studied in Rome and Florence during seventeen years. This was +at the time when Italian sculpture was at the height of its excellence; +and Berruguete returned to Spain filled with the purest and best +conceptions of what art should be, and the ends it should serve. He has +been called the Michael Angelo of Spain, because he was an architect, +painter, and sculptor. + +Upon his return to Spain he was appointed painter and sculptor to +Charles V. Among his most celebrated works in sculpture are the reliefs +in the choir of the Cathedral at Toledo; the altar in the Church of San +Benito el Real at Valladolid (Fig. 110), for which he was paid +forty-four hundred ducats, and his sculptures in the Collegio Mayor at +Salamanca. His final work was a monument to the Cardinal and Grand +Inquisitor, Don Juan de Tavera, which is in the Church of the Hospital +of St. John at Toledo. The sarcophagus is ornamented by reliefs from the +story of John the Baptist, which are executed in an excellent manner, +simple and expressive. + +Other Spanish sculptors were ESTEBAN JORDAN, an eminent wood-carver, +GREGORIO HERNANDEZ (1566-1636), who has been called "the sculptor of +religion." His works are so full of a spirit of devotion that they seem +to have been executed under an inspiration. Hernandez was very devout in +his life, and did many works of charity; he often provided decent burial +for the very poor who died without friends who could bury them. + +Many of his works have been removed from the chapels for which they were +designed, and are now in the Museum of Valladolid, where they are not as +effective as when placed in their original positions. He is superior to +other Spanish sculptors in his representation of nude figures and in the +grandeur of his expression. + +JUAN DE JUNI (died 1614) studied in Italy, and acquired much mannerism; +his works are seen in Valladolid. + +JUAN MARTINEZ MONTANES (died 1650) was a famous sculptor, and excelled +in figures of children and cherubs. His conceptions had much beauty and +depth of feeling, and his draperies were most graceful; and to this +power of thinking out clearly and well the subject he wished to +represent he added the ability to do his work in an artistic manner, and +to give it an elegance of finish without taking away its strength. A +Conception by him, in the Cathedral of Seville, is a noble work, and in +the university church of the same city there is an altar which is one of +his important works. Other sculptures by Montanes are in the Museum of +Seville. + +The great ALONSO CANO (1601-1667) was a pupil of Montanes in sculpture, +and, like so many other artists of his time, was a painter and architect +as well as a sculptor. His personal history is very peculiar. He was a +man of violent temper, and was often involved in serious quarrels. He +was obliged to flee from Granada to Madrid on account of a duel, and +when his wife was found murdered in her bed he was suspected of the +crime. In spite of all this he took priest's orders, and was appointed +to a canonry in the Cathedral of Granada; but on account of his temper +he was deprived of this office by the chapter of the cathedral. He was +so angry at this that he would do no more work for the cathedral. + +He devoted the remainder of his life to religious and charitable works. +He gave away the money he earned as soon as he received it, and when he +had no money to give away he was in the habit of making drawings, which +he signed and marked with a suitable price; these he gave to the person +he desired to assist, and recommended some person to whom application to +buy the work could be made. After his death a large number of these +charitable works was collected. + +He hated Jews with such hatred that he could not endure to look at one, +and many strange stories are told of him in connection with these +people. + +He loved his chisel better than his brush, and was accustomed to say +that when weary he carved for rest. One of his pupils expressed great +surprise at this, when Cano answered, "Blockhead, don't you perceive +that to create form and relief on a flat surface is a greater service +than to fashion one shape into another?" + +The most beautiful sculpture by Cano which remains is a Virgin about a +foot high in the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Granada, where there are +several other statuettes by him. These are colored in a manner which the +Spaniards call "estofado;" it has the effect to soften the whole +appearance of the works, like an enamel. At the entrance of the choir of +the cathedral there are two colossal busts by Cano; they are grand +works, and are called Adam and Eve. + +PEDRO ROLDAN (1624-1700), born at Seville, is an interesting sculptor +because of his work, and on account of his being the last one whose +manner was like that of Juni and Hernandez. His first celebrated work +was the high-altar in the chapel of the Biscayans in the Franciscan +convent. When the Caridad, or Hospital of Charity, was restored, Roldan +executed the last great work in painted sculpture; it was an immense +piece for the centre of the retablo of the high-altar of the church, and +represented the Entombment of Christ. + +Seville abounds in his works, and he executed bas-reliefs in stone for +the exterior of the Cathedral at Jaen. He was so devoted to his art that +he felt every moment to be lost that was not spent in its service. He +married a lady of good family, and lived in the country; when obliged to +go to Seville he was accustomed to carry a lump of clay, and model from +it as he rode along. Roldan was not by any means the best of Spanish +sculptors, but he had great skill in the composition of his works, and +the draperies and all the details were carefully studied. His daughter, +Dona Luisa Roldan, studied sculpture under her father's instruction, and +became a good artist; he was accustomed to allow her to superintend her +studio and his pupils. She often aided him by her suggestions, and on +one occasion, when a statue that he had made was rejected, she pointed +out to him certain anatomical defects, which he remedied, and the whole +appearance of the work was so changed that it was thought to be new, and +was accepted for the place for which it had been ordered. + +The works executed by Dona Luisa were principally small figures of the +Virgin, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and kindred subjects. Several of +these were presented to King Charles II., and he was so pleased by them +that he ordered a life-size statue of St. Michael for the Church of the +Escorial. She executed this to his satisfaction, and he then appointed +her sculptress in ordinary to the king. She died at Madrid in 1704, +surviving her father but four years. She left works in various convents +and churches. + +In Italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century a new era in +sculpture was inaugurated. Art was now required to serve the Church in +the way of appealing to sentiments and feeling in a far coarser and more +sensational a manner than formerly. Painting was suited to these +purposes far more than sculpture, and it had been raised to great +heights, in Spain, by Murillo, in the North by Rubens and his followers, +and in Italy by numerous masters. + +Luebke says of this period: "All that was now demanded of art was effect +and feeling at any price. The one was attained through the other. A +passionate excitement pulsates throughout all artistic works; the ideal +repose of the former altar-pieces no longer satisfied. Longing, +devotional ardor, passionate rapture, enthusiastic ecstasy--these are +the aims of the new art. No longer the solemn dignity of the saint, but +the nervous visions of enraptured monks, are its ideal. It delights in +thrilling delineations of martyrdom, seeking to render such scenes as +effective and touching as possible. A desire for substantial power, a +political-religious tendency, had taken possession of art, and had +adapted it to its own objects. That, under such circumstances, painting +reaches a new and truly artistic importance may be traced above all to +the great masters who now cultivated the art, and still more to the tone +of the age, which promoted it in a rare measure.... The same spirit, +however, which imparted such genuine importance to painting produced the +ruin of sculpture. This epoch, more than any other, is a proof that the +greatest men of talent, appearing in a perverted age, are carried by +their very genius all the more certainly to ruin. All that, in a more +favorable period, would have raised them to be stars in the art +firmament, now made them fall like some _ignis fatuus_, the brilliant +light of which owes its illusory existence only to miasma. This striking +fact appears, at first sight, inexplicable; but it is easy to +understand, if we consider the different character of the two arts. +Plastic art had formerly emulated painting, and thus, especially in +relief, had suffered unmistakable injury to its own peculiar nature. At +that time, however, painting itself was full of architectural severity +and plastic nobleness of form. Now, when everything depended on striking +effect and speaking delineation of passionate emotions, it was compelled +to have recourse to naturalistic representation, to freer arrangements +and to more striking forms that emulated reality. If, however, +sculpture, which could not keep pace with its rival in the enamelled +coloring and mysterious charm of the _chiaro-oscuro_ which it brought +into the field, would, in anywise, do the same as painting, it was +compelled to plunge regardlessly into the same naturalism of forms and +into the same bold display of passion with which painting produced such +grand effects. And this sculpture did without the slightest scruple, and +in this lack of an artistic conscience its whole glory perished. It is +true in this passion for excited compositions an excess of splendid +works were produced; it is true immense resources were expended, and +able artists were employed; but such inner hollowness stares at us with +inanimate eye from the greater number of these works that we turn from +them with repugnance, and even often with disgust." + +The artist who first met this new demand upon sculpture, and may be +called the founder of a new style, was GIOVANNI LORENZO BERNINI +(1598-1680), a very gifted man. When but ten years old this remarkable +genius was known as a prodigy in art, and it was at this early age that +his father took him to Rome. Pope Paul V. was soon interested in him, +and Cardinal Barberini assisted him in his studies; from this fortunate +beginning all through his life good fortune attended his steps. He lived +through the pontificate of nine popes, and was always in favor with the +reigning head of the Church. This gave him the opportunity to fill Rome +with his works, and he imprinted himself upon the art of the Eternal +City; no artist since the time of Michael Angelo held such sway, and +Bernini acquired his power easily, while the grand Michael Angelo was +disputed at every step, and fought a long, hard battle before he was +allowed to take the place which was so clearly his by right. + +The fame of Bernini extended to other lands, and he was invited to +France, where he went when sixty-eight years old, accompanied by one of +his sons and a numerous retinue. He was loaded with favors, and received +large sums of money and many valuable presents. In Rome, too, he was +much favored; he held several church benefices, and his son was made a +Canon of Santa Maria Maggiore; and it was in this church that Bernini +was buried with great magnificence, as became his position and his +wealth, for he left the immense fortune of four hundred thousand Roman +crowns. + +Bernini had great versatility of talent, a remarkable imagination and +power of conceiving his subjects clearly, and, more than all, he had +marvellous power of execution and compelling his marble to show forth +his thought. It has been said that marble was like wax or clay beneath +his hand. He was subject to no rules; indeed, he believed that an artist +must set aside all rules if he would excel. This sounds very +fascinating, but a study of Bernini's works will show that it is a +deceitful maxim. A man of small talent could do nothing in this way, and +even Bernini, who without doubt had great gifts, often failed to make up +in any way for the sins against rules of which he was guilty. +Westmacott, in his writing upon sculpture, says it would have been +better for art if Bernini had never lived; and it is true that in his +struggle for effect he was an injury rather than a benefit to the art of +his own day and the succeeding years. + +The worst defect in the sculpture of Bernini is his treatment of the +human body. At times he exaggerates the muscular power beyond all +resemblance to nature, and again he seems to leave out all anatomy and +soften the body to a point that far exceeds possibility. This softness +is seen in his Apollo and Daphne, which shows the moment when she is +suddenly changed into a laurel-tree in order to escape the pursuit of +the young god. This group is in the Villa Borghese, at Rome; it was +executed when Bernini was but eighteen years old, and near the close of +his life he declared that he had made little progress after its +production. + +But he reached the height of this objectionable manner in his +representation of the Rape of Proserpine, which is in the Villa +Ludovisi. The Pluto is a rough, repulsive man, with whom no association +of a god can be made, and the Proserpine is made a soulless, sensual +figure, so far from attractive in a pure sense that we are almost +willing that Pluto should carry her to some region from which she is not +likely to come back. At the same time we are sorry not to provide her +with an ointment for the blue marks which the big hands of Pluto are +making on her soft flesh. The plain truth is, that this work makes a low +and common thing of a subject which could be so treated as to be a +"thing of beauty" in a charming sense. (Fig. 111.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 111.--RAPE OF PROSERPINE. _By Bernini._] + +Bernini executed a statue of St. Bibiana for the church of that saint at +Rome, and one of St. Longinus in one of the niches to the dome of St. +Peter's; he also made the designs for the one hundred and sixty-two +statues in the colonnades of St. Peter's, and for the decorations of the +bridge of St. Angelo; in such works, almost without exception, he chose +some moment in the lives of the persons represented that called for a +striking attitude and gave an opportunity for an effect that is often +theatrical. As a mere decoration such statues have a certain value of an +inferior sort; but as works of art, as intellectual efforts, they are +worthless. However, this decorative effect, as it is seen on the facade +of the Lateran, where the figures stand out against the sky, or on the +bridge of St. Angelo, is not by any means to be despised; only we cannot +call a sculptor a great artist when he can do nothing finer than this. + +Some of Bernini's works in which he shows intense suffering have more +genuine feeling, and are finer in artistic qualities. One of these is +Pieta, in the chapel of St. Andreas Corsini in the Lateran. But he +frequently goes beyond the bounds of good taste, as, for example, on the +monument to Pope Urban VIII., in St. Peter's, where he represents Death +with his bony hand writing the inscription on the panel; this is truly +terrible, and not less so is another Death upon the monument of +Alexander VII., raising the marble curtain before the entrance to the +vault, as if he were inviting one to walk in. Many objections can be +made to his draperies. He exaggerated the small curtains seen on some +ancient tombs until they were huge objects of ugliness; the drapery upon +his figures is so prominently treated that instead of being a minor +object it sometimes seems like the principal one; it no longer serves to +conceal forms, and at the same time show their grace and motion, but it +is inflated, fluttering, grotesque in form and quite absurd when +compared with statues in which it answers its true purpose. + +Charles I. of England heard so much of Bernini that he desired to have a +statue of himself executed by this sculptor; three of Vandyck's +portraits of the king were sent to him, and the likeness of the statue +was so satisfactory to the monarch that he sent the artist six thousand +crowns and a ring worth as much more. + +Bernini executed a colossal equestrian statue of Constantine for the +portico of St. Peter's; he made another of Louis XIV., which was changed +into a Marcus Curtius, and sent to Versailles. He also executed the +fountain in the Piazza Navona, at Rome, which is one of his exaggerated +works. + +FRANCOIS DUQUESNOY (1594-1646) was born at Brussels, and was known in +Rome as Il Fiammingo. The Archduke Albert sent him to Rome to study, and +he was a contemporary of Bernini. When his patron died Duquesnoy was +left without means, and was forced to carve small figures in ivory for +his support. His figures of children, which were full of life and +child-like expression, became quite famous. An important work of his in +this way is the fountain of the Manneken-Pis, at Brussels. + +His masterpiece is a colossal statue of St. Andrew in the Church of St. +Peter's; it occupied him five years, and is one of the best works of +modern art. His statue of St. Susanna in the Church of Santa Maria di +Loreto, in Rome, is simple and noble, and is much admired. Little is +known of this artist's life, and it is said that he was poisoned by his +brother when on his way to France. + +There was a goodly company of sculptors following Bernini, but none +whose works or life was of sufficient importance or interest to demand +our attention here, and we will pass to the sculpture of France, where +the arts were less devoted to the service of the Church and more to the +uses of kings, princes, and noblemen. The court of France was devoted to +pomp and pleasure, and sculpture was used for the glorification of the +leaders in all its follies. In one sense this is more agreeable than the +art in Italy which we have been considering, for nothing can be more +disagreeable than a false religious sentiment in art; it is only when +the artist is filled with true devotion and feels deeply in his own soul +all that he tries to express in his work that religious representations +can appeal to us agreeably or benefit us by their influence. + +SIMON GUILLAIN (1581-1658) is especially interesting as the sculptor of +the statue of Louis XIV. as a boy, which is in the Louvre; those of his +parents are also there; formerly they decorated the Pont au Change. +Other works by this master are in the same museum. + +JACQUES SARRAZIN (1588-1660) is only known by his works, which are now +in the Louvre, of which a bronze bust of the Chancellor Pierre Seguier +is worthy of notice. + +FRANCOIS ANGUIER (1604-1669) was born at Eu, in Normandy, and was the +son of a carpenter, who taught his son to carve in wood at an early age. +When still quite young Francois went to Paris to study, and later to +Rome. He became one of the first artists of his time in France, and was +a favorite of the king, Louis XIII., who made him keeper of the gallery +of antiquities, and gave him apartments in the Louvre. Most of his +important works were monuments to illustrious men. His copies of antique +sculptures were very fine. + +MICHEL ANGUIER (1612-1686) was a brother of the preceding, with whom he +studied until they both went to Rome. Michel remained there ten years, +and was employed with other artists in St. Peter's and in some palaces. +In 1651 he returned to Paris, and assisted Francois in the great work of +the tomb of the Duke de Montmorenci at Moulins. + +Michel executed a statue of Louis XIII., which was cast in bronze. He +adorned the apartments of Queen Anne of Austria in the Louvre, and for +her executed the principal sculptures in the Church of Val de Grace; a +Nativity in this church is his best work. His sculptures are seen in +various churches, and he also executed statues of ancient gods and vases +for garden ornaments. He was a professor in the Academy of Arts in +Paris, and wrote lectures on sculpture. + +FRANCOIS GIRARDON (1630-1715), born at Troyes, was a _protege_ of the +Chancellor Seguier. Louis XIV. gave him a pension, by which he was +enabled to study in Rome, and after his return to France the king gave +him many commissions. The monument to Cardinal Richelieu in the Church +of the Sorbonne is from the hand of this sculptor. Perhaps his +best-known work is the Rape of Proserpine at Versailles. He made an +equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in the Revolution; +a model of it in bronze is in the Louvre. His bust of Boileau is a +strong, fine work. Many of his sculptures were destroyed by the +revolutionists. + +A devoted follower of Bernini was PIERRE PUGET (1622-1694). His works +are seen at the Louvre and at Versailles. His group of Milo of Crotona +endeavoring to free himself from the claws of the lion is full of life +and is natural, but the subject is too repulsive to be long examined; +his Perseus liberating Andromeda is more agreeable, and is noble in its +forms and animated in expression. His Alexander and Diogenes is in +relief, and is effective and picturesque. + +ANTOINE COYSEVOX (1640-1720) was born at Lyons, and manifested his +artistic talent very early in life. Before he was seventeen years old he +had distinguished himself by a statue of the Virgin, and progressed +rapidly in his studies, which he made in Paris. In 1667 he was engaged +by Cardinal Furstenburg to go to Alsace to decorate his palace; this +occupied him four years. When he again went to Paris he became a very +eminent artist. He executed a statue of Louis XIV., and received a +commission from the province of Bretagne for an equestrian statue of the +same monarch. + +Among his best works are the tomb of Cardinal Mazarin; the tomb of the +great Colbert in the Church of St. Eustache; the monument of Charles le +Brun in the Church of St. Nicolas; the statue of the great Conde; the +marble statue of Louis XIV., in the Church of Notre Dame, and others. In +the tomb of Mazarin he showed fine powers of construction and excellence +of design. The kneeling figure of the minister is a dignified statue and +well executed; the statues in bronze of Prudence, Peace, and Fidelity, +and the marble figures of Charity and Religion are each and all noble +works, and free to a remarkable degree from the mannerisms and faults of +his time. + +NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was a nephew and pupil of Coysevox. He took +the grand prize at Paris, and went to Rome to study when he was +twenty-three years old. He made many copies of the antique. After his +return to France he was much employed. His chief work was a colossal +representation of the Junction of the Seine and the Marne. He also made +for the city of Lyons a bronze statue representing the river Saone. Some +of his sculptures are in the Church of Notre Dame. + +GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1678-1746), brother of Nicolas, also gained the grand +prize and went to Rome, and on his return made a fine reputation. Much +of his best work was for the gardens of Marly; he executed a bronze +statue of the Rhone at Lyons; a bas-relief of Christ with the Doctors, +at Versailles, and statues of Louis XIV. and Cardinal Dubois, in the +Museum of French Monuments. + +JEAN BAPTISTE PIGALLE (1714-1785) is the last French sculptor of whom I +shall speak here. He was born in Paris, and gained his first fame by a +statue of Mercury; but his masterpiece was the tomb of Marshal Moritz of +Saxony, in the Church of St. Thomas, at Strasburg. The soldier is +represented in his own costume, just as he wore it in life, about to +enter a tomb, on one side of which stands a skeleton Death, and on the +other a mourning Hercules. A statue representing France tries to hold +him back, and a Genius attends on him with an inverted torch. There are +many accessories of military emblems and trophies. There have been +several engravings made from this tomb, the best part of which is the +figure of the Marshal. + +Pigalle was a favorite with Mme. Pompadour, of whom he made a portrait +statue. She employed him to do many works for her. His best monument in +Paris is that of the Comte d'Harcourt, in the Church of Notre Dame. + +In the Netherlands, as in Italy, the painting of the time had a great +effect upon sculpture, and it was full of energy, like the pictures of +the Rubens school; at the same time there remained traces of the +traditions of former days, and while a great change had come since the +days of Vischer, there was still a firm adherence to nature, and no +such affectations and mannerisms existed here as were seen in the works +of Bernini and his followers in Italy and France. + +One of the ablest sculptors of his day was ARTHUR QUELLINUS, who was +born at Antwerp in 1607. He studied under Duquesnoy, and was especially +happy in his manner of imagining his subjects, and of avoiding the +imitation of others or a commonplace treatment of his own. The +magnificent Town Hall of Antwerp was commenced in 1648, and Quellinus +received the commission to decorate it with plastic works. His +sculptures are numerous, both on the interior and exterior of the +edifice. In the two pediments he introduced allegorical representations +of the power of the city of Antwerp, especially in her commerce. These +compositions are picturesque in their arrangement, but the treatment is +such as belongs to sculpture; in one of these a figure which represents +the city is enthroned like a queen, and is surrounded by fantastic +sea-gods, who offer their homage to her. (Fig. 112.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 112.--CARYATIDE. _Quellinus._] + +We cannot give a list of many detached works by Quellinus, but one of +the best of the old monuments in Berlin is attributed to him. It is the +tomb of Count Sparr in the Marienkirche. + +At the present day Berlin is a city of much artistic importance, and the +beginning of its present architectural and sculptural prominence may be +dated at about the end of the seventeenth century, not quite two hundred +years ago. One of the most influential artists of that time was ANDREAS +SCHLUeTER (1662-1714), who was born in Hamburg. His father was a sculptor +of no prominence, but he took his son with him to Dantzig, where many +Netherlandish artists were employed upon the buildings being constructed +there. Andreas Schlueter was naturally gifted, and he devoted himself to +the study of both architecture and sculpture, at home and later in +Italy. Before he was thirty years old he was employed in important +affairs in Warsaw, and in 1694 he was summoned to Berlin, where he +executed the plastic ornaments of the Arsenal; the heads of the Dying +Warriors above the windows in the court-yard are remarkable works. They +are very fine when regarded only as excellent examples of good +sculpture, and they are very effective placed as they are, for they seem +to tell the whole tragic story of what a soldier's life and fate must +often be (Fig. 113). + +[Illustration: FIG. 113.--HEADS OF DYING WARRIORS. _By Schlueter._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE GREAT ELECTOR. _By Schlueter._] + +However, the masterpiece of this sculptor is the equestrian statue of +the Great Elector for the long bridge at Berlin, which was completed in +1703 (Fig. 114). Luebke says of this: "Although biassed as regards form +by the age which prescribed the Roman costume to ideal portraits of this +kind, the horseman on his mighty charger is conceived with so much +energy, he is filled with such power of will, he is so noble in bearing +and so steady in his course, that no other equestrian statue can be +compared with this in fiery majesty. Equally masterly is the +arrangement of the whole, especially the four chained slaves on the +base, in whom we gladly pardon a certain crowding of movements and +forms." + +Schlueter also made a statue of the Elector Frederic III., which is now +in Koenigsberg. Besides his works in sculpture he was the architect of +the royal palaces at Potsdam, Charlottenburg, and Berlin, and there are +many sculptures by him at these places. When he was thus in an important +position and at the height of professional prosperity he met with a sad +misfortune, from the effects of which he never recovered. A chime of +bells had been purchased in Holland, and Schlueter was commissioned to +arrange an old tower for their reception. He carried it higher than it +had been, and was proceeding to finish it, when it threatened to fall, +and had to be pulled down. On account of this Schlueter was dismissed +from his position as court architect; and though his office of sculptor +was left to him his power was gone, and he was broken down in spirit. He +was called to St. Petersburg by Peter the Great, and died soon after. +Now, the verdict of judges is that he was one of the greatest artists of +his age, and that his works, both in sculpture and architecture, belong +to the noblest productions of his century. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS. + + +In the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a +feeble state that a true artistic work--one conceived and executed in an +artist spirit--was not to be looked for. As in the Middle Ages, too, +thought seemed to be sleeping. Both art and letters were largely +prostrated to the service of those in high places; they were scarcely +used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made +them to be feared, and because they were feared they were flattered +openly and despised secretly. + +But about the end of the century another spirit arose; a second +Renaissance took place, which may be traced in literature and in art, as +it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of +thought everywhere. + +Naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models +was an important one, and as before in various epochs in art the antique +had been the "only help in time of trouble," so it proved again. In 1764 +Winckelmann published his "History of Ancient Art," in which the rich +significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student. The +service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be +over-estimated, coming, as it did, at a time when the genius of art +seemed to have turned his back upon the world, and all true inspiration +was lost. At about the same time the monuments of Athens were recalled +to the European world by Stuart and Revett in their architectural +designs, and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done +its transforming work, and artists were striving for more worthy ends +than the favor of kings and powerful patrons. This new study of classic +art did not show its full and best results until the Danish sculptor +Thorwaldsen executed his works; but before his time others were striving +for that which it was his privilege to perfect. + +Among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers +was the Venetian, ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822). He was born in Possagno, +and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters. His father died when he +was very young, and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his +grandfather, the old Pasino Canova, who lost no time in accustoming the +boy to the use of the chisel, for there are cuttings in existence which +were executed by Canova in his ninth year. Signor Giovanni Faliero dwelt +near Possagno, and was in the habit of employing Pasino Canova +frequently; he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he +sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa. On these visits +the old man was accompanied by Antonio, who soon became a favorite with +all the family of Faliero, and a friend of the young Giuseppe. + +On one occasion when Pasino and the boy attended a festival at Villa +Faliero, the ornament for the dessert was forgotten. When the servants +remembered it at the last moment they went to the old Pasino in +distress, and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the +master. The old man could do nothing for them, but the young Tonin, as +he was called, asked for some butter, and from it quickly carved a lion. +At table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the +guests, and Tonin was called in to receive their praises; from this time +the Senator Faliero became his patron, and he placed the boy under the +instruction of Giuseppe Bernardi, called Toretto, a Venetian sculptor +who had settled at Pagnano. + +At this time Canova was twelve years old; he studied two years under +Toretto, and made many statues and models, which are still preserved by +the Faliero family, or in other collections. His first really original +work was the modelling of two angels in clay; he did these during an +absence of his master's; he placed them in a prominent place, and then +awaited Toretto's opinion with great anxiety. When the master saw them +he was filled with surprise, and exclaimed that they were truly +marvellous; from these models the grandfather cut two angels in _pietra +dura_ for the high-altar at Monfumo. At this same period Canova made his +first representations of the human form; he was accustomed to make small +statues and give them to his friends. + +When he was fifteen years old Faliero sent for him, and received him +into his own family. Canova wished to earn something for himself, and +engaged to work half of the day for Giuseppe Ferrari, who was a nephew +of his former master, Toretto. Of this time Canova afterward wrote: "I +labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of +my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of +more honorable rewards." This circumstance proves how remarkable he must +have been; it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work +instead of paying for instruction. In Venice he was able to learn much +from observation. He divided his time systematically, spending his +mornings in the Academy or some gallery, his afternoons in the shop +where he was employed, and his evenings in studies for which he had had +no opportunity as a child. + +The first commission which was given to Canova was from the Commendatore +Farsetti for a pair of baskets filled with fruit and flowers, to be +sculptured in marble, and placed on a staircase which led to the picture +gallery in the Farsetti Palace, where Canova spent much time in study. +These works have no special excellence. + +After a year in Venice he went to Asolo with the Faliero family. Some +time before this his patron had asked Canova to make for him a group of +Orpheus and Eurydice, taking the moment when Eurydice beholds her lover +torn away from her forever. Canova had been busy with this in his +leisure hours in Venice, and he took with him to Asolo everything +necessary to the work. He completed the Eurydice in his sixteenth year; +it was life-size, and cut from _pietra di Costosa_. + +With this first attempt Canova became convinced that the small models +such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work, +and he determined that his models should be of the size which the +finished work would have, even when colossal. + +After this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the +Augustine friars attached to the Church of San Stefano, in Venice. +During the next three years he was occupied with his Orpheus and a bust +of the Doge Renier. At this time he studied entirely from nature; he +devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy, and after a time was +accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from +important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular +instances. + +In 1776 his Orpheus was finished and exhibited, and it chanced to be at +the annual festival of the Ascension, when the opera of Orpheus was +brought out in Venice. Canova was accustomed to say that the praise he +then received was "that which made him a sculptor;" and so grateful was +he for it that later, when he became Marquis of Ischia, he chose for his +armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols +of Orpheus and Eurydice. The Senator Grimani ordered a copy of the +Orpheus, and this was the first work of Canova in Carrara marble. + +He soon found his workshop too small, and removed to one in the street +of San Maurizio, where he remained until he left his native country. His +next work was a statue of AEsculapius, larger than life; a short time +before his death, when he saw this statue, he sorrowfully declared that +"his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of +excellence in this performance of his youth." About this time he +executed an Apollo and Daphne which was never entirely finished, and +when twenty-two years old he completed a group of Daedalus and Icarus for +the Senator Pisani. This was intended for an exterior decoration of his +palace; but when it was done Pisani considered it worthy of a place in +his gallery, already famous on account of the painting of Darius and his +Family, by Paul Veronese, and other fine works. This may be called +Canova's last work in Venice, as he went to Rome soon after his +twenty-third birthday. + +The Cavaliere Zuliani was then the representative of Venice in Rome, and +Faliero gave Canova letters to him. Zuliani was an enlightened patron of +art, and he received the young sculptor with great kindness, and soon +arranged to have his model of Daedalus and Icarus exhibited to the best +artists and judges of art in Rome. We can fancy the anxiety with which +Canova went to this exhibition; but the praise which he there received +secured for him a place among the artists then in Rome. + +Canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important +subject, and Zuliani was his friend in this; for he gave him the marble, +and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value +of the work when completed. He also gave him a workshop in the Venetian +Palace, to which no one had access, where he could be entirely free and +undisturbed. The subject chosen for the group was Theseus vanquishing +the Minotaur, and the size was to be colossal. Canova now worked with +untiring devotion; he was often seen before the statues on Monte +Cavallo, with sketch-book in hand, as soon as it was light enough for +him to see, and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of +Rome. His friends in Venice had secured for him a pension of three +hundred ducats, which placed him above want, and he was free to devote +himself to his Theseus, although while at work on that he made a statue +of Apollo, which was exhibited with Angelini's Minerva, and received +much praise. + +Meantime no one knew of the Theseus save the ambassador. When it was +finished Zuliani prepared it for exhibition, and invited all the most +distinguished men in Rome to an entertainment. A model of the head of +Theseus was put in a prominent place, and the guests were busy in +discussing it; they asked questions and expressed opinions, and when +their interest was well awakened Zuliani said: "Come, let us end this +discussion by seeing the original," and the statue was unveiled before +their eyes. Canova often declared that death itself could not have been +more terrible to him than were those moments. But he and all else were +forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited; in +that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere +praise. From that day the fame of Canova was established. + +Very soon he was selected to erect a monument to Clement XIV. This pope +was a famous man; he was the collector of the Clementine Museum, the +author of the elegant letters known by his family name of Ganganelli, +and, above all, he was the suppressor of the Jesuits. While Canova felt +the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to +consult those who had conferred his pension upon him, and thus helped +him to become the artist that he was. He went, therefore, to Venice +and sought direction from the Senate; he was told to employ his time +as should be most profitable to himself. He therefore gave up his studio +in Venice, and as his patron, Zuliani, had now left Rome, he fitted up +the studio in the Strada Babbuino, which became so well known to lovers +of art of all nations who visited Rome. In 1787 the above monument was +exhibited, and was much admired. An engraving was made from it and +dedicated to Zuliani; but Canova desired to do something more worthy for +his patron, and made a statue of Psyche as a gift to him; Zuliani +hesitated to accept it, but finally consented to do so if Canova would +in turn accept a number of silver medals with the Psyche on one side and +a head of Canova on the other, which he could give to his friends. In +the midst of all this Zuliani died, and his heirs were so angry because +he had left works of art to the Public Library that they refused to +carry out his plans. In the end the Psyche was bought by Napoleon and +presented to the Queen of Bavaria. + +[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Canova._] + +Canova executed a second papal monument to Pope Clement XIII. It was +erected in St. Peter's by his nephews. The mourning genius upon it is +frequently mentioned as one of Canova's happiest figures. The execution +of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of +this sculptor's life. + +Canova's fame had extended over all Europe, and he was asked to go to +St. Petersburg, and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so; +but he declined, and executed the monument of Admiral Emo, on a +commission from the Venetian Senate. For this work he received a gold +medal and an annuity for life. + +In 1798, during the revolutionary excitement at Rome, Canova went to +Possagno, his native town. Here, in his retirement, he painted more than +twenty pictures, which were by no means to be despised. His masterpiece +represented the Saviour just taken from the cross, and surrounded by +the Marys, St. John, Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea. This was the +first of the many gifts which he made to this little church, by which it +became a splendid temple and the expression of Canova's love for his +birthplace and early home. + +After he returned to Rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his +usual close application to work, and he went to Berlin and Vienna in +company with Prince Rezzonico, and this so benefited him that he was +able to resume his labors with new energy. He soon achieved a proud +triumph, for his Perseus was placed in one of the Stanze of the Vatican +by a public decree; this was the first modern work which had been thus +honored. + +In 1802-1803 Napoleon requested Canova to go to Paris to model a +portrait bust for a colossal statue; the work was finished six years +later. In 1805 the artist went again to Vienna, where he modelled a bust +of the Emperor of Austria; in 1810 again to Paris to prepare a model for +the statue of Maria Louisa. With the exception of these short journeys +he was constantly at work in his Roman studio until 1815, when he was +sent in an official capacity to France by the pope, for the purpose of +reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from Italy in times +of war, and which really belonged to the patrimony of the Church. Canova +executed his commission with rare judgment, and then continued his +journey to England. In London he received many honors; the king gave him +an order for a group, held several conversations with him, made him +valuable gifts, and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope. + +Canova returned to Rome on January 5th, 1816. His entry might almost be +called a triumphal one, for the people of Rome were so grateful for the +restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in +demonstrations to Canova. He had been President of St. Luke's Academy +before; he was now made President of the Commission to purchase works of +art, and of the Academy of Archaeology. In full consistory of all the +high officers of the Church, the pope caused his name to be inscribed +upon the "golden volume of the Capitol," and conferred upon him the +title of Marquis of Ischia, with a pension of three thousand crowns a +year. + +Canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of Religion, which +should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment. He endeavored +to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed; this +was not done, and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the +idea. But he determined that from this time he would devote his life and +fortune to religion, and resolved to erect a church at Possagno, to +adorn it with works of art, and to make it his own burial-place. + +On July 8th, 1819, Canova assembled his workmen in his native town, and +gave them a _fete_; many peasant girls joined in the festivities and +assisted in the breaking of the ground; at evening, as they all passed +before Canova to bid him farewell, each one received a gift from him. +Three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of +the future church took place. An immense number of people from the +surrounding country and from Venice were present; Canova, in his robes +as a Knight of Christ, and wearing the insignia of other orders, led the +procession; all who had seen Canova when a poor boy in their midst were +much impressed by this occasion. Here, in a public manner, he +consecrated his life and fortune to the service of God and the benefit +of his birthplace. Every autumn Canova went to Possagno to encourage the +workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done. +Between these visits he worked devotedly, for he was forced to earn all +he could in order to pay for his great undertaking. + +At this time he executed a statue of Washington, and was making an +equestrian statue of Ferdinand of Naples, and in the month of May, 1822, +went to that city, where he fell ill; he returned to Rome, and revived +somewhat, and resumed his work. On September 17th he went to Possagno, +in October to Villa Faliero, where, fifty years before, he had spent +such happy days. From here he went to Venice, and on the 13th of the +same month he died. + +Solemn services were held in the cathedral, and his remains were then +intrusted to the priests of Possagno, who bore them to their temple, +where he was buried on the 25th of the month; the crowd was so great +that the oration was delivered in the open air. Canova's heart was given +to the Academy of Venice, and an elegant little monument was erected in +the Palace of Arts to contain this relic of the sculptor. The Venetian +artists arranged to erect to him a monument, and chose the design which +he himself had made for the tomb of Titian; it is in the Church of Santa +Maria de' Frari. In Rome a statue was decreed to him, and he was +declared the perpetual President of her chief academy. + +In personal appearance Canova was not grand or very attractive. His head +was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders, and the loose manner in +which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen; his forehead was a +noble one, his hair black, and his whole manner and dress was modest and +simple. His habits were very orderly and quiet; he rose early to work, +and went little into public society; but he welcomed a few friends to +dinner almost daily. He entertained them cordially, but without display, +and led the conversation to light, cheerful topics that did not touch +upon art, or demand mental exertion. At eleven o'clock he retired to his +own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping. Some +of his best drawings were made at this hour, and have been published +with the title of "Pensieri," or thoughts. To describe one day was to +give a picture of all, so regular were his habits of life. + +In his professional life he was just and generous to others, and though +he would have no pupils, he would leave everything to advise an artist +or visit his works. He was also a patron of art, and had executed, at +his own expense, the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the +Capitoline Museum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 116.--HEBE. _By Canova._] + +There is a story of a romance in his life. It is said that when he first +arrived in Venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older +than himself, who went to draw in the Farsetti Gallery. Day by day he +watched her until she came no more; at length her attendant returned, +and Canova inquired for her mistress; she burst into tears and answered, +"La Signora Julia is dead." He asked no more, and never knew who Julia +was or any circumstances of her history; but all his life he treasured +her image, and when he endeavored to unite the purity of an angel with +the earthly beauty of a woman, the remembrance of Julia was always in +his mind. + +Canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of +praise and the benefits of their labors while alive. Without doubt he +was a great sculptor, and coming as he did, at a time when art was at +its worst, he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him. But +the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends +and patrons. His statues lack the repose which makes the grandest +feature of the best sculpture; his female figures have a sentimental +sort of air that is not all we could wish, and does not elevate them +above what we may call pleasing art. His male figures are better, more +natural and simple, though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse +and brutal, as in the two fencers, Kreugas and Damoxenes, or Hercules +and Lichas. But in his religious subjects he is much finer, and in some +of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness, while his composition +is in the true artistic spirit. Taken on the whole, he was a wonderful +artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud. + +Other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at Rome, +and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm. One of these was +ANTOINE DENIS CHAUDET (1763-1810), who was born at Paris. His talent was +so early developed that he was admitted to the Royal Academy when +fourteen years old, and when twenty-one he gained the first prize, and +with the royal pension went to Rome, where he remained five years. He +soon took good rank among artists of that time, for he was a designer +and painter as well as sculptor. He adhered strictly to the antique +style, and attained much purity, though he was always cold in treatment. +He was made a Professor of Sculpture in the French Academy, and made +valuable contributions to the "Dictionary of Fine Arts." + +Chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of Peace +in the Tuileries; a statue of Cincinnatus in the Senate Chamber; a +statue of OEdipus; a bas-relief of Painting, Sculpture, and +Architecture, in the Musee Napoleon, and many busts and smaller works. + +He also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a +fine edition of Racine, and painted a picture of AEneas and Anchises in +the Burning of Troy. + +JOHANN HEINRICH DANNECKER (1758-1841) was born at Stuttgart. By a statue +of Milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by Duke Charles +Eugene, and with the royal pension he went first to Paris and then to +Rome, where he studied seven years. He then returned to Wuertemberg, and +was made Director of the Royal Academy, with a salary of fifteen +thousand francs a year. During fifteen years Dannecker maintained a high +rank in his art, but his health became so feeble that he was forced to +see others excel him. One of his works has a wide reputation, and is +known to many people the world over, through the generosity of Herr +Bethmann of Frankfort, who admits visitors to his gallery, and from the +models and pictures which have been made from it; it is the Ariadne on a +Panther (Fig. 117). + +Dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature; his figures were light and +graceful, and his heads were noble in expression. He labored eight years +upon a figure of Christ, which belongs to the Emperor of Russia; in +Stuttgart a nymph pouring water on Neckar Street and two nymphs on a +reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural +sculpture. Among his other works are a statue of Alexander, a monument +to Count Zeppelin, a Cupid, and a Maiden lamenting a Dead Bird. Some of +his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture; his +portraits are noble and true to nature; the works named here are by no +means all that he did, and we should add that his efforts in religious +subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful, and a true conception of +Christian ideas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 117.--ARIADNE AND THE PANTHER. _By Dannecker._] + +We come now, for the first time, to a great English sculptor. JOHN +FLAXMAN (1755-1826) was born in York, but while he was still an infant +his father removed to London, where he kept a plaster-cast shop. The boy +began to draw and even to model very early; when but five years old he +kept some soft wax, with which he could take an impression from any seal +or ring or coin which pleased him. He was very delicate in health, and +was once thought to be dead, and was prepared for burial, when animation +returned; his parents tried to gratify all his wishes, and while a child +he modelled a great number of figures in wax, clay, and plaster. + +By the time he was ten years old he was much stronger, and was able to +use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and +imagination. About this time he read "Don Quixote," and was so moved by +the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed +with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel; he went +to Hyde Park and wandered about all day, not finding any one who was in +need of his services. At night he returned home, very hungry and weary, +to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence. + +He now spent all his time in drawing and modelling, and never had more +than two lessons from a master; at eleven years of age he began to gain +various prizes, and at fourteen was admitted to study at the Royal +Academy, and gained the silver medal there that same year. About this +time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to +learn more of history, all of which was of great use to him in his art. +He was also fortunate in having the friendship of Mr. Wedgwood, for whom +he made many models. He also painted a few pictures in oil. + +Among his earliest sculptures were a group of Venus and Cupid and a +monument to Mrs. Morley, who, with her baby, died at sea. Flaxman +represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received +by descending angels. + +In 1782 Flaxman married Miss Ann Denman, whose intelligence and love of +art were of great assistance to her husband. In 1787 he went to Rome, +where he remained seven years. During this time he made a group for Lord +Bristol, representing the Fury of Athamas, from the Metamorphoses of +Ovid; this work cost him much labor, for which he received but small +pay; it was carried to Ireland and then to Ickworth House, in Suffolk, +where but few people see it. In Rome Flaxman also made a group of +Cephalus and Aurora for Mr. Thomas Hope, and the designs from Homer, +AEschylus, and Dante, which have such a world-wide fame. + +In 1794 he returned to England, where he was constantly employed on +important works until his death. We cannot give a list of his numerous +works. Many of his monuments are seen in the churches of England. In +Glasgow are his statues of Mr. Pitt and Sir John Moore, in bronze; in +Edinburgh is that of Robert Burns. Flaxman executed much sculpture for +the East Indies, one of these works being unfinished when he died. Some +critics consider his Archangel Michael and Satan his best work; it was +made for the Earl of Egremont, who had his life-size Apollo also. + +In 1797 Flaxman was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1800 +an Academician, and in 1810, when a Professor of Sculpture was added to +the other professors of the Academy, he was appointed to the office. His +lectures have been published. The friezes on the Covent Garden Theatre +were all designed by Flaxman, and he executed the figure of Comedy +himself. His last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of +Buckingham Palace, which would have been entirely under his direction +and partly executed by him if he had lived. + +His wife died in 1820, and her loss was a grief from which he could not +recover; she had been a great advantage to him, and he had depended much +upon her sympathy and counsel. Flaxman was a singularly pure man, and so +attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike. + +Sir Richard Westmacott succeeded Flaxman as Professor at the Royal +Academy; he said: "But the greatest of modern sculptors was our +illustrious countryman, John Flaxman, who not only had all the fine +feeling of the ancient Greeks (which Canova in a degree possessed), but +united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly +astonishing. Though Canova was his superior in the manual part, high +finishing, yet in the higher qualities, poetical feeling and invention, +Flaxman was as superior to Canova as was Shakespeare to the dramatists +of his day." + +But the perfection of the results of the study of Canova and others who +endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the Dane, +BERTEL THORWALDSEN (1770-1844), who was born in Copenhagen. The descent +of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite +distinct ways. Those who claim that the Norsemen discovered America +relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born, from +whom Thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed. The learned +genealogists of Iceland say that his ancestors were descended from +Harald Hildetand, King of Denmark, who, in the eighth century, was +obliged to flee, first to Norway and then to Iceland, and that one of +his descendants, Oluf Paa, in the twelfth century, was a famous +wood-carver. But this much is certain: in the fourteenth century there +lived in Southern Iceland a wealthy man, whose family and descendants +were much honored. One of these, Thorvald Gottskalken, a pastor, had +two sons and but a small fortune; so he sent his sons to Copenhagen, +where one became a jeweller and died young; the other, who was a +wood-carver, was the father of the artist, whose mother was Karen +Groeulund, the daughter of a Jutland peasant. + +The father was employed in a shipyard, and carved only the rude +ornaments of vessels and boats; but these served to lead the mind of the +little Bertel to the art he later followed. His father could not have +dreamed of such a future as came to his son, but he was wise enough to +know that the boy might do more and better than he had done, and he sent +him, when eleven years old, to the free school of the Royal Academy to +study drawing; and very soon the works of the father showed the gain +which the son had made, for his designs were those now used by the old +wood-carver. + +Bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of Charlottenburg, +and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class. +When Bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the +school at Charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize +was his brother. He looked up with surprise, and blushing, said, "It is +myself, Herr Chaplain." The priest was astounded at this, and said, +"Herr Thorwaldsen, please to pass up to the first class." + +The boy was amazed at these honors, and from this day retained the title +of "Herr," which gave him much distinction. When, after many years, the +sculptor had been loaded with honors, and stood on the heights of fame, +he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as +that first rapture which came from the words of the Chaplain Hoeyer when +he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy. + +The effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his ambition, and +he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness. Two years later +he made a bas-relief of Love in Repose, which took the large silver +medal. His father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a +ship's carver, and Bertel made no objection to doing so; but the painter +Abildgaard, who had been his teacher in the academy, had grown very fond +of him, and saw how much talent he had, and could not think of his being +but a common tradesman without deep regret. He went, therefore, to the +old carver, and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son +should spend half his time in study at the academy, and the other half +in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side. + +In 1790, when twenty years old, Thorwaldsen made a medallion of the +Princess of Denmark, which was so good a likeness that a number of +copies was sold. A year later he gained the small gold medal of the +academy by a bas-relief of the Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple. +The Minister of State now became interested in the young artist, and +measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies. His patrons +desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures, and he +chose that of Priam begging the Body of Hector from Achilles. Later in +life he repeated this subject, and it is interesting to notice the +strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of +the first. And yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of +Thorwaldsen's future greatness. In 1793 he gained the prize which +entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the +academy. The work he presented was a bas-relief of Saint Peter healing +the Paralytic. In these works this sculptor already showed two qualities +which remained the same through his life; in his subjects from antiquity +he showed a Greek spirit, which has led some writers to speak of him as +a "posthumous Greek," or a true Greek artist born after other Greek +artists had died; on the other hand, when he treated religious subjects +his spirit was like that of the best masters of the Renaissance, and +these works remind us of Raphael. All this excellence came entirely from +his artistic nature, for outside of that he was ignorant; he knew +nothing of history or literature, and was never a man of culture as long +as he lived. Outside of the work connected with his profession +Thorwaldsen was indolent, and only acquired knowledge of other matters +through observation or from the conversation of others. + +Although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in 1793, he did +not leave Copenhagen until May, 1796. In the mean time he had done what +he could to earn something: he had made designs for book-publishers, +given lessons in drawing and modelling, and made some bust and medallion +portraits, reliefs, and so on. The vessel in which the young sculptor +sailed for Naples was called the Thetis, and the captain engaged to +watch over him; the voyage was long, and all on board became fond of +Thorwaldsen, though the captain wrote, "He is an honest boy, but a lazy +rascal." This opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous +amount of labor he performed. At Naples he remained for some time, and +saw and admired all its works of art. He did not reach Rome until about +nine months after leaving Copenhagen, but from that time his whole +thought and life were changed. He was accustomed to say, "I was born on +the 8th of March, 1797; before then I did not exist." + +While in Naples Thorwaldsen had been ill, and suffered from a malarial +affection, which compelled him to be idle much of the time. But he was +always studying the antique statues, and made many copies. Some of the +first original works which he attempted were failures, when, at last, he +modelled a colossal statue of Jason, which was well received by those +who saw it, and made him somewhat famous in Rome (Fig. 118). Canova +praised it, and other critics did the same; but Thorwaldsen had no +money; the academy had supported him six years; what could he do? Quite +discouraged, he was engaged in his preparations for leaving Rome, when +Mr. Thomas Hope, the English banker, gave him an order for the Jason in +marble. In an hour his life was changed. He was living in Rome not as a +student on charity, but as an artist gaining his living. We are forced +to add that Mr. Hope did not receive this statue until 1828, and +Thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude; but we +cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair. + +Thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in Rome, the archaeologist +Zoega; at his house the young Dane had met a beautiful Italian girl, +Anna Maria Magnani, whom he loved devotedly. She was too ambitious to +marry a poor sculptor, so she married a rich M. d'Uhden; but she +persuaded Thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to +take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should +leave him; this was just what happened in 1803, and the sculptor +received her into his house, where she remained sixteen years, when she +disappears from his life. He provided an honorable marriage for their +daughter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 118.--JASON. _By Thorwaldsen._] + +In 1803 Thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the Baron von +Schubart, the Danish Minister, who presented the sculptor to Baron von +Humboldt; and through the friendship of these two men, and the persons +to whom they presented him, Thorwaldsen received many orders. In 1804 +his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all +countries, and from this time, during the rest of his life, he was never +able to do all that was required of him. He was much courted in society, +where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and +pleasing manner. In this same year he was made a Professor of the Royal +Academy of Florence; and though the Academy of Copenhagen expected his +return, they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs, and +sent him a gift of four hundred crowns. A few months later he was made a +member of the Academy of Bologna and of that of his native city, in +which last he was also appointed a Professor. + +Many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite +the popular interest in him, when, in 1805, he produced the bas-relief +of the Abduction of Briseis, which still remains one of his most +celebrated works. His Jason had put him on a level with Canova, who was +then at the height of his fame; now the Briseis was said by many to +excel the same type of works by Canova, and there is no question that in +bas-relief the Dane was the better sculptor of the two. This relief and +his group of Cupid and Psyche, which was completed in 1805, mark the era +at which Thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor. In this +same year he modelled his first statue of Venus; it was less than +life-size; and though two copies of it were finished in marble, he was +not pleased with it, and destroyed the model: later he made the same +statue in full size. + +In 1806 he received his first commission for religious subjects, which +consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of Fionia. +But he was devoted to mythological subjects, and preferred them before +all others, and in this same year modelled a Hebe while engaged upon +the fonts. His industry was great, but he found time to receive many +visitors at his studio, and went frequently into society. At the house +of Baron von Humboldt, then Prussian Ambassador at Rome, Thorwaldsen was +always welcome and happy; here he met all persons of note who lived in +or who visited Rome. + +It was at this period that the young Prince Louis of Bavaria entered +into a correspondence with Thorwaldsen, which ended only with the +sculptor's life. Louis was collecting objects for his Glyptothek at +Munich, and he frequently consulted Thorwaldsen in these matters; his +advice was of value, and he more than once saved Louis from imposition +by dealers. Louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine Adonis, now +in the Glyptothek; it was modelled in 1808, but was not completed until +1832; this splendid work was executed entirely by Thorwaldsen's own +hands. In 1808 he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be +used in the restoration of the Palace of Christiansborg, which had been +injured by fire. This was the year, too, when he was made an honorary +member of the Academy of St. Luke. + +The year 1809 brought deep sorrows to Thorwaldsen in the death of his +two friends, Stanley and Zoega. He interested himself in the settlement +of the affairs of the latter, and had much trouble and anxiety; but he +managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year, in +spite of the disturbed state of Rome on account of the pope's departure, +and in spite of the hindrances in his own life. + +In 1810 the King of Denmark made Thorwaldsen a Knight of Danebrog, and +he was then known in Italy as the _Cavaliere Alberto_. His work this +year was in bas-reliefs, and in 1811 he modelled a colossal statue of +Mars, the bust of Mademoiselle Ida Brun, a lovely statue of Psyche, and +his own portrait as a colossal Hermes. + +The people of Denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged +absence of their artist. He had left home a mere boy, and was now famous +over all the world. They wished for his return; a marble quarry had been +discovered in Norway, and even Prince Christian Frederick wrote to +Thorwaldsen to urge his going home. The sculptor wished to go, and even +made some preparations to do so, when he received so important a +commission that it was impossible to leave Rome. This new work was a +frieze for one of the great halls in the Quirinal Palace. He chose the +Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon for his subject, and it +proved to be one of the most important works of his life. It was +completed in June, 1812; and though it had been somewhat criticised as +too rough in its finish, when it was elevated to its proper height it +was all that had been expected by the artist's friends; later he +repeated this frieze for his own countrymen. In Rome he was now +frequently called the "Patriarch of Bas-relief." Soon after this he was +made a member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna. + +In 1813 Thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever, and visited +the baths of Lucca, in company with the Baron and Baroness von Schubart, +for the benefit of his health. He met many people and received much +honor, especially from the Grand Duchess of Tuscany. His health was +improved, but his old and tried friend, the Baroness von Schubart, died +the winter following; he felt her loss deeply, for she had been his +friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in Rome. + +He was always busy, and one after another of his almost numberless works +was finished. In 1815 he made the Achilles and Priam, a relief which is +sometimes called his masterpiece; in the same year he made the famous +and familiar medallions of Night and Morning; it is said that he +conceived the first while awake in a sleepless, restless condition, and +modelled it entirely on the following day; these medallions have been +reproduced in all possible forms--in engravings, on cameos, gems, in +metals, and a variety of marble, plaster, and porcelain. + +About this time Thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens, +and received pupils, and was overwhelmed with orders, so that he could +not yet go to Denmark, in spite of the urgent letters he received. He +executed many important original works, and also restored the marbles of +AEgina, now at Munich; this was a great task, but his study of the +antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern +sculptor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 119.--GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. _By Thorwaldsen._] + +The exquisite group of Ganymede and the Eagle (Fig. 119) shows the +effect of his study of the antique, and the same may be said of his +statue of Hope, a small copy of which was afterward placed above the +tomb of the Baroness von Humboldt. The Three Graces (Fig. 120) belongs +to the year 1817; the Mercury was of about this date, as well as the +elegant statue of the Princess Baryatinska, which is his finest portrait +statue. + +After an absence from Denmark of twenty-three years he left Rome in +July, 1819, and turned his face toward home. His model for the famous +Lion of Lucerne had already been sent on before him, and the work +commenced by one of his pupils, Bienaime. Thorwaldsen first went to +Lucerne, where he gave all necessary advice in this work, and then +proceeding on his journey reached Copenhagen on the 3d of October. +Apartments had been prepared for him in the Academy of Fine Arts, and as +soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction +and importance. Crowds went to welcome him to his home. A great +reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor, and he was lauded +to the skies in speeches, and was made a Counsellor of State, in order +that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the +court etiquette. + +[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Thorwaldsen._] + +All this must have gratified the artist, who had earned such proud +honors by the force of his genius; but it interests us much more to know +that he received commissions for some very important works, among which +those of the Church of Our Lady are very interesting. The orders for all +the work which he did here were not given at once, but in the end it +became a splendid monument to this sculptor, and embraces almost all his +religious works of any importance. There are the figures of Christ and +the Twelve Apostles; the Angel of Baptism, which is an exquisite font; +the Preaching of St. John the Baptist, which is a group in terra-cotta +on the pediment of the church; a bas-relief in marble of the +Institution of the Lord's Supper; another in plaster of Christ's Entry +into Jerusalem; one of Christ Bearing the Cross; one of the Baptism of +Christ; another of the Guardian Angel, and one of Christian Charity. + +He did not remain very long in Denmark, but went to Warsaw, where he had +been summoned to arrange for some important works. He was presented to +the Emperor Alexander, who gave him sittings for a portrait bust; this +was so successful that for some years Thorwaldsen employed skilled +workmen to constantly repeat it, in order to fill the demand for it +which was made upon him. While at Warsaw he received an order for a +monument to Copernicus, which was dedicated in 1830; other important +commissions were given him, and after visiting Cracow, Troppau, and +Vienna, he reached Rome in December, 1820, where he was heartily +welcomed by the artists, who gave him a banquet, on which occasion the +Prince Royal of Denmark sat next to the sculptor. + +Before this a correspondence had established a friendship between +Thorwaldsen and Prince Louis of Bavaria; but from the year 1821 intimate +personal relations existed between them. He took up work with great +energy; he had returned to Rome with so much to do that he required much +room, and employed a large company of workmen. In the summer of 1822 he +was able to secure a large building which had been used for a stable to +the Barberini Palace, and here he was able to set up all his large +models. + +In 1824 Thorwaldsen was summoned by the Cardinal Consalvi, who gave him +the commission for the monument to Pius VII., now in the Clementine +Chapel of St. Peter's at Rome; this work was not completed when the +cardinal himself died, and his own monument by Thorwaldsen was placed in +the Pantheon before that of Pius VII. was put in its place. He also made +a cross for the Capuchins for which he would accept no reward, though +they were entirely satisfied with it. + +In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected President of the Academy of St. Luke +with the advice and consent of Pope Leo XII., who paid him a visit in +his studio. Many delays occurred, and the monument to Pius VII. was not +erected until 1831. + +The works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far +too numerous to be mentioned; he was at the very height of fame and +popularity, and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him. +In 1830 he went to Munich to superintend the setting up of his monument +to Eugene Beauharnais, the Duke of Leuchtenberg. This gave Louis of +Bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor, which he did +in every possible way. Soon after the monument was unveiled Thorwaldsen +received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor. + +Thorwaldsen's place in Rome was a very important one, not only as an +artist, but as a man. He had the respect and esteem of many good men of +all nations; he also suffered some things from the envy of those who +were jealous of him, as is the case with all successful men; but he was +a fearless person, and did not trouble himself on account of these +things. The frequent agitations of a political nature, however, did +disturb him, and he began to think seriously of returning to Denmark. In +1837, when the cholera broke out in Rome, he determined to leave; his +countrymen were delighted, and a government frigate was sent to take him +home; he sailed from Leghorn in August, 1838. His arrival was hailed +with joy in Denmark, and wherever he went his progress was marked by +tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him. As soon as it was +known in Copenhagen, on September 17th, that the "Rota," which brought +the sculptor, was in the harbor, a flag was run up from St. Nicolas +Church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been +arranged. + +Although it rained heavily, boats filled with artists, poets, students, +physicians, mechanics, and naval officers went out to meet him; each +boat had a flag with an appropriate device, that of the artists having +Thorwaldsen's Three Graces, the poets, a Pegasus, and so on. The meeting +with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the +artist, who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts +of joyous demonstrations, a vast number of boats rowing after that in +which he was seated. His carriage was drawn by the people from the quay +to Charlottenburg, where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him. +His form was tall and erect, his step firm; his long white hair fell on +his shoulders, and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with +intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him. He was led out +on a balcony, where, uncovered, he saluted the people, who greeted him +with wild applause. Thorwaldsen smiled and said, "Would not any one +think that we were in Rome, and I were the pope about to give the +benediction _urbi et orbi_ from the balcony of St. Peter's?" + +One ovation after another followed, day by day, and such crowds of +visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his +possessions which he had brought from Italy, or to work at all, which +was worse to him. At last he began to do as he had done in Rome, and to +receive his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand. He +lived frugally, and continued many of his Roman habits of life; but he +was forced to dine out every evening. + +He was now sixty-eight years old, but he did a vast amount of work in +one way and another, and was so pursued by all sorts of people who +wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects, that he +seriously considered the question of leaving Copenhagen. He became very +fond of certain families where he visited, among which was that of the +Baron von Stampe, who, with his wife and children, were soon treated by +the sculptor as if they were his own kindred. He went with them to their +summer home at Nysoe, and while there the baroness persuaded him to +model his own statue. He did this imperfectly, as he had no suitable +workshop; and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an +ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the +castle. She took the time to do this when Thorwaldsen was absent for +eight days, and in this short space the whole was completed, so that +when he returned it seemed to him like magic. This studio was dedicated +in July, 1839. + +He then began the proper modelling of his own statue, and was +progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet +Oehlenschlaeger, who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of +himself. Thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when +thus wanted for other work, and he threw down his tools, and would have +broken the model. But the baroness succeeded in getting him away, and +locked the studio, keeping the key. However, no argument or entreaty +would move the sculptor, and she could do nothing with him until she +happened to think of crying. When she began to weep and to accuse him of +having no affection for her, and reminded him of the proofs of her +devotion which she had given him, he was taken in by her mock tears, and +exclaimed, "Well, they may think what they like. My statue is not for +posterity, but I cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such +pleasure." He then resumed his work, and completed his statue in +seventeen days. He represented himself standing with one arm resting +upon his statue of Hope. + +After this summer Thorwaldsen divided his time between Copenhagen and +Stampeborg, and worked with the same industry in one place as in the +other. The life in the country was a great delight to him; he played +games, listened to fairy tales from the poet Andersen, or to music from +the young girls of the house, all with equal pleasure; and if he were +allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day +in the woods or pay visits, and was perfectly happy in this succession +of labor and leisure. + +Baroness Stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist, for she +found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument. He had +promised to execute a statue of Christian IV. for Christian VIII., the +reigning king; he put it off until the king was impatient. One day, when +he had gone for a walk, the baroness went to the studio and began a +sketch in clay as well as she could. When Thorwaldsen returned he asked +what she was doing, and she answered, "I am making the statue of the +king. Since you will not do it, and I have pledged my word, I must do it +myself." The artist laughed, and began to criticise her work; she +insisted it was all right, and at last said, "Do it better, then, +yourself; you make fun of me; I defy you to find anything to change in +my work." Thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model, and when +once he had begun he finished it. + +It would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous +incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor; of the honors +he received, of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do, +of the visits he paid and received from persons of note; few lives are +as full as was his, and the detailed accounts of it are very +interesting. + +He had always desired to go again to Rome, and in 1841, when the Baron +von Stampe decided to go there with his family, Thorwaldsen travelled +with them. They went through Germany, and were everywhere received as +honorably as if he were a royal person: he was invited to visit royal +families; court carriages were at his service; Mendelssohn gave a +musical _fete_ for him; in all the great cities he was shown the places +and objects worthy of his attention; poets and orators paid him respect, +and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and +his works was omitted. + +In Rome it was the same; he remained there almost a year, and upon his +arrival at Copenhagen, in October, 1842, he experienced the crowning +glory of his life. During his absence the Thorwaldsen Museum had been +completed, and here, the day after he reached home, he was received. The +building was decorated with garlands, and he went over the whole of it; +at last he entered the inner court, where he was to be buried; here he +stood for some time with bowed head, while all about him kept silence. +Can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him? Here he must +be buried, and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which +would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers. + +He lived three years more, and was always busy. His mind was strong and +his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing, but his ability to +execute his works was less; his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning. +He went much into society, was fond of the theatre, and under the +devoted care of his servant, Wilkens, he enjoyed all that was possible +to a man of his age. On the 24th of March 1844, the Baroness von Stampe +went to ask him to dine at her house; he said he was not well and would +not go out; but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he +decided to go. He was modelling a bust of Luther, and threw down before +it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it; just so, as he left it, +this now stands in the museum, preserved under glass, with the print of +his hand in the clay. + +He was merry at dinner, and in speaking of the museum said he could die +now, whenever he chose, since the architect Bindesboell had finished his +tomb. After dinner he went to the theatre, and there it was seen that he +was really ill; he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa, when +it was found that he was already dead. The Charlottenburg joined the +theatre, and there, in the hall of antique sculpture, he was laid. He +was first buried in the Frue Kirke, which he had so splendidly +decorated; four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of +the Thorwaldsen Museum, where above him grows the evergreen ivy, a +fitting emblem of his unfading fame. + +Thiele, in his splendid book called "Thorwaldsen and his Works," gives a +list of two hundred and sixty works by this master; and as one journeys +from Rome, where are some of his sculptures in St. Peter's and the +Quirinal, to Copenhagen, with the Frue Kirke and the Museum, one passes +through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs. +Among his most important works are the frieze of Alexander's entrance +into Babylon, at the Quirinal; the Lion of Lucerne; the many statues, +groups, and bas-reliefs in the Frue Kirke; more than thirty sepulchral +and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries; sixteen +bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche; twenty +bas-reliefs of Genii; twenty-two figures from antique fables, and many +portrait busts and statues, and various other subjects. + +Thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man. No circumstance of his youth +indicated his success, and a certain indolence which he had would have +seemed to forbid it; but the power was within him, and was of that +genuine quality which will declare itself; and a man who has it becomes +great without intending to be so, and almost without believing that he +is remarkable beyond others. The true antique spirit seems to have been +revived in him. His characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity, +perfect beauty in form, distinctness, and repose. Thiele says of him: +"He has challenged and has received the decision of the world's Supreme +Court, that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality. And if his +life might be embodied in a single emblem, perhaps it should be that of +a young lion, with an eye that glows and flashes fire, while he is bound +with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces." + +The sculpture of Germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the +early years of the present century was very interesting. The architect +Schinkel was a great lover of antique art, and he had much influence +over all arts, as well as in his special department. Thorwaldsen himself +so admired the sculptor JOHN RUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822) that when the +King of Prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied: "Sire, +there is at this moment in Rome one of your faithful subjects who is +more capable than I of performing to your satisfaction the task with +which you deign to honor me; permit me to solicit for him your royal +favor." The commission was given to Schadow, and he made his charming +work, The Spinner. John Rudolph was the son of JOHN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW +(1764-1850), who was court sculptor, and long survived his gifted son. +The chief works of the father were the statues of Count von der Mark, at +Berlin; that of Frederick the Great, at Stettin; Luther's monument in +the market-place at Wittenberg, and Bluecher's statue at Rostock. + +John Rudolph Schadow studied under both Canova and Thorwaldsen, and was +a very gifted artist. He was engaged upon a group of Achilles protecting +the body of Penthesilea at the time of his death; it was finished by +Wolff. + +CHRISTIAN FREDERIC TIECK (1776-1851) was an eminent sculptor of his +time, and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at +Berlin by Schinkel. He was very active in establishing a gallery of +models from the antique at Berlin, and was a Director of the Sculptures +in the Museum as well as a member of the Academy. His most successful +original works were portrait busts, and he had many notable people among +his sitters. Among them were the Emperor of Germany, the King of +Bavaria, Schelling, Goethe, Lessing, and many others. + +[Illustration: FIG. 121.--STATUE OF QUEEN LOUISE. _By Rauch._] + +CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857). This eminent sculptor was born at Waldeck, +and followed the manner of Schadow, which he carried to its perfection. +His statue of Queen Louise (Fig. 121) is one of the finest works of +modern sculpture, and his statues of the Generals Scharnhorst and Buelow, +in Berlin, are very fine; the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic +beauty. But his masterpiece is the grand Friedrichs monument. Rauch +executed many excellent busts; he made good portraits, and yet he +elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of +which they were capable. As a rule Rauch avoided religious subjects, but +late in life he modelled the group of Moses supported in prayer by Aaron +and Hur. + +Among his important works are the statue of Bluecher, at Breslau; that of +August Hermann Franke, at Halle; Duerer, at Nuremberg; monument to +Maximilian I., at Munich; and six marble Victories for the Walhalla. His +works are numerous, and in them we feel that this artist had not a great +imaginative power; he rarely conceived imaginary subjects, but he took +some fact or personality as his motive, and elevated it to the highest +point to which it could be brought, and under his masterly style of +execution produced splendid results. + +ERNST RIETSCHEL (1804-1860) was a gifted pupil of Rauch. After spending +some time in Rome he settled in Dresden, and executed the statue of +Friederich August of Saxony, for the Zwingerhof, when but twenty-seven +years old. His chief excellence was in portrait statues, and those of +Lessing and Luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the +intellectual and moral force of those men. His religious subjects were +full of deep feeling, and his lighter works have a charming grace about +them. + +LUDWIG SCHWANTHALER (1802-1848) studied much in Rome, and was as devoted +to the antique as was Thorwaldsen. He executed many works in Munich, the +principal ones being the interior decoration of the Glyptothek; also +that of the Koenigsbau and two groups for the Walhalla. A prominent work +by this master is the bronze statue of Bavaria, which is fifty-four feet +high and stands in front of the Ruhmeshalle. He also made twelve +gilt-bronze statues of Bavarian sovereigns. Schwanthaler had remarkable +powers of invention and a fruitful imagination; in these points he ranks +with the first of modern sculptors; but his works rarely rise above what +we call decorative art, and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked +the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues. + +There are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with +modern sculpture in Germany. Nowhere have the monuments and portrait +statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call, +in general terms, the Berlin school. Profound attention has been given +to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects, +while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or +commonplaceness. Nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of +our own day than in the sculpture of Germany. + +But there are exceptions to this rule; some such artists as THEODORE +KALIDE and LUDWIG WICHMANN are wanting in the serious qualities of +Schadow, Rauch, and their followers, and sometimes fall into a coarse +realism; but in spite of this, the revival of love for the antique, +which began with Canova and his time, has borne rich fruit in the works +of modern German sculptors. + +In France the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the +severe classic style, and it has shown many of the same qualities that +we have seen in modern German sculpture; but the different +characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in +everything else. In France the artist has aimed at a fine +effect--flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic +motives--far more than the northern sculptors have done. There is less +thought and depth of feeling, more outward attraction and striking +effect. The classic taste which asserted itself in the time of Canova +was adopted in France, but in a French manner; and one of the earliest +artists who showed its effects was FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOSIO (1769-1845), +who was much honored. He was made a member of the Institute of France +and of the Royal Academy of Berlin: he was chief sculptor to the King of +France, and executed many public works. He made many portrait busts of +the royal family and other prominent persons, but his chief works were +the reliefs on the column of the Place Vendome, the Chariot on the arch +of the Place du Carrousel, the monument to the Countess Demidoff, and +statues of mythological heroes and heroines. For the Chapelle +Expiatoire, Bosio executed a group representing Louis XVII. receiving +comfort from an angel; the design is not as good as in some of his +classic works, but the conception is pure and noble. + +[Illustration: FIG. 122.--NYMPH. _By Bosio._] + +JAMES PRADIER (1790-1832), though born in Geneva, was essentially a +French sculptor, and excelled the artists of his day in his +representations of feminine beauty. His masterpiece is a fountain at +Nimes, in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct +in treatment. The serious and comic Muses of the Fountain Moliere are +excellent works. He made several separate statues which are well known; +his Psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm; Atalanta +is fastening her sandals; Sappho is in despair. His Niobe group showed +his power to represent bold action, and his Prometheus chained, erected +in the garden of the Tuileries, is grand and spirited. + +We could name a great number of French sculptors belonging to this +period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn, but +whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the +world's artists, or make the accounts of them anything more than a list +of works which has little meaning, except when one stands before them. +Perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had PIERRE +JEAN DAVID (1793-1856), who is called David of Angers, which was his +birthplace, in order to distinguish him from Jacques Louis David, the +great painter, who was like a father to this sculptor, though in no way +connected with him by ties of kindred, as far as we know. But when the +sculptor went to Paris, a very poor boy, David the painter, whose +attention was called to him in some way, was his friend, and gave him +lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways. In 1811 David of Angers +obtained the prize which enabled him to go to Rome, and after his +return to Paris he was constantly employed. The amount of his work was +enormous; many of his statues were colossal, and he executed a great +number of busts and more than ninety medallions. + +He made the statue of Mme. de Stael; one of Talma for the Theatre +Francais; the colossal statue of King Rene at Aix; monument to Fenelon +at Cambray; the statue of the great Conde at Versailles; the Gutenberg +memorial at Strasburg, which is one of his most successful works, and a +large number of other sculptures. + +His chief characteristic is realism, and he carried this so far that it +frequently became coarseness. David designed the relief for the pediment +of the Pantheon. The inscription on the building declares that it is +dedicated by a grateful country to its great men, and the sculptor seems +to have had this in mind, for he represented in his group a figure of +France surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and +days of peace. It is too realistic to be pleasing, and is far less +creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works. + +If little can be said of the modern French sculpture prior to our +immediate time, there is still less to be told of that of England. There +are many public monuments there, but they do not show forth any high +artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare +instances. There is but one English sculptor of whom I shall speak. JOHN +GIBSON (1791-1866) was born near Conway, in Wales. When he was nine +years old his parents went to Liverpool with the intention of sailing +for America; but they gave up the idea, and the boy was sent to school +in Liverpool. Before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of +making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with; he now +studied the prints in the shop windows, and made pictures, which he sold +to his fellow-pupils. He attracted the attention of a print-seller, who +was so interested in him that he allowed him to draw from studies and +casts from the antique which he had. When fourteen years old the boy was +apprenticed to a cabinet-maker, but after a year he persuaded his +employer to allow him to leave his shop, and was then apprenticed to a +wood-carver. He did not stop at this, however, for when he became +acquainted with the Messrs. Francis, who had a marble-yard, he persuaded +his second master to release him, and was apprenticed for the third +time, and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should +be that of his life. + +He was now very happy, and his improvement in drawing, modelling, and +working in marble was very rapid. After a few months he made the +acquaintance of William Roscoe, who became his friend and patron. He +remained in Liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old; he had +improved every advantage within his reach, but he was very desirous of +travelling. In 1817, armed with a few letters of introduction, he went +to London, where he obtained several orders, and in October of that year +went to Rome. + +He had a letter to Canova, who took him under his care and gave him +admission to the classes in the Academy, in which he could draw from +living models. In 1819 he received his first important commission; it +was from the Duke of Devonshire for a group of Mars and Cupid. From this +time he advanced steadily in his profession, and was always busy. He +lived twenty-seven years in Rome, and passed his summers in Innsbrueck. + +In 1844 he went to Liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of +Mr. Huskisson; he was received with enthusiasm, and when he went to +Glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of Mr. Finlay in the +Merchants' Hall his reception was even more flattering, as it was given +him simply as an artist, and not connected with any former associations, +as in Liverpool. During this visit to England Gibson was summoned to +Windsor to make a statue of Queen Victoria, which he completed after +his return to Rome. The queen was represented in a classical costume, +and the diadem, sandals, and borders of the drapery were colored. This +was very much criticised and much was written and said about it; Gibson +took little notice of all this, and simply answered it by saying, +"Whatever the Greeks did was right." + +In 1851 Gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother Ben, +who had lived with him in Rome for fourteen years. Five years later, +when in perfect health, the sculptor was attacked by paralysis, and +lived but a short time. He was buried in the English cemetery at Rome, +and Lord Lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument. It says: "His +native genius strengthened by careful study, he infused the spirit of +Grecian art into masterpieces all his own. His character as a man was in +unison with his attributes as an artist--beautiful in its simplicity and +truthfulness, noble in its dignity and elevation." A monument was also +raised to Gibson in the church at Conway. + +The master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his +fortune to the Royal Academy in London. Among his works are Mars and +Cupid, at Chatsworth; Psyche borne by Zephyrs, in the Palazzo Torlonia, +at Rome, and a replica at St. Petersburg; Hylas surprised by Nymphs, in +the National Gallery, London; Sleeping Shepherd Boy, in the Lenox +collection in New York; Cupid disguised as a Shepherd, which he often +repeated; portraits of Queen Victoria, at Buckingham Palace and Osborne; +Sir Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey; George Stephenson, in St. +George's Hall, Liverpool; eighteen portrait busts; sixteen bas-reliefs +of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead. A large +part of these are in the chapel of the Liverpool Cemetery. He modelled a +bas-relief of Christ blessing little children. + +Gibson found his entire happiness in his art. In his own words, he +worked on "happily and with ever new pleasure, avoiding evil and with a +calm soul, making images, not for worship, but for the love of the +beautiful. The beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world; the +ideal, higher--yes, higher still, to celestial beauty, the fountain of +all. Socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward; in +the life of a man, as in an image, every part should be beautiful." + +He was never elated by praise; he was glad of tributes which proved that +he was respected, but he received all honors with a simplicity of +self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature. + +There are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about +everything not connected with his art. Miss Harriet Hosmer was his only +pupil, and she said of him: "He is a god in his studio, but God help him +when he is out of it." He never could master the ins and outs of +railroad travelling, and even when put in the right train at the right +time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time. + +On one of his journeys, when he supposed he was at the right place, he +got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral. In +his own account he said: "But the scoundrel would have it there was no +cathedral in the place, and at last had the impudence to ask me if I +knew where I was. Then I discovered that instead of being in Chichester, +where I had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter, I was +safe in Portsmouth, where there was no cathedral at all." + +The time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of +our own country. So many of our artists are still living that it would +be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is +complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history. We have no +right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full +height, and even after death a certain period must elapse before the +true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its +just place upon the roll of fame. So, in leaving this subject, we will +turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern +sculpture. In Italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which +Canova and Thorwaldsen brought it; for though the last was a Dane, his +work may truly be said to belong to the Roman school. We must regard +Italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense, but it is easy to +understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered +an advance in artistic life could not be made. Now, when a new spirit is +active there, and a freer thought prevails in other directions, may we +not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best +inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty? + +As we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an +immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Schools and +academies are multiplied everywhere, and the interest in works of art is +universal. Many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of +artists as were the princes and nobles of the past. It is as if there +were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested, +and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold +must come forth. + +As we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the +present, we are compelled to linger lovingly with the Greek or classic +art. The period in which it existed was a blessed period for the +sculptor. We all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art +is the study and reproduction of _nature_, and in the times of the +Greeks there was no reason why the human form, the most beautiful object +in nature, should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the +temple, for the statues of the public square or theatre, or for any +position in which sculpture could be used at all. The customs of modern +life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms, and the +difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact +are almost more than we can realize; and the task of draping a figure +and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and +action is one before which even a Greek sculptor would have reason to +doubt himself. + +On the other hand, when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped +figure which satisfies artistic taste, he has achieved much, and merits +the highest praise. A drapery which has gracefully composed masses and +flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a +prophet, and there are numerous subjects, religious and monumental, in +which a full, graceful drapery is requisite; but when, as is often the +case, the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the +day, what can we look for? The truth is, it has no grace in itself; +what, then, must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble? +Yet where is the remedy for this? We do not wish to see the men whom we +have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put +into an antique disguise by the sculptor; the incongruity of this is too +apparent. Much has been written and said upon these points, and no +solution of the difficulty has been found; but it is only just that when +we judge of the statues made under such difficulties, we should remember +them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the +hindrances that exist for him. + +Westmacott, in his "Handbook of Sculpture," gives as his "Conclusion" an +account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor, and I believe that I +can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a +quotation from that author. + +"The artist, having invented or conceived his subject, usually begins by +making a small sketch of it in some soft and obedient substance, as +clay or wax. He can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is +satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition, and the +proportions it will command of light and shadow. He then proceeds to +copy this small but useful sketch, as his guide, in its general +arrangement, for his full-sized model. Before commencing the larger +model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron +and wood, with joints made of wire, to support the great mass of clay in +which the figure or group is now to be executed. This iron frame is +firmly fixed upon a turning bench, or banker, so that the model may be +constantly moved without difficulty, so as to be seen in different +lights and in various points of view. As the clay is likely to shrink as +it gets dry, it is necessary occasionally to wet it. This is done by +sprinkling water over it with a brush, or from a large syringe, and by +laying damp cloths upon it. This is the ordinary process for making a +model in the 'round.' + +"In modelling in _rilievo_ of either kind, _alto_ or _basso_, a plane or +ground is prepared upon which the design is, or should be, carefully +drawn. This may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board, or the +ground may be of slate, or even of wood, though the latter is +objectionable, in large works especially, from its liability to shrink +and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture. The clay is then +laid in small quantities upon this ground, the outline being bounded by +the drawing, which should be carefully preserved; and the bulk or +projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the +sculptor desires to give to his design. + +"If the final work is to be baked in clay (_terra-cotta_) there must be +no iron or wooden nucleus, as it would interfere with the model drying +regularly and uniformly, and probably cause it to crack in shrinking. +The model is therefore prepared for drying without such support. When +perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked +slowly, by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar +brownish-red color seen in these works. This art has been brought to +great perfection in England in modern days. + +"If the final work is to be in marble, or bronze, or only in plaster, +the next process after finishing the model is to mould it, in +preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving +about without risk of injury to the design. This is done by covering it +with a mixture of plaster of Paris with water, which quickly sets or +becomes consistent, forming a hard and thick coating over the whole. The +clay is then carefully picked out, and an exact matrix, or form, +remains. This is washed clean, and the interior is then brushed over +with any greasy substance, usually a composition of soap and oil, to +prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too +firmly to it. The fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of +cream and then poured into the mould, which is gently moved about till +the inner surface is entirely filled or covered, so that all parts may +be reached. The thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the +size of the work and the degree of strength required. + +"When the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked +away with chisels, and a true cast appears beneath, giving an entire +fac-simile of the original model. Some skill is required in making +moulds, in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings; +practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties +when they occur. The above general instructions sufficiently explain the +ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster. + +"In metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the +strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal; but the +principle described in plaster-moulding applies also to the preparation +for metal-casting. The mixture of metals to form bronze, the proper +heating of the furnace, burning and uniting parts, chasing and other +processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place. They +belong to a distinct practice, and to be well understood must be studied +in the foundry. + +"If the model--now reproduced in plaster--is to be copied in marble or +stone, the first step is to procure a block of the required size. Two +stones, called _scale-stones_, are then prepared, upon one of which the +model or plaster cast is placed, and upon the other the rough block of +marble. The fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales,' to +use the technical term, exactly corresponding. An instrument capable of +being easily moved, and which is fitted up with socket-joints and +movable arms, is then applied to the scale-stone of the model, and a +projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the +model itself. This is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough +block, and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into +the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model. A +pencil-mark is then made to show that the _point_ is found and +registered. This process is repeated all over the model and block, +alternately, till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made. +These 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms, +but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all. The +statue being thus rudely shaped out, the block is placed in the hands of +a superior workman, called a 'carver,' who, having the plastic model +near at hand to refer to, copies the more minute portions of the work by +means of chisels, rasps, and files, the pencil-marks made by the +'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit +beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble. When the carver has +carried the work as far as the sculptor desires, he proceeds himself to +give it the finishing touches, improving the details of form and +expression, managing the different effects produced by two different +materials--one, the plastic model, being opaque; the other, the marble, +being considerably diaphanous; giving the proper varieties of texture in +the flesh, hair, and drapery, and, more especially, harmonizing the +whole. + +"The rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of +marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other +substances, and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their +work by a process which is called '_circumlitio_,' and may mean not only +rubbing or polishing, but applying some composition, such as hot wax, to +give a soft, glowing color to the surface. Many of the ancient statues +certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having +slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an +inch, and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it; a +process, be it observed, quite distinct from and not to be confounded +with _polychromy_, or what is usually understood by painting sculpture +with various tints, in imitation of the natural color of the complexion, +hair, and eyes. Its object, probably, with the ancients as with modern +sculptors, has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of +appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work, by +giving a general warmth to the color of the marble." + + + + +INDEX. + + + "Abduction of Briseis" (Thorwaldsen), 257 + + Abildgaard, 254 + + "Abraham and Isaac," 139 + + "Abundance" (della Porta), 212 + + Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Michael Angelo's David in, 201 + + Achilles, story of, 26; + and Priam (Thorwaldsen), 299; + and Penthesilea (Schadow), 270 + + Acropolis, 78 + + Action in Egyptian sculpture, 3 + + "Actaeon and his Dogs," 24 + + "Adam" (Cano), 220 + + "Adam and Eve," reliefs of, 138, 139; + by Rizzo, 154 + + "Adonis" (Thorwaldsen), 258 + + "Adoring Madonna," 152 + + AEgina, marbles of, and Thorwaldsen, 260 + + AEmilius Paulus, 84 + + "AEneas and Anchises" (Chaudet), 248 + + AEsculapius. _See_ Asclepius + + AEtolians, 84 + + Agamemnon, 90 + + Agesander and the Laocoon, 74 + + Agnello, Fra Guglielmo d', 130 + + Agoracritus, 49, 51 + + Agrippa and the Apoxyomenos, 70 + + Agrippina, statue of, 103 + + Aix, 275 + + Alaric and Minerva Promachos, 35 + + Albert, Archduke, and Duquesnoy, 226 + + Alcamenes, 49 + + Aldovrandi, Gian Francesco, 198 + + Alexander the Great; + statues of, 69, 72; + decline after, 72; + portrait statues of, 100; + and Diogenes, by Puget, 229; + by Dannecker, 248; + by Thorwaldsen, 259; + Entrance into Babylon of, 268 + + Alexander, Emperor of Russia, and Thorwaldsen, 262 + + Alexander VII., monument of, 226 + + Alexandros, sculptor of Venus of Milo, 87 + + Alto-rilievo, 281 + + Altoviti, statue of (Cellini), 191 + + Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, 157 + + Amboise Monument, 177 + + Ambraser Gallery, Vienna, Cellini's salt-cellar in, 190 + + Amiens Cathedral, 176 + + Ancient Italian sculpture, 82 + + Ancona, 156 + + Andersen, Hans, and Thorwaldsen, 266 + + Androsphinx, 6 + + "Angel of Baptism" (Thorwaldsen), 262 + + "Angel's Salutation" (Stoss), 165 + + Anguier, Francois, 228 + + Anguier, Michael, 228 + + Animals in Egyptian sculpture, 5 + + Anne of Austria, and Anguier, 228 + + Anne of Brittany, monument of, 177 + + "Annunciation" (Donatello), 142 + + Annunziata, church of, 212 + + Antigonus, father of Poliorcetes, 73 + + Antium, 91 + + Antonelli, Cardinal, 100 + + Antwerp, town hall of, 231 + + Aphrodite. _See_ Venus + + Apollo; + Sosianus, temple of, 61; + by Leochares, 65; + the Belvedere, 91, + theories concerning, 92, 95; + the Steinhaeuser, 91; + the Stroganoff, 92; + by Sansovino, 186; + and Daphne, by Bernini, 224; + and Daphne, by Canova, 239; + by Canova, 240; + by Flaxman, 251 + + Apollodorus, 86 + + Apollonius, of the Toro Farnese, 76 + + Apostles (Thorwaldsen), 262 + + "Apoxyomenos" (Lysippus), 70 + + Archaic period, 22 + + Archaistic period, 27 + + Arches in Rome, 97 + + Architecture, close connection with Egyptian sculpture, 10 + + "Archangel Michael and Satan" (Flaxman), 251 + + Areobrudus, diptych of, 109 + + Arezzo, 132 + + Argos, school of, 72 + + "Ariadne" (Dannecker), 248 + + Arrezzo, Niccolo of, 135 + + Artemis, archaistic statue of, 28, 94, 95 (and _see_ Diana) + + Aschaffenburg Vischer's works in, 175 + + Asclepius, by Alcamenes, 50; + by Canova, 239 + + Assos, reliefs from, 23 + + Assyria, 10 + + Assyrian influence on Etruscan art, 82 + + Atalanta, by Pradier, 274 + + Athena; + Promachos (Phidias), 34; + birth of, 38; + attributes of, 39; + representations of, 40; + by Phidias, 84; + of the Capitol, 94, 95, 96 (and _see_ Minerva and Pallas) + + Athenodorus and the Laocoon, 74 + + Athens, statue from, at Rome, 84 + + Attalus I., statues of, 78 + + Augsburg, 123, 164 + + Augustio, 108 + + Augustus, Emperor; + and archaistic period, 27; + and Grecian spoils, 84; + statue of, 102 + + + Babylonians, 17 + + Bacchus; + and the Tyrrhenian robbers, 67; + tripod of, by Lysicrates, 67; 84; + by Sansovino, 185; + by Michael Angelo, 200 + + Baldachin, 174 + + Balier, Heinrich den, 123 + + Bamberg, 123; + carvings in, 167; + and Krafft, 168 + + Bandinelli, Baccio, 212; + and Cellini, 190 + + Baptistery of Pisa, 128 + + Baptistery of Florence, 137, 138; + gates of, 133 + + Barberini, Cardinal, and Bernini, 223 + + "Barberini Faun," 73 + + Bargello, museum of the, 139 + + Baryatinska, Princess, 260 + + Basle, Steinhaeuser Apollo in, 91 + + Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna, 137 + + Bas-relief; + Egyptian, 2; + Assyrian, 12; + the first, 20 + + Basso-rilievo, 281 + + "Battle of Athenians and Amazons," 78 + + "Battle of Marathon," 78 + + "Battle of the Gods and Giants," 78 + + Bavaria; + King of, 270; + statue of, 271; + sovereigns of, Schwanthaler's statues of, 272 + + Beata Villana, 151 + + Beauharnais, monument to, 263 + + "Beautiful Fountain," Nuremberg, 123 + + Beauty, Greek love of, 18 + + Begarelli, Antonio, 193 + + "Berengaria," statue of, 119 + + Berlin Museum, works of Pythagoras in, 30; + Begarelli's works in, 194 + + Berlin school, 272 + + Bernardi, Giuseppe, 237 + + Berne, cathedral of, 170 + + Bernini, 223 + + Berruguete, Alonso, 217 + + Bertoldo and Michael Angelo, 195 + + Bethmann, Herr, 248 + + Beuch, 213 + + Bienaime, pupil of Thorwaldsen, 261 + + Bindesboell, architect, 268 + + "Birth of St. John" (Duerer), 166 + + Bluecher, Schadow's statue of, 269; + Rauch's statue of, 271 + + Boboli Gardens, 214 + + Boethus of Chalcedon, 80 + + Boileau, bust of, 229 + + Bologna; 128; + works of Lombardo in, 192; + Michael Angelo in, 198 + + Bologna, Giovanni da, 213 + + Bon family, 135 + + Bontemps, Pierre, 178 + + Bosio, Francois Joseph, 273 + + Bottigari, de', 193 + + Bourges, Cathedral of, 114, 178 + + Bourgtherroulde, Hotel, 178 + + "Boy and Dolphin" (Verocchio), 149 + + "Boy and Goose," 80 + + Braccini, Nicolo, 187 + + Bramante and Michael Angelo, 202 + + Braye, Cardinal de, monument of, 133 + + Bregno, Antonio Giovanni, 154 + + Breslau, 271 + + Briseis, by Thorwaldsen, 257 + + Bristol, Lord, and Flaxman, 251 + + British Museum; + Harpy monument in, 24; + Elgin marbles in, 37; + statue of Pericles in, 52; + statue of Mausolus in, 57; + Etruscan table-ware in, 83; + Duerer's carvings in, 166 + + Bronzes, Etruscan, 82 + + "Brother and Sister," Niobe group, 64 + + Bruges, 178 + + Brugsch-Bey concerning Martisen, 1 + + Brun, Charles le, monument of, 229 + + Brun, Ida, Thorwaldsen's statue of, 258 + + Brunelleschi, 139, 140 + + Bruni, Lionardo, statue of, 151 + + Brunswick Museum, 166 + + Buckingham Palace, and Flaxman, 251; + and Gibson, 277 + + Buonarroti, 194 + + Buoni, 135 + + Burgkapelle, and Veit Stoss, 165 + + Burgos, Altars of, 179 + + "Burial of Christ" (Krafft), 168 + + Burns, Flaxman's statue of, 251 + + Buelow, Rauch's statue of, 270 + + Byzantium, early Christian sculpture in, 108; + ivory carving in, 108 + + + "Cain and Abel," 139 + + Calabria, Duke of, 153 + + Calamis, 31 + + Caligula, and the Thespian Cupid, 61; + and Grecian spoils, 84 + + Callimachus, 52 + + Callon of AEgina, 27 + + Cambio, Arnolfo di, 133 + + Cambray, 275 + + Campanile at Florence, 146 + + Campo Santo of Pisa, 131 + + Cano, Alonso, 219 + + Canon of Polycleitus, 54 + + Canova, Antonio, 236; + and Gibson, 276 + + Canova, Pasino, 236 + + Canterbury Cathedral, 121 + + Capitol at Rome; + Helios in, 69; + Minerva in, 95 + + Capitoline Museum, busts by Canova in, 246 + + Capuchins and Thorwaldsen, 263 + + Caracalla, Baths of; + and "Farnese Bull," 76; + and "Farnesian Hercules," 88 + + Caridad of Seville, 220 + + Carlovingians, statues of, 119 + + Carrousel, Place du, Chariot of, 273 + + Carthusian Chapel, Dijon, 125 + + Carver, 283 + + Casa Santa, Loreto, 184 + + Castellani collection, 78 + + Cavaliere Alberto, 258 + + Cellini, Benvenuto, 187 + + "Centaurs and Lapithae" (Alcamenes), 51 + + "Cephalus and Aurora" (Flaxman), 251 + + Cephisodotus, 55 + + Ceres; + Roman temple of, 83; + Livia as, 104 + + Certosa of Pavia, 177; 194; + and Omodeo, 158 + + Cesena, 156; + and Lombardo, 192 + + Chapelle Expiatoire, 274 + + Chares of Lindos, 71 + + "Charity" (Coysevox), 229 + + Charles I. and Bernini, 226 + + Charles VIII., 177 + + Charmidas, 32 + + Chartres, cathedral of, 114 + + Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 247 + + Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 65 + + Choragus, 65 + + Christ; + early statues of, 106; + figure of, at Rheims, 117; + by Vischer, 174; + by Michael Angelo, 206; + by Coustou, 230; + by Dannecker, 248; + various statues of, by Thorwaldsen, 262; + by Gibson, 277 + + Christian IV., Thorwaldsen's statue of, 266 + + Christian VIII. and Thorwaldsen, 266 + + Christian Art, 104 + + "Christian Charity" (Thorwaldsen), 262 + + Christian Frederick, Prince, 259 + + Christian sculpture, 105 + + Christiansborg palace and Thorwaldsen, 258 + + Chryselephantine statues, 22 + + Chur, cathedral of, 164 + + Church of Our Lady, Thorwaldsen's works in, 262 + + Cimon, patron of Phidias, 34 + + Cincinnatus, by Chaudet, 248 + + Cione, Andrea Arcagnuolo di, 134 + + Circumlitio, 284 + + Civitali, Matteo, 153 + + Claudius; + and the Thespian Cupid, 61; + arch of, in Rome, 98 + + Clement VII. and Cellini, 187 + + Clement XIII., Canova's monument of, 242 + + Clement XIV., monument of, 240 + + Cleomenes, 86, 90 + + Cnidos, Venus of, 60 + + Coins, Athenian, 35; + of Elis, 35 + + Colbert, tomb of, 229 + + Colleoni; + statue of, 149; + and Leopardo, 155 + + Colleoni Chapel, Bergamo, 157 + + Cologne, 123 + + Colonna, Vittoria, and Michael Angelo, 209 + + Color; + in Assyrian bas-reliefs, 14; + in AEginetan statues, 26; + in thirteenth century sculptures, 115 + + Colossi, Egyptian, 8; + of Thebes, 8 + + Colossus of Rhodes, 71 + + "Comedy" (Flaxman), 251 + + Como, cathedral of, 159 + + "Conception" (Montanes), 219 + + Conde, statues of, by Coysevox, 229; + by David, 275 + + Consalvi, Cardinal, 263 + + Constance, cathedral of, 163 + + Constantine, arch of, 105; + column of, 108; + Bernini's statue of, 226 + + Conway, 277 + + Copernicus, Thorwaldsen's monument to, 262 + + Corinthian capital, 53 + + Cornacini, 74 + + Corneto, 83 + + Correggio and Begarelli, 193 + + Cortona, 132 + + Cosmo I., and Donatello, 144; + Giovanni da Bologna's statue of, 214 + + Cosmo III. and "Venus de' Medici," 85 + + Coustou, Guillaume, 230 + + Coustou, Nicolas, 229 + + Covent Garden Theatre, 251 + + Cow, Myron's statue of, 30 + + Coysevox, Antoine, 229 + + Cracow and Veit Stoss, 164 + + Cresilas, 52 + + "Crowning of the Virgin" (Stoss), 165 + + Cupid; + by Praxiteles, 60; + by Michael Angelo, 198; + by Dannecker, 248; + and Psyche (Thorwaldsen), 257; + as a shepherd (Gibson), 183 (and _see_ Eros) + + Cybele, by Cellini, 190 + + + Dacians on Trajan's Pillar, 99 + + Daedalus, 20; + and Icarus (Canova), 239 + + Damophilus, 83 + + Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248 + + Da Siena, Ugolino, 134 + + David, by Donatello, 142; + by Verocchio, 149; + by Michael Angelo, 200 + + "David and Goliath," 139 + + David of Angers, 274 + + David, Jacques Louis, 274 + + David, Pierre Jean, 274 + + "Day" (Michael Angelo), 206 + + "Death," by Bernini, 226; + by Pigalle, 230 + + "Death of the Virgin" (Strasburg), 120 + + Delphi, bronzes from, 84 + + Demetrius Poliorcetes, 71 + + Demidoff, Countess, Bosio's statue of, 274 + + Denman, Ann, 251 + + "Deposition from the Cross," by Pisano, 127; + by Omodeo, 158 + + "Descent from the Cross" (Begarelli), 194 + + "Destruction of the Gauls in Mysia," 78 + + Devonshire, Duke of, 276 + + Diadochi, 73 + + Diana; + temple of, at Ephesus, 57; + _a la Biche_, 95 (and _see_ Artemis) + + Dibutades, 20 + + Dijon, 125 + + Diomed, by Myron, 31 + + Diptychs, 109 + + "Discobolus" of Myron, 30 + + Donatello, 140 + + Donato di Betto Bardi, 140 + + Dortmund, wood-carvings in, 167 + + "Doryphorus," by Polycleitus, 54 + + Dubois, Cardinal, Coustou's statue of, 230 + + Duquesnoy, Francois, 226, 231 + + Duerer, Albrecht; 166; + Rauch's statue of, 271 + + "Dying Gaul," 79 + + "Dying Warriors" (Schlueter), 232 + + + Egremont, Earl of, 251 + + Egyptians; + ancient sculpture of, 1; + influence of, on Etruscan art, 82 + + "Eldest Daughter," Niobe group, 64 + + Elector Frederic III., Schlueter's statue of, 234 + + Eleventh century, metal work in, 111 + + Elgin, Lord, 37 + + Elgin marbles, 35, 40 + + Emo, Admiral, monument of, 242 + + Emperor of Austria, Canova's bust of, 243 + + England; sculpture introduced into, in fourteenth century, 125; + in sixteenth century, 179 + + "Entombment of Christ" (Roldan), 220 + + Erinnyes, 25 + + Ernst, Vischer's monument of, 171 + + Eros, 55; + of Centocelle, 60 (and _see_ Cupid) + + Escorial, church of, 221 + + Esquiline, Discobolos found on, 31 + + Estofado, 220 + + Etampes, Mme. d', 189 + + Etruscans originated Italian sculpture, 82 + + Eurydice, by Canova, 238 + + Eurythmy, 49 + + Eustathius of Rome, 108 + + Eve, by Cano, 220 + + "Evening" (Michael Angelo), 206 + + "Expulsion of Heliodorus" (Thorwaldsen), 254 + + Eyck, van, 178 + + + Fabbriche Nuova, 186 + + Faliero, Giovanni, 236 + + Farnese Palace; + and Michael Angelo, 209; + della Porta's statues in, 212 + + "Farnesian Bull," 76 + + "Farnesian Hercules," 88 + + Farsetti, Commendatore and Canova, 237 + + Fenelon, David's statue of, 275 + + Ferdinand and Isabella, monument of, 180 + + Ferrara, Quercia's works in, 137; + Lombardo's works in, 192 + + Ferrari, Giuseppe, and Canova, 237 + + Ferrucci, Andrea, 152 + + Fiammingo, Il, 213 + + "Fidelity" (Coysevox), 229 + + Fiesole, Mino da, 152 + + Fifteenth century, 136 + + Finlay, Gibson's statue of, 276 + + Fionia, Island of, 257 + + Fiorino, 187 + + "Fischkasten" (Syrlin), 163 + + Flaccus, Fulvius, and statues from Volsinii, 82 + + Flaminius, 84 + + Flaxman, John, 250 + + Flora, Julia as, 104 + + Florence; + and Giovanni Pisano, 132; + and Pietro di Giovanni, 135; + Ghiberti's works in, 140 + + Florence, Baptistery of, 133 + + Florence, cathedral of, high altar in, 212 + + Forum Trajani, 98 + + Fountain; + by Labenwolf, 176; + by Giovanni da Bologna, 214; + by Bernini, 226; + of the Manneken-Pis, 227; + Moliere, 274 + + Fourteenth century, 122 + + Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello, 130 + + France in fourteenth century, 124 + + Francis I., 148, 176; + and Rustici, 183; + and Cellini, 189; + monument of, by Pilon, 216 + + Franke, Rauch's statue of, 271 + + Frankfort, wood-carvings in, 167 + + Frari, church of, 154 + + Frauenkirche, Nuremberg; 123; + Krafft's works in, 167 + + Frederic II., 127 + + Frederick the Great, Schadow's statue of, 269 + + Freiburg, cathedral of, 121 + + French monuments, Museum of, 230 + + Friedrich August, Rietschel's statue of, 271 + + Friedrichs monument, 271 + + Frue Kirche, 268 + + Fulvius Nobilior, 84 + + Furstenburg, Cardinal, and Coysevox, 229 + + "Fury of Athamas" (Flaxman), 251 + + + "Gallic theory" concerning Apollo, Diana, and Minerva, 96 + + "Gallic Warrior" in Venice, 78 + + Gambarelli, The, 151 + + Ganymede, by Leochares, 65; + by Thorwaldsen, 260 + + Gattamelata, statue of, 145 + + Genii, by Thorwaldsen, 268 + + Genoa, 153 + + Genre; + Apoxyomenos as example of, 70; + sculpture, 81 + + Germany, Emperor of, 270 + + Ghibelline Street, 211 + + Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 133, 138 + + Ghirlandajo, Domenico, and Michael Angelo, 195 + + Gibson, John, 275 + + Giovanni, Luca di, 137 + + Giovanni, Pietro di, 135 + + Girardon, Francois, 228 + + Glycon, 88 + + Glyptothek, Munich; + groups from AEgina in, 25; + Barberini Faun in, 73; + Thorwaldsen's Adonis in, 258; + Schwanthaler's decoration of, 271 + + "Gobbo, Il." _See_ Solari + + Goethe, Tieck's statue of, 270 + + Golden House of Nero, 84; + "Venus Callipiga" in, 87 + + Gorgasus, 83 + + Gothic style, 114, 115; + in German art, 120; + hindrances of, 160 + + Gottfried of Strasburg, 115 + + Gottskalken, Thorvald, 253 + + Goujon, Jean, 216 + + Graces, The, by Pilon, 216; + by Canova, 241; + by Thorwaldsen, 260 + + Granacci, Francesco, 194 + + Granada, cathedral of, Virgin by Cano in, 220 + + Great Elector, Schlueter's statue of, 233. + + Greece; + ancient sculpture of, 18; + religion of, 19; + influence of, on Etruscan art, 82; + portrait sculpture in, 100 + + Gregory XVI., Pope, 100 + + Grimani, Senator, 239 + + Grimm; + concerning Donatello's St. George, 143; + concerning Michael Angelo's David, 200 + + Groeulund, Karen, 253 + + Grumbach, statue of (Krafft), 168 + + Guardian Angel, church of, 180 + + "Guardian Angel" (Thorwaldsen), 262 + + Guido Reni, 64 + + Guillain, Simon, 227 + + Guillaume de Sens, 121 + + Guinifort and Omodeo, 158 + + Gutenberg memorial, Strasburg, 275 + + Hadrian, Emperor; + and archaistic period, 27; + and Glycon, 88 + + Halle; + wood-carvings in, 167; + statue of Franke in, 271 + + Hamilton, Gavin, 60 + + Harald Hildetand, 252 + + Harcourt, Comte d', Pigalle's statue of, 230 + + "Harpy Monument," 24 + + Hartmann of Aue, 115 + + Hayder, Simon, 163 + + Hebe, by Thorwaldsen, 258 + + Heinrich II., Krafft's statue of, 168 + + Helios, 69 + + Henry II., monument of, 216 + + Henry III. of England, 121 + + Henry VII., monument of, 179 + + Hephaestus (Vulcan) by Alcamenes, 49 + + Hera; + statue of, by Polycleitus, 53; + temple of, at Argos, 53 (and _see_ Juno) + + Heracles (Hercules); + and Triton, 23; + and Cecrops, 23 (and _see_ Hercules) + + Hercules; + by Scopas, 59; + by Lysippus, 69; + caricature of, 80; + the Farnesian, 88; + by Vischer, 174; + by Michael Angelo, 196; + and Nessus, by Giovanni da Bologna, 214; + by Pigalle, 230; + and Lichas, by Canova, 247 (and _see_ Heracles) + + Hermes, by Thorwaldsen, 258 + + Hernandez, Gregorio, 218, 220 + + Hesperides, apples of, 89 + + Hieracosphinx, 6 + + Hildesheim, bronze gate at, 112 + + History shown by Assyrian bas-reliefs, 16 + + Honor and Valor, temple of, 83 + + Hope, Thomas, 251, 256 + + "Hope," Thorwaldsen's statue of, 260 + + Hosmer, Harriet, 278 + + Hoeyer, 253 + + Humboldt, Baron von, 257, 258 + + Huskisson, Gibson's statue of, 276 + + "Hylas and Nymphs" (Gibson), 277 + + + Iliad, selection from, 94 + + Intarsiatore, 152 + + Iphigenia, relief of, 90 + + Isabella of Aragon, statue of, 119 + + Ischia, Marquis of, 244 + + Isocephalism, 44 + + Italian classic sculpture, time of, 105 + + Italy in fourteenth century, 126 + + Ivory carving; + in Byzantium, 108; + in Germany, 110; + in fourteenth century, 123 + + + "Jacob and Esau," 139 + + Jacopo della Fonte, 137 + + Jaen, cathedral of, 220 + + Janina, 92 + + Jason, by Thorwaldsen, 255 + + Johannis Cemetery, 167, 168 + + "John the Baptist," by Andrea Pisano, 134; + by Berruguete, 218 + + Jordan, Esteban, 218 + + Joseph; + history of, by Ghiberti, 139; + and Potiphar's wife, 193 + + Joseph of Arimathea, by Canova, 243 + + "Joshua before Jericho," 139 + + Julia as Flora, 104 + + Julia and Canova, 246 + + Julius II., Pope; + and the Laocoon, 74; + and Sansovino, 184; + and Michael Angelo, 202; + mausoleum of, 206 + + "Junction of the Seine and Marne" (Coustou), 230 + + Juni, Juan de, 218, 220 + + Juno, 86 (and _see_ Hera) + + Jupiter; + Otricoli, 36; + temple of, at Olympia, 51; + "Tonans" on Trajan's Pillar, 99; + as St. Peter, 107 (and _see_ Zeus) + + Juste, Jean, 177 + + "Justice," by Krafft, 170; + by Vischer, 174; + by della Porta, 212 + + Justinian, monument of, 108 + + + Kalide, Theodore, 272 + + King of Prussia and Schadow, 269 + + Koenigsbau, 271 + + Koenigsberg, statue in, 234 + + Kora, 20 + + Krafft, Adam, 167 + + "Kreugas and Damoxenes" (Canova), 247 + + Kriosphinx, 6 + + Kunigunde, by Krafft, 168 + + Kuenz, Nicolaus, 170 + + + Labenwolf, Pankraz, 175 + + Lamberger, Simon, 171 + + "Lamentation" (Krafft), 170 + + Lamp of Minerva, by Callimachus, 53 + + Laocoon, 74; + by Sansovino, 185 + + "Last Judgment," of Rheims cathedral, 117 + + Lateran; + Myron's Marsyas in, 31; + antique statue of Nemesis in, 51; + statue of Sophocles in, 100; + statue of St. Hippolitus in, 106; + Sarcophagi in, 107; + Bernini's "Pieta" in, 226 + + Leah, by Michael Angelo, 206 + + Le Mans, cathedral of, 114 + + Lenox Gallery, New York, 277 + + Leo I., Pope, 107 + + Leo X., Pope, 148, 184; + and Michael Angelo, 204 + + Leo XII. and Thorwaldsen, 263 + + Leochares, 65 + + Leopardo, Alessandro, 149, 155 + + Lessing, Tieck's statue of, 270; + Rietschel's statue of, 271 + + Leuchtenberg, Duke of, monument to, 263 + + Liebfrauenkirche, 178 + + "Lion of Lucerne" (Thorwaldsen), 261 + + Liverpool Cemetery, chapel, 277 + + Livia, wife of Augustus, 102, 104 + + Loggia de' Lanzi, Florence, groups in, 213 + + Loggietta of the Campanile, Venice, 186 + + Lombardi, The, 154 + + Lombardo, Alfonso, 192 + + "Lord's Supper" (Thorwaldsen), 262 + + Loreto, 184 + + Louis of Bavaria and Thorwaldsen, 258, 262, 263 + + Louis XII., monument of, 177 + + Louis XIII., Anguier's statue of, 228 + + Louis XIV.; + Guillain's statue of, 227; + and Girardon, 228; + Coysevox's statue of, 229; + Coustou's statue of, 230 + + Louis XVIII.; + and Venus of Milo, 87; + Bosio's statue of, 274 + + Louise, Queen, Rauch's statue of, 270 + + Louvre, Paris; + Egyptian collection in, 1; + archaic reliefs in, 23; + "Venus of Milo" in, 87; + statue of Artemis in, 95; + Museum of Modern Sculpture in, 177; + monument by Juste in, 178; + Cellini's nymph in, 190; + Pilon's "Graces" in, 216; + bas-reliefs by Goujon in, 216; + Sarrazin's works in, 227; + Guillain's Louis XIV. in, 227; + Girardon's works in, 228; + Puget's works in, 229 + + "Love in Repose" (Thorwaldsen), 254 + + Luebke, Wilhelm; + concerning Apollo Belvedere, 94; + concerning fourteenth century, 221; + concerning Schlueter, 233 + + Lucca, 128, 137 + + Lucian, concerning Calamis, 32 + + Ludovico Moro and Omodeo, 159 + + Luther, bust of (Thorwaldsen), 268; + Schadow's monument to, 269; + Rietschel's statue of, 271 + + Lysippus, 68; + school of, 72; + Hercules by, 88; + power of, 89 + + Lytton, Lord, concerning Gibson, 277 + + + Madonna, statue of (Freiburg), 121; + repetition of, 122; + by Arnolfo di Cambio, 133; + by Stoss, 165; + by Michael Angelo, 196, 200 + + Madonna del Soccorso, chapel of, 216 + + Magnani, Anna Maria, 256 + + Maidbrunn, Krafft's work in, 170 + + "Maiden and Bird" (Dannecker), 248 + + Majano, Benedetto da, 152 + + Manuel, Nicolaus, 170 + + Marburg, wood-carvings in, 167 + + Marcellus, 83 + + Marcus Aurelius; + arch of, in Rome, 98; + statue of, 209 + + Maria Louisa, Canova's statue of, 243 + + Marienkirche, Count Sparr's monument in, 231 + + Mark, Count von der, 269 + + Mars; + and the Romans, by Sansovino, 186; + by Thorwaldsen, 258; + and Cupid, by Gibson, 276, 277 + + Marsyas, by Myron, 31 + + Martisen, Egyptian sculptor, 1 + + Mary of Aragon, 152 + + Marys, The, by Canova, 243 + + Massegne, The, 135 + + Massimi Villa, 30 + + Matthias Corvinus, 152 + + Mausoleum, 57 + + Mausolus, 56 + + Maximianus, cathedra of, 108 + + Maximilian I., Rauch's statue of, 271 + + Mazarin, Cardinal, tomb of, 229 + + Medemet Haboo, sculpture in, 4 + + Medes, 17 + + Medici, Catherine de', 216 + + Medici, Cosmo de', 144; + and Cellini, 190 + + Medici, Giuliano de', 204 + + Medici, Lorenzo de', 195, 204 + + Medici, Piero de', 144; + and Michael Angelo, 196 + + Melos, 50 + + Mendelsohn and Thorwaldsen, 267 + + Menides of Antiocheia, 87 + + Mercury, by Sansovino, 186; + by Giovanni da Bologna, 214; + by Pigalle, 230; + by Thorwaldsen, 260 + + Merovingians, statues of, 119 + + Metal work; + Assyrian, 14; + in tenth century, 110; + in eleventh century, 111 + + Michael Angelo; + attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74; + concerning Ghiberti's gates, 139; + and Cellini, 187, 191, 194 + + Milan, 156; + cathedral of, and Omodeo, 158 + + Milo (Melos), 87 + + Milo, by Puget, 229; + by Dannecker, 248 + + Minerva; + temple of, in AEgina, 25; + of the Capitol, 95; + temple of, in the Forum, 98 (and _see_ Athena and Pallas) + + Mocenigo, Doge Pietro, 155 + + Modena, Antonio da, 193 + + "Moderation" (Vischer), 174 + + Montanes, Juan Martinez, 218 + + Monte Oliveto, 152 + + Montmorenci, Duke de, tomb of, 228 + + Montorsoli attempted to restore the Laocoon, 74 + + Monumental sculpture of thirteenth century, 119 + + Moore, Sir John, Flaxman's statue of, 251 + + Moritz, statue of (Pigalle), 230 + + Morley, Mrs., monument of, 251 + + "Morning" (Michael Angelo), 206 + + Moses; + on Mount Sinai, 139; + by Michael Angelo, 206, 207; + Aaron, and Hur (Rauch), 271 + + "Moses Fountain," 125 + + Mount Cithaeron and "Farnese Bull," 76 + + Mummius and Grecian spoils, 84 + + Munich, group by Cephisodotus in, 55 + + Murillo, 221 + + "Music" (della Robbia), 146 + + Mycenae, Lion Gate of, 20 + + Myron of Eleutherae, 30; + followers of, 51 + + + Naples; + Laocoon group in, 76; + historical statues in, 78 + + Naples, Museum of; + "Venus Callipiga" in, 87; + and "Farnese Bull", 76; + "Farnesian Hercules" in, 88 + + Napoleon and Canova, 242, 243 + + National Gallery, London, 277 + + "Nativity," by Rossellino, 152; + by Anguier, 228 + + Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51 + + Neptune; + by Sansovino, 186; + by Cellini, 190; + by Giovanni da Bologna, 214 + + Nero, and the Thespian Cupid, 61; + and Grecian spoils, 84 + + Niccolo of Arezzo, 135 + + Nicodemus; + by Krafft, 170; + by Bandinelli, 212; + by Canova, 243 + + "Night," by Michael Angelo, 206, 208 + + "Nile of the Vatican," 73 + + Nimes, Pradier's fountain at, 274 + + Nimrud, bas-reliefs at, 13 + + Niobe; + of Mount Sipylus, 20; + group, 61; + myth of, 62 + + Noah, 139 + + Noceto, 153 + + Notre Dame, church of; + statue of Louis XIV. in, 229; + Coustou's sculptures in, 230; + d'Harcourt's monument in, 230 + + Nuremberg; + sculptures of, 123; + and Veit Stoss, 164; + and Wohlgemuth, 166; + statue of Duerer in, 271 + + "Nymph," by Dannecker, 248; + by Bosio, 273 + + Nysoe and Thorwaldsen, 265 + + + Obelisks, 4 + + Octavia, portico of, and Venus de' Medici, 85 + + OEdipus, by Chaudet, 248 + + Oehlenschlager, 265 + + Oluf Paa, 252 + + Olympiad, 41 + + Olympic games, 41 + + Omodeo. _See_ Amadeo + + Or San Michele, church of, 134, 143, 149 + + Orcagna, Andrea, 134 + + "Orpheus and Eurydice" (Canova), 238 + + Orvieto, 133 + + Osborne, 277 + + Othman IV., Caliph, and Colossus of Rhodes, 72 + + Our Lady, church of, Nuremberg, 123 + + + Padua, 137, 156 + + "Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture," relief of, by Chaudet, 248 + + Palais de Justice (Bruges), 178 + + Palazzo Grassi, 193 + + Palazzo Pubblico, fountain in front of, 214 + + Palazzo Torlonia (Rome), 277 + + Palazzo Vecchio, 149, 214 + + Pallajuolo, 184 + + Pallas, by Sansovino, 186 (and _see_ Athena and Minerva) + + Panathenaic Procession, 41 + + Pandareus, King, 25 + + Panhellenic games, 29 + + Pantheon, influence of, upon sculpture, 29 + + Pantheon, Paris, 275 + + Paris; + historic statue in, 78; + cathedrals of, 114 + + Paros, 56 + + Parthenon, frieze of; 35; 40; + groups of seven on, 42; + central group in, 43; + historical value of, 45; + inequality of work in, 45 + + Paul III. and Michael Angelo, 206; + monument of, 212 + + Paul V. and Bernini, 223 + + Pavia, Omodeo in, 158 + + "Peace," by della Porta, 212; + by Coysevox, 229; + by Chaudet, 248 + + Peel, Sir Robert, Gibson's statue of, 277 + + Peleus, 86 + + Peloponnesus, school of, 53, 68 + + Peloponnesian war, effect of, on sculpture, 54 + + "Pensieri," by Canova, 246 + + Peplos, 41 + + Pepoli, bust of, 193 + + Pergamon, school of, 78; + and the Dying Gaul, 79 + + Periclean age, 29 + + Pericles; + patron of Phidias, 32; + portrait statue of, 52; + qualities of, 54 + + Perkins, Mr.; + concerning Nicola Pisano, 130; + concerning Amadeo, 157 + + Perry, Walter Copeland; + concerning Athena, 39; + concerning "Venus of Milo," 88 + + Perseus; + by Vischer, 174; + by Cellini, 190; + and Andromeda, by Puget, 229; + by Canova, 243 + + Perseus of Macedon, 84 + + Persians, 17 + + Perugia; + fountain of, 129; + Giovanni Pisano's works in, 132 + + Peter the Great and Schlueter, 234 + + Phalereus, Demetrius, statues to, 73 + + Phidias; + forerunners of, 29; + and Pericles, 32; + and Praxiteles, 56; + and Lysippus, 70; + statue of Athena by, 84; + superiority of, 89; + and thirteenth century, 118 + + Philip, Elector, and Vischer, 171 + + Philip the Bold; + statue of, 119; + and Sluter, 125 + + "Phrixos and Helle," 186 + + Phryne and Praxiteles, 60 + + Piazza della Signoria, 214 + + Piazza Navona, fountain in, 226 + + Piazza of San Lorenzo (Florence), 212 + + Piccolomini tomb, Siena, 200 + + "Pieta;" + by Michael Angelo, 200; + by Bernini, 226 + + Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 230 + + Pilon, Germain, 216 + + Pisa; + Baptistery of, 128; + and Giovanni Pisano, 131; + Nino Pisano's works in, 134; + cathedral of, 214 + + Pisani, Senator, 239 + + Pisano, Andrea, 133, 134 + + Pisano, Giovanni, 131 + + Pisano, Nicola, 127, 133 + + Pisano, Nino, 134 + + Pistoja, 132, 148 + + Pitt, Flaxman's statue of, 251 + + Pius VII., monument of, 263 + + Pliny; + concerning the first bas-relief, 20; + concerning Cresilas, 52; + concerning the Niobe group, 61; + concerning the Laocoon, 74; + and Boethus, 80 + + Plutarch, concerning the Pericleian age, 35 + + Plutus, 58 + + Point, 283 + + Pointer, 283 + + Poliorcetes, Demetrius, 72 + + Poliziano, 196 + + Pollio, Asinius, 76 + + Polychromy, 284 + + Polycleitus, 53; + canon of, 54; + and Peloponnesian school, 68 + + Polydorus and the Laocoon, 74 + + Pompadour, Mme., 230 + + Pompeii, 28 + + Poncher monument, 178 + + Porta, Guglielmo della, 212 + + Porta Prima, 102 + + Portogallo, Cardinal, 152 + + Portrait sculpture; + archaic, 22; + in Greece and Rome, 100 + + Possagno and Canova, 244 + + Pradier, James, 274 + + Prague, 123 + + Prato, cathedral of, 132 + + Praxiteles, 85 + + Preller, Ludwig, and Apollo Belvedere, 93 + + "Priam begging Hector's body" (Thorwaldsen), 254 + + Proconsolo, 151 + + Prometheus, by Pradier, 274 + + Provencal Poets, 114 + + "Prudence;" + by Vischer, 174; + by della Porta, 212; + by Coysevox, 229 + + Psyche; + by Canova, 242; + by Thorwaldsen, 258; + by Pradier, 274; + and Zephyrs, by Gibson, 277 + + Ptolemy, Alexander's general, 73 + + Puget, Pierre, 229 + + Pythagoras of Rhegium, 30 + + + Quellinus, Arthur, 231 + + Quercia, Jacopo della, 137 + + Quintilian, concerning Timanthes, 91 + + Quirinal Palace; + Thorwaldsen's frieze in, 259; + Thorwaldsen's works in, 268 + + "Quoit-thrower" of Myron, 30 + + + "Rachel," by Michael Angelo, 206 + + Racine, illustrated by Chaudet, 248 + + Raimondi, 193 + + Rameses II., colossus of, 8 + + "Rape of Proserpine," by Bernini, 224; + by Girardon, 228 + + "Rape of the Sabines" (Giovanni da Bologna), 213 + + Rauch, Christian, 270 + + Ravenna, ivory carving in, 108 + + "Religion," by Coysevox, 229; + by Canova, 244 + + Renaissance, 136 + + Rene, King, statue of, 275 + + "Resurrection of the Dead" (Rheims), 117 + + Rezzonico, Prince, and Canova, 243 + + Rhamnus and Nemesis of Agoracritus, 51 + + Rheims, cathedral of, 116 + + Rhodes; + colossus of, 71; + undisturbed by death of Alexander, 73; + and the Farnese Bull, 76; + school of, 78 + + "Rhone," by Coustou, 230 + + Richelieu, monument of, 228 + + Riemenschneider, Tilman, 168 + + Rietschel, Ernst, 271 + + Rilievo, 281 + + Rimini, 156 + + Riviere, Marquis of, 87 + + Rizzo, or Riccio, Antonio, 154 + + Robbia, Luca della, 146 + + Robbia ware, 148 + + Rodari, The, 159 + + Roldan, Louisa, 220 + + Roldan, Pedro, 220 + + Romanesque period, 113 + + Rome, lack of artists in, 83; + portrait sculpture of, 101; + decline of art in, 104 + + Roesch, Jacob, 164 + + Roscoe, William, 276 + + Rossellini, The, 151 + + Rossellino, Antonio, 151 + + Rossi, Properzia de', 192 + + Roux, Roulland de, 177 + + Rovere, monument of, 184 + + Royal Academy, London, 277 + + Rubens, 221 + + Ruhmeshalle, 271 + + Rustici, Giovanni Francesco, 183 + + + "Sacrifice of Isaac," 139 + + Sacristy of St. Mark's, 186 + + St. Andrew, by Duquesnoy, 227 + + St. Angelo, bridge of, 225 + + St. Bibiana, by Bernini, 225 + + St. Denis, cathedral of, 114; + reliefs of, 119; + and Sluter, 125; + monument in, 178 + + St. Dominick, sarcophagus of, 128 + + St. George, by Donatello, 143 + + St. George's Hall (Liverpool), 277 + + St. Germain l'Auxerrois, 178 + + St. Hippolytus, statue of, 106 + + St. Jacques, church of, 178 + + St. John; + by Bernardo Rossellino, 151; + by Canova, 243 + + St. John the Baptist; + chapel of, 153; + by Rustici, 183; + by Thorwaldsen, 262 + + St. Laurence, church of, Nuremberg, 123; + Krafft's works in, 167 + + St. Longinus, by Bernini, 225 + + St. Mark's, library of, 186 + + St. Michael, by Luisa Roldan, 221 + + St. Nicolas, church of, 229 + + St. Peter; + statue of, on Trajan's Pillar, 98; + statue of, in St. Peter's, 106; + and the Paralytic, Thorwaldsen, 254 + + St. Peter's; + Cathedral (Rome), 106; + Pieta in, 200; + monument of Paul III. in, 212; + Bernini's sculptures in, 225; + Duquesnoy's St. Andrew in, 227; + monument of Pius VII., 263; + Thorwaldsen's works in, 268 + + St. Sebald, church of (Nuremberg), 123; + Krafft's works in, 167; + shrine of (Vischer), 171 + + St. Sebastian, by Civitali, 153 + + St. Susanna, by Duquesnoy, 227 + + St. Thomas, church of (Strasburg), 230 + + St. Zenobius, sarcophagus of, 140 + + Ste. Chapelle, church of, 116 + + SS. Giovanni e Paolo, church of, 149, 155 + + Salt-cellar, by Cellini, 189 + + San Antonio, church of (Padua), relief in, 155 + + San Benedetto, church of (Mantua), 194 + + San Benito el Real, church of, 217 + + San Domenico, church of (Orvieto), 133 + + San Domenico, sarcophagus of, 198 + + San Francesco, church of (Ancona), 156 + + San Francesco, church of (Modena), 194 + + San Francesco, church of (Rimini), 156 + + San Francesco della Vigna, 186 + + San Giovanni Crisostomo, relief in, 155 + + San Giovanni de' Fiorentini, 186 + + San Lorenzo, church of, 204 + + San Martino, cathedral of (Lucca), 127 + + San Miniato, church of, 152 + + San Petronio, church of (Bologna), 193, 198 + + San Piero Maggiore, church of (Florence), 210 + + San Pietro in Vincoli, church of, 206 + + Santa Croce, church of, and Donatello, 140; + and Brunelleschi, 142; + monument of Bruni in, 151; + pulpit in, 152; + Michael Angelo buried in, 210 + + Santa Maria de' Frari, church of (Florence), Canova's tomb in, 245 + + Santa Maria del Fiore, church of, 206 + + Santa Maria del Popolo, 184 + + Santa Maria della Spina, church of, 131 + + Santa Maria di Loreto, church of, 227 + + Santa Maria Novella, church of, 142, 152 + + Sangallo, Francesco, 187 + + Sansovino (San Savino), Andrea, 183 + + Sansovino, Jacopo, 185 + + "Saone," by Coustou, 230 + + Sappho, by Pradier, 274 + + Sardanapalus I., statue of, 12 + + Sarrazin, Jacques, 227 + + Satyr, by Praxiteles, 60 + + Saviour, by Canova, 242 + + Scale-stones, 283 + + Schadow, John Gottfried, 269 + + Schadow, John Rudolph, 269 + + Scharnhorst, Rauch's statue of, 270 + + Schelling, Tieck's statue of, 270 + + Schinkel, 269, 270 + + Schliemann, Dr., and the metope of Ilium, 73 + + Schlueter, Andreas, 231 + + Schubart, Baron von, 256 + + Schwabach and Wohlgemuth, 166 + + Schwanthaler, Ludwig, 271 + + Scopas, 56; + and Leochares, 65 + + Scorgola, la, abbey of, 129 + + Scuola della Misericordia, 186 + + Sebenico, Giorgio da, 156 + + Seguier, Pierre, bust of, 227; + and Girardon, 228 + + Selene on Trajan's Pillar, 99 + + Selinus, reliefs from, 23, 24 + + Senate Chamber, Chaudet's Cincinnatus in, 248 + + Septimius Severus, arch of (Rome), 98 + + Serra family, 57 + + Settignano, Desiderio da, 152 + + "Seven Sorrows of the Virgin," 165 + + "Seven Stages" (Krafft), 167 + + Seventeenth century, 221 + + Seville, altars of, 179 + + Sforza, Battista, bust of, 151 + + Sforza, Cardinal, monument of, 184 + + Sicyon, 68; + school of, 72 + + Siena, cathedral of, 128; + and Giovanni Pisano, 132; + and Quercia, 138; + and Ghiberti, 140 + + "Sirens" (Giovanni da Bologna), 214 + + Sistine Chapel and Michael Angelo, 203 + + Sixteenth century, 181 + + Sixtus V., Pope, 98 + + "Sleeping Shepherd" (Gibson), 277 + + Sluter, Claux, 125; + influence of, 161 + + Socrates, 55, 278 + + Solari, Cristoforo, 158 + + "Solomon and Queen of Sheba," 139, 193 + + Sophocles, statue of, 100 + + Sorbonne, church of the, 228 + + Sosius, 61 + + South Kensington Museum, 148 + + Sparr, Count, monument of, 231 + + Sphinx, 6 + + "Spinario," 81 + + "Spinner" (Schadow), 269 + + Squarcione, Francesco, 137 + + Stael, Mme. de, David's statue of, 275 + + Stampe, Baron von, and Thorwaldsen, 265 + + Statuettes, Assyrian, 12 + + Steinbach, Sabina von, 120 + + "Steinhaeuser, Apollo," 91 + + Stephani and "Apollo Belvedere," 92 + + Stephenson, Gibson's statue of, 277 + + Stettin, 269 + + Stoss, Veit, 164 + + Strada Babbuino, 242 + + Strasburg, cathedral of, 120; + Gutenberg memorial in, 275 + + "Strength" (Vischer), 174 + + "Stroganoff Apollo," 92 + + Strozzi, Filippo, monument of, 152 + + Strozzi Palace, 152 + + Stuart and Revett, 236 + + Stuttgart, 123 + + Sulla and Grecian spoils, 84 + + Swabian School, 162 + + Syrlin, Joerg, 162 + + + Talma, David's statue of, 275 + + Tatti, Jacopo, 185 + + Tauriscus, of the Toro Farnese, 76 + + Tavera, Juan de, 218 + + Tedesco, Pietro, 135 + + "Temperance" (Giovanni Pisano), 131 + + Temple Church, 121 + + Tenth century, metal work in, 110 + + Terra-cotta, 281 + + Terra-cottas in Milan, 157 + + Theatre Francais, Talma's statue in, 275 + + Theodosius, column and obelisk of, 108 + + Theseion, 33 + + Theseus; + temple of, by Phidias, 33; + torso of, 37; + and the Minotaur, Canova, 240 + + Thetis, 86 + + Thiele, concerning Thorwaldsen, 268, 269 + + Thirteenth century, 114 + + Thorwaldsen, Bertel; + and reliefs from AEgina, 26; + and classic art, 236; + life and works, 252 + + Thorwaldsen Museum, 267, 268 + + Tiberius and the Apoxyomenos, 70 + + Tieck, Christian Frederic, 270 + + Timanthes, 90 + + Titus; + and the Laocoon, 74; + arch of (Rome), 98 + + Toledo; + altars of, 179; + cathedral of, 217 + + Toretto, 237 + + "Toro Farnese," 76 + + Torrigiano, Pietro; + in England, 179; + and Cellini, 188 + + Tours, cathedral of, 177 + + Trajan; + arch of, 98, 105; + pillar of, 98 + + Tralles, 76 + + Trastevere, Apoxyomenos found in, 70 + + Tribolo, Il, (Braccini), 187 + + Trojan war in AEginetan reliefs, 26 + + Tuileries; + Chaudet's "Peace" in, 248; + statue of Prometheus in, 274 + + Tuscany, 136 + + Twelfth century, 112 + + Uffizi; + Niobe group in, 61; + "Venus de' Medici" in, 85; + Donatello's works in, 142; + della Robbia's works in, 146, 147; + Rossellino's works in, 151, 152; + Sansovino's Bacchus in, 185; + carved cherry-stone in, 193; + model of Michael Angelo's David in, 200; + statue of Michael Angelo in, 211 + + Uhden, M. d', 256 + + Ulm, wood-carvings in, 162 + + Urban VIII., monument of, 226 + + Usurtasen, Egyptian sculptor, 2 + + + Val de Grace, church of, 228 + + Valladolid, 218 + + Varchi, 211 + + Vasari and Michael Angelo, 210 + + Vatican; + Eros of Centocelle in, 60; + Apoxyomenos in, 70; + copy of the Laocoon in, 74; + historic statue in, 78; + Etruscan table-ware in, 83; + Chigi Venus in, 87; + Apollo Belvedere in, 91; + "Young Augustus" in, 103; + statue of Augustus in, 103; + sarcophagi in, 107; + statue of Perseus in, 243 + + Vendome Column, 273 + + Venice; + historic statues in, 78; + Sansovino in, 186; + Canova's heart in, 245 + + Venus; + by Alcamenes, 49; + by Scopas, 58; + of Cnidos, 60; + and the Romans, 84; + de' Medici, 85; + Cnidian, 85; + of the Capitol, 87; + of Milo (Melos), 87; + of Chigi, 87; + Callipiga, 87; + by Giovanni da Bologna, 214; + by Thorwaldsen, 257 (and _see_ Aphrodite) + + Verocchio, Andrea del, 148, 155 + + Verona, 156 + + Versailles, Puget's works in, 229 + + Victoria; + Gibson's statue of, 277; + portraits of, by Gibson, 277 + + "Victories," by Rauch, 271 + + Victors, statues of, 29 + + Villa Borghese; + and arch of Claudius, 98; + Bernini's "Apollo and Daphne" in, 224 + + Villa Ludovisi, Bernini's "Rape of Proserpine" in, 224 + + Vinci, Leonardo da, 183 + + Virgin; + by Cano, 220; + by Coysevox, 229 + + "Virtue and Vice" (Giovanni), 214 + + Vischer, Hermann, 171 + + Vischer, Peter, 171 + + Vischers, The, 171 + + Visconti Monument, 177 + + Volsinii, 82 + + Volto Santo, temple of, 153 + + Vulcan. _See_ Hephaestus + + + Walhalla, 271; + "Victories" by Rauch in, 271 + + Walther von der Vogelweid, 115 + + Washington, Canova's statue of, 245 + + Wedgwood and Flaxman, 250 + + Wells Cathedral, 122 + + Westmacott; + concerning Bernini, 224; + concerning Flaxman, 252; + concerning mechanical methods, 280 + + Westminster Abbey, 121, 277 + + Wichmann, Ludwig, 272 + + Wilkens, 267 + + Wilson, Heath, 211 + + Winckelmann, 235 + + "Wise Virgins," by Krafft, 170 + + Wittenberg, monument in, 175; + Luther's statue in, 269 + + Wohlgemuth, Michael, 166 + + Wolff, 270 + + Wolfram of Strasburg, 115 + + Wood-carving in fifteenth century, 162 + + Wounded Lion, Assyrian, 15 + + Wuerzburg, 123, 168 + + + Zecca, 186 + + Zeppelin, Count, monument of, 248 + + Zeus; + Phidias's statue of, 33; + by Leochares, 65 (and _see_ Jupiter) + + Zoega and Thorwaldsen, 256, 258 + + Zuliani, Cavaliere, and Canova, 239, 240 + + Zwickau and Wohlgemuth, 166 + + Zwingerhof, 271 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and +Students, by Clara Erskine Clement + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART *** + +***** This file should be named 25632.txt or 25632.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/6/3/25632/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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