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diff --git a/2649-h/2649-h.htm b/2649-h/2649-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0818ef5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2649-h/2649-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13372 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"> +<html> + +<head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; +charset=ISO-8859-1"> + <title>Captains of the Civil War</title> + <style type="text/css"> + <!-- + body { background: white; color: black; + margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + h1 { text-align: center; margin-top: 4em; + color: black; background: white; } + h2 { text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; } + h3 { text-align: center; } + p.indent { text-indent: 1em; text-align: justify; } + p.sp_indent { text-indent: 1em; text-align: justify; + margin-top: 2em; } + p.center { text-align: center; } + p.author { text-align: center; font-size: larger; + margin: 2em; } + p.subtitle { text-align: center; font-size: larger; } + p.quote { text-align: justify; font-size: smaller; } + p.footnote { font-size: smaller; text-align: justify; } + p.index { text-align: justify; margin-top: 0px; + margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1em; + text-indent: -1em; font-size: smaller; } + p.index_gap { text-align: justify; margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1em; + text-indent: -1em; font-size: smaller; } + p.image { text-align: center; margin: 0.5em; } + p.book_title { text-align: center; font-size: x-large; + margin-top: 2em; } + td.right { text-align: right; } + div.image { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + text-align: center; } + span.page { position: absolute; left: 92%; right: auto; + text-align: right; text-indent: 0em; + color: gray; background: white; + font-size: 9px; font-weight: normal; } + --> + </style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Captains of the Civil War, by William Wood + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Captains of the Civil War + A Chronicle of the Blue and the Gray, Volume 31, The + Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: William Wood + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Release Date: November 30, 2006 [EBook #2649] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Alev Akman, Diane Beane, James J. Kelly Library +of St. Gregory's University and Robert J. Hall + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p> +THIS BOOK WAS DONATED TO PROJECT GUTENBERG BY THE JAMES J. KELLY +LIBRARY OF ST. GREGORY'S UNIVERSITY; THANKS TO ALEV AKMAN. +</p> + +<p> +Scanned by Dianne Bean. +</p> + +<div><hr /></div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: smaller;"> +ABRAHAM LINCOLN EDITION<br /> +∴ +</p> + +<p class="center"> +VOLUME 31<br /> +THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES<br /> +ALLEN JOHNSON<br /> +EDITOR +</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: smaller;"> +GERHARD R. LOMER<br /> +CHARLES W. JEFFERYS<br /> +ASSISTANT EDITORS +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 514px;"> +<a name="fig_01"> +<img src="images/fig_01.jpg" width="514" height="686" alt="Fig. 1"></a> +<p class="image"><i>GENERAL U. S. GRANT</i><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington.</p> +</div> + +<h1>CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR</h1> + +<p class="subtitle"> +A CHRONICLE OF THE BLUE AND THE GRAY +</p> + +<p class="author"> +BY WILLIAM WOOD +</p> + +<p class="center"> +NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> +TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO.<br /> +LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD<br /> +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> +1921 +</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;"> +TO<br /> +MY AMERICAN FRIENDS<br /> +OF THE<br /> +BOONE AND CROCKETT CLUB +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_ix"><span class="page">Page ix</span></a> +PREFACE</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +Sixty years ago today the guns that thundered round Fort Sumter began +the third and greatest modern civil war fought by English-speaking +people. This war was quite as full of politics as were the other +two—the War of the American Revolution and that of Puritan +and Cavalier. But, though the present Chronicle never ignores the +vital correlations between statesmen and commanders, it is a book +of warriors, through and through. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I gratefully acknowledge the indispensable assistance of Colonel +G. J. Fiebeger, a West Point expert, and of Dr. Allen Johnson, +chief editor of the series and Professor of American History at +Yale. +</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 60%;"> +WILLIAM WOOD, +</p> + +<p style="font-size: smaller; text-align: justify; margin-left: 50%;"> +Late Colonel commanding 8th Royal Rifles, and Officer-in-charge, +Canadian Special Mission Overseas. +</p> + +<p> +QUEBEC,<br /> + April 18, 1921. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_Xi"><span class="page">Page Xi</span></a> +CONTENTS +</h2> + +<table border="0"> +<tr><td class="right">I.</td> + <td><a href="#page_1">THE CLASH: 1861</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">II.</td> + <td><a href="#page_56">THE COMBATANTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">III.</td> + <td><a href="#page_84">THE NAVAL WAR: 1862</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">IV.</td> + <td><a href="#page_116">THE RIVER WAR: 1861</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">V.</td> + <td><a href="#page_168">LINCOLN: WAR STATESMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VI.</td> + <td><a href="#page_193">LEE AND JACKSON: 1862-3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VII.</td> + <td><a href="#page_260">GRANT WINS THE RIVER WAR: 1863</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">VIII.</td> + <td><a href="#page_287">GETTYSBURG: 1863</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">IX.</td> + <td><a href="#page_307">FARRAGUT AND THE NAVY: 1863-4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">X.</td> + <td><a href="#page_327">GRANT ATTACKS THE FRONT: 1864</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XI.</td> + <td><a href="#page_366">SHERMAN DESTROYS THE BASE: 1864</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XII.</td> + <td><a href="#page_379">THE END: 1865</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"> </td> + <td><a href="#page_397">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"> </td> + <td><a href="#page_401">INDEX</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<h2> +<a name="page_xiii"><span class="page">Page xiii</span></a> +ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<p><a href="#fig_01">GENERAL U. S. GRANT</a><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_02">GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE</a><br /> +Photograph. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_03">GENERAL T. J. (STONEWALL) JACKSON</a><br /> +Photograph. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_04">NORTH AND SOUTH IN 1861</a><br /> +Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_05">ADMIRAL D. G. FARRAGUT</a><br /> +Photograph by Brady. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_06">CIVIL WAR: CAMPAIGNS OF 1862</a><br /> +Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_07">CIVIL WAR: VIRGINIA CAMPAIGNS, 1862</a><br /> +Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society. +</p> + +<p><a name="page_xiv"><span class="page">Page xiv</span></a> +<a href="#fig_08">CIVIL WAR: CAMPAIGNS OF 1863</a><br /> +Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_09">GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN</a><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington. +</p> + +<p><a href="#fig_10">CIVIL WAR: CAMPAIGNS OF 1864</a><br /> +Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society. +</p> + +<p class="book_title"> +<a name="page_1"><span class="page">Page 1</span></a> +CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR</p> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE CLASH: 1861</p> + +<p class="indent"> +States which claimed a sovereign right to secede from the Union +naturally claimed the corresponding right to resume possession of +all the land they had ceded to that Union's Government for the use +of its naval and military posts. So South Carolina, after leading +the way to secession on December 20, 1860, at once began to work +for the retrocession of the forts defending her famous cotton port +of Charleston. These defenses, being of vital consequence to both +sides, were soon to attract the strained attention of the whole +country. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There were three minor forts: Castle Pinckney, dozing away, in +charge of a solitary sergeant, on an island less than a mile from +the city; Fort Moultrie, feebly garrisoned and completely at the +mercy of <a name="page_2"><span class="page">Page 2</span></a> +attackers on its landward side; and Fort Johnson over on James +Island. Lastly, there was the world-renowned Fort Sumter, which +then stood, unfinished and ungarrisoned, on a little islet beside +the main ship channel, at the entrance to the harbor, and facing +Fort Moultrie just a mile away. The proper war garrison of all +the forts should have been over a thousand men. The actual +garrison—including officers, band, and the Castle Pinckney +sergeant—was less than a hundred. It was, however, loyal to +the Union; and its commandant, Major Robert Anderson, though born +in the slave-owning State of Kentucky, was determined to fight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The situation, here as elsewhere, was complicated by Floyd, President +Buchanan's Secretary of War, soon to be forced out of office on a +charge of misapplying public funds. Floyd, as an ardent Southerner, +was using the last lax days of the Buchanan Government to get the +army posts ready for capitulation whenever secession should have +become an accomplished fact. He urged on construction, repairs, and +armament at Charleston, while refusing to strengthen the garrison, +in order, as he said, not to provoke Carolina. Moreover, in November +he had replaced old Colonel Gardner, a Northern veteran of "1812," +by <a name="page_3"><span class="page">Page 3</span></a> Anderson +the Southerner, in whom he hoped to find a good capitulator. But +this time Floyd was wrong. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The day after Christmas Anderson's little garrison at Fort Moultrie +slipped over to Fort Sumter under cover of the dark, quietly removed +Floyd's workmen, who were mostly Baltimore Secessionists, and began +to prepare for defense. Next morning Charleston was furious and +began to prepare for attack. The South Carolina authorities at once +took formal possession of Pinckney and Moultrie; and three days +later seized the United States Arsenal in Charleston itself. Ten +days later again, on January 9, 1861, the <i>Star of the West</i>, +a merchant vessel coming in with reinforcements and supplies for +Anderson, was fired on and forced to turn back. Anderson, who had +expected a man-of-war, would not fire in her defense, partly because +he still hoped there might yet be peace. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While Charleston stood at gaze and Anderson at bay the ferment of +secession was working fast in Florida, where another tiny garrison +was all the Union had to hold its own. This garrison, under two +loyal young lieutenants, Slemmer and Gilman, occupied Barrancas +Barracks in Pensacola Bay. Late at night on the eighth of January +(the day <a name="page_4"><span class="page">Page 4</span></a> +before the <i>Star of the West</i> was fired on at Charleston) +some twenty Secessionists came to seize the old Spanish Fort San +Carlos, where, up to that time, the powder had been kept. This +fort, though lying close beside the barracks, had always been +unoccupied; so the Secessionists looked forward to an easy capture. +But, to their dismay, an unexpected guard challenged them, and, +not getting the proper password in reply, dispersed them with the +first shots of the Civil War. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Commodore Armstrong sat idle at the Pensacola Navy Yard, distracted +between the Union and secession. On the ninth Slemmer received orders +from Winfield Scott, General-in-Chief at Washington, to use all means +in defense of Union property. Next morning Slemmer and his fifty +faithful men were landed on Santa Rosa Island, just one mile across +the bay, where the dilapidated old Fort Pickens stood forlorn. Two +days later the Commodore surrendered the Navy Yard, the Stars and +Stripes were lowered, and everything ashore fell into the enemy's +hands. There was no flagstaff at Fort Pickens; but the Union colors +were at once hung out over the northwest bastion, in full view of +the shore, while the <i>Supply</i> and <i>Wyandotte</i>, the only +naval vessels in the bay, and both commanded <a name="page_5"><span +class="page">Page 5</span></a> by loyal men, mastheaded extra colors +and stood clear. Five days afterwards they had to sail for New +York; and Slemmer, whose total garrison had been raised to eighty +by the addition of thirty sailors, was left to hold Fort Pickens +if he could. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He had already been summoned to surrender by Colonel Chase and +Captain Farrand, who had left the United States Army and Navy for +the service of the South. Chase, like many another Southern officer, +was stirred to his inmost depths by his own change of allegiance. +"I have come," he said, "to ask of you young officers, officers of +the same army in which I have spent the best and happiest years +of my life, the surrender of this fort; and fearing that I might +not be able to say it as I ought, and also to have it in proper +form, I have put it in writing and will read it." He then began +to read. But his eyes filled with tears, and, stamping his foot, +he said: "I can't read it. Here, Farrand, you read it." Farrand, +however, pleading that his eyes were weak, handed the paper to the +younger Union officer, saying, "Here, Gilman, you have good eyes, +please read it." Slemmer refused to surrender and held out till +reinforced in April, by which time the war had begun in earnest. +Fort Pickens was never taken. On the contrary, it supported the <a +name="page_6"><span class="page">Page 6</span></a> bombardment of +the Confederate 'longshore positions the next New Year (1862) and +witnessed the burning and evacuation of Pensacola the following +ninth of May. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While Charleston and Pensacola were fanning the flames of secession +the wildfire was running round the Gulf, catching well throughout +Louisiana, where the Governor ordered the state militia to seize +every place belonging to the Union, and striking inland till it +reached the farthest army posts in Texas. In all Louisiana the +Union Government had only forty men. These occupied the Arsenal at +Baton Rouge under Major Haskins. Haskins was loyal. But when five +hundred state militiamen surrounded him, and his old brother-officer, +the future Confederate General Bragg, persuaded him that the Union +was really at an end, to all intents and purposes, and when he +found no orders, no support, and not even any guidance from the +Government at Washington, he surrendered with the honors of war +and left by boat for St. Louis in Missouri. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There was then in Louisiana another Union officer; but made of +sterner stuff. This was Colonel W. T. Sherman, Superintendent of +the State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy at <a +name="page_7"><span class="page">Page 7</span></a> Alexandria, up +the Red River. He was much respected by all the state authorities, +and was carefully watching over the two young sons of another future +Confederate leader, General Beauregard. William Tecumseh Sherman +had retired from the Army without seeing any war service, unlike +Haskins, who was a one-armed veteran of the Mexican campaign. But +Sherman was determined to stand by the Union, come what might. +Yet he was equally determined to wind up the affairs of the State +Academy so as to hand them over in perfect order. A few days after +the seizure of the Arsenal, and before the formal secession of +the State, he wrote to the Governor: +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +"Sir: As I occupy a <i>quasi</i>-military position under the laws +of the State, I deem it proper to acquaint you that I accepted such +position when Louisiana was a State of the Union, and when the +motto of this seminary was inserted in marble over the main door: +"By the liberality of the General Government of the United States. +The Union—<i>esto perpetua</i>." Recent events foreshadow a +great change, and it becomes all men to choose.... I beg you to +take immediate steps to relieve me as superintendent, the moment +the State determines to secede, for on no earthly account will I +do any act or think any thought hostile to, or in defiance of, +the old Government of the United States." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_8"><span class="page">Page 8</span></a> Then, to +the lasting credit of all concerned, the future political enemies +parted as the best of personal friends. Sherman left everything in +perfect order, accounted for every cent of the funds, and received +the heartiest thanks and best wishes of all the governing officials, +who embodied the following sentence in their final resolution of +April 1, 1861: "They cannot fail to appreciate the manliness of +character which has always marked the actions of Colonel Sherman." +Long before this Louisiana had seceded, and Sherman had gone north +to Lancaster, Ohio, where he arrived about the time of Lincoln's +inauguration. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile, on the eighteenth of February, the greatest of all surrenders +had taken place in Texas, where nineteen army posts were handed +over to the State by General Twiggs. San Antonio was swarming with +Secessionist rangers. Unionist companies were marching up and down. +The Federal garrison was leaving the town on parole, with the band +playing Union airs and Union colors flying. The whole place was +at sixes and sevens, and anything might have happened. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the midst of this confusion the colonel commanding the Second +Regiment of United States Cavalry arrived from Fort Mason. He was +on <a name="page_9"><span class="page">Page 9</span></a> his way +to Washington, where Winfield Scott, the veteran General-in-Chief, +was anxiously waiting to see him; for this colonel was no ordinary +man. He had been Scott's Chief of Staff in Mexico, where he had +twice won promotion for service in the field. He had been a model +Superintendent at West Point and an exceedingly good officer of +engineers before he left them, on promotion, for the cavalry. Very +tall and handsome, magnificently fit in body and in mind, genial +but of commanding presence, this flower of Southern chivalry was +not only every inch a soldier but a leader born and bred. Though +still unknown to public fame he was the one man to whom the most +insightful leaders of both sides turned, and rightly turned; for +this was Robert Lee, Lee of Virginia, soon to become one of the +very few really great commanders of the world. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As Lee came up to the hotel at San Antonio he was warmly greeted +by Mrs. Darrow, the anxious wife of the confidential clerk to Major +Vinton, the staunch Union officer in charge of the pay and quartermaster +services. "Who are those men?" he asked, pointing to the rangers, +who wore red flannel shoulder straps. "They are McCulloch's," she +answered; "General Twiggs surrendered everything to the State this +morning." Years after, <a name="page_10"><span class="page">Page +10</span></a> when she and her husband and Vinton had suffered +for one side and Lee had suffered for the other, she wrote her +recollection of that memorable day in these few, telling words: +"I shall never forget his look of astonishment, as, with his lips +trembling and his eyes full of tears, he exclaimed, 'Has it come +so soon as this?' In a short time I saw him crossing the plaza on +his way to headquarters and noticed particularly that he was in +citizen's dress. He returned at night and shut himself into his +room, which was over mine; and I heard his footsteps through the +night, and sometimes the murmur of his voice, as if he was praying. +He remained at the hotel a week and in conversations declared that +the position he held was a neutral one." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Three other Union witnesses show how Lee agonized over the fateful +decision he was being forced to make. Captain R. M. Potter says: +"I have seldom seen a more distressed man. He said, 'When I get +to Virginia I think the world will have one soldier less. I shall +resign and go to planting corn.'" Colonel Albert G. Brackett says: +"Lee was filled with sorrow at the condition of affairs, and, in a +letter to me, deploring the war in which we were about to engage, +made use of these words: 'I fear the liberties of our country will +be buried in <a name="page_11"><span class="page">Page 11</span></a> +the tomb of a great nation.'" Colonel Charles Anderson, quoting +Lee's final words in Texas, carries us to the point of parting: +"I still think my loyalty to Virginia ought to take precedence +over that which is due to the Federal Government; and I shall so +report myself in Washington. If Virginia stands by the old Union, +so will I. But if she secedes (though I do not believe in secession +as a constitutional right, nor that there is sufficient cause for +revolution) then I will still follow my native State with my sword, +and, if need be, with my life. I know you think and feel very +differently. But I can't help it. These are my principles; and I +must follow them." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee reached Washington on the first of March. Lincoln, delivering +his Inaugural on the fourth, brought the country one step nearer +war by showing the neutrals how impossible it was to reconcile +his principles as President of the whole United States with those +of Jefferson Davis as President of the seceding parts. "The power +confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property +and places belonging to the government." Three days later the +provisional Confederate Congress at Montgomery in Alabama passed +an Army Act authorizing the enlistment of one hundred <a +name="page_12"><span class="page">Page 12</span></a> thousand men +for one year's service. Nine days later again, having adopted a +Constitution in the meantime, this Congress passed a Navy Act, +authorizing the purchase or construction of ten little gunboats. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In April the main storm center went whirling back to Charleston, +where Sherman's old friend Beauregard commanded the forces that +encircled Sumter. Sumter, still unfinished, had been designed for +a garrison of six hundred and fifty combatant men. It now contained +exactly sixty-five. It was to have been provisioned for six months. +The actual supplies could not be made to last beyond two weeks. +Both sides knew that Anderson's gallant little garrison must be +starved out by the fifteenth. But the excited Carolinians would +not wait, because they feared that the arrival of reinforcements +might balk them of their easy prey. On the eleventh Beauregard, +acting under orders from the Confederate Government, sent in a +summons to surrender. Anderson refused. At a quarter to one the next +morning the summons was repeated, as pilots had meanwhile reported +a Federal vessel approaching the harbor. Anderson again refused +and again admitted that he would be starved out on the fifteenth. +Thereupon Beauregard's aides declared <a name="page_13"><span +class="page">Page 13</span></a> immediate surrender the only possible +alternative to a bombardment and signed a note at 3:20 A.M. giving +Anderson formal warning that fire would be opened in an hour. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Fort Sumter stood about half a mile inside the harbor mouth, fully +exposed to the converging fire of four relatively powerful batteries, +three about a mile away, the fourth nearly twice as far. At the +northern side of the harbor mouth stood Fort Moultrie; at the southern +stood the batteries on Cummings Point; and almost due west of Sumter +stood Fort Johnson. Near Moultrie was a four-gun floating battery +with an iron shield. A mile northwest of Moultrie, farther up the +harbor, stood the Mount Pleasant battery, nearly two miles off +from Sumter. At half-past four, in the first faint light of a gray +morning, a sudden spurt of flame shot out from Fort Johnson, the +dull roar of a mortar floated through the misty air, and the big +shell—the first shot of the real war—soared up at a +steep angle, its course distinctly marked by its burning fuse, +and then plunged down on Sumter. It was a capital shot, right on +the center of the target, and was followed by an admirable burst. +Then all the converging batteries opened full; while the whole +population of perfervid Charleston rushed <a name="page_14"><span +class="page">Page 14</span></a> out of doors to throng their beautiful +East Battery, a flagstone marine parade three miles in from Sumter, +of which and of the attacking batteries it had a perfect view. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But Sumter remained as silent as the grave. Anderson decided not to +return the fire till it was broad daylight. In the meantime all ranks +went to breakfast, which consisted entirely of water and salt pork. +Then the gun crews went to action stations and fired back steadily +with solid shot. The ironclad battery was an exasperating target; +for the shot bounced off it like dried peas. Moultrie seemed more +vulnerable. But appearances were deceptive; for it was thoroughly +quilted with bales of cotton, which the solid shot simply rammed +into an impenetrable mass. Wishing to save his men, in which he was +quite successful, Anderson had forbidden the use of the shell-guns, +which were mounted on the upper works and therefore more exposed. +Shell fire would have burst the bales and set the cotton flaming. +This was so evident that Sergeant Carmody, unable to stand such +futile practice any longer, quietly stole up to the loaded guns +and fired them in succession. The aim lacked final correction; +and the result was small, except that Moultrie, thinking itself +in danger, <a name="page_15"><span class="page">Page 15</span></a> +concentrated all its efforts on silencing these guns. The silencing +seemed most effective; for Carmody could not reload alone, and so +his first shots were his last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At nightfall Sumter ceased fire while the Confederates kept on +slowly till daylight. Next morning the officers' quarters were set +on fire by red-hot shot. Immediately the Confederates redoubled +their efforts. Inside Sumter the fire was creeping towards the +magazine, the door of which was shut only just in time. Then the +flagstaff was shot down. Anderson ran his colors up again, but the +situation was rapidly becoming impossible. Most of the worn-out men +were fighting the flames while a few were firing at long intervals to +show they would not yet give in. This excited the generous admiration +of the enemy, who cheered the gallantry of Sumter while sneering +at the caution of the Union fleet outside. The fact was, however, +that this so-called fleet was a mere assemblage of vessels quite +unable to fight the Charleston batteries and without the slightest +chance of saving Sumter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Having done his best for the honor of the flag, though not a man +was killed within the walls, Anderson surrendered in the afternoon. +Charleston went wild with joy; but applauded the generosity <a +name="page_16"><span class="page">Page 16</span></a> of Beauregard's +chivalrous terms. Next day, Sunday the fourteenth, Anderson's little +garrison saluted the Stars and Stripes with fifty guns, and then, +with colors flying, marched down on board a transport to the strains +of <i>Yankee Doodle</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Strange to say, after being four years in Confederate hands, Sumter +was recaptured by the Union forces on the anniversary of its surrender. +It was often bombarded, though never taken, in the meantime. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The fall of Sumter not only fired all Union loyalty but made +Confederates eager for the fray. The very next day Lincoln called +for 75,000 three-month volunteers. Two days later Confederate letters +of marque were issued to any privateers that would prey on Union +shipping. Two days later again Lincoln declared a blockade of every +port from South Carolina round to Texas. Eight days afterwards he +extended it to North Carolina and Virginia. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 505px;"> +<a name="fig_02"> +<img src="images/fig_02.jpg" width="505" height="931" alt="Fig. 2"></a> +<p class="image"><i>GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE</i><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington.</p> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +But in the meantime Lincoln had been himself marooned in Washington. +On the nineteenth of April, the day he declared his first blockade, +the Sixth Massachusetts were attacked by a mob in Baltimore, through +which the direct rails ran from North to South. Baltimore was full of +secession, <a name="page_17"><span class="page">Page 17</span></a> +and the bloodshed roused its fury. Maryland was a border slave +State out of which the District of Columbia was carved. Virginia +had just seceded. So when the would-be Confederates of Maryland, +led by the Mayor of Baltimore, began tearing up rails, burning +bridges, and cutting the wires, the Union Government found itself +enisled in a hostile sea. Its own forces abandoned the Arsenal at +Harper's Ferry and the Navy Yard at Norfolk. The work of demolition +at Harper's Ferry had to be bungled off in haste, owing to shortness +of time and lack of means. The demolition of Norfolk was better +done, and the ships were sunk at anchor. But many valuable stores +fell into enemy hands at both these Virginian outposts of the Federal +forces. Through six long days of dire suspense not a ship, not a +train, came into Washington. At last, on the twenty-fifth, the +Seventh New York got through, having come south by boat with the +Eighth Massachusetts, landed at Annapolis, and commandeered a train +to run over relaid rails. With them came the news that all the +loyal North was up, that the Seventh had marched through miles of +cheering patriots in New York, and that these two fine regiments +were only the vanguard of a host. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_18"><span class="page">Page 18</span></a> But just a +week before Lincoln experienced this inexpressible relief he lost, +and his enemy won, a single officer, who, according to Winfield +Scott, was alone worth more than fifty thousand veteran men. On the +seventeenth of April Virginia voted for secession. On the eighteenth +Lee had a long confidential interview with his old chief, Winfield +Scott. On the twentieth he resigned, writing privately to Scott +at the same time: "My resignation would have been presented at +once but for the struggle it has cost me to separate myself from a +service to which I have devoted the best years of my life. During +the whole of that time I have experienced nothing but kindness +from my superiors and a most cordial friendship from my comrades. +I shall carry to the grave the most grateful recollections of your +kind consideration, and your name and fame shall always be dear to +me. Save in the defense of my native State I never desire again +to draw my sword." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The three great motives which finally determined his momentous course +of action were: first, his aversion from taking any part in coercing +the home folks of Virginia; secondly, his belief in State rights, +tempered though it was by admiration for the Union; and thirdly, +his clear perception that <a name="page_19"><span class="page">Page +19</span></a> war was now inevitable, and that defeat for the South +would inevitably mean a violent change of all the ways of Southern +life, above all, a change imposed by force from outside, instead +of the gradual change he wished to see effected from within. He +was opposed to slavery; and both his own and his wife's slaves had +long been free. Like his famous lieutenant, Stonewall Jackson, +he was particularly kind to the blacks; none of whom ever wanted +to leave, once they had been domiciled at Arlington, the estate +that came to him through his wife, Mary Custis, great-granddaughter +of Martha Washington. But, like Lincoln before the war, he wished +emancipation to come from the slave States themselves, as in time +it must have come, with due regard for compensation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-third of this eventful April Lee was given the chief +command of all Virginia's forces. Three days later "Joe" Johnston +took command of the Virginians at Richmond. One day later again +"Stonewall" Jackson took command at Harper's Ferry. Johnston played +a great and noble part throughout the war; and we shall meet him +again and again, down to the very end. But Jackson claims our first +attention here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Like all the great leaders on both sides Jackson <a name="page_20"><span +class="page">Page 20</span></a> had been an officer of regulars. +He was, however, in many ways unlike the army type. He disliked +society amusements, was awkward, shy, reserved, and apparently +recluse. Moderately tall, with large hands and feet, stiff in his +movements, ungainly in the saddle, he was a mere nobody in public +estimation when the war broke out. A few brother-officers had seen +his consummate skill and bravery as a subaltern in Mexico; and +still fewer close acquaintances had seen his sterling qualities +at Lexington, where, for ten years, he had been a professor at +the Virginia Military Institute. But these few were the only ones +who were not surprised when this recluse of peace suddenly became a +very thunderbolt of war—Puritan in soul, Cavalier in daring: +a Cromwell come to life again. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Harper's Ferry was a strategic point in northern Virginia. It was +the gate to the Shenandoah Valley as well as the point where the +Baltimore and Ohio Railroad crossed the Potomac some sixty miles +northwest of Washington. Harper's Ferry was known by name to North +and South through John Brown's raid two years before. It was now +coveted by Virginia for its Arsenal as well as for its command of +road, rail, and water routes. The plan to raid it was arranged +at Richmond on the <a name="page_21"><span class="page">Page +21</span></a> sixteenth of April. But when the raiders reached +it on the eighteenth they found it abandoned and its Arsenal in +flames. The machine shops, however, were saved, as well as the +metal parts of twenty thousand stand of arms. Then the Virginia +militiamen and volunteers streamed in, to the number of over four +thousand. They were a mere conglomeration of semi-independent units, +mostly composed of raw recruits under officers who themselves knew +next to nothing. As usual with such fledgling troops there was no +end to the fuss and feathers among the members of the busybody +staffs, who were numerous enough to manage an army but clumsy enough +to spoil a platoon. It was said, and not without good reason, that +there was as much gold lace at Harper's Ferry, when the sun was +shining, as at a grand review in Paris. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Into this gaudy assemblage rode Thomas Jonathan Jackson, mounted +on Little Sorrel, a horse as unpretentious as himself, and dressed +in his faded old blue professor's uniform without one gleam of gold. +He had only two staff officers, both dressed as plainly as himself. +He was not a major-general, nor even a brigadier; just a colonel. +He held no trumpeting reviews. He made no flowery speeches. He +didn't even swear. The armed mob at Harper's <a name="page_22"><span +class="page">Page 22</span></a> Ferry felt that they would lose caste +on Sunday afternoons under a commandant like this. Their feelings +were still more outraged when they heard that every officer above +the rank of captain was to lose his higher rank, and that all new +reappointments were to be made on military merit and direct from +Richmond. Companies accustomed to elect their officers according +to the whim of the moment eagerly joined the higher officers in +passing adverse resolutions. But authorities who were unanimous +for Lee were not to be shaken by such absurdities in face of a +serious war. And when the froth had been blown off the top, and +the dregs drained out of the bottom, the solid mass between, who +really were sound patriots, settled down to work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There was seven hours' drill every day except Sunday; no light task +for a mere armed mob groping its ignorant way, however zealously, +towards the organized efficiency of a real army. The companies had +to be formed into workable battalions, the battalions into brigades. +There was a deplorable lack of cavalry, artillery, engineers, +commissariat, transport, medical services, and, above all, staff. +Armament was bad; other munitions were worse. There would have been +no chance whatever of holding Harper's Ferry unless the Northern <a +name="page_23"><span class="page">Page 23</span></a> conglomeration +had been even less like a fighting army than the Southern was. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Harper's Ferry was not only important in itself but still more +important for what it covered: the wonderfully fruitful Shenandoah +Valley, running southwest a hundred and forty miles to the neighborhood +of Lexington, with an average width of only twenty-four. Bounded +on the west by the Alleghanies and on the east by the long Blue +Ridge this valley was a regular covered way by which the Northern +invaders might approach, cut Virginia in two (for West Virginia +was then a part of the State) and, after devastating the valley +itself (thus destroying half the food-base of Virginia) attack +eastern Virginia through whichever gaps might serve the purpose +best. More than this, the only direct line from Richmond to the +Mississippi ran just below the southwest end of the valley, while +a network of roads radiated from Winchester near the northeast +end, thirty miles southwest of Harper's Ferry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Throughout the month of May Jackson went on working his men into +shape and watching the enemy, three thousand strong, at Chambersburg, +forty-five miles north of Harper's Ferry, and twelve thousand strong +farther north still. One day he <a name="page_24"><span +class="page">Page 24</span></a> made a magnificent capture of rolling +stock on the twenty-seven miles of double track that centered in +Harper's Ferry. This greatly hampered the accumulation of coal at +Washington besides helping the railroads of the South. Destroying +the line was out of the question, because it ran through West Virginia +and Maryland, both of which he hoped to see on the Confederate +side. He was himself a West Virginian, born at Clarksburg; and it +grieved him greatly when West Virginia stood by the Union. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Apart from this he did nothing spectacular. The rest was all just +sheer hard work. He kept his own counsel so carefully that no one +knew anything about what he would do if the enemy advanced. Even +the officers of outposts were forbidden to notice or mention his +arrival or departure on his constant tours of inspection, lest a +longer look than usual at any point might let an awkward inference +be drawn. He was the sternest of disciplinarians when the good of +the service required it. But no one knew better that the finest +discipline springs from self-sacrifice willingly made for a worthy +cause; and no one was readier to help all ranks along toward real +efficiency in the kindest possible way when he saw they were doing +their best. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_25"><span class="page">Page 25</span></a> At the +end of May Johnston took over the command of the increasing force +at Harper's Ferry, while Jackson was given the First Shenandoah +Brigade, a unit soon, like himself, to be raised by service into +fame. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +On the first and third of May Virginia issued calls for more men; +and on the third Lincoln, who quite understood the signs of the +times, called for men whose term of service would be three years +and not three months. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Just a week later Missouri was saved for the Union by the daring +skill of two determined leaders, Francis P. Blair, a Member of +Congress who became a good major-general, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, +an excellent soldier, who commanded the little garrison of regulars +at St. Louis. When Lincoln called upon Governor Claiborne Jackson +to supply Missouri's quota of three-month volunteers the Governor +denounced the proposed coercion as "illegal, unconstitutional, +revolutionary, inhuman, and diabolical"; and thereafter did his +best to make Missouri join the South. But Blair and Lyon were too +quick for him. Blair organized the Home Guards, whom Lyon armed +from the arsenal. Lyon then sent all the surplus arms and stores +across the <a name="page_26"><span class="page">Page 26</span></a> +river into Illinois, while he occupied the most commanding position +near the arsenal with his own troops, thus forestalling the +Confederates, under Brigadier-General D. M. Frost, who was now +forced to establish Camp Jackson in a far less favorable place. So +vigorously had Blair and Lyon worked that they had armed thousands +while Frost had only armed hundreds. But when Frost received siege +guns and mortars from farther south Lyon felt the time had come +for action. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lyon was a born leader, though Grant and Sherman (then in St. Louis +as junior ex-officers, quite unknown to fame) were almost the only +men, apart from Blair, to see any signs of preëminence in this +fiery little redheaded, weather-beaten captain, who kept dashing +about the arsenal, with his pockets full of papers, making sure +of every detail connected with the handful of regulars and the +thousands of Home Guards. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the ninth of May Lyon borrowed an old dress from Blair's +mother-in-law, completing the disguise with a thickly veiled sunbonnet, +and drove through Camp Jackson. That night he and Blair attended +a council of war, at which, overcoming all opposition, answering +all objections, and making all arrangements, they laid their plans +for the <a name="page_27"><span class="page">Page 27</span></a> +morrow. When Lyon's seven thousand surrounded Frost's seven hundred +the Confederates surrendered at discretion and were marched as +prisoners through St. Louis. There were many Southern sympathizers +among the crowds in the streets; one of them fired a pistol; and +the Home Guards fired back, killing several women and children +by mistake. This unfortunate incident hardened many neutrals and +even Unionists against the Union forces; so much so that Sterling +Price, a Unionist and former governor, became a Confederate general, +whose field for recruiting round Jefferson City on the Missouri +promised a good crop of enemies to the Union cause. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lyon and Blair wished to march against Price immediately and smash +every hostile force while still in the act of forming. But General +Harney, who commanded the Department of the West, returned to St. +Louis the day after the shooting and made peace instead of war with +Price. By the end of the month, however, Lincoln removed Harney and +promoted Lyon in his place; whereupon Price and Governor Jackson at +once prepared to fight. Then sundry neutrals, of the gabbling kind +who think talk enough will settle anything, induced the implacables +to meet in St. Louis. The <a name="page_28"><span class="page">Page +28</span></a> conference was ended by Lyon's declaration that he +would see every Missourian under the sod before he would take any +orders from the State about any Federal matter, however small. +"This," he said in conclusion, "means war." And it did. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Again a single week sufficed for the striking of the blow. The +conference was held on the eleventh of June. On the fourteenth +Lyon reached Jefferson City only to find that the Governor had +decamped for Boonville, still higher up the Missouri. Here, on +the seventeenth, Lyon attacked him with greatly superior numbers +and skill, defeated him utterly, and sent him flying south with +only a few hundred followers left. Boonville was, in itself, a +very small affair indeed. But it had immense results. Lyon had +seized the best strategic point of rail and river junction on the +Mississippi by holding St. Louis. He had also secured supremacy +in arms, munitions, and morale. By turning the Governor out of +Jefferson City, the State capital, he had deprived the Confederates +of the prestige and convenience of an acknowledged headquarters. +Now, by defeating him at Boonville and driving his forces south in +headlong flight he had practically made the whole Missouri River +a Federal line of communication as well as a barrier between <a +name="page_29"><span class="page">Page 29</span></a> would-be +Confederates to the north and south of it. More than this, the +possession of Boonville struck a fatal blow at Confederate recruiting +and organization throughout the whole of that strategic area; for +Boonville was the center to which pro-Southern Missourians were +flocking. The tide of battle was to go against the Federals at +Wilson's Creek in the southwest of the State, and even at Lexington +on the Missouri, as we shall presently see; but this was only the +breaking of the last Confederate waves. As a State, Missouri was +lost to the South already. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In Kentucky, the next border State, opinions were likewise divided; +and Kentuckians fought each other with help from both sides. Anderson, +of Fort Sumter fame, was appointed to the Kentucky command in May. +But here the crisis did not occur for months, while a border campaign +was already being fought in West Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +West Virginia, which became a separate State during the war, was +strongly Federal, like eastern Tennessee. These Federal parts of +two Confederate States formed a wedge dangerous to the whole South, +especially to Virginia and the Carolinas. Each side therefore tried +to control this area itself. The Federals, under McClellan, of whom +we shall <a name="page_30"><span class="page">Page 30</span></a> +soon hear more, had two lines of invasion into West Virginia, both +based on the Ohio. The northern converged by rail, from Wheeling +and Parkersburg, on Grafton, the only junction in West Virginia. +The southern ran up the Great Kanawha, with good navigation to +Charleston and water enough for small craft on to Gauley Bridge, +which was the strategic point. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In May the Confederates cut the line near Grafton. As this broke +direct communication between the West and Washington, McClellan +sent forces from which two flying columns, three thousand strong, +converged on Philippi, fifteen miles south of Grafton, and surprised +a thousand Confederates. These thereupon retired, with little loss, +to Beverly, thirty miles farther south still. Here there was a +combat at Rich Mountain on the eleventh of July. The Confederates +again retreated, losing General Garnett in a skirmish the following +day. This ended McClellan's own campaign in West Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But the Kanawha campaign, which lasted till November, had only +just begun, with Rosecrans as successor to McClellan (who had been +recalled to Washington for very high command) and with General +Jacob D. Cox leading the force against Gauley. The Confederates +did all they could to <a name="page_31"><span class="page">Page +31</span></a> keep their precarious foothold. They sent political +chiefs, like Henry A. Wise, ex-Governor of Virginia, and John B. +Floyd, the late Federal Secretary of War, both of whom were now +Confederate brigadiers. They even sent Lee himself in general commend. +But, confronted by superior forces in a difficult and thoroughly +hostile country, they at last retired east of the Alleghanies, +which thenceforth became the frontier of two warring States. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The campaign in West Virginia was a foregone conclusion. It was not +marked by any real battles; and there was no scope for exceptional +skill of the higher kind on either side. But it made McClellan's +bubble reputation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan was an ex-captain of United States Engineers who had +done very well at West Point, had distinguished himself in Mexico, +had represented the American army with the Allies in the Crimea, +had written a good official report on his observations there, had +become manager of a big railroad after leaving the service, and had +so impressed people with his ability and modesty on the outbreak +of war that his appointment to the chief command in West Virginia +was hailed with the utmost satisfaction. Then came the two affairs +at <a name="page_32"><span class="page">Page 32</span></a> Philippi +and Rich Mountain, the first of which was planned and carried out by +other men, while the second was, if anything, spoiled by himself; +for here, as afterwards on a vastly greater scene of action, he +failed to strike home at the critical moment. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Yet though he failed in arms he won by proclamations; so much so, +in fact, that <i>Words not Deeds</i> might well have been his motto. +He began with a bombastic address to the inhabitants and ended with +another to his troops, whom he congratulated on having "annihilated +two armies, commanded by educated and experienced soldiers, intrenched +in mountain fastnesses fortified at their leisure." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It disastrously happened that the Union public were hungering for +heroes at this particular time and that Union journalists were itching +to write one up to the top of their bent. So all McClellan's tinsel +was counted out for gold before an avaricious mob of undiscriminating +readers; and when, at the height of the publicity campaign, the +Government wanted to retrieve Bull Run they turned to the "Man +of Destiny" who had been given the noisiest advertisement as the +"Young Napoleon of the West." McClellan had many good qualities +for organization, and even some for strategy. An excited press and +public, however, would not <a name="page_33"><span class="page">Page +33</span></a> acclaim him for what he was but for what he most +decidedly was not. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Meanwhile, before McClellan went to Washington and Lee to West +Virginia, the main Union army had been disastrously defeated by +the main Confederate army at Bull Run, on that vital ground which +lay between the rival capitals. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In April Lincoln had called for three-month volunteers. In May the +term of service for new enlistments was three years. In June the +military chiefs at Washington were vainly doing all that military +men could do to make something like the beginnings of an army out of +the conglomerating mass. Winfield Scott, the veteran General-in-Chief, +rightly revered by the whole service as a most experienced, farsighted, +and practical man, was ably assisted by W. T. Sherman and Irvin +McDowell. But civilian interference ruined all. Even Lincoln had +not yet learned the quintessential difference between that civil +control by which the fighting services are so rightly made the +real servants of the whole people and that civilian interference +which is very much the same as if a landlubber owning a ship should +grab the wheel repeatedly in the middle of a storm. Simon Cameron, <a +name="page_34"><span class="page">Page 34</span></a> then Secretary +of War, was good enough as a party politician, but all thumbs when +fumbling with the armies in the field. The other members of the +Cabinet had war nostrums of their own; and every politician with a +pull did what he could to use it. Behind all these surged a clamorous +press and an excited people, both patriotic and well meaning; but +both wholly ignorant of war, and therefore generating a public +opinion that forced the not unwilling Government to order an armed +mob "on to Richmond" before it had the slightest chance of learning +how to be an army. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Congress that met on the Fourth of July voted five hundred +thousand men and two hundred and fifty million dollars. This showed +that the greatness of the war was beginning to be seen. But the +men, the money, and the Glorious Fourth were so blurred together +in the public mind that the distinction between a vote in Congress +and its effect upon some future battlefield was never realized. +The result was a new access of zeal for driving McDowell "on to +Richmond." Making the best of a bad business, Scott had already +begun his preparations for the premature advance. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the end of May Confederate pickets had been in sight of Washington, +while McDowell, crossing <a name="page_35"><span class="page">Page +35</span></a> the Potomac, was faced by his friend of old West Point +and Mexican days, General Beauregard, fresh from the capture of +Fort Sumter. By the beginning of July General Patterson, a veteran +of "1812" and Mexico, was in command up the Potomac near Harper's +Ferry. He was opposed by "Joe" Johnston, who had taken over that +Confederate command from "Stonewall" Jackson. Down the Potomac +and Chesapeake Bay there was nothing to oppose the Union navy. +General Benjamin Butler, threatening Richmond in flank, along the +lower Chesapeake, was watched by the Confederates Huger and Magruder. +Meanwhile, as we have seen already, the West Virginian campaign +was in full swing, with superior Federal forces under McClellan. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thus the general situation in July was that the whole of northeastern +Virginia was faced by a semicircle of superior forces which began +at the Kanawha River, ran northeast to Grafton, then northeast +to Cumberland, then along the Potomac to Chesapeake Bay and on +to Fortress Monroe. From the Kanawha to Grafton there were only +roads. From Grafton to Cumberland there was rail as well. From +Cumberland to Washington there were road, rail, river, and canal. +From Washington to <a name="page_36"><span class="page">Page +36</span></a> Fortress Monroe there was water fit for any fleet. The +Union armies along this semicircle were not only twice as numerous +as the Confederates facing them but they were backed by a sea-power, +both naval and mercantile, which the Confederates could not begin +to challenge, much less overcome. Lee was the military adviser to +the Confederate Government at Richmond as Scott then was to the +Union Government at Washington. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Such was the central scene of action, where the first great battle +of the war was fought. The Union forces were based on the Potomac +from Washington to Harper's Ferry. The Confederates faced them +from Bull Run to Winchester, which points were nearly sixty miles +apart by road and rail. The Union forces were fifty thousand strong, +the Confederate thirty-three thousand. The Union problem was how to +keep "Joe" Johnston in the Winchester position by threatening or +actually making an invasion of the Shenandoah Valley with Patterson's +superior force, while McDowell's superior force attacked or turned +Beauregard's position at Bull Run. The Confederate problem was +how to give Patterson the slip and reach Bull Run in time to meet +McDowell with an equal force. The Confederates had the advantage +of interior <a name="page_37"><span class="page">Page 37</span></a> +lines both here and in the semicircle as a whole, though the Union +forces enjoyed in general much better means of transportation. The +Confederates enjoyed better control from government headquarters, +where the Cabinet mostly had the sense to trust in Lee. Scott, on +the other hand, was tied down by orders to defend Washington by +purely defensive means as well as by the "on to Richmond" march. +Patterson was therefore obliged to watch the Federal back door +at Harper's Ferry as well as the Confederate side doors up the +Shenandoah: an impossible task, on exterior lines, with the kind +of force he had. The civilian chiefs at Washington did not see +that the best of all defense was to destroy the enemy's means of +destroying <i>them</i>, and that his greatest force of fighting +<i>men</i>, not any particular <i>place</i>, should always be their +main objective. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the fourteenth of June Johnston had destroyed everything useful +to the enemy at Harper's Ferry and retired to Winchester. On the +twentieth Jackson's brigade marched on Martinsburg to destroy the +workshops of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway and to support the +three hundred troopers under J. E. B. Stuart, who was so soon to +be the greatest of cavalry commanders on the Confederate <a +name="page_38"><span class="page">Page 38</span></a> side. Unknown +at twenty-nine, killed at thirty-one, "Jeb" Stuart was a Virginian +ex-officer of United States Dragoons, trained in frontier fighting, +and the perfect type of what a cavalry commander should be: tall, +handsome, splendidly supple and strong, hawk-eyed and lion-hearted, +quick, bold, determined, and inspiring, yet always full of knowledge +and precaution too; indefatigable at all times, and so persistent +in carrying out a plan that the enemy could no more shake him off +than they could escape their shadows. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the second of July the first brush took place at Falling Waters, +five miles south of the Potomac, where Jackson came into touch +with Patterson's advanced guard. As Jackson withdrew his handful +of Virginian infantry the Federal cavalry came clattering down the +turnpike and were met by a single shot from a Confederate gun that +smashed the head of their column and sent the others flying. Meanwhile +Stuart, who had been reconnoitering, came upon a company of Federal +infantry resting in a field. Galloping among them suddenly he shouted, +"Throw down your arms or you are all dead men!" Whereupon they all +threw down their arms; and his troopers led them off. Patterson, +badly served by his very raw staff, reported <a name="page_39"><span +class="page">Page 39</span></a> Jackson's little vanguard as being +precisely ten times stronger than it was. He pushed out cautiously +to right and left; and when he tried to engage again he found that +Jackson had withdrawn. Falling Waters was microscopically small +as a fight. But it served to raise Confederate morale and depress +the Federals correspondingly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Patterson occupied Martinsburg, while Johnston, drawn up in line +of battle, awaited his further advance four days before retiring. +Then, with his fourteen thousand, Patterson advanced again, stood +irresolute under distracting orders from the Government in Washington, +and finally went to Charlestown on the seventeenth of July—almost +back to Harper's Ferry. Johnston, with his eleven thousand, now +stood fast at Winchester, fifteen miles southwest, while Stuart, +like a living screen, moved to and fro between them. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile McDowell's thirty-six thousand had marched past the President +with bands playing and colors flying amid a scene of great enthusiasm. +The press campaign was at its height; so was the speechifying; +and ninety-nine people out of every hundred thought Beauregard's +twenty-two thousand at Bull Run would be defeated in a way that +would be sure to make the South give in. <a name="page_40"><span +class="page">Page 40</span></a> McDowell had between two and three +thousand regulars: viz., seven troops of cavalry, nine batteries +of artillery, eight companies of infantry, and a little battalion +of marines. Then there was the immense paper army voted on the +Glorious Fourth. And here, for the general public to admire, was +a collection of armed and uniformed men that members of Congress +and writers in the press united in calling one of the best armies +the world had ever seen. Moreover, the publicity campaign was kept +up unflaggingly till the very clash of arms began. Reporters marched +along and sent off reams of copy. Congressmen, and even ladies, +graced the occasion in every way they could. "The various regiments +were brilliantly uniformed according to the æsthetic taste of +peace," wrote General Fry, then an officer on McDowell's staff, and +"during the nineteenth and twentieth the bivouacs at Centreville, +almost within cannon range of the enemy, were thronged with visitors, +official and unofficial, who came in carriages from Washington, +were under no military restraint, and passed to and fro among the +troops as they pleased, giving the scene the appearance of a monster +military picnic." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Had McDowell been able to attack on either of these two days he must +have won. But previous <a name="page_41"><span class="page">Page +41</span></a> Governments had never given the army the means of +making proper surveys; so here, within a day's march of the Federal +capital, the maps were worthless for military use. Information had +to be gleaned by reconnaissance; and reconnaissance takes time, +especially without trustworthy guides, sufficient cavalry, and +a proper staff. Moreover, the army was all parts and no whole, +through no fault of McDowell's or of his military chiefs. The +three-month volunteers, whose term of service was nearly over, +had not learned their drill as individuals before being herded +into companies, battalions, and brigades, of course becoming more +and more inefficient as the units grew more and more complex. Of +the still more essential discipline they naturally knew still less. +There was no lack of courage; for these were the same breed of +men as those with whom Washington had won immortal fame, the same +as those with whom both Grant and Lee were yet to win it. But, +as Napoleon used to say, mere men are not the same as soldiers. +Nor are armed mobs the same as armies. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The short march to the front was both confused and demoralizing. +No American officer had ever had the chance even of seeing, much +less handling, thirty-six thousand men under arms. This force <a +name="page_42"><span class="page">Page 42</span></a> was followed +by an immense and unwieldy train of supplies, manned by wholly +undisciplined civilian drivers; while other, and quite superfluous, +civilians clogged every movement and made confusion worse confounded. +"The march," says Sherman, who commanded a brigade, "demonstrated +little save the general laxity of discipline; for, with all my +personal efforts, I could not prevent the men from straggling for +water, blackberries, or anything on the way they fancied." In the +whole of the first long summer's day, the sixteenth of July, the +army only marched six miles; and it took the better part of the +seventeenth to herd its stragglers back again. "I wished them," +says McDowell, "to go to Centreville the second day [only another +six miles out] but the men were foot-weary, not so much by the +distance marched as by the time they had been on foot." That observant +private, Warren Lee Goss, has told us how hard it is to soldier +suddenly. "My canteen banged against my bayonet; both tin cup and +bayonet badly interfered with the butt of my musket, while my +cartridge-box and haversack were constantly flopping up and +down—the whole jangling like loose harness and chains on +a runaway horse." The weather was hot. The roads were dusty. And +many a man threw away <a name="page_43"><span class="page">Page +43</span></a> parts of his kit for which he suffered later on. There +was food in superabundance. But, with that unwieldy and grossly +undisciplined supply-and-transport service, the men and their food +never came together at the proper time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Early on the eighteenth McDowell, whose own work was excellent +all through, pushed forward a brigade against Blackburn's Ford, +toward the Confederate right, in order to distract attention from +the real objective, which was to be the turning of the left. The +Confederate outposts fell back beyond the ford. The Federal brigade +followed on; when suddenly sharp volleys took it in front and flank. +The opposing brigade, under Longstreet (of whom we shall often +hear again), had lain concealed and sprung its trap quite neatly. +Most of the Federals behaved extremely well under these untoward +circumstances. But one whole battery and another whole battalion, +whose term of service expired that afternoon, were officially reported +as having "moved to the rear to the sound of the enemy's cannon." +Thereafter, as military units, they simply ceased to exist. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At one o'clock in the morning of this same day Johnston received +a telegram at Winchester, from Richmond, warning him that McDowell +was <a name="page_44"><span class="page">Page 44</span></a> advancing +on Bull Run, with the evident intention of seizing Manassas Junction, +which would cut the Confederate rail communication with the Shenandoah +Valley and so prevent all chance of immediate concentration at +Bull Run. Johnston saw that the hour had come. It could not have +come before, as Lee and the rest had foreseen; because an earlier +concentration at Bull Run would have drawn the two superior Federal +forces together on the selfsame spot. There was still some risk about +giving Patterson the slip. True, his three-month special-constable +array was semi-mutinous already; and its term of service had only +a few more days to run. True, also, that the men had cause for +grievance. They were all without pay, and some of them were reported +as being still "without pants." But, despite such drawbacks, a +resolute attack by Patterson's fourteen thousand could have at +least held fast Johnston's eleven thousand, who were mostly little +better off in military ways. Patterson, however, suffered from +distracting orders, and that was his undoing. Johnston, admirably +screened by Stuart, drew quietly away, leaving his sick at Winchester +and raising the spirits of his whole command by telling them that +Beauregard was in danger and <a name="page_45"><span class="page">Page +45</span></a> that they were to "make a forced march to save the +country." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Straining every nerve they stepped out gallantly and covered mile +after mile till they reached the Shenandoah, forded it, and crossed +the Blue Ridge at Ashby's Gap. But lack of training and march discipline +told increasingly against them. "The discouragement of that day's +march," said Johnston, "is indescribable. Frequent and unreasonable +delays caused so slow a rate of marching as to make me despair of +joining General Beauregard in time to aid him." Even the First +Brigade, with all the advantages of leading the march and of having +learnt the rudiments of drill and discipline, was exhausted by a +day's work that it could have romped through later on. Jackson +himself stood guard alone till dawn while all his soldiers slept. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As Jackson's men marched down to take the train at Piedmont, Stuart +gayly trotted past, having left Patterson still in ignorance that +Johnston's force had gone. By four in the afternoon of the nineteenth +Jackson was detraining at Manassas. But, as we shall presently see, +it was nearly two whole days before the last of Johnston's brigades +arrived, just in time for the crisis of the battle. When Johnston +had joined Beauregard <a name="page_46"><span class="page">Page +46</span></a> their united effective total was thirty thousand men. +There had been a wastage of three thousand. McDowell also had no +more than thirty thousand effectives present on the twenty-first; for +he left one division at Centreville and lost the rest by straggling +and by the way in which the battery and battalion already mentioned +had "claimed their discharge" at Blackburn's Ford. Throughout the +nineteenth and twentieth, while, sorely against his will, the Federals +were having their "monster military picnic" at Centreville, he was +reconnoitering his constantly increasing enemy under the greatest +difficulties, with his ill-trained staff, bad maps, and lack of +proper guides. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee had chosen six miles of Bull Run as a good defensive position. +But Beauregard intended to attack, hoping to profit by the Federal +disjointedness. Consequently none of the eight fords were strongly +defended except at Union Mills on the extreme right and the Stone +Bridge on the extreme left, where the turnpike from Centreville +to Warrenton crossed the Run. Bull Run itself was a considerable +obstacle, having fairly high banks and running along the Confederate +front like the ditch of a fortress. Three miles in rear stood Manassas +Junction on a moderate plateau intersected by <a name="page_47"><span +class="page">Page 47</span></a> several creeks. The most important of +these creeks, Young's Branch, joined Bull Run on the extreme left, +near the Stone Bridge and Warrenton turnpike, after flowing through +the little valley between the Henry Hill and Matthews Hill. Three +miles in front, across Bull Run, stood Centreville, the Federal +camp and field base during the battle. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sunday, July 21, 1861, was a beautiful midsummer day. Both armies +were stirring soon after dawn. But a miscarriage of orders delayed +the Confederate offensive so much that the initiative of attack passed +to the Federals, who advanced against the Stone Bridge shortly after +six. This attack, however, though made by a whole division against a +single small brigade, was immediately recognized as a mere feint +when, two hours later, Evans, commanding the Confederate brigade, +saw dense clouds of dust rising above the woods on his left front, +where the road crossed Sudley Springs, nearly two miles beyond his +own left. Perceiving that this new development must be a regular +attempt to turn the whole Confederate left by crossing Bull Run, he +sent back word to Beauregard, posted some men to hold the Stone +Bridge, and marched the rest to crown the Matthews Hill, facing +Sudley Springs a mile away. Meanwhile four <a name="page_48"><span +class="page">Page 48</span></a> of "Joe" Johnston's five Shenandoah +brigades—Bee's, Bartow's, Bonham's, and Jackson's—had +been coming over from the right reserve to strengthen Evans at the +Bridge. As the great Federal turning movement developed against the +Confederate left these brigades followed Evans and were themselves +followed by other troops, till the real battle raged not along Bull +Run but across the Matthews Hill and Henry Hill. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Forming the new front at right angles to the old, so as to attack +and defend the Confederate left on the Matthews and Henry Hills, +caused much confusion on both sides; but more on the Federal, as +the Confederates knew the ground better. By eleven Bee had reached +Evans and sent word back to hurry Bartow on. But the Federals, +having double numbers and a great preponderance in guns, soon drove +the Confederates off the Matthews Hill. As the Confederates recrossed +Young's Branch and climbed the Henry Hill the regular artillery of +the Federals limbered up smartly, galloped across the Matthews +Hill, and from its nearer slope plied the retreating Confederates +on the opposite slope with admirably served shell. Under this fire +the raw Confederates ran in confusion, while their uncovered guns +galloped back to find a new position. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 513px;"> +<a name="fig_03"> +<img src="images/fig_03.jpg" width="513" height="682" alt="Fig. 3"></a> +<p class="image"><i>GENERAL T. J. (STONEWALL) JACKSON</i><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington.</p> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_49"><span class="page">Page 49</span></a> "Curse them +for deserting the guns," snapped Imboden, whose battery came face +to face with Jackson's brigade. "I'll support you," said Jackson, +"unlimber right here." At the same time, half-past eleven, Bee +galloped up on his foaming charger, saying, "General, they're beating +us back." "Then, Sir," said Jackson, "we'll give them the bayonet"; +and his lips shut tight as a vice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bee then went back behind the Henry Hill, where his broken brigade +was trying to rally, and, pointing toward the crest with his sword, +shouted in a voice of thunder: "Rally behind the Virginians! Look! +There's Jackson standing like a stone wall!" From that one cry +of battle Stonewall Jackson got his name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While the rest of the Shenandoahs were rallying, in rear of Jackson, +Beauregard and Johnston came up, followed by two batteries. Miles +behind them, all the men that could be spared from the fords were +coming too. But the Federals on the Matthews Hill were still in +more than double numbers; and they enjoyed the priceless advantage +of having some regulars among them. If the Federal division at the +Stone Bridge had only pushed home its attack at this favorable moment +the Confederates must have been defeated. But the division again <a +name="page_50"><span class="page">Page 50</span></a> fumbled about +to little purpose; and for the second time McDowell's admirable +plan was spoilt. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was now past noon on that sweltering midsummer day; and there +was a welcome lull for the rallying Confederates while the Federals +were coming down the Matthews Hill, struggling across the swamps +and thickets of Young's Branch, and climbing the Henry Hill. Within +another hour the opposing forces were at close grips again, and +the Federals, flushed with success and steadied by the regulars, +seemed certain to succeed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Imboden has vividly described his meeting Jackson at this time. +"The fight was just then hot enough to make him feel well. His +eyes fairly blazed. He had a way of throwing up his left hand with +the open palm towards the person he was addressing; and, as he +told me to go, he made this gesture. The air was full of flying +missiles, and as he spoke he jerked down his hand, and I saw that +blood was streaming from it. I exclaimed, 'General, you are wounded.' +'Only a scratch—a mere scratch,' he replied; and, binding it +hastily with a handkerchief, he galloped away along his line." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Five hundred yards apart the opposing cannon thundered, while the +musketry of the long lines of infantry swelled the deafening roar. +Suddenly two <a name="page_51"><span class="page">Page 51</span></a> +Federal batteries of regulars dashed forward to even shorter range, +covered by two battalions on their flank. But the gaudy Zouaves +of the outer battalion lost formation in their advance; whereupon +"Jeb" Stuart, with only a hundred and fifty horsemen, swooped down +and smashed them to pieces by a daring charge. Then, just as the +scattered white turbans went wildly bobbing about, into the midst +of the inner battalion, out rushed the Thirty-third Virginians, +straight at the guns. The battery officers held their fire, uncertain +in the smoke whether the newcomers were friend or foe, till a deadly +volley struck home at less than eighty yards. Down went the gunners +to a man; down went the teams to a horse; and off ran the Zouaves +and the other supporting battalion, helter-skelter for the rear. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But other Federals were still full of fight and in superior numbers. +They came on with great gallantry, considering they were raw troops +who were now without the comfort of the guns. Once more a Federal +victory seemed secure; and if the infantry had only pressed on (not +piecemeal, by disjoined battalions, but by brigades) without letting +the Confederates recover from one blow before another struck them, +the day would have certainly been theirs. <a name="page_52"><span +class="page">Page 52</span></a> Moreover, they would have inflicted +not simply a defeat but a severe disaster on their enemy, who would +have been caught in flank by the troops at the Stone Bridge; for +these troops, however dilatory, must have known what to do with a +broken and flying Confederate flank right under their very eyes. +Premonitory symptoms of such a flight were not wanting. Confederate +wounded, stragglers, and skulkers were making for the rear; and +the rallied brigades were again in disorder, with Bee and Bartow, +two first-rate brigadiers, just killed, and other seniors wounded. +Another ominous sign was the limbering up of Confederate guns to +cover the expected retreat from the Henry Hill. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But on its reverse slope lay Jackson's Shenandoahs, three thousand +strong, and by far the best drilled and disciplined brigade that +either side had yet produced—apart, of course, from regulars. +Jackson had ridden up and down before them, calm as they had ever +seen him on parade, quietly saying, "Steady, men, steady! All's +well." In this way he had held them straining at the leash for +hours. Now, at last, their time had come. Riding out to the center +of his line he gave his final orders: "Reserve your fire till they +come within fifty yards. Then fire and give them the bayonet; and +yell like <a name="page_53"><span class="page">Page 53</span></a> +furies when you charge!" Five minutes later, as the triumphant Federals +topped the crest, the long gray line rose up, stood fast, fired one +crashing point-blank volley, and immediately charged home with the +first of those wild, high rebel yells that rang throughout the war. +The stricken and astounded Federal front caved in, turned round, and +fled. At the same instant the last of the Shenandoahs—Kirby +Smith's brigade, detrained just in the nick of time—charged +the wavering flank. Then, like the first quiver of an avalanche, +a tremor shook the whole massed Federals one moment on that fatal +hill: the next, like a loosened cliff, they began the landslide +down. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There, in the valley, along Young's Branch, McDowell established +his last line of battle, based on the firm rock of the regulars. +But by this time the Confederates had brought up troops from the +whole length of their line; the balance of numbers was at last in +their favor; and nothing could stay the Federal recoil. Lack of +drill and discipline soon changed this recoil into a disorderly +retreat. There was no panic; but most of the military units dissolved +into a mere mob whose heart was set on getting back to Washington +in any way left open. The regulars and a few formed bodies in <a +name="page_54"><span class="page">Page 54</span></a> reserve did +their best to stem the stream. But all in vain. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One mile short of Centreville there was a sudden upset and consequent +block on the bridge across Cub Run. Then the stream of men retreating, +mixed with clogging masses of panic-struck civilians, became a +torrent. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Bull Run was only a special-constable affair on a gigantic scale. +The losses were comparatively small—3553 killed and wounded +on both sides put together: not ten per cent of the less than forty +thousand who actually fought. Moreover, the side that won the battle +lost the war. And yet Bull Run had many points of very great importance. +In spite of all shortcomings it showed the good quality of the +troops engaged: if not as soldiers, at all events as men. It proved +that the war, unlike the battle, would not be fought by special +constables, some of whom first fired their rifles when their target +was firing back at them. It brought one great leader—Stonewall +Jackson—into fame. Above all, it profoundly affected the +popular points of view, both North and South. In the South there +was undue elation, followed by the absurd belief that one Southerner +could beat two Northerners <a name="page_55"><span class="page">Page +55</span></a> any day and that the North would now back down <i>en +masse</i>, as its army had from the Henry Hill. A dangerous slackening +of military preparation was the unavoidable result. In the North, +on the other hand, a good many people began to see the difference +between armed mobs and armies; and the thorough Unionists, led by +the wise and steadfast Lincoln, braced themselves for real war. +</p> + +<h2> +<a name="page_56"><span class="page">Page 56</span></a> +CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="subtitle"> +THE COMBATANTS +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +No map can show the exact dividing line between the actual combatants +of North and South. Eleven States seceded: Virginia, the Carolinas, +Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, Texas, +and Arkansas. But the mountain folk of western Virginia and eastern +Tennessee were strong Unionists; and West Virginia became a State +while the war was being fought. On the other hand, the four border +States, though officially Federal under stress of circumstances, +were divided against themselves. In Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, +and Kansas, many citizens took the Southern side. Maryland would +have gone with the South if it had not been for the presence of +overwhelming Northern sea-power and the absence of any good land +frontier of her own. Kentucky remained neutral for several months. +Missouri was saved for the Union by those two resourceful <a +name="page_57"><span class="page">Page 57</span></a> and determined +men, Lyon and Blair. Kansas, though preponderantly Unionist, had +many Confederates along its southern boundary. On the whole the +Union gained greatly throughout the borderlands as the war went on; +and the remaining Confederate hold on the border people was more +than counterbalanced by the Federal hold on those in the western +parts of old Virginia and the eastern parts of Tennessee. Among +the small seafaring population along the Southern coast there were +also some strongly Union men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Counting out Northern Confederates and Southern Federals as canceling +each other, so far as effective fighting was concerned a comparison +made between the North and South along the line of actual secession +reveals the one real advantage the South enjoyed all through—an +overwhelming party in favor of the war. When once the die was cast +there was certainly not a tenth of the Southern whites who did not +belong to the war party; and the peace party always had to hold +its tongue. The Southerners formed simpler and far more homogeneous +communities of the old long-settled stock, and were more inclined +to act together when once their feelings were profoundly stirred. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Northern communities, on the other hand, <a name="page_58"><span +class="page">Page 58</span></a> being far more complex and far +less homogeneous, were plagued with peace parties that grew like +human weeds, clogging the springs of action everywhere. There were +immigrants new to the country and therefore not inclined to take +risks for a cause they had not learned to make their own. There +were also naturalized, and even American-born, aliens, aliens in +speech, race, thought, and every way of life. Then there were the +oppositionists of different kinds, who would not support any war +government, however like a perfect coalition it might be. Among these +were some Northerners who did business with the South, especially +the men who financed the cotton and tobacco crops. Others, again, +were those loose-tongued folk who think any vexed question can be +settled by unlimited talk. Next came those "defeatist" cranks who +always think their own side must be wrong, and who are of no more +practical use than the out-and-out "pacifists" who think everybody +wrong except themselves. Finally, there were those slippery folk who +try to evade all public duty, especially when it smacks of danger. +These skulkers flourish best in large and complex populations, where +they may even masquerade as patriots of the kind so well described by +Lincoln when he said how <a name="page_59"><span class="page">Page +59</span></a> often he had noticed that the men who were loudest +in proclaiming their readiness to shed their last drop of blood +were generally the most careful not to shed the first. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Many of these fustian heroes formed the mushroom secret societies +that played their vile extravaganza right under the shadow of the +real tragedy of war. Worse still, not content with the abracadabra +of their silly oaths, the busybody members made all the mischief +they could during Lincoln's last election. Worst of all, they not +only tried their hands at political assassination in the North but +they lured many a gallant Confederate to his death by promising to +rise in their might for a "Free Northwest" the moment the Southern +troopers should appear. Needless to say, not a single one of the whole +bombastic band of cowards stirred a finger to help the Confederate +troopers who rode to their doom on Morgan's Raid through Indiana and +Ohio. The peace party wore a copper as a badge, and so came to be known +as "Copperheads," much to the disgust of its more inflated members, +who called themselves the Sons of Liberty. The war party, with a +better appreciation of how names and things should be connected, +used their own descriptive "Copperhead" in its <a name="page_60"><span +class="page">Page 60</span></a> appropriate meaning of a poisonous +snake in the grass behind. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Indians would have preferred neutrality between the two kinds +of inevitably dispossessing whites. But neutrality was impossible +in what was then the Far West. Not ten thousand Indians fought +for both sides put together. On the whole they fought well as +skirmishers, though they rarely withstood shell fire, even when +their cover was good and their casualties small. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The ten times more numerous negroes were naturally a much more +serious factor. The North encouraged the employment of colored labor +corps and even colored soldiers, especially after Emancipation. +But the vast majority of negroes, whether slave or free, either +preferred or put up with their Southern masters, whom they generally +served faithfully enough either in military labor corps or on the +old plantations. As the colored population of the South was three +and a half millions this general fidelity was of great importance +to the forces in the field. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The total population of the United States in 1861 was about thirty-one +and a half millions. Of this total twenty-two and a half belonged to +the North and nine to the South. The grand total <a name="page_61"><span +class="page">Page 61</span></a> odds were therefore five against +two. The odds against the South rise to four against one if the +blacks are left out. There were twenty-two million whites in the +North against five and a half in the South. But to reach the real +fighting odds of three to one we must also eliminate the peace +parties, large in the North, small in the South. If we take a tenth +off the Southern whites and a third off the Northern grand total +we shall get the approximate war-party odds of three to one; for +these subtractions leave fifteen millions in the North against only +five in the South. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This gives the statistical key to the startling contrasts which +were so often noted by foreign correspondents at the time, and +which are still so puzzling in the absence of the key. The whole +normal life of the South was visibly changed by the war. But in +the North the inquiring foreigner could find, on one hand, the +most steadfast loyalty and heroic sacrifice, both in the Northern +armies and among their folks at home, while on the other he could +find a wholly different kind of life flaunting its most shameless +features in his face. The theaters were crowded. Profiteers abounded, +taking their pleasures with ravenous greed; for the best of their +blood-money would end with the war. <a name="page_62"><span +class="page">Page 62</span></a> Everywhere there was the same +fundamental difference between the patriots who carried on the war +and the parasites who hindered them. Of course the two-thirds who +made up the war party were not all saints or even perfect patriots. +Nor was the other third composed exclusively of wanton sinners. There +were, for instance, the genuine settlers whom the Union Government +encouraged to occupy the West, beyond the actual reach of war. But +the distinction still remains. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Though sorely hampered, the Union Government did, on the whole, +succeed in turning the vast and varied resources of the North against +the much smaller and less varied resources of the South. The North +held the machinery of national government, though with the loss of +a good quarter of the engineers. In agriculture of, all kinds both +North and South were very strong for purposes of peace. Each had +food in superabundance. But the trading strength of the South lay +in cotton and tobacco, neither of which could be turned into money +without going north or to sea. In finance the North was overwhelmingly +strong by comparison, more especially because Northern sea-power +shut off the South from all its foreign markets. In manufactures +the South could not compare at all. <a name="page_63"><span +class="page">Page 63</span></a> Northern factories alone could +not supply the armies. But finance and factories together could. +The Southern soldier looked to the battlefield and the raiding +of a base for supplying many of his most pressing needs in arms, +equipment, clothing, and even food—for Southern transport +suffered from many disabilities. Fierce wolfish cries would mingle +with the rebel yell in battle when the two sides closed. "You've got +to leave your rations!"—"Come out of them clothes!"—"Take +off them boots, Yank!"—"Come on, blue bellies, we want them +blankets!" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was the same in almost every kind of goods. The South made next +to none for herself and had to import from the North or overseas. +The North could buy silk for balloons. The South could not. The +Southern women gave in their whole supply of silk for the big balloon +that was lost during the Seven Days' Battle in the second year of +the war. The Southern soldiers never forgave what they considered +the ungallant trick of the Northerners who took this many-hued +balloon from a steamer stranded on a bar at low tide down near +the mouth of the James. Thus fell the last silk dress, a queer +tribute to Northern sea-power! Northern sea-power also cut off nearly +everything the sick and <a name="page_64"><span class="page">Page +64</span></a> wounded needed; which raised the death rate of the +Southern forces far beyond the corresponding death rate in the +North. Again, preserved rations were almost unknown in the South. +But they were plentiful throughout the Northern armies: far too +plentiful, indeed, for the taste of the men, who got "fed up" on the +dessicated vegetables and concentrated milk which they rechristened +"desecrated vegetables" and "consecrated milk." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is the same tale to tell about transport and munitions. Outside +the Tredegar Iron Works at Richmond the only places where Southern +cannon could be made were Charlotte in North Carolina, Atlanta and +Macon in Georgia, and Selma in Alabama. The North had many places, +each with superior plant, besides which the oversea munition world +was far more at the service of the open-ported North than of the +close-blockaded South. What sea-power meant in this respect may be +estimated from the fact that out of the more than three-quarters of +a million rifles bought by the North in the first fourteen months +of the war all but a beggarly thirty thousand came from overseas. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 713px;"> +<a name="fig_04"></a> +<a href="images/fig_04.jpg"> +<img src="images/fig_04_sm.jpg" width="713" height="490" alt="Fig. 4"> +</a></div> + +<p class="indent"> +Transport was done by road, rail, sea, and inland waters. Other +things being equal, a hundred tons could be moved by water as easily +<a name="page_65"><span class="page">Page 65</span></a> as ten +by rail or one by road. Now, the North not only enjoyed enormous +advantages in sea-power, both mercantile and naval, but in road, +rail, canal, and river transport too. The road transport that affected +both sides most was chiefly in the South, because most maneuvering +took place there. "Have you been through Virginia?—Yes, in +several places" is a witticism that might be applied to many another +State where muddy sloughs abounded. In horses, mules, and vehicles +the richer North wore out the poorer and blockaded South. Both +sides sent troops, munitions, and supplies by rail whenever they +could; and here, as a glance at the map will show, the North greatly +surpassed the South in mileage, strategic disposition, and every +other way. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The South had only one through line from the Atlantic to the +Mississippi; and this ran across that Northern salient which threatened +the South from the southwestern Alleghanies. The other rails all had +the strategic defect of not being convenient for rapid concentration +by land; for most of the Southern rails were laid with a view to +getting surplus cotton and tobacco overseas. The strategic gap +at Petersburg was due to a very different cause; for there, in +order to keep its local transfers, the <a name="page_66"><span +class="page">Page 66</span></a> town refused to let the most important +Virginian lines connect. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Taking sea-power in its fullest sense, to include all naval and +mercantile parts on both salt and fresh water, we can quite understand +how it helped the nautical North to get the strangle-hold on the +landsman's South. The great bulk of the whole external trade of +the South was done by shipping. But, though the South was strong in +exportable goods, it was very weak in ships. It owned comparatively +few of the vessels that carried its rice, cotton, and tobacco crops +to market and brought back made goods in return. Yankees, Britishers, +and Bluenoses (as Nova Scotian craft were called) did most of the +oversea transportation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Moreover, the North was vastly stronger than the South on all the +inland waters that were not "Secesh" from end to end. The map shows +how Northern sea-power could not only divide the South in two but +almost enisle the eastern part as well. Holding the Mississippi +would effect the division, while holding the Ohio would make the +eastern part a peninsula, with the upper end of the isthmus safe in +Northern hands between Pittsburgh, the great coal and iron inland +port, and Philadelphia, the great seaport, less than three <a +name="page_67"><span class="page">Page 67</span></a> hundred miles +away. The same isthmus narrows to less than two hundred miles between +Pittsburgh and Harrisburg (on the Susquehanna River); and its whole +line is almost equally safe in Northern hands. A little farther +south, along the disputed borderlands, it narrows to less than +one hundred miles, from Pittsburgh to Cumberland (on the Potomac +canal). Even this is not the narrowest part of the isthmus, which +is less than seventy miles across from Cumberland to Brownsville +(on the Monongahela) and less than fifty from Cumberland to the +Ohiopyle Falls (on the Youghiogheny). These last distances are +measured between places that are only fit for minor navigation. +But even small craft had an enormous advantage over road and rail +together when bulky stores were moved. So Northern sea-power could +make its controlling influence felt in one continuous line all +round the eastern South, except for fifty miles where small craft +were concerned and for two hundred miles in the case of larger +vessels. These two hundred miles of land were those between the +Ohio River port of Wheeling and the Navy Yard at Washington. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nor was this virtual enislement the only advantage to be won. For +while the strong right arm <a name="page_68"><span class="page">Page +68</span></a> of Union sea-power, facing northward from the Gulf, +could hold the coast, and its sinewy left could hold the Mississippi, +the supple left fingers could feel their way along the tributary +streams until the clutching hand had got its grip on the whole +of the Ohio, Cumberland, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red +rivers. This meant that the North would not only enjoy the vast +advantages of transport by water over transport by land but that +it would cause the best lines of invasion to be opened up as well. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of course the South had some sea-power of her own. Nine-tenths of +the United States Navy stood by the Union. But, with the remaining +tenth and some foreign help, the South managed to contrive the +makeshift parts of what might have become a navy if the North had +only let it grow. The North, however, did not let it grow. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The regular navy of the United States, though very small to start with, +was always strong enough to keep the command of the sea and to prevent +the makeshift Southern parts of a navy from ever becoming a whole. +Privateers took out letters of marque to prey on Northern shipping. +But privateering soon withered off, because prizes could not be run +through the blockade in sufficient numbers <a name="page_69"><span +class="page">Page 69</span></a> to make it pay; and no prize would +be recognized except in a Southern port. Raiders did better and +for a much longer time. The <i>Shenandoah</i> was burning Northern +whalers in Bering Sea at the end of the war. The <i>Sumter</i> and +the <i>Florida</i> cut a wide swath under instructions which "left +much to discretion and more to the torch." The famous <i>Alabama</i> +only succumbed to the U.S.S. <i>Kearsarge</i> after sinking the +<i>Hatteras</i> man-of-war and raiding seventy other vessels. Yet +still the South, in spite of her ironclads, raiders, and rams, in +spite of her river craft, of the home ships or foreigners that +ran the blockade, and of all her other efforts, was a landsman's +country that could make no real headway against the native sea-power +of the North. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Perhaps the worst of all the disabilities under which the abortive +Southern navy suffered was lubberly administration and gross civilian +interference. The Administration actually refused to buy the beginnings +of a ready-made sea-going fleet when it had the offer of ten British +East Indiamen specially built for rapid conversion into men-of-war. +Forty thousand bales of cotton would have bought the lot. The +Mississippi record was even worse. Five conflicting authorities +divided the <a name="page_70"><span class="page">Page 70</span></a> +undefined and overlapping responsibilities between them: the Confederate +Government, the State governments, the army, the navy, and the +Mississippi skippers. A typical result may be seen in the fate +of the fourteen "rams" which were absurdly mishandled by fourteen +independent civilian skippers with two civilian commodores. This +"River Defense Fleet" was "backed by the whole Missouri delegation" +at Richmond, and blessed by the Confederate Secretary of War, Judah +P. Benjamin, that very clever lawyer-politician and ever-smiling +Jew. Six of the fourteen "rams" were lost, with sheer futility, +at New Orleans in April, '62; the rest at Memphis the following +June. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As a matter of fact the Confederate navy never had but one real +man-of-war, the famous <i>Merrimac</i>; and she was a mere razee, +cut down for a special purpose, and too feebly engined to keep the +sea. Even the equally famous <i>Alabama</i> was only a raider, +never meant for action with a fleet. Over three hundred officers +left the United States Navy for the South; but, as in the case of +the Army, they were followed by very few men. The total personnel +of the regular Confederate navy never exceeded four thousand at +any one time. The irregular forces afloat often did gallant, and +sometimes <a name="page_71"><span class="page">Page 71</span></a> +even skillful, service in little isolated ways. But when massed +together they were always at sixes and sevens; and they could never +do more than make the best of a very bad business indeed. The Secretary +of the Confederate navy, Stephen R. Mallory, was not to blame. He +was one of the very few civilians who understood and tried to follow +any naval principles at all. He had done good work as chairman of +the Naval Committee in the Senate before the war, and had learnt +a good deal more than his Northern rival, Gideon Welles. He often +saw what should have been done. But men and means were lacking. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Men and means were also lacking in the naval North at the time +the war began. But the small regular navy was invincible against +next to none; and it enjoyed many means of expansion denied to +the South. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the outbreak of hostilities the United States Navy had ninety +ships and about nine thousand men—all ranks and ratings (with +marines) included. The age of steam had come. But fifty vessels +had no steam at all. Of the rest one was on the Lakes, five were +quite unserviceable, and thirty-four were scattered about the world +without the slightest thought of how to mobilize a fleet at <a +name="page_72"><span class="page">Page 72</span></a> home. The +age of ironclads had begun already overseas. But in his report to +Congress on July 4, 1861, Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy, +only made some wholly non-committal observations in ponderous +"officialese." In August he appointed a committee which began its +report in September with the sage remark that "Opinions differ +amongst naval and scientific men as to the policy of adopting the +iron armament for ships-of-war." In December Welles transmitted this +report to Congress with the still sager remark that "The subject +of iron armature for ships is one of great general interest, not +only to the navy and country, but is engaging the attention of the +civilized world." Such was the higher administrative preparation +for the ironclad battle of the following year. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was the same in everything. The people had taken no interest in +the navy and Congress had faithfully represented them by denying +the service all chance of preparing for war till after war had broken +out. Then there was the usual hurry and horrible waste. Fortunately +for all concerned, Gideon Welles, after vainly groping about the +administrative maze for the first five months, called Gustavus +V. Fox to his assistance. Fox had been <a name="page_73"><span +class="page">Page 73</span></a> a naval officer of exceptional +promise, who had left the service to go into business, who had a +natural turn for administration, and who now made an almost ideal +Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He was, indeed, far more than +this; for, in most essentials, he acted throughout the war as a +regular Chief of Staff. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One of the greatest troubles was the glut of senior officers who +were too old and the alarming dearth of juniors fit for immediate +work afloat. It was only after the disaster at Bull Run that Congress +authorized the formation of a Promotion Board to see what could be +done to clear the active list and make it really a list of officers +fit for active service. Up to this time there had been no system +of retiring men for inefficiency or age. An officer who did not +retire of his own accord simply went on rising automatically till +he died. The president of this board had himself turned sixty. But +he was the thoroughly efficient David Glasgow Farragut, a man who +was to do greater things afloat than even Fox could do ashore. How +badly active officers were wanted may be inferred from the fact that +before the appointment of Farragut's promotion board the total number +of regular officers remaining in the navy was only 1457. Intensive +training <a name="page_74"><span class="page">Page 74</span></a> +was tried at the Naval Academy. Yet 7500 volunteer officers had +to be used before the war was over. These came mostly from the +merchant service and were generally brave, capable, first-rate +men. But a nautical is not the same as a naval training; and the +dearth of good professional naval officers was felt to the end. +The number of enlisted seamen authorized by Congress rose from 7600 +to 51,500. But the very greatest difficulty was found in "keeping +up to strength," even with the most lavish use of bounties. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The number of vessels in the navy kept on growing all through. +Of course not nearly all of them were regular men-of-war or even +fighting craft "fit to go foreign." At the end of the first year +there were 264 in commission; at the end of the second, 427; at +the end of the third, 588; and at the end of the fourth, 671. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bearing this in mind, and remembering the many other Northern odds, +one might easily imagine that the Southern armies fought only with +the courage of despair. Yet such was not the case. This was no +ordinary war, to be ended by a treaty in which compromise would +play its part. There could be only two alternatives: either the +South would win her independence or the North would have to beat +<a name="page_75"><span class="page">Page 75</span></a> her into +complete submission. Under the circumstances the united South would +win whenever the divided North thought that complete subjugation +would cost more than it was worth. The great aim of the South was, +therefore, not to conquer the North but simply to sicken the North +of trying to conquer her. "Let us alone and we'll let you alone" +was her insinuating argument; and this, as she knew very well, +was echoed by many people in the North. Thus, as regards her own +objective, she began with hopes that the Northern peace party never +quite let die. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then, so far as her patriotic feelings were concerned, the South +was not fighting for any one point at issue—not even for +slavery, because only a small minority held slaves—but for +her whole way of life, which, rightly or wrongly, she wanted to +live in her own Southern way; and she passionately resented the +invasion of her soil. This gave her army a very high morale, which, +in its turn, inclined her soldiers the better to appreciate their +real or imagined advantages over the Northern hosts. First, they and +their enemies both knew that they enjoyed the three real advantages +of fighting at home under magnificent leaders and with interior lines. +Robert Lee and Stonewall <a name="page_76"><span class="page">Page +76</span></a> Jackson stood head and shoulders above any Northern +leaders till Grant and Sherman rose to greatness during the latter +half of the war. Lee himself was never surpassed; and he, like +Jackson and several more, made the best use of home surroundings and +of interior lines. Anybody can appreciate the prime advantage of +interior lines by imagining two armies of equal strength operating +against each other under perfectly equal conditions except that one +has to move round the circumference of a circle while the other +moves to meet it along the shorter lines inside. The army moving +round the circumference is said to be operating on exterior lines, +while the army moving from point to point of the circumference +by the straighter, and therefore shorter, lines inside is said +to be operating on interior lines. In more homely language the +straight road beats the crooked one. In plain slang, it's best to +have the inside track. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of course there is a reverse to all this. If the roads, rails, +and waterways are better around the circle than inside it, then +the odds may be turned the other way; and this happens most often +when the forces on the exterior lines are the better provided with +sea-power. Again, if the exterior forces are so much stronger than +the interior forces that <a name="page_77"><span class="page">Page +77</span></a> these latter dare not leave any strategic point open in +case the enemy breaks through, then it is evident that the interior +forces will suffer all the disadvantages of being surrounded, divided, +worn out, and defeated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This happened at last to the South, and was one of the four advantages +she lost. Another was the hope of foreign intervention, which died +hard in Southern hearts, but which was already moribund halfway +through the war. A third was the hope of dissension in the North, a +hope which often ran high till Lincoln's reëlection in November, +'64, and one which only died out completely with the surrender of +Lee. The fourth was the unfounded belief that Southerners were +the better fighting men. They certainly had an advantage at first +in having a larger proportion of men accustomed to horses and arms +and inured to life in the open. But, other things being equal, there +was nothing to choose between the two sides, so far as natural +fighting values were concerned. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Practically all the Southern "military males" passed into the ranks; +and a military male eventually meant any one who could march to +the front or do non-combatant service with an army, from boys in +their teens to men in their sixties. <a name="page_78"><span +class="page">Page 78</span></a> Conscription came after one year; +and with very few exemptions, such as the clergy, Quakers, many +doctors, newspaper editors, and "indispensable" civil servants. +Lee used to express his regret that all the greatest strategists +were tied to their editorial chairs. But sterner feelings were +aroused against that recalcitrant State Governor, Joseph Brown +of Georgia, who declared eight thousand of his civil servants to +be totally exempt. From first to last, conscripts and volunteers, +nearly a million men were enrolled: equaling one-fifth of the entire +war-party white population of the seceding States. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +All branches of the service suffered from a constant lack of arms +and munitions. As with the ships for the navy so with munitions +for the army, the South did not exploit the European markets while +her ports were still half open and her credit good, Jefferson Davis +was spotlessly honest, an able bureaucrat, and full of undying zeal. +But, though an old West Pointer, he was neither a foresightful +organizer nor fit to exercise any of the executive power which he +held as the constitutional commander-in-chief by land and sea. He +ordered rifles by the thousand instead of by the hundred thousand; +and he actually told his Cabinet that if he could only take one +wing while Lee took the <a name="page_79"><span class="page">Page +79</span></a> other they would surely beat the North. Worse still, +he and his politicians kept the commissariat under civilian orders +and full of civilian interference, even at the front, which, in +this respect, was always a house divided against itself. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The little regular army of '61, only sixteen thousand strong, stood +by the Union almost to a man; though a quarter of the officers +went over to the South. Yet the enlisted man was despised even +by the common loafers who would not fight if they could help it. +"Why don't you come in?" asked a zealous lady at a distribution +of patriotic gifts, "aren't you one of our heroes?" "No, ma'am," +answered the soldier, "I'm only a regular." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The question of command was often a very vexed one; and many mistakes +were made before the final answers came. The most significant of +all emergent facts was this: that though the officers who had been +regulars before the war did not form a hundredth part of all who +held commissions during it, yet these old regulars alone supplied +every successful high commander, Federal and Confederate alike, +both afloat and ashore. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The North had four times as many whites as the South; it used more +blacks as soldiers; and the <a name="page_80"><span class="page">Page +80</span></a> complete grand total of all the men who joined its +forces during the war reached two millions and three-quarters. But +this gives a quite misleading idea of the real odds in favor of +the North, especially the odds available in battle. A third of the +Northern people belonged to the peace party and furnished no recruits +at all till after conscription came in. The late introduction of +conscription, the abominable substitution clause, and the prevalence +of bounty-jumping combined to reduce both the quantity and quality +of the recruits obtained by money or compulsion. The Northerners +that did fight were generally fighting in the South, among a very +hostile population, which, while it made the Southern lines of +communication perfectly safe, threatened those of the North at +every point and thus obliged the Northern armies to leave more and +more men behind to guard the communications that each advance made +longer still. Finally, the South generally published the numbers +of only its actual combatants, while the Northern returns always +included every man drawing pay, whether a combatant or not. On the +whole, the North had more than double numbers, even if compared +with a Southern total that includes noncombatants. But it should +be remembered that a <a name="page_81"><span class="page">Page +81</span></a> Northern army fighting in the heart of the South, +and therefore having to guard every mile of the way back home, +could not meet a Southern one with equal strength in battle unless +it had left the North with fully twice as many. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Conscription came a year later (1863) in the North than in the +South and was vitiated by a substitution clause. The fact that a +man could buy himself out of danger made some patriots call it "a +rich man's war and a poor man's fight." And the further fact that +substitutes generally became regular bounty-jumpers, who joined +and deserted at will, over and over again, went far to increase the +disgust of those who really served. Frank Wilkeson's <i>Recollections +of a Private Soldier in the Army of the Potomac</i> is a true voice +from the ranks when he explains "how the resort to volunteering, the +unprincipled dodge of cowardly politicians, ground up the choicest +seed-corn of the nation; how it consumed the young, the patriotic, +the intelligent, the generous, and the brave; and how it wasted +the best moral, social, and political elements of the Republic, +leaving the cowards, shirkers, egotists, and moneymakers to stay +at home and procreate their kind." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_82"><span class="page">Page 82</span></a> That is +to say, it was so arranged that the foxy-witted lived, while the +lion-hearted died. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The organization of the vast numbers enrolled was excellent whenever +experts were given a free hand. But this free hand was rare. One +vital point only needs special notice here: the wastefulness of +raising new regiments when the old ones were withering away for +want of reinforcements. A new local regiment made a better "story" +in the press; and new and superfluous regiments meant new and +superfluous colonels, mostly of the speechifying kind. So it often +happened that the State authorities felt obliged to humor zealots +set on raising those brand-new regiments which doubled their own +difficulties by having to learn their lesson alone, halved the +efficiency of the old regiments they should have reinforced, and +harassed the commanders and staff by increasing the number of units +that were of different and ever-changing efficiency and strength. +It was a system of making and breaking all through. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The end came when Northern sea-power had strangled the Southern +resources and the unified Northern armies had worn out the fighting +force. Of the single million soldiers raised by the South <a +name="page_83"><span class="page">Page 83</span></a> only two hundred +thousand remained in arms, half starved, half clad, with the scantiest +of munitions, and without reserves of any kind. Meanwhile the Northern +hosts had risen to a million in the field, well fed, well clothed, +well armed, abundantly provided with munitions, and at last well +disciplined under the unified command of that great leader, Grant. +Moreover, behind this million stood another million fit to bear arms +and obtainable at will from the two millions of enrolled reserves. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The cost of the war was stupendous. But the losses of war are not +to be measured in money. The real loss was the loss of a million +men, on both sides put together, for these men who died were of +the nation's best. +</p> + +<h2> +<a name="page_84"><span class="page">Page 84</span></a> +CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE NAVAL WAR: 1862</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bull Run had riveted attention on the land between the opposing +capitals and on the armies fighting there. Very few people were +thinking of the navies and the sea. And yet it was at sea, and not +on land, that the Union had a force against which the Confederates +could never prevail, a force which gradually cut them off from +the whole world's base of war supplies, a force which enabled the +Union armies to get and keep the strangle-hold which did the South +to death. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The blockade declared in April was no empty threat. The sails of +Federal frigates, still more the sinister black hulls of the new +steam men-of-war, meant that the South was fast becoming a land +besieged, with every outwork accessible by water exposed to sudden +attack and almost certain capture by any good amphibious force +of soldiers and sailors combined. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_85"><span class="page">Page 85</span></a> Sea-power +kept the North in affluence while it starved the South. Sea-power +held Maryland in its relentless grip and did more than land-power +to keep her in the Union. Sea-power was the chief factor in saving +Washington. Seapower enabled the North to hold such points of vantage +as Fortress Monroe right on the flank of the South. And sea-power +likewise enabled the North to take or retake other points of similar +importance: for instance, Hatteras Island. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a couple of days at the end of August, 1861, the Confederate +forts at Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, were compelled to surrender +to a joint naval and military expedition under Flag-Officer Stringham +and Major-General B. F. Butler. The immediate result, besides the +capture of seven hundred men, was the control of the best entrance +to North Carolina waters, which entailed the stoppage of many oversea +supplies for the Confederate army. The ulterior result was the +securing of a base from which a further invasion could be made with +great advantage. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The naval campaign of the following year was truly epoch-making; for +the duel between the <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Merrimac</i> in Hampton +Roads on <a name="page_86"><span class="page">Page 86</span></a> +March 9, 1862, was the first action ever fought between ironclad +steam men-of-war. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Eleven months earlier the Federal Government had suddenly abandoned +the Norfolk Navy Yard; though their strongest garrison was at Fortress +Monroe, only twelve miles north along a waterway which was under +the absolute control of their navy, and though the Confederates' +had nothing but an inadequate little untrained force on the spot. +Among the spoils of war falling into Confederate hands were twelve +hundred guns and the <i>Merrimac</i>, a forty-gun steam frigate. +The <i>Merrimac</i>, though fired and scuttled by the Federals, was +hove up, cut down, plated over, and renamed the <i>Virginia</i>. +(History, however, knows her only as the <i>Merrimac</i>.) John +L. Porter, Naval Constructor to the Confederate States, had made +a model of an ironclad at Pittsburgh fifteen years before; and he +now applied this model to the rebuilding of the <i>Merrimac</i>. +He first cut down everything above the water line, except the gun +deck, which he converted into a regular citadel with flat top, +sides sloping at thirty-five degrees, and ends stopping short of the +ship's own ends by seventy feet fore and aft. The effect, therefore, +was that of an ironclad citadel built on the midships of a submerged +<a name="page_87"><span class="page">Page 87</span></a> frigate's +hull. The four-inch iron plating of the citadel knuckled over the +wooden sides two feet under water. The engines, which the South had +no means of replacing, were the old ones which had been condemned +before being sunk. A four-foot castiron ram was clamped on to the +bow. Ten guns were mounted: six nine-inch smooth-bores, with two +six-inch and two seven-inch rifles. Commodore Franklin Buchanan +took command and had magnificent professional officers under him. +But the crew, three hundred strong, were mostly landsmen; for, +as in the case of the Army, the men of the Navy nearly all took +sides with the North, and the South had very few seamen of any +other kind. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To oppose the <i>Merrimac</i> the dilatory North contracted with +John Ericsson the Swede, who had to build the <i>Monitor</i> much +smaller than the Merrimac owing to pressure of time. He enjoyed, +however, enormous advantages in every other respect, owing to the +vastly superior resources of the North in marine engineering, +armor-plating, and all other points of naval construction. The +<i>Monitor</i> was launched at New York on January 30, 1862, the +hundredth day after the laying of her keel-plate. Her length over +all was 172 feet, her beam was 41, <a name="page_88"><span +class="page">Page 88</span></a> and her draught only 10—less +than half the draught of the <i>Merrimac</i>. Her whole crew numbered +only 58; but every single one was a trained professional naval +seaman who had volunteered for dangerous service under Captain John +L. Worden. She was not a good sea boat; and she nearly foundered +on her way down from New York to Fortress Monroe. Her underwater +hull was shipshape enough; but her superstructure—a round +iron tower resting on a very low deck—was not. Contemptuous +eyewitnesses described her very well as looking like a tin can on +a shingle or a cheesebox on a raft. She carried only two guns, +eleven-inchers, both mounted inside her turret, which revolved by +machinery; but their 180-pound shot were far more powerful than +any aboard the <i>Merrimac</i>. In maneuvering the <i>Monitor</i> +enjoyed an immense advantage, with her light draft, strong engines, +and well-protected screws and rudder. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the eighth of March, a lovely spring day, the <i>Merrimac</i> +made her trial trip by going into action with her wheezy old engines, +lubberly crew, and the guns she had never yet fired. She shoveled +along at only five knots; but the Confederate garrisons cheered her +to the echo. Seven miles north she came upon the astonished fifty-gun +<i>Congress</i> and <a name="page_89"><span class="page">Page +89</span></a> thirty-gun <i>Cumberland</i> swinging drowsily at +anchor off Newport News, with their boats alongside and the men's +wash drying in the rigging. Yet the surprised frigates opened fire +at twelve hundred yards and were joined by the shore batteries, +all converging on the <i>Merrimac</i>, from whose iron sides the +shot glanced up without doing more than hammer her hard and start a +few rivets. Closing in at top speed—barely six knots—the +<i>Merrimac</i> gave the <i>Congress</i> a broadside before ramming +the <i>Cumberland</i> and opening a hole "wide enough to drive in +a horse and cart." Backing clear and turning the after-pivot gun, +the <i>Merrimac</i> then got in three raking shells against the +<i>Congress</i>, which grounded when trying to escape. Meanwhile the +<i>Cumberland</i> was listing over and rapidly filling, though she +kept up the fight to the very last gasp. When she sank with a roar +her topmasts still showed above water and her colors waved defiance. +An hour later the terribly mauled <i>Congress</i> surrendered; +whereupon her crew was rescued and she was set on fire. By this time +various smaller craft on both sides had joined the fray. But the big +<i>Minnesota</i> still remained, though aground and apparently at the +mercy of the <i>Merrimac</i>. The great draught of the <i>Merrimac</i> +and the setting in of the ebb tide, <a name="page_90"><span +class="page">Page 90</span></a> however, made the Confederates draw +off for the night. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Next morning they saw the "tin can on the shingle" between them +and their prey. The <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Merrimac</i> then began +their epoch-making fight. The patchwork engines of the deep-draught +<i>Merrimac</i> made her as unhandy as if she had been water-logged, +while the light-draught <i>Monitor</i> could not only play round +her when close-to but maneuver all over the surrounding shallows as +well. The <i>Merrimac</i> put her last ounce of steam into an attempt +to ram her agile opponent. But a touch of the <i>Monitor's</i> helm +swung her round just in time to make the blow perfectly harmless. +The <i>Merrimac</i> simply barged into her, grated harshly against +her iron side, and sheered off beaten. The firing was furious and +mostly at pointblank range. Once the <i>Monitor</i> fired while +the sides were actually touching. The concussion was so tremendous +that all the <i>Merrimac's</i> gun-crews aft were struck down flat, +with bleeding ears and noses. But in spite of this her boarders +were called away; whereupon every man who could handle cutlass +and revolver made ready and stood by. The <i>Monitor</i>, however, +dropped astern too quickly; and the wallowing <i>Merrimac</i> had +no chance of catching her. The fight <a name="page_91"><span +class="page">Page 91</span></a> had lasted all through that calm +spring morning when the <i>Monitor</i> steamed off, across the +shallows, still keeping carefully between the <i>Merrimac</i> and +<i>Minnesota</i>. It was a drawn battle. But the effect was that of +a Northern victory; for the <i>Merrimac</i> was balked of her easy +prey, and the North gained time to outbuild the South completely. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Outbuilding the South of course meant tightening the "anaconda" +system of blockade, in the entangling coils of which the South +was caught already. Three thousand miles of Southern coastline +was, however, more than the North could blockade or even watch to +its own satisfaction all at once. Fogs, storms, and clever ruses +played their part on behalf of those who ran the blockade, especially +during the first two years; and it was almost more than human nature +could stand to keep forever on the extreme alert, day after dreary +day, through the deadly boredom of a long blockade. Like caged +eagles the crews passed many a weary week of dull monotony without +the chance of swooping on a chase. "Smoke ho!" would be called +from the main-topgallant cross-tree. "Where away?" would be called +back from the deck. "Up the river, Sir!"—and there it would +stay, the very mark of hope deferred. Occasionally a cotton ship <a +name="page_92"><span class="page">Page 92</span></a> would make a +dash, with lights out on a dark night, or through a dense fog, when +her smoke might sometimes be conned from the tops. Occasionally, +too, a foreigner would try to run in, and not seldom succeed, because +only the fastest vessels tried to run the blockade after the first +few months. But the general experience was one of utter boredom +rarely relieved by a stroke of good luck. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The South could not break the blockade. But the North could tighten +it, and did so repeatedly, not only at sea but by establishing strong +strategic centers of its own along the Southern coast. We have seen +already how Hatteras <a name="page_93"><span class="page">Page +93</span></a> Island was taken in '61, five weeks after Bull Run. +Within another three weeks Ship Island was also taken, to the great +disadvantage of the Gulf ports and the corresponding advantage of +the Federal fleet blockading them; for Ship Island commanded the +coastwise channels between Mobile and New Orleans, the two great +scenes of Farragut's success. Then, on the seventh of November, +the day that Grant began his triumphant career by dealing the +Confederates a shrewd strategic blow at Belmont in Missouri, South +Carolina suffered a worse defeat at Port Royal (where she lost +Forts Beauregard and Walker) than North Carolina had suffered at +Hatteras Island. Admiral S. F. Du Pont managed the naval part of +the Port Royal expedition with consummate skill, especially the +fine fleet action off Hilton Head against the Southern ships and +forts. He was ably seconded by General Thomas West Sherman, commanding +the troops. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +North Carolina's turn soon came again, when she lost Roanoke Island +(and with it the command of Albemarle Sound) on February 8, 1862; +and when she also had Pamlico Sound shut against her by a joint +expedition that struck down her defenses as far inland as Newbern +on the fourteenth of March. Then came the turn of Georgia, where +Fort Pulaski, the outpost of Savannah, fell to the Federals on +the eleventh of April. Within another month Florida was even more +hardly hit when the pressure of the Union fleet and army on Virginia +compelled the South to use as reinforcements the garrison that +had held Pensacola since the beginning of the war. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +These were all severe blows to the Southern cause. But they were +nothing to the one which immediately followed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The idea of an attack on New Orleans had been conceived in June, +'61, by Commander (afterwards Admiral) D. D. Porter, of the U.S.S. +<i>Powhatan</i>, when he was helping to blockade the Mississippi. +<a name="page_94"><span class="page">Page 94</span></a> The Navy +Department had begun thinking over the same idea in September and had +worked out a definite scheme. New Orleans was of immense strategic +importance, as being the link between the sea and river systems of +the war. The mass of people and their politicians, on both sides, +absurdly thought of New Orleans as the objective of a land invasion +from the north. Happily for the Union cause, Gustavus Fox, Assistant +Secretary of the Navy, knew better and persuaded his civilian chief, +Gideon Welles, that this was work for a joint expedition, with the +navy first, the army second. The navy could take New Orleans. The +army would have to hold it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The squadron destined for this enterprise was commanded by David +Glasgow Farragut, who arrived at Ship Island on February 20, 1862, +in the <i>Hartford</i>, the famous man-of-war that carried his flag +in triumph to the end. Unlike Lee and Jackson, Grant and Sherman, +the other four great leaders in the Civil War, Farragut was not an +American whose ancestors on both sides had come from the British +Isles. Like Lee, however, he was of very ancient lineage, one of +his ancestors, Don Pedro Farragut, having held a high command under +the King of Aragon in the Moorish wars of <a name="page_95"><span +class="page">Page 95</span></a> the thirteenth century. Farragut's +father was a pure-blooded Spaniard, born under the British flag in +Minorca in 1755. Half Spanish, half Southern by descent, Farragut +was wholly Southern by family environment. His mother, Elizabeth +Shine, was a native of North Carolina. He spent his early boyhood +in New Orleans. Both his first and second wives came from Virginia; +and he made his home at Norfolk. On the outbreak of the war, however, +he immediately went North and applied for employment with the Union +fleet. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut was the oldest of the five great leaders, being now sixty +years of age, while Lee was fifty-five, Sherman forty-two, Grant +forty, and Jackson thirty-eight. He was, however, fit as an athlete +in training, able to turn a handspring on his birthday and to hold +his own in swordsmanship against any of his officers. Of middle +height, strong build, and rather plain features, he did not attract +attention in a crowd. But his alert and upright carriage, keenly +interested look, and genial smile impressed all who ever knew him +with a sense of native kindliness and power. Though far too great a +master of the art of war to interfere with his subordinates he always +took care to understand their duties from their own points of view +so that he could control <a name="page_96"><span class="page">Page +96</span></a> every part of the complex naval instruments of +war—human and material alike—with a sure and inspiring +touch. His one weakness as a leader was his generous inclination +to give subordinates the chance of distinguishing themselves when +they could have done more useful service in a less conspicuous +position. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 505px;"> +<a name="fig_05"> +<img src="images/fig_05.jpg" width="505" height="655" alt="Fig. 5"></a> +<p class="image"><i>ADMIRAL D. G. FARRAGUT</i><br /> +Photograph by Brady.</p> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut's base at Ship Island was about a hundred miles east from +the Confederate Forts Jackson and St. Philip. These forts guarded +the entrance to the Mississippi. Ninety miles above them stood New +Orleans, to which they gave protection and from which they drew all +their supplies. The result of a conference at Washington was an order +from Welles to "reduce the defenses which guard the approaches to New +Orleans." But Farragut's own infinitely better plan was to run past +the forts and take New Orleans first. By doing this he would save +the extra loss required for reducing the forts and would take the +weak defenses of New Orleans entirely by surprise. Then, when New +Orleans fell, the forts, cut off from all supplies, would have to +surrender without the firing of another shot. Everything depended +on whether Farragut could run past without too much loss. Profoundly +versed in all the factors of the problem, <a name="page_97"><span +class="page">Page 97</span></a> he foresaw that his solution would +prove right, while Washington's would as certainly be wrong. So, +taking the utmost advantage of all the freedom that his general +instructions allowed, he followed a course in which anything short +of complete success would mean the ruin of his whole career. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The forts were strong, had ninety guns that would bear on the fleet, +and were well placed, one on each side of the river. But they suffered +from all the disadvantages of fixed defenses opposed by a mobile +enemy, and their own mobile auxiliaries were far from being +satisfactory. The best of the "River Defense Fleet," including +several rams, had been ordered up to Memphis, so sure was the +Confederate Government that the attack would come from the north. +Two home-made ironclads were failures. The <i>Louisiana's</i> engines +were not ready in time; and her captain refused to be towed into +the position near the boom where he could do the enemy most harm. +The <i>Mississippi</i>, a mere floating house, built by ordinary +carpenters, never reached the forts at all and was burnt by her +own men at New Orleans. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut felt sure of his fleet. He had four splendid new men-of-war +that formed a homogeneous squadron, four other sizable warships, +and nine <a name="page_98"><span class="page">Page 98</span></a> +new gunboats. All spars and rigging that could be dispensed with +were taken down; all hulls camouflaged with Mississippi mud; and +all decks whitened for handiness at night. A weak point, however, +was the presence of mortar-boats that would have been better out +of the way altogether. These boats had been sent to bombard the +forts, which, according to the plan preferred by the Government, +were to be taken before New Orleans was attacked. In other words, +the Government wished to cut off the branches first; while Farragut +wished to cut down the tree itself, knowing the branches must fall +with the trunk. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the eighteenth of April the mortar-boats began heaving shells +at the forts. But, after six days of bombardment, the forts were +nowhere near the point of surrendering, and the supply of shells +had begun to run low. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile the squadron had been busy preparing for the great ordeal. +The first task was to break the boom across the river. This boom +was placed so as to hold the ships under the fire of the forts; +and the four-knot spring current was so strong that the eight-knot +ships could not make way enough against it to cut clear through +with certainty. Moreover, the middle of the boom was <a +name="page_99"><span class="page">Page 99</span></a> filled in +by eight big schooners, chained together, with their masts and +rigging dragging astern so as to form a most awkward entanglement. +Farragut's fleet captain, Henry H. Bell, taking two gunboats, +<i>Itasca</i> and <i>Pinola</i>, under Lieutenants Caldwell and +Crosby, slipped the chains of one schooner; whereupon this schooner +and the <i>Itasca</i> swung back and grounded under fire of the +forts. The <i>Pinola</i> gallantly stood by, helping <i>Itasca</i> +clear. Then Caldwell, with splendid audacity and skill, steamed up +through the narrow gap, turned round, put on the <i>Itasca's</i> +utmost speed, and, with the current in his favor, charged full +tilt against the chains that still held fast. For one breathless +moment the little <i>Itasca</i> seemed lost. Her bows rose clear +out, as, quivering from stem to stern, she was suddenly brought up +short from top speed to nothing. But, in another fateful minute, +with a rending crash, the two nearest schooners gave way and swept +back like a gate, while the <i>Itasca</i> herself shot clear and +came down in triumph to the fleet. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The passage was made on the twenty-fourth, in line-ahead (that +is, one after another) because Farragut found the opening narrower +than he thought it should be for two columns abreast, at night, +under fire, and against the spring current. <a name="page_100"><span +class="page">Page 100</span></a> Owing to the configuration of +the channel the starboard column had to weigh first, which gave +the lead to the 500-ton gunboat <i>Cayuga</i>. This was the one +weak point, because the leading vessel, drawing most fire, should +have been the strongest. The fault was Farragut's; for his heart +got the better of his head when it came to placing Captain Theodorus +Bailey, his dauntless second-in-command, on board a vessel fit +to lead the starboard column. He could not bear to obscure any +captain's chances of distinction by putting another captain over +him. So Bailey was sent to the best vessel commanded by a lieutenant. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <i>Cayuga's</i> navigating officer, finding that the guns of +the forts were all trained on midstream, edged in towards Fort +St. Philip. His masts were shot to pieces, but his hull drew clear +without great damage. "Then," he says, "I looked back for some of +our vessels; and my heart jumped up into my mouth when I found +I could not see a single one. I thought they must all have been +sunk by the forts." But not a ship had gone down. The three big +ones of the starboard column—<i>Pensacola, Mississippi</i>, +and <i>Oneida</i>—closed with the fort (so that the gunners on +both sides exchanged jeers of defiance) and kept up a furious fire +till the <a name="page_101"><span class="page">Page 101</span></a> +lighter craft astern slipped past safely and joined the <i>Cayuga</i> +above. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile the <i>Cayuga</i> had been attacked by a mob of Mississippi +steamers, six of which belonged to the original fourteen blessed +with their precious independence by Secretary Benjamin, "backed +by the whole Missouri Delegation." So when the rest of the Federal +light craft came up, "all sorts of things happened" in a general +free fight. There was no lack of Confederate courage; but an utter +absence of concerted action and of the simplest kind of naval skill, +except on the part of the two vessels commanded by ex-officers +of the United States Navy. The Federal light craft cut their way +through their unorganized opponents as easily as a battalion of +regulars could cut through a mob throwing stones. But the only +two Confederate naval officers got clear of the scrimmage and did +all that skill could do with their makeshift little craft against +the Federal fleet. Kennon singled out the <i>Varuna</i> (the only +one of Farragut's vessels that was not a real man-of-war), raked +her stern with the two guns of his own much inferior vessel, the +<i>Governor Moore</i>, and rammed her into a sinking condition. +Warley flew at bigger game with his little ram, the <i>Manassas</i>, +trying three of the large men-of-war, one <a name="page_102"><span +class="page">Page 102</span></a> after another, as they came upstream. +The <i>Pensacola</i> eluded him by a knowing turn of her helm that +roused his warmest admiration. The <i>Mississippi</i> caught the +blow glancingly on her quarter and got off with little damage. The +<i>Brooklyn</i> was taken fair and square amidships; but, though +her planking was crushed in, she sprang no serious leak and went +on with the fight. The wretched little Confederate engines had +not been able to drive the ram home. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <i>Brooklyn</i> was the flagship <i>Hartford's</i> next-astern +and the <i>Richmond's</i> next-ahead, these three forming the main +body of Farragut's own port column, which followed hard on the +heels of the starboard one, so hard, indeed, that there were only +twenty minutes between the first shot fired by the forts at the +<i>Cayuga</i> and the first shot fired by the <i>Hartford</i> at +the forts. Besides the forts there was the <i>Louisiana</i> floating +battery that helped to swell the storm of shot and shell; and down the +river came a fire-raft gallantly towed by a tug. The <i>Hartford</i> +sheered off, over towards Fort St. Philip, under whose guns she took +ground by the head while the raft closed in and set her ablaze. +Instantly the hands on fire duty sprang to their work. But the +flames rushed in through the ports; <a name="page_103"><span +class="page">Page 103</span></a> and the men were forced a step +back. Farragut at once called out: "Don't flinch from the fire, +boys. There's a hotter fire than that for those who don't do their +duty!" Whereupon they plied their hoses to such good effect that +the fire was soon got under control. Farragut calmly resumed his +walk up and down the poop, while the gunners blew the gallant little +tug to bits and smashed the raft in pieces. Then he stood keenly +watching the <i>Hartford</i> back clear, gather way, and take the +lead upstream again. Every now and then he looked at the pocket +compass that hung from his watch chain; though, for the most part, +he tried to scan a scene of action lit only by the flashes of the +guns. The air was dense and very still; so the smoke of guns and +funnels hung like a pall over both the combatants while the desperate +fight went on. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At last the fleet fought through and reached the clearer atmosphere +above the forts; all but the last three gunboats, which were driven +back by the fire. Then Farragut immediately sent word to General +Benjamin F. Butler that the troops could be brought up by the bayous +that ran parallel to the river out of range of the forts. But the +General, having taken in the situation at a glance from a <a +name="page_104"><span class="page">Page 104</span></a> transport +just below the scene of action, had begun to collect his men at +Sable Island, twelve miles behind Fort St. Philip, long before +Farragut's messenger could reach him by way of the Quarantine Bayou. +From Sable Island the troops were taken by the transports to a +point on the Mississippi five miles above Fort St. Philip. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After a well-earned rest the whole fleet moved up to New Orleans +on the twenty-fifth, turning the city's lines five miles downstream +without the loss of a man, for the simple reason that these had +been built only to resist an army, and so lay with flanks entirely +open to a fleet. General Lovell (the able commander who had so +often warned the Confederate Government of the danger from the sea) +at once evacuated the defenseless city. The best of the younger men +were away with the armies. The best of the older men were too few for +the storm. And so pandemonium broke loose. Burning boats, blazing +cotton, and a howling mob greeted Farragut's arrival. But after the +forts (now completely cut off from their base) had surrendered +on the twenty-eighth a landing party from the fleet soon brought +the mob to its senses by planting howitzers in the streets and +lowering the Confederate colors over the city hall. On the first +of May a garrison <a name="page_105"><span class="page">Page +105</span></a> of Federal troops took charge of New Orleans and +kept it till the war was over. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +New Orleans was a most pregnant Federal victory; for it established a +Union base at the great strategic point where sea-power and land-power +could meet most effectively in Mississippi waters. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But it was followed by a perfect anti-climax; for the Federal +Government, having planned a naval concentration at Vicksburg, +determined to put the plan in operation; though all the naval and +military means concerned made such a plan impossible of execution in +1862. Amphibious forces—fleets and armies combined—were +essential. There was no use in parading up and down the river, +however triumphantly, so long as the force employed could only +hold the part of the channel within actual range of its guns. The +Confederates could be driven off the Mississippi at any given point. +But there was nothing to prevent them from coming back again when +once the ships had passed. An army to seize and hold strategic +points ashore was absolutely indispensable. Then, and only then, +Farragut's long line of communication with his base at New Orleans +would be safe, and the land in which the <a name="page_106"><span +class="page">Page 106</span></a> Mississippi was the principal +highway could itself be conquered. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"If the Mississippi expedition from Cairo shall not have descended +the river, you will take advantage of the panic to push a strong +force up the river to take all their defenses in rear." These were +the orders Farragut had to obey if he succeeded in taking New Orleans. +They were soon reinforced by this reminder: "The only anxiety we feel +is to know if you have followed up your instructions and pushed a +strong force up the river to meet the Western flotilla." Farragut +therefore felt bound to obey and do all that could be done to carry +on a quite impossible campaign. So, with a useless landing party +of only fifteen hundred troops, he pushed up to Vicksburg, four +hundred miles above New Orleans. The nearest Federal army had been +halted by the Confederate defenses above Memphis, another four +hundred higher still. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There were several reasons why Farragut should not have gone up. +His big ships would certainly be stranded if he went up and waited +for the army to come down; moreover, when stranded, these ships +would be captured while waiting, because both banks were swarming +with vastly outnumbering Confederate troops. Then, such a disaster +<a name="page_107"><span class="page">Page 107</span></a> would more +than offset the triumph of New Orleans by still further depressing +Federal morale at a time when the Federal arms were doing none +too well near Washington. Finally, all the force that was being +worse than wasted up the Mississippi might have been turned against +Mobile, which, at that time, was much weaker than the defenses +Farragut had already overcome. But the people of the North were +clamorous for more victories along the line to which the press +had drawn their gaze. So the Government ordered the fleet to carry +on this impossible campaign. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut did his best. Within a month of passing the forts he had +not only captured New Orleans and repaired the many serious damages +suffered by his fleet but had captured Baton Rouge, and taken even +his biggest ships to Vicksburg, five hundred miles from the Gulf, +against a continuous current, and right through the heart of a +hostile land. Finding that there were thirty thousand Confederates +in, near, or within a day of Vicksburg he and General Thomas Williams +agreed that nothing could be done with the fifteen hundred troops +which formed the only landing party. Sickness and casualties had +reduced the ships' companies; so there were not even a few seamen to +spare as reinforcements <a name="page_108"><span class="page">Page +108</span></a> for these fifteen hundred soldiers, whom Butler +had sent, under Williams, with the fleet. Then Farragut turned +back, his stores running dangerously short owing to the enormous +difficulties of keeping open his long, precarious line of +communications. "I arrived in New Orleans with five or six days' +provisions and one anchor, and am now trying to procure others.... +Fighting is nothing to the evils of the river—getting on +shore, running foul of one another, losing anchors, etc." In a +confidential letter home he is still more outspoken. "They will +keep us in this river till the vessels break down and all the little +reputation we have made has evaporated. The Government appears +to think that we can do anything. They expect me to navigate the +Mississippi nine hundred miles in the face of batteries, ironclad +rams, etc.; and yet with all the ironclad vessels they have North +they could not get to Norfolk or Richmond." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Back from Washington came still more urgent orders to join the +Mississippi flotilla which was coming down to Vicksburg from the +north under Flag Officer Charles H. Davis. So once more the fleet +worked its laboriously wasteful way up to Vicksburg, where it passed +the forts with the help of Porter's flotilla of mortar-boats on +the <a name="page_109"><span class="page">Page 109</span></a> +twenty-eighth of June and joined Davis on the first of July. There, +in useless danger, the joint forces lay till the fifteenth, the +day on which Grant's own "most anxious period of the war" began +on the Memphis-Corinth line, four hundred miles above. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut, getting very anxious about the shoaling of the water, +was then preparing to run down when he heard firing in the Yazoo, +a tributary that joined the Mississippi four miles higher up. This +came from a fight between one of his reconnoitering gunboats, the +<i>Carondelet</i>, and the <i>Arkansas</i>, an ironclad Confederate +ram that would have been very dangerous indeed if her miserable +engines had been able to give her any speed. She was beating the +<i>Carondelet</i>, but getting her smoke-stack so badly holed that +her speed dropped down to one knot, which scarcely gave her steerage +way and made her unable to ram. Firing hard she ran the gauntlet of +both fleets and took refuge under the Vicksburg bluffs, whence she +might run out and ram the Union vessels below. Farragut therefore +ran down himself, hoping to smash her by successive broadsides in +passing. But the difficulties of the passage wasted the daylight, +so that he had to run by at night. She therefore survived his attack, +<a name="page_110"><span class="page">Page 110</span></a> and went +downstream to join the Confederates against Baton Rouge. But her +engines gave way before she got there; and she had to be blown +up. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut was back at New Orleans before the end of July. On the +fifth of August the Confederates made their attack on Baton Rouge; +but were beaten back by the Union garrison aided by three of Farragut's +gunboats and two larger vessels from Davis's command. The losses +were not very severe on either side; but the Union lost a leader +of really magnificent promise in its commanding general, Thomas +Williams, a great-hearted, cool-headed man and most accomplished +officer. The garrison of Baton Rouge, being too small and sickly +and exposed, was withdrawn to New Orleans a few days later. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then Farragut at last returned to the Gulf blockade. Davis went back +up the river, where he was succeeded by D. D. Porter in October. +And the Confederates, warned of what was coming, made Port Hudson +and Vicksburg as strong as they could. Vicksburg was now the only +point they held on the Mississippi where there were rails on both +sides; and the Red River, flowing in from the West between Vicksburg +and Port Hudson, was the only good line of communication connecting +<a name="page_111"><span class="page">Page 111</span></a> them +with Texas, whence so much of their meat was obtained. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For three months Farragut directed the Gulf blockade from Pensacola, +where, on the day of his arrival, the twentieth of August, he was the +first American to hoist an admiral's flag. The rank of rear-admiral +in the United States Navy had been created on the previous sixteenth +of July; and Farragut was the senior of the first three officers +upon whom it was conferred. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut became the ranking admiral just when the United States +Navy was having its hardest struggle to do its fivefold duty well. +There was commerce protection on the high seas, blockade along +the coast, coöperation with the army on salt water and on +fresh, and of course the destruction of the nascent Confederate +forces afloat. But perhaps a knottier problem than any part of +its combatant duty was how to manage, in the very midst of war, +that rapid expansion of its own strength for which no government +had let it prepare in time of peace. During this year the number +of vessels in commission grew from 264 to 427. Yet such a form +of expansion was much simpler than that of the enlisted men; and +the expansion of even the most highly trained enlisted personnel +<a name="page_112"><span class="page">Page 112</span></a> was very +much simpler than the corresponding expansion of the officers. +Happily for the United States Navy it started with a long lead +over its enemy. More happily still it could expand with the help +of greatly superior resources. Most happily of all, the sevenfold +expansion that was effected before the war was over could be made +under leaders like Farragut: leaders, that is, who, though in mere +numbers they were no more, in proportion to their whole service, +than the flag as mere material is to a man-of-war, were yet, as +is the flag, the living symbol of a people's soul. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Commerce protection on the high seas was an exceedingly harassing +affair. A few swift raiders, having the initiative, enjoyed great +advantages over a far larger number of defending vessels. Every +daring raid was trumpeted round the world, bringing down unmeasured, +and often unmerited, blame on the defense. The most successful +vigilance would, on the other hand, pass by unheeded. The Union +navy lacked the means of patrolling the sea lanes of commerce over +millions and millions of desolate square miles. Consequently the +war-risk insurance rose to a prohibitive height on vessels flying +the Stars and Stripes; and, as a further result, enormous transfers +were made to <a name="page_113"><span class="page">Page 113</span></a> +other flags. The incessant calls for recruits, afloat and ashore, +and to some extent the lure of the western lands, also robbed the +merchant service of its men. Thus, one way and another, the glory +of the old merchant marine departed with the Civil War. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Blockade was more to the point than any attempt to patrol the sea +lanes. Yet it was even more harassing; for it involved three distinct +though closely correlated kinds of operation: not only the seizure, +in conjunction with the army, of enemy ports, and the patrolling of +an enemy coastline three thousand miles long, but also the patrolling +of those oversea ports from which most contraband came. This oversea +patrol was the most effective, because it went straight to the +source of trouble. But it required extraordinary vigilance, because +it had to be conducted from beyond the three-mile limit, and with +the greatest care for all the rights of neutrals. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By mid-November Farragut was back at New Orleans. A month later +General Banks arrived with reinforcements. He superseded General +Butler and was under orders to coöperate with McClernand, +Grant's second-in-command, who was to come down the Mississippi +from Cairo. But <a name="page_114"><span class="page">Page +114</span></a> the proposed meeting of the two armies never took +place. Banks remained south of Port Hudson, McClernand far north +of Vicksburg; for, as we shall see in the next chapter, Sherman's +attempt to take Vicksburg from the North failed on the twenty-ninth +of December. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The naval and river campaigns of '62 thus ended in disappointment +for the Union. And, on New Year's Day, Galveston, which Farragut had +occupied in October without a fight and which was lightly garrisoned +by three hundred soldiers, fell into Confederate hands under most +exasperating circumstances. After the captain and first lieutenant +of the U.S.S. <i>Harriet Lane</i> had been shot by the riflemen +aboard two cotton-clad steamers the next officer tamely surrendered. +Commander Renshaw, who was in charge of the blockade, amply redeemed +the honor of the Navy by refusing to surrender the <i>Westfield</i>, +in spite of the odds against him, and by blowing her up instead. +But when he died at the post of duty the remaining Union vessels +escaped; and the blockade was raised for a week. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After that Commodore H. H. Bell, one of Farragut's best men, closed +in with a grip which never let go. Yet even Bell suffered a reverse +when he <a name="page_115"><span class="page">Page 115</span></a> +sent the U.S.S. <i>Hatteras</i> to overhaul a strange vessel that +lured her off some fifteen miles and sank her in a thirteen-minute +fight. This stranger was the <i>Alabama</i>, then just beginning her +famous or notorious career. Nor were these the only Union troubles +in the Gulf during the first three weeks of the new year. Commander +J. N. Matt ran the <i>Florida</i> out of Mobile, right through the +squadron that had been specially strengthened to deal with her; +and the shore defenses of the Sabine Pass, like those of Galveston, +fell into Confederate hands again, to remain there till the war was +over. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In spite of all failures, however, Farragut still had the upper +hand along the Gulf, and up the Mississippi as far as New Orleans, +without which admirable base the River War of '62 could never +have prepared the way for Grant's magnificent victory in the River +War of '63. +</p> + +<h2> +<a name="page_116"><span class="page">Page 116</span></a> +CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE RIVER WAR: 1862</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The military front stretched east and west across the border States +from the Mississippi Valley to the sea. This immense and fluctuating +front, under its various and often changed commanders, was never +a well coördinated whole. The Alleghany Mountains divided +the eastern or Virginian wing from the western or "River" wing. +Yet there was always more or less connection between these two +main parts, and the fortunes of one naturally affected those of +the other. Most eyes, both at home and abroad, were fixed on the +Virginian wing, where the Confederate capital stood little more +than a hundred miles from Washington, where the greatest rival +armies fought, and where decisive victory was bound to have the most +momentous consequences. But the River wing was hardly less important; +for there the Union Government actually hoped to reach these three +supreme objectives <a name="page_117"><span class="page">Page +117</span></a> in this one campaign: the absolute possession of the +border States, the undisputed right of way along the Mississippi +from Cairo to the Gulf, and the triumphant invasion of the lower +South in conjunction with the final conquest of Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have seen already how the Union navy, aided by the army, won +its way up the Mississippi from the Gulf to Baton Rouge, but failed +to secure a single point beyond. We shall now see how the Union +army, aided by the navy, won its way down the Mississippi from +Cairo to Memphis, and fairly attained the first objective—the +possession of the border States; but how it also failed from the +north, as the others had failed from the south, to gain a footing +on the crucial stretch between Vicksburg and Port Hudson. One more +year was required to win the Mississippi; two more to invade the +lower South; three to conquer Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Just after the fall of Fort Sumter the Union Government had the +foresight to warn James B. Eads, the well-known builder of Mississippi +jetties, that they would probably draw upon his "thorough knowledge +of our Western rivers and the use of steam on them." But it was +not till August that they gave him the contract for the regular +gunboat <a name="page_118"><span class="page">Page 118</span></a> +flotilla; and it was not till the following year that his vessels +began their work. In the meantime the armies were asking for all +sorts of transport and protective craft. So the first flotilla on +Mississippi waters started under the War (not the Navy) Department, +though manned under the executive orders of Commander John Rodgers, +U. S. N., who bought three river steamers at Cincinnati, lowered +their engines, strengthened their frames, protected their decks, +and changed them into gunboats. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The first phase of the clash in this land of navigable rivers had +ended, as we have seen already, with the taking of Boonville on +the Missouri by that staunch and daring Union regular, General +Nathaniel Lyon, on June 17, 1861. Boonville was a stunning blow to +secession in those parts. Confederate hopes, however, again rose +high when the news of Bull Run came through. At this time General +John C. Frémont was taking command of all the Union forces +in the "Western Department," which included Illinois and everything +between the Mississippi and the Rockies. Frémont's command, +however, was short and full of trouble. Round his headquarters +at St. Louis the Confederate colors were flaunted in his face. +His requisitions for arms and money were not met at Washington. +Union <a name="page_119"><span class="page">Page 119</span></a> +regiments marched in without proper equipment and with next to +no supplies. There were boards of inquiry on his contracts. There +were endless cross-purposes between him and Washington. And early +in November he was transferred to West Virginia just as he was +about to attack with what seemed to him every prospect of success. +He had not succeeded. But he had done good work in fortifying St. +Louis; in ordering gunboats, tugs, and mortar-boats; in producing +some kind of system out of utter confusion; in trusting good men +like Lyon; and in sending the then unknown Ulysses Grant to take +command at Cairo, the excellent strategic base where the Ohio joins +the Mississippi. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The most determined fighting that took place during Frémont's +command was brought on by Lyon, who attacked Ben McCulloch at Wilson's +Creek, in southwest Missouri, on the tenth of August. Though McCulloch +had ten thousand, against not much over five, Lyon was so set on +driving the Confederates away from such an important lead-bearing +region that he risked an attack, hoping by surprise, skillful maneuvers, +and the help of his regulars to shake the enemy's hold, even if +he could not thoroughly defeat him. <a name="page_120"><span +class="page">Page 120</span></a> Disheartened by his repeated failure +to get reinforcements, and very anxious about the fate of his flanking +column under Sigel, whose attack from the rear was defeated, he +expressed his forebodings to his staff. But the light of battle +shone bright as ever in his eyes; he was killed leading a magnificent +charge; and when, after his death, his little army drew off in good +order, the Confederates, by their own account, "were glad to see +him go." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twentieth of September the Confederates under Sterling Price +won a barren victory by taking Lexington, Missouri, where Colonel +James Mulligan made a gallant defense. That was the last Confederate +foothold on the Missouri; and it could not be maintained. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In October, Anderson, who had never recovered from the strain of +defending Fort Sumter, turned over to Sherman the very troublesome +Kentucky command. Sherman pointed out to the visiting Secretary of +War, Simon Cameron, that while McClellan had a hundred thousand +men for a front of a hundred miles in Virginia, and Frémont +had sixty thousand for about the same distance, he (Sherman) had +been given only eighteen thousand to guard the link between them, +although this link stretched out three hundred miles. Sherman then +<a name="page_121"><span class="page">Page 121</span></a> asked for +sixty thousand men at once; and said two hundred thousand would +be needed later on. "Good God!" said Cameron, "where are they to +come from?" Come they had to, as Sherman foresaw. Cameron made +trouble at Washington by calling Sherman's words "insane"; and +Sherman's "insanity" became a stumbling-block that took a long time +to remove. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant, in command at Cairo, began his career as a general by cleverly +forestalling the enemy at Paducah, where the Tennessee flows into the +Ohio. Then, on the seventh of November, he closed the first confused +campaign on the Mississippi by attacking Belmont, Missouri, twenty +miles downstream from Cairo, in order to prevent the Confederates at +Columbus, Kentucky, right opposite, from sending reinforcements to +Sterling Price in Arkansas. There was a stiff fight, in which the +Union gunboats did good work. Grant handled his soldiers equally +well; and the Union objective was fully attained. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Halleck, the Federal Commander-in-Chief for the river campaign +of '62, fixed his headquarters at St. Louis. From this main base +his right wing had rails as far as Rolla, whence the mail road +went <a name="page_122"><span class="page">Page 122</span></a> on +southwest, straight across Missouri. At Lebanon, near the middle +of the State, General Samuel R. Curtis was concentrating, before +advancing still farther southwest against the Confederates whom +he eventually fought at Pea Ridge. From St. Louis there was good +river, rail, and road connection south to Halleck's center in the +neighborhood of Cairo, where General Ulysses S. Grant had his chief +field base, at the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio. A little +farther east Grant had another excellent position at Paducah, beside +the junction of the Ohio and the Tennessee. Naval forces were of course +indispensable for this amphibious campaign; and in Flag-Officer Andrew +Hull Foote the Western Flotilla had a commander able to coöperate +with the best of his military colleagues. Halleck's left—a +semi-independent command—was based on the Ohio, stretched +clear across Kentucky, and was commanded by a good organizer and +disciplinarian, General Don Carlos Buell, whose own position at +Munfordville was not only near the middle of the State but about +midway between the important railway junctions of Louisville and +Nashville. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Henry W. Halleck was a middle-aged, commonplace, and very cautious +general, who faithfully <a name="page_123"><span class="page">Page +123</span></a> plodded through the war without defeat or victory. He +looked so long before he leaped that he never leaped at all—not +even on retreating enemies. Good for the regular office-work routine, +he was like a hen with ducklings for this river war, in which Curtis, +Grant, Buell, and his naval colleague Foote, were all his betters +on the fighting line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His opponent, Albert Sidney Johnston, was also middle-aged, being +fifty-nine; but quite fit for active service. Johnston had had +a picturesque career, both in and out of the army; and many on +both sides thought him likely to prove the greatest leader of the +war. He was, however, a less formidable opponent than Northerners +were apt to think. He was not a consummate genius like Lee. He had +inferior numbers and resources; and the Confederate Government +interfered with him. Yet they did have the good sense to put both +sides of the Mississippi under his unified command, including not +only Kentucky and Tennessee, Missouri and Arkansas, but the whole +of the crucial stretch from Vicksburg to Port Hudson. In this they +were wiser than the Federal Government with Halleck's command, +which was neither so extensive nor so completely unified. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_124"><span class="page">Page 124</span></a> Johnston +took post in his own front line at Bowling Green, Kentucky, not far +south of Buell's position at Munfordville. He was very anxious to +keep a hold on Kentucky and Missouri, along the southern frontiers +of which his forces were arrayed. His extreme right was thrown +northward under General Marshall to Prestonburg, near the border of +West Virginia, in the dangerous neighborhood of many Union mountain +folk. His southern outpost on the right was also in the same kind +of danger at Cumberland Gap, a strategic pass into the Alleghanies +at a point where Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia meet. Halfway +west from there, to Bowling Green the Confederates hoped to hold +the Cumberland near Logan's Cross Roads and Mill Springs. Westwards +from Bowling Green Johnston's line held positions at Fort Donelson +on the Cumberland, Fort Henry on the Tennessee, and Columbus on +the Mississippi. All his Trans-Mississippi troops were under the +command of the enthusiastic Earl Van Dorn, who hoped to end his +spring campaign in triumph at St. Louis. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The fighting began in January at the northeastern end of the line, +where the Union Government, chiefly for political reasons, was +particularly <a name="page_125"><span class="page">Page 125</span></a> +anxious to strengthen the Unionists that lived all down the western +Alleghanies and so were a thorn in the side of the solid South +beyond. On the tenth Colonel James A. Garfield, a future President, +attacked and defeated Marshall near Prestonburg and occupied the +line of Middle Creek. The Confederates, half starved, half clad, +ill armed, slightly outnumbered, and with no advantage except their +position, fought well, but unavailingly. Only some three thousand +men were engaged on both sides put together. Yet the result was +important because it meant that the Confederates had lost their +hold on the eastern end of Kentucky, which was now in unrestricted +touch with West Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Within eight days a greater Union commander, General G. H. Thomas, +emerged as the victor of a much bigger battle at Mill Springs and +Logan's Cross Roads on the upper Cumberland, ninety miles due east +of Bowling Green. The victory was complete, and Thomas's name was +made. Thomas, indeed, was known already as a man whose stentorian +orders had to be obeyed; and a clever young Confederate prisoner +used this reputation as his excuse for getting beaten: "We were doing +pretty good fighting till old man Thomas rose up in his stirrups, +and we heard him holler out: 'Attention, <a name="page_126"><span +class="page">Page 126</span></a> Creation! By kingdoms, right wheel!' +Then we knew you had us." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There were only about four thousand men a side. But in itself, and +in conjunction with Garfield's little victory at Prestonburg, the +battle of Logan's Cross Roads was important as raising the Federal +morale, as breaking through Johnston's right, and as opening the road +into eastern Tennessee. Short supplies and almost impassable roads, +however, prevented a further advance. One brigade was therefore +detached against Cumberland Gap, while the rest joined Buell's +command, which was engaged in organizing, drilling hard, and keeping +an eye on Johnston. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In February the scene of action changed to Johnston's left center, +where Forts Donelson and Henry were blocking the Federal advance +up the Cumberland and the Tennessee. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the fourth, Flag-Officer Foote, with seven gunboats, of which +four were ironclads, led the way up the Tennessee, against Fort +Henry. That day the furious current was dashing driftwood in whirling +masses against the flotilla, which had all it could do to keep +station, even with double anchors down and full steam up. Next +morning a new danger appeared in the shape of what looked like a +school <a name="page_127"><span class="page">Page 127</span></a> of +dead porpoises. These were Confederate torpedoes, washed from their +moorings. As it was now broad daylight they were all successfully +avoided; and the crews felt as if they had won the first round. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The sixth of February dawned clear, with just sufficient breeze to +blow the smoke away. The flotilla steamed up the swollen Tennessee +between the silent, densely wooded banks. Not a sound was heard ashore +until, just after noon, Fort Henry came into view and answered the +flagship's signal shot with a crashing discharge of all its big +guns. Then the fire waxed hot and heavy on both sides, the gunboats +knocking geyser-spouts of earth about the fort, and the fort knocking +gigantic splinters out of the gunboats. The <i>Essex</i> ironclad +was doing very well when a big shot crashed into her middle boiler, +which immediately burst like a shell, scalding the nearest men +to death, burning others, and sending the rest flying overboard +or aft. With both pilots dead and Commander W. D. Porter badly +scalded, the <i>Essex</i> was drifting out of action when the word +went round that Fort Henry had surrendered: and there, sure enough, +were the Confederate colors coming down. Instantly Porter rallied +for the moment, called for three cheers, and fell back exhausted +at the third. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_128"><span class="page">Page 128</span></a> The +Confederate General Tilghman surrendered to Foote with less than a +hundred men, all the rest, over twenty-five hundred, having started +towards Fort Donelson before the flag came down. The Western Flotilla +had won the day alone. But it was the fear of Grant's approaching +army that hurried the escaping garrison. An hour after the surrender +Grant rode in and took command. That night victors and vanquished +were dining together when a fussy staff officer came in to tell +Grant that he could not find the Confederate reports. On this Captain +Jesse Taylor, the chief Confederate staff officer, replied that he +had destroyed them. The angry Federal then turned on him with the +question, "Don't you know you've laid yourself open to punishment?" +and was storming along, when Grant quietly broke in: "I should be +very much surprised and mortified if one of my subordinate officers +should allow information which he could destroy to fall into the +hands of the enemy." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The surrender of Fort Henry, coming so soon after Prestonburg and +Logan's Cross Roads, caused great rejoicing in the loyal North. The +victory, effective in itself, was completed by sending the ironclad +<i>Carondelet</i> several miles upstream to destroy the Memphis-Ohio +railway bridge, thus <a name="page_129"><span class="page">Page +129</span></a> cutting the shortest line from Bowling Green to +the Mississippi. But the action, in which the army took no part, +was only a preliminary skirmish compared with the joint attack +of the fleet and army on Fort Donelson. Fort Donelson was of great +strategic importance. If it held fast, and the Federals were defeated, +then Johnston's line would probably hold from Bowling Green to +Columbus, and the rails, roads, and rivers would remain Confederate +in western Tennessee. If, on the other hand, Fort Donelson fell, +and more especially if its garrison surrendered, then Johnston's +line would have to be withdrawn at once, lest the same fate should +overtake the outflanked remains of it. Both sides understood this +perfectly well; and all concerned looked anxiously to see how the +new Federal commander, General Grant, would face the crisis. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Ulysses Simpson Grant came of sturdy New England stock, being eighth +in descent from Matthew Grant, who landed in 1630 and was Surveyor +of Connecticut for over forty years. Grant's mother was one of +the Simpsons who had been Pennsylvanians for several generations. +His family was therefore as racy of the North as Lee's <a +name="page_130"><span class="page">Page 130</span></a> was of the +South. His great-grandfather and great-granduncle, Noah and Solomon +Grant, held British commissions during the final French-and-Indian +or Seven Years' War (1756-63) when both were killed in the same +campaign. His grandfather Noah served all through the Revolutionary +War. Financial reverses and the death of his grandmother broke up +the family; and his father, Jesse Grant, was given the kindest +of homes by Judge Tod of Ohio. Jesse, being as independent as he +was grateful, turned his energies into the first business at hand, +which happened to be a tannery at Deerfield owned by the father of +that wild enthusiast John Brown. A great reader, an able contributor +to the Western press, and a most public-spirited citizen, Jesse Grant +was a good father to his famous son, who was born on April 27, 1822, +at Point Pleasant, Clermont County, Ohio. Young Grant hated the +tannery, but delighted in everything connected with horses; so he +looked after the teams. One day, after swapping horses many miles +from home, he found himself driving a terrified bolter that he only +just managed to stop on the edge of a big embankment. His grown-up +companion, who had no stomach for any more, then changed into a safe +freight wagon. But Ulysses, tying his <a name="page_131"><span +class="page">Page 131</span></a> bandanna over the runaway's eyes, +stuck to the post of danger. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After passing through West Point without any special distinction, +except that he came out first in horsemanship, Grant was disappointed +at not receiving the cavalry commission which he would have greatly +preferred to the infantry one he was given instead. Years later, +when already a rising general, he vainly yearned for a cavalry +brigade. Otherwise he had curiously little taste for military life; +though at West Point he thought the two finest men in the world +were Captain C. F. Smith, the splendidly smart Commandant, and, +even more, that magnificently handsome giant, Winfield Scott, who +came down to inspect the cadets. Some years after having served +with credit all through the Mexican War (when, like Lee, he learnt +so much about so many future friends and foes) he left the army, +not to return till he and Sherman had seen Blair and Lyon take Camp +Jackson. After wisely declining to reënter the service under the +patronage of General John Pope, who was full of self-importance about +his acquaintance with the Union leaders of Illinois, Grant wrote to +the Adjutant-General at Washington offering to command a regiment. +Like Sherman, he felt much more diffident <a name="page_132"><span +class="page">Page 132</span></a> about the rise from ex-captain of +regulars to colonel commanding a battalion than some mere civilians +felt about commanding brigades or directing the strategy of armies. +He has himself recorded his horror of sole responsibility as he +approached what might have been a little battlefield on which his +own battalion would have been pitted against a Southern one commanded +by a Colonel Harris. "My heart kept getting higher and higher until +it felt as though it was in my throat. I would have given anything +then to have been back in Illinois; but I had not the moral courage +to halt and consider what to do. When we reached a point from which +the valley below was in full view ... the troops were gone. My +heart resumed its place. It occurred to me at once that Harris had +been as much afraid of me as I had been of him. This was a view +of the question I never forgot." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's latent powers developed rapidly. Starting with a good stock +of military knowledge he soon added to it in every way he could. He +had the insight of genius. Above all, he had an indomitable will +both in carrying out practicable plans in spite of every obstacle +and in ruthlessly dismissing every one who failed. Not tall, not +handsome, in no way striking at first sight, he looked the leader +<a name="page_133"><span class="page">Page 133</span></a> born only +by reason of his square jaw, keen eye, and determined expression. +Lincoln's conclusive answer to a deputation asking for Grant's removal +simply was, "he fights." And, when mounted on his splendid charger +Cincinnati, Grant even looked what he was—"a first-class +fighting man." +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Grant marched straight across the narrow neck of land between the +forts, which were only twelve miles apart. Foote of course had to +go round by the Ohio—fifteen times as far. His vanguard, +the dauntless <i>Carondelet</i>, now commanded by Henry Walke, +arrived on the twelfth and fired the first shots at the fort, which +stood on a bluff more than a hundred feet high and mounted fifteen +heavy guns in three tiers of fire. Grant's infantry was already in +position round the Confederate entrenchments; and when his soldiers +heard the naval guns they first gave three rousing cheers and then +began firing hard, lest the sailors should get ahead of them again. +Birge's sharpshooters, the snipers of those days, were particularly +keen. They never drilled as a battalion, but simply assembled in +bunches for orders, when Birge would ask: "Canteens full? Biscuits +for all day?" After which he would sing out: "All right, boys, +<a name="page_134"><span class="page">Page 134</span></a> hunt +your holes"; and off they would go to stalk the enemy with their +long-range rifles. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Early next morning Grant sent word to Walke that he was establishing +the rest of his batteries and that he was ready to take advantage +of any diversion which the <i>Carondelet</i> could make in his +favor. Walke then fired hard for two hours under cover of a wooded +point. The fort fired back equally hard; but with little effect +except for one big solid shot which stove in a casemate, knocked +down a dozen men, burst the steam heater, and bounded about the +engine room "like a wild beast pursuing its prey." Forty minutes +later the <i>Carondelet</i> was again in action, firing hard till +dark. Late that night Foote arrived with the rest of the flotilla. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The fourteenth was another naval day. Foote's flotilla advanced +gallantly, the four ironclads leading in line abreast, the two +wooden gunboats half a mile astern. The ironclads closed in to less +than a quarter-mile and hung on like bulldogs till the Confederates +in the lowest battery were driven from their guns. But the plunging +fire from the big guns on the bluff crashed down with ever increasing +effect. Davits were smashed like matches, boats knocked into kindling +wood, armor dented, <a name="page_135"><span class="page">Page +135</span></a> started, ripped, stripped, and sent splashing overboard +as if by strokes of lightning. Before the decks could be re-sanded +there was so much blood on them that the gun crews could hardly +work for slipping. Presently the <i>Pittsburgh</i> swung round, +ran foul of the <i>Carondelet</i>, and dropped downstream. The +pilot of the <i>St. Louis</i> was killed, and Foote, who stood +beside him, wounded. The wheel-ropes of the <i>St. Louis</i>, like +those of the <i>Louisville</i>, were shot away. The whole flotilla +then retired, still firing hard; and the Confederates wired a victory +to Richmond. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Both sides now redoubled their efforts; for Donelson was a great +prize and the forces engaged were second only to those at Bull Run. +Afloat and ashore, all ranks and ratings on both sides together, +there were fifty thousand men present at the investment from first to +last. The Confederates began with about twenty thousand, Grant with +fifteen thousand. But Grant had twenty-seven thousand fit for duty at +the end, in spite of all his losses. He was fortunate in his chief +staff officer, the devoted and capable John A. Rawlins, afterwards a +general and Secretary of War. Two of his divisional commanders, +Lew Wallace and, still more, C. F. Smith, the old Commandant of +Cadets, <a name="page_136"><span class="page">Page 136</span></a> +were also first-rate. But the third, McClernand, here began to +follow those distorting ideas which led to his dismissal later on. +The three chief Confederates ranked in reverse order of efficiency: +Floyd first and worst, cantankerous Pillow next, and Buckner best +though last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Federal prospect was anything but bright on the evening of +the fourteenth. Foote had just been repulsed; while McClernand had +fought a silly little battle on his own account the day before, +to the delight of the Confederates and the grievous annoyance of +Grant. The fifteenth dawned on a scene of midwinter discomfort +in the Federal lines, where most of the rawest men had neither +great-coats nor blankets, having thrown them away during the short +march from Fort Henry, regardless of the fact that they would have +to bivouac at Donelson. Thus it was in no happy frame of mind that +Grant slithered across the frozen mud to see what Foote proposed; +and, when Foote explained that the gunboats would take ten days for +indispensable repairs, Grant resigned himself to the very unwelcome +idea of going through the long-drawn horrors of a regular winter +siege. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But, to his intense surprise, the enemy saved him the trouble. +At first, when they had a slight <a name="page_137"><span +class="page">Page 137</span></a> preponderance of numbers, they stood +fast and let Grant invest them. Now that he had the preponderance +they tried to cut their way out by the southern road, upstream, where +McClernand's division stood guard. As Grant came ashore from his +interview with Foote an aide met him with the news that McClernand +had been badly beaten and that the enemy was breaking out. Grant +set spurs to his horse and galloped the four muddy miles to his +left, where that admirable soldier, C. F. Smith, was as cool and +wary as ever, harassing the enemy's new rear by threatening an +assault, but keeping his division safe for whatever future use +Grant wanted. Wallace had also done the right thing, pressing the +enemy on his own front and sending a brigade to relieve the pressure +on McClernand. These two generals were in conversation during a lull +in the battle when Grant rode up, calmly returned their salutes, +attentively listened to their reports, and then, instead of trying +the Halleckian expedient of digging in farther back before the enemy +could make a second rush, quietly said: "Gentlemen, the position +on the right must be retaken." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant knew that Floyd was no soldier and that Pillow was a +stumbling-block. He read the enemy's mind like an open book and +made up his own at <a name="page_138"><span class="page">Page +138</span></a> once by the flash of intuition which told him that +their men were mostly as much demoralized by finding their first +attempt at escape more than half a failure as even McClernand's +were by being driven back. He decided to use Smith's fresh division +for an assault in rear, while McClernand's, stiffened by Wallace's, +should re-form and hold fast. Before leaving the excited officers and +men, who were talking in groups without thinking of their exhausted +ammunition, he called out cheerily "Fill your cartridge boxes quick, +and get into line. The enemy is trying to escape and he must not +be permitted to do so." McClernand's division, excellent men, but +not yet disciplined soldiers, responded at once to the touch of a +master hand; and as Grant rode off to Smith's he had the satisfaction +of seeing the defenseless groups melt, change, and harden into +well-armed lines. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Smith, ready at all points, had only to slip his own division from +the leash. Buckner, who was to have covered the Confederate escape, +was also ready with the guns of Fort Donelson and the rifles of +defenses that "looked too thick for a rabbit to get through." Smith, +knowing his unseasoned men would need the example of a commander +they could actually see, rode out in front of his center <a +name="page_139"><span class="page">Page 139</span></a> as if at +a formal review. "I was nearly scared to death," said one of his +followers, "but I saw the old man's white moustache over his shoulder, +and so I went on." As the line neared the Confederate abatis a +sudden gust of fire seemed to strike it numb. In an instant Smith +had his cap on the point of his sword. Then, rising in his stirrups +to his full gigantic height, he shouted in stentorian tones: "No +flinching now, my lads! Here—this way in! Come on!" In, through, +and out the other side they went, Smith riding ahead, holding his +sword and cap aloft, and seeming to bear a charmed life amid that +hail of bullets. Up the slope he rode, the Confederates retiring +before him, till, unscathed, he reached the deadly crest, where +the Union colors waved defiance and the Union troops stood fast. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Floyd, being under special indictment at Washington for misconduct +as Secretary of War, was so anxious to escape that he turned over +the command to Pillow, who declined it in favor of Buckner. That +night Floyd and Pillow made off with all the river steamers; Forrest's +cavalry floundered past McClernand's exposed flank, which rested on +a shallow backwater; and Buckner was left with over twelve thousand +men to make what terms he <a name="page_140"><span class="page">Page +140</span></a> could. Next morning, the sixteenth, he wrote to Grant +proposing the appointment of commissioners to agree upon terms +of surrender. But Grant had made up his mind that compromise was +out of place in civil war and that absolute defeat or victory were +the only alternatives. So he instantly wrote back the famous letter +which quickly earned him the appropriate nickname—suggested +by his own initials—of Unconditional Surrender Grant. +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 40%;"> +<br /> + Hd Qrs., Army in the Field<br /> +Camp near Donelson Feb'y 16th 1882 +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Gen. S. B. Buckner,<br /> + Confed. Army. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Sir: Yours of this date proposing armistice, and appointment of +Commissioners to settle terms of capitulation is just received. +No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be +accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 50%;"> +I am, Sir, very respectfully,<br /> + Your obt. sert.,<br /> + U. S. GRANT<br /> + Brig. Gen. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Grant and Buckner were old army friends; so their personal talk +was very pleasant at the little tavern where Buckner and his staff +had just breakfasted off corn bread and coffee, which was all the +Confederate stores afforded. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_141"><span class="page">Page 141</span></a> Donelson +at once became, like Grant, a name to conjure with. The fact that +the Union had at last won a fight in which the numbers neared, and +the losses much exceeded, those at Bull Run itself, the further +fact that this victory made a fatal breach in the defiant Southern +line beyond the Alleghanies, and the delight of discovering another, +and this time a genuine, hero in "Unconditional Surrender Grant," +all combined to set the loyal North aflame with satisfaction, pride, +and joyful expectation. Great things were expected in Virginia, +where the invasion had not yet begun. Great things were expected +in the Gulf, where Farragut had not yet tried the Mississippi. +And great things were expected to result from Donelson itself, +whence the Union forces were to press on south till they met other +Union forces pressing north. The river campaign was then to end +in a blaze of glory. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Donelson did have important results. Johnston, who had already +abandoned Bowling Green for Nashville, had now to abandon Nashville, +with most of its great and very sorely needed stores, as well as +the rest of Tennessee, and take up a new position along the rails +that ran from Memphis to Chattanooga, whence they forked northeast +to Richmond and Washington and southeast to <a name="page_142"><span +class="page">Page 142</span></a> Charleston and Savannah. Columbus +was also abandoned, and the only points left to the Confederates +anywhere near the old line were Island Number Ten in the Mississippi +and the Boston Mountains in Arkansas. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But the triumphant Union advance from the north did not take place +in '62. Grant was for pushing south as fast as possible to attack the +Confederates before they had time to defend their great railway junction +at Corinth. But Halleck was too cautious; and misunderstandings, +coupled with division of command, did the rest. Halleck was the +senior general in the West. But the three, and afterwards four, +departments into which the West was divided were never properly +brought under a single command. Then telegrams went wrong at the +wire-end advancing southwardly from Cairo, the end Grant had to +use. A wire from McClellan on the sixteenth of February was not +delivered till the third of March. Next day Grant was thunderstruck +at receiving this from Halleck: "Place C. F. Smith in command of +expedition and remain yourself at Fort Henry. Why do you not obey +my orders to report strength and positions of your command?" And +so it went on till McClellan authorized Halleck to place Grant under +arrest <a name="page_143"><span class="page">Page 143</span></a> +for insubordination. Then the operator at the wire-end suddenly +deserted, taking a sheaf of dispatches with him. He was a clever +Confederate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Explanations followed; and on the seventeenth of March Grant rejoined +his army, which was assembling round Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee, +near the future battlefield of Shiloh, and some twenty miles northeast +of Corinth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile Van Dorn and Sterling Price, thinking it was now or never +for Missouri, decided to attack Curtis. They had fifteen against +ten thousand men, and hoped to crush Curtis utterly by catching +him between two fires. But on the seventh of March the Federal left +beat off the flanking attack of McCulloch and McIntosh, both of +whom were killed. The right, furiously assailed by the Confederate +Missourians under Van Dorn and Price, fared badly and was pressed +back. Yet on the eighth Curtis emerged victorious on the hard-fought +field that bears the double name of Elkhorn Tavern and Pea Ridge. +This battle in the northwest corner of Arkansas settled the fate +of Missouri. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A month later the final attack was made on Island Number Ten. Foote's +flotilla had been at work there as early as the middle of March, +when <a name="page_144"><span class="page">Page 144</span></a> the +strong Confederate batteries on the island and east shore bluffs +were bombarded by ironclads and mortarboats. Then the Union General +John Pope took post at New Madrid, eight miles below the island, +on the west shore, which the Confederates had to evacuate when he +cut their line of communications farther south. They now held only +the island and the east shore opposite, with no line of retreat +except the Mississippi, because the land line on the east shore +was blocked by swamps and flanked by the Union armies in western +Tennessee. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the night of the fourth of April the <i>Carondelet</i> started +to cut this last line south. She was swathed in hawsers and chain +cables. Her decks were packed tight with every sort of gear that +would break the force of plunging shot; and a big barge, laden +with coal and rammed hay, was lashed to her port side to protect +her magazine. Twenty-three picked Illinoisian sharpshooters went +aboard; while pistols, muskets, cutlasses, boarding-pikes, and hand +grenades were placed ready for instant use. The escape-pipe was +led aft into the wheel-house, so as to deaden the noise; and hose +was attached to the boilers ready to scald any Confederates that +tried to board. Then, through the heart of a terrific thunderstorm, +and amid a <a name="page_145"><span class="page">Page 145</span></a> +furious cannonade, the <i>Carondelet</i> ran the desperate gauntlet +at full speed and arrived at New Madrid by midnight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederates were now cut off both above and below; for the +position of Island Number Ten was at the lower point of a V-shaped +bend in the Mississippi, with Federal forces at the two upper points. +But the Federal troops could not close on the Confederates without +crossing over to the east bank; and their transports could not run +the gauntlet like the ironclads. So the Engineer Regiment of the West +cut out a water road connecting the two upper points of the V. This +admirable feat of emergency field engineering was effected by sawing +through three miles of heavy timber to the nearest bayou, whence a +channel was cleared down to New Madrid. Then the transports went +through in perfect safety and took Pope's advanced guard aboard. The +ironclad <i>Pittsburg</i> had come down, through another thunderstorm, +this same morning of the seventh; and when the island garrison saw +their position completely cut off they surrendered to Foote. Next +day Pope's men cut off the greater part of the Confederates on +the mainland. Thus fell the last point near Johnston's original +line along the southern borders of Missouri and Kentucky. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_146"><span class="page">Page 146</span></a> Just +before it fell Johnston made a desperate counterattack from his +new line at Corinth, in northwest Mississippi, against Grant's +encroaching force at Shiloh, fifteen miles northeast, on the Tennessee +River. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Writing "A. S. Johnston, 3d April, 62, <i>en avant</i>" on his pocket +map of Tennessee, the Confederate leader, anguished by the bitter +criticism with which his unavoidable retreat had been assailed, cast +the die for an immediate attack on Grant before slow Halleck reinforced +or ready Buell joined him. Johnston's lieutenants, Beauregard and +Bragg, had obtained ten days for reorganization; and their commands +were as ready as raw forces could be made in an extreme emergency. +They hoped to be joined by Van Dorn, whose beaten army was working +east from Pea Ridge. But on the second they heard that Buell was +approaching Grant from Nashville; and on the third Johnston's advanced +guard began to move off. Van Dorn arrived too late. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The march, which it was hoped to complete on the fourth, was not +completed till the fifth. The roads were ankle-deep in clinging +mud, the country densely wooded and full of bogs and marshes. The +forty thousand men were not yet seasoned; <a name="page_147"><span +class="page">Page 147</span></a> and, though full of enthusiasm, +they neither knew nor had time to learn march discipline. Moreover, +Johnston allowed his own proper plan of attacking in columns of +corps to be changed by Beauregard into a three-line attack, each +line being formed by one complete corps. This meant certain and +perhaps disastrous confusion. For in an attack by columns of corps +the firing line would always be reinforced by successive lines +of the same corps; while attacking by lines of corps meant that +the leading corps would first be mixed up with the second, and +then both with the third. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Grant was busier with his own pressing problems +of organization for an advance than with any idea of resisting +attack. He lacked the prevision of Winfield Scott and Lee, both of +whom expected from the first that the war would last for years. His +own expectation up to this had been that the South would collapse +after the first smashing blow, and that its western armies were +now about to be dealt such a blow. He was not unmindful of all +precautions; for he knew the Confederates were stirring on his +front. Yet he went downstream to Savannah without making sure that +his army was really safe at Shiloh. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pittsburg Landing was at the base of the Shiloh <a name="page_148"><span +class="page">Page 148</span></a> position. But the point at which, +by the original orders, Buell was to join was Savannah, nine miles +north along the Tennessee. So Grant had to keep in touch with both. +He had not ignored the advantage of entrenching. But the best line +for entrenching was too far from good water; and he thought he +chose the lesser of two evils when he devoted the time that might +have been used for digging to drilling instead. His army was raw +as an army; many of the men were still rawer recruits; and, as +usual, the recruiting authorities had sent him several brand-new +battalions, which knew nothing at all, instead of sending the same +men as reinforcements to older battalions that could "learn 'em +how." Grant's total effectives at first were only thirty-three +thousand. This made the odds five to four in favor of Johnston's +attack. But the rejoining of Lew Wallace's division, the great +reinforcement by Buell's troops, and the two ironclad gunboats +on the river, raised Grant's final effective grand total to sixty +thousand. The combined grand totals therefore reached a hundred +thousand—double the totals at Donelson and far exceeding +those at Bull Run. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After a horrible week of cold and wet the sun set clear and calm +on Saturday, the eve of battle. The <a name="page_149"><span +class="page">Page 149</span></a> woods were alive with forty thousand +Confederates all ready for their supreme attack on the thirty-three +thousand Federals on their immediate four-mile front. Grant's front +ran, facing south, between Owl and Lick Creeks, two tributaries that +joined the Tennessee on either side of Pittsburg Landing. Buell's +advance division, under Nelson, was just across the Tennessee. But +Grant was in no hurry to get it over. His reassuring wire that +night to Halleck said: "The main force of the enemy is at Corinth. +I have scarcely the faintest idea of an attack (general one) being +made upon us." But the skirmishing farther south on Friday had +warned Grant, as well as Sherman and the vigilant Prentiss, that +Johnston might be trying a reconnaissance in force—the very +thing that Beauregard wished the Confederates to do. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Long before the beautiful dawn of Sunday, the fateful sixth of +April, Prentiss had thrown out from the center a battalion which +presently met and drove in the vanguard of the first Confederate line +of assault. The Confederate center soon came up, overwhelmed this +advanced battalion, and burst like a storm on the whole of Prentiss's +division. Then, above the swelling roar of multitudinous musketry, +rose the thunder of the first big guns. <a name="page_150"><span +class="page">Page 150</span></a> "Note the hour, please, gentlemen," +said Johnston; and a member of his staff wrote down: "5:14 A.M." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Johnston's admirable plan was, first, to drive Grant's left clear +of Lick Creek, then drive it clear of Pittsburg Landing, where the +two Federal ironclads were guarding the ferry. This, combined with +a determined general assault on the rest of Grant's line, would huddle +the retreating Federals into the cramped angle between Owl Creek and +the Tennessee and force them to surrender. But there were three +great obstacles to this: Sherman on the right, the "Hornet's Nest" +in the center, and the gunboats at the Landing. Worse still for the +Confederates, Buell was now too close at hand. Three days earlier +Johnston had wired from Corinth to the Government at Richmond: +"Hope engagement before Buell can form junction." But the troubles +of the march had lost him one whole priceless day. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederate attack was splendidly gallant and at first pushed +home regardless of loss. The ground was confusing to both sides: +a bewilderment of ups and downs, of underbrush, woods, fields, +and clumps of trees, criss-cross paths, small creeks, ravines, +and swamps, without a single commanding <a name="page_151"><span +class="page">Page 151</span></a> height or any outstanding features +except the two big creeks, the river, and the Pittsburg Landing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At the first signs of a big battle Grant hurried to the field, +first sending a note to Buell, whom he was to have met at Savannah, +then touching at Crump's Landing on the way, to see Lew Wallace +and make sure whether this, and not the Pittsburg Landing, was the +point of attack. Arrived on the field of Shiloh, calm and determined +as ever, he was reassured by finding how well Sherman was holding +his raw troops in hand at the extremely important point of Shiloh +itself, next to Owl Creek. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But elsewhere the prospect was not encouraging, though the men +got under arms very fast and most of them fought very well. The +eager gray lines kept pressing on like the rising tide of an angry +sea, dashing in fury against all obstructing fronts and swirling +round the disconnecting flanks. The blue lines, for the most part, +resisted till the swift gray tide threatened to cut them off. Half +of Prentiss's remaining men were in fact cut off that afternoon and +forced to surrender with their chief, whose conduct, like their +own, was worthy of all praise. Back and still back the blue lines +went before the encroaching gray, each losing heavily by sheer +hard <a name="page_152"><span class="page">Page 152</span></a> +fighting at the front and streams of stragglers running towards +the rear. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman, like others, gave ground, but still held his men together, +except for the stragglers he could not control. In the center C. +F. Smith's division, with Hurlbut's in support, and all that was +left of Prentiss's, defended themselves so desperately that their +enemies called their position the Hornet's Nest. Here the fight +swayed back and forth for hours, with ghastly losses on both sides. +C. F. Smith himself was on his deathbed at Savannah. But he heard +the roar of battle. His excellent successor, W. H. L. Wallace, +was killed; and battalions, brigades, and even divisions, soon +became inextricably mixed together. There was now the same confusion +on the Confederate side, where Johnston was wounded by a bullet +from the Hornet's Nest. It was not in itself a mortal wound. But, +knowing how vital this point was, he went on encouraging his men +till, falling from the saddle, he was carried back to die. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant still felt confident; though he had seen the worst in the rear +as well as the best at the front. Two of his brand-new battalions, +the very men who afterwards fought like heroes, when they had learned +the soldier's work, now ran like hares. <a name="page_153"><span +class="page">Page 153</span></a> "During the day," says Grant, +"I rode back as far as the river and met General Buell, who had +just arrived. There probably were as many as four or five thousand +stragglers lying under cover of the river bluff, panic-stricken. +As we left the boat Buell's attention was attracted by these men. +I saw him berating them and trying to shame them into joining their +regiments. He even threatened them with shells from the gunboats +nearby. But all to no effect. Most of these men afterward proved +themselves as gallant as any of those who saved the battle from +which they had deserted." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By half-past five, after twelve hours' fighting, Grant at last +succeeded in forming a new and shorter line, a mile behind that +morning's front, but without any dangerous gaps. There were three +reorganized divisions—Sherman's, McClernand's, and Hurlbut's, +one fresh division under Nelson, and a strong land battery of over +twenty field guns helping the two ironclad gunboats in the defense +of Pittsburg Landing. The Confederate effectives, reduced by heavy +losses and by as many stragglers as the Federals, were now faced by +five thousand fresh men on guard at the Landing. Beauregard, who +had succeeded Johnston, then stopped the <a name="page_154"><span +class="page">Page 154</span></a> battle for the day, with the idea +of retiring next morning to Corinth. But, before his orders reached +it, his battle-worn right made a desperate, fruitless, and costly +attack on the immensely strengthened Landing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That night the rain came down in torrents; and the Confederates +sought shelter in the tents the Federals had abandoned. They found +little rest there, being harassed all through the bleak dark by +the big shells that the gunboats threw among them. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At dawn Grant, now reinforced by twenty-five thousand fresh men under +Buell and Lew Wallace, took the offensive. Beauregard, hopelessly +outnumbered and without a single fresh man, retired on Corinth, +magnificently covered by Bragg's rearguard, which held the Federals +back for hours near the crucial point of Shiloh Church. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Shiloh was the fiercest battle ever fought in the River War. The +losses were over ten thousand a side in killed and wounded; while +a thousand Confederates and three thousand Federals were captured. +It was a Confederate failure; but hardly the kind of victory the +Federals needed just then, before the consummate triumph of Farragut +at New Orleans. It brought together Federal <a name="page_155"><span +class="page">Page 155</span></a> forces that the Confederates could +not possibly withstand, even on their new line east from Memphis. +But it did not raise the Federal, or depress the Confederate, morale. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Four days after the battle Halleck arrived at Pittsburg Landing +and took command of the combined armies. He was soon reinforced +by Pope; whereupon he divided the whole into right and left wings, +center, and reserve, each under its own commander. Grant was made +second in command of the whole. But, as Halleck dealt directly +with his other immediate subordinates, Grant simply became the +fifth wheel of the Halleckian slow-coach, which, after twenty days +of preparation, began, with most elaborate precautions, its crawl +toward Corinth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's position became so nearly unbearable that he applied more +than once for transfer to some other place. But this was refused. +So he strove to do his impossible duty till the middle of July, when +his punishment for Shiloh was completed by his promotion to command +a depleted remnant of Halleck's Grand Army. It is not by any means +the least of Grant's claims to real greatness that, as a leader, +he was able to survive his most searching <a name="page_156"><span +class="page">Page 156</span></a> trials: the surprise at Shiloh, +the misunderstandings and arrest that followed Shiloh, the slur of +being made a fifth-wheel second-in-command, the demoralizing strain +of that "most anxious period of the war" when his depleted forces +were thrown back on the defensive, and the eight discouraging months +of Sisyphean offensive which preceded his triumph at Vicksburg. No +one who has not been in the heart of things with fighting fleets +or armies can realize what it means to all ranks when there is, or +even is supposed to be, "something wrong" with the living pivot on +which the whole force turns. And only those who have been behind +the scenes of war's all-testing drama can understand what it means +for even an imagined "failure" to "come back." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Corinth was of immense importance to both sides, as it commanded +the rails not only east and west, from the Tennessee to Memphis, +but north and south, from the Ohio to New Orleans and Mobile. Though +New Orleans was taken by Farragut on the twenty-fifth of April, the +rails between Vicksburg and Port Hudson remained in Confederate +hands till next year; while Mobile remained so till the year after +that. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Beauregard collected all the troops he could at <a name="page_157"><span +class="page">Page 157</span></a> Corinth. Yet, even with Van Dorn's +and other reinforcements, he had only sixty thousand effectives +against Halleck's double numbers. Moreover, the loss of three States +and many battles had so shaken the Confederate forces that they +stood no chance whatever against Halleck's double numbers in the +open. All the same, Halleck burrowed slowly forward like a mole, +entrenching every night as if the respective strengths and victories +had been reversed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After advancing nearly a mile a day Halleck closed in on Corinth. +He was so deeply entrenched that no one could tell from appearances +which side was besieging the other. Towards the end of May many +Federal railwaymen reported that empty trains could be heard running +into Corinth and full trains running out. But, as the Confederates +greeted each arriving "empty" with tremendous cheers, Halleck felt +sure that Beauregard was being greatly reinforced. The Confederate +bluff worked to admiration. On the twenty-sixth Beauregard issued +orders for complete evacuation on the twenty-ninth. On the thirtieth +Halleck drew up his whole grand army ready for a desperate defense +against an enemy that had already gone a full day's march away. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_158"><span class="page">Page 158</span></a> In the +meantime the Federal flotilla had been fighting its way down the +Mississippi, under (the invalided) Foote's very capable successor, +Flag-Officer Charles Henry Davis. The Confederates had very few +naval men on the river, but many of their Mississippi skippers +were game to the death. They rammed Federal vessels on the tenth +of May at Fort Pillow, eighty miles above Memphis. Eight of their +fighting craft were strongly built and heavily armored, though +very deficient in speed. The Federal flotilla was very well manned +by first-class naval ratings, and was reinforced early in June by +seven fast new rams, commanded by their designer, Colonel Charles +Ellet, a famous civil engineer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At sunrise on the lovely sixth of June the Federal flotilla, having +overcome the Confederate posts farther north and being joined by +Ellet's rams, lay near Memphis. The Confederates came upstream to +the attack, expecting to ram the gunboats in the stern as they +had at Fort Pillow. But Ellet suddenly darted down on the eight +Confederate ironclads, caught one of them on the broadside, sank +her, and disabled two others. The action then became general. The +overmatched Confederates kept up a losing battle for more than an +hour, in <a name="page_159"><span class="page">Page 159</span></a> +full view of many thousands of ardent Southerners ashore. The scene, +at its height, was appalling. The smoke, belching black from the +funnels and white from the guns, made a suffocating pall overhead; +while the dark, squat, hideous ironclad hulls seemed to have risen +from a submarine inferno to stab each other with livid tongues of +flame—so deadly close the two flotillas fought. When the +awful hour was over the Confederates were not only defeated but +destroyed; and a wail went up from the thousands of their anguished +friends, as if the very shores were mourning. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +For the next month Grant held the command at Memphis. Then, on +the eleventh of July, Halleck was recalled to Washington as +General-in-Chief of the whole army; while Pope was transferred to +Virginia. The Federal invasion of Virginia under that "Young Napoleon," +McClellan, had not been a success against Lee and Stonewall Jackson. +Nor did it improve with Pope at the front and Halleck in the rear, +as we shall presently see; though Halleck had declared that Pope's +operations at Island Number Ten were destined to immortal fame, and +Pope himself admitted his own greatness in sundry proclamations +to the world. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_160"><span class="page">Page 160</span></a> The campaign +now entered its second phase. The Virginian wing (of the whole +front reaching from the Mississippi to the sea) was checked this +summer; and was to remain more or less checked for many a long +day. The river wing, under the general direction of Halleck, had +also reached its limit for '62 about the same time, after having +conquered Kentucky and western Tennessee as well as the Mississippi +down to Memphis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This river wing was now depleted of some excellent troops and again +divided into quite separate commands. Buell commanded the Army of the +Ohio. Grant commanded his own Army of the Tennessee and Rosecrans's +Army of the Mississippi. Buell's scene of action lay between the +tributary streams—Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee—with +Chattanooga as his ultimate objective. Grant's scene of action lay +along the southward rails and Mississippi, with Vicksburg as his +ultimate objective. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 715px;"> +<a name="fig_06"></a> +<a href="images/fig_06.jpg"> +<img src="images/fig_06_sm.jpg" width="715" height="426" alt="Fig. 6"></a> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederates were of course set on recovering complete control +of the line of Southern rails that made direct connections between +the Mississippi Valley and the sea: crossing the western tributaries +of the St. Francis and White Rivers; then running east from Memphis, +through Grand <a name="page_161"><span class="page">Page 161</span></a> +Junction, Corinth, and Iuka, to Chattanooga; thence forking off +northeast, through Knoxville, to Washington, Richmond, and Norfolk; +and southeast to Charleston and Savannah. Confederate attention +had originally been fixed on Corinth and Chattanooga. But General +O. M. Mitchel's abortive raid, just after Shiloh, had also drawn +it to the part between. The Federals therefore found their enemy +alert at every point. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Braxton Bragg, Beauregard's successor and Buell's opponent, basing +himself on Chattanooga, tried to drive his line of Confederate +reconquest through the heart of Tennessee and thence through +mid-Kentucky, with the Ohio as his ultimate objective. His colleagues +near the Mississippi, Van Dorn and Sterling Price, meanwhile tried +to effect the reconquest of the Memphis-Corinth rails that Grant +and Rosecrans were holding. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +All main offensives, on both sides, ultimately failed in this latter +half of the river campaign of '62. So nothing but the bare fact +that they were attempted needs any notice here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In August, about the time that Lee and Jackson were maneuvering in +Virginia to bring on the Second Bull Run, Price and Bragg began their +respective advances against Grant and Buell. <a name="page_162"><span +class="page">Page 162</span></a> Buell was at Murfreesboro, defending +Nashville. Bragg, screened by the hills of eastern Tennessee, made +for the Ohio at Louisville and Cincinnati. Pivoting on his left +he wheeled his whole army round and raced for Louisville. Buell +enjoyed the advantage of rails over roads and of interior lines +as well. But Bragg had stolen several marches on him at the start +and he only won by a head. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Union Government, now thoroughly alarmed, sent Thomas to supersede +Buell. But Thomas declined to take over the command, and on the +eighth of October Buell fought Bragg at Perryville. There was no +tactical defeat or victory; but Bragg retired on Chattanooga. The +Government now urged Buell to enter east Tennessee. He protested +that lack of transport and supplies made such a move impossible. +William S. Rosecrans then replaced him. Buell was never employed +again. He certainly failed fully to appreciate the legitimate bearing +of statesmanship on strategy; but, for all that, he was an excellent +organizer and a good commander. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Grant had been experiencing his "most anxious period +of the war." During this anxious period, which lasted from July to +October, Rosecrans defeated Price at Iuka. This <a name="page_163"><span +class="page">Page 163</span></a> happened on the nineteenth of +September. Van Dorn then joined Price and returned to the attack +but was defeated by Rosecrans at Corinth on the fourth of October. +The Confederates, who had come near victory on the third, retired +in safety, because Grant still lacked the means of resuming the +offensive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As soon as he had the means Grant marched his army south for Vicksburg. +There were three converging forces: Grant's from Grand Junction, +Sherman's from Memphis, and a smaller one from Helena in Arkansas. +But the Confederate General, J. C. Pemberton, who had replaced Van +Dorn, escaped the trap they tried to set for him. He was strongly +entrenched on the south side of the Tallahatchie, north of Oxford, +on the Mississippi Central rails. While Grant and Sherman converged +on his front, the force from Helena rounded his rear and cut the +rails. But the damage was quickly repaired; and Pemberton retired +south toward Vicksburg before Grant and Sherman could close and +make him fight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then Grant tried again. This time Sherman advanced on board of +Mississippi steamers, with the idea of meeting the Union expedition +coming up from New Orleans. But Van Dorn cut Grant's <a +name="page_164"><span class="page">Page 164</span></a> long line +of land communications at Holly Springs, forcing Grant back for +supplies and leaving Sherman, who had made his way up the Yazoo, +completely isolated. Grant fared well enough, so far as food was +concerned; for he found such abundant supplies that he at once +perceived the possibility of living on the country without troubling +about a northern base. He spent Christmas and New Year at Holly +Springs, and then moved back to Memphis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Sherman's separated force had come to grief. On the +twenty-ninth of December its attempt to carry the Chickasaw Bluffs, +just north of Vicksburg, was completely frustrated by Pemberton; for +Sherman could not deploy into line on the few causeways that stood +above the flooded ground. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the eleventh of January this first campaign along the Mississippi +was ended by the capture of Arkansas Post. McClernand was the senior +there. But Sherman did the work ashore as D. D. Porter did afloat. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile Bragg had brought the campaign to a close among the eastern +tributaries by a daring, though abortive, march on Nashville. Rosecrans, +now commanding the army of the Cumberland, <a name="page_165"><span +class="page">Page 165</span></a> stopped and defeated him at Stone's +River on New Year's Eve. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The "War in the West," that is, in those parts of the Southwest +which lay beyond the navigable tributaries of the Mississippi system, +was even more futile at the time and absolutely null in the end. +Its scene of action, which practically consisted of inland Texas, +New Mexico, and Arizona, was not in itself important enough to be +a great determining factor in the actual clash of arms. But Texas +supplied many good men to the Southern ranks; and the Southern +commissariat missed the Texan cattle after the fall of Vicksburg +in '63. New Mexico might also have been a good deal more important +than it actually was if it could have been made the base of a real, +instead of an abortive, invasion of California, the El Dorado of +Confederate finance. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have already seen what happened on February 15, 1861, when General +Twiggs handed over to the State authorities all the army posts in +Texas. On the first of the following August Captain John R. Baylor, +who had been forming a little Confederate army under pretext of a +big buffalo hunt, proclaimed himself Governor of New Mexico <a +name="page_166"><span class="page">Page 166</span></a> (south of +34°) and established his capital at Mesilla. In the meantime +the Confederate Government itself had appointed General H. H. Sibley +to the command of a brigade for the conquest of all New Mexico. +Not ten thousand men were engaged in this campaign, Federals and +Confederates, whites and Indians, all together; but a decisive +Confederate success might have been pregnant of future victories +farther west. Some Indians fought on one side, some on the other; +and some of the wilder tribes, delighted to see the encroaching +whites at loggerheads, gave trouble to both. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On February 21, 1862, Sibley defeated Colonel E. R. S. Canby at +Valverde near Fort Craig. But his further advance was hindered +by the barrenness of the country, by the complete destruction of +all Union stores likely to fall into his hands, and by the fact +that he was between two Federal forts when the battle ended. On +the twenty-eighth of March there was a desperate fight in Apache +Cañon. Both sides claimed the victory. But the Confederates +lost more men as well as the whole of their supply and ammunition +train. After this Sibley began a retreat which ended in May at San +Antonio. His route was marked by bleaching <a name="page_167"><span +class="page">Page 167</span></a> skeletons for many a long day; and +from this time forward the conquest of California became nothing +but a dream. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The "War in the West" was a mere twig on the Trans-Mississippi +branch; and when the fall of Vicksburg severed the branch from the +tree the twig simply withered away. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The sword that ultimately severed branch and twig was firmly held +by Union hands before the year was out; and this notwithstanding +all the Union failures in the last six months. Grant and Porter +from above, Banks and Farragut from below, had already massed forces +strong enough to make the Mississippi a Union river from source to +sea, in spite of all Confederates from Vicksburg to Port Hudson. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_168"><span class="page">Page 168</span></a> +CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">LINCOLN: WAR STATESMAN</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln was one of those men who require some mighty crisis to call +their genius forth. Though more successful than Grant in ordinary +life, he was never regarded as a national figure in law or politics +till he had passed his fiftieth year. He had no advantages of birth; +though he came of a sturdy old English stock that emigrated from +Norfolk to Massachusetts in the seventeenth century, and though +his mother seems to have been, both intellectually and otherwise, +above the general run of the Kentuckians among whom he was born +in 1809. His educational advantages were still less. Yet he soon +found his true affinities in books, as afterwards in life, not +among the clever, smart, or sentimental, but among the simple and +the great. He read and reread Shakespeare and the Bible, not because +they were the merely proper things to read but because his spirit +was akin to theirs. This <a name="page_169"><span class="page">Page +169</span></a> meant that he never was a bookworm. Words were things +of life to him; and, for that reason, his own words live. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He had no artificial graces to soften the uncouth appearance of his +huge, gaunt six-foot-four of powerful bone and muscle. But he had +the native dignity of straightforward manhood; and, though a champion +competitor in feats of strength, his opinion was always sought as +that of an impartial umpire, even in cases affecting himself. He +"played the game" in his frontier home as he afterwards played +the greater game of life-or-death at Washington. His rough-hewn, +strong-featured face, shaped by his kindly humor to the finer ends +of power, was lit by a steady gaze that saw yet looked beyond, +till the immediate parts of the subject appeared in due relation +to the whole. Like many another man who sees farther and feels more +deeply than the rest, and who has the saving grace of humor, he +knew what yearning melancholy was; yet kept the springs of action +tense and strong. Firm as a rock on essentials he was extremely +tolerant about all minor differences. His policy was to live and +let live whenever that was possible. The preservation of the Union +was his master-passion, and he was ready for any honorable compromise +<a name="page_170"><span class="page">Page 170</span></a> that left +the Union safe. Himself a teetotaller, he silenced a temperance +delegation whose members were accusing Grant of drunkenness by +saying he should like to send some of his other generals a keg of +the same whisky if it would only make them fight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When he took arms against the sea of troubles that awaited him at +Washington he had dire need of all his calm tolerance and strength. +To add to his burdens, he was beset by far more than the usual +horde of office-seekers. These men were doubly ravenous because +their party was so new to power. They were peculiarly hard to place +with due regard for all the elements within the coalition. And each +appointment needed most discriminating care, lest a traitor to +the Union might creep in. While the guns were thundering against +Fort Sumter, and afterwards, when the Union Government was marooned +in Washington itself, the vestibules, stairways, ante-rooms, and +offices were clogged with eager applicants for every kind of civil +service job. And then, when this vast human flood subsided, the +"interviewing" stream began to flow and went on swelling to the +bitter end. These war-time interviewers claimed most of Lincoln's +personal attention just when he had <a name="page_171"><span +class="page">Page 171</span></a> the least to spare. But he would +deny no one the chance of receiving presidential aid or comfort and +he gladly suffered many fools for the chance of relieving the sad +or serious others. Add to all this the ceaseless work of helping to +form public opinion, of counteracting enemy propaganda, of shaping +Union policy under ever-changing circumstances, of carrying it +out by coalition means, and of exercising civil control over such +vast armed forces as no American had hitherto imagined: add these +extra burdens, and we can begin to realize what Lincoln had to +do as the chief war statesman of the North. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A sound public opinion is the best embattlement of any home front. +So Lincoln set out to help in forming it. War on a national scale +was something entirely new to both sides, and especially unwelcome +to many people in the North, though the really loyal North was +up at Lincoln's call. Then came Bull Run; and Lincoln's renewed +determination, so well expressed in Whitman's words: "The President, +recovering himself, begins that very night—sternly, rapidly +sets about the task of reorganizing his forces, and placing himself +in positions for future and surer work. If there was nothing else +of Abraham Lincoln for history to stamp <a name="page_172"><span +class="page">Page 172</span></a> him with, it is enough to send him +with his wreath to the memory of all future time, that he endured +that hour, that day, bitterer than gall—indeed a crucifixion +day—that it did not conquer him that he unflinchingly stemmed +it, and resolved to lift himself and the Union out of it." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bull Run was only the beginning of troubles. There were many more +rocks ahead in the stormy sea of public opinion. The peace party +was always ready to lure the ship of state out of its true course +by using false lights, even when certain to bring about a universal +wreck in which the "pacifists" would suffer with the rest. But +dissensions within the war party were worse, especially when caused +by action in the field. Frémont's dismissal in November, +'61, caused great dissatisfaction among three kinds of people: +those who thought him a great general because he knew how to pose +as one and really had some streaks of great ability, those who +were fattening on the army contracts he let out with such a lavish +hand, and those who hailed him as the liberator of the slaves because +he went unwarrantably far beyond what was then politically wise or +even possible. He was the first Unionist commander to enter the +Northern Cave of Adullam, already infested with Copperhead snakes. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_173"><span class="page">Page 173</span></a> There +he was joined by McClellan exactly a year later; and there the +peace-at-current-prices party continued to nurse and cry their +grievances till the war was over. McClellan's dismissal was a matter +of dire necessity because victory was impossible under his command. +But he was a dangerous reinforcement to the Adullamites; for many +of the loyal public had been fooled by his proclamations, the press +had written him up to the skies as the Young Napoleon, and the +great mass of the rank and file still believed in him. He took +the kindly interest in camp comforts that goes to the soldier's +heart; and he really did know how to organize. Add his power of +passing off tinsel promises for golden deeds, and it can be well +understood how great was the danger of dismissing him before his +defects had become so apparent to the mass of people as to have +turned opinion decisively against him. We shall presently meet +him in his relation to Lincoln during the Virginian campaign, and +later on in his relation to Lee. Here we may leave him with the +reminder that he was the Democratic candidate for President in +'64, that he was still a mortal danger to the Union, even though +he had rejected the actual wording of his party's peace plank. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The turn of the tide at the fighting front came <a name="page_174"><span +class="page">Page 174</span></a> in '63; but not at the home front, +where public opinion of the most vocal kind was stirred to its +dregs by the enforcement of the draft. The dime song books of the +Copperhead parts of New York expressed in rude rhymes very much the +same sort of apprehension that was voiced by the official opposition +in the Presidential campaign of '64. +</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 20%;"> +Abram Lincoln, what yer 'bout?<br /> +Stop this war, for it's played out. +</p> + +<p style="text-align: justify;"> +Another rhyme, called "The Beauties of Conscription," was a more +decorous expression of such public opinion. +</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 10%;"> +And this, the "People's Sovereignty,"<br /> +Before a despot humbled!<br /> +. . . .<br /> +Well have they cashed old Lincoln's drafts,<br /> +Hurrah for the Conscription!<br /> +. . . .<br /> +Is not this war—this MURDER—for<br /> +The negro, <i>nolens volens?</i> +</p> + +<p style="text-align: justify;"> +So, carrying out their ideas to the same sort of logical conclusion, +the New York mob of '63 not only burnt every recruiting office they +found undefended but burnt the negro orphan asylum and killed all +the negroes they could lay their hands on. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_175"><span class="page">Page 175</span></a> Public +opinion did veer round a little with the rising tide of victory +in the winter of '63 and '64. But, incredible as it may seem to +those who think the home front must always reflect the fighting +front, the nadir of public opinion in the North was reached in +the summer of '64, when every expert knew that the resources of +the South were nearing exhaustion and that the forces of the North +could certainly wear out Lee's dwindling army even if they could +not beat it. The trumpet gave no uncertain sound from Lincoln's +lips. "In this purpose to save the country and its liberties no +class of people seem so nearly unanimous as the soldiers in the +field and the sailors afloat. Do they not have the hardest of it? +Who should quail while they do not?" But the mere excellence of a +vast fighting front means a certain loss of the nobler qualities in +the home front, from which so many of the staunchest are withdrawn. +And then war-weariness breeds doubts, doubts breed fears, and fears +breed the spirit of surrender. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There seemed to be more Copperheads in the conglomerate opposition +than Unionists ready to withstand them. The sinister figure of +Vallandigham loomed large in Ohio, where he openly denounced the +war in such disloyal terms that the <a name="page_176"><span +class="page">Page 176</span></a> military authorities arrested +him. An opposition committee, backed by the snakes in the grass of +the secret societies, at once wrote to Lincoln demanding release. +Lincoln thereupon offered release if the committee would sign a +declaration that, since rebellion existed, and since the armed forces +of the United States were the constitutional means of suppressing +rebellion, each member of the committee would support the war till +rebellion was put down. The committee refused to sign. More people +then began to see the self-contradictions of the opposition, and +most of those "plain people" to whom Lincoln consciously appealed +were touched to the heart by his pathetic question: "Must I shoot +the simple-minded soldier boy who deserts, while I must not touch +a hair of the wily agitator who induces him to desert?" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But there was still defection on the Union side, and among many +"plain people" too; for Horace Greeley, the best-known Union editor, +lost his nerve and ran away. And Greeley was not the only Union +journalist who helped, sometimes unwittingly, to pervert public +opinion. The "writing up" of McClellan for what he was not, though +rather hysterical, was at least well meant. But the reporters who +"wrote down" General Cox, because he would <a name="page_177"><span +class="page">Page 177</span></a> not make them members of his staff +in West Virginia, disgraced their profession. The lies about Sherman's +"insanity" and Grant's "intoxication" were shamelessly excused on +the plea that they made "good stories." Sherman's insanity, as +we have seen already, existed only in the disordered imagination +of blabbing old Simon Cameron. Grant, at the time these stories +were published, was strictly temperate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Amid all the hindrances—and encouragements, for the Union +press generally did noble service in the Union cause—of an +uncensored press, and all the complexities of public opinion, Lincoln +kept his head and heart set firmly on the one supreme objective +of the Union. He foresaw from the first that if all the States +came through the war United, then all the reforms for which the +war was fought would follow; but that if any particular reform was +itself made the supreme objective, then it, and with it all the +other reforms, would fail, because only part of the Union strength +would be involved, whereas the whole was needed. Moreover, he clearly +foresaw the absolute nature of a great civil war. Foreign wars may +well, and often do, end in some sort of compromise, especially +when the home life of the opponents can go on as before. But a +<a name="page_178"><span class="page">Page 178</span></a> great +civil war cannot end in compromise because it radically changes the +home life of one side or the other. Davis stood for "Independence +or extermination"; Lincoln simply for the Union, which, in his clear +prevision, meant all that the body politic could need for a new and +better life. He accepted the word "enemy" as descriptive of a passing +phase. He would not accept such phraseology as Meade's, "driving the +invader from our soil." "Will our generals," he complained, "never +get that idea out of their heads? The whole country is our soil." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He was a life-long advocate of Emancipation, first, with compensation, +now as part of the price to be paid for rebellion. Emancipation, +however, depended on the Union, not the Union on it. His Proclamation +was ready in the summer of '62. But to publish it in the midst of +defeat would make it look like an act of despair. In September, +when the Confederates had to recross the Potomac after Antietam, the +Proclamation was given to the world. Its first effect was greater +abroad than at home; for now no foreign government could say, and +rightly say, that the war, not being fought on account of slavery, +might leave that issue still unsettled. This was a most important +point in <a name="page_179"><span class="page">Page 179</span></a> +Lincoln's foreign policy, a policy which had been haunted by the +fear of recognition for the South or the possibility of war with +either the French or British, or even both together. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln's Cabinet was composed of two factions, one headed by Seward, +the Secretary of State, the other by Chase, the Secretary of the +Treasury. Both the fighting services were under War Democrats: +the Army under Stanton, the Navy under Welles. All these ministers +began by thinking that Lincoln had the least ability among them. +Seward and Welles presently learnt better. Stanton's exclamation +at Lincoln's death speaks for itself "Now he belongs to the ages!" +But Chase never believed that Lincoln could even be his equal. +Chase and the Treasury were a thorn in the side of the Government; +Chase because it was his nature, the Treasury because its notes fell +to thirty-nine cents in the dollar during the summer of '64. Welles, +hard-working and upright, was guided by an expert assistant. Stanton, +equally upright and equally hardworking, made many mistakes. And +yet, when all is said and done, Stanton was a really able patriot +who worked his hardest for what seemed to him the best. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Such were the four chief men in that Cabinet <a name="page_180"><span +class="page">Page 180</span></a> with which Lincoln carried out his +Union policy and over which he towered in what became transcendent +statesmanship—the head, the heart, the genius of the war. +He never, for one moment, changed his course, but kept it fixed +upon the Union, no matter what the winds and tides, the currents +and cross-currents were. Thus, while so many lesser minds were +busy with flotsam and jetsam of the controversial storm, his own +serener soul was already beyond the far horizon, voyaging toward +the one sure haven for the Ship of State. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +But Lincoln was more than the principal civilian war statesman: he +was the constitutional Commander-in-Chief of all the Union forces, +afloat and ashore. He was responsible not only for raising, supplying, +and controlling them, but for their actual command by men who, in +the eyes of the law, were simply his own lieutenants. The problem +of exercising civil control without practicing civilian interference, +always and everywhere hard, and especially hard in a civil war, +was particularly hard in his case, in view of public opinion, the +press, his own war policy, and the composition of his Cabinet. His +solution was by no means perfect; but the wonder is that he reached +it so well in spite <a name="page_181"><span class="page">Page +181</span></a> of such perverting factors. He began with the mere +armed mob that fought the First Bull Run beset with interference. +He ended with Farragut, Grant, and Sherman, combined in one great +scheme of strategy that included Mobile, Virginia, and the lower +South, and that, while under full civil control, was mostly free +from interference with its naval and military work—except +at the fussy hands of Stanton. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The fundamental difference between civil control, which is the +very breath of freedom, and civilian interference, which means +the death of all efficiency, can be quite simply illustrated by +supposing the proverbial Ship of State to be a fighting man-of-war. +The People are the owners, with all an owner's rights; while their +chosen Government is their agent, with all an agent's delegated power. +The fighting Services, as the word itself so properly implies, are +simply the People's servants, though they take their orders from +the Government. So far, so good, within the limits of civil control, +under which, and which alone, any national resources—in men, +money, or material—can lawfully be turned to warlike ends. +But when the ship is fitting out, still more when she is out at +sea, and most of all when she is fighting, <a name="page_182"><span +class="page">Page 182</span></a> then she should be handled only +by her expert captain with his expert crew. Civilian interference +begins the moment any inexpert outsider takes the captain's place; +and this interference is no less disastrous when the outsider remains +at home than when he is on the actual spot. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln and Stanton were out of their element in the strategic +fight with Lee and Stonewall Jackson, as the next chapter abundantly +proves. But they will bear, and more than bear, comparison with +Davis and Benjamin, their own special "opposite numbers." Benjamin, +when Confederate Secretary of War in '62, nearly drove Jackson +out of the service by ordering him to follow the advice of some +disgruntled subordinates who objected to being moved about for +strategic reasons which they could not understand. To make matters +worse, Benjamin sent this precious order direct to Jackson without +even informing his immediate superior, "Joe" Johnston, or even Lee +himself. Thus discipline, the very soul of armies, was attacked +from above and beneath by the man who should have been its chief +upholder. Luckily for the South things were smoothed over, and +Benjamin learnt something he should have known at first. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Davis had none of Lincoln's diffidence about his own capacity for +directing the strategy of armies. <a name="page_183"><span +class="page">Page 183</span></a> He had passed through West Point +and commanded a battalion in Mexico without finding out that his +fitness stopped there. He interfered with Lee and Jackson, sometimes +to almost a disabling extent. He forced his enmity on "Joe" Johnston +and superseded him at the very worst time in the final campaign. He +interfered more than ever just when Lee most required a free hand. +And when he did make Lee a real Commander-in-Chief the Southern +cause had been lost already. Lincoln's war statesmanship grew with +the war. Davis remained as he was. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln had to meet the difficulties that always occur when +professionals and amateurs are serving together. How much Lincoln, +Stanton, professionals, and amateurs had to do with the system that +was evolved under great stress is far too complex for discussion +here. Suffice it to say this: Lincoln's clear insight and openness of +mind enabled him to see the universal truth, that, other things being +equal, the trained and expert professional must excel the untrained +and inexpert amateur. But other things are never precisely equal; +and a war in which the whole mass-manhood is concerned brings in a +host of amateurs. Lincoln was as devoid of prejudice against the +<a name="page_184"><span class="page">Page 184</span></a> regular +officers as he was against any other class of men; and he was ready +to try and try again to find a satisfactory commander among them, +in spite of many failures. The plan of campaign proposed by General +Winfield Scott (and ultimately carried out in a modified form) was +dubbed by wiseacre public men the "Anaconda policy"; witlings derided +it, and the people were too impatient for anything except "On to +Richmond!" Scott, unable to take the field at seventy-five, had no +second-in-command. Halleck was a very poor substitute later on. In +the meantime McDowell was chosen and generously helped by Lincoln +and Stanton. But after Bull Run the very people whose impatience +made victory impossible howled him down. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then the choice fell on McClellan, whose notorious campaign fills +much of our next chapter. There we shall see how refractory +circumstances, Stanton's waywardness among them, forced Lincoln +to go beyond the limits of civil control. Here we need only note +McClellan's personal relations with the President. Instead of summoning +him to the White House Lincoln often called at McClellan's for +discussion. McClellan presently began to treat Lincoln's questions +as intrusions, and one day sent down word that he was too tired to +see the <a name="page_185"><span class="page">Page 185</span></a> +President. Lincoln had told a friend that he would hold McClellan's +stirrups for the sake of victory. But he could not abdicate in +favor of McClellan or any one else. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was none of Lincoln's business to be an actual Commander-in-Chief. +Yet night after weary night he sat up studying the science and art +of war, groping his untutored way toward those general principles +and essential human facts which his native genius enabled him to +reach, but never quite understanding—how could he?—their +practical application to the field of strategy. His supremely good +common sense saved him from going beyond his depth whenever he +could help it. His Military Orders were forced upon him by the +extreme pressure of impatient public opinion. He told Grant "he +did not know but they were all wrong, and he did know that some +of them were." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan was not the only failure in Virginia. Burnside and Hooker +also failed against Lee and Jackson. All three suffered from civilian +interference as well as from their own defects. At last, in the third +year of the war, a victor appeared in Meade, a good, but by no means +great, commander. In the fourth year Lincoln gave the chief command +to Grant, whom he had carefully watched and <a name="page_186"><span +class="page">Page 186</span></a> wisely supported through all the +ups and downs of the river campaigns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's account of his first conference alone with Lincoln is eloquent +of Lincoln's wise war statesmanship: +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +He stated that he had never professed to be a military man or +to know how campaigns should be conducted, and never wanted to +interfere in them.... All he wanted was some one who would take +the responsibility and act, and call on him for all the assistance +needed, pledging himself to use all the power of the government +in rendering such assistance.... He pointed out on the map two +streams which empty into the Potomac, and suggested that the army +might be moved on boats and landed between the mouths of these +streams. We would then have the Potomac to bring our supplies and +the tributaries would protect our flanks while we moved out. I +listened respectfully, but did not suggest that the same streams +would protect Lee's flanks while he was shutting us up. I did not +communicate my plans to the President; nor did I to the Secretary +of War or to General Halleck. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Trust begot trust; and some months later Grant showed war statesmanship +of the same magnificent kind. McClellan had become the Democratic +candidate for President, to the well-founded alarm of all who put +the Union first. In June, when Grant and Lee were at grips round +Richmond, Lincoln was <a name="page_187"><span class="page">Page +187</span></a> invited to a public meeting got up in honor of Grant +with only a flimsy disguise of the ominous fact that Grant, and +not Lincoln, might be the Union choice. Lincoln sagaciously wrote +back: "It is impossible for me to attend. I approve nevertheless +of whatever may tend to strengthen and sustain General Grant and +the noble armies now under his command. He and his brave soldiers +are now in the midst of their great trial, and I trust that at +your meeting you will so shape your good words that they may turn +to men and guns, moving to his and their support." The danger to +the Union of taking Grant away from the front moved Lincoln deeply +all through that anxious summer of '64, though he never thought +Grant would leave the front with his work half done. In August an +officious editor told Lincoln that he ought to take a good long +rest. Lincoln, however, was determined to stand by his own post of +duty and find out from Grant, through their common friend, John +Eaton, what Grant's own views of such ideas were. This is Eaton's +account of how Grant took it: +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +We had been talking very quietly. But Grant's reply came in an +instant and with a violence for which I was not prepared. He brought +his clenched fists down hard on the strap arms of his camp chair. +"They can't <a name="page_188"><span class="page">Page 188</span></a> +do it. They can't compel me to do it." Emphatic gesture was not a +strong point with Grant. "Have you said this to the President?" +"No," said Grant, "I have not thought it worth while to assure the +President of my opinion. I consider it as important for the cause +that he should be elected as that the army should be successful +in the field." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When Eaton brought back his report Lincoln simply said, "I told you +they could not get him to run till he had closed out the rebellion." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-third of this same gloomy August, lightened only +by the taking of Mobile, Lincoln asked his Cabinet if they would +endorse a memorandum without reading it. They all immediately signed. +After his reëlection in November he read it out: "This morning, +as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this +Administration will not be reëlected. Then it will be my duty +to so coöperate with the President-elect as to save the Union +between the election and the inauguration, as he will have secured his +election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards." +He added that he would have asked McClellan to throw his whole +influence into getting enough recruits to finish the war before +the fourth of March. "And McClellan," was Seward's comment, "would +have said 'Yes, yes,' and then done nothing." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_189"><span class="page">Page 189</span></a> Lincoln's +reëlection was helped by Farragut's victory in August, Sherman's +in September, and Sheridan's raid through the Shenandoah Valley in +October. But it was also helped by that strange, vivifying touch +which passes, no one knows how, from the man who best embodies a +supremely patriotic cause to the masses of his fellow patriots, +and then, at some great crisis, when they scale heights which he +has long since trod, comes back in flood and carries him to power. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln stories were abroad; the true were eclipsing the false; and +all the true ones gained him increasing credit. Naval reformers, +and many others too, enjoyed the homely wit with which he closed +the first conference about such a startlingly novel craft as the +plans for the <i>Monitor</i> promised: "Well, Gentlemen, all I +have to say is what the girl said when she put her foot into the +stocking: 'It strikes me there's something in it.'" The army enjoyed +the joke against the three-month captain whom Sherman threatened +to shoot <a name="page_190"><span class="page">Page 190</span></a> +if he went home without leave. The same day Lincoln, visiting the +camp, was harangued by this prospective deserter in presence of many +another man disheartened by Bull Run. "Mr. President: this morning +I spoke to Colonel Sherman and he threatened to shoot me, Sir!" +Lincoln looked the two men over, and then, in a stage whisper every +listener could hear, said: "Well, if I were you, and he threatened +to shoot me, I wouldn't trust him; for I'm sure he'd do it." Both +Services were not only pleased with the "rise" Lincoln took out +of a too inquisitive politician but were much reassured by its +model discretion. This importunate politician so badgered Lincoln +about the real destination of McClellan's transports that Lincoln +at last promised to tell everything he could if the politician +would promise not to repeat it. Then, after swearing the utmost +secrecy, the politician got the news: "They are going to sea." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The whole home front as well as the Services were touched to the +heart by tales of Lincoln's kindness in his many interviews with +the war-bereaved; and letters like these spoke for themselves to +every patriot in the land: +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 20%;"> +Executive Mansion, November 21, 1864. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Mrs. Bixby, Boston, Massachusetts. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> + +Dear Madam: I have been shown in the files of the War Department +a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts that you are +the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of +battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine <a +name="page_191"><span class="page">Page 191</span></a> which should +attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. +But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that +may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. I +pray that our heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your +bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved +and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid +so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 10%;"> +Yours very sincerely and respectfully,<br /> + Abraham Lincoln. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nor did the Lincoln touch stop there. It even began to make its +quietly persuasive way among the finer spirits of the South from +the very day on which the Second Inaugural closed with words which +were the noblest consummation of the prophecy made in the First. +This was the prophecy: "The mystic chords of memory, stretching +from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and +hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus +of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the +better angels of our nature." And this the consummation: "With +malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the +right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish +the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for +him <a name="page_192"><span class="page">Page 192</span></a> who +shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan—to +do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among +ourselves and with all nations." +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_193"><span class="page">Page 193</span></a> +CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">LEE AND JACKSON: 1862-3</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Most Southerners remained spellbound by the glamour of Bull Run +till the hard, sharp truths of '62 began to rouse them from their +flattering dream. They fondly hoped, and even half believed, that +if another Northern army dared to invade Virginia it would certainly +fail against their entrenchments at Bull Run. If, so ran the argument, +the North failed in the open field it must fail still worse against +a fortified position. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Southern generals vainly urged their Government to put forth +its utmost strength at once, before the more complex and less united +North had time to recover and begin anew. They asked for sixty +thousand men at Bull Run, to be used for a vigorous counterstroke +at Washington. They pointed out the absurdity of misusing the Bull +Run (or Manassas) position as a mere shield, fixed to one spot, +instead of making it the hilt of a sword <a name="page_194"><span +class="page">Page 194</span></a> thrust straight at the heart of +the North. Robert E. Lee, now a full general in the Confederate +Army and adviser to the President, grasped the whole situation +from the first and urged the right solution in the official way. +Stonewall Jackson, still a junior general, was in full accord with +Lee, as we know from the confidential interview (at the end of +October, '61) between him and his divisional commander, General G. +W. Smith, who made it public many years later. The gist of Jackson's +argument was this: "McClellan won't come out this year with his +army of recruits. We ought to invade now, not wait to be invaded +later on. If Davis would concentrate every man who can be spared +from all other points and let us invade before winter sets in, +then McClellan's recruits couldn't stand against us in the field. +Let us cross the upper Potomac, occupy Baltimore, and, holding +Maryland, cut the communications of Washington, force the Federal +Government out of it, beat McClellan if he attacks, destroy industrial +plants liable to be turned to warlike ends, cut the big commercial +lines of communication, close the coal mines, seize the neck of land +between Pittsburg and Lake Erie, live on the country by requisition, +and show the North what it would cost <a name="page_195"><span +class="page">Page 195</span></a> to conquer the South." On asking +Smith if he agreed, Smith answered: "I will tell you a secret; for +I am sure it won't be divulged. These views were rejected by the +Government during the conference at Fairfax Court House at the +beginning of the month." Jackson thereupon shook Smith's hand, +saying, "I am sorry, very sorry," and, mounting Little Sorrel without +another word, rode sadly away. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Jefferson Davis probably, and some of his Cabinet possibly, understood +what Lee, "Joe" Johnston, Beauregard, Smith, and Jackson so strongly +urged. But they feared the outcry that would assuredly be raised by +people in districts denuded of troops for the grand concentration +elsewhere. So they remained passive when they should have been active, +and, trying to strengthen each separate part, fatally weakened the +whole. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile the North was collecting the different elements of warlike +force and changing its Secretary of War. Cameron was superseded by +Stanton on the fifteenth of January. Twelve days later Lincoln issued +the first of those military orders which, as we have just seen, he +afterwards told Grant that the impatience of the loyal North compelled +him to issue, though he knew some were <a name="page_196"><span +class="page">Page 196</span></a> certainly, and all were possibly, +wrong. This first order was one of the certainly wrong. McClellan's +unready masses were to begin an unlimited mud march through the +early spring roads of Virginia on the twenty-second of February, +in honor of Washington's birthday. A reconnoitering staff officer +reported the roads as being in their proper places; but he guessed +the bottom had fallen out. So McClellan was granted some delay. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His grand total was now over two hundred thousand men. The Confederate +grand total was estimated at a hundred and fifteen thousand by the +civilian detectives whom the Federal Government employed to serve +in place of an expert intelligence staff. The detective estimate +was sixty-five thousand men out. The real Confederate strength +at this time was only fifty thousand. There was little chance of +getting true estimates in any other way, as the Federal Government +had no adequate cavalry. Most of the few cavalry McClellan commanded +were as yet a mere collection of men and horses, quite unfit for +reconnoitering and testing an enemy's force. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan's own plan, formed on the supposition that the Confederates +held the Bull Run position with at least a hundred thousand men, +<a name="page_197"><span class="page">Page 197</span></a> involved +the transfer of a hundred and fifty thousand Federals by sea from +Washington to Fortress Monroe, on the historic peninsula between +the York and James rivers. Then, using these rivers as lines of +communication, his army would take Richmond in flank. Lincoln's +objection to this plan was based on the very significant argument +that while the Federal army was being transported piecemeal to +Fortress Monroe the Confederates might take Washington by a sudden +dash from their base at Centreville, only thirty miles off. This +was a valid objection; for Washington was not only the Federal +Headquarters but the very emblem of the Union cause—a sort +of living Stars and Stripes—and Washington lost might well +be understood to mean almost the same as if the Ship of State had +struck her colors. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the ninth of March the immediate anxiety about Washington was +relieved. That day came news that the <i>Monitor</i> had checkmated +the <i>Merrimac</i> in Hampton Roads and that "Joe" Johnston had +withdrawn his forces from the Bull Run position and had retired +behind the Rappahannock to Culpeper. On the tenth McClellan began +a reconnoitering pursuit of Johnston from Washington. Having found +burnt bridges and other signs of <a name="page_198"><span +class="page">Page 198</span></a> decisive retirement, he at last +persuaded the reluctant Lincoln to sanction the Peninsula Campaign. +On the seventeenth his army began embarking for Fortress Monroe, +ten thousand men at a time, that being all the transports could +carry. For a week the movement of troops went on successfully; +while the Confederates could not make out what was happening along +the coast. Everything also seemed quite safe, from the Federal point +of view, in the Shenandoah Valley, where General Banks commanded. +And both there and along the Potomac the Federals were in apparently +overwhelming strength; even though the detectives doing duty as +staff officers still kept on doubling the numbers of all the +Confederates under arms. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Suddenly, on the twenty-third, a fight at Kernstown in the Shenandoah +Valley gave a serious shock to the victorious Federals, not only +there but all over the semicircle of invasion, from West Virginia +round by the Potomac and down to Fortress Monroe. The fighting on +both sides was magnificent. Yet Kernstown itself was a very small +affair. Little more than ten thousand men had been in action: seven +thousand Federals under Shields against half as many Confederates +under Stonewall Jackson. The point is that Jackson's attack, <a +name="page_199"><span class="page">Page 199</span></a> though +unsuccessful, was very disconcerting elsewhere. From Kernstown the +area of disturbance spread like wildfire till the tactical victory +of seven thousand Federals had spoilt the strategy of thirty times +as many. Shields reported: "I set to work during the night to bring +together all the troops within my reach. I sent an express after +Williams's division, requesting the rear brigade, about twenty miles +distant, to march all night and join me in the morning. I swept the +posts in rear of almost all their guards, hurrying them forward +by forced marches, to be with me at daylight." Banks, now on his +way to Washington, halted in alarm at Harper's Ferry. McClellan, +perceiving that Jackson's little force was more than a mere corps of +observation, approved Banks and added: "As soon as you are strong +enough push Jackson hard and drive him well beyond Strasburg," that +is, west of the Massanuttons, where Frémont could close in +and finish him. Lincoln had already been thinking of transferring +nine thousand men from McClellan to Frémont. Kernstown decided +it; so off they went to West Virginia. Still fearing an attack on +Washington, Lincoln halted McDowell's army corps, thirty-seven +thousand strong, on the march overland to join McClellan on the +Peninsula, and kept <a name="page_200"><span class="page">Page +200</span></a> them stuck fast round Centreville, near Bull Run. +And so McClellan's Peninsular force was suddenly reduced by forty-six +thousand men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +April was a month of maneuvers and suspense. By the end of it McClellan, +based on Fortress Monroe, had accumulated a hundred and ten thousand +men. The Confederates on the Peninsula, holding Yorktown, numbered +fifty thousand. McClellan sadly missed McDowell, whose corps was to +have taken the fort at Gloucester Point that prevented the Federal +gunboats from turning the enemy's lines at Yorktown. McDowell moved +south to Fredericksburg, leaving a small force near Manassas Junction +to connect him with the garrison of Washington. The Confederates +could spare only twelve thousand men to watch him. Meanwhile Banks +occupied the Shenandoah Valley, having twenty thousand men at +Harrisonburg and smaller forces at several points all round, from +southwest to northeast, each designed to form part of the net that +was soon to catch Jackson. Beyond Banks stood Frémont's +force in West Virginia, also ready to close in. Jackson's complete +grand total was less than that of Banks's own main body. Yet, with +one eye on Richmond, he lay in wait at Swift Run Gap, crouching +for a tiger-spring <a name="page_201"><span class="page">Page +201</span></a> at Banks. Virginia was semicircled by superior forces. +But everywhere inside the semicircle the Confederate parts all +formed one strategic whole; while the Federal parts outside did not. +Moreover, the South had already decided to call up every available +man; thus forestalling the North by more than ten months on the +vital issue of conscription. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In May the preliminary clash of arms began on the Peninsula. The +Confederates evacuated the Yorktown lines on the third. On the +fifth McClellan's advanced guard fought its way past Williamsburg. +On the seventh he began changing his base from Fortress Monroe to +White House on the Pamunkey. Here on the sixteenth he was within +twenty miles of Richmond, while all the seaways behind him were safe +in Union hands. The fate not only of Richmond but of the whole South +seemed trembling in the scales. The Northern armies had cleared +the Mississippi down to Memphis. The Northern navy had taken New +Orleans, the greatest Southern port. And now the Northern hosts +were striking at the Southern capital. McClellan with double numbers +from the east, McDowell with treble numbers from the north, and +the Union navy, with more than fourfold <a name="page_202"><span +class="page">Page 202</span></a> strength on all the navigable +waters, were closing in. The Confederate Government had even decided +to take the extreme step of evacuating Richmond, hoping to prolong +the struggle elsewhere. The official records had been packed. Davis +had made all arrangements for the flight of his family. And from +Drewry's Bluff, eight miles south of Richmond, the masts of the +foremost Federal vessels could be seen coming up the James, where, +on the eleventh, the <i>Merrimac</i>, having grounded, had been +destroyed by her own commander. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But the General Assembly of Virginia, passionately seconded by +the City Council, petitioned the Government to stand its ground +"till not a stone was left upon another." Every man in Richmond who +could do a hand's turn and who was not already in arms marched out +to complete the defenses of the James at Drewry's Bluff. Senators, +bankers, bondmen and free, merchants, laborers, and ministers of +all religions, dug earthworks, hauled cannon, piled ammunition, +or worked, wet to the waist, at the big boom that was to stop the +ships and hold them under fire. The Government had changed its mind. +Richmond was to be held to the last extremity. And the Southern +women were as willing as the men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_203"><span class="page">Page 203</span></a> In the +midst of all this turmoil Lee calmly reviewed the situation. He saw +that the Federal gunboats coming up the James were acting alone, as +the disconnected vanguard of what should have been a joint advance, +and that no army was yet moving to support them. He knew McClellan +and Banks and read them like a book. He also knew Jackson, and +decided to use him again in the Shenandoah Valley as a menace to +Washington. Writing to him on the sixteenth of May, the very day +McClellan reached White House, only twenty miles from Richmond, he +said: "Whatever movement you make against Banks, do it speedily, +and, if successful, drive him back towards the Potomac, and create +the impression, as far as possible, that you design threatening +that line." Moreover, out of his own scanty forces, he sent Jackson +two excellent brigades. Thus, while the great Federal civilians +who knew nothing practical of war were all agog about Richmond, a +single point at one end of the semicircle, the great Confederate +strategist was forging a thunderbolt to relieve the pressure on it +by striking the Federal center so as to threaten Washington. The +fundamental idea was a Fabian defensive at Richmond, a vigorous +offensive in the Valley, to produce <a name="page_204"><span +class="page">Page 204</span></a> Federal dispersion between these +points and Washington; then rapid concentration against McClellan +on the Chickahominy. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The unsupported Federal gunboats were stopped and turned back at +the boom near Drewry's Bluff. McClellan, bent on besieging Richmond +in due form, crawled cautiously about the intervening swamps of the +oozy Chickahominy. McDowell, who could not advance alone, remained +at Fredericksburg. Shields stood behind him, near Catlett's Station, +to keep another eye on nervous Washington. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +In the meantime Stonewall Jackson, still in the Shenandoah, had +fought no battles since his tactical defeat at Kernstown on the +twenty-third of March had proved such a pregnant strategic victory +elsewhere. But late in April he had a letter from Lee, telling of +the general situation and suggesting an attack on Banks. Banks, +however, still had twenty thousand men at Harrisonburg, with twenty-five +thousand more in or within call of the Valley. Jackson's complete +grand total was less than eighteen thousand. The odds against him +therefore exceeded five against two; and direct attack was out of the +question. But he now began <a name="page_205"><span class="page">Page +205</span></a> his maneuvers anew and on a bolder scale than ever. +He had upset the Federal strategy at Kernstown, when there were +less than eight thousand Confederates in the Valley. What might +he not do with ten thousand more? His wonderful Valley Campaign, +famous forever in the history of war, gives us the answer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He had five advantages over Banks. First, his own expert knowledge +and genius for war, backed by a dauntless character. Banks was a +very able man who had worked his way up from factory hand to Speaker +of the House of Representatives and Governor of Massachusetts. But +he had neither the knowledge, genius, nor character required for +high command; and he owed his present position more to his ardor +as a politician than to his ability as a general. Jackson's second +advantage was his own and his army's knowledge of the country for +which they naturally fought with a loving zeal which no invaders could +equal. The third advantage was in having Turner Ashby's cavalry. +These were horsemen born and bred, who could make their way across +country as easily as the "footy" Federals could along the road. +In answer to a peremptory order a Federal cavalry commander could +only explain: "I can't catch them. <a name="page_206"><span +class="page">Page 206</span></a> They leap fences and walls like +deer. Neither our men nor our horses are so trained." The fourth +advantage was in discipline. Jackson habitually spared his men more +than his officers, and his officers more than himself, whenever +indulgence was possible. But when discipline had to be sternly +maintained he maintained it sternly, throughout all ranks, knowing +that the flower of discipline is self-sacrifice, from the senior +general down, and that the root is due subordination, from the +junior private up. After the Conscription Act had come into force +a few companies, who were time-expired as volunteers, threw down +their arms and told their colonel they wouldn't serve another day. +On hearing this officially Jackson asked: "Why does Colonel Grigsby +refer to me to learn how to deal with mutineers? He should shoot +them where they stand." The rest of the regiment was then paraded +with loaded arms, facing the mutineers, who were given the choice +of complete submission or instant death. They chose submission. That +was the last mutiny under Stonewall Jackson. Both sides suffered from +straggling, the Confederates as much as the Federals. But Confederate +stragglers rejoined the better of the two; and in downright desertion +the Federals were the worse, simply because <a name="page_207"><span +class="page">Page 207</span></a> their own peace party was by far +the stronger. The final advantage brings us back to strategy, on +which the whole campaign was turning. Lee and Jackson worked the +Confederates together. Lincoln and Stanton worked the Federals +apart. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the last of April Jackson slipped away from Swift Run Gap while +Ewell quietly took his place and Ashby blinded Banks by driving the +Federal cavalry back on Harrisonburg. Jackson's men were thoroughly +puzzled and disheartened when they had to leave the Valley in full +possession of the enemy while they ploughed through seas of mud +towards Richmond. What was the matter? Were they off to Richmond? +No; for they presently wheeled round. "Old Jack's crazy, sure, +this time." Even one of his staff officers thought so himself, +and put it on paper, to his own confusion afterwards. The rain +came down in driving sheets. The roads became mere drains for the +oozing woods. Wheels stuck fast; and Jackson was seen heaving his +hardest with an exhausted gun team. But still the march went +on—slosh, slosh, squelch; they slogged it through. <i>Close +up, men!—close up in rear!—close up, there, close up!</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the fourth of May Jackson got word from <a name="page_208"><span +class="page">Page 208</span></a> Edward Johnson, commanding his +detached brigade near Staunton, that Milroy, commanding Frémont's +advanced guard, was coming on from West Virginia. Jackson at once +seized the chance of smashing Milroy by railing in to Staunton +before Banks or Frémont could interfere. This would have +been suicidal against a great commander with a well-trained force. +But Banks, grossly exaggerating Jackson's numbers, was already +marching north to the railhead at New Market, where he would be +nearer his friends if Jackson swooped down. Detraining at Staunton +the Confederates picketed the whole neighborhood to stop news getting +out before they made their dash against Milroy. On the seventh they +moved off. The cadets of the Virginia Military Institute, where +Jackson had been a professor for so many years, had just joined +to gain some experience of the real thing, and as they stepped out +in their smart uniforms, with all the exactness of parade-ground +drill, they formed a marked contrast to the gaunt soldiers of the +Valley, half fed, half clad, but wholly eager for the fray. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 549px;"> +<a name="fig_07"> +<img src="images/fig_07.jpg" width="549" height="561" alt="Fig. 7"></a> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +That night Milroy got together all the men he could collect at +McDowell, a little village just beyond the Valley and on the road +to Gauley <a name="page_209"><span class="page">Page 209</span></a> +Bridge in West Virginia. He sent posthaste for reinforcements. But +Frémont's men were divided too far west, fearing nothing +from the Valley, while Banks's were thinking of a concentration +too far north. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the afternoon of the eighth, Milroy attacked Jackson with great +determination and much skill. But after a stern encounter, in which +the outnumbered Federals fought very well indeed, the Confederates +won a decisive victory. The numbers actually engaged—twenty-five +hundred Federals against four thousand Confederates—were +even smaller than at Kernstown. But this time the Confederates won +the tactical victory on the spot as well as the strategic victory +all over the Valley; and the news cheered Richmond at what, as we +have seen already, was its very darkest hour. The night of the +battle Jackson sent out strong working parties to destroy all bridges +and culverts and to block all roads by which Frémont could +reach the Valley. In some places bowlders were rolled down from the +hills. In one the trees were felled athwart the path for a mile. A +week later Jackson was back in the Valley at Lebanon Springs, while +Frémont was blocked off from Banks, who was now distractedly +groping for safety and news. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_210"><span class="page">Page 210</span></a> The following +day, the famous sixteenth, we regain touch with Lee, who, as mentioned +already, then wrote to Jackson about attacking Banks in order to +threaten Washington. This dire day at Richmond, the day McClellan +reached White House, was also the one appointed by the Southern +Government as a day of intercession for God's blessing on the Southern +arms. None kept it more fervently, even in beleaguered Richmond, +than pious Jackson in the Valley. Then, like a giant refreshed, he +rose for swift and silent marches and also sudden hammer-strokes +at Banks. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Confident that all would now go well, Washington thought nothing +of the little skirmish at McDowell, because it apparently disturbed +nothing beyond the Shenandoah Valley. The news from everywhere +else was good; and Federals were jubilant. So were the civilian +strategists, particularly Stanton, who, though tied to his desk +as Secretary of War, was busy wire-pulling Banks's men about the +Valley. Stanton ordered Banks to take post at Strasburg and to +hold the bridges at Front Royal with two detached battalions. This +masterpiece of bungling put the Federals at Front Royal in the air, +endangered their communications north to Winchester, and therefore +menaced the Valley line <a name="page_211"><span class="page">Page +211</span></a> toward Washington. But Banks said nothing; and Stanton +would have snubbed him if he had. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-third of May a thousand Federals under Colonel Kenly +were sweltering in the first hot weather of the year at Stanton's +indefensible position of Front Royal when suddenly a long gray line +of skirmishers emerged from the woods, the Confederate bugles rang +out, and Jackson's battle line appeared. Then came a crashing volley, +which drove in the Federal pickets for their lives. Colonel Kenly +did his best. But he was outflanked and forced back in confusion. A +squadron of New York cavalry came to the rescue; but were themselves +outflanked and helpless on the road against the Virginian horsemen, +who could ride across country. Kenly had just made a second stand, +when down came the Virginians, led by Colonel Flournoy at racing +speed over fence and ditch, scattering the Federal cavalry like +chaff before the wind and smashing into the Federal infantry. Two +hundred and fifty really efficient cavalry took two guns (complete +with limbers, men, and horses), killed and wounded a hundred and +fifty-four of their opponents, and captured six hundred prisoners +as well—and all with a loss to themselves of only eleven +killed and fifteen wounded. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_212"><span class="page">Page 212</span></a> Ashby's +cavalry, several hundreds strong, pushed on and out to the flanks, +cutting the wires, destroying bridges, and blocking the roads against +reinforcements from beyond the Valley. Three hours after the attack +a dispatch-rider dashed up to Banks's headquarters at Strasburg. +But Banks refused to move, saying, when pressed by his staff to +make a strategic retreat on Winchester, "By God, sir, I will not +retreat! We have more to fear from the opinions of our friends +than from the bayonets of our enemies!" The Cabinet backed him +up next day by actually proposing to reinforce him at Strasburg +with troops from Washington and Baltimore. Nevertheless he was +forced to fly for his life to Winchester. His stores at Strasburg +had to be abandoned. His long train of wagons was checked on the +way, with considerable loss. And some of his cavalry, caught on +the road by horsemen who could ride across country, were smashed +to pieces. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Jackson pressed on relentlessly to Winchester with every one who +could march like "foot cavalry," as his Valley men came to be called. +On the twenty-fifth, the third day of unremitting action, he carried +the Winchester heights and drove Banks through the town. Only the +Second <a name="page_213"><span class="page">Page 213</span></a> +Massachusetts, which had already distinguished itself during the +retreat, preserved its formation. Ten thousand Confederate bayonets +glittered in the morning sun. The long gray lines swept forward. +The piercing rebel yell rose high. And the people, wild with joy, +rushed out of doors to urge the victors on. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the twenty-sixth, the first day on which Stanton's reinforcements +from Baltimore and Washington could possibly have fought at Strasburg, +the Confederates had reached Martinsburg, fifty miles beyond it. +Banks had already crossed the Potomac, farther on still. The newsboys +of the North were crying, <i>Defeat of General Banks! Washington +in danger!</i> Thirteen Governors were calling for special State +militia, for which a million men were volunteering, spare troops +were hurrying to Harper's Ferry, a reserve corps was being formed +at Washington, the Federal Government was assuming control of all +the railroad lines, and McClellan was being warned that he must +either take Richmond at once or come back to save the capital. Nor +did the strategic disturbance stop even there; for the Washington +authorities ordered McDowell's force at Fredericksburg to the Valley +just as it was coming into touch with McClellan. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_214"><span class="page">Page 214</span></a> On the +twenty-eighth Jackson might have taken Harper's Ferry. But the +storm was gathering round him. A great strategist directing the +Federal forces could have concentrated fifty thousand men, by sunset +on the first of June, against Jackson's Army of the Valley, which +could not possibly have mustered one-third of such a number. McDowell +arrived that night at Front Royal. He had vainly protested against +the false strategy imposed by the Government from Washington, and +he was not a free agent now. Yet, even so, his force was at least +a menace to Jackson, who had only two chances of getting away to +aid in the defeat of McClellan and the saving of Richmond. One +was to outmarch the converging Federals, gain interior lines along +the Valley, and defeat them there in detail. The other was to march +into friendly Maryland, trusting to her Southern sentiments for +help and reinforcements. He decided on the Valley route and marched +straight in between his enemies. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His fortnight's work, from the nineteenth of May to the first of +June, inclusive, is worth summing up. In these fourteen days he +had marched 170 miles, routed 12,500 men, threatened an invasion +of the North, drawn McDowell off from Fredericksburg, taken or +destroyed all Federal stores at Front <a name="page_215"><span +class="page">Page 215</span></a> Royal, Winchester, and Martinsburg, +and brought off safely a convoy seven miles long. Moreover, he +had done all this with the loss of only six hundred, though sixty +thousand enemies lay on three sides of his own sixteen thousand +men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His remaining problem was harder still. It was how to mystify, +tire out, check short, and then immobilize the converging Federals +long enough to let him slip secretly away in time to help Johnston +and Lee against McClellan. Jackson, like his enemies, moved through +what has been well called the Fog of War—that inevitable +uncertainty through which all commanders must find their way. But +none of his enemies equaled him in knowledge, genius, or character +for war. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The first week in June saw desperate marches in the Valley, with +the outnumbering Federals hot-foot on the trail of Jackson, who +turned to bay one moment and at the next was off again. On the +sixth the Federals got home against his rear guard. It began to +waver, and Ashby ordered the infantry to charge. As he gave the +order his horse fell dead. In a flash he was up, waving his sword +and shouting: "Charge, for God's sake, charge!" The Confederate +line swept forward gallantly. But, just as it left the wood, Ashby +was shot through the <a name="page_216"><span class="page">Page +216</span></a> heart. His men avenged him. Yet none could fill +his place as a born leader of irregular light horse. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Next morning the hounds were hot upon the scent again: Shields +and Frémont converging on Jackson, whom they would run to +earth somewhere north of Staunton. But on the eighth and ninth +Jackson turned sharply and bit back, first at Frémont close +to Cross Keys, then at Shields near Port Republic. Each was caught +alone, just before their point of junction, and each was defeated +in detail as well. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Fully to appreciate Jackson's strategy we must compare the strategical +and tactical numbers concerned throughout this short but momentous +Valley Campaign. The strategic numbers are those at the disposal +of the commander within the theater of operations. The tactical +numbers are those actually present on the field of battle, whether +engaged or not. At McDowell the Federals had 30,000 in strategic +strength against 17,000 Confederates; yet the Confederates got 6000 +on to the field of battle against no more than 2500. At Winchester +the Federal strategic strength was 60,000 against 16,000; yet the +Confederate tactical strength was every man of the 16,000 against +7500—only one-eighth of Banks's grand total. At Cross Keys +the strategic strengths were 23,000 <a name="page_217"><span +class="page">Page 217</span></a> Federals against 13,000 Confederates; +yet 12,750 Federals were beaten by 8000 Confederates. Finally, at +Port Republic, the Federals, with a strategic strength of 22,000 +against the Confederate 12,700, could only bring a tactical strength +of 4500 to bear on 6000 Confederates. The grand aggregate of these +four remarkable actions is well worth adding up. It comes to this +in strategic strength: 135,000 Federals against 58,700 Confederates. +Yet in tactical strength the odds are reversed; for they come to +this: 36,000 Confederates against only 27,250 Federals. Therefore +Stonewall Jackson, with strategic odds of nearly seven to three +against him, managed to fight with tactical odds of four to three +in his favor. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +While Jackson was fighting in the Valley the Confederates at Richmond +were watching the nightly glow of Federal camp fires. McClellan +had 30,000 men north of the Chickahominy, waiting for McDowell to +come back from his enterprise against Jackson, and 75,000 south +of it. What could the 65,000 Confederates do, except hold fast to +their lines? TO RICHMOND 4-1/2 MILES: so read the sign-post at +the Mechanicsville bridge, and there stood the nearest Federal +picket. Johnston and Lee <a name="page_218"><span class="page">Page +218</span></a> knew, however, that McClellan's alarmist detectives +swore to a Confederate army three times its actual strength at +this time; and there was reason to hope that the consequent moral +ascendancy would help the shock of an attack suddenly made on one +of McClellan's two wings while the flooded Chickahominy flowed +between them and its oozy swamps bewildered his staff. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hearing that McDowell need not be feared, Johnston attacked at +daylight on the thirty-first of May. The battle of Seven Pines +(known also as Fair Oaks) was not unlike Shiloh. The Federals were +taken by surprise on the first day and only succeeded in holding +their own by hard fighting and with a good deal of loss. A mistake +was made by the Confederate division told off for the attack on the +key to the Federal front (an attack which, if completely successful, +would have split the Federals in two) and the main bodies were +engaged before this fatal error could be rectified. So the surprised +Federals gradually recovered from the first shock and began to +feel and use their hitherto unrealized strength. On the second +day (the first of June) Johnston, who had been severely wounded, +was plainly defeated and compelled to fall back on Richmond again. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_219"><span class="page">Page 219</span></a> On the +morrow of this defeat Lee was appointed to "the immediate command +of the armies in eastern Virginia and North Carolina." Davis was +not war statesman enough to make him Commander-in-Chief till +'65—four years too late. Johnston did not reappear till he +tried to relieve Vicksburg from the determined attacks of Grant +in '63. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The twelfth of June will be remembered forever in the annals of +cavalry for Stuart's first great ride round McClellan's host. With +twelve hundred troopers and two horse artillery guns he stole out +beyond the western flank of the Federals and reached Taylorsville that +evening, twenty-two miles north of Richmond. Next day he rode right in +among the Federal posts in rear, discovering that McClellan's right +stretched little north of the Chickahominy, that it was not fortified, +and that it did not rest on any strong natural feature, such as a +swampy stream. This was exactly the information Lee required. So +far, so good. The Federals met with up to this time had simply been +ridden down. But now the whole country was alarmed and McClellan +had forces out to cut Stuart off on his return, while General Cooke +(Stuart's father-in-law) began to pursue him from Hanover Court +House. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_220"><span class="page">Page 220</span></a> Then +Stuart took the boldest step of all, deciding to go clear round +the rest of the Federal army. At Tunstall's Station on the York +River Railroad he routed the guard, tore up the track, destroyed the +stores and wagons, cut the wires, burnt the bridge, and replenished +his supplies. Thence southeast, by the Williamsburg road, his column +marched under a full summer moon, the people running out of doors, +wild with joy at his daring. At sunrise he reached the Chickahominy, +only to find it flooded, full of timber, and spanned by nothing +better than a broken bridge. But, using the materials of a warehouse +to make a footway, the troopers crossed in single file, leading +their chargers, which swam. Waving his hand to the Federals, who had +just arrived too late, Stuart pushed on the remaining thirty-five +miles to Richmond, rounding the Federal flank within range of Federal +gunboats on the James. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This magnificent raid not only procured in three days information +that McClellan's civilian detectives could not have procured in +three years but raised Confederate morale and depressed the Federals +correspondingly. Moreover, it drove the first nail into McClellan's +coffin. For in October, just after another Stuart raid, the following +curious <a name="page_221"><span class="page">Page 221</span></a> +incident occurred on board the <i>Martha Washington</i> when Lincoln +was returning from an Alexandria review which had cheered him up +considerably, coming, as it did, after Lee had failed in Maryland. +By way of answering the very pertinent question—"Mr. President, +how about McClellan?"—Lincoln simply drew a ring on the deck, +quietly adding: "When I was a boy we used to play a game called +'Three times round and out.' Stuart has been round McClellan twice. +The third time McClellan will be out." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Stuart rode ahead of his troopers, straight to Lee, who immediately +wrote to Jackson suggesting that the Army of the Valley, while +keeping the Federals alarmed to the last about an attack on the +line of the Potomac, might secretly slip away and join a combined +attack on McClellan. Jackson, who had of course foreseen this, was +ready with every blind known to the art of war. Even his staff +and generals knew nothing of their destination. The first move +was so secret that the enemy never suspected anything till it was +too late, while friends thought there was to be another surprise +in the Valley. The second move led various people to suspect a +march on Washington—no bad news to leak out; and nothing +but misleading items did leak out. The <a name="page_222"><span +class="page">Page 222</span></a> Army of the Valley moved within +a charmed circle of cavalry which prevented any one from going +forward, ahead of the advance, and swept before it all stragglers +through whom the news might leak out by the rear. On the twenty-third +of June, only eight days after Stuart had reported his raid to Lee, +Jackson attended Lee's conference at the same place, Richmond. +The Valley Army was then on its thirty-mile march from Frederick's +Hall to Ashland, where it arrived on the twenty-fifth, fifteen +miles north. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan had over a hundred thousand men. Lee had less than ninety +thousand, even after Jackson had joined him. To attack McClellan's +strongly fortified front, with its almost impregnable flanks, would +have been suicide. But McClellan's farther right, commanded by that +excellent officer, FitzJohn Porter, lay north of the Chickahominy, +with its own right open for junction with McDowell. So Lee, knowing +McClellan and the state of this Federal right, decided on the +twenty-fourth to attack Porter and threaten McClellan's communications +not only with McDowell to the north but with White House, the Federal +base twenty miles northeast. This was an exceedingly bold move, +first, because McClellan had plenty of men <a name="page_223"><span +class="page">Page 223</span></a> to take Richmond during Lee's +march north, secondly, because it meant the convergence of separate +forces on the field of battle (Jackson being at Ashland, fifteen +miles from Richmond) and, thirdly, because the Confederates were +inferior in armament and in supplies of all kinds as well as in +actual numbers. Magruder, who had held the Yorktown lines so cleverly +with such inferior forces, was to hold Richmond (on both sides +of the James) with thirty-five thousand men against McClellan's +seventy-five thousand, while Lee and Jackson converged on Porter's +twenty-five thousand with over fifty thousand. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then followed the famous Seven Days, beginning on the twenty-sixth +of June near the signpost at the Mechanicsville bridge—TO +RICHMOND 4-1/2 MILES—and ending at Harrison's Landing on +the second of July. On the twenty-sixth the attack was made with +consummate strategic skill. But it was marred by bad staff work, +by the great obstructions in Jackson's path, and by A. P. Hill's +premature attack with ten thousand men against Porter's admirable +front at Beaver Dam Creek. Hill's men moved down their own side +of the little valley in dense masses till every gun and rifle on +Porter's side was suddenly unmasked. No scythe <a name="page_224"><span +class="page">Page 224</span></a> could have mowed the leading +Confederates better. Two thousand went down in the first few minutes, +and the rest at once retreated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Porter fell back on Gaines's Mill, where, after being reinforced, +he took up a strong position on the twenty-seventh. Again there +was failure in combining the attack. Jackson found obstructions +that even he could not overcome quickly enough. Hill attacked again +with the utmost gallantry, wave after wave of Confederates rushing +forward only to melt away before the concentrated fire of Porter's +reinforced command. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But at last the Confederates—though checked and roughly +handled—converged under Lee's own eye; and an inferno of +shot and shell loosened and shook the steadfast Federal defense. +Lee and Jackson, though far apart, gave the word for the final +charge at almost the same moment. As Jackson's army suddenly burst +into view and swept forward to the assault the joyful news was +shouted down the ranks: "The Valley men are here!" Thereupon Lee's +men took up the double-quick with "Stonewall Jackson! Jackson! +Jackson!" as their battle cry. The Federals fought right valiantly +till their key-point suddenly gave way, smashed in by weight of +numbers; for Lee had <a name="page_225"><span class="page">Page +225</span></a> brought into action half as many again as Porter +had, even with his reinforcements. On the gallantly defended hill +the long blue lines rocked, reeled, and broke to right and left +all but the steadfast regulars, whose infantry fell back in perfect +order, whose cavalry made a desperate though futile attempt to stay +the rout by charging one against twenty, and whose four magnificent +batteries, splendidly served to the very last round, retired unbroken +with the loss of only two guns. Then the Confederate colors waved +in triumph on the hard-won crest against the crimson of the setting +sun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The victorious Confederates spent the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth +in finding the way to McClellan's new base. His absolute control +of all the waterways had enabled him to change his base from White +House on the Pamunkey to Harrison's Landing on the James. When the +Confederates discovered his line of retreat by the Quaker Road they +pressed in to cut it. On the thirtieth there was severe fighting +in White Oak Swamp and on Frayser's Farm. But the Federals passed +through, and made a fine stand on Malvern Hill next day. Finally, +when they turned at bay on the Evelington Heights, which covered +Harrison's Landing, <a name="page_226"><span class="page">Page +226</span></a> they convinced their pursuers that it would be fatal +to attack again; for now Northern sea-power was visibly present in +flotillas of gunboats, which made the flanks as hopelessly strong +as the front. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan therefore remained safely behind his entrenchments, with +the navy in support. He had to his own credit the strategic success +of having foiled Lee by a clever change of base; and to the credit +of his army stood some first-rate fighting besides some tactical +success, especially at Malvern Hill. Nevertheless the second invasion +of Virginia was plainly a failure; though by no means a glaring +disaster, like the first invasion at Bull Run. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +McClellan, again reinforced, still professed his readiness to take +Richmond under conditions that suited himself. But the most promising +Northern force now seemed to be Pope's Army of Virginia, coming +down from the line of the Potomac, forty-seven thousand strong, +composed of excellent material, and heralded by proclamations which +even McClellan could never excel. John Pope, Halleck's hero of Island +Number Ten, came from the West to show the East how to fight. "I presume +that I have been called here to lead you <a name="page_227"><span +class="page">Page 227</span></a> against the enemy, and that speedily. +I hear constantly of taking strong positions and holding them—of +lines of retreat and bases of supplies. Let us discard such ideas. +Let us study the probable line of retreat of our opponents, and +leave our own to take care of themselves." His Army of Virginia +contained Frémont's (now Sigel's) corps, as well as those +of Banks and McDowell—all experts in the art of "chasing +Jackson." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Jackson was soon ready to be chased again. The Confederate strength +had been reduced by the Seven Days and not made good by reinforcement; +so Lee could spare Jackson only twenty-four thousand men with whom +to meet the almost double numbers under Pope. But Jackson's men had +the better morale, not only on account of their previous service but +because of their rage to beat Pope, who, unlike other Northerners, +was enforcing the harshest rules of war. His lieutenant, General von +Steinwehr, went further, not only seizing prominent civilians as +hostages (to be shot whenever he chose to draw his own distinctions +between Confederate soldiers and guerillas) but giving his German +subordinates a liberty that some of them knew well how to turn +into license. This, of course, was most exceptional; for nearly +all Northerners made <a name="page_228"><span class="page">Page +228</span></a> war like gentlemen. Unhappily, those who did not +were bad enough and numerous enough to infuriate the South. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Halleck, who had now become chief military adviser to the Union +Government, was as cautious as McClellan and had so little discernment +that he thought Pope a better general than Grant. Lincoln, Stanton, +and Halleck put their heads together; and an order soon followed +which had the effect of relieving the pressure on Richmond and +giving the initiative to Lee. Halleck ordered McClellan to withdraw +from Harrison's Landing, take his Army of the Potomac round by sea +to Aquia Creek, and join Pope on the Rappahannock—an operation +requiring the whole month of August to complete. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee lost no time. His first move was to get Pope's advanced troops +defeated by Jackson, who brought more than double numbers against +Banks at Cedar Run on the ninth of August. The Federals fought +magnificently, nine against twenty thousand men. After the battle +Jackson marched across the Rapidan, and Halleck wisely forbade +Pope from following him, even though the first of Burnside's men +(now the advanced guard of McClellan's army) had arrived at Aquia +and were <a name="page_229"><span class="page">Page 229</span></a> +marching overland to Pope. Then followed some anxious days at Federal +Headquarters. Jackson vanished; and Pope's cavalry, numerous as it +was, wore itself out trying to find the clue. McClellan was still +busy moving his men from Harrison's Landing to Fortress Monroe, +whence detachments kept sailing to Aquia. What would Lee do now? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the thirteenth he began entraining Longstreet's troops for +Gordonsville. On the fifteenth he conferred with his generals. +And on the seventeenth, from the lookout on Clark's Mountain, he +saw Pope's unsuspecting army camped round Slaughter Mountain within +fifteen miles of the united Confederates. Halleck had just given +Pope the fatal order to "fight like the devil" till McClellan came +up. Pope was full of confidence. And there he lay, in a bad strategic +and worse tactical position, and with slightly inferior numbers, +just within reach of Jackson and Lee. Pope was, however, saved +from immediate disaster by an oversight on the part of Stuart. In +ordering Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry brigade to rendezvous at Verdierville +that night Stuart forgot to make the order urgent and the missing +brigade came in late. Stuart, anxious to see the enemy's position for +himself, <a name="page_230"><span class="page">Page 230</span></a> +rode out and was nearly taken prisoner. His dispatch-box fell into +Pope's hands, with a memorandum of Jackson's reinforcements. Jackson +was for attacking next day in any case and groaned aloud when Lee +decided not to, owing to the failure of cavalry combination in +front and the belated supplies in the rear. Pope retired safely +on the eighteenth, and on the nineteenth a thick haze hid his rear +from Lee's lookout. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee was now in a very difficult position, apparently face to face +with what would soon be the joint forces of Pope, McClellan, and +probably another corps from Washington: the whole well fed, well +armed, and certainly more than twice as strong as the united +Confederates. But Jackson and Stuart multiplied their forces by +skillful maneuvers and mystifying raids, and presently Stuart had +his revenge for the affront he had suffered on the seventeenth. +On the tempestuous night of the twenty-second he captured Pope's +dispatches. On the twenty-fourth, at Jefferson, Lee and Jackson +discussed the situation with these dispatches before them. Dr. +Hunter McGuire, the Confederate staff-surgeon, noticed that Jackson +was unusually animated, drawing curves in the sand with the toe +of his boot while Lee nodded assent. <a name="page_231"><span +class="page">Page 231</span></a> Perhaps it was Jackson who suggested +the strategic idea of that wonderful last week in August. However +that may have been, Lee alone was responsible for its adoption +and superior direction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With a marvelous insight into the characters of his opponents, a +consummate knowledge of the science and art of war, and—quite +as important—an exact appreciation of the risks worth running, +Lee actually divided his 55,000 men in face of Pope's 80,000, of +20,000 more at Washington and Aquia, and of 50,000 available +reinforcements. Then, by the well-deserved results obtained, he +became one of the extremely few really great commanders of all +time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The "bookish theorick" who, with all the facts before him, revels +in the fond delights of retrospective prophecy, will never understand +how Lee succeeded in this enterprise, except by sheer good luck. +Only those who themselves have groped their perilous way through +the dense, distorting fog of war can understand the application +of that knowledge, genius, and character for war which so rarely +unite in one man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee sent Jackson north, to march at utmost speed under cover of +the Bull Run Mountains, to cross them at Thoroughfare Gap, and to +cut Pope's <a name="page_232"><span class="page">Page 232</span></a> +line at Manassas, where the enormous Federal field base had been +established. Unknown to Pope, Longstreet then slipped into Jackson's +place, so as to keep Pope in play till the raid on Manassas and threat +against Washington would draw him northeast, away from McClellan at +Aquia. The final move of this profound, though very daring, plan +was to take advantage of the Federal distractions and consequent +dispersions so as to effect a junction on the field of battle against +a conquerable force. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Jackson moved off by the first gray streak of dawn on the twenty-fifth, +and that day made good the six-and-twenty miles to Salem Church. +Screened by Stuart's cavalry, and marching through a country of +devoted friends on such an errand as a commonplace general would +never suspect, Jackson stole this march on Pope in perfect safety. +The next day's march was far more dangerous. Roused while the stars +were shining the men moved off in even greater wonder as to their +destination. But when the first flush of dawn revealed the Bull Run +Mountains, with the well-known Thoroughfare Gap straight to their +front, they at once divined their part of Lee's stupendous plan: +a giant raid on Manassas, the Federal base <a name="page_233"><span +class="page">Page 233</span></a> of superabundant supplies. The news +ran down the miles of men, and with it the thrill that presaged +victory. Mile after mile was gained, almost in dead silence, except +for the clank of harness, the rumble of wheels, the running beat +of hoofs, and that long, low, ceaselessly rippling sound of +multitudinous men's feet. Hungry, ill-clad, and worn to their last +spare ounce, the gaunt gray ranks strained forward, slipped from +their leash at last and almost in sight of their prey. So far they +were undiscovered. But the Gap was only ten miles by airline from +Pope's extreme right, and the tell-tale cloud of dust, floating +down the mountain side above them, must soon be sighted, signaled, +noted, and attended to. Only speed, the speed of "foot-cavalry," +could now prevail, and not a man must be an inch behind. <i>Close +up, men, close up!—Close up there in rear!—Close up! +Close up!</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By noon the head of the column had already crossed those same +communications which Pope had told his army to disregard in favor +of the much more interesting enemy line of retreat. Little did +he think that the man he had come to chase was about to burn the +bridge at Bristoe Station and thus cut the line between the Federal +front at Warrenton and the Federal base at Manassas. All went <a +name="page_234"><span class="page">Page 234</span></a> well with +Jackson, except that some news escaped to Washington and Warrenton +sooner than he expected. A Federal train dashed on to Washington +before the rails could be torn up. The next two trains were both +derailed and wrecked. But the fourth put all brakes down and speeded +back to Warrenton. Jackson quickly took up a very strong position +on the north side of Broad Run, behind the burnt railway bridge, +and sent Stuart's troopers with two battalions of "foot-cavalry" +to raid the base at Manassas, replenish the exhausted Confederate +supplies, and do the northward scouting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The situation of the rival armies on the night of the twenty-seventh +forms one of the curiosities of war. Jackson was concentrating round +Manassas Junction. Lee was following Jackson's line of march, but +was still beyond Thoroughfare Gap. Between them stood part of Pope's +army, the whole of which occupied an irregular quadrilateral formed +by lines joining the following points: Warrenton Junction, Bristoe +Station, Gainesville, and Thoroughfare Gap. Thirty miles northeast +were the twenty thousand Federals who joined Pope too late. Thirty +miles southeast the rear of McClellan's forces were still massing +at Aquia. In Pope's <a name="page_235"><span class="page">Page +235</span></a> opinion Jackson was clearly trapped and Lee cut off. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But when Pope began to close his cumbrous net the following day +Jackson had disappeared again. Orders and counter-orders thereupon +succeeded each other in bewildering confusion. McClellan could +be left out: and a very good thing too, thought Pope, who wanted +the victory all to himself, and whose own army greatly outnumbered +Lee's and Jackson's put together. But Washington was nervous again; +it contained the reinforcements; and it had suddenly become +indispensable to Pope as an immediate base of supplies now that the +base at Manassas had been so completely destroyed. Pope's troops +therefore mostly drew east during the twenty-eighth, forming by +nightfall a long irregular line, facing west, with its right beyond +Centreville and its extreme left held by Banks's mauled divisions +south of Catlett's Station. Meanwhile Jackson had slipped into +place in the curve of Bull Run, facing southeast, with his left +near Stone Bridge, his back to Sudley Springs, and his right open +to junction with Lee, who was waiting for daylight to force the +Gap against the single division left there on guard. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +During the afternoon, while Jackson's tired men <a name="page_236"><span +class="page">Page 236</span></a> were lying sound asleep in their +ranks, Jackson himself was roused to see captured orders which +showed that some Federals were crossing his front. Reading these +orders to his divisional commanders he immediately ordered one to +attack and another to support. If the Federals concerned were exposing +an unguarded flank they should be attacked at a disadvantage. If +they were screening larger forces trying to join the reinforcements +from Washington or Aquia, then they should be attacked so as to +distract Pope's attention and draw him on before the Federal union +became complete, though not before Lee had reached the new Bull Run +position the following day. The attack was consequently made from +the woods around Groveton not too long before dark. It resulted in a +desperate frontal fight, neither side knowing what the other had +in its rear or on its flanks. Again the Federals were outnumbered: +twenty-eight against forty-five hundred men in action. But again +they fought with the utmost resolution and drew off in good order. +The strategic advantage, however, was wholly Confederate; for Pope, +who thought Jackson must now be falling back to the Gap, at once +began confusedly trying to concentrate for pursuit on the +twenty-ninth—the very thing that suited Lee and Jackson best. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_237"><span class="page">Page 237</span></a> Early +that morning the two-days' Battle of Second Manassas (or Second +Bull Run) began with Pope's absurd attempt to pursue an army drawn +up in line of battle. Moreover, Jackson's position was not only +strong in itself but well adapted for giving attackers a shattering +surprise. The left rested on Bull Run at Sudley Ford. The center +occupied the edge of the flat-topped Stony Ridge. A quarter-mile +in front of it, and some way lower down, were the embankments and +cuttings of an unfinished railroad. On the right was Stuart's Hill, +where Lee was to join by sending Longstreet in. The approaches in +rear were hidden from the eyes of an enemy in front. The cuttings +and embankments made excellent field works for the defense. And the +forward edge of the Ridge was wooded enough to let counter-attackers +mass under cover and then run down to surprise the attackers by +manning the cuttings and embankments. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sigel's Germans, supported by the splendid Pennsylvanians under +Reynolds, advanced from the Henry Hill to hold Jackson till Pope +could come up and finish him. The numbers were about even, with slight +odds in favor of Jackson. But the shock was delivered piecemeal. +Each part was roughly handled and driven back in disorder. And by +the <a name="page_238"><span class="page">Page 238</span></a> time +Reynolds had come to the front Lee's advanced guard was arriving. +Then eighteen thousand Federals marched in from Centreville under +Reno, Kearny, and "fighting Joe Hooker," of whom we shall hear +again. Pope came up in person with the rest of his available command, +rode along his line, and explained the situation as founded on his +ignorance and colored by his fancy. At this very moment Longstreet +came up on Jackson's right. Reynolds went into action against what he +thought was Jackson's extended right but what was really Longstreet's +left. Meanwhile the Centreville troops attacked near Bull Run. But +that dashing commander, Philip Kearny, was held up by Jackson's +concentrated guns; so Hooker and Reno advanced alone, straight for +the railroad line. The Confederates behind it poured in a tremendous +hail of bullets, and the long dry grass caught fire. But nothing +stopped Hooker till bayonets were crossed on the rails and the +Confederate line was broken. Then the Confederate reserves charged +in and drove the Federals back. No sooner was this seen than, with +a burst of cheering, another blue line surged forward. Again the +Confederate front was broken, but again their reserves drove back +the Federals. And so the fight went on, with <a name="page_239"><span +class="page">Page 239</span></a> stroke and counterstroke, till, +at a quarter past five, twelve hours after Pope's first men had +started from the Henry Hill, his thirty thousand attackers found +themselves unable to break through. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pope wished to make one more effort to round up Jackson's supposedly +open right. But Porter quite properly sent back word that it was +far too strong for his own ten thousand. In reply Pope angrily +ordered an immediate attack. But it was now too dark, and the battle +ended for the day. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Strangely enough, Lee was also having trouble with his subordinate +on the same flank at the same time, but with this difference, that +Porter was right while Longstreet was wrong. Lee saw his chance of +rolling up Pope's left and ordered Longstreet to do it. But, after +reconnoitering the ground, Longstreet came back to say the chance +was "not inviting." Again Lee ordered an attack. But Longstreet +wasted time, looking for needlessly favorable ground till long after +dark. Meanwhile the Federals were also feeling their way forward +over the same ground to get into a good flanking position for next +day's battle. So the two sides met; and it was past midnight when +Longstreet settled down. Lee wanted a sword thrust. Longstreet +gave a pin prick. We shall meet Longstreet <a name="page_240"><span +class="page">Page 240</span></a> again, in the same character of +obstructive subordinate, at Gettysburg. But he was, for the most +part, a very good officer indeed; and the South, with its scanty +supply of trained leaders, could not afford to make changes like +the North. The fault, too, was partly Lee's; for his one weak point +with good but wayward subordinates was a tendency to let his sensitive +consideration for their feelings overcome his sterner insight into +their defects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At noon on the fatal thirtieth of August, Pope, self-deluded and +self-sufficient as before, dismayed his best officers by ordering +his sixty-five thousand men to be "immediately thrown forward in +pursuit of the enemy," whose own fifty thousand were now far readier +than on the previous day. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then the dense blue masses marched to their doom. Twenty thousand +bayonets shone together from Groveton to Bull Run. Forty thousand +more supported them on the slopes in rear, while every Federal gun +thundered forth protectingly from the heights behind. The Confederate +batteries were pointed out as the objective of attack. Not one +glint of steel appeared between these batteries and the glittering +Federal host. To the men in the ranks and to Pope himself victory +seemed assured. But no sooner had that brave array come within +rifle <a name="page_241"><span class="page">Page 241</span></a> range +of the deserted railroad line than, high and clear, the Confederate +bugles called along the hidden edges of the flat-topped Ridge; +when instantly the great gray host broke cover, ran forward as +one man, and held the whole embankment with a line of fire and +steel. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A shock of sheer amazement ran through the Federal mass. Then, +knightly as any hero of romance, a mounted officer rode out alone, +in front of the center, and, with his sword held high, continued +leading the advance, which itself went on undaunted. The Confederate +flank batteries crossed their fire on this devoted center. Bayonets +flashed out of line in hundreds as their owners fell. Colors were +cut down, raised high, cut down again. But still that gallant horse +and man went on, unswerving and untouched. Even the sweeping volleys +spared them both, though now, as the Federals closed, these volleys +cut down more men than the cross-fire of the guns. At last the +unscathed hero waved his sword and rode straight up the deadly +embankment, followed by the charging line. "Don't kill him! Don't +kill him!" shouted the admiring Confederates as his splendid figure +stood, one glorious moment, on the top. The next, both horse and +man sank <a name="page_242"><span class="page">Page 242</span></a> +wounded, and were at once put under cover by their generous foes. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For thirty-five dire minutes the fight raged face to face. One +Federal color rose, fell, and rose again as fast as living hands +could take it from the dead. Over a hundred men lay round it when +the few survivors drew back to re-form. Pope fed his front line +with reserves, who advanced with the same undaunted gallantry, but +also with the same result. As if to make this same result more sure +he never tried to win by one combined assault, wave after crashing +wave, without allowing the defense to get its second wind; but let +each unit taste defeat before the next came on. Federal bravery +remained. But Federal morale was rapidly disintegrating under the +palpable errors of Pope. Misguided, misled, and mishandled, the +blue lines still fought on till four, by which time every corps, +division, and brigade had failed entirely. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then, at the perfect moment and in the perfect way, Lee's counterstroke +was made: the beaten Federals being assailed in flank as well as +front by every sword, gun, bayonet, and bullet that could possibly +be brought to bear. Only the batteries remained on the ridge, firing +furiously till the Federals were driven out of range. The infantry +and <a name="page_243"><span class="page">Page 243</span></a> cavalry +were sent in—wave after wave of them, without respite, till +the last had hurled destruction on the foe. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As at the First Bull Run, so here, the regulars fell back in good +order, fighting to the very end. But the rest of Pope's Army of +Virginia was no longer an organized unit. Even strong reinforcements +could do nothing for it now. On the second of September, three days +after the battle, its arrival at Washington, heralded by thousands +of weary stragglers, threw the whole Union into gloom. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The first counter-invasion naturally followed. Southern hopes ran +high. Bragg's invasion of Kentucky seemed to be succeeding at this +time. The trans-Mississippi line still held at Vicksburg and Port +Hudson. Richmond had been saved. Washington was menaced. And most +people on both sides thought so much more of the land than of the +sea that the Federal victories along the coast and up the Mississippi +were half forgotten for the time being; and so was the strangling +blockade. Lee, of course, saw the situation as a whole; and, as a +whole, it was far from bright. But though the counter-invasion was +now a year too late it seemed worth making. Maryland was full of +Southern <a name="page_244"><span class="page">Page 244</span></a> +sympathizers; and campaigning there would give Virginia a chance +to recuperate, while also preventing the North from recovering too +quickly from its last reverse. Thus it was with great expectations +that the Confederates crossed the Potomac singing <i>Maryland, my +Maryland!</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But Maryland did not respond to this appeal. The women, it is true, +were mostly Southern to the core and ready to serve the Confederate +cause in every way they could. But the men, reflecting more, knew +they were in the grip of Northern sea-power. Nor could they fail +to notice the vast difference between the warlike resources of +the North and South. Northern armies had been marching through for +many months, well fed, well armed, and superabundantly supplied. +The Confederates, on the other hand, were fewer in numbers, half +starved, in ragged clothing, less well armed, and far less abundantly +supplied in every way. A Northerner who fell sick could generally +count on the best of medical care, not to mention a profusion of +medical comforts. But the blockade kept medicines and surgical +instruments out of the Southern ports; and the South could make +few of her own. So, to be very sick or badly wounded meant almost +a sentence of death in the South. <a name="page_245"><span +class="page">Page 245</span></a> Eighteen months of war had +disillusioned Maryland. The expected reinforcements never came. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee had again divided his army in the hope of snatching victory by +means of better strategy. On the thirteenth of September Jackson +was bombarding the Federals at Harper's Ferry, Longstreet was at +Hagerstown, and Stuart was holding the gaps of South Mountain. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The same day McClellan, whose whole army was at Frederick, received +a copy of Lee's orders. They had been wrapped round three cigars +and lost by a careless Confederate staff officer. Had McClellan +forced the gaps immediately, maneuvered with reasonable skill, and +struck home with every available man, he might have annihilated +Lee. But he let the thirteenth pass quietly; and when he did take the +passes on the fourteenth it cost him a good deal, as the Confederate +infantry had reinforced Stuart. On the fifteenth Jackson took Harper's +Ferry. On the sixteenth he joined Lee at Antietam. And on the +seventeenth, when the remaining availables had also joined Lee, +McClellan made up his mind to attack. "Ask me for anything but +time," said the real Napoleon. The "Young Napoleon" did not even +need the asking. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Antietam (so called from the Antietam Creek) or <a name="page_246"><span +class="page">Page 246</span></a> Sharpsburg (so called from the +Confederate headquarters there) was one of the biggest battles of +the Civil War; and it might possibly have been the most momentous. +But, as things turned out, it was in itself an indecisive action, +spoilt for the Federals, first, by McClellan's hesitating strategy, +and then by his failure to press the attack home at all costs, +with every available man, in an unbroken succession of assaults. +He had over 80,000 men with 275 guns against barely 40,000 with +194 guns of inferior strength. But though the Federals fought with +magnificent devotion, and though the losses were very serious on +both sides, the tactical result was a mutual checkmate. The strategic +result, however, was a Confederate defeat; for, with his few worn +veterans, Lee had no chance whatever of keeping his precarious +hold on a neutral Maryland. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +October was a quiet month, each side reorganizing without much +interference from the other, except for Stuart's second raid round +the whole embattled army of McClellan. This time Stuart took nearly +two thousand men and four horse artillery guns. Crossing the Potomac at +McCoy's Ford on the tenth he reached Chambersburg that night, destroyed +the Federal stores, took all the prisoners <a name="page_247"><span +class="page">Page 247</span></a> he wanted, cut the wires, obstructed +the rails, and went on with hundreds of Federal horses. Next day he +circled the Federal rear toward Gettysburg, turned south through +Emmitsburg, and crossed McClellan's line of communications with +Washington at Hyattstown early on the twelfth. By this time the +Federal cavalry were riding themselves to exhaustion in vain pursuit; +while many other forces were trying to close in and cut him off. But +he reached the mouth of the Monocacy and crossed White's Ford in +safety, fighting off all interference. The information he brought +back was of priceless value. Lee now learned that McClellan was not +falling back on Washington but being reinforced from there, and that +consequently no new Peninsula Campaign was to be feared at present. +This alone was worth the effort, risk, and negligible loss. Stuart +had marched a hundred and twenty-six miles on the Federal side +of the Potomac—eighty of them without a single halt; and he +had been fifty-six hours inside the Federal lines, mostly within +four riding hours of McClellan's own headquarters. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This second stinging raid roused the loyal North to fury; and by +November a new invasion of Virginia was in full swing on the old +ground, with <a name="page_248"><span class="page">Page 248</span></a> +McClellan at Warrenton, Lee at Culpeper, and Jackson in the Valley. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But McClellan's own last chance had gone. Late at night on the +seventh he was sitting alone in his tent, writing to his wife, when +Burnside asked if he could come in with General C. P. Buckingham, +the confidential staff officer to the War Department. After some +forced conversation Buckingham handed McClellan a paper ordering his +supersession by Burnside. McClellan simply said: "Well, Burnside, +I turn the command over to you." The eighth and ninth were spent in +handing over; and on the tenth McClellan made his official farewell. +Next day he was entraining at Warrenton Junction when the men, among +whom he was immensely popular, broke ranks and swarmed round his +car, cursing the Government and swearing they would follow no one +but their "Old Commander." McClellan, with all his faults in the +field, was a good organizer, an extremely able engineer, a very brave +soldier, a very sympathetic comrade in arms, and a regular father to +his men, whose personal interests were always his first care. The +moment was critical. McClellan, had he chosen, might have imitated +the Roman generals who led the revolts of Prætorian Guards. +But he <a name="page_249"><span class="page">Page 249</span></a> +stepped out on the front platform of the car, held up his hand, and, +amid tense silence, asked the men to "stand by General Burnside +as you have stood by me." The car they had uncoupled to prevent +his departure was run up and coupled again; and then, amid cheers +of mournful farewell, they let him go. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +General Ambrose E. Burnside was expected to smash Lee, take Richmond, +and end the war at once. He was a good subordinate, but quite unfit +for supreme command, which he accepted only under protest. Moreover, +he was not supported as he should have been by the War Department, +nor even by the Headquarter Staff. While changing his position from +Warrenton to Fredericksburg he was hampered by avoidable delays. +So when he reached Falmouth he found Lee had forestalled him on +the opposing heights of Fredericksburg itself. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The disastrous thirteenth of December was dull, calm, and misty. +But presently the sun shone down with unwonted warmth; the mists +rolled up like curtains; and there stood 200,000 men, arrayed in +order of battle: 80,000 Confederates awaiting the onslaught of +120,000 Federals. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On came the solid masses of the Federals, eighty thousand strong, +with forty in support, amid the <a name="page_250"><span +class="page">Page 250</span></a> thunder of five hundred attacking +and defending guns. The sunlight played upon the rising tide of +Federal bayonets as on sea currents when they turn inshore. The +colors waved proudly as ever; and to the outward eye the attack +seemed almost strong enough to drive the stern and silent gray +Confederates clear off the crest. But the indispensable morale was +wanting. For this was the end of a long campaign, full of drawn +battles and terrible defeats. Burnside was an unpopular substitute +for McClellan; he was not in any way a great commander; and he was +acting under pressure against his own best judgment. His army knew +or felt all this; and he knew they knew or felt it. The Federals, +for all their glorious courage, felt, when the two fronts met at +Fredericksburg, that they were no more than sacrificial pawns in +the grim game of war. After much useless slaughter they reeled +back beaten. But they could and did retire in safety, skillfully +"staffed" by their leaders and close to their unconquerable sea. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee could make no counterstroke. The Confederate Government had +not dared to let him occupy the far better position on the line +of the North Anna, from which a vigorous counterstroke might have +almost annihilated a beaten attacker, <a name="page_251"><span +class="page">Page 251</span></a> who would have been exposed on +both flanks, beyond the sure protection of the sea. Thus fear of +an outcry against "abandoning" the country between Fredericksburg +and the North Anna caused the Southern politicians to lose their +chance at home. But without a decisive victory they could not hope +for foreign intervention. So losing their chance at home made them +lose it abroad as well. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Burnside was dazed by his defeat and the appalling loss of life +in vain. But after five weeks of most discouraging inaction he +tried to surprise Lee by crossing the Rappahannock several miles +higher up. On the twentieth and twenty-first of that miserable +January the Federal army ploughed its dreary way through sloughs +of gluey mud under torrents of chilling rain. Then, when the pace +had slackened to a funereal crawl, and the absurdly little chance of +surprising Lee had vanished altogether, this despairing "Mud March" +came to its wretched end. Four days later Burnside was superseded by +one of his own subordinates, General Joseph Hooker, known to all +ranks as "Fighting Joe Hooker." +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Fredericksburg, the spell of relaxing winter quarters beside the +fatal Rappahannock, and then <a name="page_252"><span class="page">Page +252</span></a> the fatal "Mud March," combined to lower Federal morale. +Yet the mass of the men, being composed of fine human material, +quickly recovered under "Fighting Joe Hooker," who knew what discipline +meant. Numbers and discipline tell. But disciplined numbers were +not the only or even the greatest menace to the South. For here, +as farther west, the Confederate Government was beginning to be +foolish just as the Federal Government showed signs of growing +wise. Lincoln and Stanton were giving Joe Hooker a fairly free hand +just when Davis and Seddon (his makeshift minister of war) were using +Confederate forces as puppets to be pulled about by Cabinet strings +from Richmond. Here again (as later on at Chattanooga) Longstreet +was sent away on a useless errand just when he was needed most +by Lee. Good soldier though he was in many ways he was no such +man as Stonewall Jackson; and, in this one year, he failed his +seniors thrice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is true enough that the April situation of 1863 might well shake +governmental nerves; for Richmond was being menaced from three +points—north, southeast, and south: Fredericksburg due north, +Suffolk southeast, Newbern south. Newbern in North Carolina was a +long way off. But its <a name="page_253"><span class="page">Page +253</span></a> possession by an active enemy threatened the rail +connection from Richmond south to Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah, +the only three Atlantic ports through which the South could get +supplies from overseas. Suffolk was nearer. It covered the landward +side of Norfolk, which, with Fortress Monroe, might become the +base of a new Peninsula Campaign. But Fredericksburg was nearest; +nearest to Richmond, nearest to Washington, nearest to the main +Southern force; and not only nearest but strongest, in every way +strongest and most to be feared. "Fighting Joe Hooker" was there, +with a hundred and thirty thousand men, already stirring for the +spring campaign that was to wipe out memories of Fredericksburg, +make short work of Lee, and end the war at Richmond. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Yet Longstreet cheerfully marched off, pleased with his new command, +to see what he could do to soothe the Government by winning laurels +for himself at Suffolk. On the seventeenth, just two weeks before +the supreme test came on Lee's weakened army at Chancellorsville, +Longstreet reported to Seddon that Suffolk would cost three thousand +men, if taken by assault, or three days' heavy firing if subdued by +bombardment. Shrinking from such expenditure of life or ammunition, +Davis, Seddon, <a name="page_254"><span class="page">Page 254</span></a> +and Longstreet fell back on a siege, which, preventing all junction +with Lee, might well have cost the ruin of their cause. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee and Jackson then prepared to make the best of a bad business +along the Rappahannock, and to snatch victory once more, if possible, +from the very jaws of death. The prospect was grimmer than before. +Hooker was a better fighter than McClellan and wiser than Burnside +or Pope. Moreover, after two years of war, the Union Government +had at last found out that civilian detectives knew less about +armies than expert staff officers know, and that cavalry which +was something more than mere men on horses could collect a little +information too. Hooker knew Lee's strength as well as his own. +So he decided to hold Lee fast with one part of the big Federal +army, turn his flank with another, and cut his line of supply and +retreat with Stoneman's ten thousand sabers as well. The respective +grand totals were 130,000 Federals against 62,000 Confederates. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +So far, so good; so very good indeed that Hooker and his staff +were as nearly free from care on May Day as headquarter men can +ever be in the midst of vital operations. Hooker had just reason +to be proud of the Army of the Potomac and of his own <a +name="page_255"><span class="page">Page 255</span></a> work in +reviving it. He had, indeed, issued one bombastic order of the +day in which he called it "the finest on the planet." But even +this might be excused in view of the popular call for encouraging +words. What was more to the point was the reëstablishment of +Federal morale, which had been terribly shaken after the great Mud +March. Hooker's sworn evidence (as given in the official <i>Report +of Committee on the Conduct of the War</i>) speaks for itself: +"The moment I was placed in command I caused a return to be made +of the absentees of the army, and found the number to be 2922 +commissioned officers and 81,964 non-commissioned officers and +privates. They were scattered all over the country, and the majority +were absent from causes unknown." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-eighth of April Stuart saw the redisciplined Federals +in motion far up the Rappahannock, while next day Jackson saw others +laying pontoons thirty miles lower down, just on the seaward side +of Fredericksburg. Lee took this news with genial calm, remarking +to the aide: "Well, I heard firing and was beginning to think it +was time some of your lazy young fellows were coming to tell me what +it was about. Tell your good general he knows what to do with the +enemy just as well as I <a name="page_256"><span class="page">Page +256</span></a> do." On the thirtieth it became quite clear that +Hooker was bent on turning Lee's left and that he had divided his +army to do so. Jackson wished to attack Sedgwick's 35,000 Federals +still on the plains of Fredericksburg. But Lee convinced him that +the better way would be to hold these men with 10,000 Confederates +in the fortified position on the confronting heights while the +remaining 52,000 should try to catch Hooker himself between the +jaws of a trap in the forest round Chancellorsville, where the +Federal masses would be far more likely to get out of hand. It was +an extremely daring maneuver to be setting this trap when Sedgwick +had enough men to storm the heights of Fredericksburg, when Stoneman +was on the line of communication with the south, and when Hooker +himself, with superior numbers, was gaining Lee's rear. But Lee +had Jackson as his lieutenant, not Longstreet, as he was to have +at Gettysburg. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hooker's movements were rapid, well arranged, and admirably executed +up to the evening of the first of May, when, finding those of the +enemy very puzzling among the dense woods, he chose the worst of +three alternatives. The first and best, an immediate counter-attack, +would have kept up his army's morale and, if well executed, revealed +his <a name="page_257"><span class="page">Page 257</span></a> own +greater strength. The second, a continued advance till he reached +clearer ground, might have succeeded or not. The third and worst +was to stand on his defense, a plan which, however sound in other +places, was fatal here, because it not only depressed the spirits +of his army but gave two men of genius the initiative against him +in a country where they were at home and he was not. The absence +of ten thousand cavalry baffled his efforts to get trustworthy +information on the ground, while the dense woods baffled his balloons +from above. On the second of May he still thought the initiative +was his, that the Confederates were retreating, and that his own +jaws were closing on them instead of theirs on him. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile, owing to miscalculations of the space that had to be +held in force, his right was not only thrown forward too far but +presented a flank in the air. This was the flank round which Stonewall +Jackson maneuvered with such consummate skill that it was taken on +three sides and rolled up in fatal confusion. Its commander, the +very capable General O. O. Howard, who perceived the mistake he +could not correct, tried hard to stay the rout. But, as his whole +reserve had been withdrawn by Hooker to join an attack elsewhere, +his lines simply melted away. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_258"><span class="page">Page 258</span></a> The three +days' battle that followed (ending on the fifth of May) was bravely +fought by the bewildered Federals. Yet all in vain. Hooker was +caught like a bull in a net; and the more he struggled the worse +it became. At 6 P.M. on the second the cunning trap was sprung +when a single Confederate bugle rang out. Instantly other bugles +repeated the call at regular intervals through miles of forest. +Then, high and clear on the silent air of that calm May evening, +the rebel yell rose like the baying of innumerable hounds, hot +on the scent of their quarry, with Jackson leading on. Nothing +could stop the eager gray lines, wave after wave of them pressing +through the woods; not even the gallant fifty guns that fought with +desperation in defense of Hazel Grove, where Hooker was rallying +his men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For two days more the tide of battle ebbed and flowed; but always +against the Federals in the end, till, broken, bewildered, and +disheartened, they retired as best they could. Lee was unable to +pursue. Longstreet's men were still missing; and so were many supplies +that should have been forwarded from Richmond. There the Government +clung to the fond belief that this mere victory had won the war, +and that pursuit was useless. Thus <a name="page_259"><span +class="page">Page 259</span></a> Lee's last chance of crushing the +invaders was taken from him by his friends. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At the same time the Southern cause suffered another irreparable +loss; but in this case at the purely accidental hands of Southern +men. Jackson's staff, suddenly emerging from a thicket as the first +night closed in, was mistaken for Federal cavalry and shot down. +Jackson himself was badly wounded in three places and carried from +the field. He never heard the rebel yell again. Next Sunday, when the +staff-surgeon told him that he could not possibly live through the +night, he simply answered: "Very good, very good; it is all right." +Presently he asked Major Pendleton what chaplain was preaching at +headquarters. "Mr. Lacy, sir; and the whole army is praying for +you." "Thank God," said Jackson, "they are very kind to me." A +little later, rousing himself as if from sleep, he called out: +"Order A. P. Hill to prepare for action! Pass the infantry to the +front! Tell Major Hawks—" There his strength failed him. +But after a pause he said quietly, "Let us cross over the river +and rest under the shade of the trees." And with these words he +died. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_260"><span class="page">Page 260</span></a> +CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">GRANT WINS THE RIVER WAR: 1863</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have seen already how the River War of '62 ended in a double +failure of the Federal advance on Vicksburg: how Grant and Sherman, +aided by the flanking force from Helena in Arkansas, failed to +catch Pemberton along the Tallahatchie; and then how Sherman alone, +moving down the Mississippi, was defeated by Pemberton at Chickasaw +Bayou, just outside of Vicksburg. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Leaving Memphis for good, Grant took command in the field again +on the thirtieth of January. His army was strung out along seventy +miles of the Mississippi just north of Vicksburg, so hard was it to +find enough firm ground. The first important move was made when, in +Grant's own words, "the entire Army of the Tennessee was transferred +to the neighborhood of Vicksburg and landed on the opposite or +western bank of the river at Milliken's Bend." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_261"><span class="page">Page 261</span></a> Grant, +everywhere in touch with Admiral D. D. Porter's fleet and plentifully +supplied with water transport of all kinds, thus commanded the +peninsula or tongue of low land round which the mighty river took +its course in the form of an elongated U right opposite Vicksburg. +His farthest north base was still at Cairo; and the whole line of +the Mississippi above him was effectively held by Union forces +afloat and ashore. Four hundred miles south lay Farragut and Banks, +preparing for an attack on Port Hudson and intent on making junction +with the Union forces above. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Two bad generals stood very much in Grant's way, one on either +side of him in rank—McClernand, his own second-in-command, +and Banks, his only senior in the Mississippi area. McClernand +presently found rope enough to hang himself. Our old friend Banks, +who had not yet learnt the elements of war, though schooled by +Stonewall Jackson, never got beyond Port Hudson, and so could not +spoil Grant's command in addition to his own. Fortunately, besides +Sherman and other professional soldiers of quite exceptional ability, +Grant had three of the best generals who ever came from civil life: +Logan, Blair, and Crocker. Logan shed all the vices, while keeping +all the virtues, of the <a name="page_262"><span class="page">Page +262</span></a> lawyer when he took up arms. Blair knew how to be +one man as an ambitious politician and another as a general in +the field. Crocker was in consumption, but determined to die in +his boots and do his military best for the Union service first. +The personnel of the army was mostly excellent all through. The +men were both hardy and handy as a rule, being to a large extent +farmers, teamsters, railroad and steamboat men, well fitted to meet +the emergencies of the severe and intricate Vicksburg campaign. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Throughout this campaign the army and navy of the Union worked +together as a single amphibious force. Grant's own words are no +mere compliment, but the sober statement of a fact. "The navy, under +Porter, was all it could be during the entire campaign. Without +its assistance the campaign could not have been successfully made +with twice the number of men engaged. It could not have been made +at all, in the way it was, with any number of men, without such +assistance. The most perfect harmony reigned between the two arms +of the Service. There never was a request made, that I am aware +of, either of the Flag-Officer or any of his subordinates, that +was not promptly complied with." And what is true of Porter is at +<a name="page_263"><span class="page">Page 263</span></a> least +as true of Farragut, who was the greater man and the senior of +every one afloat. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant could take Vicksburg only by reaching good ground, and the +only good ground was below and in rear of the fortress. There was no +foothold for his army on the east bank of the Mississippi anywhere +between Memphis and Vicksburg. This meant that he must either start +afresh from Memphis and try again to push overland by rail or cross +the swampy peninsula in front of him and circle round his enemy. A +retirement on Memphis, no matter how wise, would look like another +great Union defeat and consequently lower a public morale which, +depressed enough by Fredericksburg, was being kept down by the +constant naval reverses that opened '63. Circling the front was +therefore very much to be preferred from the political point of +view. On the other hand, it was beset by many alarming difficulties; +for it meant starting from the flooded Mississippi and working through +the waterlogged lowlands, across the peninsula, till a foothold +could be seized on the eastern bank below Vicksburg. Moreover, this +circling attack, though feasible, might depress the morale of the +troops by the way. Burnside's disastrous "Mud March" through the +January <a name="page_264"><span class="page">Page 264</span></a> +sloughs of Virginia, made in the vain hope of outflanking Lee, had +lowered the morale of the army almost as much as Fredericksburg +itself had lowered the morale of the people. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Through the depth of winter the army toiled "in ineffectual efforts," +says Grant, "to reach high land above Vicksburg from which we could +operate against that stronghold, and in making artificial waterways +through which a fleet might pass, avoiding the batteries to the +south of the town, in case the other efforts should fail." A wetter +winter had never been known. The whole complicated network of bends +and bayous, of creeks, streams, runs, and tributary rivers, was +overflowing the few slimy trails through the spongy forest and +threatening the neglected levees which still held back the encroaching +waters. There was nothing to do, however, but to keep the men busy +and the enemy confused by trying first one line and then another +for two weary months. By April, writes Grant, "the waters of the +Mississippi having receded sufficiently to make it possible to +march an army across the peninsula opposite Vicksburg, I determined +to adopt this course, and moved my advance to a point below the +town." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile, far below, Farragut and Banks were <a name="page_265"><span +class="page">Page 265</span></a> at work round Port Hudson: Farragut +to good effect; Banks as usual. On the fourteenth of March Farragut +started up the river with seven men-of-war and wanted the troops +to make a demonstration against Port Hudson from the rear while +the fleet worked its way past the front. But, just as Farragut was +weighing anchor, Banks, who had had ample time for preparation, +sent word to say he was still five miles from Port Hudson. "He'd +as well be at New Orleans," muttered Farragut, "for all the good +he's doing us." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Six of the vessels were lashed together in pairs, the heavier ones +next the enemy, the lighter ones secured well aft so as to mask the +fewest guns. This arrangement also gave each pair the advantage +of having twin screws. Farragut's flagship, the <i>Hartford</i>, +leading the line-ahead, suffered least from the dense smoke on +that damp, calm, moonless night. But the others were soon groping +blindly up the tortuous channel. The <i>Hartford</i> herself took +the ground for a critical moment. But, with her own screw going +ahead and that of the <i>Albatross</i> going astern, she drew clear +and won through. Not so, however, the other five ships. Only the +<i>Hartford</i> and <i>Albatross</i> reached the Red River. Yet +even this was of great importance, as <a name="page_266"><span +class="page">Page 266</span></a> it completely cut off Port Hudson +from all chance of relief. Farragut went on up the Mississippi to +see Grant, destroying all riverside stores on the way. Grant was +delighted, and, in the absence of Porter, who was up the Yazoo, +sent Farragut an Ellet ram and some sorely needed coal. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's seventh (and first successful) effort to get a foothold (from +which to carry out one of the boldest and most brilliant operations +recorded in the history of war) began with a naval operation on the +sixteenth of April, when Porter ran past the Vicksburg batteries +by night. Though Porter had the four-knot current in his favor he +needed all his skill and moral courage to take a regular flotilla +round the elongated U made by the Mississippi at Vicksburg, with +such a bend as to keep vessels under more or less distant fire +for five miles, and under much closer fire for nearly nine. At +the bend the vessels could be caught end-on. For nearly five miles +after that they were subject to a plunging fire. Porter led the +way on board the flagship <i>Benton</i>. He had seven ironclads, +of which three were larger vessels and four were gunboats built by +Eads, a naval constructor with orignal ideas and great executive +ability. One ram and three transports followed. Coal barges were +lashed alongside <a name="page_267"><span class="page">Page +267</span></a> or taken in tow. Some of these were lost and one +transport was sunk. But the rest got through, though not unscathed. +It seemed like a miracle to the tense spectators that any flotilla +should survive this dash down a river of death flowing through a +furnace. But the ironclads, magnificently handled, stood up to +their work unflinchingly, fired back with regulated vigor, and +took their terrific pounding without one vital wound. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Porter presently relieved Farragut, who went back to New Orleans. +From this time, till after the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, +Porter commanded three flotillas, each with a base of its own: +first, a flotilla remaining north of Vicksburg for work on the +Yazoo; secondly, the main body between Vicksburg and Grand Gulf; +thirdly, the Red River flotilla. This combined naval force commanded +all lines of communication north, south, and west of Vicksburg, +thus enabling Grant to concentrate entirely against the eastern +side. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the thirtieth of April Grant landed with twenty thousand men +at Bruinsburg, on the east side of the Mississippi, about sixty +miles below Vicksburg. A week later Sherman reinforced him to +thirty-three thousand. Before the fall of Vicksburg his total strength +reached seventy-five <a name="page_268"><span class="page">Page +268</span></a> thousand. The Confederate total also fluctuated; +but not so much. There were about sixty thousand Confederates in +the whole strategic area between Vicksburg and Jackson (fifty miles +east) when Grant made his first daring move, and about the same when +Vicksburg surrendered. The scene of action was almost triangular; +for it lay between the three lines joining Jackson, Haynes's Bluff, +Rodney, and Jackson again. The respective lengths of these straight +lines are forty, fifty, and seventy miles. But roundabout ways +by land and water multiplied these distances, and much fighting +and many obstacles vastly increased Grant's difficulties. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An army, however, that had managed to reach Bruinsburg from the +north and west was assuredly fit for more hard work of any kind; +while a commander who had left a safe base above Vicksburg and +landed below, to live on (as well as in) an enemy country till +victory should give him a new land line to the north, must, in +view of the resultant triumph, be counted among the master-minds +of war. Grant's marvelous skill in massing, dividing, forwarding, +and concentrating his forces over a hundred miles of intricate +passages between Milliken's Bend and Bruinsburg was only excelled +by <a name="page_269"><span class="page">Page 269</span></a> his +consummate genius in carrying out this daring operation, forcing +his way through his enemies, into full possession of interior lines, +between their great garrison of Vicksburg and their field army +from Jackson. He had to create two fronts in spite of his doubled +enemy and live on that enemy's country without any land base of +his own. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant knew the country was quite able to support his army if he +could only control enough of it. Bread, beef, and mutton would be +almost unobtainable. But chickens, turkeys, and ducks were abundant, +while hard-tack would do instead of bread. Bird-and-biscuit of course +became unpopular; and after weeks of it Grant was not surprised +to hear a soldier mutter "hard-tack" loudly enough for others to +take up the cry. By this time, however, he luckily knew that the +bread ration was about to be resumed; and when he told the men they +cheered as only men on service can—men to whom battles are rare +events but rations the very stuff of daily existence. Coffee, bacon, +beef, and mutton came next in popular favor when full rations were +renewed. So when the Northern land line was reopened towards the end +of the siege, and friends came into camp with presents from home, +they found, to their amazement, that even <a name="page_270"><span +class="page">Page 270</span></a> the tenderest spring chicken was +loathsome to their boys in blue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant set to work immediately on landing. His first objective was +Grand Gulf, which he wanted as a field base for further advance. +But in order to get it he had to drive away the enemy from Port +Gibson, which was by no means easy, even with superior numbers, +because the whole country thereabouts was so densely wooded and +so intricately watered that concerted movements could only be made +along the few and conspicuous roads. On the first of May, however, +the Confederates were driven off before their reinforcements could +arrive. McClernand bungled brigades and divisions out of mutual +support. But Grant personally put things right again. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the third of May the bridge burnt by the enemy had been repaired +and Grant's men were crossing to press them back on Vicksburg, so +as to clear Grand Gulf. Grant's supply train (raised by impressing +every horse, mule, ox, and wheeled thing in the neighborhood) looked +more like comic opera than war. Fine private carriages, piled high +with ammunition, and sometimes drawn by mules with straw collars +and rope lines, went side by side with the longest plantation wagons +drawn by many oxen, <a name="page_271"><span class="page">Page +271</span></a> or with a two-wheeled cart drawn by a thoroughbred +horse. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Before any more actions could be fought news came through that +the Federals in Virginia had been terribly beaten by Lee, who was +now expected to invade the North. The South was triumphant; so +much so, indeed, that its Government thought the war itself had +now been won. But Lincoln, Grant, and Lee knew better. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Swiftly, silently, and with a sure strategic touch, Grant marched +northeast on Jackson, to make his rear secure before he turned on +Vicksburg. On the twelfth he won at Raymond and on the fourteenth +at Jackson itself. Here he turned back west again. On the sixteenth +he won the stubborn fight of Champion's Hill, on the seventeenth +he won again at Big Black River, and on the eighteenth he appeared +before the lines of Vicksburg. With the prestige of five victories +in twenty days, and with the momentum acquired in the process, he +then tried to carry the lines by assault on the spot. But the attack +of the nineteenth failed, as did its renewal on the twenty-second. +Next day both sides settled down to a six weeks' siege. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The failure of the two assaults was recognized by friend and foe as +being a mere check; and <a name="page_272"><span class="page">Page +272</span></a> Grant's men all believed they had now found the +looked-for leader. So they had. Like Lee and Stonewall Jackson +in Virginia, Grant, with as yet inferior numbers (but with the +immense advantage of sea-power), had seized, held, and acted on +interior lines so ably that his forty-three thousand men had +out-maneuvered and out-fought the sixty thousand of the enemy, +beating them in detail on ground of their own besides inflicting a +threefold loss. Grant lost little over four thousand. The Confederates +lost nearly twelve thousand, half of whom were captured. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only real trouble, besides the failure to carry the lines by +assault, was with the two bad generals, McClernand and Banks. McClernand +had promulgated an order praising his own corps to the skies and +conveying the idea that he and it had won the battles. Moreover, +he hinted that he had succeeded in the assault while the others had +failed. This was especially offensive because Grant, at McClernand's +urgent request, had sent reinforcements from other corps to confirm a +success that he found nonexistent on the spot, except in McClernand's +own words. To crown this, McClernand had sent his official order, with +all its misleading statements, to be published in the Northern press; +and the <a name="page_273"><span class="page">Page 273</span></a> +whole army was now supplied with the papers containing it. So gross +a breach of discipline could not go unpunished; and McClernand +was sent back to Springfield in disgrace. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Banks, unfortunately, was senior to Grant and of course independent +of Farragut; so he could safely vex them both—Grant, by spoiling +the plan of concerting the attacks on Port Hudson and Vicksburg in +May; Farragut, by continual failure in coöperation and by +leaving big guns exposed to capture on the west bank. But things +turned out well, after all. The guns were saved by the naval vessels +that beat off a Confederate attack on Donaldsonville; and Grant's +army was saved from coming under Banks's command by Banks's own +egregious failure in coöperation. This failure thus became +a blessing in disguise: a disguise too good for Halleck, whose +reprimand from Washington on the twenty-third of May shows what +dangers lurked beneath the might-have-been. "The Government is +exceedingly disappointed that you and General Grant are not acting +in conjunction. It thought to secure that object by authorizing +you to assume the entire command as soon as you and General Grant +could unite." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the end the Confederates suffered much more <a name="page_274"><span +class="page">Page 274</span></a> than the Federals from civilian +interference; for the orders of their Government came through in +time to confuse a situation that was already bad and growing worse. +Between Porter afloat and Grant ashore Vicksburg was doomed unless +"Joe" Johnston came west with sufficient force to relieve it in +time. Johnston did come early enough, but not in sufficient force; +so the next best thing was to destroy all stores, abandon Vicksburg, +and save the garrison. The Government, however, sent positive orders +to hold Vicksburg to the very last gasp. Johnston had meanwhile sent +Pemberton (the Vicksburg commander) orders to combine with him in +free maneuvering for an attack in the field. But Pemberton's own idea +was to await Grant on the Big Black River, where, with Johnston's +help, he thought he could beat him. Then followed hesitation, a +futile attempt to harmonize the three incompatible schemes; and +presently the division of the Confederates into separated armies, +driven apart by Grant, whose own army soon dug itself in between +them and quickly grew stronger than both. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's lines, facing both opponents, from Haynes's Bluff to Warrenton, +were fifteen miles long, which gave him one man per foot when his +<a name="page_275"><span class="page">Page 275</span></a> full +strength was reached Pemberton's were only seven; and his position +was strong, both towards the river, where the bluffs rose two hundred +feet, and on the landward side, where the slopes were sharp and well +fortified. Grant closed in, however, and pressed the bombardment +home. Except for six 32-pounders and a battery of big naval guns he +had nothing but field artillery. Yet the abundance of ammunition, +the closeness of the range, and the support of his many excellent +snipers, soon gave him the upper hand. Six hundred yards was the +farthest the lines were apart. In some places they nearly touched. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +All ranks worked hard, especially at engineering, in which there +was such a dearth of officers that Grant ordered every West Pointer +to do his turn with the sappers and miners as well as his other +duty. This brought forth a respectful protest from the enormously +fat Chief Commissary, who said he could only be used as a sap-roller +(the big roller sappers shove protectingly before them when snipers +get their range). The real sap-rollers came to grief when an ingenious +Confederate stuffed port-fires with turpentined cotton and shot them +into rollers only a few yards off. But after this the Federals kept +their rollers wet; and sapped and burrowed <a name="page_276"><span +class="page">Page 276</span></a> till the big mine was fully charged +and safe from the Confederate countermine, which had missed its +mark. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While trying to blow each other up the men on both sides exchanged +amenities and chaff like the best of friends. Each side sold its +papers to the other; and the wall-paper newsprint of Vicksburg +made a good war souvenir for both. There was a steady demand for +Federal bread and Confederate tobacco. When market time was over the +Confederates would heave down hand-grenades, which agile Federals, +good at baseball, would heave uphill again before they exploded. And +woe to the man whose head appeared out of hours; for snipers were +always on the watch, especially that prince of snipers, Lieutenant H. +C. Foster, renowned as "Coonskin" from the cap he wore. A wonderful +stalker and dead shot he was a terror to exposed Confederates at +all times; but more particularly towards the end, when (their front +artillery having been silenced by Grant's guns) Coonskin built a +log tower, armored with railway iron, from which he picked off +men who were safe from ordinary fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-first of June Pemberton planned an escape across +the Mississippi and built some rough boats. But Grant heard of +this; the flotilla <a name="page_277"><span class="page">Page +277</span></a> grew more watchful still; and before any attempt at +escape could be made the great mine was fired on the twenty-fifth. +The whole top of the hill was blown off, and with it some men who +came down alive on the Federal side. Among these was an unwounded +but terrified colored man, who, on being asked how high he had +gone, said, "Dunno, Massa, but t'ink 'bout t'ree mile." An immense +crater was formed. But there was no practicable breach; so the +assault was deferred. A second mine was exploded on the first of +July. But again there was no assault; for Grant had decided to +wait till several huge mines could be exploded simultaneously. +In the meantime an intercepted dispatch warned him that Johnston +would try to help Pemberton to cut his way out. But by the time +the second mine was exploded Pemberton was sounding his generals +about the chances of getting their own thirty thousand to join +Johnston's thirty thousand against Grant's seventy-five thousand. +The generals said No. Negotiations then began. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the third of July Grant met Pemberton under the "Vicksburg Oak," +which, though quite a small tree, furnished souvenir-hunters with many +cords of sacred wood in after years. Grant very <a name="page_278"><span +class="page">Page 278</span></a> wisely allowed surrender on parole, +which somewhat depleted Confederate ranks in the future by the +number of men who, returning to their homes, afterwards refused +to come back when the exchange of prisoners would have permitted +them to do so. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That was a great week of Federal victory—the week including the +third, fourth, and eighth of July. On the third Lee was defeated at +Gettysburg. On the now doubly "Glorious Fourth" Vicksburg surrendered +and the last Confederate attack was repulsed at Helena in Arkansas. On +the eighth Port Hudson surrendered. With this the whole Mississippi +fell into Federal hands for good. On the first of August Farragut +left New Orleans for New York in the battle-scarred <i>Hartford</i> +after turning over the Mississippi command to Porter's separate +care. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Meanwhile the Confederates in Tennessee, weakened by reinforcing +Johnston against Grant, had been obliged to retire on Chattanooga. +To cover this retirement and make what diversion he could, Bragg sent +John H. Morgan with twenty-five hundred cavalry to raid Kentucky, +Indiana, and Ohio. Perplexing the outnumbering Federals by <a +name="page_279"><span class="page">Page 279</span></a> his daring, +"Our Jack Morgan" crossed the Ohio at Brandenburg, rode northeast +through Indiana, wheeled south at Hamilton, Ohio, rode through the +suburbs of Cincinnati, reached Buffington Island on the border of +West Virginia, and then, hotly pursued by ever-increasing forces, +made northeast toward Pennsylvania. On the twenty-sixth of July +he surrendered near New Lisbon with less than four hundred men +left. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederate main body passed the summer vainly trying to stem +the advance of the Army of the Cumberland, with which Rosecrans and +Thomas skillfully maneuvered Bragg farther and farther south till +they had forced him into and out of Chattanooga. In the meantime +Burnside's Army of the Ohio cleared eastern Tennessee and settled +down in Knoxville. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But in the middle of September Longstreet came to Bragg's rescue; +and a desperate battle was fought at Chickamauga on the nineteenth +and twentieth. The Confederates had seventy thousand men against +fifty-six thousand Federals: odds of five to four. They were determined +to win at any price; and it cost them eighteen thousand men, killed, +wounded, and missing; which was two thousand more than the Federals +lost. But they felt <a name="page_280"><span class="page">Page +280</span></a> it was now or never as they turned to bay with, for +once, superior numbers. As usual, too, they coveted Federal supplies. +"Come on, boys, and charge!" yelled an encouraging sergeant, "they +have cheese in their haversacks!" Yet the pride of the soldier +stood higher than hunger. General D. H. Hill stooped to cheer a +very badly wounded man. "What's your regiment?" asked Hill. "Fifth +Confederate, New Orleans, and a damned good regiment it is," came +the ready answer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Rosecrans, like many another man who succeeds halfway up, failed +at the top. He ordered an immediate general retreat which would +have changed the hard-won Confederate victory into a Federal rout. +But Thomas, with admirable judgment and iron nerve, stood fast +till he had shielded all the others clear. From this time on both +armies knew him as the "Rock of Chickamauga." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The unexpected defeat of Chickamauga roused Washington to immediate, +and this time most sensible, action. Grant was given supreme command +over the whole strategic area. Thomas superseded Rosecrans. Sherman +came down with the Army of the Tennessee. And Hooker railed through +from Virginia with two good veteran corps. Meanwhile the Richmond +Government was more <a name="page_281"><span class="page">Page +281</span></a> foolish than the Washington was wise; for it let +Davis mismanage the strategy without any reference to Lee. Bragg +also made a capital mistake by sending Longstreet off to Knoxville +with more than a third of his command just before Grant's final +advance. The result was that Bragg found himself with only thirty +thousand men at Chattanooga when Grant closed in with sixty thousand, +and that Longstreet was useless at Knoxville, which was entirely +dependent on Chattanooga. Whoever won decisively at Chattanooga +could have Knoxville too. Davis, as the highest authority, and +Bragg, as the most responsible subordinate, ensured their own defeat. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Chattanooga was the key to the whole strategic area of the upper +Tennessee; for it was the best road, rail, and river junction between +the lower Mississippi and the Atlantic ports of the South. It had +been held for some time by a Federal garrison which had made it +fairly strong. But toward the end of October it was short of supplies; +and Hooker had to fight Longstreet at Wauhatchie in the Lookout +Valley before it could be revictualed. When Hooker, Thomas, and +Sherman were there together under Grant in November it was of course +perfectly safe; and the problem changed from <a name="page_282"><span +class="page">Page 282</span></a> defense to attack. The question +was how to drive Bragg from his commanding positions on Missionary +Ridge and Lookout Mountain. The woods and hills offered concealment +to the attack in some places. But Lookout Mountain was a splendid +observation post, twenty-two hundred feet high and crested with +columns of rock. The Ridge was three miles east, the Mountain three +miles south, of Cameron Hill, which stood just west of Chattanooga, +commanding the bridge of boats that crossed the Tennessee. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The battle, fought with great determination on both sides, lasted +three days—the twenty-third, twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth +of November. Sherman made the flank attack on Missionary Ridge +from the north and Thomas the frontal attack from the west. Hooker +attacked the western flank of Lookout Mountain. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thomas did the first day's fighting, which was all preliminary +work, by advancing a good mile, taking the Confederate lines on the +lower slopes of the Ridge, and changing their defensive features +to face the Ridge instead of Chattanooga. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At two the next morning Giles Smith's brigade dropped down the +Tennessee in boats and surprised the extreme north pickets placed +by Bragg <a name="page_283"><span class="page">Page 283</span></a> +at the mouth of the South Chickamauga to cover the right of the +Ridge. By noon Sherman's men were over the Tennessee ready to +coöperate with Thomas. Sherman had hidden his camp among the +hills on the other side so well that his movements could not be +observed, even from the commanding height of Lookout Mountain. The +night surprise of Bragg's pickets and the drizzling rain of the +morning prevented the Confederates from hearing or seeing anything +of Sherman's attack in the early afternoon; so he found himself on +the northern flank of Missionary Ridge before Bragg's main body +knew what he was doing. When the Confederates did attack it was too +late; and the twenty-fourth ended with Sherman entrenched against +the flank on even higher ground than Thomas held against the center. +Sherman's cavalry had meanwhile moved round the flank, on the lower +level and much farther off, to cut Bragg's right rear connection +with Chickamauga Station, whence the rails ran east to Cleveland, +Knoxville, and Virginia. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hooker's work this second day was to feel the Confederate force +on Lookout Mountain while keeping the touch with Thomas, who kept +the touch with Sherman. Mists hid his earlier maneuvers. He closed +in successfully, handled his men to <a name="page_284"><span +class="page">Page 284</span></a> admiration, and gained more ground +than either he or Grant had expected. Having succeeded so well he +changed his demonstration into a regular attack, which became known +as the "Battle above the Clouds." Step by step he fought his way up, +over breastworks and rifle pits, felled trees and bowlders, through +ravines and gullies, till the vanguard reached the giant palisades of +rock which ramparted the top. The roar of battle was most distinctly +heard four miles away, on Orchard Knob, where Grant and Thomas were +anxiously waiting. But nothing could be seen until a sudden breeze +blew the clouds aside just as the long blue lines charged home and +the broken gray retreated. Then, from thirty thousand watching +Federals, went up a cheer that even cannon could not silence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At midnight Grant sent a word of encouragement to Burnside at Knoxville. +He then wrote his orders for what he now hoped would be a completely +victorious attack. The twenty-fifth of November broke beautifully +clear, and the whole scene of action remained in full view all day +long. Fearful of being cut off from their main body on Missionary +Ridge the Confederates had left Lookout Mountain under cover of the +dark. But by destroying the bridges across the Chattanooga River, +which <a name="page_285"><span class="page">Page 285</span></a> +ran through the valley between the Mountain and the Ridge, they +delayed Hooker till late that afternoon, thus saving their left +from an even worse disaster than the one that overtook their center +and their right. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman had desperate work against their right, as Bragg massed +every available gun and man to meet him. This massing, however, +was just what Grant wanted; for he now expected Hooker to appear +on the other flank, which Bragg would either have to give up in +despair or strengthen at the expense of the center, which Thomas +was ready to charge. But with Hooker not appearing, and Sherman +barely holding his own, Grant slipped Thomas from the leash. The +two centers then met hand to hand. But there was no withstanding +the Federal charge. Back went the Confederates, turning to bay +at their second line of defense. Here again they were overborne +by well-led superior numbers and soon put to flight. Sheridan, +of whom we shall hear again in '64, took up the pursuit. Bragg +lost all control of his men. Stores, guns, and even rifles were +abandoned. Thousands of prisoners were taken; and most of the others +were scattered in flight. The battle, the whole campaign, and even +the war in the Tennessee sector, were won. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_286"><span class="page">Page 286</span></a> Vicksburg +meant that the trans-Mississippi South would thenceforth wither +like a severed branch. Chattanooga meant that the Union forces +had at last laid the age to the root of the tree. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_287"><span class="page">Page 287</span></a> +CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">GETTYSBURG: 1863</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the fifth of May we left Lee victorious in Virginia; but with +his indispensable lieutenant, Stonewall Jackson, mortally wounded. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Though thoroughly defeated at Chancellorsville, Hooker soon recovered +control of the Army of the Potomac and prepared to dispute Lee's +right of way. Lee faced a difficult, perhaps an insoluble, problem. +Longstreet urged him to relieve the local pressure on Vicksburg by +concentrating every available man in eastern Tennessee, not only +withdrawing Johnston's force from Grant's rear but also depleting +the Confederates in Virginia for the same purpose. Then, combining +these armies from east and west with the one already there under +Bragg, the united Confederates were to crush Rosecrans in their +immediate front and make Cincinnati their great objective. Lee, +however, dared not risk the loss of his Virginian bases in the +meantime; and so <a name="page_288"><span class="page">Page +288</span></a> he decided on a vigorous counter-attack, right into +Pennsylvania, hoping that, if successful, this would produce a +greater effect than any corresponding victory could possibly produce +elsewhere. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the ninth of June a cavalry combat round Brandy Station, in +the heart of Virginia, made Hooker's staff feel certain that Lee +was again going up the Valley and on to Maryland. At one time, +for want of supplies, Lee had to spread out his front along a line +running eighty miles northwest from Fredericksburg to Strasburg. +Hooker, on the keen alert, implored the Government to let him attack +the three Confederate corps in detail. Success against one at least +was certain. Lincoln understood this perfectly. But the nerves of his +colleagues were again on edge; and no argument could persuade them +to adopt the best of all possible schemes of defense by destroying +the enemy's means of destroying them. They insisted on the usual +shield theory of passive defense, and ordered Hooker to keep between +Lee and Washington whatever might happen. This absurd maneuver was +of course attended with all the usual evil results at the time. +Equally of course, it afterwards drew down the wrath of the wiseacre +public on their own representatives. But wiseacre publics <a +name="page_289"><span class="page">Page 289</span></a> never stop +to think that many a government is forced to do foolish and even +suicidal things in war simply because it represents the ignorance +and folly, as well as the wisdom, of all who have the vote. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Yet both the loyal public and its Government had some good reasons +to doubt Hooker's ability, even apart from his recent defeat; and +Lincoln, wisest of all—except in applying strategy to problems +he could not fully understand—felt almost certain that Hooker's +character contained at least the seeds of failure in supreme command. +"He talks to me like a father," said Hooker, on reading the letter +Lincoln wrote when appointing him Burnside's successor. This remarkable +letter, dated January 26, 1863, though printed many times, is worth +reading again: +</p> + +<p class="quote"> + +I have placed you at the head of the Army of the Potomac. Of course +I have done this upon what appears to me to be sufficient reasons, +and yet I think it best for you to know that there are some things +in regard to which I am not quite satisfied with you. I believe +you to be a brave and skillful soldier, which, of course, I like. +I also believe you do not mix politics with your profession, in +which you are right. You have confidence in yourself, which is +a valuable, if not an indispensable, quality. You are ambitious, +which, <a name="page_290"><span class="page">Page 290</span></a> +within reasonable bounds, does good rather than harm; but I think +that during General Burnside's command of the army you have taken +counsel of your ambition, and thwarted him as much as you could, in +which you did a great wrong to the country and to a most meritorious +and honorable brother officer. I have heard, in such way as to +believe it, of your recently saying that both the army and the +Government needed a Dictator. Of course it was not for this, but in +spite of it, that I have given you the command. Only those generals +who gain successes can set up dictatorships. What I now ask of +you is military success, and I will risk the dictatorship. The +Government will support you to the utmost of its ability, which +is neither more nor less than it has done and will do for all +commanders. I much fear that the spirit which you have aided to +infuse into the army, of criticizing their commander and withholding +confidence from him, will now turn upon you. I shall assist you +as far as I can to put it down. Neither you nor Napoleon, if he +were alive again, could get any good out of an army while such +a spirit prevails in it. And now, beware of rashness, but with +energy and sleepless vigilance go forward, and give us victories. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then came Chancellorsville, doubts at Washington, interference by +Stanton, ill-judged orders from Halleck, and some not very judicious +rejoinders from Hooker himself, who became rather peevish, to Lincoln's +alarm. So when, on the twenty-seventh of June, Hooker tendered +his resignation, <a name="page_291"><span class="page">Page +291</span></a> it was promptly accepted. With Lee in Pennsylvania +there was no time for discussion: only for finding some one to +trust. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee, as usual, had divined the political forces working on the +Union armies from Washington and had maneuvered with a combination +of skill and daring that exactly met the situation. Throwing his +left forward (under Ewell) in the Shenandoah Valley he had driven +Milroy out of Winchester on the fourteenth of June and next day +secured a foothold across the Potomac. Then the rest of his army +followed. It was so much stretched out (to facilitate its food +supply) that Lincoln again wished to strike it at any vulnerable +spot. But the Cabinet in general (and Stanton in particular) were +still determined that the Union army should be their passive shield, +not their active sword. On the twenty-fourth Ewell was already +beginning to semicircle Gettysburg from the Cumberland Valley. On +the twenty-eighth, the day on which Meade succeeded Hooker in the +Federal command, the Confederate semicircle, now formed by Lee's +whole army, stretched from Chambersburg on the west, through Carlisle +on the north, to York on the east; while the massed Federals were +still in Maryland, near Middletown and Frederick, thirty miles +south <a name="page_292"><span class="page">Page 292</span></a> of +Gettysburg, and only forty miles northwest of nervous Washington. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hooker's successor, George G. Meade, was the fifth defender of +Washington within the last ten months. Luckily for the Union, Meade +was a sound, though not a great, commander, and his hands were +fairly free. Luckily again, he was succeeded in command of the Fifth +Corps by George Sykes, the excellent leader of those magnificent +regulars who fought so well at Antietam and Second Manassas. The +change from interference to control was made only just in time +at Washington; for three days after Meade's free hand began to +feel its way along the threatened front the armies met upon the +unexpected battlefield of Gettysburg. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee in Pennsylvania was in the midst of a very hostile population +and facing superior forces which he could only defeat in one of +two difficult ways: either by a sudden, bewildering, and unexpected +attack, like Jackson's and his own at Chancellorsville, or by an +impregnable defense on ground that also favored a victorious +counter-attack and the subsequent crushing pursuit. But there was +no Jackson now; and the nature of the country did not favor the +bewildering of Federals who were fighting at home under excellent +generals well served by a <a name="page_293"><span class="page">Page +293</span></a> competent staff and well screened by cavalry. So +the "fog of war" was quite as dense round Lee's headquarters as +it was round Meade's on the first of July, when Lee found that his +chosen point of concentration near Gettysburg was already occupied +by Buford's cavalry, with infantry and some artillery in support. +The surprise—and no very great surprise—was mutual. +The Federals were found where they could stand on their defense +in a very strong position if the rest of their army could come up +in time. And Lee's only advantage was that, having already ordered +concentration round the same position, he had a few hours' start +of Meade in getting there. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Each commander had intended to make the other one attack if possible; +and Meade of course knew that Lee, with inferior numbers and vastly +inferior supplies, could not afford to stay long among gathering +enemies in the hostile North without decisive action. The Confederates +must either fight or retreat without fighting, and make their choice +very soon. So, when the two armies met at Gettysburg, Lee was +practically forced to risk an immediate action or begin a retreat +that might have ruined Confederate morale. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Gettysburg is one of those battles about which <a name="page_294"><span +class="page">Page 294</span></a> men will always differ. The numbers +present, the behavior of subordinates, the tactics employed, were, +and still are, subjects of dispute. Above all, there is the vexed +question of what Lee should or should not have done. We have little +space to spare for any such discussions. We can only refer inquirers +to the original evidence (some of which is most conflicting) and +give the gist of what seems to be indubitable fact. The numbers +were a good seventy thousand Confederates against about eighty +thousand Federals. But these are the approximate grand totals; +and it must be remembered that the Confederates, having the start, +were in superior numbers during the first two days. On each side +there was an aggrieved and aggrieving subordinate general, Sickles +on the Federal side, Longstreet on the other. But Sickles was by +far the less important of the two. In tactics the Federals displayed +great judgment, skill, and resolution. The Northern people called +Gettysburg a soldiers' battle; and so, in many ways, it was; for +there was heroic work among the rank and file on both sides. But +it most emphatically was not a soldiers' battle in the sense of its +having been won more by the rank and file than by the generals in +high command; for never did so many Federal <a name="page_295"><span +class="page">Page 295</span></a> chiefs show to such great advantage. +No less than five commanded in succession between morning and midnight +on the first day, each meeting the crisis till the next senior +came up. They were Buford, Reynolds, Howard, Hancock, Meade. Hunt +also excelled in command of the artillery; and this in spite of +much misorganization of that arm at Washington. Warren was not only +a good commander of the engineers but a good all-round general, +as he showed by seizing, on his own initiative, the Little Round +Top, without which the left flank could never have been held. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Finally, there is the great vexed question of what Lee should or +should not have done. First, it seems clear that (like Farragut and +unlike Grant and Jackson) he lacked the ruthless power of making +every subordinate bend or break in every time of crisis: otherwise +he would have bent or broken Longstreet. Next, it may have been +that he was not then at his best. Concludingly, it may be granted +to armchair (and even other) critics that if everything had been +something else the results might not have been the same. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Lee, having invaded the North by marching northeast under cover +of the mountains and <a name="page_296"><span class="page">Page +296</span></a> wheeling southeast to concentrate at Gettysburg, +found Buford's cavalry suddenly resisting him, as they formed the +northwest outpost of Meade's army, which was itself concentrating +round Pipe Creek, near Taneytown in Maryland, fifteen miles southeast. +Gettysburg was a meeting place of many important roads. It stood at +the western end of a branch line connecting with all the eastern +rails. And it occupied a strong strategic point in the vitally +important triangle formed by Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and Washington. +Thus, like a magnet, it drew the contending armies to what they +knew would prove a field decisive of the whole campaign. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Federal line, as finally held on the third of July, was nearly +five miles long. The front faced west and was nearly three miles +long. The flanks, thrown back at right angles, faced north and +south. Near the north end of the front stood Cemetery Hill, near +the south the Devil's Den, a maze of gigantic bowlders. Along the +front the ground was mostly ridged, and even the lower ground about +the center was a rise from which a gradual slope went down to the +valley that rose again to the opposite heights of Seminary Ridge, +where Lee had his headquarters only a mile away. The so-called +hills <a name="page_297"><span class="page">Page 297</span></a> +were no more than hillocks, the ridges were low, and most slopes +were those of a rolling country. But the general contour of the +ground, the swelling hillocks on the flanks (Culp's Hill on the +right, the Round Tops on the left) and the broad glacis up which +attackers must advance against the center, all combined to make the +position very strong indeed when held by even or superior numbers. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The first day's fight began when A. P. Hill's Confederates, with +Longstreet's following, closed in on Gettysburg from the west to +meet Ewell's, who were coming down from the north. Buford's Federal +cavalry resisted Hill's advanced brigades successfully till Reynolds +had brought the First Corps forward in support and ordered the +two other nearest corps to follow at the double quick. Reynolds +was killed early in the day; but not before his well trained eye +had taken in the situation at a glance and his sure judgment had +half committed both armies to that famous field. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The full commitment came shortly after, when Meade sent Hancock +forward to command the three corps and Buford's cavalry in their +attempt to stem the Confederate advance. Howard was then the senior +general on the field, having taken over from Doubleday, who had +succeeded Reynolds. <a name="page_298"><span class="page">Page +298</span></a> But he at once agreed that such a strong position +should be held and that Hancock should proceed to rectify the lines. +This was no easy task; for Ewell's Confederates had meanwhile come +down from the north and driven in the Federal flank on the already +hard-pressed front. The front thereupon gave way and fell back in +confusion. But Hancock's masterly work was quickly done and the +Federal line was reëstablished so well that the Confederates +paused in their attack and waited for the morrow. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederates had got as good as they gave, much to their disgust. +Archer, one of their best brigadiers, felt particularly sore when +most of his men were rounded up by Meredith's "Iron Brigade." When +Doubleday saw his old West Point friend a prisoner he shook hands +cordially, saying, "Well, Archer, I <i>am</i> glad to see you!" But +Archer answered, "Well, I'm not so glad to see <i>you</i>—not +by a damned sight!" The fact was that the excellent Federal defense +had come as a very unpleasing surprise upon the rather too cocksure +Confederates. Buford's cavalry and Reynolds's infantry had staunchly +withstood superior numbers; while Lieutenant Bayard Wilkeson actually +held back a Confederate division for some time with the guns <a +name="page_299"><span class="page">Page 299</span></a> of Battery +G, Fourth U. S. Artillery. This heroic youth, only nineteen years +of age, kept his men in action, though they were suffering terrible +losses, till two converging batteries brought him down. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He was well matched by a veteran of over seventy, John Burns, an +old soldier, whom the sound of battle drew from his little home like +the trumpet-call to arms. In his swallow-tailed, brass-buttoned, +old-fashioned coatee, Burns seemed a very comic sight to the nearest +boys in blue until they found he really meant to join them and +that he knew a thing or two of war. "Which way are the rebels?" he +asked, "and where are our troops? I know how to fight—I've +fit before." So he did; and he fought to good purpose till wounded +three times. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Late in the evening Meade arrived and inspected the lines by moonlight. +Having ordered every remaining man to hasten forward he faced the +second day with well-founded anxiety lest Lee's full strength should +break through before his own last men were up. His right was not +safe against surprise by the Confederates who slept at the foot of +Culp's Hill, and his left was in imminent danger from Longstreet's +corps. But on the second day Longstreet marked his disagreement with +Lee's <a name="page_300"><span class="page">Page 300</span></a> +plans by delaying his attack till Warren, with admirable judgment, +had ordered the Round Tops to be seized at the double quick and +held to the last extremity. Then, after wasting enough time for +this to be done, Longstreet attacked and was repulsed; though his +men fought very well. Meanwhile Ewell, whose attack against the +right was to synchronize with Longstreet's against the left, was +delayed by Longstreet till the afternoon, when he carried Culp's +Hill. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This was the only Confederate success; for Early failed to carry +Cemetery Hill, the adjoining high ground, which formed the right +center, and the rest of the Federal line remained intact; though +not without desperate struggles. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The third was the decisive day; and on it Meade rose to the height +of his unappreciated skill. This was the first great battle in +which all the chief Federals worked so well together and the first +in which the commander-in-chief used reserves with such excellent +effect, throwing them in at exactly the right moment and at the +proper place. But these indispensable qualities were not of the +kind that the public wanted to acclaim, or, indeed, of the kind +that they could understand. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meade was determined to clear his flanks. So <a name="page_301"><span +class="page">Page 301</span></a> he began at dawn to attack Ewell on +Culp's Hill and kept on doggedly till, after four hours of strenuous +fighting, he had driven him off. By this time Meade saw that Lee +was not going to press home any serious attack against the Round +Tops and Devil's Den on the left. So the main interest of the whole +battle shifted to the center of the field, where Lee was massing +for a final charge. The idea had been to synchronize three +coöperating movements against Meade's whole position. His left +was to have been held by a demonstration in force by Longstreet +against the Devil's Den and Round Tops, while Ewell held Culp's +Hill, which seemed to be at his mercy, and which would flank any +Federal retreat. At the same time Meade's center was to have been +rushed by Pickett's fresh division supported by three attached +brigades. But though the central force was ready before nine o'clock +it never stepped off till three; so great was Longstreet's delay +in ordering Pickett's advance. Meanwhile the Federals had made +Culp's Hill quite safe against Ewell. So all depended now on the +one last desperate assault against the Federal center. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This immortal assault is known as Pickett's Charge because it was +made by Pickett's division of Longstreet's corps supported by three +brigades <a name="page_302"><span class="page">Page 302</span></a> +from Hill's—Wilcox's, Perry's, and Pettigrew's. The whole +formed a mass of about ten thousand men. If they broke the Federal +line in two, then every supporting Confederate was to follow, while +the rest turned the flanks. If they failed, then the battle must +be lost. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hour after hour passed by. But it was not till well past one that +Longstreet opened fire with a hundred and forty guns. Hunt had +seventy-seven ready to reply. But after firing for half an hour +he ceased, wishing to reserve his ammunition for use against the +charging infantry. This encouraged the Confederate gunners, who +thought they had silenced him. They then continued for some time, +preparing the way for the charge, but firing too high and doing +little execution against the Federal infantry, who were lying down, +mostly under cover. Hunt's guns were more exposed and formed better +targets; so some of them suffered severely: none more than those of +Battery A, Fourth U.S. Artillery. This gallant battery had three +of its limbers blown up and replaced. Wheels were also smashed to +pieces and guns put out of action, till only a single gun, with +men enough to handle it, was left with only a single officer. This +heroic young lieutenant, Alonzo H. Cushing (brother to the naval +<a name="page_303"><span class="page">Page 303</span></a> Cushing +who destroyed the <i>Albemarle</i>), then ran his gun up to the +fence and fired his last round through it into Pickett's men as +he himself fell dead. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pickett advanced at three o'clock, to the breathless admiration +of both friend and foe. He had a mile of open ground to cover. But +his three lines marched forward as steadily and blithely as if the +occasion was a gala one and they were on parade. The Confederate +bombardment ceased. The Federal guns and rifles held their fire. Fate +hung in silence on those gallant lines of gray. Then the Federal +skirmishers down in the valley began fitfully firing; and the waiting +masses on the Federal slopes began to watch more intently still. +"Here they come! Here comes the infantry!" The blue ranks stirred +a little as the men felt their cartridge boxes and the sockets of +their bayonets. The calm warnings of the officers could be heard +all down the line of Gibbon's magnificent division, which stood +straight in Pickett's path. "Steady, men, steady! Don't fire yet!" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For a very few, tense minutes Pickett's division disappeared in +an undulation of the ground. Then, at less than point-blank range, +it seemed to spring out of the very earth, no longer in three lines +but one solid mass of rushing gray, cresting, like a tidal <a +name="page_304"><span class="page">Page 304</span></a> wave, to +break in fury on the shore. Instantly, as if in answer to a single +word, Hunt's guns and Gibbon's rifles crashed out together, and +shot, shell, canister, and bullet cut gaping wounds deep into the +dense gray ranks. Still, the wave broke; and, from its storm-blown +top, one furious tongue surged over the breastwork and through +the hedge of bayonets. It came from Armistead's brigade of stark +Virginians. He led it on; and, with a few score men, reached the +highwater mark of that last spring tide. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When he fell the tide of battle turned; turned everywhere upon +that stricken field; turned throughout the whole campaign; turned +even in the war itself. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As Pickett's men fell back they were swept by scythe-like fire +from every gun and rifle that could mow them down. Not a single +mounted officer remained; and of all the brave array that Pickett +led three-fourths fell killed or wounded. The other fourth returned +undaunted still, but only as the wreckage of a storm. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 723px;"> +<a name="fig_08"></a> +<a href="images/fig_08.jpg"> +<img src="images/fig_08_sm.jpg" width="723" height="430" alt="Fig. 8"></a> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee's loss exceeded forty per cent of his command. Meade's loss +fell short of thirty. But Meade was quite unable to pursue at once +when Lee retired on the evening of the fourth. The opposing <a +name="page_305"><span class="page">Page 305</span></a> cavalry, +under Pleasonton and Stuart respectively, had fought a flanking +battle of their own, but without decisive result. So Lee could +screen his retreat to the Potomac, where, however, his whole supply +train might have been cut off if its escort under the steadfast +Imboden had not been reinforced by every teamster who could pull +a trigger. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Gettysburg and Vicksburg, coming together, of course raised the +wildest expectations among the general public, expectations which +found an unworthy welcome at Government headquarters, where Halleck +wrote to Meade on the fourteenth: "The escape of Lee's army has +created great dissatisfaction in the mind of the President." Meade +at once replied: "The censure is, in my judgment, so undeserved +that I most respectfully ask to be immediately relieved from the +command of this army." Wiser counsels thereupon prevailed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lee and Meade maneuvered over the old Virginian scenes of action, +each trying to outflank the other, and each being hampered by having +to send reinforcements to their friends in Tennessee, where, as +we have seen already, Bragg and Rosecrans were now maneuvering in +front of Chattanooga. In October (after the Confederate victory of +Chickamauga) <a name="page_306"><span class="page">Page 306</span></a> +Meade foiled Lee's attempt to bring on a Third Manassas. The campaign +closed at Mine Run, where Lee repulsed Meade's attempted surprise +in a three-day action, which began on the twenty-sixth of November, +the morrow of Grant's three days at Chattanooga. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +From this time forward the South was like a beleaguered city, certain +to fall if not relieved, unless, indeed, the hearts of those who +swayed the Northern vote should fail them at the next election. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_307"><span class="page">Page 307</span></a> +CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FARRAGUT AND THE NAVY: 1863-4</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Navy's task in '63 was complicated by the many foreign vessels +that ran only between two neutral ports but broke bulk into +blockade-runners at their own port of destination. For instance, +a neutral vessel, with neutral crew and cargo, would leave a port +in Europe for a neutral port in America, say, Nassau in the Bahamas +or Matamoras on the Rio Grande. She could not be touched of course +at either port or anywhere inside the three-mile limit. But +international law accepted the doctrine of continuous voyage, by +which contraband could be taken anywhere on the high seas, provided, +of course, that the blockader could prove his case. If, for example, +there were ten times as many goods going into Matamoras as could +possibly be used through that port by Mexico, then the presumption +was that nine-tenths were contraband. Presumption becoming proof by +further evidence, the <a name="page_308"><span class="page">Page +308</span></a> doctrine of continuous voyage could be used in favor +of the blockaders who stopped the contraband at sea between the +neutral ports. The blockade therefore required a double line of +operation: one, the old line along the Southern coast, the other, +the new line out at sea, and preferably just beyond the three-mile +limit outside the original port of departure, so as to kill the +evil at its source. Nassau and Matamoras gave the coast blockade +plenty of harassing work; Nassau because it was "handy to" the +Atlantic ports, Matamoras because it was at the mouth of the Rio +Grande, over the shoals of which the Union warships could not go +to prevent contraband crossing into Texas, thence up to the Red +River, down to the Mississippi (between the Confederate strongholds +of Vicksburg and Port Hudson) and on to any other part of the South. +But what may be called the high-seas blockade was no less harassing, +complicated as it was by the work of Confederate raiders. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The coast blockade of '63 was marked by two notable ship duels and +three fights round Charleston, then, as always, a great storm center +of the war. At the end of January two Confederate gunboats under +Commodore Ingraham attacked the blockading flotilla of Charleston, +forced the <a name="page_309"><span class="page">Page 309</span></a> +<i>Mercedita</i> to surrender, badly mauled the <i>Keystone State</i>, +and damaged the <i>Quaker City</i>. But, though some foreign consuls +and all Charleston thought the blockade had been raised for the +time being, it was only bent, not broken. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At the end of February the Union monitor <i>Montauk</i> destroyed +the Confederate privateer <i>Nashville</i> near Fort McAllister +on the Ogeechee River in Georgia. In April nine Union monitors +steamed in to test the strength of Charleston; but, as they got +back more than they could give, Admiral Du Pont wisely decided not +to try the fight-to-a-finish he had meant to make next morning. +Wassaw Sound in Georgia was the scene of a desperate duel on the +seventeenth of June, when the Union monitor <i>Weehawken</i> captured +the old blockade-runner <i>Fingal</i>, which had been converted +into the new Confederate ram <i>Atlanta</i>. The third week in +August witnessed another bombardment of Charleston, this time on a +larger scale, for a longer time, and by military as well as naval +means. But Charleston remained defiant and unconquered both this +year and the next. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Confederate raiders were at work along the trade routes of the +world in '63, doing much harm by capture and destruction, and even +more by shaking <a name="page_310"><span class="page">Page +310</span></a> the security of the American mercantile marine. +American crews were hard to get when so many hands were wanted +for other war work; and American vessels were increasingly apt to +seek the safety of a neutral flag. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Slowly, and with much perverse interference to overcome in the +course of its harassing duties, the Union navy was getting the +strangle-hold that killed the sea-girt South. By '64 the North had +secured this strangle-hold; and nothing but foreign intervention +or the political death of the Northern War Party could possibly +shake it off. The South was feeling its practical enislement as +never before. The strong right arm of the Union navy held it fast +at every point but three—Wilmington, Charleston, and Mobile; +and round these three the stern blockaders grew stronger every day. +The Sabine Pass and Galveston also remained in Southern hands; +and the border town of Matamoras still imported contraband. But +these other three points were closely watched; and the greatly +lessened contraband that did get through them now only served the +western South, which had been completely severed from the eastern +South by the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. The left arm of the +Union navy now held the whole line of the <a name="page_311"><span +class="page">Page 311</span></a> Mississippi, while the gripping +hand held all the tributary streams—Ohio, Cumberland, and +Tennessee—from which the Union armies were to invade, divide, +and devastate the eastern South this year. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Several Southern raiders were still at large in '64. But the most +famous or notorious three have each their own year of glory. The +<i>Florida</i> belongs to '63, the <i>Shenandoah</i> to '65. So +the one great raiding story we have now to tell is that of the +<i>Alabama</i>, the greatest of them all. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <i>Alabama</i> was a beautiful thousand-ton wooden barkentine, +built by the Lairds at Birkenhead in '62, with standing rigging of +wire, a single screw driven by two horizontal three-hundred horse +power engines, coal room for three hundred and fifty tons, eight +good guns, the heaviest a hundred-pound rifle, and a maximum crew of +one hundred and forty-nine—all ranks and ratings—under +Captain Raphael Semmes, late U. S. N. Semmes was not only a very +able officer but an accomplished lawyer, well posted on belligerent +and neutral rights at sea. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For nearly two years the <i>Alabama</i> roved the oceans of the Old +World and the New, taking <a name="page_312"><span class="page">Page +312</span></a> sixty-six Union vessels valued at seven million +dollars, spreading the terror of her name among all the merchantmen +that flew the Stars and Stripes, and infuriating the Navy by the +wonderful way in which she contrived to escape every trap it set +for her. She was designed for speed rather than for fighting, and, +with her great spread of canvas, could sometimes work large areas +under sail. But, even so, her runs, captures, and escapes formed a +series of adventures that no mere luck could have possibly performed +with a fluctuating foreign crew commanded by ex-officers of the +Navy. Her wanderings took her through nearly a hundred degrees +of latitude, from the coast of Scotland to St. Paul Island, south +of the Indian Ocean, also through more than two hundred degrees of +longitude, from the Gulf of Mexico to the China Sea. She captured +"Yankees" within one day's steaming of the New York Navy Yard as +well as in the Straits of Sunda. West of the Azores and off the +coast of Brazil her captures came so thick and fast that they might +have almost been a flock of sheep run down there by a wolf. Finally, +to fill the cup of wrath against her, she had sunk a blockader +off the coast of Texas, given the slip to a Union man-of-war at +the Cape of Good Hope, and kept the <a name="page_313"><span +class="page">Page 313</span></a> Navy guessing her unanswered riddles +for two whole years. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Imagine, then, the keen elation with which all hands aboard the +U. S. S. <i>Kearsarge</i> heard at their berth off Flushing that +the <i>Alabama</i> was in port at Cherbourg on the Channel coast +of France, only one day's sail southwest! And there she was when +the <i>Kearsarge</i> came to anchor; and every Northern eye was +turned to see the ship of which the world had heard so much. The +Kearsarges hardly dared to hope that there would be a fight; for +they had the stronger vessel, and now the faster one as well. The +<i>Alabama</i> had been built for speed; but she had knocked about +so much without a proper overhaul that her copper sheathing was in +rags, while she was more or less strained in nearly every other +part. The <i>Kearsarge</i>, on the other hand, was in good order, +with mantlets of chain cable protecting her vitals, with one-third +greater horse power, with fourteen more men in her crew, and with two +big pivot guns throwing eleven inch shells with great force at short +ranges. Moreover, the <i>Kearsarge</i>, with her superior speed and +stronger hull, could choose the range and risk close quarters. The +Alabamas were also keen to estimate respective strengths. But the +French authorities naturally kept the two <a name="page_314"><span +class="page">Page 314</span></a> ships pretty far apart; so the +Alabamas never saw the chain mantlets which the Kearsarges had +cleverly hidden under a covering of wood that appeared to be flush +with the hull. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Kearsarges had a second and still more elating surprise when +they heard the <i>Alabama</i> was coming out to fight. Semmes was +apparently anxious to show that his raider could be as gallant in +fighting a man-of-war as she was effective in sinking merchant +vessels; so he wrote his challenge to the Confederate Consul at +Cherbourg, who passed it on to the U. S. Consul, who handed it +to Captain Winslow, commanding the <i>Kearsarge</i>. Still, four +days passed without the <i>Alabama</i>; and the Kearsarges were +giving up hope, when, suddenly, on Sunday morning, the nineteenth +of June, just as they had rigged church and fallen in for prayers, +out came the <i>Alabama</i>. The <i>Kearsarge</i> thereupon drew +off, so that the <i>Alabama</i> could not easily escape to neutral +waters if the duel went against her. Cherbourg, of course, was all +agog to see the fight; and many thousands of people, some from as far +as Paris, watched every move. An English yacht, the <i>Deerhound</i>, +kept an offing of about a mile, ready to rescue survivors from a +watery grave. Its owner, with his wife and family, had intended +to <a name="page_315"><span class="page">Page 315</span></a> stay +ashore and go to church. But, when they heard the <i>Alabama</i> +was really going out, he put the question to the vote around the +breakfast-table, whereupon it was carried unanimously that the +<i>Deerhound</i> should go too. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When the deck-officer of the <i>Kearsarge</i> sang out, +"<i>Alabama!</i>" Captain Winslow put down his prayer-book, seized +his speaking-trumpet, and turned to gain a proper offing, while +the drum beat to general quarters and the ship was cleared for +action, with pivot-guns to starboard. The weather was fine, with +a slight haze, little sea, and a light west breeze. Having drawn +the <i>Alabama</i> far enough to sea, the <i>Kearsarge</i> turned +toward her again, showing the starboard bow. When at a mile the +<i>Alabama</i> fired her hundred-pounder. For nearly the whole +hour this famous duel lasted the ships continued fighting in the +same way—starboard to starboard, round and round a circle +from half to a quarter mile across. Each captain stood on the +horse-block abreast the mizzen-mast to direct the fight. Semmes +presently called to his executive officer: "Mr. Kell, use solid +shot! Our shell strike the enemy's side and fall into the water" +(after bounding off the iron mantlets Winslow had so cleverly +concealed). The <i>Kearsarge's</i> gunnery was <a name="page_316"><span +class="page">Page 316</span></a> magnificent, especially from the +after-pivot, which Quartermaster William Smith fired with deadly +aim, even when three of his gun's crew had been wounded by a shell. +These three, strange to say, were the only casualties that occurred +aboard the <i>Kearsarge</i>. But at sea the stronger side usually +suffers much less and the weaker much more than on land. The +<i>Alabama</i> lost forty: killed, drowned, and wounded. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Kearsarges soon saw how the fight was going and began to cheer +each first-rate shot. "That's a good one! Now we have her! Give her +another like the last!" The big eleven-inchers got home repeatedly +as the range decreased; so much so that Semmes ordered Kell to +keep the <i>Alabama</i> headed for the coast the next time the +circling brought her bow that way. This would bring her port side +into action, which was just what Semmes wanted now, because she had +a dangerous list to starboard, where the water was pouring through +the shot-holes. Kell changed her course with perfect skill, righting +the helm, hoisting the head-sails, hauling the fore-try-sail-sheet +well aft, and pivoting to port for a broadside delivered almost +as quickly as if there had not been a change at all. But at this +moment the engineer came up to say the water had put his fires out <a +name="page_317"><span class="page">Page 317</span></a> and that the +ship was sinking. At the same time a strange thing happened. An early +shot from the <i>Kearsarge</i> had carried away the <i>Alabama's</i> +colors; and now the <i>Alabama's</i> own last broadside actually +announced her own defeat by "breaking out" the special Stars and +Stripes that Winslow had run up his mizzenmast on purpose to break +out in case of victory. A cannon ball had twitched the cord that +held the flag rolled up "in stops." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Semmes sent his one remaining boat to announce his surrender; threw +his sword into the sea; and jumped in with the survivors. The +<i>Deerhound</i>, on authority from Winslow, had already closed +in to the rescue, followed by two French pilot boats and two from +the <i>Kearsarge</i>; when suddenly the <i>Alabama</i>, rearing +like a stricken horse, plunged to her doom. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Long before the <i>Alabama's</i> end the Navy had been preparing +for the finishing blows against the Southern ports. Farragut had +returned to New Orleans in January, '64, hoping for immediate action. +But vexatious delays at Washington postponed his great attack till +August, when he crowned his whole career by his master-stroke against +Mobile. Grant was equally annoyed by <a name="page_318"><span +class="page">Page 318</span></a> this absurd delay, which was caused +by the eccentric, and therefore entirely wasteful, Red River Expedition +of '64, an expedition we shall ignore otherwise than by pointing out, +in this and the succeeding chapters, that it not only postponed +the overdue attack on Mobile but spoilt Sherman's grand strategy +as well as Farragut's and Grant's. Banks commanded it. But by this +time even he had learnt enough of war to know that it was a totally +false move. So he boldly protested against it. But Halleck's orders, +dictated by the Government, were positive. So there was nothing +for it but to suffer a well-deserved defeat while trying to kill +the dead and withering branches of Confederate power beyond the +Mississippi, in order to "show the flag in Texas" and say "hands +off!" to Mexico and France in the least effective way of all. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +During this delay the Confederate ram <i>Albemarle</i> came down +the Roanoke River, hoping to break through the local blockade in +Albemarle Sound and so give North Carolina an outlet to the sea. +Two attempts against Newbern, which closed the way out to Pamlico +Sound, had failed; but now (the fifth of May) great hopes were set +upon the <i>Albemarle</i>. At first she seemed impregnable; and the +Federal shot and shell glanced harmlessly <a name="page_319"><span +class="page">Page 319</span></a> off her iron sides. But presently +Commander Roe of the <i>Sassacus</i> (a light-draft, pair-paddle, +double-ender gunboat) getting at right angles to her, ordered his +engineer to stuff the fires with oiled waste and keep the throttle +open. "All hands, lie down!" shouted Roe, as the throbbing engines +drove his vessel to the charge. Then came an earthquake shock: the +<i>Sassacus</i> crashed her bronze beak into the <i>Albemarle's</i> +side. Both vessels were disabled; a shell from the <i>Albemarle</i> +burst the boilers of the <i>Sassacus</i>, scalding the engineers. +But the rest fought off the attempt made by the Albemarles to board. +Presently the furious opponents drifted apart; and the <i>Albemarle</i>, +unable to face her other enemies, took refuge upstream. There, on +the twenty-seventh of October, she was heroically attacked and +sunk by Lieutenant W. B. Cushing, U. S. N., with a spar torpedo +projecting from a little steam launch. Cushing himself swam off +through a hail of bullets, worked his way through the woods, seized +a skiff belonging to one of the enemy's outposts, and reached the +flagship half dead but wholly triumphant. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Between the <i>Albemarle's</i> two fights Farragut took Mobile +after a magnificent action on the fifth <a name="page_320"><span +class="page">Page 320</span></a> of August. There were batteries +ashore, torpedoes across the channel, the <i>Tennessee</i> ram +and other Confederate vessels waiting on the flank: three kinds +of danger to the Union fleet if one false movement had been made. +But Farragut's touch was sure. He sent his ironclads through next +to the batteries, which were only really dangerous on one side. This +protected the wooden ships against the batteries and the ironclads +against the torpedoes; for the Confederates had to leave part of the +fairway clear in order to use it themselves. Through this narrow +channel the four strongly armored monitors led the desperate way, a +little ahead and to starboard of the wooden vessels, which followed +in pairs, each pair lashed together, with the stronger on the starboard +side, next to Fort Morgan. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Confederates in Fort Morgan, and in the small and distant Fort +Powell on the other side, hardly reached a thousand men. Their force +afloat was also comparatively small: the ironclad ram <i>Tennessee</i> +and three side-wheeler gunboats. But the great strength of their +position and the many dangers to a hostile fleet combined to make +Farragut's attack a very serious operation, even with his four +monitors, eight screw sloops, and four smaller vessels. The Union +army, which took no part <a name="page_321"><span class="page">Page +321</span></a> in this great attack, was over five thousand strong, +and lost only seven men in the land bombardment later on. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Farragut crossed the bar in the <i>Hartford</i> at ten past six +in the morning with the young flood tide and a westerly breeze to +blow the smoke against Fort Morgan. All his ships ran up the Stars +and Stripes not only at the peak, as usual, but at each mast-head as +well. Farragut himself at first took post in the port main rigging. +But as the smoke of battle rose around him he climbed higher and +higher till he got close under the maintop, where a seaman, sent +up by Captain Drayton, lashed him on securely. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +All went well amid the furious cannonade till the monitor +<i>Tecumseh</i>, taking the wrong side of the channel buoy in her +anxiety to ram the <i>Tennessee</i>, ran over the torpedoes, was +horribly holed by the explosion, and plunged headforemost to the +bottom, her screw madly whirling in the air. Nor was this the worst; +for the <i>Tecumseh's</i> mistake had thrown the other monitors +out of their proper line-ahead, athwart the wooden ships, which +began to slow and swing about in some confusion. The Confederates +redoubled their fire. Ahead lay the fatal torpedoes. For a moment +Farragut <a name="page_322"><span class="page">Page 322</span></a> +could not decide whether to risk an advance at all costs or to turn +back beaten. He was a very devout as well as a most determined +man; and his simple prayer, "O God, shall I go on?" seemed answered +by the echo of his soul, "Go on!" So on he went, not in unreflecting +exaltation, but in exaltation based on knowledge and on skill. +Like Cromwell, he might well have said, "Trust in the Lord and +keep your powder dry!" For he had done all that naval foresight +could have done to ensure success. And now, in one lightning flash +of genius, he reviewed the situation. He knew the torpedoes of his +day were often unreliable, that they exploded only on a special +kind of shock, that those which did explode could not be replaced +in action, that they were all fixed to their own spots, and that +if one ship was blown up her next-astern would get through safely. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <i>Brooklyn</i>, his next-ahead, was in his way. So he ordered +the flagship <i>Hartford</i> and her lashed-together consort, the +double-ender <i>Metacomet</i>, to use, the one her screw, the other +her paddles, in opposite directions, till he had cleared the +<i>Brooklyn's</i> stern. As he drew clear and headed for the +danger-channel a shout went up from the <i>Brooklyn's</i> +deck—"'ware torpedoes!" But Farragut, his <a name="page_323"><span +class="page">Page 323</span></a> mind made up, instantly roared +back—"Damn the torpedoes!" Then, turning to the <i>Hartford's</i> +and <i>Metacomet's</i> decks, he called his orders down: "Four +bells! Captain Drayton, go ahead! Captain Jouett, full speed!" +In answer to the order of "four bells" the engines worked their +very utmost and the two vessels dashed ahead. Torpedoes knocked +against the bottom and some of the primers actually snapped. But +nothing exploded; and Farragut won through. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Inside the harbor the <i>Tennessee</i> fought hard against the +overwhelming Union fleet. But her low-powered engines gave her no +chance at quick maneuvers. Three vessels rammed her in succession; +and she was forced to surrender. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After this purely naval victory on the fifth of August, General +Granger's troops invested Fort Morgan, which, becoming the target +of an irresistible converging fire from both land and sea on the +twenty-second, surrendered on the twenty-third. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The next objective of a joint expedition was Fort Fisher, which +stood at the end of a long, low tongue of land between the sea and +Cape Fear River. Fort Fisher guarded the entrance to Wilmington +in North Carolina, the port, above all others, from which the +Confederate armies drew their oversea <a name="page_324"><span +class="page">Page 324</span></a> supplies. Lee wrote to Colonel +Lamb, its commandant, saying that he could not subsist if it was +taken. Lamb had less than two thousand men in the fort; but there +were six thousand more forming an army of support outside. The +Confederates, however, had no naval force to speak of, while the +Union fleet, commanded by Admiral Porter, was the largest that +had ever yet assembled under the Stars and Stripes. There were +nearly sixty fighting vessels of all kinds, including five new +ironclads and the three finest new frigates. The guns that were +carried exceeded six hundred. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There was also a mine ship, the old <i>Louisiana</i>, stuffed +chock-a-block with powder to blow in the side of the fort. The +Washington wiseacres set great store on this new mine of theirs. It +was, of course, to end the war. But naval and military experts on +the spot were more than doubtful. On the night of the twenty-third +of December the <i>Louisiana</i> was safely worked in near the fort +by brave Commander Rhind, who fired the slow match and escaped +unhurt with his devoted crew of volunteers. A tremendous explosion +followed. But, as there was nothing to drive the force of it against +the walls, it simply resulted in an enormous flurry of water, mud, +sand, earth, and bits of flaming wreckage. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_325"><span class="page">Page 325</span></a> Next +morning the fleet bombarded with such success as to silence many +of the guns opposed to them. But on Christmas Day General Weitzel +reported that an assault would fail; whereupon General Butler concurred +and retreated, much to the rage of the fleet, which thought quite +otherwise. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a few days General Terry arrived with the same white troops +reinforced by two small colored brigades, making a total of eight +thousand men. To these Porter, strongly reinforced, added a naval +brigade, two thousand strong, that volunteered to storm the sea +face of Fort Fisher. These gallant men had only cutlasses and +pistols—except the four hundred marines, who carried bayonets +and rifles. They were a scratch lot, from the soldier's point of +view, never having been landed together as a single unit till called +upon to assault the most dangerous features of the fort. Yet, though +they were repulsed with considerable loss, they greatly helped +to win the day by obliging the defenders to divide their forces. +As Terry's army was, by itself, four or five times stronger than +Lamb's entire command the military stormers succeeded in fighting +their way through every line of defense and compelling a surrender. +They did exceedingly well. But their rear was safe, because Bragg had +<a name="page_326"><span class="page">Page 326</span></a> withdrawn +the supporting army for service elsewhere; while, in their front, +the enemy defenses had been almost torn out by the roots in many +places under the terrific converging fire of six hundred naval +guns for three successive days. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When Fort Fisher surrendered on the fifteenth of January (1865) +the exhausted South had only one good port and one good raider +left: Charleston and the <i>Shenandoah</i>. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_327"><span class="page">Page 327</span></a> +CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">GRANT ATTACKS THE FRONT: 1864</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On March 9, 1864, at the Executive Mansion, and in the presence +of all the Cabinet Ministers, Lincoln handed Grant the +Lieutenant-General's commission which made him Commander-in-Chief +of all the Union armies—a commission such as no one else +had held since Washington. On April 9, 1865, Grant received the +surrender of Lee at Appomattox; and the four years war was ended +by a thirteen months campaign. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Victor of the River War in '63, Grant moved his headquarters from +Chattanooga to Nashville soon before Christmas. He then expected +not only to lead the river armies against Atlanta in '64 but, at +the same time, to send another army against Mobile, where it could +act in conjunction with the naval forces under Farragut's command. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He consequently made a midwinter tour of <a name="page_328"><span +class="page">Page 328</span></a> inspection: southeast to Chattanooga, +northeast to Knoxville and Cumberland Gap, northwest to Lexington +and Louisville, thence south, straight back to Nashville. This +satisfied him that his main positions were properly taken and held, +and that a well-concerted drive would clear his own strategic area +of all but Forrest's elusive cavalry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was the hardest winter known for many years. The sticky clay +roads round Cumberland Gap had been churned by wheels and pitted +by innumerable feet throughout the autumn rains. Now they were +frozen solid and horribly encumbered by débris mixed up +with thousands upon thousands of perished mules and horses. Grant +regretted this terrible wastage of animals as much in a personal as +in a military way; for, like nearly all great men, his sympathies +were broad enough to make him compassionate toward every kind of +sentient life. No Arab ever loved his horse better than Grant loved +his splendid charger Cincinnati, the worthy counterpart of Traveler, +Lee's magnificent gray. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Summoned to Washington in March, Grant, after one scrutinizing +look at the political world, then and there made up his steadfast +mind that no commander-in-chief could ever carry out his own plans +from any distant point; for, even in <a name="page_329"><span +class="page">Page 329</span></a> his fourth year of the war, civilian +interference was still being practiced in defiance of naval and +military facts and needs, and of some very serious dangers. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lincoln stood wisely for civil control. But even he could not resist +the perverting pressure in favor of the disastrous Red River Expedition, +against which even Banks protested. Public and Government alike +desired to give the French fair warning that the establishment of +an Imperial Mexico, especially by means of foreign intervention, +was regarded as a semi-hostile act. There were two entirely different +ways in which this warning could be given: one completely effective +without being provocative, the other provocative without being in +the very least degree effective. The only effective way was to win +the war; and the best way to win the war was to strike straight at +the heart of the South with all the Union forces. The most ineffective +way was to withdraw Union forces from the heart of the war, send them +off at a wasteful tangent, misuse them in eccentric operations just +where they would give most offense to the French, and then expose +them to what, at best, could only be a detrimental victory, and to +what would much more likely be defeat, if not disaster. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_330"><span class="page">Page 330</span></a> Yet, +to Grant's and Farragut's and every other soldier's and sailor's +disgust, this worst way of all was chosen; and Banks's forty thousand +sorely needed veterans were sent to their double defeat at Sabine +Cross Roads and Pleasant Hill on the eighth and ninth of April, while +Porter's invaluable fleet and the no less indispensable transports +were nearly lost altogether owing to the long-foretold fall of +the dangerous Red River. The one success of this whole disastrous +affair was the admirable work of Colonel Joseph Bailey, who dammed +the water up just in time to let the rapidly stranding vessels +slide into safety through a very narrow sluice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Even the Red River lesson was thrown away on Stanton, whose interference +continued to the bitter end, except when checked by Lincoln or countered +by Grant and Sherman in the field. When Grant was starting on his +tour of inspection he found that Stanton had forbidden all War +Department operators to let commanding generals use the official +cipher except when in communication with himself. There were to +be no secrets at the front between the commanding generals, even +on matters of immediate life and death, unless they were first +approved by Stanton at his leisure. The fact that the enemy could +use unciphered messages <a name="page_331"><span class="page">Page +331</span></a> was nothing in his autocratic eyes. Nor did it prick +his conscience to change the wording in ways that bewildered his +own side and served the enemy's turn. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When Grant took the cipher Stanton ordered the operator to be dismissed. +Grant thereupon shouldered the responsibility, saying that Stanton +would have to punish him if any one was punished. Then Stanton gave +in. Grant saw through him clearly. "Mr. Stanton never questioned +his own authority to command, unless resisted. He felt no hesitation +in assuming the functions of the Executive or in acting without +advising with him.... He was very timid, and it was impossible +for him to avoid interfering with the armies covering the capital +when it was sought to defend it by an offensive movement against +the army defending the Confederate capital. The enemy would not +have been in danger if Mr. Stanton had been in the field." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Stanton was unteachable. He never learnt where control ended and +disabling interference began. In the very critical month of August, +'64, he interfered with Hunter to such an extent that this patriotic +general had to tell Grant "he was so embarrassed with orders from +Washington that he had lost all trace of the enemy." Nor was that +<a name="page_332"><span class="page">Page 332</span></a> the end +of Stanton's interference with the operations in the Shenandoah +Valley. Lincoln's own cipher letter to Grant on the third of August +shows what both these great men had to suffer from the weak link +in the chain between them. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +I have seen your despatch in which you say, "I want Sheridan put +in command of all the troops in the field, with instructions to put +himself south of the enemy, and follow him to the death. Wherever +the enemy goes, let our troops go also." This, I think, is exactly +right, as to how our forces should move. But please look over the +despatches you may have received from here, even since you made +that order, and discover, if you can, that there is any idea in +the head of any one here of "putting our army <i>south</i> of the +enemy," or of "following him to the <i>death</i>" in any direction. +I repeat to you it will neither be done or attempted unless you +watch it every day, and hour, and force it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The experts of the loyal North were partly comforted by knowing that +Davis and his ministers had interfered with Jackson, that during +the present campaign they made a crucial mistake about Johnston, +and that they failed to give Lee the supreme command until it was +too late. But no Southern Secretary went quite so far as Stanton, +who actually falsified Grant's order to Sheridan at the crisis of +the Valley campaign in October. Here are <a name="page_333"><span +class="page">Page 333</span></a> Grant's own words: "This order +had to go through Washington, where it was intercepted; and when +Sheridan received what purported to be a statement of what I wanted +him to do it was something entirely different." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nor was Stanton the only responsible civilian to interfere with +Grant. There was no government press censorship—perhaps, +in this peculiar war, there could not be one. So the only safety +was unceasing care, even in cases vouched for by civilians of high +official standing. When Grant was beginning the great campaign of '64 +the Honorable Elihu B. Washburne, afterwards United States Minister +to France, introduced one Swinton as the prospective historian of +the war. On this understanding Swinton accompanied the army. One +night Grant gave verbal orders to the staff officer on duty. Three +days later these orders appeared in a Richmond paper. Shortly +afterwards, in the midst of the Wilderness battle, Swinton was +found eavesdropping behind a stump during a midnight conference at +headquarters. Sent off with a serious warning, he next appeared, +in another place, as a prisoner condemned to death for spying. +Grant, satisfied that he was not bent on getting news for the enemy +in particular, but only for the press in <a name="page_334"><span +class="page">Page 334</span></a> general, released and expelled +him with such a warning this time that he never once came back. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The Union forces at the front were about twice the corresponding +forces of the South. Sherman, who commanded the river armies after +Grant's transfer to Virginia, says: "I always estimated my force at +about double, and could afford to lose two to one without disturbing +our relative proportion." In Virginia the Army of the Potomac under +Meade and the new Army of the James under Butler, both under Grant's +immediate command, totaled over a hundred and fifty thousand men +against the ninety thousand under Lee. These odds of five to three +remained the same when a hundred and ten thousand Federals went +into winter quarters against sixty-six thousand Confederates at +Petersburg. But, when the naval odds of more than ten to one in +favor of the North are added in, the general odds of two to one are +reached on this as well as other scenes of action. In reserves the +odds were very much greater; for while the South was getting down +to its last available man the North began the following year with +nearly one million in the forces and two millions on the registered +reserve. Thus, even supposing that half the reserves were unfit <a +name="page_335"><span class="page">Page 335</span></a> for active +service, the man-power odds against the South were these: two to +one in arms at the beginning of the great campaign, five to one at +the end of it, and ten to one if the fit reserves were all included. +The odds in transportation by land, and very much more so by water, +were even greater at corresponding times; while the odds in all +the other resources which could be turned to warlike ends were +greater still. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Southern situation, therefore, was not encouraging from the +naval and military point of view. The border States had long been +lost, then the trans-Mississippi; and now the whole river area was +held as a base by the North. Only five States remained effective: +Alabama, Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia. These formed an +irregular oblong of about two hundred thousand square miles between +the Appalachians and the sea. There were a good eight hundred +Confederate miles from the Shenandoah Valley to Mobile. But the +three hundred miles across the oblong, even in its widest part, +were everywhere threatened and in some places held by the North. +The whole coast was more closely blockaded than ever; and only +three ports remained with their defenses still in Southern hands: +Wilmington, Charleston, and <a name="page_336"><span class="page">Page +336</span></a> Mobile. Alabama was threatened by land and sea from the +lower Mississippi and the Gulf. Georgia was threatened by Sherman's +main body in southeastern Tennessee. The Carolinas were in less +immediate danger. But they were menaced both from the mountains and +the sea; and if the Union forces conquered Virginia and Georgia, +then the Carolinas were certain to be ground into subjugation between +Grant's victorious forces on the north and Sherman's on the south. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant fixed his own headquarters with the Army of the Potomac at +Culpeper Court House, north of the Rapidan. Lee's Army of Northern +Virginia was at Orange Court House, over twenty miles south. Grant, +taking his own headquarters as the center, regarded Butler's Army +of the James as the left wing, which could unite with the center +round Richmond and Petersburg. The long right wing ran through +the whole of West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, clear away to +Memphis, with its own headquarters at Chattanooga. There Sherman +faced Johnston, who occupied a strong position at Dalton, over +thirty miles southeast. The great objectives were, of course, the +two main Southern armies under Lee and Johnston, with Richmond +and Atlanta as the chief positions to be gained. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_337"><span class="page">Page 337</span></a> All other +Union forces were regarded as attacking the South from the rear. +Wherever coast garrisons could help to tighten the blockade or +seriously distract Confederate attention they were left to do so. +Wherever they could not they were either depleted for the front +or sent there bodily. The principal Union field force attacking +from the rear was to have been formed by Banks's forty thousand +veterans in conjunction with Farragut's fleet against Mobile. But +the Red River Expedition spoilt that combination in the spring +and postponed it till August, when Farragut did nearly all the +fighting, and the coöperating army was far too late to produce +the distracting effect that Grant had originally planned. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +General Franz Sigel was sent to the upper Shenandoah Valley, both +to guard that approach on Washington and to destroy the resources on +which Lee's army so greatly relied. General George Crook was given +a mounted column to operate from southern West Virginia against +the line of rails running toward Tennessee through the lower end +of the Valley. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The most notable new general was Philip H. Sheridan, whom Grant +selected for the cavalry command. Sheridan was thirty-three, two +years <a name="page_338"><span class="page">Page 338</span></a> +older than his Southern rival, Stuart, and, like him, a young regular +officer who rose to well-earned fame the moment his first great +chance occurred. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman we have met from the very beginning of the war and followed +throughout its course. He was continually rising to more and more +responsible command; but it was only now that he became the virtual +Commander-in-Chief of all the river armies and the chosen +coöperator with Grant on a universal scale. He was of the +old original stock, his first American ancestors having emigrated +from England in 1634. An old regular, with special knowledge of the +South, and in the fullness of his powers at the age of forty-four, +he had developed with the war till there was no position which he +could not fill to the best advantage of the service. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant fixed the fourth of May for the combined advance of all the +converging forces of invasion. There were two weak points where +the Union armies failed: one in the farthest south, where, as we +have so often seen, Banks could not attack Mobile owing to his +absence at Red River; the other in the farthest north, where Sigel +was badly beaten and replaced by Hunter. Here, after much disabling +interference at the hands of Stanton, <a name="page_339"><span +class="page">Page 339</span></a> Hunter was succeeded by Sheridan, +whom Grant himself directed with consummate skill. There were also +two Confederate thorns in the Federal side: Forrest's cavalry in +Sherman's rear, Mosby's cavalry in Grant's. Forrest roved about the +river area, snapping up small garrisons, cutting communications, +and doing a good deal of damage right up to the Ohio. Mosby, with +a much smaller but equally efficient force, actually raided to and +fro in Grant's immediate rear; and on one occasion nearly captured +Grant himself just on the eve of the opening move. As Grant's unguarded +special train from Washington pulled up at Warrenton Junction, where +there was only one Union official, Mosby's men had just crossed +the track in pursuit of some Federal cavalry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But neither these two Confederate thorns in the side nor the more +serious Federal failures could stop the general advance. Nor yet +could Butler's lack of success on the James. Butler had seized +and fortified an exceedingly strong defensive position at Bermuda +Hundred on a peninsula, with navigable water on both flanks and in +rear, and a very narrow neck of land in front. The only trouble +was that it was as hard for him to surmount the Confederate front +across the same narrow neck as it was <a name="page_340"><span +class="page">Page 340</span></a> for the enemy to surmount his +own. He was, in fact, bottled up, with the cork in the enemy's +hands. He did send out cavalry from Suffolk to cut the rails south +of Petersburg. But no permanent damage was done there. Petersburg +itself, which at that time was almost defenseless, was not taken. And +in the middle of the month Beauregard attacked Butler so vigorously +as to make the Army of the James rather a passive than an active +force till it was presently, absorbed by Grant when he arrived +before Richmond in June. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant felt perfect confidence only in four prime elements of victory: +first, in his ability to wear Lee down by sheer attrition if other +means failed; next, in his own magnificent army; then in Sherman's; +and lastly in Sheridan's cavalry. His supply and transport services +were nearly perfect, even in his own most critical eyes. "There +never was a corps better organized than was the quartermaster's +corps with the Army of the Potomac in 1864." His field engineering +and his signal service were also exceedingly good. At every halt +the army threw up earth and timber entrenchments with wonderful +rapidity and skill. At the same time the telegraph and signal corps +was busy laying insulated wires by means of reels on muleback. +Parallel <a name="page_341"><span class="page">Page 341</span></a> +lines would be led to the rear of each brigade till quite clear, +when their ends would be joined by a wire at right angles, from +which headquarters could communicate with every unit at the front. +Sherman's army was equally efficient, and Sheridan's cavalry soon +proved that sweeping raids could be carried out by one side as +well as by the other. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Crossing the Rapidan at the Germanna Ford, Grant marched south +through the Wilderness on the fifth of May. The Wilderness was +densely wooded; the roads were few and bad; the clearings rare +and too small for large units. When Lee attacked from the west +and Grant turned to face him the fighting soon became desperate, +close, and somewhat confused. Neither side gained any substantial +advantage on the first day. Next morning Grant, preparing to attack +at five, was forestalled by Lee, who wished to keep him at arm's +length till Longstreet came up on the southern flank. Again the +opposing armies closed and fought with the greatest determination +for over an hour, when the Confederates fell back in some confusion. +Then Longstreet arrived and restored the battle till he was severely +wounded. After this Lee took command of his right, or southern, wing +and kept <a name="page_342"><span class="page">Page 342</span></a> up +the fight all day. Meanwhile Sheridan had countered the Confederate +cavalry under Stuart, which had been trying to swing round the +same southern flank. The main bodies of infantry swayed back and +forth till dark, with the woods and breastworks on fire in several +places, and many of the wounded smothering in the smoke. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the seventh reassuring news came in from Sherman and Butler, +Sheridan drove off the Confederate cavalry at Todd's Tavern, and +the southward march continued. As Grant and Meade rode south that +evening, past Hancock's corps, and the men saw they were heading +straight for Richmond, there was such a burst of cheering that +the Confederates, thinking it meant a night attack, deluged the +intervening woods with a heavy barrage till they found out their +mistake. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The race for Richmond continued on the eighth, each army trying to +get south of the other without exposing itself to a flank attack. +Grant had sent his wagon trains farther east, to move south on +parallel roads and keep those nearest Lee quite clear for fighting. +This movement at first led Lee to suspect a Federal retirement on +Fredericksburg, which caused him to send Longstreet's corps south to +Spotsylvania. The woods being on fire, and the <a name="page_343"><span +class="page">Page 343</span></a> men unable to bivouac, the whole +corps pushed on to Spotsylvania, thus forestalling Grant, who had +intended to get there first himself. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This brought on another tremendous battle in the bush. Lee formed +a semicircle, facing north, round Spotsylvania, in a supreme effort +to stem, if not throw back, Grant's most determined advance. Grant, +on the other hand, indomitably pressed home wave after wave of attack +till the evening of the twelfth. The morning of that desperate day +was foggy; and the attack was delayed. The Federal objective was +a commanding salient, jutting out from the Confederate center, and +now weakened by the removal of guns overnight to follow the apparent +Federal move toward the south. The gray sentries, peering through the +dripping woods, suddenly found them astir. Then wave after wave of +densely massed blue dashed to the assault, swarming up and over on +both sides, regardless of losses, and fighting hand to hand with a +fury that earned this famous salient the name of Bloody Angle. +Back and still back went the outnumbered gray, many of whom were +surrounded by the swirling currents of inpouring blue. But presently +Lee himself came up, and would have led his reinforcements to the +charge if a pleading shout <a name="page_344"><span class="page">Page +344</span></a> of "General Lee to the rear!" had not induced him to +desist. Every spare Confederate rushed to the rescue. From right +and left and rear the gray streams came, impetuous and strong, +united in one main current and dashed against the blue. There, in +the Bloody Angle, the battle raged with ever-increasing fury until +the rising tide of strife, bursting its narrow bounds, carried the +blue attackers back to where they came from. But they were hardly +clear of that appalling slope before they reformed, presented an +undaunted front once more, and then drew off with stinging resistance +to the very last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After five days of much rain and little fighting Grant made his +final effort on the eighteenth. This was meant to be a great surprise. +Two corps changed position under cover of the night and sprang +their trap at four in the morning. But Lee was again before them, +ready and resolute as ever. Thirty guns converged their withering +fire on the big blue masses and seemed to burn them off the field. +These masses never closed, as they had done six days before; and +when they fell back beaten the fortnight's battle in the Wilderness +was done. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +During it there had been two operations that gave Grant better +satisfaction: Sheridan's raid and <a name="page_345"><span +class="page">Page 345</span></a> Sherman's advance. As large bodies +of cavalry could not maneuver in the bush Grant had sent Sheridan +off on his Richmond Raid ten days before. Striking south near +Spotsylvania, Sheridan's ten thousand horsemen rounded Lee's right, +cut the rails on either side of Beaver Dam Station, destroyed this +important depot on the Virginia Central Railroad, and then made +straight for Richmond. Stuart followed hard, made an exhausting +sweep round Sheridan's flank, and faced him on the eleventh at +Yellow Tavern, six miles north of Richmond. Here the tired and +outnumbered Confederates made a desperate attempt to stem Sheridan's +advance. But Stuart, the hero of his own men, and the admiration +of his generous foes, was mortally wounded; and his thinner lines, +overlapped and outweighed, gave ground and drew off. Richmond had +no garrison to resist a determined attack. But Sheridan, knowing he +could not hold it and having better work to do, pushed on southeast +to Haxall's Landing, where he could draw much-needed supplies from +Butler, just across the James. With the enemy aggressive and alert +all round him, he built a bridge under fire across the Chickahominy, +struck north for the Army of the Potomac, and reported his return to +Grant at <a name="page_346"><span class="page">Page 346</span></a> +Chesterfield Station—halfway back to Spotsylvania—on +his seventeenth day out. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the course of this great raid Sheridan had drawn off the Confederate +cavalry; fought four successful actions; released hundreds of Union +prisoners and taken as many himself; cut rails and wires to such an +extent that Lee could only communicate with Richmond by messenger; +destroyed enormous quantities of the most vitally needed enemy +stores, especially food and medical supplies; and, by penetrating +the outer defenses of Richmond, raised Federal prestige to a higher +plane at a most important juncture. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile Sherman, whose own main body included a hundred thousand +men, had started from Chattanooga at the same time as Grant from +Culpeper Court House. In Grant's opinion "Johnston, with Atlanta, +was of less importance only because the capture of Johnston and +his army would not produce so immediate and decisive a result in +closing the rebellion as would the possession of Richmond, Lee, and +his army." Sherman's organization, supply and transport, engineers, +staff, and army generally were excellent. So skillful, indeed, were +his railway engineers that a disgusted Confederate raider called +out to a demolition <a name="page_347"><span class="page">Page +347</span></a> party: "Better save your powder, boys. What's the +good of blowing up this one when Sherman brings duplicate tunnels +along?" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman had double Johnston's numbers in the field. But Johnston, +as a supremely skillful Fabian, was a most worthy opponent for this +campaign, when the Confederate object was to gain time and sicken +the North of the war by falling back from one strongly prepared +position to another, inflicting as much loss as possible on the +attackers, and forcing them to stretch their line of communication +to the breaking point among a hostile population. Two of Sherman's +best divisions were still floundering about with the rest of the +Red River Expedition. So he had to modify his original plan, which +would have taken him much sooner to Atlanta and given him the support +of a simultaneous attack on Mobile by a coöperating joint +expedition. But he was ready to the minute, all the same. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Dalton, Johnston's first stronghold, was cleverly turned by McPherson's +right flank march; whereupon Johnston fell back on Resaca. Here, +on the upon the fifteenth of May, the armies fought hard for some +hours. But Sherman again outflanked the fortified enemy, who retired +to Kingston. Then, after Sherman had made a four days' halt to +accumulate <a name="page_348"><span class="page">Page 348</span></a> +supplies, the advance was resumed, against determined opposition and +with a good deal of hard fighting for a week in the neighborhood +of New Hope Church. The result of the usual outflanking movements +was that Johnston had to evacuate Allatoona on the fourth of June. +Sherman at once turned it into his advanced field base; while Johnston +fell back on another strong and well-prepared position at Kenesaw +Mountain. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant, favored in a general way by Sherman and in a special way +by Sheridan, had meanwhile enjoyed a third advantage, this time +on his own immediate front, through the sickness of Lee, who could +not take personal command during the last ten days of May. On the +twenty-first half of Grant's army marched south while half stood +threatening Lee, in order to give their friends a start toward +Richmond. This move was so well staffed and screened that perhaps +Lee could not have seen his chance quite soon enough in any case. +But when he did learn what had happened even his calm self-control +gave way to the exceeding bitter cry: "We must strike them! We must +never let them pass us again!" On the thirtieth he was horrified +at getting from Beauregard (who was then between Richmond and +Petersburg) a telegram <a name="page_349"><span class="page">Page +349</span></a> which showed that the Confederate Government was +busy with the circumlocution office in Richmond while the enemy +was thundering at the gate. "War Department must determine when +and what troops to order from here." Lee immediately answered: +"If you cannot determine what troops you can spare, the Department +cannot. The result of your delay will be disaster. Butler's troops +will be with Grant tomorrow." Lee also telegraphed direct to Davis +for immediate reinforcements, which arrived only just in time for +the terrific battle of Cold Harbor. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With these three advantages, in addition to the other odds in his +favor, Grant seemed to have found the tide of fortune at the flood +in the latter part of May. But he had many troubles of his own. +No sooner had half his army been badly defeated on the eighteenth +than news came that Sigel was in full retreat instead of cutting +off supplies from Lee. Then came news of Butler's retreat from +Drewry's Bluff, close in to Richmond. Nor was this all; for it was +only now that definite news of the Red River Expedition arrived +to confirm Grant's worst suspicions and ruin his second plan of +helping Farragut to take Mobile. But, as was his wont, Grant at +once took steps to meet the crisis. He <a name="page_350"><span +class="page">Page 350</span></a> ordered Hunter to replace Sigel +and go south—straight into the heart of the Valley, asked the +navy to move his own base down the Rappahannock from Fredericksburg +to Port Royal, and then himself marched on toward Richmond, where +Lee was desperately trying to concentrate for battle. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The two armies were now drawing all available force together round +the strategic center of Cold Harbor, only nine miles east of Richmond. +On the thirty-first Sheridan drove out the enemy detachments there, +and was himself about to retire before much superior reinforcements +when he got Grant's order to hold his ground at any cost. Nightfall +prevented a general assault till the next morning, when Sheridan +managed to stand fast till Wright's whole corps came up and the +enemy at once desisted. But elsewhere the Confederates did what +they could to stave the Federals off from advantageous ground on +that day and the next. The day after—the fateful third of +June—the two sides closed in death-grips at Cold Harbor. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On this, the thirtieth day of Grant's campaign of stern attrition +and would-be-smashing hammer-strokes at Lee, these were his orders +for attack: "The moment it becomes certain that an assault cannot +succeed, suspend the offensive. But when <a name="page_351"><span +class="page">Page 351</span></a> one does succeed, push it vigorously, +and, if necessary, pile in troops at the successful point from +wherever they can be taken." The trouble was that Grant was two +days late in carrying on the battle so well begun by Sheridan, +that Warren's corps was two miles off and entirely disconnected, +and that the three remaining corps formed three parts and no whole +when the stress of action came. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At dawn Meade's Army of the Potomac (less Warren's corps) began +to take post for the grand attack that some, more sanguine than +reflecting, hoped would win the war. When it was light the guns +burst out in furious defiance, each side's artillery trying to beat +the other's down before the crisis of the infantry assault. There +was no maneuvering. Each one of Meade's three corps—Hancock's, +Wright's, and Smith's (brought over from Butler's command)—marched +straight to its front. This led them apart, on diverging lines, and +so exposed their flanks as well as their fronts to enemy fire. But +though each corps thought its neighbor wrong to uncover its flanks, +and the true cause was not discovered till compass bearings were +afterwards compared, yet each went on undaunted, gaining momentum +with every step, and gathering itself together for the final charge. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_352"><span class="page">Page 352</span></a> Then, +surging like great storm-blown waves, the blue lines broke against +Lee's iron front. In every gallant case there was the same wild +cresting of the wave, the same terrific crash, the same adventurous +tongues of blue that darted up as far as they could go alive, the +same anguishing recession from the fatal mark, and the same agonizing +wreckage left behind. In Hancock's corps the crisis passed in just +eight minutes. But in those eight dire minutes eight colonels died +while leading their regiments on to a foredoomed defeat. One of +these eight, James P. McMahon of New York, alone among his dauntless +fellows, actually reached the Confederate lines, and, catching the +colors from their stricken bearer, waved them one moment above +the parapet before he fell. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Flesh and blood could do no more. Under the withering fire and crossfire +of Lee's unshaken front the beaten corps went back, re-formed, and +waited. They had not long to wait; for Grant was set on swinging +his three hammers for three more blows at least. So again the three +assaults were separately made on the one impregnable front; and again +the waves receded, leaving a second mass of agonizing wreckage with +the first. Yet even this was not enough for Grant, who once more +renewed <a name="page_353"><span class="page">Page 353</span></a> +his orders. These orders quickly ran their usual course, from the +army to the different corps, from each corps to its own divisions, +and from divisions to brigades. But not a single unit stirred. +From the generals to the "thinking bayonets" every soldier knew +the limit had been reached. Officially the order was obeyed by a +front-line fire of musketry, as well as by the staunch artillery, +which again gave its infantry the comfort of the guns. But that +was all. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thus ended the battle of Cold Harbor, the last pitched battle on +Virginian soil. Grant reported it in three short sentences; and +afterwards referred to it in these other three. "I have always +regretted that the last assault [<i>i.e.</i>, the whole battle +of the third of June] was ever made. No advantage whatever was +gained to compensate for the heavy loss. Indeed, the advantages, +other than those of relative losses, were on the Confederate side." +Even these, however, were also on the Confederate side, as Grant +lost nearly thirteen thousand, while Lee lost less than eighteen +hundred. Cold Harbor undoubtedly lowered Union morale, both at +the front and all through the loyal North. It encouraged the Peace +Party, revived Confederate hopes, and shook the army's faith in +Grant's <a name="page_354"><span class="page">Page 354</span></a> +commandership. Martin McMahon, a Union general, writing many years +after the event, of which he was a most competent witness, said: +"It was the dreary, dismal, bloody, ineffective close of the +lieutenant-general's first campaign with the Army of the Potomac." +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Cold Harbor caused a change of plan. Reporting two days later Grant +said: "I now find, after thirty days of trial, the enemy deems it +of the first importance to run no risks with the armies they now +have. Without a greater sacrifice of human life than I am willing +to make all cannot be accomplished that I had designed outside of +the city [of Richmond]. I have therefore resolved upon the following +plan," which, in one word, involved a complete change from a series +of pitched battles to a long-drawn open siege. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The battles lasted thirty days, the siege three hundred. Therefore, +from this time on for the next ten months, Lee had to keep his living +shield between Grant's main body and the last great stronghold +of the fighting South, while the rising tide of Northern force, +commanding all the sea and an ever-increasing portion of the land, +beat ceaselessly against his front and flanks, threw out <a +name="page_355"><span class="page">Page 355</span></a> destroying +arms against his ever-diminishing sources of supply, and wore the +starving shield itself down to the very bone. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant's losses—forty thousand killed and wounded—were +all made good by immediate reinforcement; as was his other human +wastage from sickness, straggling, and desertion: made good, that +is, in the quantities required to wear out Lee, whose thinning +ranks could never be renewed; but not made good in quality; for +many of the best were dead. The wastage of material is hardly worth +considering on the Northern side; for it could always be made good, +superabundantly good. But the corresponding wastage on the Southern +side was unrenewed and unrenewable. Food, clothing, munitions, +medical stores—it was all the same for all the Southern armies: +desperate expedients, slow starvation, death. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Consternation reigned at Richmond on the twelfth of June, the day +the fitful firing ceased around Cold Harbor. There was danger in +the Valley, where Hunter had won success at Staunton, and where +Crook's and Averell's Union troops were expected to arrive from +West Virginia. Sheridan, too, was off on a twenty-day raid. He +cut the Virginia Central rails at Trevilian, did much other <a +name="page_356"><span class="page">Page 356</span></a> damage between +Richmond and the Valley, and, toward the end of June, rejoined Grant, +who had reached the James nearly a fortnight before. Always trying +to overlap Lee's extending right, Grant closed in on Petersburg +with the Army of the Potomac while the Army of the James held fast +against Richmond. This part of the front then remained comparatively +quiet till the end of July. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But the beleaguered Confederates made one last sortie out of the +Valley and straight against Washington. At the beginning of July +the Valley was uncovered owing to the roundabout flank march that +Hunter was forced to make back to his base for ammunition. The +enterprising Jubal Early took advantage of this with some veteran +troops and made straight for Washington. On the ninth Lew Wallace +succeeded in delaying him for one day at the Monocacy by an admirably +planned defense most gallantly carried out with greatly inferior +numbers and far less veteran men. This gave time for reinforcements +to pour into Washington; so that on the twelfth, Early, finding +the works alive with men, had to retreat even faster than he came. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Grant's extreme right wing was steadily pressing +the invasion of Georgia, where we <a name="page_357"><span +class="page">Page 357</span></a> left Sherman and Johnston face to +face at Kenesaw in June. Here again the beleaguered Confederates +had been making desperate raids or sorties, trying to cut Sherman +off from his base in Tennessee and keep back the Federal forces +in other parts of the river area. "Our Jack Morgan," whom we left +as a prisoner of war after his Ohio raid of '63, had escaped in +November, fought Crook and Averell for Saltville and Wytheville +in May, and then, leaving southwest Virginia, had raided Kentucky +and taken Lexington, but been defeated at Cynthiana and driven back +by overwhelming numbers till he again entered southwest Virginia +on the twentieth of June. Forrest raided northeastern Mississippi, +badly defeated Sturgis at Brice's Cross Roads in June, but was +himself defeated by A. J. Smith at Tupelo in July. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Meanwhile Sherman had been tapping Johnston's fifty miles of +entrenchments for three weeks of rainy June weather, hoping to find +a suitable place into which he could drive a wedge of attack. On the +twenty-seventh he tried to carry the Kenesaw lines by assault, but +failed at every point, with a loss of twenty-five hundred—three +times what Johnston lost. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By a well-combined series of maneuvers Sherman <a name="page_358"><span +class="page">Page 358</span></a> then forced Johnston to fall back +or be hopelessly outflanked. Johnston, with equal skill, crossed +the Chattahoochee under cover of the strongly fortified bridgehead +which he had built unknown to Sherman. But Sherman, with his double +numbers, could always hold Johnston with one-half in front while +turning his flank with the other. So even the Chattahoochee was +safely crossed on the seventeenth of July and the final move against +Atlanta was begun. That same night Johnston's magnificent skill was +thrown to the winds by Davis, who had ordered the bold and skillful +but far too headlong John B. Hood to take command and "fight." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Five days later Hood fought the battle of Atlanta. Just as Sherman +was closing in to entrench for a siege Hood attacked his extreme +left flank with the utmost resolution, driving it in and completely +enveloping it. But Sherman was not to be caught. Knowing that only +a part of Hood's army could be sent to this attack while the rest +held the lines of Atlanta, Sherman left McPherson's veteran Army of +the Tennessee to do the actual fighting, supported, of course, by +the movement of troops on their engaged right. McPherson was killed. +Logan ably replaced him and won a hard-fought <a name="page_359"><span +class="page">Page 359</span></a> day. Hood's loss was well over +eight thousand; Sherman's considerably less than half. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the twenty-eighth Hood attacked the extreme right, now commanded +by General O. O. Howard in succession to McPherson, whose Army of +the Tennessee again did most distinguished service, especially +Logan's Fifteenth Corps near Ezra Church. The Confederates were +again defeated with the heavier loss. After this the siege continued +all through the month of August. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While Hood was trying to keep Sherman off Atlanta Grant was trying +to make a breach at Petersburg. Grant gave Meade "minute orders +on the 24th [of July] how I wanted the assault conducted," and +Meade elaborated the actual plan with admirable skill except in +one particular—that of the generals concerned. Burnside was +ordered to use his corps for the assault, and he chose Ledlie's +division to lead. The mine was on an enormous scale, designed to +hold eight tons of powder, though it was only charged with four, +and was approached by a gallery five hundred feet long. On the +twenty-ninth Grant brought every available man into proper support +of Burnside, whose other three divisions were to form the immediate +support of Ledlie's grand forlorn hope. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_360"><span class="page">Page 360</span></a> In the +early morning of the thirtieth the mine blew up with an earthquaking +shock; the enemy round it ran helter-skelter to the rear; a crater +like that of a volcano was formed; and a hundred and sixty pieces +of artillery opened a furious fire on every square inch near it. +Ledlie's division rushed forward and occupied the crater. But there +the whole maneuver stopped short; for everything hinged on Ledlie's +movements; and Ledlie was hiding, well out of danger, instead of +"carrying on." After a pause Confederate reinforcements came up +and drove the leaderless division back. "The effort," said Grant, +"was a stupendous failure"; and it cost him nearly four thousand +men, mostly captured. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +August was a sad month for the loyal North. It was then, as we +have seen, that Lincoln had to warn Grant about the way in which +his orders were being falsified in Washington. It was then that +Sherman asked for reinforcements, so as to be up to strength before +and after the taking of Atlanta. And it was then that Halleck warned +Grant to be ready to send some of his best men north if there should +be serious resistance to the draft. Nor was this all. Thurlow Weed, +the great election agent, told Lincoln that the Government would be +<a name="page_361"><span class="page">Page 361</span></a> defeated; +which meant, of course, that the compromised and compromising Peace +Party would probably be at the helm in time to wreck the Union. +With so many of the best men dead or at the front the whole tone +of political society had been considerably lowered—to the +corresponding advantage of all those meaner elements that fish +in troubled waters when the dregs are well stirred up. There were +sinister signs in the big cities, in the press, and in financial +circles. The Union dollar once sank to thirty-nine cents. To make +matters worse, there was a good deal of well-founded discontent +among the self-sacrificing loyalists, both at the home and fighting +fronts, because the Government apparently allowed disloyal and +evasive citizens to live as parasites on the Union's body politic. +The blood tax and money tax alike fell far too heavily on the patriots; +while many a parasite grew rich in unshamed safety. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mobile was won in August. But the people's eyes were mostly fixed +upon the land. So a much greater effect was produced by Sherman's +laconic dispatch of the second of September announcing the fall of +Atlanta. The Confederates, despairing of holding it to any good +purpose, had blown up everything they could not move and then retreated. +<a name="page_362"><span class="page">Page 362</span></a> This +thrilling news heartened the whole loyal North, and, as Lincoln +at once sent word to Sherman, "entitled those who had participated +to the applause and thanks of the nation." Grant fired a salute +of shotted guns from every battery bearing on the enemy, who were +correspondingly depressed. For every one could now see that if +the Union put forth its full strength the shrunken forces of the +South could not prevent the Northern vice from crushing them to +death. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +September also saw the turning of the tide on the still more conspicuous +scene of action in Virginia. Grant had sent Sheridan to the Valley, +and had just completed a tour of personal inspection there, when +Sheridan, finding Early's Confederates divided, swooped down on +the exposed main body at Opequan Creek and won a brilliant victory +which raised the hopes of the loyal North a good deal higher still. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Exactly a month later, on the nineteenth of October, Early made a +desperate attempt to turn the tables on the Federals in the Valley +by attacking them suddenly, on their exposed left flank, while +Sheridan was absent at Washington. (We must remember that Grant +had to concert action personally with his sub-commanders, as his +orders were so often "queered" when seen at Washington <a +name="page_363"><span class="page">Page 363</span></a> by autocratic +Stanton and bureaucratic Halleck.) The troops attacked broke up +and were driven in on their supports in wild confusion. Then the +supports gave way; and a Confederate victory seemed to be assured. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But Sheridan was on his way. He had left the scene of his previous +victory at Opequan Creek, near Winchester, and was now riding to the +rescue of his army at Cedar Creek, twenty miles south. "Sheridan's +Ride," so widely known in song and story, was enough to shake the +nerves of any but a very fit commander. The flotsam and jetsam of +defeat swirled round him as he rode. Yet, with unerring eye, he +picked out the few that could influence the rest and set them at +work to rally, reform, and return. Inspired by his example many +a straggler who had run for miles presently "found himself" again +and got back in time to redeem his reputation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Arriving on the field Sheridan discovered those two splendid leaders, +Custer and Getty, holding off the victorious Confederates from what +otherwise seemed an easy prey. His presence encouraged the formed +defense, restored confidence among the rest near by, and stiffened +resistance so much that hasty entrenchments were successfully <a +name="page_364"><span class="page">Page 364</span></a> made and +still more successfully held. The first rush having been stopped, +Sheridan turned the lull that ensued into a triumphal progress +by riding bareheaded along his whole line, so that all his men +might feel themselves once more under his personal command. Cheer +upon cheer greeted him as his gallant charger carried him past; +and when the astonished enemy were themselves attacked they broke +in irretrievable defeat. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This crowning victory of the long-drawn Valley campaigns, coming +with cumulative force after those of Mobile, Atlanta, and Opequan +Creek, did more to turn the critical election than all the speeches +in the North. The fittest at the home front judged by deeds, not +words, agreeing therein with Rutherford B. Hayes (a future President, +now one of Sheridan's generals) who said: "Any officer fit for +duty who at this crisis would abandon his post to electioneer for +a seat in Congress, ought to be scalped." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The devastation of everything in the Valley that might be useful +to Lee's army completed the Union victory in arms; while Lincoln's +own triumph in November completed it in politics and raised his +party to the highest plane of statesmanship in war. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_365"><span class="page">Page 365</span></a> From this +time till the early spring the battle of the giants in Virginia +calmed down to the minor moves and clashes that mark a period of +winter quarters; while the scene of more stirring action shifts +once more to Georgia and Tennessee. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_366"><span class="page">Page 366</span></a> +CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">SHERMAN DESTROYS THE BASE: 1864</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman made Atlanta his field headquarters for September and October, +changing it entirely from a Southern city to a Northern camp. The +whole population was removed, every one being given the choice of +going north or south. In his own words, Sherman "had seen Memphis, +Vicksburg, Natchez, and New Orleans, all captured from the enemy, +and each at once garrisoned by a full division, if not more; so +that success was actually crippling our armies in the field by +detachments to guard and protect the interests of a hostile population." +In reporting to Washington he said: "If the people raise a howl +against my barbarity and cruelty, I will answer that war is war, +and not popularity seeking. If they want peace, they and their +relatives must stop the war." He also excluded the swarms of +demoralizing camp-followers that had clogged him elsewhere. One +licensed sutler was <a name="page_367"><span class="page">Page +367</span></a> allowed for each of his three armies, and no more. +Atlanta thus became a perfect Union stronghold fixed in the flank +of the South. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The balance of losses in action, from May to September, was heavily +against the South: nearly nine to four. The actual numbers did +not greatly differ: thirty-two thousand Federals to thirty-five +thousand Confederates. (And in killed and wounded the Federals +lost many more than the Confederates. It was the thirteen thousand +captured Confederates that redressed the balance.) But, since Sherman +had twice as many in his total as the Confederates had in theirs, the +odds in relative loss were nine to four in his favor. The balance +of loss from disease was also heavily against the Confederates, +who as usual suffered from dearth of medical stores. The losses in +present and prospective food supplies were even more in Sherman's +favor; for his devastations had begun. Yet Jefferson Davis was +bound that Hood should "fight"; and Hood was nothing loth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Davis went about denouncing Johnston for his magnificent Fabian +defense; and added insult to injury by coupling the name of this +very able soldier and quite incorruptible man with that of Joseph E. +Brown, Governor of Georgia, who, though a <a name="page_368"><span +class="page">Page 368</span></a> violent Secessionist, opposed all +proper unification of effort, and exempted eight thousand State +employees from conscription as civilian "indispensables." Then, when +Sherman approached, Brown ran away with all the food and furniture +he could stuff into his own special train; though he left behind +him all arms, ammunition, and other warlike stores, besides the +confidential documents belonging to the State. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Brown had also weakened Hood's army by withdrawing the State troops +to gather in the harvest and store it where Sherman afterwards used +what he wanted and destroyed the rest. Yet Hood kept operating +in Sherman's rear, admirably seconded by Forrest's and Wheeler's +raiding cavalry. Late in October Forrest performed the remarkable +feat of taking a flotilla with cavalry. He suddenly swooped down on +the Tennessee near Johnsonville and took the gunboat <i>Undine</i> +with a couple of transports. Hood had meanwhile been busy on Sherman's +line of communications, hoping at least to immobilize him round +Atlanta, and at best to bring him back from Georgia for a Federal +defeat in Tennessee. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 513px;"> +<a name="fig_09"> +<img src="images/fig_09.jpg" width="513" height="623" alt="Fig. 9"></a> +<p class="image"><i>GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN</i><br /> +Photograph by Brady. In the collection of L. C. Handy, Washington.</p> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +On the fifth of October the last action near Atlanta was fought +thirty miles northwest, when <a name="page_369"><span class="page">Page +369</span></a> Hood made a desperate attempt on Allatoona with a greatly +superior force. Twelve miles off, on Kenesaw Mountain, Sherman could see +the smoke and hear the sounds of battle through the clear, still, autumn +air. But as his signalers could get no answer from the fort he began to +fear that Allatoona was already lost, when the signal officer's quick +eye caught the faintest flutter at one of the fort windows. Presently +the letters, C—R—S—E—H—E—R, were +made out; which meant that General John M. Corse, one of the best +volunteers produced by the war, was holding out. He had hurried over +from Rome, on a call from Allatoona, and was withstanding more than +four thousand men with less than two thousand. All morning long +the Confederates persisted in their attacks, while Sherman's relief +column was hurrying over from Kenesaw. Early in the afternoon the +fire slackened and ceased before this column arrived. But Sherman's +renewed fears were soon allayed. For Corse, after losing more than +a third of his men, had repulsed the enemy alone, inflicting on +them an even greater loss in proportion to their double strength. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Corse was still full of fight, reporting back to Kenesaw that though +"short a cheek bone and an <a name="page_370"><span class="page">Page +370</span></a> ear" he was "able to whip all hell yet." Sherman +thanked the brave defenders in his general orders of the seventh +for "the handsome defense made at Allatoona" and pointed the moral +that "garrisons must hold their posts to the last minute, sure +that the time gained is valuable and necessary to their comrades +at the front." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The situation at the beginning of November was most peculiar. With +the whole Gulf coast blockaded and the three great ports in Union +hands, with the Mississippi a Union stream from source to sea, +and with Sherman firmly set in the northwest flank of Georgia, +Hood made the last grand sortie from the beleaguered South. It was +a desperate adventure to go north against the Federal troops in +Tennessee, with Kentucky and the line of the Ohio as his ultimate +objective, when Lincoln had been returned to power, when Grant was +surely wearing down Lee in Virginia, and when Sherman's preponderance +of force was not only assured in Georgia but in Tennessee as well. +Moreover, Thomas, the "Rock of Chickamauga," had been sent back to +counter Hood from Grant's and Sherman's old headquarters at Nashville +on the Cumberland. And Thomas was soon to have the usual double +numbers; for all the Western depots sent <a name="page_371"><span +class="page">Page 371</span></a> him their trained recruits, till, +by the end of November, his total was over seventy thousand. Hood's +forty thousand could not be increased or even stopped from dwindling. +Yet he pushed on, with the consent of Beauregard, who now held the +general command of all the troops opposed to Sherman. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The next moves were even more peculiar than the first. For while +Hood hoped to close the breach in Georgia by drawing Sherman back, +and Sherman expected that when he went on to widen the breach he +would draw Hood back, what really happened was that each advanced +on his own new line in opposite directions, Hood north through +Tennessee, Sherman southeast through Georgia. So firm was the grip +of the Union on all the navigable waters that Hood could only cross +the Tennessee somewhere along the shoals. He chose a place near +Florence, Alabama, got safely over and encamped. There, for the +moment, we shall leave him and follow Sherman to the sea. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +The region of the Gulf and lower Mississippi being now under the +assured predominance of Union forces, Grant, with equal wisdom +and decision, entirely approved of Sherman's plan to cut loose +from his western base, make a devastating <a name="page_372"><span +class="page">Page 372</span></a> march through the heart of fertile +Georgia, and join the eastern forces of the North at Savannah, +where Fort Pulaski was in Union hands and the Union navy was, as +usual, overwhelmingly strong. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman's March to the Sea at once acquired a popular renown which +it has never lost. This, however, was chiefly because it happened +to catch the public eye while nothing else was on the stage. For +its many admirable features were those about which most people know +little and care less: well-combined grand strategy, perfection in +headquarter orders and the incidental staff work, excellent march +discipline, wonderful coördination between the different arms +of the Service and with all auxiliary branches—especially +the commissariat and transport, and, to clinch everything, a +thoroughness of execution which distinguished each unit concerned. +As a feat of arms this famous march is hardly worth mentioning. +There were no battles and no such masterly maneuvers as those of +the much harder march to Atlanta. Nor was the operational problem +to be mentioned in the same breath with that of the subsequent march +through the Carolinas. Sherman himself says: "Were I to express +my measure of the relative importance of the march to the sea, and +of that from Savannah <a name="page_373"><span class="page">Page +373</span></a> northward, I would place the former at one, and +the latter at ten—or the maximum." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Government was very doubtful and counseled reconsideration. +But Grant and Sherman, knowing the factors so very much better, +were sure the problem could easily be solved. Sherman left Atlanta +on the fifteenth of November and laid siege to Savannah on the tenth +of December. He utterly destroyed the military value of Atlanta and +everything else on the way that could be used by the armies in the +field. Of course, to do this he had to reduce civilian supplies to +the point at which no surplus remained for transport to the front; +and civilians naturally suffered. But his object was to destroy the +Georgian base of supplies without inflicting more than incidental +hardship on civilians. And this object he attained. He cut a swath +of devastation sixty miles wide all the way to Savannah. Every +rail was rooted up, made red-hot, and twisted into scrap. Every +road and bridge was destroyed. Every kind of surplus supplies an +army could possibly need was burnt or consumed. Civilians were +left with enough to keep body and soul together, but nothing to +send away, even if the means of transportation had been left. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman's sixty thousand men were all as fit as <a name="page_374"><span +class="page">Page 374</span></a> his own tall sinewy form, which +was the very embodiment of expert energy. Every weakling had been +left behind. Consequently the whole veteran force simply romped +through this Georgian raid. The main body mostly followed the rails, +which gangs of soldiers would pile on bonfires of sleepers. The +mounted men swept up everything about the flanks. But nothing escaped +the "bummers," who foraged for their units every day, starting +out empty-handed on foot and returning heavily laden on horses or +mules or in some kind of vehicle. If Atlanta had been a volcano +in eruption, and the molten lava had flowed to Savannah in a stream +sixty miles wide and five times as long, the destruction could +hardly have been worse, except, of course, that civilians were +left enough to keep them alive, and that, with a few inevitable +exceptions, they were not ill treated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The fighting hardly disturbed the daily routine. Sherman was never +in danger; though wiseacre Washington, supposing that he ought to +be, used to pester Lincoln, who always replied: "Grant says the +men are safe with Sherman, and that if they can't get out where +they want to, they can crawl back by the hole they went in at." +This seemed to allay anxiety; though the truth was that Sherman's +real safety lay in going ahead to <a name="page_375"><span +class="page">Page 375</span></a> the Union sea, not in retracing +his steps over the devastated line of his advance. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On approaching Savannah a mounted officer was blown up by a land +torpedo, his horse killed, and himself badly lacerated. Sherman +at once sent his prisoners ahead to dig up the other torpedoes or +get blown up by those they failed to find. No more explosions took +place. Savannah itself was strongly entrenched and further defended +by Fort McAllister. Against this fort Sherman detached his own old +Shiloh division of the Fifteenth Corps, now under the very capable +command of General William B. Hazen. As the day wore on Sherman +became very impatient, watching for Hazen's attack, when a black +object went gliding up the Ogeechee River toward the fort. Presently +a man-of-war appeared flying the Stars and Stripes and signaling, +<i>Who are you?</i> On getting the answer, <i>General Sherman</i>, +she asked, <i>Is Fort McAllister taken?</i> and immediately received +the cheering assurance, <i>No; but it will be in a minute.</i> +Then, just as the signal flags ceased waving, Hazen's straight blue +lines broke cover, advanced, charged through the hail of shot, +shell, and rifle bullets, rushed the defenses, and stood triumphant +on the top. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Before midnight Sherman was writing his <a name="page_376"><span +class="page">Page 376</span></a> dispatches on board the U.S.S. +<i>Dandelion</i> and examining those received from Grant. He learned +now, from Grant's of the third (ten days before), that Thomas was +facing Hood round Nashville and that the Government, and even Grant, +were getting very impatient with Thomas for not striking hard and +at once. A week later the Confederate general, Hardee, managed to +evacuate Savannah before his one remaining line of retreat had +been cut off. He was a thorough soldier. But men and means and +time were lacking; and the civil population hoped to save all that +was not considered warlike stores. Thus immense supplies fell into +Sherman's hands. Savannah was of course placed under martial law. +But as the wax was now nearing its inevitable end, and the citizens +were thoroughly "subjugated," those who wished to remain were allowed +to do so. Only two hundred left, going to Charleston under a flag +of truce. +</p> + +<div class="image" style="width: 717px;"> +<a name="fig_10"></a> +<a href="images/fig_10.jpg"> +<img src="images/fig_10_sm.jpg" width="717" height="424" alt="Fig. 10"></a> +</div> + +<p class="indent"> +The following official announcement reached Lincoln on Christmas +Eve. +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 20%;"> +Savannah, Georgia, December 22, 1864. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> +TO HIS EXCELLENCY PRESIDENT LINCOLN,<br /> + WASHINGTON, D. C. +</p> + +<p class="quote"> + +I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah, +with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and +<a name="page_377"><span class="page">Page 377</span></a> +plenty of ammunition, also about twenty-five thousand bales of +cotton. +</p> + +<p class="quote" style="margin-left: 20%;"> +W. T. SHERMAN, Major-General. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Hood's desperate sortie had struck north as far +as Franklin, Tennessee. Here, on the last of November, General +John Schofield, commanding the advanced part of Thomas's army, +gallantly withstood a furious attack. On this the closing day of +a lingering Indian summer the massed Confederates charged with +the piercing rebel yell, and charged again; re-formed under cover +of the dense pall of stationary smoke; and returned to the charge +again and again. Many a leader met his death right against the +very breastworks. Another would instantly spring forward, only +to fall in his turn. Thirteen times the gaunt gray lines rushed +madly through the battle smoke and lost their front ranks against +the withering fire before the autumn night closed in. Schofield then +fell back on Brentwood, halfway on the twenty miles to Nashville. +He had lost over two thousand men. But Hood had lost three times +as many; and Hood's were irreplaceable except by a very few local +recruits. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hood now concentrated every available man for his final attack on +Thomas, who had odds of twenty thousand in his favor. Hood marched +his thirty-five <a name="page_378"><span class="page">Page +378</span></a> thousand up to Nashville, where he actually invested +the fifty-five thousand Federals. By this time even Grant was so +annoyed at what seemed to him unreasoning delay that he sent Logan +to take command at once and "fight." But on the fifteenth of December +Thomas came out of his works and fought Hood with determined skill +all day. Having gained a decisive advantage already he pressed it +home to the very utmost on the morrow, breaking through Hood's +shaken lines, enveloping whole units with converging fire, and +taking prisoners in mass. After a last wild effort Hood's beaten +army fled, having lost fifteen thousand men, five times as much +as Thomas. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The battle of Nashville came nearer than any other to being a really +annihilating victory. Out of the forty thousand men Hood had at +first in Tennessee not half escaped; and of the remainder not nearly +half were ever seen in arms again. As an organized force his army +simply disappeared. The few thousands saved from the wreckage of +the storm found their painful way east to join all that was left +for the last stand against the overwhelming forces of the North. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_379"><span class="page">Page 379</span></a> +CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE END: 1865</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By '65 the Southern cause was lost. There was nothing to hope for +from abroad. Neither was there anything to hope for at home, now +that Lincoln and the Union Government had been returned to power. +From the very first the disparity of resources was so great that +the South had never had a chance alone except against a disunited +North. Now that the North could bring its full strength to bear +against the worn-out South the only question remaining to be settled +in the field was simply one of time. Yet Davis, with his indomitable +will, would never yield so long as any Confederates would remain +in arms. And men like Lee would never willingly give up the fight +so long as those they served required them. Therefore the war went +on until the Southern armies failed through sheer exhaustion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The North had nearly a million men by land and <a name="page_380"><span +class="page">Page 380</span></a> sea. The South had perhaps two +hundred thousand. The North could count on a million recruits out +of the whole reserve of twice as many. The South had no reserves +at all. The total odds were therefore five to one without reserves +and ten to one if these came in. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The scene of action, for all decisive purposes, had shrunk again, +and now included nothing beyond Virginia and the Carolinas; and +even there the Union forces had impregnable bases of attack. When +Wilmington fell in January the only port still left in Southern +hands was Charleston; and that was close-blockaded. Fighting +Confederates still remained in the lower South. But victories like +Olustee, Florida, barren in '64, could not avail them now, even +if they had the troops to win them. The lower South was now as +much isolated as the trans-Mississippi. Between its blockaded and +garrisoned coast on one side and its sixty-mile swath of devastation +through the heart of Georgia on the other it might as well have +been a shipless island. The same was true of all Confederate places +beyond Virginia and the Carolinas. The last shots were fired in +Texas near the middle of May. But they were as futile against the +course of events as was the final act of war committed by the <a +name="page_381"><span class="page">Page 381</span></a> Confederate +raider <i>Shenandoah</i> at the end of June, when she sank the +whaling fleet, far off in the lone Pacific. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For the last two months of the four-years' war Davis made Lee +Commander-in-Chief. Lee at once restored Johnston to his rightful +place. These two great soldiers then did what could be done to +stave off Grant and Sherman. Lee's and Johnston's problem was of +course insoluble. For each was facing an army which was alone a +match for both. The only chance of prolonging anything more than a +mere guerilla war was to join forces in southwest Virginia, where +the only line of rails was safe from capture for the moment. But this +meant eluding Grant and Sherman; and these two leaders would never +let a plain chance slip. They took good care that all Confederate +forces outside the central scene of action were kept busy with their +own defense. They also closed in enough men from the west to prevent +Lee and Johnston escaping by the mountains. Then, with the help of +the navy, having cut off every means of escape—north, south, +east, and west—they themselves closed in for the death-grip. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the first of February Sherman was on his way north through the +Carolinas with sixty thousand <a name="page_382"><span class="page">Page +382</span></a> picked men, drawing in reinforcements as he advanced +against Johnston's dwindling forty thousand, until the thousands +that faced each other at the end in April were ninety and thirty +respectively. On the ninth of February (the day Lee became +Commander-in-Chief) Sherman was crossing the rails between Charleston +and Augusta, of course destroying them. A week later he was doing +the same at Columbia in the middle of South Carolina. By this time +his old antagonist, Johnston, had assumed command; so that he had to +reckon with the chances of a battle, as on his way against Atlanta, +and not only with the troubles of devastating an undefended base, as +on his march to the sea. The difficulties of hard marching through +an enemy country full of natural and artificial obstacles were also +much greater here than in Georgia. How well these difficulties could +be surmounted by a veteran army may be realized from a recorded +instance which, though it occurred elsewhere, was yet entirely +typical. In forty days an infantry division of eight thousand men +repaired a hundred miles of rail and built a hundred and eighty-two +bridges. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sherman took a month to advance from Columbia in the middle of South +Carolina to Bentonville <a name="page_383"><span class="page">Page +383</span></a> in the middle of North Carolina. Here Johnston stood +his ground; and a battle was fought from the nineteenth to the +twenty-first of March. Had Sherman known at the time that his own +numbers were, as he afterwards reported, "vastly superior," he +might have crushed Johnston then and there. But, as it was, he ably +supported the exposed flank that Johnston so skillfully attacked, +won the battle, inflicted losses a good deal larger than his own, +and gained his ulterior objective as well as if there had not been +a fight at all. This objective was the concentration of his whole +army round Goldsboro by the twenty-fifth. At Goldsboro he held the +strategic center of North Carolina, being at the junction whence +the rails ran east to Newbern (which had long been in Union hands), +west to meet the only rails by which Lee's army might for a time +escape, and north (a hundred and fifty miles) to Grant's besieging +host at Petersburg. Sherman's record is one of which his men might +well be proud. In fifty days from Savannah he had made a winter +march through four hundred and twenty-five miles of mud, had captured +three cities, destroyed four railways, drained the Confederate +resources, increased his own, and half closed on Lee and Johnston +the vice which he and Grant could soon close altogether. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_384"><span class="page">Page 384</span></a> Nevertheless +Grant records that "one of the most anxious periods was the last +few weeks before Petersburg"; for he was haunted by the fear that +Lee's army, now nearing the last extremity of famine, might risk +all on railing off southwest to Danville, the one line left. Lee, +consummate now as when victorious before, masked his movements +wonderfully well till the early morning of the twenty-fifth of +March, when he suddenly made a furious attack where the lines were +very near together. For some hours he held a salient in the Federal +position. But he was presently driven back with loss; and his intention +to escape stood plainly revealed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The same day Sherman railed down to Newbern over the line repaired +by that indefatigable and most accomplished engineer, Colonel W. W. +Wright, took ship for City Point, Virginia, and met Lincoln, Grant, +and Admiral Porter there on the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth. +Grant explained to Lincoln that Sheridan was crossing the James +just below them, to cut the rails running south from Petersburg +and then, by forced marches, to cut those running southwest from +Richmond, Lee's last possible line of escape. Grant added that the +final crisis was very near and that his only <a name="page_385"><span +class="page">Page 385</span></a> anxiety was lest Lee might escape +before Sheridan cut the Richmond line southwest to Danville. Lincoln +said he hoped the war would end at once and with no more bloodshed. +Grant and Sherman, however, could not guarantee that Davis might not +force Lee and Johnston to one last desperate fight. Lincoln added +that all he wanted after the surrender was to get the Confederates +back to their civil life and make them good contented citizens. As +for Davis: well, there once was a man who, having taken the pledge, +was asked if he wouldn't let his host put just a drop of brandy in +the lemonade. His answer was: "See here, if you do it unbeknownst, +I won't object." From the way that Lincoln told this story Grant +and Sherman both inferred that he would be glad to see Davis +disembarrass the reunited States of his annoying presence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This twenty-eighth of March saw the last farewells between the +President and his naval and military lieutenants at the front. +Admiral Porter immediately wrote down a full account of the +conversations, from which, together with Grant's and Sherman's +strong corroboration, we know that Lincoln entirely approved <a +name="page_386"><span class="page">Page 386</span></a> of the terms +which Grant gave Lee, and that he would have approved quite as +heartily of those which Sherman gave to Johnston. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Next morning the final race, pursuit, defeat, and victory began. +Grant marched all his spare, men west to cut Lee off completely. +He left enough to hold his lines at Petersburg, in case Lee should +remain; and he arranged with Sherman for a combined movement, to +begin on the tenth of April, in case Johnston and Lee should try +to join each other. But he felt fairly confident that he could +run Lee down while Sherman tackled Johnston. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the first of April Sheridan won a hard fight at Five Forks, +southwest of Petersburg. On Sunday (the second) Lee left Petersburg +for good, sending word to Richmond. That morning Davis rose from +his place in church and the clergyman quietly told the congregation +that there would be no evening service. On Monday morning Grant +rode into Petersburg, and saw the Confederate rearguard clubbed +together round the bridge. "I had not the heart," said Grant, "to +turn the artillery upon such a mass of defeated and fleeing men, +and I hoped to capture them soon." On Tuesday Grant closed his +orders to Sherman with the words, "Rebel armies are now the only +strategic points to strike at," and himself pressed on relentlessly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_387"><span class="page">Page 387</span></a> Late +next afternoon a horseman in full Confederate uniform suddenly +broke cover from the enemy side of a dense wood and dashed straight +at the headquarter staff. The escort made as if to seize him. But +a staff officer called out, "How d'ye do, Campbell?" This famous +scout then took a wad of tobacco out of his mouth, a roll of tinfoil +out of the wad, and a piece of tissue paper out of the tinfoil. When +Grant read Sheridan's report ending "I wish you were here" (that +is, at Jetersville, halfway between Petersburg and Appomattox), +he immediately got off his black pony, mounted Cincinnati, and +rode the twenty miles at speed, to learn that Lee was heading due +west for Farmville, less than thirty miles from Appomattox. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On Thursday the sixth, Lee, closely beset in flank and rear, lost +seven thousand men at Sailor's Creek, mostly as prisoners. The +heroes of this fight were six hundred Federals, who, having gone +to blow up High Bridge on the Appomattox, found their retreat cut +off by the whole Confederate advanced guard. Under Colonel Francis +Washburn, Fourth Massachusetts Cavalry, and Colonel Theodore Read, +of General Ord's staff, this dauntless six hundred charged again +and again until, their leaders killed and most of the others dead or +wounded, <a name="page_388"><span class="page">Page 388</span></a> +the rest surrendered. They had gained their object by holding up +Lee's column long enough to let its wagon train be raided. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant, now feeling that his hold on Lee could not be shaken off, +wrote him a letter on Friday afternoon, saying: "The results of +the last week must convince you of the hopelessness of further +resistance." That night Lee replied asking what terms Grant proposed +to offer. Next morning Grant wrote again to propose a meeting, +and Lee answered to say he was willing to treat for peace. Grant +at once informed him that the only subject for discussion was the +surrender of the army. That evening Federal cavalry under General +George A. Custer raided Appomattox Station, five miles southwest of +the Court House, and held up four trains. A few hours later, early +on Sunday, the famous ninth of April, 1865, Lee's advanced guard was +astounded to find its way disputed so far west. It attacked with +desperation, hoping to break through what seemed to be a cavalry +screen before the infantry came up; but when Lee's main body joined +in, only to find a solid mass of Federal infantry straight across +its one way out, Lee at once sent forward a white flag. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant, overwrought with anxiety, had been <a name="page_389"><span +class="page">Page 389</span></a> suffering from an excruciating +headache all night long. But the moment he opened Lee's note, offering +to discuss surrender, he felt as well as ever, and instantly wrote +back to say he was ready. Pushing rapidly on he met Lee at McLean's +private residence near Appomattox Court House. There was a remarkable +contrast between the appearance of the two commanders. Grant, only +forty-three, and without a tinge of gray in his brown hair, took +an inch or two off his medium height by stooping keenly forward, +and had nothing in his shabby private's uniform to show his rank +except the three-starred shoulder-straps. When the main business +was over, and he had time to notice details, he apologized to Lee, +explaining that the extreme rapidity of his movements had carried +him far ahead of his baggage. Lee's aide-de-camp, Colonel Charles +Marshall, afterwards explained that when the Confederates had been +obliged to reduce themselves simply to what they stood in, each officer +had naturally put on his best. Hence Lee's magnificent appearance +in a brand-new general's uniform with the jeweled sword of honor +that Virginia had given him. Well over six feet tall, straight as +an arrow in spite of his fifty-eight years and snow-white, war-grown +beard, still extremely <a name="page_390"><span class="page">Page +390</span></a> handsome, and full of equal dignity and charm, he +looked, from head to foot, the perfect leader of devoted men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant, holding out his hand in cordial greeting, began the conversation +by saying: "I met you once before, General Lee, while we were serving +in Mexico.... I have always remembered your appearance, and I think +I should have recognized you anywhere." After some other personal +talk Lee said: "I suppose, General Grant, that the object of our +present meeting is fully understood. I asked to see you in order +to ascertain on what terms you would receive the surrender of my +army." Grant answered that officers and men were to be paroled +and disqualified from serving again till properly exchanged, and +that all warlike and other stores were to be treated as captured. +Lee bowed assent, said that was what he had expected, and presently +suggested that Grant should commit the terms to writing on the +spot. When Grant got to the end of the terms already discussed +his eye fell on Lee's splendid sword of honor, and he immediately +added the sentence: "This will not embrace the side-arms of the +officers, nor their private horses or baggage." When Lee read over +the draft he flushed slightly on coming to this generous proviso <a +name="page_391"><span class="page">Page 391</span></a> and gratefully +said: "This will have a very happy effect upon my army." Grant +then asked him if he had any suggestions to make; whereupon he +said that the mounted Confederates, unlike the Federals, owned +their horses. Before he had time to ask a favor Grant said that +as these horses would be invaluable for men returning to civil +life they could all be taken home after full proof of ownership. +Lee again flushed and gratefully replied: "This will have the best +possible effect upon the men. It will be very gratifying and do +much toward conciliating our people." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While the documents were being written out for signature Grant +introduced the generals and staff officers to Lee. Then Lee once +more led the conversation back to business by saying he wished +to return his prisoners to Grant at the earliest possible moment +because he had nothing more for them to eat. "I have, indeed, nothing +for my own men," he added. They had been living on the scantiest +supply of parched corn for several days; and this famine fare, +combined with their utter lack of all other supplies—especially +medicine and clothing—was wearing them away faster than any +"war of attrition" in the open field. After heartily agreeing that +the prisoners should immediately return <a name="page_392"><span +class="page">Page 392</span></a> Grant said: "I will take steps +at once to have your army supplied with rations. Suppose I send +over twenty-five thousand; do you think that will be a sufficient +supply?" "I think it will be ample," said Lee, who, after a pause, +added: "and it will be a great relief, I assure you." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Then Lee rose, shook Grant warmly by the hand, bowed to the others, +and left the room. As he appeared on the porch all the Union officers +in the grounds rose respectfully and saluted him. While the Confederate +orderly was bridling the horses Lee stood alone, gazing in unutterable +grief across the valley to where the remnant of his army lay. Then, +as he mounted Traveler, every Union officer followed Grant's noble +example by standing bareheaded till horse and rider had disappeared +from view. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Grant next sent off the news to Washington and, true to his sterling +worth, immediately stopped the salutes which some of his enthusiastic +soldiers were already beginning to fire. "The war is over," he +told his staff, "the rebels are our countrymen again, and the best +sign of rejoicing after the victory will be to abstain from all +demonstrations in the field." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the meantime Lee had returned to his own <a name="page_393"><span +class="page">Page 393</span></a> lines, along which he now rode +for the last time. The reserve with which he had steeled his heart +during the surrender gave way completely when he came to bid his men +farewell. After a few simple words, advising his devoted veterans +to become good citizens of their reunited country, the tears could +no longer be kept back. Then, as he rode slowly on, from the remnant +of one old regiment to another, the men broke ranks, and, mostly +silent with emotion, pressed round their loved commander, to take +his hand, to touch his sword, or fondly stroke his splendid gray +horse, Traveler, the same that had so often carried him victorious +through the hard-fought day. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +North and South had scarcely grasped the full significance of Lee's +surrender, when, only five days later, Lincoln was assassinated. "It +would be impossible for me," said Grant, "to describe the feeling +that overcame me at the news. I knew his goodness of heart, and +above all his desire to see all the people of the United States +enter again upon the full privileges of citizenship with equality +among all. I felt that reconstruction had been set back, no telling +how far." "Of all the men I ever met," said Sherman, "he seemed to +possess <a name="page_394"><span class="page">Page 394</span></a> +more of the elements of greatness, combined with goodness, than +any other." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the very day of the assassination Sherman had written to Johnston +offering the same terms Grant had given Lee and Lincoln had most +heartily approved. Three days later, on the seventeenth, just as +Sherman was entering the train for his meeting with Johnston, the +operator handed him a telegram announcing the assassination. Enjoining +secrecy till he returned, Sherman took the telegram with him and +showed it to Johnston, whom he watched intently. "The perspiration +came out on his forehead," Sherman wrote, "and he did not attempt to +conceal his distress. He denounced the act as a disgrace to the age +and hoped I did not charge it to the Confederate Government. I told +him I could not believe that he or General Lee or the officers of the +Confederate army could possibly be privy to acts of assassination." +When Sherman got back to Raleigh he published the news in general +orders, and experienced the supreme satisfaction of finding that +not one man in all that mournful army had to be restrained from +a single act of revenge. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After much misunderstanding with Washington now in lesser hands, +the surrender of Johnston's and the other Confederate armies was +effected. <a name="page_395"><span class="page">Page 395</span></a> +Each body of troops laid down its arms and quietly dispersed. One +day the bugles called, the camp fires burned, and comrades were +together in the ranks. The next, like morning mists, they disappeared, +thenceforth to be remembered and admired only as the heroes of a +hopeless cause. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +It was a very different scene through which their rivals marched +into lasting fame with all the pride, pomp, and circumstance of war. +On the twenty-third and twenty-fourth of May, in perfect weather, +and in the stirring presence of a loyal, vast, enthusiastic throng, +the Union armies were reviewed in Washington. For over six full +hours each day the troops marched past—the very flower of +those who had come back victorious. The route was flagged from +end to end with Stars and Stripes, and banked with friends of each +and every regiment there. Between these banks, and to the sound +of thrilling martial music, the long blue column flowed—a +living stream of men whose bayonets made its surface flash like +burnished silver under the glorious sun. +</p> + +<p class="sp_indent"> +Then, when the pageantry was finished, and the volunteers that formed +the vast bulk of those <a name="page_396"><span class="page">Page +396</span></a> magnificent Federal armies had again become American +civilians in thought and word and deed, these steadfast men, whose +arms had saved the Union in the field, were first in peace as they +had been in war: first in the reconstruction of their country's +interrupted life, first in recognizing all that was best in the +splendid fighters with whom they had crossed swords, and +first—incomparably first—in keeping one and indivisible +the reunited home land of both North and South. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_397"><span class="page">Page 397</span></a> +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +Thousands of books have been written about the Civil War; and more +about the armies than about the navies and the civil interests +together. Yet, even about the armies, there are very few that give +a just idea of how every part of the war was correlated with every +other part and with the very complex whole; while fewer still give +any idea of how closely the navies were correlated with the armies +throughout the long amphibious campaigns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only works mentioned here are either those containing the original +evidence or those written by experts directly from the original +evidence. And of course there are a good many works belonging to +both these classes for which no room can be found in a bibliography +so very brief as the present one must be. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records +of the Union and Confederate Armies</i>, 128 vols. (1880-1901), +and <i>Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the +War of the Rebellion</i>, 26 vols. (1894-), form two magnificent +collections of original evidence published by the United States +Government. But they have some gaps which nothing else can fill. +<i>Battles and Leaders of the Civil War</i> (1887-89), written by +competent witnesses on both sides, gives the gist of the story +in four volumes <a name="page_398"><span class="page">Page +398</span></a> (published afterwards in eight). <i>The Rebellion +Record</i>, 12 vols. (1862-68), edited by Frank Moore, forms an +interesting collection of non-official documents. <i>The Story of +the Civil War</i>, 4 vols. (1895-1913), begun by J. C. Ropes, and +continued by W. R. Livermore, is an historical work of real value. +Larned's <i>Literature of American History</i> contains an excellent +bibliography; but it needs supplementing by bibliographies of the +present century. Inquiring readers should consult the bibliographies +in volumes 20 and 21 (by J. K. Hosmer) in the <i>American Nation</i> +series. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are many works of a more special kind that deserve particular +attention. General E. P. Alexander's <i>Military Memoirs of a +Confederate</i> (1907), the <i>Transactions of the Military Historical +Society of Massachusetts</i>, Major John Bigelow's <i>The Campaign +of Chancellorsville</i> (1910), and J. D. Cox's <i>Military +Reminiscences</i>, 2 vols. (1900), are admirable specimens of this +very extensive class. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The two greatest generals on the Northern side have written their +own memoirs, and written them exceedingly well: <i>Personal Memoirs +of U. S. Grant</i>, 2 vols. (1885-86), and <i>Memoirs of General +W. T. Sherman</i>, 2 vols. (1886). But the two greatest on the +Southern side wrote nothing themselves; and no one else has written +a really great life of that very great commander, Robert Lee. Fitzhugh +Lee's enthusiastic sketch of his uncle, <i>General Lee</i> (1894), +is one of the several second-rate books on the subject. Colonel +G. F. R. Henderson's <i>Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil +War</i>, 2 vols. (1898), is, on the other hand, among the best of +war biographies. Henderson's strategical study of the Valley Campaign +is a masterpiece. Two <a name="page_399"><span class="page">Page +399</span></a> good works of very different kinds are: <i>A History +of the Civil War in the United States</i> (1905), by W. Birkbeck +Wood and Major J. E. Edmonds, and <i>A History of the United States +from the Compromise of 1850</i>, 8 vols. (1893-1919), by James Ford +Rhodes. The first is military, the second political. Mr. Rhodes +has also written a single volume <i>History of the Civil War</i> +(1917). <i>American Campaigns</i> by Major M. F. Steele, issued +under the supervision of the War Department (1909), deals chiefly +with the military operations of the Civil War. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The naval side of this, as of all other wars, has been far too +much neglected. But that great historian of sea-power, Admiral +Mahan, has told the best of the story in his <i>Admiral Farragut</i> +(1892). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An interesting contemporary account of the war will be found in the +five volumes of Appleton's <i>American Annual Cyclopœdia</i> for +the years from 1861 to 1865. B. J. Lossing's <i>Pictorial History +of the Civil War</i>, 3 vols. (1866-69), and Harper's <i>Pictorial +History of the Rebellion</i>, 2 vols. (1868), give graphic pictures +of military life as seen by contemporaries. Personal reminiscences of +the war, of varying merit, have multiplied rapidly in recent years. +These are appraised for the unwary reader in the bibliographies +already mentioned. Frank Wilkeson's <i>Recollections of a Private +Soldier in the Army of the Potomac</i> (1887), George C. Eggleston's +<i>A Rebel's Recollections</i> (1905), and Mrs. Mary B. Chestnut's +<i>Diary from Dixie</i> (1905) are among the best of these personal +recollections. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The political and diplomatic history has been dealt with already +in the two preceding <i>Chronicles</i>. <i>Abraham Lincoln: a +History</i>, by John G. Nicolay and John Hay, <a name="page_400"><span +class="page">Page 400</span></a> in ten volumes (1890), and <i>The +Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln</i>, in twelve volumes (1905), +form the quarry from which all true accounts of his war statesmanship +must be built up. Lord Charnwood's <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> (1917) +is an admirable summary. To these titles should be added Gideon +Welles's <i>Diary</i>, 3 vols. (1911), and, on the Confederate +side, Jefferson Davis's <i>The Rise and Fall of the Confederate +Government</i>, 2 vols. (1881), and Alexander H. Stephens's <i>A +Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States</i>, 2 vols. +(1870). The best life of Jefferson Davis is that by William E. Dodd +in the <i>American Crisis Biographies</i> (1907). W. H. Russell's +<i>My Diary North and South</i> (1863) records the impressions of +an intelligent foreign observer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The present <i>Chronicle</i> is based entirely on the original +evidence, with the convenient use only of such works as have themselves +been written by qualified experts directly from the original evidence. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_401"><span class="page">Page 401</span></a> +INDEX</h2> + +<p class="index_gap">Alabama, secedes, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; in 1864, +<a href="#page_335">335</a>; threatened, <a href="#page_336">336</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Alabama</i>, Confederate raider, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, +<a href="#page_311">311-12</a>; <i>Kearsarge</i> and, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_313">313-17</a>; and +<i>Hatteras</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>, +<a href="#page_115">115</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Albatross</i>, ship, <a href="#page_265">265</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Albemarle</i>, Confederate ram, Cushing destroys, +<a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_318">318-319</a></p> + +<p class="index">Albemarle Sound, command lost, +<a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index">Alexandria (Louisiana), State Seminary of Learning +and Military Academy, <a href="#page_6">6-7</a></p> + +<p class="index">Allatoona (Georgia), Johnston evacuates, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>; Corse's defense of, +<a href="#page_369">369-70</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Anaconda policy," <a href="#page_184">184</a></p> + +<p class="index">Anderson, Colonel Charles, quotes Lee, +<a href="#page_11">11</a></p> + +<p class="index">Anderson, Major Robert, commands at Fort Moultrie, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; at Fort Sumter, <a href="#page_3">3</a>, +<a href="#page_12">12-15</a>; surrender, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; +leaves Fort Sumter, <a href="#page_16">16</a>; appointed to Kentucky +command, <a href="#page_29">29</a>; superseded by Sherman, +<a href="#page_120">120</a></p> + +<p class="index">Annapolis, Union troops at, +<a href="#page_17">17</a></p> + +<p class="index">Antietam (Maryland), battle, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_245">245-46</a>, +<a href="#page_292">292</a></p> + +<p class="index">Apache Cañon, fight in, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Appomattox Court House (Virginia), Lee's surrender, +<a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a></p> + +<p class="index">Appomattox Station, Custer raids, +<a href="#page_388">388</a></p> + +<p class="index">Aquia, McClellan's troops at, +<a href="#page_228">228-29</a>, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, +<a href="#page_234">234</a></p> + +<p class="index">Archer, J. T., Confederate brigadier, +<a href="#page_298">298</a></p> + +<p class="index">Arizona, "War in the West," +<a href="#page_165">165</a></p> + +<p class="index">Arkansas secedes, <a href="#page_56">56</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Arkansas</i>, Confederate ram, +<a href="#page_109">109</a></p> + +<p class="index">Arkansas Post, capture of, +<a href="#page_164">164</a></p> + +<p class="index">Arlington, home of General Lee, +<a href="#page_19">19</a></p> + +<p class="index">Armstrong, Commodore, at Pensacola, +<a href="#page_4">4</a></p> + +<p class="index">Army, Confederate, Act providing for enlistment, +<a href="#page_11">11-12</a>; at Harper's Ferry, +<a href="#page_21">21-22</a>; Jackson and, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, +<a href="#page_23">23-24</a>; lack of equipment, +<a href="#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>; advantages, +<a href="#page_76">76-77</a>; conscription, <a href="#page_78">78</a>; +munitions, <a href="#page_78">78</a>; relations with Federals at +Vicksburg, <a href="#page_276">276</a>; Army of Northern Virginia, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; unrenewable wastage, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>; number of troops (1865), +<a href="#page_380">380</a>; Lee's farewell to, +<a href="#page_393">393</a></p> + +<p class="index">Army, Federal, enlistments, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; +Congress votes troops and money, <a href="#page_34">34</a>, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>; McDowell's, <a href="#page_39">39-40</a>; +regulars in, <a href="#page_79">79</a>; number of troops, +<a href="#page_79">79-80</a>; conscription, <a href="#page_81">81</a>; +organization, <a href="#page_82">82</a>; Grant's (1862), +<a href="#page_148">148</a>; Army of the Cumberland, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; Army +of the Mississippi, <a href="#page_160">160</a>; +<a name="page_402"><span class="page">Page 402</span></a> Army of +the Ohio, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; +well equipped, <a href="#page_244">244</a>; Army of the Potomac, +<a href="#page_254">254-55</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, +<a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>; Army of the Tennessee, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>; Army of +Virginia, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>; +relations with Confederates at Vicksburg, <a href="#page_276">276</a>; +Army of the James, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>; reviewed in Washington, +<a href="#page_395">395</a></p> + +<p class="index">Army Act, Provisional Confederate Congress passes, +<a href="#page_11">11-12</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ashby, Turner, Confederate cavalry leader, +<a href="#page_205">205</a>; at Harrisonburg, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>; Valley raid, <a href="#page_212">212</a>; +death, <a href="#page_215">215-16</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ashby's Gap, Johnston crosses Blue Ridge at, +<a href="#page_45">45</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ashland (Virginia), Jackson at, +<a href="#page_223">223</a></p> + +<p class="index">Atlanta, Southern cannon made at, +<a href="#page_64">64</a>; Northern objective, +<a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>; battle, +<a href="#page_358">358-59</a>; Sherman announces fall of, +<a href="#page_361">361</a>; effect of victory, +<a href="#page_364">364</a>; Sherman's headquarters, +<a href="#page_366">366-67</a>; last action near, +<a href="#page_368">368-70</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Atlanta</i>, Confederate ram captured by +<i>Weehawken</i>, <a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Averell, W. D., cavalry leader, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Bailey, Colonel Joseph, <a href="#page_330">330</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bailey, Captain Theodorus, +<a href="#page_100">100</a></p> + +<p class="index">Balloons, <a href="#page_68">68</a></p> + +<p class="index">Baltimore, Secessionists at Fort Sumter, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>; Massachusetts troops mobbed in, +<a href="#page_16">16</a>; Jackson's plan to occupy, +<a href="#page_194">194</a></p> + +<p class="index">Baltimore and Ohio Railway, Jackson destroys workshop, +<a href="#page_37">37</a></p> + +<p class="index">Banks, General N. P., supersedes General Butler, +<a href="#page_113">113</a>; on the Mississippi (1862), +<a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, +<a href="#page_167">167</a>; (1863), <a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264-65</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_273">273</a>; commands in Shenandoah Valley, +<a href="#page_198">198</a>; in Shenandoah campaign, +<a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, +<a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, +<a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#page_235">235</a>; incapacity, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>; commands +Red River Expedition, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, +<a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, +<a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a></p> + +<p class="index">Barrancas Barracks, <a href="#page_3">3</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bartow, General F. S., Bull Run, +<a href="#page_48">48</a>; killed, <a href="#page_52">52</a></p> + +<p class="index">Baton Rouge, Union Arsenal at, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; +Farragut captures, <a href="#page_107">107</a>; Confederate attack, +<a href="#page_110">110</a>; Union Navy wins way to, +<a href="#page_117">117</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Battle above the Clouds," Lookout Mountain, +<a href="#page_284">284</a></p> + +<p class="index">Baylor, Captain J. R., proclaims himself Governor +of New Mexico, <a href="#page_165">165-66</a></p> + +<p class="index">Beauregard. General P. G. T., sons at Louisiana +Military Academy, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; and Fort Sumter, +<a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_15">15-16</a>; on the Potomac, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>; at Bull Run, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a>; preparation +for Shiloh, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>; +battle of Shiloh, <a href="#page_153">153-54</a>; Corinth, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>; and Confederate plans, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>; attacks Butler, +<a href="#page_340">340</a>; telegram to Lee, +<a href="#page_348">348-49</a>; command of troops opposed to Sherman, +<a href="#page_371">371</a></p> + +<p class="index">Beauregard, Fort, <a href="#page_92">92</a></p> + +<p class="index">Beaver Dam Creek (Virginia), Porter's front at +Mechanicsville, <a href="#page_223">223</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bee, General B. E., Bull Run, +<a href="#page_49">49</a>; killed, <a href="#page_52">52</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bell, Commodore H. H., <a href="#page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#page_114">114</a></p> + +<p class="index">Belmont (Missouri), Grant attacks, +<a href="#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a></p> + +<p class="index">Benjamin, J. P., Confederate Secretary of War, +<a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, +<a href="#page_182">182</a> <a name="page_403"> <span class="page">Page +403</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Benton</i>, flagship, +<a href="#page_266">266</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bentonville (North Carolina), battle, +<a href="#page_382">382-83</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bering Sea, <i>Shenandoah</i> in, +<a href="#page_69">69</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bermuda Hundred (Virginia), Butler seizes, +<a href="#page_339">339</a></p> + +<p class="index">Beverly (West Virginia), Confederates retire to, +<a href="#page_30">30</a></p> + +<p class="index">Big Black River (Mississippi), Grant's victory +at, <a href="#page_271">271</a></p> + +<p class="index">Birge, H. W., and sharpshooters, +<a href="#page_133">133</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bixby, Mrs., letter to, +<a href="#page_190">190-191</a></p> + +<p class="index">Blackburn's Ford (Virginia), McDowell at, +<a href="#page_43">43</a>, <a href="#page_46">46</a></p> + +<p class="index">Blair, General F. P., fight for Missouri, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>, +<a href="#page_27">27</a>, <a href="#page_57">57</a>, +<a href="#page_131">131</a>; as a general, +<a href="#page_261">261</a></p> + +<p class="index">Blockade, declared, <a href="#page_16">16</a>; +effectiveness, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_91">91-92</a>, +<a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>; blockade-runners, +<a href="#page_91">91-92</a>, <a href="#page_307">307-08</a>; on +Mississippi, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; attempts to break, +<a href="#page_308">308-309</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>; double +line necessary, <a href="#page_308">308</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bloody Angle, salient in Spotsylvania action, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_344">344</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bonham, General M. L., Bull Run, +<a href="#page_48">48</a></p> + +<p class="index">Boonville (Missouri), battle, +<a href="#page_28">28</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a></p> + +<p class="index">Boston Mountains, Confederates hold, +<a href="#page_142">142</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bowling Green (Kentucky), Johnston at, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>; Johnston +abandons, <a href="#page_141">141</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brackett, Colonel A. G., quoted, +<a href="#page_10">10-11</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bragg, General Braxton, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, +<a href="#page_325">325-26</a>; at Baton Rouge, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; +preparations for Shiloh, <a href="#page_146">146</a>; succeeds +Beauregard, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; invasion of Kentucky, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, +<a href="#page_243">243</a>; march on Nashville, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; sends out Morgan, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>; Chickamauga, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; +Chattanooga, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>; +Missionary Ridge, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, +<a href="#page_288">288</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brandy Station (Virginia), cavalry combat at, +<a href="#page_288">288</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brentwood (Tennessee), Schofield at, +<a href="#page_377">377</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brice's Cross Roads (Mississippi), Forrest defeats +Sturgis at, <a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bristoe Station (Virginia), bridge burned, +<a href="#page_233">233</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Brooklyn</i>, fight with <i>Manassas</i>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>; against Fort Morgan, +<a href="#page_322">322</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brown, John, <a href="#page_20">20</a>, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Brown, J. E., Governor of Georgia, +<a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_367">367-68</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bruinsburg (Louisiana), Grant lands force at, +<a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a></p> + +<p class="index">Buchanan, Commodore Franklin, +<a href="#page_87">87</a></p> + +<p class="index">Buckingham, General C. P., and McClellan, +<a href="#page_248">248</a></p> + +<p class="index">Buckner, General S. B., as a general, +<a href="#page_136">136</a>; Fort Donelson, <a href="#page_138">138</a>; +surrender, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>; +and Grant, <a href="#page_140">140</a></p> + +<p class="index">Buell, General D. C., commands in West, +<a href="#page_122">122</a>; and Halleck, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; +preparations for Shiloh, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, +<a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>; battle of +Shiloh, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>; +commands Army of the Ohio, <a href="#page_160">160</a>; end of +service, <a href="#page_162">162</a></p> + +<p class="index">Buford, John, cavalry leader at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, +<a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bull Run, First campaign, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, +<a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, +<a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>; public clamor for action, +<a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href="#page_39">39-40</a>; disposition +of forces, <a href="#page_34">34-35</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>; +Confederate problem, <a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; Falling Waters, +<a href="#page_38">38-39</a>; Federal preparations, +<a href="#page_41">41-43</a>; Blackburn's Ford, +<a href="#page_43">43</a>; McDowell advances, <a href="#page_44">44</a>; +Confederate preparations and plans, <a href="#page_44">44-46</a>; +Federal advance, <a href="#page_47">47</a>; Confederate rout, +<a href="#page_48">48-49</a>; Confederates rally, +<a href="#page_49">49-50</a>; Stuart's charge, <a name="page_404"><span +class="page">Page 404</span></a> <a href="#page_51">51</a>; Federal +retreat, <a href="#page_53">53-54</a>; losses, +<a href="#page_54">54</a>; importance, <a href="#page_54">54-55</a>; +number of troops, <a href="#page_148">148</a></p> + +<p class="index">Bull Run, Second campaign, maneuvering for, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>; battle, +<a href="#page_237">237-43</a></p> + +<p class="index">Burns, John, at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_299">299</a></p> + +<p class="index">Burnside, General A. E., <a href="#page_228">228</a>; +failure in Virginia, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; succeeds McClellan, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>; as a general, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, +<a href="#page_250">250</a>; at Fredericksburg, +<a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, +<a href="#page_251">251</a>; "Mud March," <a href="#page_251">251</a>, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, +<a href="#page_263">263-64</a>; Knoxville, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, +<a href="#page_284">284</a>; at Petersburg, +<a href="#page_359">359</a></p> + +<p class="index">Butler, General Benjamin, Bull Run, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>; in North Carolina, <a href="#page_85">85</a>; +Mississippi campaign, <a href="#page_103">103</a>; Banks supersedes, +<a href="#page_113">113</a>; against Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_325">325</a>; commands Army of the James, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, +<a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>; at Bermuda +Hundred, <a href="#page_339">339</a>; retreat from Drewry's Bluff, +<a href="#page_349">349</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Cairo (Illinois), Grant in command at, +<a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, +<a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a></p> + +<p class="index">Caldwell, Lieutenant, of the <i>Itasca</i>, +<a href="#page_99">99</a></p> + +<p class="index">California, invasion of, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, +<a href="#page_167">167</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cameron, Simon, Secretary of War, +<a href="#page_33">33-34</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>; and +Sherman, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; Stanton succeeds, +<a href="#page_195">195</a></p> + +<p class="index">Canby, Colonel E. R. S., at Valverde, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Carolinas, danger from West Virginia, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>; secede, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; effective +for South (1864), <a href="#page_335">335</a>; menace to, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; Sherman's march through, +<a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_381">381-82</a>; scene +of action (1865), <a href="#page_380">380</a>; <i>see also</i> +North Carolina, South Carolina</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Carondelet</i>, Federal gunboat, +<a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, +<a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_144">144-145</a></p> + +<p class="index">Castle Pinckney, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_3">3</a></p> + +<p class="index">Catlett's Station (Virginia) Shields at, +<a href="#page_204">204</a>; Banks near <a href="#page_235">235</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Cayuga</i>, Federal gunboat, +<a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cedar Creek (Virginia), Sheridan's ride to, +<a href="#page_363">363-64</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cedar Run (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_228">228</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cemetery Hill (Gettysburg), Early fails at, +<a href="#page_300">300</a></p> + +<p class="index">Centreville (Virginia), in Bull Run campaign, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href="#page_47">47</a>, +<a href="#page_54">54</a>; Confederate base, +<a href="#page_197">197</a>; McDowell's corps at, +<a href="#page_200">200</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chambersburg (Pennsylvania), Federals at, +<a href="#page_23">23</a>; Stuart's raid, +<a href="#page_246">246-47</a></p> + +<p class="index">Champion's Hill (Mississippi), fight of, +<a href="#page_271">271</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chancellorsville (Virginia), battle of, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_257">257-58</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290</a>; plans, <a href="#page_256">256</a>; +Federal defeat, <a href="#page_287">287</a></p> + +<p class="index">Charleston (South Carolina), forts, +<a href="#page_1">1-2</a>; beginning of hostilities, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; United States +Arsenal seized, <a href="#page_8">8</a>; surrender of Fort Sumter, +<a href="#page_12">12-16</a>; menaced, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, +<a href="#page_310">310</a>; naval combats around, +<a href="#page_308">308-309</a>; bombardment, +<a href="#page_309">309</a>; defenses in Southern hands, +<a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, +<a href="#page_380">380</a>; Savannah citizens go to, +<a href="#page_376">376</a></p> + +<p class="index">Charlestown (West Virginia), Patterson advances +to, <a href="#page_39">39</a></p> + +<p class="index">Charlotte (North Carolina), Southern cannon made +in, <a href="#page_64">64</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chase, S. P., Secretary of Treasury, +<a href="#page_179">179</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chase, Colonel W. H.. demands surrender of Fort +Pickens, <a href="#page_5">5</a> <a name="page_405"><span +class="page">Page 405</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Chattahoochee River, Johnston crosses, +<a href="#page_358">358</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chattanooga, Buell's objective, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>; Bragg's base, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>; Confederates retire on, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>; Bragg at (1863), +<a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>; key to strategic area, +<a href="#page_281">281</a>; battles on Missionary Ridge and Lookout +Mountain, <a href="#page_281">281-85</a>; significance of victory, +<a href="#page_285">285-86</a>; Grant moves headquarters from, +<a href="#page_327">327</a>; Grant inspects, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>; Federal headquarters, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; Sherman starts from, +<a href="#page_346">346</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chestnut, James, Confederate officer at Fort Sumter, +<a href="#page_12">12-13</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chickamauga (Georgia), battle, +<a href="#page_279">279-80</a>, <a href="#page_305">305-06</a>; +result of Federal defeat, <a href="#page_280">280</a></p> + +<p class="index">Chickasaw Bluffs (Mississippi), Sherman's assault, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cincinnati, Grant's charger, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, +<a href="#page_387">387</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cincinnati (Ohio), Confederate objective, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a></p> + +<p class="index">City Point (Virginia), Union leaders meet at, +<a href="#page_384">384</a></p> + +<p class="index">Civil control <i>vs.</i> civil interference, +<a href="#page_33">33-34</a>, <a href="#page_181">181-82</a>, +<a href="#page_329">329</a></p> + +<p class="index">Clarksburg (West Virginia), Jackson born at, +<a href="#page_24">24</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cold Harbor (Virginia), Battle of, +<a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_350">350-53</a>; result, +<a href="#page_353">353</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a></p> + +<p class="index">Columbia (South Carolina), Sherman at, +<a href="#page_382">382</a></p> + +<p class="index">Columbus (Kentucky), Confederates at, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a></p> + +<p class="index">Commerce, importance to South, +<a href="#page_66">66</a>; protection of, <a href="#page_112">112</a>; +Confederate raiders interfere with, <a href="#page_309">309-10</a></p> + +<p class="index">Congress, Confederate, passes Army and Navy Acts, +<a href="#page_11">11-12</a></p> + +<p class="index">Congress, United States, vote for army, +<a href="#page_34">34</a>; Welles's report to, +<a href="#page_72">72</a>; authorizes Promotion Board, +<a href="#page_73">73</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Congress, Merrimac</i> and, +<a href="#page_88">88-89</a></p> + +<p class="index">Conscription, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, +<a href="#page_80">80</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>; Act, +<a href="#page_206">206</a></p> + +<p class="index">Contraband, importation into South, +<a href="#page_307">307-08</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cooke, General, pursues Stuart, +<a href="#page_219">219</a></p> + +<p class="index">Copperheads, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>; <i>see +also</i> Pacifists</p> + +<p class="index">Corinth (Mississippi), Confederate railway junction +at, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; Johnston's line at, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>; Beauregard +retires after Pittsburg Landing, <a href="#page_154">154</a>; importance +of position, <a href="#page_156">156</a>; Beauregard at, +<a href="#page_156">156-57</a>; Federal advance on, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>; Confederate objective, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>; Rosecrans defeats Van Dorn at, +<a href="#page_163">163</a></p> + +<p class="index">Corse, General J. M., at Allatoona, +<a href="#page_369">369-70</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cox, General J. D., Kanawha campaign, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>; newspaper lies about, +<a href="#page_176">176-77</a></p> + +<p class="index">Craig, Fort, Valverde near, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Crocker, General M. M., <a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_262">262</a></p> + +<p class="index">Crook, General George, cavalry commander, +<a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cross Keys (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_216">216-17</a></p> + +<p class="index">Culpeper, Johnston retires to, +<a href="#page_197">197</a>; Lee at, <a href="#page_248">248</a>; +Grant's headquarters, <a href="#page_336">336</a></p> + +<p class="index">Culp's Hill (Gettysburg), Confederate victory on, +<a href="#page_300">300</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Cumberland, Merrimac</i> and, +<a href="#page_89">89</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cumberland Gap, Johnston threatened at, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>; Federal brigade against, +<a href="#page_126">126</a>; winter (1864), <a href="#page_328">328</a> +<a name="page_406"><span class="page">Page 406</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Cummings Point (South Carolina), batteries at, +<a href="#page_13">13</a></p> + +<p class="index">Curtis, General S. R., at Pea Ridge, +<a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>; compared +with Halleck, <a href="#page_123">123</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cushing, Lieutenant A. H., Pickett's Charge, +<a href="#page_302">302-03</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cushing, Lieutenant W. B., destroys <i>Albemarle</i>, +<a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a></p> + +<p class="index">Custer, General G. A., at Cedar Creek, +<a href="#page_363">363</a>; raids Appomattox Station, +<a href="#page_388">388</a></p> + +<p class="index">Custis, Mary, wife of Lee, +<a href="#page_19">19</a></p> + +<p class="index">Cynthiana (Kentucky), Morgan defeated at, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Dalton (Georgia), Johnston at, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Dandelion</i>, U. S. S., Sherman on, +<a href="#page_376">376</a></p> + +<p class="index">Darrow, Mrs., and Lee, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +quoted, <a href="#page_10">10</a></p> + +<p class="index">Davis, Flag-Officer C. H., Mississippi flotilla +under, <a href="#page_108">108</a>; succeeds Foote, +<a href="#page_158">158</a></p> + +<p class="index">Davis, Jefferson, President of Confederacy, +<a href="#page_11">11</a>; personal characteristics, +<a href="#page_78">78</a>; as executive, <a href="#page_78">78-79</a>; +interference in military matters, <a href="#page_78">78-79</a>, +<a href="#page_182">182-83</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_332">332</a>; stands for "Independence or extermination," +<a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>; military +mistakes, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>; plans flight from Richmond, +<a href="#page_202">202</a>; and Lee, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, +<a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>; and Johnston, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>; Lincoln on, +<a href="#page_385">385</a>; receives word of Southern defeat (April +2, 1865), <a href="#page_386">386</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Deerhound</i>, English yacht, +<a href="#page_314">314-15</a>; rescues crew of <i>Alabama</i>, +<a href="#page_317">317</a></p> + +<p class="index">Donaldsonville (Louisiana), Confederate attack +on, <a href="#page_273">273</a></p> + +<p class="index">Donelson, Fort, Johnston holds, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>; Confederates +from Fort Henry start for, <a href="#page_128">128</a>; importance, +<a href="#page_129">129</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>; Grant +before, <a href="#page_135">135-40</a>; Floyd and Pillow escape from, +<a href="#page_139">139</a>; surrender, <a href="#page_140">140-41</a>; +results of surrender, <a href="#page_141">141-42</a>; number of +troops, <a href="#page_148">148</a></p> + +<p class="index">Doubleday, General Abner, succeeds Reynolds, +<a href="#page_297">297</a>; at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_298">298</a></p> + +<p class="index">Drayton, Captain, of the <i>Hartford</i>, +<a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a></p> + +<p class="index">Drewry's Bluff (Virginia), Confederate defenses +at, <a href="#page_202">202</a>; Federal gunboats stopped at, +<a href="#page_204">204</a>; Butler's retreat from, +<a href="#page_349">349</a></p> + +<p class="index">Du Pont, Admiral S. F., Port Royal expedition, +<a href="#page_93">93</a>; at Charleston, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Eads, J. B., shipbuilder, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, +<a href="#page_266">266</a></p> + +<p class="index">Early, General Jubal, advance toward Washington, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>; attack at Cedar Creek, +<a href="#page_362">362-363</a></p> + +<p class="index">Eaton, John, quoted, <a href="#page_187">187-88</a></p> + +<p class="index">Elkhorn Tavern and Pea Ridge, battle of, +<a href="#page_143">143</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ellet, Colonel Charles, civil engineer, +<a href="#page_158">158</a></p> + +<p class="index">Emancipation, Lincoln and, +<a href="#page_178">178</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ericsson, John, shipbuilder, +<a href="#page_87">87</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Essex</i>, gunboat before Fort Henry, +<a href="#page_127">127</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ewell, General R. S., in Jackson's Valley campaign, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>; in Shenandoah Valley, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>; Gettysburg, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, +<a href="#page_301">301</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ezra Church (Georgia), battle, +<a href="#page_359">359</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Fair Oaks (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_218">218</a></p> + +<p class="index">Fairfax Court House (Virginia), Confederate conference +at, <a href="#page_195">195</a> <a name="page_407"><span +class="page">Page 407</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Falling Waters (West Virginia), battle in Bull +Run campaign, <a href="#page_38">38-39</a></p> + +<p class="index">Farragut, Admiral D. G., <a href="#page_330">330</a>; +efficiency, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_263">263</a>; commands squadron at Ship Island, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_96">96</a>; ancestry, +<a href="#page_94">94-95</a>; age, <a href="#page_95">95</a>; fleet, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>; and his subordinates, +<a href="#page_95">95-96</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>; New +Orleans, <a href="#page_98">98-104</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, +<a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>; at Fort +St. Philip, <a href="#page_102">102-03</a>; orders, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>; on to Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>; captures Baton Rouge, +<a href="#page_107">107</a>; returns to New Orleans, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>; Gulf +blockade, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>; +becomes ranking admiral, <a href="#page_111">111</a>; again at +New Orleans, <a href="#page_113">113</a>; occupies Galveston, +<a href="#page_114">114</a>; success of 1862, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>; Lincoln +and, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>; +prepares to attack Port Hudson, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264-65</a>; and Banks, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, +<a href="#page_273">273</a>; goes up Mississippi, +<a href="#page_266">266</a>; again to New Orleans, +<a href="#page_267">267</a>; leaves for New York, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>; and the Navy (1863-64), +<a href="#page_307">307</a> <i>et seq.</i>; and Mobile, +<a href="#page_319">319-20</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, +<a href="#page_349">349</a>; takes Fort Morgan, +<a href="#page_320">320-23</a>; at Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_323">323-26</a></p> + +<p class="index">Farrand, Captain, demands surrender of Fort Pickens, +<a href="#page_5">5</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ferragut, Don Pedro, ancestor of Farragut, +<a href="#page_94">94-95</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Fingal</i>, blockade-runner converted into ram, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Fisher, Fort, bombardment, +<a href="#page_323">323-26</a>; surrender, +<a href="#page_326">326</a></p> + +<p class="index">Five Forks (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_386">386</a></p> + +<p class="index">Florence (Alabama), Hood near, +<a href="#page_371">371</a></p> + +<p class="index">Florida, beginning of war in, +<a href="#page_3">3-6</a>; secedes, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; +Confederate troops withdrawn from, <a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Florida</i>, Confederate raider, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, +<a href="#page_311">311</a></p> + +<p class="index">Flournoy, Colonel T. S., leader of Virginians in +Valley campaign, <a href="#page_211">211</a></p> + +<p class="index">Floyd, J. B., Secretary of War, +<a href="#page_2">2-3</a>; Kanawha campaign, <a href="#page_31">31</a>; +Fort Donelson, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>; +escape, <a href="#page_139">139</a></p> + +<p class="index">Foote, Flag-Officer A. H., ability, +<a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; Fort +Henry, <a href="#page_126">126</a>; Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, +<a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>; wounded, <a href="#page_135">135</a>; +Island Number Ten, <a href="#page_143">143</a>; Davis succeeds, +<a href="#page_158">158</a></p> + +<p class="index">Forrest, General N. B., and Grant, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>; cavalry raids, <a href="#page_339">339</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a></p> + +<p class="index">Foster, Lieutenant H. C., +<a href="#page_276">276</a></p> + +<p class="index">Fox, G. V., Assistant Secretary of Navy, +<a href="#page_72">72-73</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a></p> + +<p class="index">France, intervention in Mexico, +<a href="#page_329">329</a></p> + +<p class="index">Franklin (Tennessee), Hood reaches, +<a href="#page_377">377</a></p> + +<p class="index">Frayser's Farm, battle, <a href="#page_225">225</a></p> + +<p class="index">Frederick (Maryland), McClellan's army at, +<a href="#page_245">245</a></p> + +<p class="index">Fredericksburg (Virginia), McDowell at, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, +<a href="#page_213">213</a>; Burnside's headquarters, +<a href="#page_249">249</a>; battle, <a href="#page_250">250-51</a>; +"Mud March," <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_263">263-264</a>; result +of battle, <a href="#page_251">251-52</a>; menace to Richmond from, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>; Lee suspects +Federal retirement on, <a href="#page_342">342</a></p> + +<p class="index">Frémont, General J. C., commands "Western +Department," <a href="#page_118">118-19</a>; in West Virginia, +<a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>; and Jackson's Valley campaign, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>; dismissal, +<a href="#page_172">172</a>; replaced by Sigel, +<a href="#page_227">227</a></p> + +<p class="index">Front Royal (Virginia), Banks at, +<a href="#page_210">210</a>; battle, <a href="#page_211">211-12</a>; +McDowell arrives at, <a href="#page_214">214</a>; Jackson destroys +Federal stores at, <a href="#page_214">214-15</a></p> + +<p class="index">Frost, Brigadier-General D. M., +<a name="page_408"><span class="page">Page 408</span></a> at Camp +Jackson, <a href="#page_26">26</a>; surrenders, +<a href="#page_27">27</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Gaines's Mill, battle, +<a href="#page_224">224-25</a></p> + +<p class="index">Galveston (Texas), occupied by Farragut, +<a href="#page_114">114</a>; again in Confederate hands, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></p> + +<p class="index">Gardner, Colonel, Anderson replaces at Charleston, +<a href="#page_2">2</a></p> + +<p class="index">Garfield, Colonel J. A., at Prestonburg, +<a href="#page_125">125</a></p> + +<p class="index">Garnett, General R. S., killed, +<a href="#page_30">30</a></p> + +<p class="index">Georgia, secedes, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; beginning +of war in, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; effective for South (1864), +<a href="#page_335">335</a>; Sherman threatens, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_356">356-57</a>; scene of +action, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_366">366-71</a>; +Sherman's March to the Sea, <a href="#page_372">372-76</a></p> + +<p class="index">Getty, General G. W., at Cedar Creek, +<a href="#page_363">363</a></p> + +<p class="index">Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#page_287">287</a> +<i>et seq.</i>; Lee's defeat, <a href="#page_278">278</a>; cavalry +combat, <a href="#page_288">288</a>; government interference, +<a href="#page_288">288-89</a>; Meade succeeds Hooker, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>; battle, +<a href="#page_293">293-305</a>; Little Round Top, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>; importance of location, +<a href="#page_296">296</a>; first day, <a href="#page_297">297-99</a>; +second day, <a href="#page_299">299-300</a>; third day, +<a href="#page_300">300-05</a>; Pickett's Charge, +<a href="#page_301">301-04</a>; Lee's retreat, +<a href="#page_305">305</a></p> + +<p class="index">Gilman, Lieutenant, in Florida, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>; at Fort Pickens, <a href="#page_5">5</a></p> + +<p class="index">Gloucester Point (Virginia), Federals fail to take +fort at, <a href="#page_200">200</a></p> + +<p class="index">Goldsboro (North Carolina), Sherman at, +<a href="#page_383">383</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Governor Moore</i>, Confederate vessel, +<a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grafton (West Virginia), Federal line at, +<a href="#page_30">30</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grand Gulf (Mississippi), Grant's objective, +<a href="#page_270">270</a></p> + +<p class="index">Granger, General Gordon, at Fort Morgan, +<a href="#page_323">323</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grant, Jesse, father of General Grant, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grant, Matthew, ancestor of General Grant, +<a href="#page_129">129</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grant, Noah, great-grand-father of General Grant, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grant, Solomon, great-granduncle of General Grant, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grant, General U. S., <a href="#page_76">76</a>, +<a href="#page_83">83</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, +<a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, +<a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>; and Lyon, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; at Belmont (Missouri), +<a href="#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>; age, +<a href="#page_95">95</a>; River war of 1863, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a> <i>et +seq.</i>; commands at Cairo, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>; at Fort Henry, +<a href="#page_128">128</a>; ancestors, <a href="#page_129">129-130</a>; +early life, <a href="#page_130">130-31</a>; appearance, +<a href="#page_132">132-33</a>; Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_135">135-41</a>; as a soldier, +<a href="#page_140">140-41</a>; "unconditional surrender," +<a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>; desire +to push South, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; ordered arrested for +insubordination, <a href="#page_142">142-43</a>; at Pittsburg Landing, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_147">147-48</a>; Shiloh, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147-54</a>; made +second in command, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; relations with +Halleck, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; as a leader, +<a href="#page_155">155-56</a>; commands Army of the Tennessee, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; Vicksburg +as objective, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#page_263">263</a>; holds Memphis-Corinth rails, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>; "most anxious period of the war," +<a href="#page_162">162-63</a>; Holly Springs, +<a href="#page_168">168-64</a>; returns to Memphis, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; on the Mississippi, +<a href="#page_167">167</a>; and Lincoln, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, +<a href="#page_185">185-86</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, +<a href="#page_360">360</a>; lies about, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; +given chief command, <a href="#page_185">185-186</a>; refuses +Presidential candidacy (1864), <a href="#page_187">187-88</a>; +his generals, <a href="#page_261">261-62</a>; and Banks, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>; on action +of Navy in Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#page_262">262</a>; quoted, +<a href="#page_264">264</a>; naval operations help, +<a href="#page_266">266-67</a>; lands <a name="page_409"><span +class="page">Page 409</span></a> army at Bruinsburg, +<a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>; supplies +for army, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_270">270-71</a>; +Port Gibson, <a href="#page_270">270</a>; at Grand Gulf, +<a href="#page_270">270</a>; victories in rear of Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_271">271</a>; siege of Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_271">271-78</a>; surrender of Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_277">277-78</a>; given supreme command, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>; Chattanooga, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, +<a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>; and Red River +Expedition, <a href="#page_317">317-18</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; +campaign (1864), <a href="#page_327">327</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +Lieutenant-General, <a href="#page_327">327</a>; midwinter tour, +<a href="#page_327">327-328</a>; summoned to Washington, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>; and Stanton, +<a href="#page_330">330-331</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, +<a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_362">362-63</a>; and +Swinton, <a href="#page_333">333-34</a>; force in Virginia, +<a href="#page_384">384</a>; headquarters at Culpeper Court House, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; plans advance, <a href="#page_338">338</a>; +Confederate cavalry raids against, <a href="#page_339">339</a>; +elements of victory, <a href="#page_340">340-41</a>; Wilderness, +<a href="#page_341">341-44</a>; Spotsylvania, +<a href="#page_343">343-344</a>; Sheridan's raid, +<a href="#page_344">344-46</a>; Sherman's advance, +<a href="#page_344">344-45</a>, <a href="#page_346">346-48</a>; Cold +Harbor, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_350">350-54</a>; +losses, <a href="#page_355">355</a>; Petersburg, +<a href="#page_359">359-60</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; approves Sherman's plans, +<a href="#page_371">371</a>; Nashville, <a href="#page_378">378</a>; +closes in on Lee, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, +<a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; at meeting at City Point (Virginia), +<a href="#page_384">384</a>; Lincoln approves terms to Lee, +<a href="#page_385">385</a>; quoted, <a href="#page_386">386</a>; +letter to Lee, <a href="#page_388">388</a>; surrender of Lee, +<a href="#page_389">389-392</a>; terms of Lee's surrender, +<a href="#page_390">390-91</a>; on assassination of Lincoln, +<a href="#page_393">393</a></p> + +<p class="index">Greeley, Horace, defection of, +<a href="#page_176">176</a></p> + +<p class="index">Grigsby, Colonel, Jackson and, +<a href="#page_206">206</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Hagerstown (Maryland), Longstreet at, +<a href="#page_245">245</a></p> + +<p class="index">Halleck, General H. W., Federal commander in West, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, +<a href="#page_142">142</a>; as a general, +<a href="#page_122">122-23</a>; Grant and, <a href="#page_142">142</a>, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, +<a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, +<a href="#page_363">363</a>; after Shiloh, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; +at Corinth, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; General-in-Chief, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>; military adviser at Washington, +<a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>; reprimands +Banks, <a href="#page_273">273</a>; censures Meade, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>; orders Red River Expedition, +<a href="#page_318">318</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hampton Roads, <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Merrimac</i> +in, <a href="#page_85">85</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hancock, General W. S., <a href="#page_342">342</a>; +at Gettysburg, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>; +at Cold Harbor, <a href="#page_351">351</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hanover Court House (Virginia), Cooke pursues Stuart +from, <a href="#page_219">219</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hardee, General W. J., evacuates Savannah, +<a href="#page_376">376</a></p> + +<p class="index">Harney, General W. S., commands Department of the +West, <a href="#page_27">27</a></p> + +<p class="index">Harper's Ferry, Federal forces abandon, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_20">20-21</a>; Jackson +at, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, +<a href="#page_23">23-24</a>; strategic point, +<a href="#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_23">23</a>; Virginia +militia at, <a href="#page_21">21</a>; Johnston takes command at, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_35">35</a>; Union forces on +Potomac near, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>; Johnston retires from, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>; Banks at, <a href="#page_199">199</a>; +troops gather at, <a href="#page_213">213</a>; Jackson and, +<a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Harriet Lane</i>, U. S. S., +<a href="#page_114">114</a></p> + +<p class="index">Harris, Colonel, Confederate leader, +<a href="#page_132">132</a></p> + +<p class="index">Harrisburg (Pennsylvania), Banks at, +<a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a></p> + +<p class="index">Harrison's Landing (Virginia), in Seven Days' battle, +<a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>; McClellan +moves from, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hartford</i>, Federal man-of-war, at Ship Island, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>; New Orleans forts, +<a href="#page_102">102-03</a>; in <a name="page_410"><span +class="page">Page 410</span></a> Vicksburg campaign, +<a href="#page_265">265</a>; Mobile Bay, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, +<a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a></p> + +<p class="index">Haskins, Major, at Baton Rouge, +<a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href="#page_7">7</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hatteras</i>, Alabama sinks, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hatteras Island, taken, <a href="#page_85">85</a>, +<a href="#page_92">92-93</a></p> + +<p class="index">Haxall's Landing (Virginia), Sheridan at, +<a href="#page_345">345</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hayes, R. B., quoted, <a href="#page_364">364</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hazen, General W. B., takes Fort McAllister, +<a href="#page_375">375</a></p> + +<p class="index">Helena (Arkansas), force joins Grant, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>; Confederate attack repulsed, +<a href="#page_278">278</a></p> + +<p class="index">Henry, Fort, Johnston at, <a href="#page_124">124</a>; +blocks Federal advance, <a href="#page_126">126</a>; attack on, +<a href="#page_126">126-27</a>; surrender, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, +<a href="#page_128">128-29</a>; Federal march from, +<a href="#page_136">136</a>; Grant ordered to remain at, +<a href="#page_142">142</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hill, General A. P., at Beaver Dam Creek, +<a href="#page_223">223-24</a>; at Gaines's Mill, +<a href="#page_224">224</a>; Gettysburg, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, +<a href="#page_302">302</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hill, General D. H., <a href="#page_280">280</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hilton Head (South Carolina), fleet action off, +<a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index">Holly Springs (Mississippi), Grant at, +<a href="#page_164">164</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hood, General J. B., battle of Atlanta, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, +<a href="#page_367">367</a>; number of troops, +<a href="#page_371">371</a>, Nashville, <a href="#page_376">376</a>; +attacks Schofield, <a href="#page_377">377</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hooker, General Joseph, failure in Virginia, +<a href="#page_185">185</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_238">238</a>; supersedes Burnside, +<a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_289">289-90</a>; discipline, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>; as a general, <a href="#page_254">254</a>; +on deserters, <a href="#page_255">255</a>; joins Grant, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>; at Wauhatchie, <a href="#page_281">281</a>; +Lookout Mountain, <a href="#page_282">282-285</a>; Chancellors +ville, <a href="#page_287">287</a>; Washington interferes with, +<a href="#page_288">288</a>; Lincoln's letter to, +<a href="#page_289">289-290</a>; resignation, +<a href="#page_290">290-91</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Hornets' Nest," <a href="#page_150">150</a>, +<a href="#page_152">152</a></p> + +<p class="index">Howard, General O. O., Gettysburg campaign, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>; at +Chancellorsville, <a href="#page_257">257</a>; commands Army of +the Tennessee, <a href="#page_359">359</a></p> + +<p class="index">Huger, General Benjamin, against Butler, +<a href="#page_35">35</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hunter, General David, and Washington interference, +<a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_338">338-89</a>; Sigel +replaced by, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>; +succeeded by Sheridan, <a href="#page_339">339</a>; success at Staunton, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>; and Early, <a href="#page_356">356</a></p> + +<p class="index">Hurlbut, General S. A., at Shiloh, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Imboden, General J. D., at Bull Run, +<a href="#page_49">49</a>; describes Jackson, <a href="#page_50">50</a>; +Gettysburg, <a href="#page_305">305</a></p> + +<p class="index">Indiana, Morgan's Raid, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_278">278-79</a></p> + +<p class="index">Indians, part in Civil War, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ingraham, Commodore D. N., attacks blockade at +Charleston, <a href="#page_308">308</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Iron Brigade," Meredith's, +<a href="#page_298">298</a></p> + +<p class="index">Island Number Ten, Confederates hold, +<a href="#page_142">142</a>; attack on, <a href="#page_143">143-45</a>; +Pope's operations, <a href="#page_159">159</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Itasca</i>, Federal gunboat, +<a href="#page_99">99</a></p> + +<p class="index">Iuka (Mississippi), battle, +<a href="#page_162">162</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Jackson, Governor Claiborne, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_27">27</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jackson, General T. J., <a href="#page_94">94</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>; and negroes, <a href="#page_19">19</a>; +personal characteristics, <a href="#page_19">19-20</a>; at Harper's +Ferry, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, <a href="#page_23">23-24</a>; as +disciplinarian, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>; +Johnston takes command from, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>; commands First Shenandoah Brigade, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>; at Martinsburg, <a href="#page_37">37</a>; +<a name="page_411"><span class="page">Page 411</span></a> at Falling +Waters, <a href="#page_38">38-39</a>; guards while soldiers sleep, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>; at Bull Run, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, +<a href="#page_52">52-53</a>, <a href="#page_54">54</a>; origin of +nickname "Stonewall," <a href="#page_49">49</a>; Imboden describes, +<a href="#page_50">50</a>; as a general, <a href="#page_76">76</a>; +age, <a href="#page_95">95</a>; McClellan's failure against, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>; maneuvering in Virginia, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>; as strategist, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194-95</a>, <a href="#page_216">216-217</a>; +campaign (1862-63), <a href="#page_193">193</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +Lee and, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>; +Kernstown, <a href="#page_198">198-99</a>; Banks designs net for, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>; forces, <a href="#page_204">204</a>; +Valley campaign, <a href="#page_205">205-217</a>; McDowell, +<a href="#page_208">208-09</a>; rout of Banks, +<a href="#page_210">210-12</a>; summary of fortnight's work, +<a href="#page_214">214-15</a>; Port Republic, +<a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>; pursuit +of, <a href="#page_215">215-16</a>; planned attack on McClellan, +<a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>; attends +Lee's conference, <a href="#page_222">222</a>; Seven Days, +<a href="#page_223">223-226</a>; again pursued, +<a href="#page_227">227</a>; Cedar Run, <a href="#page_228">228-29</a>; +plans against Pope, <a href="#page_230">230-31</a>; marches north, +<a href="#page_231">231-32</a>; slips away, <a href="#page_232">232</a>; +at Manassas Junction, <a href="#page_234">234</a>; preparations +for battle, <a href="#page_235">235-36</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237-43</a>; in the Valley, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>; against Hooker, +<a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, +<a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>; wounded, +<a href="#page_258">258</a>; death, <a href="#page_259">259</a>; +Grant marches on, <a href="#page_271">271</a>; government interference +with, <a href="#page_332">332</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jackson (Mississippi), Grant wins at, +<a href="#page_271">271</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jackson, Camp (Missouri), Frost establishes, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; Lyon takes, <a href="#page_26">26</a>, +<a href="#page_131">131</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jackson, Fort, guards New Orleans, +<a href="#page_96">96</a></p> + +<p class="index">James Island, Fort Johnson on, +<a href="#page_2">2</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jefferson City (Missouri), Confederate recruiting +at, <a href="#page_27">27</a>; Lyon at, <a href="#page_28">28</a></p> + +<p class="index">Jetersville (Virginia), Grant goes to, +<a href="#page_387">387</a></p> + +<p class="index">Johnson, General Edward, commands near Staunton, +<a href="#page_208">208</a></p> + +<p class="index">Johnson, Fort, Charleston, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_13">13</a></p> + +<p class="index">Johnston, General A. S., commands in West, +<a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>; Logan's +Cross Roads, <a href="#page_126">126</a>; Nashville, +<a href="#page_141">141</a>; Pope cuts line, +<a href="#page_145">145</a>; plans attack on Grant, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>; Shiloh, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>; death, +<a href="#page_152">152</a></p> + +<p class="index">Johnston, General J. E., commands at Richmond, +<a href="#page_19">19</a>; at Harper's Ferry, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>; Federal problem of attack, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>; destroys stores at Harper's Ferry, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>; eludes Patterson, <a href="#page_44">44</a>; +joins Beauregard, <a href="#page_45">45-46</a>; Bull Run, +<a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a>; immediate +superior of Jackson, <a href="#page_182">182</a>; Davis and, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, +<a href="#page_381">381</a>; retires to Culpeper, +<a href="#page_197">197</a>; against McClellan, +<a href="#page_215">215</a>; Seven Pines, <a href="#page_218">218</a>; +wounded, <a href="#page_218">218</a>; Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a>; government +mistake concerning, <a href="#page_332">332</a>; Dalton, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>; Sherman +against, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357-58</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; Resaca, <a href="#page_347">347</a>; +New Hope Church, <a href="#page_348">348</a>; evacuates Allatoona, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>; at Kenesaw Mountain, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_357">357-58</a>; +Bentonville, 382-83; terms of surrender, <a href="#page_394">394</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Kanawha campaign, <a href="#page_30">30</a>; <i>see +also</i> West Virginia</p> + +<p class="index">Kansas, Southern sympathy in, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_57">57</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kearny, General Philip, Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_238">238</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Kearsarge</i>, U. S. S., and <i>Alabama</i>, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_313">313-17</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kenesaw Mountain (Georgia), Johnston at, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>; battle, <a name="page_412"><span +class="page">Page 412</span></a> <a href="#page_357">357-58</a>; Sherman +watches Allatoona engagement from, <a href="#page_369">369</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kenly, Colonel, at Front Royal, +<a href="#page_211">211</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kennon, Confederate naval officer, +<a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kentucky, opinions divided in, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>; neutral, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; +Southern sympathy in, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; Confederates lose +hold of eastern, <a href="#page_125">125</a>; Federals conquer, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>; Bragg's invasion of, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, +<a href="#page_243">243</a>; Morgan's raid, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357</a>; Grant's army in, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; Hood's objective, +<a href="#page_370">370</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kernstown (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_198">198-99</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Keystone State</i>, Confederate gunboats attack, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Kingston (Georgia), Johnston retires to, +<a href="#page_347">347</a></p> + +<p class="index">Knoxville (Tennessee), Burnside occupies, +<a href="#page_279">279</a>; Longstreet sent against, +<a href="#page_281">281</a>; dependent upon Chattanooga, +<a href="#page_281">281</a>; Bragg's connection cut, +<a href="#page_284">284</a>; Grant's inspection of, +<a href="#page_328">328</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Lacy, chaplain at Jackson's headquarters, +<a href="#page_259">259</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lamb, Colonel commands Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lancaster (Ohio), Sherman at, +<a href="#page_8">8</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lebanon (Missouri), General Curtis at, +<a href="#page_122">122</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lebanon Springs, Jackson at, +<a href="#page_209">209</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lee, Fitzhugh, Stuart and, +<a href="#page_229">229</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lee, General R. E., <a href="#page_94">94</a>, +<a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>; at San +Antonio, <a href="#page_8">8-9</a>, <a href="#page_10">10</a>; +military career, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; decision for South, +<a href="#page_10">10-11</a>, <a href="#page_18">18-19</a>; resignation +from U. S. Army, <a href="#page_11">11</a>; commands Virginia forces, +<a href="#page_19">19</a>; Kanawha campaign, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; military adviser at Richmond +<a href="#page_36">36</a>; prevision, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, +<a href="#page_147">147</a>; as a leader, <a href="#page_75">75-76</a>; +age, <a href="#page_95">95</a>; McClellan against, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>; maneuvering +in Virginia, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; made Commander-in-Chief, +<a href="#page_183">183</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, +<a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>; in 1862-63, +<a href="#page_193">193</a> <i>et seq.</i>; and Jackson, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>; plans Valley campaign, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>; appointed to command in eastern Virginia +and North Carolina, <a href="#page_219">219</a>; plan against McClellan, +<a href="#page_222">222-23</a>; Seven Days, +<a href="#page_223">223</a>; McClellan foils, +<a href="#page_226">226</a>; sends Jackson against Pope, +<a href="#page_228">228</a>; entrains Longstreet for Gordonsville, +<a href="#page_229">229</a>; as strategist, +<a href="#page_230">230-31</a>; divides army, +<a href="#page_231">231</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237-243</a>; and Longstreet, +<a href="#page_239">239-40</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_253">253-54</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>; invasion +of Maryland, <a href="#page_243">243-45</a>; again divides army, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>; at Antietam, +<a href="#page_245">245-46</a>; at Culpeper, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>; Fredericksburg, +<a href="#page_249">249</a>; Burnside tries to surprise, +<a href="#page_251">251</a>; Hooker against, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, +<a href="#page_287">287</a>; quoted, <a href="#page_255">255-56</a>; +Chancellorsville, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, +<a href="#page_258">258</a>; defeat at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>; no part in Chattanooga strategy, +<a href="#page_281">281</a>; plans counter-attack in Pennsylvania, +<a href="#page_287">287-88</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, +<a href="#page_292">292</a>; Brandy Station, +<a href="#page_288">288</a>; position before Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>; Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i>; retreat, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>; attempt to bring on Third Manassas, +<a href="#page_306">306</a>; on importance of Wilmington, +<a href="#page_324">324</a>; at Orange Court House, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; Wilderness, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, +<a href="#page_344">344</a>; Spotsylvania, +<a href="#page_342">342-44</a>; illness, <a href="#page_348">348</a>; +prepares for Cold Harbor, <a href="#page_349">349</a>; at Cold Harbor, +<a href="#page_350">350-52</a>; losses, <a href="#page_353">353</a>; +siege, <a href="#page_354">354</a>; losses, <a href="#page_354">354</a>; +<a name="page_413"><span class="page">Page 413</span></a> Petersburg, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_383">383-84</a>; insoluble +problem, <a href="#page_381">381</a>; leaves Petersburg, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; Sailor's Creek, +<a href="#page_387">387-88</a>; asks terms of Grant, +<a href="#page_388">388</a>; surrenders, <a href="#page_388">388-89</a>; +terms of surrender, <a href="#page_390">390-91</a>; farewell to +army, <a href="#page_393">393</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lexington (Kentucky) Grant inspects, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>; Morgan's raid, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lexington (Missouri), Price takes, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lick Creek, Grant's forces at, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lincoln, Abraham, Inaugural, <a href="#page_11">11</a>; +declares blockade, <a href="#page_16">16</a>; and Lee, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; calls for Missouri's quota of volunteers, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>; general call for volunteers, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; and civil control, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, +<a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, +<a href="#page_329">329</a>; on evaders of service, +<a href="#page_58">58-59</a>; reëlection, +<a href="#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>, +<a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>; and Grant, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>; as war +statesman, <a href="#page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>; birth, +<a href="#page_168">168</a>; education, <a href="#page_168">168-69</a>; +appearance, <a href="#page_169">169</a>; personal characteristics, +<a href="#page_169">169-70</a>; appointments, +<a href="#page_170">170-71</a>; quoted, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, +<a href="#page_176">176</a>; and Vallandigham, +<a href="#page_176">176</a>; Emancipation, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; +foreign policy, <a href="#page_178">178-79</a>; Cabinet, +<a href="#page_179">179-80</a>; as Commander-in-Chief, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; and McClellan, +<a href="#page_184">184-85</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, +<a href="#page_221">221</a>; stories, <a href="#page_189">189-90</a>; +letter to a bereaved mother, <a href="#page_190">190-91</a>; Second +Inaugural quoted, <a href="#page_191">191-92</a>; military orders, +<a href="#page_195">195-96</a>; halts McDowell, +<a href="#page_199">199-200</a>; and Hooker, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_289">289-90</a>; and +Stanton, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; cipher letter to Grant, +<a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>; and Sherman, +<a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, +<a href="#page_376">376-77</a>; meets Union leaders, +<a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>; assassination, +<a href="#page_393">393</a>; approves terms of surrender, +<a href="#page_394">394</a>; bibliography, +<a href="#page_399">399</a></p> + +<p class="index">Little Sorrel, Jackson's horse, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a></p> + +<p class="index">Logan, General J. A., <a href="#page_261">261-62</a>; +replaces McPherson at Atlanta, <a href="#page_358">358</a>; Ezra Church, +<a href="#page_359">359</a>; Nashville, <a href="#page_378">378</a></p> + +<p class="index">Logan's Cross Roads, Confederates at, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>; Thomas's victory at, +<a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a></p> + +<p class="index">Longstreet, General James, entrains for Gordonsville, +<a href="#page_229">229</a>; Jackson's march against Pope, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237</a>; obstructs Lee's plans, +<a href="#page_239">239-40</a>; at Hagerstown, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>; leaves Lee, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>; reinforces Bragg, +<a href="#page_279">279</a>; Wauhatchie, <a href="#page_281">281</a>; +urges help for Vicksburg, <a href="#page_287">287</a>; Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, +<a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_299">299-300</a>, +<a href="#page_301">301</a>; Wilderness, <a href="#page_341">341</a>; +wounded, <a href="#page_341">341</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lookout Mountain, <i>see</i> Chattanooga</p> + +<p class="index">Louisiana, Union forces in, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; +Sherman in, <a href="#page_6">6-8</a>; secedes, <a href="#page_8">8</a>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Louisiana</i>, Confederate ironclad, +<a href="#page_97">97</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; as mine +ship, <a href="#page_324">324</a></p> + +<p class="index">Louisville (Kentucky), Bragg at, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>; Grant inspects, +<a href="#page_328">328</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Louisville</i>, at Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_135">135</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lovell, General Mansfield, evacuates New Orleans, +<a href="#page_104">104</a></p> + +<p class="index">Lyon, General Nathaniel, commands at St. Louis, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>; fight for Missouri, +<a href="#page_25">25-28</a>, <a href="#page_57">57</a>, +<a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; Frémont +and, <a href="#page_119">119</a>; Wilson's Creek, +<a href="#page_119">119-20</a>; killed, <a href="#page_120">120</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">McAllister, Fort, naval conflict near, +<a href="#page_309">309</a>; Hazen's attack, <a href="#page_375">375</a> +<a name="page_414"><span class="page">Page 414</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">McClellan, General G. B., in West Virginia, +<a href="#page_29">29-30</a>, <a href="#page_35">35</a>; recalled +to Washington, <a href="#page_30">30</a>; bubble reputation, +<a href="#page_31">31-33</a>; former career, <a href="#page_31">31</a>; +"Young Napoleon of the West," <a href="#page_32">32</a>; newspaper +publicity, <a href="#page_32">32</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>; force +in Virginia, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>; +telegram to Grant delayed, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; Federal +invasion of Virginia under, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i>; dismissal, +<a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_248">248-49</a>; Lincoln +and, <a href="#page_184">184-85</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, +<a href="#page_221">221</a>; Democratic candidate for President +(1864), <a href="#page_186">186</a>; plan of campaign, +<a href="#page_196">196-97</a>; Peninsula Campaign, +<a href="#page_198">198-228</a>; at Fortress Monroe, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>; base at +White House, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#page_222">222</a>; in Chickahominy swamps, +<a href="#page_204">204</a>; government interference with, +<a href="#page_213">213</a>; Jackson aids against, +<a href="#page_215">215</a>; awaits McDowell, +<a href="#page_217">217</a>; number of troops, +<a href="#page_217">217</a>; exaggerates number of enemy, +<a href="#page_218">218</a>; Seven Pines, <a href="#page_218">218</a>; +Stuart's ride around, <a href="#page_219">219-20</a>, +<a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_246">246-47</a>; Lee +and, <a href="#page_222">222-23</a>; changes base to Harrison's +Landing, <a href="#page_225">225</a>; Malvern Hill, +<a href="#page_225">225-26</a>; plans to take Richmond, +<a href="#page_226">226</a>; ordered to Aquia, +<a href="#page_228">228</a>; Pope and, <a href="#page_235">235</a>; +discovers Lee's plans, <a href="#page_245">245</a>; lets opportunity +slip, <a href="#page_245">245</a>; Antietam, +<a href="#page_246">246</a>; superseded by Burnside, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>; popularity, +<a href="#page_248">248-49</a></p> + +<p class="index">McClernand, General J. B., Grant's second-in-command, +<a href="#page_113">113</a>; fails to meet Banks, +<a href="#page_114">114</a>; battle on own account, +<a href="#page_136">136</a>; at Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, +<a href="#page_139">139</a>; Shiloh, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; +Arkansas Post, <a href="#page_164">164</a>; as a general, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>; breach of discipline, +<a href="#page_272">272-73</a>; dismissal, +<a href="#page_278">278</a></p> + +<p class="index">McCulloch, General Benjamin at Wilson's Creek, +<a href="#page_119">119</a>; killed at Pea Ridge, +<a href="#page_143">143</a></p> + +<p class="index">McDowell, General Irvin, assists Scott, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; crosses Potomac, +<a href="#page_34">34-35</a>; Bull Run <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +<a href="#page_53">53</a>; President reviews army of, +<a href="#page_39">39</a>; number of troops, <a href="#page_40">40</a>; +difficulties encountered, <a href="#page_40">40-41</a>, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>; quoted, <a href="#page_42">42</a>; wastage +in forces, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; people lose confidence in, +<a href="#page_184">184</a>; kept from reinforcing McClellan, +<a href="#page_199">199-200</a>; strike at Richmond, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>; ordered to Valley, +<a href="#page_213">213</a>; Jackson and, <a href="#page_214">214</a>; +McClellan awaits, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, +<a href="#page_218">218</a></p> + +<p class="index">McDowell (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_208">208-09</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a></p> + +<p class="index">McGuire, Dr. Hunter, <a href="#page_230">230</a></p> + +<p class="index">McIntosh, General James, killed at Pea Ridge, +<a href="#page_143">143</a></p> + +<p class="index">McMahon, J. P., at Cold Harbor, +<a href="#page_352">352</a></p> + +<p class="index">McMahon, General Martin, quoted, +<a href="#page_354">354</a></p> + +<p class="index">McPherson, General J. B., killed at Atlanta, +<a href="#page_358">358</a></p> + +<p class="index">Macon (Georgia), Southern cannon made at, +<a href="#page_64">64</a></p> + +<p class="index">Maffitt, Commander J. N., commands <i>Florida</i>, +<a href="#page_115">115</a></p> + +<p class="index">Magruder, General J. B., and Butler, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>; Yorktown, <a href="#page_223">223</a>; +holds Richmond, <a href="#page_223">223</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mallory, S. R., Confederate Secretary of Navy, +<a href="#page_71">71</a></p> + +<p class="index">Malvern Hill (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></p> + +<p class="index">Manassas, Johnston at, <a href="#page_44">44</a>; +Jackson at, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>; +location, <a href="#page_46">46-47</a>; Federal base, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>; base +destroyed, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>; +Battle of Second, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, +<a href="#page_292">292</a>; <i>see also</i> Bull Run</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Manassas</i>, Federal ram, +<a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Marshall, Colonel Charles, Lee's aide-de-camp, +<a href="#page_389">389</a> <a name="page_415"><span class="page">Page +415</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Marshall, General H. M., with Johnston in Kentucky, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Martha Waskington</i>, story of Lincoln on board, +<a href="#page_221">221</a></p> + +<p class="index">Martinsburg (West Virginia), Jackson marches on, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>; Patterson occupies, +<a href="#page_39">39</a>; Confederates reach, +<a href="#page_213">213</a>; Jackson destroys Federal stores at, +<a href="#page_215">215</a></p> + +<p class="index">Maryland, border slave State, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>; Confederate hope for, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>; Southern sympathy in, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_243">243-44</a>; sea-power +keeps for Union, <a href="#page_85">85</a>; Jackson's plan to enter, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>; Confederate invasion, +<a href="#page_243">243-45</a>; Federals massed in, +<a href="#page_291">291</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mason, Fort, Lee from, <a href="#page_8">8</a></p> + +<p class="index">Matamoras, contraband imported into, +<a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, +<a href="#page_310">310</a></p> + +<p class="index">Matthews Hill, battle of Bull Run, +<a href="#page_47">47</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#page_50">50</a></p> + +<p class="index">Meade, General G. G., quoted, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>; as a general, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, +<a href="#page_292">292</a>; succeeds Hooker in command, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>; Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, +<a href="#page_300">300-01</a>; Lincoln's dissatisfaction with, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>; Army of Potomac under, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>; headed for Richmond, +<a href="#page_342">342</a>; Cold Harbor, <a href="#page_351">351</a>; +Petersburg, <a href="#page_359">359</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mechanicsville (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_223">223</a></p> + +<p class="index">Memphis, Confederate rams lost at, +<a href="#page_70">70</a>; Confederate fleet at, +<a href="#page_97">97</a>; Grant in command at, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>; Sherman's army from, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>; Grant returns to, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; Grant leaves, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; +Grant considers retirement on, <a href="#page_263">263</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mercedita</i>, Confederate gunboats attack, +<a href="#page_308">308-09</a></p> + +<p class="index">Meredith, Solomon, "Iron Brigade" at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_298">298</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Merrimac</i>, only Confederate man-of-war, +<a href="#page_70">70</a>; duel with <i>Monitor</i>, +<a href="#page_85">85-91</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>; destroyed, +<a href="#page_202">202</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mesilla (New Mexico), Baylor establishes capital +at, <a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Metacomet</i> against Fort Morgan, +<a href="#page_322">322</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mexican War, Grant serves in, +<a href="#page_131">131</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mexico, France warned from intervention in, +<a href="#page_329">329</a></p> + +<p class="index">Middle Creek (Kentucky), Garfield occupies line +of, <a href="#page_125">125</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mill Springs (Kentucky), Confederates at, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>; battle, <a href="#page_125">125</a></p> + +<p class="index">Milroy, R. H., in Jackson's Valley campaign, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>; driven +from Winchester, <a href="#page_291">291</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mine Run (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_306">306</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Minnesota, Merrimac</i> attacks, +<a href="#page_89">89</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a></p> + +<p class="index">Missionary Ridge, <i>see</i> Chattanooga</p> + +<p class="index">Mississippi, secedes, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; +conflicting authorities balk navy, <a href="#page_69">69-70</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mississippi</i>, Confederate ship, +<a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; burnt +at New Orleans, <a href="#page_97">97</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mississippi River, Union power on, +<a href="#page_68">68</a>; Federal problem, <a href="#page_105">105</a>; +River War (1862), <a href="#page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>; River +War (1863), <a href="#page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i>; Federals +hold, <a href="#page_310">310-11</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a></p> + +<p class="index">Missouri, saved for Union, +<a href="#page_25">25-29</a>, <a href="#page_56">56-57</a>; Southern +sympathy in, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; River campaign (1862), +<a href="#page_121">121-22</a>; Curtis in, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143</a></p> + +<p class="index">Missouri River, made Federal line of communication, +<a href="#page_28">28-29</a>; last Confederate foothold on, +<a href="#page_120">120</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mitchel, General O. M., raid, +<a href="#page_161">161</a> <a name="page_416"><span class="page">Page +416</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Mobile, fleet drawn from, <a href="#page_107">107</a>; +in Southern hands, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, +<a href="#page_335">335-336</a>; Farragut against, +<a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>; Fort +Morgan, <a href="#page_320">320-23</a>; army sent against, +<a href="#page_327">327</a>; Sherman desires attack on, +<a href="#page_347">347</a>; Grant's plan to help Farragut, +<a href="#page_349">349</a>; taken, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, +<a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, +<a href="#page_364">364</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Monitor</i>, duel with <i>Merrimac</i>, +<a href="#page_85">85-91</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>; Lincoln +on plans for, <a href="#page_189">189</a></p> + +<p class="index">Monocacy River, Wallace delays Early at, +<a href="#page_356">356</a></p> + +<p class="index">Monroe, Fortress, Federal forces at, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +<a href="#page_85">85</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a>; <i>Monitor</i> +at, <a href="#page_88">88</a>; McClellan's plan for position at, +<a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>; McClellan +at, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>; McClellan +leaves, <a href="#page_201">201</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Montauk</i>, Union monitor, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Montgomery (Alabama), provisional Confederate Congress, +<a href="#page_11">11</a></p> + +<p class="index">Morgan, J. H., Raid, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_278">278-279</a>; surrender, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; +Kentucky raid, <a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Morgan, Fort Farragut against, +<a href="#page_320">320-23</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mosby, J. S., Confederate cavalry leader, +<a href="#page_339">339</a></p> + +<p class="index">Moultrie, Fort, <a href="#page_1">1-2</a>, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>, <a href="#page_13">13</a></p> + +<p class="index">Mount Pleasant battery, <a href="#page_13">13</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Mud March," Burnside's, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, +<a href="#page_263">263-64</a>; Mulligan, Colonel James, at Lexington +(Missouri), <a href="#page_120">120</a></p> + +<p class="index">Murfreesboro (Tennessee), Buell at, +<a href="#page_162">162</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap">Nashville, Buell reinforces Grant from, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>; Buell defends, <a href="#page_162">162</a>; +Grant's headquarters, <a href="#page_327">327</a>; Thomas sent +from, <a href="#page_370">370</a>; Thomas faces Hood at, +<a href="#page_376">376</a>; battle, <a href="#page_377">377-378</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Nashville</i>, Confederate privateer, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Navy, Confederate, sea-power of South, +<a href="#page_68">68-71</a>; poor administration, +<a href="#page_69">69-70</a>; <i>see also</i> Navy, United States</p> + +<p class="index">Navy, United States, stands by Union, +<a href="#page_68">68</a>; keeps command of sea, +<a href="#page_68">68</a>; size (1861), <a href="#page_71">71</a>; +Welles's report on, <a href="#page_72">72</a>; Fox as Assistant +Secretary of Navy, <a href="#page_72">72-73</a>; Promotion Board, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>; training, <a href="#page_73">73-74</a>; +growth, <a href="#page_74">74</a>; Naval War (1862), +<a href="#page_84">84</a> <i>et seq.</i>; fivefold duty of, +<a href="#page_111">111</a>; Farragut and, <a href="#page_307">307</a> +<i>et seq.</i>; blockade-runners complicate task of, +<a href="#page_307">307</a>; part in River War (1862), +<a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, +<a href="#page_134">134-35</a>, <a href="#page_144">144-45</a></p> + +<p class="index">Navy Act, <a href="#page_12">12</a></p> + +<p class="index">Negroes, fidelity to South, <a href="#page_60">60</a>; +North uses as troops, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a>; New York draft riots, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>; <i>see also</i> Emancipation, slavery</p> + +<p class="index">Nelson, William, at Shiloh, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a></p> + +<p class="index">New Hope Church (Georgia), fighting near, +<a href="#page_348">348</a></p> + +<p class="index">New Madrid (Missouri), Pope at, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>; <i>Carondelet</i> arrives at, +<a href="#page_145">145</a></p> + +<p class="index">New Mexico, as base of California invasion, +<a href="#page_165">165</a>; Baylor proclaims himself Governor, +<a href="#page_165">165-66</a>; Sibley in, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">New Orleans, Confederate rams lost at, +<a href="#page_70">70</a>; attack conceived, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; +strategic importance, <a href="#page_94">94</a>; joint expedition +necessary, <a href="#page_94">94</a>; Farragut commands enterprise, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>; Welles's orders, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, +<a href="#page_96">96</a>; Farragut's plan, +<a href="#page_96">96-97</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>; +<i>Mississippi</i> burned at, <a href="#page_97">97</a>; preparations, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>; passing of forts, +<a href="#page_97">97-103</a>; taken, <a href="#page_104">104-105</a>, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>; Farragut +at, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>; Baton +Rouge garrison withdrawn to, <a href="#page_110">110</a> +<a name="page_417"><span class="page">Page 417</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">New York, <i>Monitor</i> launched, +<a href="#page_87">87</a>; draft riot, <a href="#page_174">174</a></p> + +<p class="index">Newbern (North Carolina), expedition against, +<a href="#page_93">93</a>; Richmond menaced from, +<a href="#page_252">252-253</a>; attempt against, +<a href="#page_318">318</a>; in Union hands, +<a href="#page_383">383</a>; meeting of Union leaders at, +<a href="#page_384">384</a></p> + +<p class="index">Norfolk Navy Yard, Federal abandonment of, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a></p> + +<p class="index">North, peace parties, <a href="#page_58">58</a>; <i>see +also</i> Pacifists; population (1861), <a href="#page_60">60-61</a>; +resources, <a href="#page_62">62-63</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>; +transport facilities, <a href="#page_64">64-65</a>; sea-power, +<a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_66">66-68</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_85">85</a>, +<a href="#page_310">310</a>; <i>see also</i> Navy, United States; +commerce, <a href="#page_66">66</a>; total forces, +<a href="#page_79">79-80</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a>; conscription, +<a href="#page_80">80</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>; conduct of +soldiers, <a href="#page_227">227-28</a>; Lee's invasion, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>; conditions in 1864, +<a href="#page_361">361</a></p> + +<p class="index">North Carolina, blockade, <a href="#page_16">16</a>; +defeat at Hatteras Island, <a href="#page_92">92-93</a>; loses +defenses, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; <i>see also</i> Carolinas</p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Ohio, Morgan's Raid, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>; Vallandigham +case, <a href="#page_175">175-76</a></p> + +<p class="index">Olustee (Fla.), victory of, +<a href="#page_380">380</a> <i>Oneida</i>, Confederate ship, +<a href="#page_100">100</a></p> + +<p class="index">Opequan Creek (Virginia), Sheridan's victory +at, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, +<a href="#page_364">364</a></p> + +<p class="index">Orange Court House (Virginia), Lee at, +<a href="#page_336">336</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ord, General E. O. C., Read on staff of, +<a href="#page_387">387</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Pacifists, in North, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, +<a href="#page_80">80</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, +<a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>; Peace +party encouraged by Cold Harbor, <a href="#page_353">353</a></p> + +<p class="index">Paducah (Kentucky), Grant forestalls enemy at, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>; Grant's position at, +<a href="#page_122">122</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pamlico Sound (North Carolina), joint expedition +against, <a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index">Patterson, General Robert, commands on Potomac, +<a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_37">37</a>; and plans +for Bull Run, <a href="#page_36">36</a>; Falling Waters, +<a href="#page_38">38-39</a>; occupies Martinsburg, +<a href="#page_39">39</a>; advance, <a href="#page_39">39</a>; +and Johnston, <a href="#page_44">44</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pea Ridge (Arkansas), battle, +<a href="#page_143">143</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pemberton, General J. C., escapes Federal trap, +<a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; Chickasaw +Bluffs, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; +commander at Vicksburg, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, +<a href="#page_275">275</a>; plans escape, <a href="#page_276">276</a>; +surrender, <a href="#page_277">277</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pensacola (Florida), beginning of war, +<a href="#page_3">3-5</a>; evacuation, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; +South uses garrison to reinforce Virginia, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; +Farragut directs Gulf blockade from, <a href="#page_111">111</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Pensacola</i>, Confederate ship, +<a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a></p> + +<p class="index">Peninsula Campaign, McClellan plans, +<a href="#page_196">196-97</a>; campaign, +<a href="#page_198">198-204</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pendleton, Major A. S., member of Jackson's staff, +<a href="#page_259">259</a></p> + +<p class="index">Perryville (Kentucky), battle, +<a href="#page_162">162</a></p> + +<p class="index">Petersburg (Virginia), strategic rail gap at, +<a href="#page_65">65-66</a>; winter quarters, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>; Butler fails to take, +<a href="#page_340">340</a>; Grant at, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, +<a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>; Lee leaves, +<a href="#page_386">386</a></p> + +<p class="index">Philippi (West Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>, <a href="#page_31">31</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pickens, Fort, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, +<a href="#page_5">5</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pickett, G. E., charge at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_301">301-04</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pillow, General G. J., at Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>; escape, +<a href="#page_139">139</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pillow, Fort, Federal vessels rammed at, +<a href="#page_158">158</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pinckney, Castle, <i>see</i> Castle Pinckney +<a name="page_418"><span class="page">Page 418</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Pinola</i>, Federal gunboat, +<a href="#page_99">99</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pipe Creek, Meade's army at, +<a href="#page_296">296</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pittsburg Landing, <i>see</i> Shiloh</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Pittsburgh</i>, Federal ironclad at Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_135">135</a>; at Island Number Ten, +<a href="#page_145">145</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pleasant Hill, battle, <a href="#page_330">330</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pleasonton, General A., cavalry leader, +<a href="#page_305">305</a></p> + +<p class="index">Point Pleasant (Ohio), Grant born at, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pope, General John, Grant declines patronage +of, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; Island Number Ten, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_145">145</a>; reinforces +Halleck at Pittsburg Landing, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; transfer to +Virginia, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>; +quoted, <a href="#page_226">226-27</a>; within reach of Jackson +and Lee, <a href="#page_229">229</a>; retires safely, +<a href="#page_230">230</a>; Jackson captures dispatches of, +<a href="#page_230">230</a>; Lee divides army against, +<a href="#page_231">231</a>; Jackson's plan against, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>; Jackson marches around, +<a href="#page_232">232-34</a>; reinforcement, +<a href="#page_234">234</a>; Jackson eludes, +<a href="#page_235">235</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, +<a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, +<a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a></p> + +<p class="index">Port Gibson (Mississippi), +<a href="#page_270">270</a></p> + +<p class="index">Port Hudson (Louisiana), <a href="#page_110">110</a>, +<a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></p> + +<p class="index">Port Republic (Virginia), <a href="#page_216">216</a>, +<a href="#page_217">217</a></p> + +<p class="index">Port Royal (South Carolina), Confederate defeat, +<a href="#page_92">92</a>; Grant moves base to, +<a href="#page_350">350</a></p> + +<p class="index">Porter, Admiral D. D., conceives idea of attack +on New Orleans, <a href="#page_93">93</a>; on Mississippi, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>; succeeds +Davis, <a href="#page_110">110</a>; capture of Arkansas Post, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; Vicksburg campaign, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, +<a href="#page_266">266</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, +<a href="#page_274">274</a>; Mississippi command, +<a href="#page_278">278</a>; attacks Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>; on Red +River <a href="#page_330">330</a>; at City Point conference, +<a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a></p> + +<p class="index">Porter, FitzJohn, position, +<a href="#page_222">222</a>; Beaver Dam Creek +<a href="#page_323">323</a>; Gaines's Mill, <a href="#page_224">224</a>; +Second Bull Run, <a href="#page_239">239</a>; Pope's order, +<a href="#page_239">239</a></p> + +<p class="index">Porter, J. L., Naval Constructor to Confederate +States, <a href="#page_86">86</a></p> + +<p class="index">Porter, Commander W. D., at Fort Henry, +<a href="#page_127">127</a></p> + +<p class="index">Potter, Captain R. M., on Lee's decision, +<a href="#page_10">10</a></p> + +<p class="index">Powell, Fort, <a href="#page_320">320</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Powhatan</i>, U. S. S., Porter commands, +<a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index">Prentiss, General B. M., at Shiloh, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_151">151</a></p> + +<p class="index">Press, perverts public opinion, +<a href="#page_176">176-77</a>; no government censorship, +<a href="#page_333">333</a></p> + +<p class="index">Prestonburg, Garfield defeats Marshall near, +<a href="#page_125">125</a></p> + +<p class="index">Price, Sterling, becomes Confederate general, +<a href="#page_27">27</a>; takes Lexington (Missouri), +<a href="#page_120">120</a>; Grant prevents reinforcements for, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>; attacks Curtis in Missouri, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>; against Grant, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; +defeated at Iuka, <a href="#page_162">162-63</a></p> + +<p class="index">Privateers, <a href="#page_16">16</a>, +<a href="#page_68">68</a></p> + +<p class="index">Profiteers, <a href="#page_61">61</a></p> + +<p class="index">Pulaski, Fort, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, +<a href="#page_372">372</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> <i>Quaker City</i>, Confederate gunboats attack, +<a href="#page_309">309</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Rations, before Vicksburg, +<a href="#page_269">269-70</a>; Grant supplies Lee's army, +<a href="#page_392">392</a></p> + +<p class="index">Rawlins, J. A., Grant's chief staff officer, +<a href="#page_135">135</a></p> + +<p class="index">Raymond (Mississippi), battle, +<a href="#page_271">271</a></p> + +<p class="index">Read, Colonel Theodore, at Sailor's Creek, +<a href="#page_387">387</a></p> + +<p class="index">Red River Expedition (1864), +<a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, +<a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, +<a href="#page_349">349</a> <a name="page_419"><span class="page">Page +419</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Reno, General L. J., Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_238">238</a></p> + +<p class="index">Renshaw, Commander, in charge of blockade, +<a href="#page_114">114</a></p> + +<p class="index">Resaca (Georgia), battle, +<a href="#page_347">347</a></p> + +<p class="index">Reynolds, General J. F., Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>; Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>; killed, +<a href="#page_297">297</a></p> + +<p class="index">Rhind, Commander, fires mine-ship <i>Louisiana</i>, +<a href="#page_324">324</a></p> + +<p class="index">Rich Mountain (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>, <a href="#page_31">31-32</a></p> + +<p class="index">Richmond, plan to raid Harper's Ferry arranged +at, <a href="#page_20">20</a>; Federal objective, +<a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>; Tredegar +Iron Works, <a href="#page_64">64</a>; Grant and Lee at grips around, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>; McClellan threatens, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, +<a href="#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>; plan +to evacuate, <a href="#page_202">202</a>; change of plan, +<a href="#page_202">202</a>; Jackson starts for, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>; Magruder to hold, +<a href="#page_223">223</a>; saved, <a href="#page_243">243</a>; +Sheridan's raid, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, +<a href="#page_345">345-46</a>; Grant marches toward, +<a href="#page_350">350</a>; consternation after Cold Harbor, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>; Army of the James against, +<a href="#page_356">356</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Richmond</i>, Federal ship, +<a href="#page_102">102</a></p> + +<p class="index">"River Defense Fleet," <a href="#page_70">70</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97</a></p> + +<p class="index">River War (1862), <a href="#page_116">116</a> +<i>et seq.</i>; (1863), <a href="#page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i>, +<a href="#page_327">327</a></p> + +<p class="index">Roanoke Island captured, <a href="#page_93">93</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Rock of Chickamauga," nickname for General Thomas, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a></p> + +<p class="index">Rodgers, Commander John, and first flotilla on +Mississippi, <a href="#page_118">118</a></p> + +<p class="index">Roe, Commander of the <i>Sassacus</i>, +<a href="#page_319">319</a></p> + +<p class="index">Rosecrans, General W. S., succeeds McClellan, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>; Army of Mississippi under, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>; holds Memphis-Corinth rails, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>; replaces Buell, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>; victory at Corinth, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>; commands Army of Cumberland, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; Stone's River, +<a href="#page_164">164-65</a>; maneuvers Bragg south, +<a href="#page_279">279</a>; Thomas supersedes, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>; Confederate plan to crush, +<a href="#page_287">287</a>; Chattanooga, +<a href="#page_305">305</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Sabine Cross Roads (Louisiana), Banks's defeat +at, <a href="#page_330">330</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sabine Pass (Texas), in Confederate hands, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sable Island, Butler's troops at, +<a href="#page_104">104</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sailor's Creek (Virginia), Lee's defeat at, +<a href="#page_387">387</a></p> + +<p class="index">St. Louis, Haskins goes to, <a href="#page_6">6</a>; +Lyon commands at, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a>; +Lyon marches prisoners through, <a href="#page_27">27</a>; Harney +makes peace, <a href="#page_27">27</a>; conference, +<a href="#page_27">27-28</a>; Frémont's headquarters, +<a href="#page_118">118</a>; Frémont fortifies, +<a href="#page_119">119</a>; Halleck's headquarters, +<a href="#page_121">121</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>St. Louis</i>, Federal gunboat, +<a href="#page_135">135</a></p> + +<p class="index">St. Philip, Fort, <a href="#page_96">96</a>, +<a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a></p> + +<p class="index">Salem Church (Virginia), Jackson reaches, +<a href="#page_232">232</a></p> + +<p class="index">San Antonio (Texas), surrender to State, +<a href="#page_8">8-9</a>; Lee at, <a href="#page_9">9-10</a>; Sibley's +retreat, <a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">San Carlos, Fort, <a href="#page_4">4</a></p> + +<p class="index">Santa Rosa Island, Slemmer defends, +<a href="#page_4">4</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sassacus</i>, fight with <i>Albemarle</i>, +<a href="#page_319">319</a></p> + +<p class="index">Savannah (Georgia), South holds, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>; Sherman plans march to, +<a href="#page_372">372</a>; Sherman reaches, +<a href="#page_375">375</a>; Hardee evacuates, +<a href="#page_376">376</a></p> + +<p class="index">Savannah (Tennessee), in Shiloh campaign, +<a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a></p> + +<p class="index">Schofield, General John, Nashville campaign, +<a href="#page_377">377</a></p> + +<p class="index">Scott, General Winfield, General-in-Chief, orders to +Slemmer, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; and Lee, <a href="#page_9">9</a>, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; military <a name="page_420"> +<span class="page">Page 420</span></a> adviser at Washington, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>; civilian +interference with, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_37">37</a>; +Grant's admiration for, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; prevision, +<a href="#page_147">147</a>; "Anaconda policy," +<a href="#page_184">184</a></p> + +<p class="index">Seddon, J. A., Confederate Secretary of War, +<a href="#page_252">252</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sedgwick, General John, Virginia campaign, +<a href="#page_256">256</a></p> + +<p class="index">Selma (Alabama), Southern cannon made at, +<a href="#page_64">64</a></p> + +<p class="index">Seminary Ridge, Lee's headquarters, +<a href="#page_296">296</a></p> + +<p class="index">Semmes, Captain Raphael of <i>Alabama</i>, +<a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>, +<a href="#page_316">316</a></p> + +<p class="index">Seven Days' Battle, <a href="#page_228">228-26</a>; +balloon used in, <a href="#page_63">63</a></p> + +<p class="index">Seven Pines (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_218">218</a></p> + +<p class="index">Seward, W. H., Secretary of State, +<a href="#page_179">179</a>; on McClellan, +<a href="#page_188">188</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sharpsburg, <i>see</i> Antietam</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Shenandoah</i>, Confederate raider, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, +<a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a></p> + +<p class="index">Shenandoah Brigade, First, Jackson in command +of, <a href="#page_25">25</a></p> + +<p class="index">Shenandoah Valley, Johnston in, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>; Sheridan's raid, <a href="#page_189">189</a>; +Kernstown, <a href="#page_198">198-99</a>; positions (April, +1862), <a href="#page_200">200</a>; forces, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>; Jackson's +maneuvers, <a href="#page_205">205-07</a>; McDowell, +<a href="#page_208">208-09</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>; Front +Royal, <a href="#page_210">210-12</a>; Winchester, +<a href="#page_212">212</a>; pursuit of Banks, +<a href="#page_212">212-213</a>; summary of Jackson's accomplishment +in, <a href="#page_214">214-15</a>; pursuit of Jackson, +<a href="#page_215">215-16</a>; Cross Keys, <a href="#page_216">216</a>; +Port Republic, <a href="#page_216">216</a>; Jackson's strategy, +<a href="#page_216">216-17</a>; Ewell in, <a href="#page_291">291</a>; +Stanton's interference, <a href="#page_331">331-333</a>; Sigel +in, <a href="#page_337">337</a>; Hunter's retreat, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>; Early in, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, +<a href="#page_362">362</a>; Sheridan in, <a href="#page_362">362</a>; +Opequan Creek, <a href="#page_362">362</a>; "Sheridan's Ride," +<a href="#page_363">363-64</a>; Cedar Creek, +<a href="#page_363">363-64</a>; Federal victory, +<a href="#page_364">364</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sheridan, General P. H., raid helps Lincoln's +reëlection, <a href="#page_189">189</a>; Chattanooga, +<a href="#page_285">285</a>; Stanton falsifies Grant's order to, +<a href="#page_332">332-33</a>; as a general, +<a href="#page_337">337-38</a>; Grant and, <a href="#page_339">339</a>, +<a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>; Todd's +Tavern, <a href="#page_342">342</a>; Richmond raid, +<a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_345">345-46</a>; Cold +Harbor, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>; raid, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>; Trevilian, <a href="#page_355">355</a>; +Opequan Creek, <a href="#page_362">362</a>; "Sheridan's Ride," +<a href="#page_363">363-64</a>; in Washington, +<a href="#page_362">362</a>; later operations, +<a href="#page_384">384</a>; Five Forks, <a href="#page_386">386</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sherman, General W. T., colonel in Louisiana +State Military Academy, <a href="#page_6">6-8</a>; leaves Louisiana, +<a href="#page_8">8</a>; and Lyon, <a href="#page_26">26</a>; assists +Scott, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; account of McDowell's march, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>; as a leader, <a href="#page_76">76</a>, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_338">338</a>; Port Royal expedition, +<a href="#page_93">93</a>; age, <a href="#page_95">95</a>; attempt +to take Vicksburg, <a href="#page_114">114</a>; Kentucky command, +<a href="#page_120">120</a>; reported insane, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>; diffident +about rise, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; Shiloh, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; joins +Grant, <a href="#page_163">163</a>; Chickasaw Bluffs, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; and Lincoln, +<a href="#page_189">189</a>; Vicksburg campaign, +<a href="#page_267">267</a>; commands Army of Tennessee, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>; Chattanooga, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, +<a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, +<a href="#page_285">285</a>; Red River Expedition spoils strategy +of, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>; and +Stanton, <a href="#page_330">330</a>; on relative forces in South, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>; threatens Georgia, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>; Dalton, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, +<a href="#page_347">347</a>; fitness for command, +<a href="#page_338">338</a>; advance, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, +<a href="#page_346">346-47</a>; Resaca, <a href="#page_347">347</a>; +New Hope Church, <a href="#page_348">348</a>; at Allatoona, +<a href="#page_348">348</a>; at Kenesaw, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357</a>; maneuvers Johnston, +<a href="#page_357">357-358</a>; <a name="page_421"><span +class="page">Page 421</span></a> battle of Atlanta, +<a href="#page_358">358-359</a>; asks reinforcements, +<a href="#page_360">360</a>; announces fall of Atlanta, +<a href="#page_361">361</a>; Lincoln's reply to, +<a href="#page_362">362</a>; campaign (1864), +<a href="#page_366">366</a> <i>et seq.</i>; quoted, +<a href="#page_366">366</a>; at Atlanta, <a href="#page_366">366-67</a>; +Hood's attempt on Allatoona, <a href="#page_369">369-70</a>; +preponderance of force, <a href="#page_370">370</a>; March to the +Sea, <a href="#page_372">372-76</a>; presents Savannah to Lincoln, +<a href="#page_376">376-77</a>; march through Carolinas, +<a href="#page_381">381-83</a>; conference at City Point (Virginia), +<a href="#page_384">384-85</a>; terms of surrender to Johnston, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>; on Lincoln, +<a href="#page_393">393-94</a> + +<p class="index">Shields, General James, Kernstown, +<a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>; at Catlett's +Station, <a href="#page_204">204</a>; Port Republic, +<a href="#page_216">216</a></p> + +<p class="index">Shiloh, Grant's army assembles near, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>; Confederate +preparations, <a href="#page_146">146-47</a>; Grant's position +and force, <a href="#page_147">147-49</a>; battle, +<a href="#page_149">149-55</a>; losses, <a href="#page_154">154</a>; +outcome, <a href="#page_154">154</a>; result, +<a href="#page_154">154-55</a></p> + +<p class="index">Shine, Elizabeth, mother of Farragut, +<a href="#page_95">95</a></p> + +<p class="index">Ship Island, taken, <a href="#page_92">92</a>; +Farragut at, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_96">96</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sibley, General H. H., in New Mexico, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sickles, General D. E., at Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_294">294</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sigel, General Franz, Wilson's Creek, +<a href="#page_120">120</a>; Second Bull Run, +<a href="#page_237">237</a>; command in Shenandoah Valley, +<a href="#page_337">337</a>; Hunter replaces, +<a href="#page_350">350</a></p> + +<p class="index">Simpson, Grant's mother's name, +<a href="#page_129">129</a></p> + +<p class="index">Slavery, Lee and, <a href="#page_19">19</a>; <i>see +also</i> Emancipation, Negroes</p> + +<p class="index">Slemmer, Lieutenant, command at Pensacola, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>; defends Fort Pickens, +<a href="#page_4">4-5</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, General A. J., at Tupelo, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, Captain C. F., Grant's admiration for, +<a href="#page_131">131</a>; as a leader, +<a href="#page_135">135-36</a>; Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>; ordered +by Halleck to command expedition, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; +Shiloh, <a href="#page_152">152</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, General G. W., and Jackson's plan, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, Giles, Chattanooga, +<a href="#page_282">282</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, General Kirby, Bull Run, +<a href="#page_53">53</a></p> + +<p class="index">Smith, William, quartermaster on <i>Kearsarge</i>, +<a href="#page_316">316</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sons of Liberty, <a href="#page_59">59</a></p> + +<p class="index">South, seceding States of, <a href="#page_56">56</a>; +war party in, <a href="#page_57">57</a>; population (1861), +<a href="#page_60">60-61</a>; resources, <a href="#page_62">62-64</a>; +transportation, <a href="#page_64">64-66</a>; sea-power, +<a href="#page_66">66-68</a>; <i>see also</i> Navy, Confederate; +reason for fighting, <a href="#page_75">75</a>; advantages, +<a href="#page_75">75-77</a>; raiders, <a href="#page_311">311</a>; +situation (1864), <a href="#page_335">335</a>; losses (1864), +<a href="#page_367">367</a>; cause lost, <a href="#page_379">379</a>; +number of troops, <a href="#page_380">380</a></p> + +<p class="index">South Carolina, secedes, <a href="#page_1">1</a>; +defeat at Port Royal, <a href="#page_92">92</a>; <i>see also</i> +Carolinas, Charleston</p> + +<p class="index">South Mountain, Stuart at, +<a href="#page_245">245</a></p> + +<p class="index">Spotsylvania (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_342">342-48</a></p> + +<p class="index">Stanton, E. M., Secretary of War, +<a href="#page_179">179</a>; and Lincoln, <a href="#page_179">179</a>; +military interference, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>; and Lee, +<a href="#page_182">182</a>; Cameron succeeded by, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>; Banks and, <a href="#page_211">211</a>; +orders McClellan to Aquia, <a href="#page_228">228</a>; and Hooker, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>; forbids +use of cipher, <a href="#page_330">330-81</a>; and Grant's orders, +<a href="#page_332">332-333</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Star of the West</i>, merchant vessel fired +on at Charleston, <a href="#page_3">3</a>, <a href="#page_4">4</a> +<a name="page_422"><span class="page">Page 422</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Staunton (Virginia), Jackson at, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>; Hunter's success at, +<a href="#page_355">355</a></p> + +<p class="index">Steinwehr, General Adolph, atrocities under, +<a href="#page_227">227</a></p> + +<p class="index">Stone's River (Tennessee), battle, +<a href="#page_165">165</a></p> + +<p class="index">Strasburg (Virginia), Banks's retreat from, +<a href="#page_212">212</a></p> + +<p class="index">Stringham, Flag-Officer, expedition against Hatteras +forts, <a href="#page_85">85</a></p> + +<p class="index">Stuart, J. E. B., <a href="#page_255">255</a>; +Confederate cavalry leader, Martinsburg, <a href="#page_37">37-38</a>; +Bull Run, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_51">51</a>; raid around McClellan, +<a href="#page_219">219-21</a>; against Pope, +<a href="#page_229">229-30</a>; at South Mountain, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>; second raid around McClellan, +<a href="#page_246">246-47</a>; and Lee's retreat, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>; age, <a href="#page_338">338</a>; +Sheridan encounters, <a href="#page_342">342</a>; Yellow Tavern, +<a href="#page_345">345</a>; killed, <a href="#page_345">345</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sturgis, defeat at Brice's Cross Roads, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Suffolk (Virginia), menace to Richmond from, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sumter, Fort, location, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; Anderson goes to, <a href="#page_3">3</a>; +fall of, <a href="#page_12">12-16</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sumter</i>, Confederate raider, +<a href="#page_69">69</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Supply</i>, vessel at Fort Pickens, +<a href="#page_4">4</a></p> + +<p class="index">Swift Run Gap (Virginia), Jackson at, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a></p> + +<p class="index">Swinton, William, war correspondent, +<a href="#page_333">333-34</a></p> + +<p class="index">Sykes, General George, succeeds Meade, +<a href="#page_292">292</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Taylor, Captain Jesse, destroys Confederate +reports at Fort Henry, <a href="#page_128">128</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Tecumseh</i>, sunk in Mobile Bay, +<a href="#page_321">321</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tennessee, mountain folk Unionist, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_57">57</a>; secedes, +<a href="#page_56">56</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Tennessee</i>, Confederate ram, +<a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, +<a href="#page_323">323</a></p> + +<p class="index">Terry, General A. H., at Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_325">325</a></p> + +<p class="index">Texas, State militia seize army posts, +<a href="#page_6">6</a>; General Twiggs surrenders posts, +<a href="#page_8">8-9</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>; secedes, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; contraband enters, +<a href="#page_308">308</a>; Red River Expedition, +<a href="#page_318">318</a>; last shots fired in, +<a href="#page_380">380</a></p> + +<p class="index">Thomas, General G. H., Mill Springs, +<a href="#page_125">125</a>; "Rock of Chickamauga," +<a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>; Chattanooga, +<a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, +<a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>; Nashville +campaign, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, +<a href="#page_377">377-78</a></p> + +<p class="index">Thoroughfare Gap (Virginia), Jackson's expedition, +<a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, +<a href="#page_233">233</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tilghman, General Lloyd, surrenders Fort Henry, +<a href="#page_128">128</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tod, Judge, Jesse Grant in home of, +<a href="#page_130">130</a></p> + +<p class="index">Todd's Tavern (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_342">342</a></p> + +<p class="index">Transportation, <a href="#page_64">64-66</a>; means +of communication in Virginia campaign, <a href="#page_35">35-36</a></p> + +<p class="index">Traveler, Lee's horse, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, +<a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tredegar Iron Works, <a href="#page_64">64</a></p> + +<p class="index">Trevilian (Virginia), Sheridan at, +<a href="#page_355">355</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tunstall's Station (Virginia), Stuart's raid, +<a href="#page_220">220</a></p> + +<p class="index">Tupelo (Mississippi), Forrest defeated at, +<a href="#page_357">357</a></p> + +<p class="index">Twiggs, General D. E., surrenders Texas garrisons, +<a href="#page_8">8</a>, <a href="#page_9">9</a>, +<a href="#page_165">165</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> <i>Undine</i>, gunboat taken with cavalry, +<a href="#page_368">368</a></p> + +<p class="index">Union Mills (Virginia), ford defended, +<a href="#page_46">46</a></p> + +<p class="index">United States, population (1861), +<a href="#page_60">60-61</a>; <i>see also</i> North, South +<a name="page_423"><span class="page">Page 423</span></a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Vallandigham case, +<a href="#page_175">175-76</a></p> + +<p class="index">Valley Campaign, Jackson's; <i>see</i> Shenandoah +Valley</p> + +<p class="index">Valverde (New Mexico), Canby's defeat at, +<a href="#page_166">166</a></p> + +<p class="index">Van Dorn, General Earl, Confederate commander +of trans-Mississippi troops, <a href="#page_124">124</a>; Pea +Ridge, <a href="#page_143">143</a>; reinforces Beauregard, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; tries +to reconquer Memphis-Corinth rails, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; +replaced by Pemberton, <a href="#page_163">163</a>; at Holly Springs, +<a href="#page_163">163-64</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Varuna, Governor Moore</i>, destroys, +<a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Vicksburg, Farragut's expedition, +<a href="#page_105">105-06</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>; importance +of position, <a href="#page_110">110</a>; Sherman's attempt, +<a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>; <i>see +also</i> Chickasaw Bluffs; Grant's operations preceding, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>; Grant's objective, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>; Holly +Springs, <a href="#page_163">163-64</a>; Confederates hold, +<a href="#page_167">167</a>; Grant's position, +<a href="#page_260">260-261</a>; generals at, +<a href="#page_261">261-62</a>; Navy at, <a href="#page_262">262-63</a>, +<a href="#page_265">265-67</a>; Grant's maneuvers, +<a href="#page_263">263-64</a>; Federal force, +<a href="#page_267">267-68</a>; Confederate force, +<a href="#page_268">268</a>; scene of action, +<a href="#page_268">268</a>; army rations at, +<a href="#page_269">269-70</a>; siege, <a href="#page_271">271-77</a>; +surrender, <a href="#page_277">277-78</a>; significance of victory, +<a href="#page_286">286</a>; effect of victory, +<a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></p> + +<p class="index">"Vicksburg Oak," Grant meets Pemberton under, +<a href="#page_277">277</a></p> + +<p class="index">Vinton. Major, Union officer at San Antonio, +<a href="#page_9">9</a>, <a href="#page_10">10</a></p> + +<p class="index">Virginia, Lee's loyalty to, <a href="#page_11">11</a>; +blockade, <a href="#page_16">16</a>; secedes, <a href="#page_17">17</a>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; Lee given chief command in, +<a href="#page_19">19</a>; West Virginia part of, +<a href="#page_23">23</a>; issues call for volunteers, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>; West Virginia separates from, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>; mountain folk Unionists, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; Federals hold western part of, +<a href="#page_57">57</a>; Farragut from, <a href="#page_95">95</a>; +Pope transferred to, <a href="#page_159">159</a>; Burnside's invasion +of, <a href="#page_247">247-51</a>; Grant transferred to, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>; campaign (1864), +<a href="#page_334">334-36</a>, <a href="#page_340">340-46</a>, +<a href="#page_348">348-56</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, +<a href="#page_365">365</a>; Wilderness, <a href="#page_341">341-44</a>; +Todd's Tavern, <a href="#page_342">342</a>; Spotsylvania, +<a href="#page_342">342-43</a>; Sheridan's raid, +<a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_345">345-46</a>; Cold +Harbor, <a href="#page_349">349-54</a>; losses, +<a href="#page_355">355</a>; campaign (1865), +<a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386-88</a>; Petersburg, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386</a>; Five Forks, <a href="#page_386">386</a>; +Sailor's Creek, <a href="#page_387">387</a>; Lee's surrender, +<a href="#page_388">388-93</a>; <i>see also</i> Peninsula campaign</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Virginia, Merrimac</i> renamed, +<a href="#page_86">86</a></p> + +<p class="index">Virginia Military Institute, Jackson at, +<a href="#page_20">20</a>; cadets join Jackson, +<a href="#page_208">208</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Walke, Henry, commands <i>Carondelet</i>, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a></p> + +<p class="index">Walker, Fort, <a href="#page_92">92</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wallace, General Lew, as a leader, +<a href="#page_135">135-36</a>; at Fort Donelson, +<a href="#page_138">138</a>; Shiloh, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, +<a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>; and Early, +<a href="#page_356">356</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wallace, General W. H. L., killed, +<a href="#page_152">152</a></p> + +<p class="index">Warley, A. F., commands Manassas, +<a href="#page_101">101</a></p> + +<p class="index">Warren, G. K., Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>; defection +at Cold Harbor, <a href="#page_351">351</a></p> + +<p class="index">Washburn, Colonel Francis, at Sailor's Creek, +<a href="#page_387">387</a></p> + +<p class="index">Washburne, E. B., introduces Swinton, +<a href="#page_333">333</a></p> + +<p class="index">Washington, capture of rolling stock hampers, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>; desire to defend, <a href="#page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#page_197">197</a>; sea-power saves, <a href="#page_85">85</a>; +Southern plans against, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, +<a href="#page_210">210</a>; reserve corps at, +<a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, +<a href="#page_235">235</a>; Pope's army retires to, +<a href="#page_243">243</a>; Early makes for, +<a href="#page_356">356</a>; Union troops reviewed in, +<a href="#page_395">395</a> <a name="page_424"><span class="page">Page +424</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Wassaw Sound, duel between <i>Weehawken</i> and +<i>Atlanta</i> in, <a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wauhatchie (Tennessee), battle, +<a href="#page_281">281</a></p> + +<p class="index">Weed, Thurlow, election agent, +<a href="#page_360">360</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Weehawken</i>, duel with <i>Atlanta</i>, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></p> + +<p class="index">Weitzel, General Godfrey, at Fort Fisher, +<a href="#page_325">325</a></p> + +<p class="index">Welles, Gideon, Secretary of Navy, +<a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>; report to +Congress, <a href="#page_72">72</a>; orders concerning New Orleans, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_96">96</a></p> + +<p class="index">West, settlers beyond reach of war, +<a href="#page_62">62</a></p> + +<p class="index">West Virginia, part of Virginia, +<a href="#page_23">23</a>; Jackson from, <a href="#page_24">24</a>; +becomes separate State, <a href="#page_29">29</a>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; campaign in, <a href="#page_29">29-33</a>; +Frémont in, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, +<a href="#page_200">200</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Westfield</i>, Renshaw refuses to surrender, +<a href="#page_114">114</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wheeler, General Joseph, Confederate cavalry leader, +<a href="#page_368">368</a></p> + +<p class="index">White House (Virginia), McClellan's base, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, +<a href="#page_225">225</a> + +<p class="index">White Oak Swamp (Virginia), battle, +<a href="#page_225">225</a></p> + +<p class="index">Whitman, Walt, on Lincoln, +<a href="#page_171">171-72</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilcox, General C. M., Pickett's Charge, +<a href="#page_302">302</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilderness, battle, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, +<a href="#page_341">341-44</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilkeson, Lieutenant Bayard, Gettysburg, +<a href="#page_298">298-99</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilkeson, Frank, <i>Recollections of a Private +Soldier in the Army of the Potomac</i>, <a href="#page_81">81</a></p> + +<p class="index">Williams, General Thomas, at Vicksburg with Farragut, +<a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>; killed, +<a href="#page_110">110</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilmington (North Carolina), rail connections +threatened, <a href="#page_253">253</a>; in Confederate hands, +<a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>; Fort +Fisher guards entrance to, <a href="#page_323">323</a>; captured, +<a href="#page_380">380</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wilson's Creek (Missouri), battle, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>, <a href="#page_119">119-20</a></p> + +<p class="index">Winchester (Virginia), Johnston retires to, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>, <a href="#page_43">43</a>; Banks refuses +to retreat to, <a href="#page_212">212</a>; forces at, +<a href="#page_216">216</a>; Ewell drives Milroy out of, +<a href="#page_291">291</a></p> + +<p class="index">Winslow, Captain, commands <i>Kearsarge</i>, +<a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wise, H. A., ex-Governor of Virginia, +<a href="#page_31">31</a></p> + +<p class="index">Worden, Captain J. L., commands <i>Monitor</i>, +<a href="#page_88">88</a></p> + +<p class="index">Wright, Colonel W. W., engineer, +<a href="#page_384">384</a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Wyandotte</i>, vessel at Pensacola, +<a href="#page_4">4</a> </p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Yazoo River, Porter on, +<a href="#page_266">266</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a></p> + +<p class="index">Yellow Tavern, Stuart and Sheridan at, +<a href="#page_345">345</a></p> + +<p class="index">Yorktown, Confederates hold, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>; evacuated, <a href="#page_201">201</a></p> + + +<p class="index_gap"> Zouaves under Stuart, +<a href="#page_51">51</a></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Captains of the Civil War, by William Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 2649-h.htm or 2649-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/4/2649/ + +Produced by Alev Akman, Diane Beane, James J. Kelly Library +of St. Gregory's University and Robert J. 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